1567 
 
 Hughes' 
 
 Coounon School Branches 
 in a Nutshell 
 
 
 Published by 
 
 J. S. LATTA, Incorporated 
 Cedar Falls, Iowa 
 
HUGHES' 
 
 COMMON SCHOOL BRANCHES 
 IN A NUTSHELL 
 
 PREPARED FOR THE BENEFIT OF 
 
 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 
 
 BY- 
 
 JOSIAH HUGHES 
 
 FIFTH EDITION 
 
 PUBLISHED BY J. S. LATTA, Inc. 
 Cedar Falls, Iowa 
 

 V 
 
 Copyright 1920 by 
 JOSIAH HUGHES 
 
 IviAy ~b iij^O 
 
 ©CU568580 
 
 '\\ >P 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 1. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and words. 
 Remark — The word orthography is derived from the Greek 
 
 orthos, right, and graphein, to write. 
 
 2. A Letter is a character used to represent one or more 
 elementary sounds. 
 
 3. An Alphabet is a complete list of the letters of a lan- 
 guage. A perfect alphabet would have one letter for each sound. 
 
 4. The Name of a letter is the appellation by which it is 
 known. 
 
 5. The Power of a letter is the elementarv sound which 
 it represents. 
 
 6. An Elementary Sound is the simplest sound of a lan- 
 guage; as, a in ale. 
 
 7. The Elementary Sounds of the English language are 
 about forty-two in number, and they are divided into (1) Vocals 
 (Tonics), which consist of pure tone; (2) Sub-vocals (Sub- 
 tonics), which consist of tone united with breath; (3) Aspirates 
 (Atonies), which consist of pure breath only. 
 
 8. Letters are divided into (1) Vowels, which represent 
 Vocals; (2) Consonants, which represent Sub-Vocals and 
 Aspirates. 
 
 9. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w, and y. 
 
 10. W and y are consonants, when they begin words or 
 syllables and are immediately followed by a vowel. 
 
 11. The Vowel sounds of w and y are the same as those of 
 u and i. 
 
 12. I is a consonant, v.^hen it represents the sound of y in 
 yet; as in alien. 
 
 13. U is a consonant, when it represents the sound of w 
 consonant. 
 
 14. A, e and o, are always vowels. 
 
 15. Consonants Classified: (1) As to the nature of the 
 sound represented. Sub-vocals and Aspirates; (2) As to the 
 position of the organs. Mutes and Semi-vowels; (3) As to the 
 organs, of speech that mainly operate to produce consonant 
 sounds, Labials Linguals. Linguo-dentals, Linguo-nasal, Palato- 
 nasal and Palatals. 
 
 16. Mutes are those consonants that can not be sounded 
 without the aid of a vowel. They are b, d, k. p, q, t, and c and 
 g hard. 
 
 17. Semi-Vowels are those consonants that may represent 
 sounds without the aid of a vowel. 
 
 18. Labials are letters whose sounds are made mainly by 
 the lips; as, b, v, w, m, p,' f;- etc. . 
 
 19. Linguals are letters whose sounds are made mainly by 
 the tongue; as, 1, r. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 20. Linguo-dentals are letters whose sounds are made 
 mainly by the tongue and teeth; as, d, j, z, t, s, etc. 
 
 21. Linguo-nasal is a letter whose sound is articulated by 
 the tongue, the sound passing through the nose; as, n in man. 
 
 22. Palato-nasal (ng in song) is made mainly by the palate, 
 the sound passing through the nose. 
 
 23. Palatals are letters whose sounds are made mainly by 
 the palate; as, g, y, k, h. 
 
 24. Liquids are letters whose sounds flow readily into other 
 sounds. They are 1, m, n, and r. 
 
 25. Redundant Letters are those which have no sounds of 
 their own. They are c, j, q, and x. 
 
 26. Cognate Letters are those whose sounds are produced 
 by the same organs of speech in a similar position; as, f and 
 V, t and d, b and p. 
 
 27. Sibilant Letters are those which represent hissing 
 sounds; as, s and z. 
 
 28. Silent Letters (Aphthongs) are those which represent 
 no sounds, but are used: (1) To modify the sounds of other 
 letters; as e in late, g in sign. (2) To indicate the proper pro- 
 nunciation of syllables and words; as, c in peaceable. (3) To 
 determine the signification; as, u in buy. (4) To show the 
 origin; as P in Psyche (Greek). 
 
 Remark — F, j, q, r, x, v, and z, are never silent. 
 
 29. Syllabication is the proper division of words into syl- 
 lables, and has a two-fold object: (1) To indicate the pronun- 
 ciation of words; (2) To show the composition or derivations 
 of words. 
 
 Remark — Syllables are: ultimate, the last; penultimate, the 
 last but one; antepenultimate, the last but two; preantepen- 
 ultimate, the last but three. 
 
 30. A Spoken Syllable is a sound or combination of sounds 
 uttered with one impulse of the voice. 
 
 31. A Written Syllable is a letter or combination of letters 
 representing a sound or sounds uttered with one impulse of the 
 voice. 
 
 32. A Word is a syllable or a combination of syllables used 
 as the sign of an idea. 
 
 33. Words Classified: (1) As to form. Simple and Com- 
 pound; (2) As to origin, Primitive and Derivative; (3) As to 
 the number of syllables, Monosyllable, Dissyllable. Trisyllable 
 and Polysyllable. 
 
 34. A Simple Word is a single word, either primitive or 
 derivative; as man, childish. 
 
 35. A Compound Word is one composed of two or more 
 simple words; as ink-stand, son-in-law, penman, cloud-capped. 
 
 Remark — Compound words not frequently used generally 
 retain the hyphen. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 36. A Primitive Word is one not derived from any other 
 in the same language: as, child, write, 
 
 ZT. A Derivative Word is one formed from a single simpler 
 word by the addition of one or more letters, or syllables; as 
 childish, childishness, writing. 
 
 38. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable. 
 
 39. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables. 
 
 40. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables. 
 
 41. A Polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables. 
 
 42. The Base of a Syllable is the vocal or vowel used in its 
 formation. 
 
 43. The Base of a Compound Word is the part modified; 
 as, stand in inkstand. 
 
 44. The Base of a Derivative Word is the primitive word 
 from which it is derived; as, mind in remindful, having both a 
 prefix and a suffix. 
 
 45. A Prefix is a modifier placed before a primitive or radi- 
 cal word; as, re in remind. 
 
 46. A Suffix is a modifier placed after a primitive or radical 
 word; as, ful in fearful. 
 
 47. Affix is a general term for prefixes and suffixes. The 
 term may be applied to either or to both together. 
 
 48. Accent is a stress of voice laid on a particular syllable. 
 
 49. Primary Accent is more forcible than any other in the 
 same word. 
 
 50. Secondary Accent is less forcible, and occurs nearest 
 the beginning of a word. 
 
 51. Discriminative Accent is used to determine the part of 
 speech and meaning; as, conduct (noun) and conduct (verb); 
 absent (adjective) and absent (verb). 
 
 52. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable; 
 as ai in vain or ow in cow, ea in meat, oa in boat. 
 
 53. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
 sounded. 
 
 Remark — There are four proper diphthongs; ou in foul, ow 
 in now, oi in boil, oy in boy. They represent two diphthongal 
 sounds. 
 
 54. An Improper Diphthong (Digraph) is one in which but 
 one vowel is sounded; as, ea in meat, oa in boat. 
 
 Remark. — There are twenty-five digraphs. The following are 
 in common use: ae, ai, au, aw, ay, ea, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey, ia, ie, 
 oa, oe, ua, ue, ui, and sometimes ou and ow, as in famous and 
 blow. 
 
 55. A Triphthong (Trigraph) is the union of three vowels 
 in one syllable; as, iew in view, eau in beau. 
 
 Remark 1. — There are no triphthongs in which the vowels 
 are all sounded; therefore there are no proper triphthongs. In 
 buoy and queen, u is a consonant. 
 
 Remark 2. — The eight triphthongs, or trigraphs, are: aye 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 in aye, awe in awe, eau in beau and beauty, eou in gorgeous, 
 eye in eye. ieu in lieu, iew in view, and owe in owe. 
 
 56. A Tetragraph is the union of four vowels representing 
 one sound; as, ueue in queue. 
 
 57. The Consonant Combinations are: ph, sh, th, wh, and 
 
 58. A Double Consonant is a consonant immediately re- 
 peated in the same syllable; as, ff in ruff, ss in hissing. 
 
 Remark. — X, k, and v, are never doubled. 
 
 59. A Substitute represents a sound usually represented by 
 some other letter or letters; as, e for long a in they. 
 
 60. Phonology (Phonetics) is the science of the elementary 
 sounds uttered by the human voice in speech. 
 
 61. Orthoepy treats of the correct pronunciation of words. 
 It includes syllabication, accent and articulation. 
 
 62. Diacritical Marks are characters used to indicate the 
 sounds of letters. 
 
 63. Lexicography treats of the signification of words. 
 
 64. Pronunciation is the correct vocal expression of words 
 or parts of words. 
 
 65. Spelling is the direct expression of the letters or sounds 
 of a word, in their proper order. 
 
 66. Orthographic Spelling is the expression of the letters 
 of a word in their proper order. 
 
 67. Phonetic Spelling is the expression of the elementary 
 sounds of a word, in their proper order. 
 
 68. Analysis is the separation of a word into its elements. 
 
 69. Synthesis is the combination of elements into words. 
 
 70. Phonotypy treats of the representation of sounds by 
 distinctive characters. 
 
 71. Synonyms are words of the same, or nearly the same, 
 meaning; as character and reputation, discover and invent. 
 
 72. Antonyms are words of opposite meaning; as weak and 
 strong, joy and sorrow, friendly and hostile. 
 
 73. Homophones are words of the same sound, but different 
 in spelling and meaning; as bale and bail, loan and lone, see 
 and sea. 
 
 74. Homonyms are words of the same sound and spelling 
 but different in meaning; as, bear (noun) and bear (verb), black 
 (verb) and black (adjective). 
 
 75. Paronyms are words of similar derivation; as, kind, 
 kindly, kindness. Homonyms are sometimes called paronyms. 
 
 RULES OF SPELLING 
 
 Rule I. The final letter of a monosyllable ending in f, 1, or 
 s, preceded by a single vowel, is doubled; as, bell, mill, snuff. 
 
 Rule II. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
 syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel 
 double the final letter on receiving a suffix beginning with a 
 
READING 
 
 vowel; as, hot, hotter; thin, thinner; refer, referred; occur, 
 occurring. 
 
 Rule III. Final e is usually dropped before a suffix begin- 
 ning with a vowel; as, move, movable; love, lovable; sale, 
 salable. 
 
 Rule IV. When a sufifix is added to a word ending in y 
 preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i, unless the suffix 
 begins with i; as, ready, readier; supply, supplied; tardy, tardier. 
 
 READING 
 
 1. Reading is imbibing the thoughts, feeling, and senti- 
 ments of an author. 
 
 2. Audible Reading is imbibing the thoughts, feelings, and 
 sentiments of an author, and giving utterance to the language. 
 
 3. Silent Reading is imbibing the thoughts, feelings, and 
 sentiments of an author, without giving utterance to the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 4. Elocution is the art of expressing thought, emotion and 
 passion in an easy, graceful and effective manner. 
 
 5. Speaking is the oral expression of thought and senti- 
 ment. 
 
 6. Declamation is the delivery of another's composition. 
 
 7. Oration is the delivery of one's own composition. 
 
 8. Articulation is the distinct utterance of the elementary 
 sounds. 
 
 9. Vocal Expression is the utterance of tlhought, feeling, 
 or passion. It embraces Emphasis, Inflection, Slur, Modulation, 
 Monotone, Personation, and Pauses. 
 
 10. Emphasis is a stress of voice placed on one or more 
 words of a sentence, its object being to give prominence and 
 importance. 
 
 11. Absolute (Ordinary) Emphasis is that which is inde- 
 pendent of any contrast or comparison. 
 
 12. Antithetic (Relative) Emphasis is that which is used in 
 comparing or contrasting ideas; as, "It is better to mend our 
 faults than to hide them." 
 
 13. Inflection is the slide of the voice used in reading and 
 speaking. Its divisions are the Rising, the Falling, and the 
 Circumflex. 
 
 14. The Rising Inflection is the upward slide of the voice. 
 
 15. The Falling Inflection is the downward slide of the 
 voice. 
 
 16. The Circumflex is a union of the two inflections on the 
 same syllable or word, beginning either with tihe falling and 
 ending with the rising, or with the rising and ending with the 
 falling. It is used to express irony, sarcasm, sneering, or con- 
 trast. 
 
 17. The Rising Circumflex begins with a falling and ends 
 with a rising slide of the voice. 
 
8 READING 
 
 18. The Falling Circumflex begins with a rising and ends 
 with a falling slide of the voice. 
 
 19. Slur is a smooth, rapid, subdued movement of the voice 
 over the words, phrases and clauses of less importance. It is 
 applied to passages expressing contrast, repetition, explana- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 20. Modulation is the variations of the voice in reading and 
 speaking. It includes Pitch, Force, Quality and Rate. 
 
 21. Monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a sentence or 
 discourse. 
 
 22. Cadence is the natural dropping of the voice on the 
 closing words of a sentence. 
 
 23. Pauses are cessations of the voice in reading and 
 speaking. 
 
 24. Grammatical Pauses are those indicated by the punctua- 
 tion marks. 
 
 25. Rhetorical Pauses are those used to give clearness and 
 impressiveness to the parts between which they are used. 
 
 26. Pitch is the degree of elevation or depression of sound. 
 Its divisions are High, Moderate, and Low. 
 
 27. The Keynote is the standard pitch of the voice in read- 
 ing and speaking. 
 
 28. The Compass of the voice is its general range above 
 and below the keynote. 
 
 29. Quantity, in reading and speaking, 'has reference to the 
 loudness or volume of sound; also to the time occupied in utter- 
 ing a syllable or word. 
 
 30. Force is the degree of energy with which sounds are 
 uttered. Its divisions are Loud, Moderate, and Gentle. 
 
 31. Stress is the application of force to some particular 
 part of a syllable or word. Its divisions are Radical, Vanish- 
 ing, Median, Cjmpound and Thorough. 
 
 Z2. Quality of Voice has reference to the nature, character, 
 or kinds of tone used in speedh. They are the Pure, Orotund. 
 Tremulous, Aspirated, Plaintive, Guttural, and Falsetto. 
 
 33. Rate (Movement) is the degree of rapidity with which 
 the voice moves in reading and speaking. Its divisions are 
 Slow, Moderate, and Rapid. 
 
 34. Gesture has reference to the movements of the body 
 and its members. 
 
 35. Personation is the representation of the tones and man- 
 ners of other persons. 
 
 Z^. Transition is change in tlhe manner of expression. 
 VJ . A Series is a number of particulars following each other 
 in the same grammatical construction. 
 
 38. A Commencing Series is one which begins a sentence or 
 clause; as, "Intelligence, industry, promptness and honesty are 
 virtues that should be cultivated." 
 
 39. A Concluding Series is one which concludes a sentence 
 
READING 
 
 or clause; as, "The leading motives of men are honor, wealth 
 duty, and safety." 
 
 40. Climax (klimax, a ladder) is a series of particulars so 
 arranged and expressed as to secure a gradual increase of im- 
 pressiveness; as, "Then Virtue became silent, heart-sick, pined 
 away, and died." 
 
 41. A Simile is a direct comparison and is generally intro- 
 duced by like, as, or so. 
 
 42. A Metaphor is a comparison implied in the word itself; 
 as, "Life is an isthmus between two eternities." 
 
 43. An Allegory is a combination of kindred metaphors, 
 forming a kind of parable or fable. Most of the parables of 
 Scriptures, the Eightieth Psalm, the Pilgrim's Progress, are 
 examples. 
 
 44. Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of 
 the qualities of living beings. 
 
 45. Antithesis is the contrasting of objects, to heighten 
 their effect; as, "A friend cannot be known in prosperity; an 
 enemy cannot be hidden in adversity." 
 
 46. Irony asserts directly the opposite of the meaning in- 
 tended to be conveyed. It ridicules under the pretence of 
 praising. 
 
 47. Apostrophe is a turning away from the main discourse 
 to address some person or 'object, whether present or absent, 
 living or dead. 
 
 48. Metonomy is the use of the name of one object for that 
 of another when the things denoted have some other relation 
 than that of resemblance; as, "The drunkard loves his bottle;" 
 "He read Milton." 
 
 49. Ambiguity is a double meaning involved in the con- 
 struction of a sentence; as, "Samuel promised his father never 
 to abandon his friends." 
 
 50. Style is that part of rhetoric which treats of the modes 
 of expressing thougiht in language, whether oral or written. 
 
 51. Diction is that property of style which has reference 
 to the selection and right use of words. 
 
 52. Paraphrase is a restatement of a text or passage, ex- 
 pressing the meaning in another form. Example: "One may 
 smile and smile, and be a villain." The paraphrase is, "A man 
 may affect the utmost candor and good nature even while 
 plotting the deepest iniquity." 
 
 53. A Verse, or line of poetry, consists of a certain number 
 of accented and unaccented syllables arranged according to 
 some law. 
 
 54. Prose is the general name for all forms of discourse 
 which are not written in verse. 
 
 55. A Paragraph is a connected series of sentences relate4 
 and held together by a common thougiht. 
 
 56. Poetry is discburse written in m^trica^l lanf u^^e, 
 
10 AMERICAN WRITERS 
 
 57. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last syllables of 
 two or more lines. 
 
 58. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 
 
 59. A Stanza is a regular division of a poem. 
 
 60. Poetic Pauses are pauses made in reading poetry, 
 required by the measured character of verse. 
 
 61. The Final Pause is a pause made at the end of a line. 
 dl. The Caesural Pause is a rhetorical pause in a line. Long- 
 lines may have two or more pauses. 
 
 d?). The Lyric Poem is an expression of some intense feel- 
 ing, passion or emotion. It is usually short, and is exemplified 
 in the song, hymn and ode. 
 
 64. An Elegy is a poem of a sad and mournful kind, cele- 
 brating the virtues of the dead. 
 
 65. The Epic Poem is a poetical recital of some great and 
 heroic enterprise. The epic is the longest of all poetic compo- 
 sitions. 
 
 dd. The Didactic Poem seeks to teach some moral, philo- 
 sophical, or literary truth. 
 
 (il. The Dramatic Poem is a picture of human life adapted 
 to representation on the stage. 
 
 68. Tragedy is an action in which the leading person, hero, 
 or heroine, struggles against and finally succumbs to superior 
 powers. 
 
 69. Comedy represents a conflict, but it does not end dis- 
 astrously. It represents the ludicrous side of life. It often 
 terminates happily. 
 
 AMERICAN WRITERS 
 THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1607-1765.) 
 Captain John Smith: "A True Account of Virginia." 
 John Winthrop: "Little Speech on Liberty." 
 John Cotton: "The New England Primer." 
 John Eliot: "The Bay Psalm Book." 
 Increase Mather: "Illustrious Providences." 
 Cotton Mather: "Essays to do Good." 
 Anne Bradstreet: "The Four Elements." 
 Michael Wigglesworth: "The Day of Doom." 
 Jonathan Edwards: "Freedom of the Will." 
 Benjamin Franklin: "Autobiography." 
 
 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 
 (1765-1800.) 
 John Adams: "Political Essays." 
 Thomas Jefferson: "Notes on Virginia." 
 Alexander Hamilton: "The Federalist." 
 Thomas Pame: "Common Sense." . •' 
 
 Philip Freneau: "Eutaw Springs.". :. ...-' : ; : 
 
 Samuel Woodworthr "The Old Oaken -Bucket." . - V :•" 
 
PENMANSHIP II 
 
 Francis Scott Key: "The Star Spangled Banner." 
 Joseph Rodman Drake: "The American Flag." 
 
 THE NATIONAL PERIOD (1800 ?). 
 
 Charles Brockden Brown: "Arthur Mervyn." 
 
 Washington Irving: "Knickerbocker History." 
 
 James Fenimore Cooper: "The Last of the Mohicans." 
 
 William Cullen Bryant: "Thanatopsis." 
 
 Fritz Greene Halleck: "Marco Bozzaris." 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson: "Representative Men." 
 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne: "House of Seven Gables." 
 
 Henry W. Longfellow: "Evangeline." 
 
 John Greenleaf Whittier: "Snow Bound." 
 
 Edgar Allen Poe: "The Raven." 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes: "The Chambered Nautilus.'' 
 
 James Russell Lowell: "The Vision of Sir Launfal." 
 
 Francis Parkman: "Oregon Trail." 
 
 Alice Cary: "Pictures of Memory." 
 
 Josiah Gilbert Holland: "Bitter Sweet." 
 
 Harriet Beecher Stowe: "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
 
 James Buchanan Read: "Sheridan's Ride." 
 
 Walt Whitman: "Leaves of Grass." 
 
 Lew Wallace: "Ben Hur." 
 
 PENMANSHIP 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 1. Define penmanship. 
 
 A. Penmanship is the science and art of writing. In the 
 first grade it is usually taught as an imitative art only. 
 
 2. What three typical systems of writing are taught in 
 the American schools? 
 
 A. The slant, the medial, and the vertical. 
 
 3. Which is taught in most of our schools? 
 
 A. The medial slant, or that which is between the 52 de- 
 grees and the vertical. 
 
 4. In what do the vertical and slant systems differ? 
 
 A. They differ in slant and in form. In the old slant 
 system the loop letters are higher and the short letters are 
 shorter than the vertical letters. Modern teachers of the slant 
 system advocate short loop letters. 
 
 5. Upon what is penmanship based? 
 
 A. Movement is the basis of all good writing. 
 
 6. What is good writing. 
 
 A. That which is easily written and easily read. 
 
 7. Mention five essentials to be cultivated. 
 
 A. Legibility, accuracy, speed, uniformity, and neatness. 
 
 8. Why should pupils in the lower grades acquire a gooa 
 handwriting? 
 
 A. Because the written work in the advance grades can 
 
12 PENMANSHIP 
 
 be done better when the pupils are able to write rapidly and 
 neatly. 
 
 9. How is a good handwriting acquired? 
 
 A. By intelligent, patient and well directed practice. 
 
 10. /Mention five essentials in learning to write. 
 
 A. Good materials, proper position, free movement, care- 
 fully graded copies, and studious practice. 
 
 11. Why is a proper position of prime importance? 
 
 A. Because it gives health, comfort, and muscular free- 
 dom. It should be mastered before writing itself is considered. 
 
 12. Which sihould be taught first, movement or form? 
 
 A. Modern teachers teach movement first, but the two may 
 be taught together. Position, movement, and form is the usual 
 order of instruction. 
 
 13. What does position include? 
 
 A. Position includes that of the feet, body, arms, hands, 
 paper, and penholder. 
 
 14. Name four positions of the body in writing. 
 
 A. The front position, the right position, the right-oblique 
 position, and the left position. 
 
 15. Which of the positions are used most? 
 
 A. Most of the modern authors recommend the front 
 position. Some recommend the right-oblique. 
 
 16. What is the front position? 
 
 A. In the front position, the pupil faces the desk. 
 
 17. What is the right-oblique position? 
 
 A. In the right-oblique position, the body is turned a 
 little to the left. In either position, the body should incline 
 forward, but it must not touch the desk. The feet should be 
 flat on the floor. 
 
 18. Describe the position of the arm and the paper in 
 writing. 
 
 A. Supposing that the pupil occupies an individual seat, 
 and uses the front position, the elbow should be near the corner 
 of the desk, and extend just off the edge. The arm should rest 
 upon the muscle in front of the elbow, and point toward the 
 upper left corner of the desk, when starting to write on the 
 left side of the paper. The ruled lines of the paper should point 
 from the lower left to the upper right corner of the desk. 
 
 19. Describe the manner of holding the pen. 
 
 A. Hold the pen between the thumb and the first and sec- 
 ond fingers, letting it cross the root of the nail of the second 
 finger, and in front of the knuckle joint of the first finger, the 
 thumb placed nearly opposite the first joint of the first finger. 
 The third and fourth fingers should be brought back under the 
 hand^ and their nails should glide freely on the paper. The 
 under part of the wrist must not touch the paper. The holder 
 should point toward the right shoulder. 
 
 20. What is movement? 
 
PENMANSHIP 13 
 
 A. Movement is the manner of propelling the pen in 
 writing. 
 
 21. Name the kinds of movement. 
 
 A. Finger movement, fore-arm (muscular) movement, 
 combined movement, and whole-arm movement. 
 
 22. What is the finger movement? 
 
 A. The finger movement is the combined action of the first 
 and second fingers and the thumb. 
 
 23. What is the fore-arm, or muscular movement? 
 
 A. It is the action of the forearm upon the muscular rest 
 near the elbow, the hand gliding on the nails of the third and 
 fourth fingers. 
 
 24. What is the combined movement? 
 
 A. It is a union of the fore-arm with the finger movement. 
 
 25. What is the whole-arm movement? 
 
 A. It is a movement unfixed by any muscular rest. 
 
 26. How is freedom of movement secured? 
 
 A. Through many exercises, over and over, giving a nart 
 of each lesson period to drill or movement exercises. 
 
 27. What is the object in counting in giving drills? 
 
 A. Counting regulates speed, and establishes the habit 
 of working the muscles in obedience to the will. 
 
 28. Why is large writing required in the primary grade? 
 
 A. The advocates of large writing for copies in the primary 
 grades claim that it develops movement, and saves much time 
 usually spent in drills on movement exercises. 
 
 29. What movement should be taught in the lower grades? 
 A. The teacher should aim to develop the muscular move- 
 ment ^rom the beginning. Habit in finger movement hinders 
 progress in developing a muscular movement. However, some 
 successful teachers of writing strive for accuracy of form, at 
 first letting the child write slowly, and then gradually quicken- 
 ing the speed of writing. 
 
 30. Why should the children be taught to write on the 
 blackboard? 
 
 A. The first writing done by the children should be on 
 the blackboard. Large writing on the blackboard calls into 
 action the muscles of the shoulder and whole-arm. The de- 
 velopment of these muscles results in the development of the 
 other muscles used in writing. 
 
 31. Should the beginner use a pen, or a pencil? 
 
 A. The pencils should be used in the primary grade. 
 
 32. Should the paper be ruled, or unruled? 
 
 A. Unruled paper should be used in the first and second 
 grades. The pupils practice with more freedom of movement 
 wihen they use unruled paper. 
 
 33. What time should be given for writing? 
 
 A. About twenty minutes for the primary grades. The 
 
14 PENMANSHIP 
 
 time for the lesson should be just before recess in the fore- 
 noon. 
 
 34. Give a systematic plan of developing a lesson in writing. 
 A. (1) Study the exercise to be practiced. (2) Become 
 
 accustomed to the correct rate of speed. (3) Point out the 
 prevailing faults and suggest remedies. (4) Practice and com- 
 pare work with the copy. 
 
 35. How many spaces should be given between, (1) words; 
 (2) sentences in the same paragraph? 
 
 A. (1) The distance between words should be two spaces; 
 (2) three spaces should be left between sentences in the same 
 paragraph. 
 
 36. What main slant was formerly adopted by most pen- 
 men? 
 
 A. About 52 degrees. 
 
 37. What is the base line? 
 
 A. The horizontal line on which the writing rests. 
 
 38. What is the head line? 
 
 A. The horizontal line to which the short letters extend. 
 
 39. What is the intermediate line? 
 
 A. It is the second line above the base line. 
 
 40. What is the top line? 
 
 A. The horizontal line to which the loop and capital letters 
 extend. 
 
 41. What is a space in height? 
 A The height of small i. 
 
 42. What is a space in width? 
 
 A. The distance between the straight lines in small u. 
 
 43. What is the height of small r and s? Of the figures. 
 
 A. One and one-fourth spaces. The figures are one space 
 high. Some authors make the figure six one and one-fourth 
 spaces high. 
 
 44. What three small letters extend to the intermediate 
 line? 
 
 A. D, t, and p. 
 
 45. What two small letters extend one and one-half spaces 
 below the base line? 
 
 A. P and q. 
 
 46. What is the height of the capital letters? 
 
 A. All the standard capital letters extend three spaces 
 above the base line. 
 
 47. Are the authors uniform as to the height of the letters? 
 A. They differ as to the height of the loop letters. Some 
 
 authors make them the same height above the base line as d, 
 t, and p. 
 
 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 850. Iceland discovered by the Northmen. 
 
 970. Greenland discovered by Gunbiorn, a Norwegian, who 
 sailed from Iceland. 
 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 15 
 
 986. Eric the Red founded a colony on the southern 
 coast of Greenland. 
 
 1001. Leif the Lucky, a son of Eric the Red, probably ex- 
 plored the coast of North America from Labrador to Rhode 
 Island, and named the country Vineland. 
 
 1492. Columbus discovered America, at the island of 
 Guanahani, one of the Bahamas. 
 
 1497. John Cabot discovered the coast of North America. 
 
 1498. South America discovered by Columbus. 
 
 1499. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian, a native of Florence, 
 visited America, drew a map of the country, and v^rote letters 
 giving an account of his discoveries. His letters were pub- 
 lished by a German geographer, who named the country in 
 honor of Vespucci. 
 
 1513. Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, seeking for a fabled 
 fountain of immortal youth, discovered Florida. 
 
 1513. Balboa, a Spaniard, discovered the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 1518. Grijalva, a Spaniard, explored the southern coast of 
 Mexico. 
 
 1519-'21. Cortez, a Spaniard, conquered Mexico. 
 
 1520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spanish service, discov- 
 ered and sailed through the strait which bears his name, named 
 the Pacific Ocean, and made the first circumnavigation of the 
 globe. 
 
 1524. Verazzani, an Italian in the service of the French 
 government, explored the eastern coast of North America. 
 
 1528. Narvaez, a Spaniard, explored part of Florida. 
 
 1534-'3o. Cartier, a Frenchman, explored and named the 
 gulf and river of St. Lawrence. 
 
 1541. DeSoto, a Spaniard, discovered the Mississippi river. 
 
 1565. Melendez, a Spaniard, founded St. Augustine, Flor- 
 ida; the first permanent settlement in the United States. 
 
 1576. Frobisher, an Englishman, .attempted to find a north- 
 west passage to Asia. 
 
 1579. Sir Francis Drake an Englishman, explored the 
 Pacific Coast. 
 
 1582. Espejo, a Spaniard, explored New Mexico, and 
 founded Sante Fe; the second oldest town in the United States. 
 
 1584. Raleigh, an Englishman, sent out an expedition to 
 Roanoke Island. 
 
 1585. Lane's Colony, Releigh's first attempt to form a 
 settlement. 
 
 1587. White's Colony, Raleigh's second attempt. 
 1602. Gosnold, an Englishman, explored the coast of 
 Massachusetts and discovered and named Cape Cod. 
 
 1607. Jamestown settled; the first permanent English set- 
 tlement in the United States. 
 
 1608. Champlain, a Frenchman, founded Quebec, and 
 (1609) discovered Lake Champlain. 
 
16 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service of the 
 Dutch, discovered the Hudson river. 
 
 1614. Settlement of New York by the Dutch. 
 
 1619. First Legislative Assembly in America, at James- 
 town, Virginia. 
 
 1620. Slavery first introduced by a sale of twenty Africans, 
 made by the Dutch to the Georgetown, Virginia, planters. 
 
 1620. Pilgrim Fathers, or Puritans, settled at New Ply- 
 mouth, Mass.; the first permanent English settlement in New 
 England. 
 
 1630. Boston founded by John Winthrop. 
 
 1634. Maryland settled by the second Lord Baltimore. 
 
 1636. Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams. 
 
 1637. Pequot War; John Mason led the colonial army. 
 The tribe perished in a day. 
 
 1643. Union of the New England Colonies — Massachusetts 
 Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven. 
 
 1651. Navigation act passed, enforced in 1660, giving Eng- 
 land entire control of all the trade of the colonies. 
 
 1664. New York taken by the English, and the present 
 name given. 
 
 1673. New York regained by the Dutch, but lost again the 
 next year. 
 
 1675. King Philip, son of Massasoit, made war on the New 
 England settlers; King Philip, after losing most of his warriors 
 by death, and his family by capture, fled to his home, where he 
 was shot by a faithless Indian. 
 
 1676. Bacon's Rebellion. Cause: Governor Berkeley re- 
 fused Bacon a commission to make war on hostile Indians, and 
 Bacon went against them without any commission except his 
 sword. Governor Berkeley declared him a rebel, and afterward 
 refused him a commission, although the Indians were com- 
 mitting depredations every day. A rebellion followed. Bacon 
 died of fever, and his death ended the rebellion. 
 
 1682. William Penn, an English Quaker, founded th^ 
 colony of Pennsylvania as an asylum for. the persecuted English 
 Quakers. 
 
 1689-1697. King William's War, a war between England 
 and France, which extended to their American colonies. Closed 
 by the Treaty of Ryswick. 
 
 1692. Salem Witchcraft, a delusion which prevailed at 
 Salem, Massachusetts. Twenty persons were hanged and many 
 others were tortured into confession, and thus saved themselves 
 from punishment. 
 
 1702-1713. Queen Anne's War, caused in Europe by an 
 attempt made by England to prevent the union of Spain and 
 France. In Europe it was called the War of the Spanish Suc- 
 cession. Closed by the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 1733. Georgia settled by James Oglethorpe, an English- 
 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 17 
 
 man, whose object was to found an asylum for the persecuted 
 Protestants of Europe, and for the poor who were imprisoned 
 for debt, and for others imprisoned for crime. 
 
 1744-1748. King George's War, caused in Europe by dis- 
 putes over the succession to the Austrian throne, in which 
 France and England espoused opposite causes. The war ex- 
 tended to the French and English colonies in America. _ In 
 Europe it was known as the War of the Austrian Succession. 
 Closed by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 1754-1763. French and Indian War, caused by the con- 
 flicting claims of England and France. 
 
 1755. Braddock's Defeat near Fort Du Quesne, now Pitts- 
 burgh. 
 
 1756. War formally declared by the French. 
 
 1759. Capture of Quebec; Wolfe and Montcalm the com- 
 manders, killed. 
 
 1763. Treaty of Paris; France ceded to England all her 
 North American possessions east of the Mississippi, except the 
 island and city of New Orleans. 
 
 1765. The Stamp Act passed by Parliament. 
 
 1765. The First Colonial Congress met in New York. 
 
 1774. The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. 
 1775-1781. Revolutionary War, a war between England and 
 
 her American colonies, caused mainly by an attempt made by 
 England to tax the colonies without allowing them representa- 
 tion in the British Parliament. 
 
 1775. Battle of Lexington, the first battle of the war. 
 
 1776. Declaration of Independence, July 4; proposed by 
 Richard Henry Lee; prepared by Thomas Jefferson, John 
 Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. 
 Livingston; written by Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 1777. Burgoyne surrendered his whole army to Gates, at 
 Saratoga, — the turning event of the war. 
 
 1778. The treaty of alliance with France, by which France 
 acknowledged the American independence, and agreed to send 
 a fleet of sixteen vessels and an army of 4,000 men to assist in 
 the war. 
 
 1779. John Paul Jones, a Scotch-American, noted for his 
 wonderful pluck and skill in war, captured the Serapis and the 
 Countess. 
 
 1780. Arnold's Treason. He sought and obtained com- 
 mand of West Point, a very important fortress. He bargained 
 with General Clinton to deliver up the fortress for a general's 
 commission in the British army and ten thousand pounds ster- 
 ling. Major Andre, Clinton's messenger, was captured, and 
 Arnold fled to a British vessel. Andre was hanged as a spy 
 October 2d. 
 
 1781. War ended by the surrender of Cornwallis to Wash- 
 ington, at Yorktown, October 19. 
 
18 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 1782. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, 
 and John Jay were appointed commissioners to conclude a 
 treaty with Great Britain. November 30, a preliminary treaty 
 was signed at Paris. 
 
 1783. The final treaty of peace, the Treaty of Paris, signed, 
 September 3, and the United States gained their independence. 
 
 1787. The Constitutional Convention met at Philadelphia 
 to revise the Articles of Confederation, but finding them too 
 weak and defective for revision, formed an entirely new con- 
 stitution, which was adopted the same year, and submitted to 
 the several States for their ratification. 
 
 1788. The Constitution ratified by all the States except 
 Rhode Island and North Carolina. 
 
 1789. The first Congress under the new constitution met 
 at New York; George Washington inaugurated; Hamilton, Jef- 
 ferson, Knox, Randolph, and Jay. appointed members of the 
 cabinet. 
 
 WASHINGTON, 1789-1797 
 
 1791. Vermont admitted into the Union. 
 
 1792. Kentucky admitted into the Union. 
 
 1793. The cotton-gin invented by Eli Whitney. 
 
 1794. The Whiskey Insurrection in Western Pennsylvania. 
 
 1796. Tennessee admitted into the Union. 
 
 ADAAIS, 1797-1801 
 
 1797. Trouble with France. 
 
 1798. Alien and Sedition laws passed. 
 
 1799. Death of Washington at Mt. Vernon. 
 
 1800. Capital removed to Washington. 
 
 JEFFERSON, 1801-1809 
 1803. Ohio admitted into the Union. 
 
 1803. Louisiana purchased from France for $15,000,000. 
 
 1804. Lewis and Clark expedition. 
 
 1807. First steamboat on the Hudson, invented by Robert 
 Fulton. 
 
 1807. Embargo law passed. 
 
 1807. Chesapeake and Leopard. 
 
 MADISON, 1809-1817 
 
 1811. General Harrison defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe. 
 
 1812. War declared against Great Britain, because of her 
 violation of American commercial rights. 
 
 1812. Louisiana admitted into the Union. 
 
 1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 
 
 1814. Treaty of Peace at Ghent, December 24. 
 
 1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8. 
 
 1816. National Bank established by Congress. 
 1816. Indiana admitted into the Union. 
 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 19 
 
 MONROE, 1817-1825 
 
 1817. Mississippi admitted into the Union. 
 
 1818. Illinois admitted into the Union. 
 
 1819. Alabama admitted into the Union. 
 
 1819. Florida purchased from Spain for $5,000,000. 
 
 1820. Missouri Compromise passed; Maine admitted. 
 
 1821. Missouri admitted into the Union. 
 
 1824. General Lafayette visited the United States. 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, 1825-1829 
 
 1825. Erie Canal opened. 
 
 1826. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died, July 4. 
 1828. The first passenger railroad in the United States 
 
 begun. 
 
 1828. Revision of the Tariff, the "American System." 
 
 JACKSON, 1829-1837 
 
 1831. James Monroe died, July 4. 
 
 1832. Nullification ordinance passed by South Carolina. 
 
 1832. Black Hawk War began. 
 
 1833. National Funds removed from the U. S. Bank. 
 
 1835. Seminole War begun by Osceola. 
 
 1836. Arkansas admitted into the Union. 
 
 1837. Michigan admitted into the Union. 
 
 VAN BUREN, 1837-1841 
 
 1837. Great Financial Panic. 
 
 1838. Anti-Slavery agitation. 
 
 1840. Sub-Treasury Bill passed. 
 
 W. H. HARRISON. 1841 
 
 1841. Harrison died one month after inauguration. 
 
 TYLER, 1841-1845 
 
 1842. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled the dispute 
 between the United States and Great Britain over the boundary 
 line of Maine. 
 
 1842. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. 
 
 1843. The first magnetic telegraph erected in the world was 
 put up between Washington and Baltimore. 
 
 1844. First public message sent was concerning Polk's 
 nomination for the Presidency. 
 
 1845. Florida and Texas admitted into the Union. 
 
 POLK, 1845-1849 
 
 1846. Mexico declared war against the United States, 
 caused by the annexation of Texas, which was claimed by 
 Mexico. 
 
 1846. Iowa admitted into the Union. 
 
 1847. The City of Mexico surrendered. 
 
 1848. Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, by which the United 
 
20 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 States gained the territory now comprised in New Mexico, 
 Utah, and California; and the Rio Grande for the western 
 boundary of the disputed territory. Mexico received $18,250,000 
 as purchase money. 
 
 1848. Gold discovered in California. 
 
 1848. Wisconsin admitted into the Union. 
 
 TAYLOR, 1849-1850 
 1850. Death of John C. Calhoun. 
 
 1850. Death of President Taylor one year and four months 
 after his inauguration. 
 
 FILLMORE, 1850-1853 
 1850. Clay's "Omnibus Bill" passed. 
 1852. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster died. 
 
 1852. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" written by Harriet Beecher 
 Stowe. 
 
 PIERCE, 1853-1857 
 
 1853. The Gadsden Treaty — 27,000 square miles of terri- 
 tory acquired from Mexico for $10,000,000, and the Mexican lint, 
 established. 
 
 1854. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed; a bill which organized 
 the two territories, and gave the inhabitants of each the right 
 to decide whether their territory should be admitted into the 
 Union as free or slave. This bill abrogated the Missouri Com- 
 promise, which provided that after 1820 slavery should be 
 abolished in all other territory west of the Mississippi and north 
 of the southern boundary of Missouri. 
 
 1857. The Kansas War, caused by a rivalry between the 
 pro-slavery and anti-slavery parties. 
 
 BUCHANAN, 1857-1861 
 
 1857. The Dred Scott Decision. 
 
 1858. Minnesota admitted into the L^nion. 
 
 1859. John Brown seized upon the LTnited States Arsenal 
 at Harper's Ferry, and proclaimed freedom to slaves in that 
 section. He was captured and hanged as a traitor. 
 
 1860. Oregon admitted into the Union. 
 
 1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union. 
 
 1861. Kansas admitted into the Union. 
 
 1861. Southern Confederacy organized at Montgomery, 
 Alabama, with Jefferson Davis as President, and Alexander H. 
 Stephens as Vice-President. South Carolina, Mississippi, 
 Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Vir- 
 ginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina formed the Confederacy. 
 
 LINCOLN, 1861-1865 
 
 1861. War with the Confederate States declared. Cause: 
 The slavery agitation and the secession of the Southern States 
 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 21 
 
 were the principal causes. Battle of Bull Run or Manassas 
 Junction, 
 
 1862. Capture of Fort Donelson; battles of Shiloh, Seven 
 Pines, Seven Days, second of Manassas, Antietam, Perryville, 
 and Fredericksburg. 
 
 1863. Emancipation Proclamation; battles of Chancellors- 
 ville, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, iMissionary Ridge, and the sur- 
 render of Vicksburg. West Virginia admitted into the Union. 
 
 1864. Grant made Lieutenant-General; Battle of the Wil- 
 derness; Battle between the Kearsarge and the Alabama; Battle 
 of Winchester; Nevada admitted into the Union; Sherman's 
 March to the Sea; Lincoln re-elected. 
 
 1865. Petersburg and Richmond captured; General Lee sur- 
 rendered his army to General Grant at Appomattox Court 
 House, April 9; President Lincoln assassinated at Ford's 
 Theater in Washington, by John Wilkes Booth, April 14. 
 
 JOHNSON, 1865-1869 
 
 1865. General Johnston surrendered to General Sherman, 
 April 26. 
 
 1866. Atlantic cable successfully laid between Ireland and 
 Newfoundland, by Cyrus W. Field. 
 
 1867. Nebraska admitted into the Union; Alaska pur- 
 chased from Russia for $7,200,000; Tenure-of-Office Bill passed; 
 President Johnson impeached. 
 
 GRANT, 1869-1877 
 
 1869. Pacific Railroad opened. 
 
 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment became a part of the Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 1871. Chicago fire — 3,000 acres devastated. 
 
 1872. Alabama claims settled — England to pay the United 
 States $15,500,000. 
 
 1873'. Modoc War; Financial panic. 
 
 1876. Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia; Colorado ad- 
 mitted into the Union; the Custer slaughter. 
 
 1877. Electoral Commission. 
 
 HAYES, 1877-1881 
 
 1877. Hayes Southern Policy — withdrawal of troops from 
 the South; Railroad strikes; telephone invented by Graham 
 Bell; Phonograph invented by Thomas Edison. 
 
 1878. Silver remonetized. 
 
 1879. Resumption of specie payment. 
 
 1880. Treaties with China. 
 
 GARFIELD, 1881 
 
 1881. July 2 — President Garfield was assassinated in the 
 Baltimore and Potomac Depot at Washington by Charles J. 
 Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker. The President died after 
 ten weeks of great suffering. 
 
22 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 ARTHUR, 1881-1885 
 1881. Centennial at Yorktown, Va. 
 
 1883. Civil Service Bill passed; letter postage reduced to 
 two cents. 
 
 1884. New Orleans exposition. 
 
 1885. Washington Monument dedicated. 
 
 CLEVELAND, 1885-1889 
 
 1885. Death of ^Vice-President Hendricks. 
 
 1886. Presidentfal Succession Law passed; Earthquake at 
 Charleston, S. C. 
 
 1887. Inter-State Commerce Act passed. 
 
 HARRISON, 1889-1893 
 1889. Oklahoma opened for settlement. 
 1889. Johnstown Flood. 
 1889. Washington Centennial. 
 
 1889. Admission of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, 
 and Washington. 
 
 1890. Admission of Idaho and Wyoming. 
 
 1892. Homestead Strike. 
 
 CLEVELAND, 1893-1897 
 
 1893. World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. 
 
 1893. Business depression. 
 
 1894. The Coxey army led to Washington. 
 1894. The Pullman strike in Chicago. 
 1894. The Wilson Tariff Bill passed. 
 
 1896. Admission of Utah. 
 
 M'KINLEY, 1897-1901 
 
 1898. Destruction of the battleship Maine. 
 
 1898. War declared against Spain. 
 
 1898. Battle of Manila. 
 
 1898. Destruction of Cervera's fleet. 
 
 1898. Annexation of Hawaii. 
 
 1898. Peace made with Spain. 
 
 1899. Philippine War opened. 
 
 1901. Re-election of President McKinley. 
 
 1901. The Pan American Exposition at Buffalo. 
 
 1901. President McKinley assassinated at Buffalo by Leon 
 F. Czolgosz. 
 
 ROOSEVELT, 1901-1909 
 
 1902. Cuba given control of her own government. 
 
 1902. Department of Commerce and Labor added to the 
 Cabinet. 
 
 1903. Panama becomes independent of Columbia. 
 
 1904. Treaty with Panama, by which the United States 
 was given the right of way for the Panama Canal. 
 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 23 
 
 1904. Purchase of the Panama Canal and property from 
 the French stockholders for $40,000,000. 
 
 1904. Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 
 1906. San Francisco earthquake. 
 
 1906. Indian Territory and Oklahoma admitted as one 
 state. 
 
 1907. Jamestown Exposition, held at Norfolk, Virginia; 
 admission of Oklahoma. 
 
 TAFT, 1909-1913 
 1909. Discovery of the North Pole by Commander Robert 
 E. Peary. 
 
 1911. Discovery of the South Pole by Captain Roald 
 Amundsen, a Norwegian. 
 
 1912. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona. 
 
 1913. Establishment of the Postal Savings System and 
 the Parcels Post; the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 
 empowering Congress to lay and collect an income tax. 
 
 WILSON 1913-1921 
 
 1913. Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution, pro- 
 viding for the election of United States Senators by the people. 
 
 1914. Panama Canal opened to commerce; the Great 
 World War began; trouble with Mexico; President Wilson is- 
 sued proclamation of neutrality; President Wilson tendered 
 good offices of the United States in interests of peace. 
 
 1915. American steamer Gulflight topedoed by German sub- 
 marine; Cunard Line steamship Lusitania sunk by German sub- 
 marine, 1,152 lives lost, 102 being Americans; American pro- 
 test against Germany's submarine policy; resignation of Wil- 
 liam J. Bryan, Secretary of State; Henry Ford, with a large 
 party of peace advocates, sailed for Europe; wireless com- 
 munication between Japan and United States established. 
 
 1916. Mexican bandits, led by Francisco Villa, attacked 
 Columbus, New Mexico, and murdered American citizens; 
 United States troops under command of General Pershing 
 crossed the border into Mexico to punish Villa and his army. 
 
 1917. Germany announced her intention of ruthless use of 
 submarine, outlining barred zones and prescribing conditions 
 for American vessels; President Wilson announced the break- 
 ing of diplomatic relations with Germany, February 3; Con- 
 gress declared war on Germanv, April 6; President Wilson's 
 proclamation, declaring war and defining the status of alien 
 enemies, April 6; Selective Service Bill passed by Congress, 
 April 28; first registration under the Selective Draft Act, June 
 5; General Pershing and his staff launched in Liverpool, June 
 8; United States Expeditionary Force reached France, July 3; 
 
24 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 American troops in France fire their first shot in trench war- 
 fare, October 23; United States at war with Austria-Hungary. 
 December 11. 
 
 1918. American troops took over sector northwest of Toul, 
 January 19; American transport, Tuscania, torpedoed, with loss 
 of 101 lives, February 6; Americans gained signal victory in 
 salient north of Toul, March 1; beginning of American co- 
 operation on major scale, June 3-6; Lieut. Quentin Roosevelt 
 killed in aerial battle near Chateau Thierry, July 17; French 
 and American counter offensive on Marne-Aisne front began 
 July 18; Americans began vigorous offense in St. Mihiel sector 
 on 40-mile front, September 13; President Wilson requested 
 by Prince Maximilian, new German Chancellor, to ask Allies 
 for armistice, October 6; President Wilson refers Germans to 
 General Foch for armistice terms, October 14; Germany sur- 
 renders, November 11; President Wilson leaves New York for 
 France, December 4. 
 
 1919. Theodore Roosevelt died at Oyster Bay, L. I., Janu- 
 ary 6; Peace Conference opened informally at Paris, January 
 12; Germans signed peace treaty, June 28; Andrew Carnegie 
 died at Lenox, Mass., August 11; General Pershing reached 
 New York from France, September 8; the United States senate 
 rejected the Versailles treaty, November 19. 
 
 1920. The Eighteenth Amendment went into effect Janu- 
 ary 19; Rear-Admiral Robert E. Peary died, February 20; 
 Railways pass back into control of tlieir owners March 1. 
 
 BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 DATE BATTLES AMERICAN BRITISH 
 
 COM. COM. 
 
 1775. Lexington Parker Pitcairn 
 
 1775. Bunker Hill Prescott Howe 
 
 1775. Quebec Arnold Carleton 
 
 1776. Fort Moultrie Moultrie Clinton 
 
 1776. Long Island Putnam Howe 
 
 1776. White Plains Washington Howe 
 
 1776. Trenton Washington Rahl 
 
 1777. Princeton Washington Mawhood 
 
 1777. Bennington Stark Baum 
 
 1777. Brandywine Washington Howe 
 
 1777. Germantown Washington Howe 
 
 1777. Saratoga (2) Gates Burgoyne 
 
 1 778. Monmouth Washington Clinton 
 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 25 
 
 1778. Savannah Robt. Howe Campbell 
 
 1779. Stony Point Wayne Johnson 
 
 1779. Savannah Lincoln Prevost 
 
 1780. Charleston Lincoln Clinton 
 
 1780. Camden Gates Cornwallis 
 
 1780. King's Mt Campbell Ferguson 
 
 1781. Cowpens Morgan Tarleton 
 
 1781. Guilford C. H Greene Cornwallis 
 
 1781. Eutaw Springs Greene Stewart 
 
 1781. Yorktown .Washington Cornwallis 
 
 BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812. 
 
 DATE BATTLES AMERICAN BRITISH 
 
 COM. COM. 
 
 1812. Detroit .WHliam Hull Brock 
 
 1812. Constitution-Guerriere. Isaac Hull Dacres 
 
 1812. Queenstown V'an Rensselaer Brock 
 
 1812. Wasp-Frolic Jones Whinyates 
 
 1812. Constitution-Java Bainbridge Lambert 
 
 1813. Hornet-Peacock Lawrence Peake 
 
 1813. Chesapeake-Shannon /.awrence Broke 
 
 1813. Lake Erie Perry Barclay 
 
 1813. Thames Harrison Proctor 
 
 1814. Chippewa Brown Rial 
 
 1814. Lundy's Lane Brown Rial 
 
 1814. Fort McHenry \rmistead Cochrane 
 
 1815. New Orleans Jackson Packenham 
 
 BATTLES OF THE MEXICAN WAR. 
 
 DATE BATTLES AMERICAN MEXICAN 
 
 COM. COM. 
 
 1846. Palo Alto Taylor Arista 
 
 1846. Resaca de la Palma . . .Taylor La Vega 
 
 1846. Monterey Taylor Ampudia 
 
 1847. Buena Vista Taylor Santa Anna 
 
 1847. Cerro Gordo .Scott Santa Anna 
 
 1847. Molino del Rey Worth Santa Anna 
 
 1847. Chapultepec Worth Santa Anna 
 
 BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 DATE BATTLES UNION CONFEDERATE 
 
 COM. COM. 
 
 1861. Fort Sumpter Anderson Beauregard 
 
 1861. Bull Run (1) McDowell Beauregard 
 
 1862. Fort Donelson . .'.Grant ..,...,,, . . Buckner 
 
26 CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 
 
 1862. Shiloh Grant A. S. Johnston 
 
 1862. Seven Pines McClellan J. E. Johnston 
 
 1862. Seven Days McClellan Lee 
 
 1862. Bull Run (2) Pope Lee 
 
 1862. Antietam .McClellan Lee 
 
 1862. Fredericksburg Burnside Lee 
 
 1862. Murfreesboro Rosecrans Bragg 
 
 1863. Chancellorsville Hooker Lee 
 
 1863. Gettysburg Meade Lee 
 
 1863. Vicksburg Grant Pemberton 
 
 1863. Chickamauga Rosecrans Bragg 
 
 1863. Chattanooga Grant Bragg 
 
 1864. Wilderness Grant Lee 
 
 A CHRONOLOGY OF THE WORLD WAR 
 1914 
 June 
 
 28. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the 
 throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife, the Duchess of Hohen- 
 berg, assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by alleged Pan-Serbian 
 fanatics. 
 
 July 
 
 23. Austria-Hungary, having accused Serbia of fomenting 
 conspiracies against the internal tranquility of the dual mon- 
 archy, sent her an ultimatum. 
 
 28. Austria-Hungary declared war against Serbia. 
 
 29. Belgrade bombarded by Austria-Hungary; Russian 
 mobilization ordered. 
 
 August 
 
 1. Germany declared war against Russia; France ordered 
 a general mobilization. 
 
 2. Hostilities on border between Germany and France; 
 Germany demanded free passage through Belgium: Belgium 
 refused. 
 
 3. Germany declared war against France; German troops 
 entered Belgium. 
 
 4. England sent ultimatum to Germany; British army or- 
 dered mobilized; England declared war against Germany; Ger- 
 man troops under General Von Kluck halted at Liege. 
 
 5. German attack on Leige repulsed. 
 
 6. Germans took the town of Liege, though not all the 
 forts; Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. 
 
 7.. French troops entered Alsace; General Joffre in 
 supreme qommand of French army. 
 
 8. British troops landed on French soil; Serbia declared 
 \var on Germany. < 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 27 
 
 11. France declared war on Austria-Hungary. 
 
 12. England declared war against Austria. 
 14. Allied troops massing in Belgium. 
 
 18. The British had 120,000 men in France. 
 20. Brussels captured by the Germans. 
 
 23. Japan declared war on Germany; Namur fell into Ger- 
 man hands. 
 
 24. Germans entered France near Lille; Allies beaten at 
 Mons and Charleroi; the "Great Retreat" toward Paris by the 
 British and French armies began. 
 
 25. Austria-Hungary declared war against Japan. 
 
 27. British marines occupy Ostend; Allies retreat to the 
 Somme. 
 
 28. Allies continue retreat through northern France; British 
 fleet gained naval victory off Heligoland. 
 
 31. The name of St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd by 
 imperial decree. 
 
 September 
 
 2. Allies held the line of the Seine, the Marne, and the 
 Meuse above Verdun. 
 
 3. Paris placed in a state of siege, and the government 
 withdrawn to Bordeaux; troops of the allies assume the offen- 
 sive, the Germans approaching the valley of the Marne; Lem- 
 berg, Galicia, occupied by Russians. 
 
 4. Rheims fell into German hands; Germans crossed the 
 Marne; the "Great Retreat" ended. 
 
 6. The Battle of the Marne began. 
 
 7. The German army began retreat back across the Marne, 
 followed by the Allied forces. 
 
 8. Allies accelerate German retreat capturing German 
 prisoners and guns; Von Kluck, beaten by General Joffre, 
 retired toward Soissons; Allies crossed the Marne. 
 
 11. Germans retreat all along their line. 
 
 12. German retreat continued; the Battle of the Aisne 
 began. 
 
 19. British forces began operations in Southwest Africa. 
 
 29. German attempt to pierce Allies' center failed. 
 
 October 
 
 9. Antwerp fell into German hands, and Ostend became 
 the seat of government. 
 
 14. The Allies' troops enter Ypres. 
 
 15. Ostend taken by Germans; the Belgian government re- 
 moved to Havre, France. 
 
 27. Battle at Yser River. 
 
 29. Assassin of Prince Ferdinand sentenced to twenty years 
 in prison, and four accessories to be hanged. 
 
 30. Russia declared war on Turkey. 
 
 November 
 
 5. Great Britain and France at war with Turkey. 
 
28 CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 
 
 6. Germans lighten pressure along the Yser, the Allies 
 holding firm. 
 
 9. Russians bombarded Turkish ports on the Black Sea. 
 December 
 
 2. Austrians captured Belgrade. 
 14. Austrians evacuated Belgrade. 
 19. Allies bombarded Dardanelles forts. 
 
 21. Russians mass troops before Warsaw. 
 
 1915 
 January 
 
 9. Germans made fourth great effort to take Warsaw. 
 14-16 — Battle of Soissons; Germans victorious. 
 19. Germans drove the French across the River Aisne; 
 fighting near Soissons ceased. 
 
 February 
 4. Three assassins concerned in the murder of Archduke 
 Ferdinand are executed. 
 
 19. British and French bombarded Turkish forts in the 
 Dardanelles. 
 
 27. German West Africa invaded by South African Union 
 forces. 
 
 March 
 
 1. Great Britain declared blockade of German coast. 
 10. British captured Neuve Chapelle in Flanders battle. 
 14. Dresden, a German raiding cruiser, is sunk in the Pacific, 
 
 off the coast of Chile. 
 
 18. Final and unsuccessful Allied naval attack at the Dar- 
 danelles. 
 
 22. Russians took the Austrian fortress of Przemysl after 
 a loner sieere. 
 
 23. Allied troops landed at Gallipoli, Dardanelles. 
 
 April 
 
 19. British captured Hill 60, important strategic position 
 southeast of Ypres. 
 
 22. Second Battle of Ypres began; French driven out of 
 trenches north of Ypres, but gain 700 yards near St. Mihiel; 
 Poison gas first used by Germans in attack on Canadians at 
 Ypres. 
 
 26. Allies land armies at the Dardanelles. 
 
 May 
 
 2. British South Africa troops, under General Botha, cap- 
 tured Otymbingue, German Southwest Africa. 
 
 7. Lusitania, Cunard liner, sunk by a German submarine. 
 22. Italy entered the war. 
 
 31. German Zeppelins bombarded suburbs of London. 
 
 June 
 
 3. Austro-German forces recaptured Przemysl. 
 22. Austro-German forces recaptured Lemberg. 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 29 
 
 July 
 
 9. German Southwest Africa surrendered to British forces 
 under General Botha. 
 
 15. Hill 285, in Argonne, recaptured by the French. 
 31. Baden bombarded by French aircraft. 
 August 
 
 4. Germans assail Warsaw's outer forts. 
 
 5. Warsaw captured by the Germans, but most of the Rus- 
 sian army escaped. 
 
 21. Great battle on Gallipoli Peninsula; Italy declared war 
 against Turkey. 
 
 25. Brest Litovsk, Russian fortress, captured by Austro- 
 Germans. 
 
 September 
 2. Austrians occupy Grodno, a Russian fortress. 
 
 6. Czar Nicholas of Russia assumes command of Russian 
 armies. 
 
 25. Great Allied offensive on western front opened. 
 
 October 
 
 11, Bulgarian troops entered Serbia. 
 
 14. Italians captured Pregasina, on the Trentino frontier; 
 Bulgaria officially declared war on Serbia. 
 
 15. Great Britain declared war on Bulgaria. 
 
 16. France declared war on Bulgaria. 
 
 19. Italy declared war on Bulgaria; Russia at war with 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 November 
 5. Nish, Serbian war capital, captured by Bulgarians. 
 
 16. Bulgarian forces captured Krusevo. 
 
 24. Serbian government transferred to Scutari, Albania. 
 
 December 
 9. Teutons clear Serbia of all enemies. 
 
 17. General Sir Douglas Haig succeeded Field-Marshal 
 Sir John French as commander of British forces in France 
 and Flanders. 
 
 23. Siege of Cracow raised; Russians retire. 
 1916 
 January 
 
 14. Austrians occupied Cettinje. capital of Montenegro. 
 23>. Austrians took Scutari, Albania. 
 
 February 
 9. Germans captured quarter-mile of French trenches 
 northeast of Neuville. 
 
 21. Germans began new attempt to capture Verdun; Ger- 
 mans take Haumont. ,, , , 
 
 25. Germans captured Fort Douaumont, Verdun, after ter- 
 rific losses. 
 
 March 
 9. Germany declared war on Portugal. 
 
 15. Austria-Hungary at war with Portugal. 
 
30 CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 
 
 16. French repulsed five attacks by Germans to capture 
 Fort Vaux, Verdun. 
 
 April 
 
 1. Germans captured Fort Vaux. 
 
 9. Supreme German attack on Verdun. 
 20. Russian troops land at Marseilles for service on French 
 fort. 
 
 24. Irish rebellion began in Dublin. 
 
 May 
 
 2. British coast raided by five zeppelins. 
 
 14. Italian positions penetrated by Austrians. 
 
 15. British gained possession of Vimy Ridge. 
 20. Germans repulsed on Dead Man's Hill. 
 23. French captured Fort Douaumont. 
 
 25. Fort Douaumont retaken by the Germans. 
 
 31. Jutland naval battle in the North Sea, the orreatest naval 
 battle of the war, with heavy losses on both sides. 
 
 June 
 
 5. The cruiser Hampshire torpedoed off Orkney Islands, 
 Scotland, and General Kitchener, British Secretary of War, 
 loses his life. 
 
 6. Germans capture Fort Vaux. 
 
 9. Arabia declared its independence of Turkey. 
 18. Italians defeated the Austro-Hungarians, on the Settc 
 Communi plateau. 
 
 23. Last great battle for Verdun. 
 
 July 
 
 1. Offensive launched by the Allies in Picardy. 
 
 9. Deutschland, German submarine freight boat, came 
 into the harbor at Baltimore, Md. 
 
 14. British penetrated German second line. 
 
 30. British and French advance between Delville Wood and 
 the Somme. 
 
 August 
 
 2. Fleury recaptured by the French; Von Hindenburg 
 assumed supreme command of tlie Teutonic forces in the East. 
 
 3. The Turks disastrously defeated at the Suez Canal. 
 
 17. Bulgarians began offensive on the Macedonian front. 
 
 27. Roumania declared war on Austria-Hungary. 
 
 28. Italy declared war on Germany; Germany at war with 
 Roumania. 
 
 31. Bulgaria at war with Roumania; Turkey at war with 
 Roumania. 
 
 September 
 2. Bulgarian forces invaded Roumania along the Dobruja 
 frontier. 
 
 13. Italians defeat the Austrians on the Carso. 
 
 October 
 8. German submarine appeared off American coast and 
 sank British passenger steamer Stephano. 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 31 
 
 24. French recaptured Fort Douaumont. 
 November 
 
 1. Deutschland arrived at New London, Conn., on second 
 voyage to the American coast. 
 
 2. Germans evacuated Fort Vaux. 
 
 6. British liner Arabia torpedoed and sunk in the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 December 
 6. Austro-German forces captured Bucharest, capital oi 
 Roumania. 
 
 15. French complete recapture of ground taken by the Ger- 
 man in Verdun battle. 
 
 1917 
 January 
 22. President Wilson addressed the United States Senate, 
 giving his ideas of steps necessary for world peace. 
 
 31. Germany announced her intention of ruthless use of 
 submarine in the war zone around the British Isles. 
 
 February 
 3. United States severed diplomatic relations with Ger- 
 many. . . 
 17. British troops on the Ancre captured German positions. 
 28. Submarine campaign of the Germans during February 
 resulted in the sinking of 134 vessels. 
 
 March 
 
 16. American steamship Vigilancia torpedoed and sunk. 
 
 17. American tanker Illinois sunk by a German submarine. 
 26. 31. British advance on Cambrai. 
 
 April 
 
 6. United States at war with Germany. 
 
 7. Cuba and Panama at war with Germany. 
 
 8. Austria-Hungary breaks with the United States. 
 
 9. British push the Germans back on the long front. 
 20. Turkey breaks with the United States. 
 
 May 
 9. Siberia breaks with Germany. 
 17. Honduras breaks with Germany. 
 
 June 
 
 13. Haiti breaks with Germany. 
 
 July 
 1. Russians take the offensive in Galicia. 
 16-23. Russians retreat on a front of 155 miles 
 22. Siam declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. 
 
 August 
 7. Siberia declared war on Germany. ^ 
 
 14. China declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. 
 
 September 
 3. German troops captured Riga. 
 16. Kerensky proclaimed Russia a republic. 
 
32 CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 
 
 20. Costa Rica breaks with Germany. 
 
 26. British capture important positions east of Ypres. 
 October 
 
 6. Peru and Uruguay break with Germany. 
 
 23. American troops in France in trench warfare. 
 
 24. Austro-German great offensive opened on Italian posi- 
 tion. 
 
 26. Brazil declared war on Germany. 
 
 31. Italians forced to retreat to the Tagliamento. 
 November 
 
 5. Italians retire from the Tagliamento line on a 93-mile 
 front in the Carnic Alps. 
 
 9. Italians forced back to the Piave. 
 24. Cambrai threatened by the British. 
 
 December 
 1. Allies' Supreme War Council convened in first session 
 at Versailles. 
 
 8. Jerusalem surrendered to the British, under General 
 Allenby. 
 
 15. Armistice signed between Germany and Russia. 
 
 1918 
 January 
 
 14. Former Premier Caillaux placed under arrest on high 
 treason charge. 
 
 20. Monte di val Belle captured by Italians. 
 
 February 
 
 6. American transport Tuscania torpedoed and sunk off 
 the coast of Ireland. 
 
 22. American troops in Chemin des Dames sector. 
 March 
 3. Peace treaty between Bolshevik government of Russia 
 and the Central Powers signed. 
 
 9. Moscow became the Russian capital. 
 
 21. Germans begin great drive on 50-mile front from Arras 
 to La Fere. 
 
 29. General Foch chosen Commander-in-Chief of all Allied 
 forces. 
 
 April 
 
 5. Japanese forces landed at Vladivostok. 
 
 9. Germans began their second drive in Flanders. 
 
 15. Second German drive halted before Ypres. 
 21. Guatemala declared war on Germany. 
 
 May 
 
 7. Nicaragua declared war on Germany. 
 
 27. Third German drive began on Aisne-Marne front of 
 30 miles between Soissons and Rheims. 
 
 29. Germans occupy Soissons as the French retire. 
 31. Marne River, crossed by Germans. ; . \ 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD WAR 33 
 
 June 
 
 3,-6. Americans check advance of Germans at Chateau 
 Thierry. 
 
 15.-24. Austrian drive on Italian front ended without success. 
 
 July 
 
 1. The Americans captured Vaux. 
 
 18. French and Americans began counter offensive on 
 Marne-Aisne front. 
 
 23. French drive the Germans back ten miles between the 
 Aisne and the Marne. 
 
 August 
 
 2. Soissons recaptured by the French. 
 
 3. Allies drove the Germans back from their base at 
 Fismes and captured the entire Aisne-Vesle front. 
 
 8. Field-Marshal Haig began nev^ Allied drive in Picardy. 
 
 September 
 
 11. Germans forced back to the Hindenburg line. 
 
 13. Americans began vigorous offense in St. Mihiel sector 
 on 40-mile front. 
 
 14. Allies recaptured St. Mihiel. 
 
 28, Belgians attacked enemy from Ypres to North Sea. 
 
 29. Bulgaria surrendered to the Allies. 
 
 October 
 
 1. St. Quentin captured by the Allies. 
 
 2. Lens evacuated by the Germans. 
 
 5. Prince Maximilian, German Chancellor, requests Presi- 
 dent Wilson to ask Allies for armistice. 
 
 8. President Wilson asks whether German Chancellor 
 speaks for the people or for the war lords. 
 
 11. Americans advance through Argonne forest. 
 
 12. Solf, German foreign secretary, states that the plea for 
 armistice is made in name of German people. 
 
 14. President Wilson refers Germans to General Foch for 
 armistice terms. 
 
 17. Ostend captured by the Allies. 
 25. Great Italian drive began. 
 31. Turkey surrenders. 
 
 November 
 
 1. Clery-le-Grand captured by Americans. 
 
 3. Americans advance on 50-mile front above Verdun; Ger- 
 mans continue retreat; Austria surrenders. 
 
 4. Americans attack Sedan. 
 
 5. Americans seized heights south of Sedan. 
 
 10. Mons captured by Canadians. 
 
 11. Germany surrenders; armistice takes effect at 11 A. M, 
 
34 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 
 
 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 TERMS DEFINED. 
 
 1. Accessory, one who, in some way, aids in the commis- 
 sion ol a crime, though absent. 
 
 2. Accomplice, an associate in the commission of a crime. 
 
 3. Administrator, a man appointed to settle the estate of 
 an intestate. 
 
 4. Admiral, a naval officer of the highest rank; the chief 
 officer of a fleet. 
 
 5. Alien, a person that belongs to another country. 
 
 6. Allegiance, an obligation owed by a subject to his 
 sovereign or government. 
 
 7. Alliance, a union of interests, as between states. 
 
 8. Ambassador, the highest rank of diplomatic agents. 
 
 9. Amnesty, a general pardon of ofifenses against a govern- 
 ment. 
 
 10. Anarchy, the state of society in which there is an absence 
 of government. 
 
 11. Anarchist, one whose aim is to overthrow civil govern- 
 ment. 
 
 12. Armistice, a cessation of hostilities between two 
 countries, by mutual consent. 
 
 13. Arsenal, a place where naval or military equipments are 
 manufactured or stored. 
 
 14. Arson, the willful or malicious burning of dwelling 
 house or other building. 
 
 15. Assignment, a transfer of property to an assignee for 
 the benefit of creditors. 
 
 16. Assignor, one who makes an assignment. 
 
 17. Assignee, one to whom property is assigned. 
 
 18. Auditor, one who examines and verifies or adjusts 
 account'. 
 
 19. Autonomy, the power or right of self-government. 
 
 20. Bail, security for a prisoner's appearance in court. 
 
 21. Balance of Trade, the difference between the money 
 value of exports and imports of a country. 
 
 22. Belligerent, a nation, party or person engaged in war 
 Of contest. 
 
 23. Bill, a draft or form of a proposed law. 
 
 24. Bill of Attainder, an act of a legislative body, inflicting 
 the penalty of death upon a person accused of treason or felony, 
 without a regular trial before a court. 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMEN-r 35 
 
 25. Bill of Sale, a written instrument formally conveying the 
 ownership of personal property, but not giving immediate 
 possession. 
 
 26. Bimetallism, the use of a double metallic standard, as 
 gold and silver, for currency. 
 
 27. Body Politic, an entire body of people united under one 
 government. 
 
 28. Bolter, one who refuses to support a nominee or a 
 measure of his party. 
 
 29. Boodle, money given for votes or political influence. 
 
 30. Borough, an incorporated village or town; a municipal 
 division of a large city. 
 
 31. Bribery, the act of influencing voters' or officials' acts 
 by means of money or other reward. 
 
 32. Cabal, a number of persons united in some plot or 
 intrigue. 
 
 33. Cabinet, an advisory council of the executive officers of 
 a nation. 
 
 34. Cadet, a person training for military or naval service. 
 
 35. Capias, a writ ordering the arrest of a person, that he 
 may be brought into court. 
 
 36. Capital Offense, a crime punishable by death. 
 
 37. Caucus, a party conference or preliminary meeting com- 
 posed of the leaders, to decide on candidates for office, party 
 measures, etc., to be supported by their followers. 
 
 38. Cavalry, a body of soldiers mounted on horseback. 
 
 39. Charter, a grant made by a sovereign power to a people, 
 securing them the enjoyment of certain rights. 
 
 40. Citizen, any inhabitant of a state who is not an alien. 
 
 41. Civics, the science of civil government. 
 
 42. Civil Government, control exercised by a state over its 
 citizens. 
 
 43. Civil Cause, an action brought to recover rights or to 
 secure compensation for their infraction. 
 
 44. Civil Law, relating to the private rights of individuals 
 in a community and to an action in a private suit, as distin- 
 guished from a criminal trial. 
 
 45. Civil Service Conumission, a body of persons appointed 
 by the President to carry out the provisions of the Civil 
 Service Act. 
 
 46. Civil Service Reform, a reform that eliminates the 
 "Spoils System" and bases appointment to certain inferior 
 offices upon ability to pass the civil service examination. 
 
 47. Civil Unit, the district in which the people exercise the 
 
Z6 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 
 
 minor powers of government, as the magisterial district, the 
 township, etc. 
 
 48. Clearing-House, a place where banks settle their dif- 
 ferences. 
 
 49. Colony, a body of people transplanted from their 
 mother country to a remote province. 
 
 50. Comm.issary, an officer who provides food and cloth- 
 ing for an arrmy. 
 
 51. Commission Form of Government for Cities, a plan 
 that reduces the city government from many elective officers 
 to a few who are held responsible for its management. 
 
 52. Common Law, the unwritten law, based on the im- 
 memorial customs of the country. 
 
 53. Communism, a special kind of socialism, advocating the 
 doctrine of community of property. 
 
 54. Commutation, the substitution of a milder punishment 
 for one more severe. 
 
 55. Comptroller, an officer who examines and certifies 
 accounts of public officers. 
 
 56. Confederacy, the person or parties united by a league. 
 
 57. Congressman-at-Large, representatives elected on the 
 general State ticket. 
 
 58. Conservatives, those opposed to any radical change in 
 government. 
 
 59. Constitution, the fundamental law of a country. 
 
 60. Consul, an officer commissioned to reside in a 
 foreign country and protect the commercial interests of the 
 appointing government. 
 
 61. Corruption of Blood, a disability to inherit or transmit 
 property on conviction of treason. 
 
 62. Court of Claims, a court organized to settle disputed 
 claims against the United States. 
 
 63. Death Duty, a tax or duty imposed on the transfer of 
 property at the owner's death, by inheritance or will. 
 
 64. Diplomatic Service, the whole body of officers whose 
 duty it is to represent our government in foreign countries. 
 
 65. Domain, the territory governed by a state or nation. 
 
 66. Electoral College, the whole body of electors chosen 
 by the people to elect a President and Vice-President. 
 
 67. Eminent Domain, the right of a government to take 
 private property for public use, by paying the owner a fair 
 value for it. 
 
 68. Excise, sometimes called internal revenue, a tax levied 
 upon articles manufactured and used within the country. 
 
 69. Ex Post-Facto Law, a law that makes an act criminal 
 which was not criminal when committed; or a law that inflicts 
 a greater punishment than the law imposed when the crime 
 was committed. 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT 37 
 
 70. Extradition, the delivery of a fugitive from justice by 
 one government to another. 
 
 71. Felony, a crime punishable by death or by imprisonment 
 in the state prison. 
 
 72. Filibustering, obstructing legislation by dilatory tactics, 
 such as speaking, making motions, or refusing to vote, merely 
 to consume time; also making unauthorized military invasion. 
 
 IZ. Franchise, a privilege or right granted by a sovereign 
 power to individuals. 
 
 74. Franking Privilege, the privilege of sending and receiv- 
 ing mail matter free. 
 
 75. Fraud, deception by which the right or interest of 
 another is injured. 
 
 76. Free Trade, trade or commerce free from tariff regula- 
 tions. 
 
 11. Graft, to obtain or give position 'or money by unfair 
 official conduct. 
 
 78. Gerrymander, to divide a state into districts so as to 
 give one party an unfair advantage, a plan devised when 
 Elbridge Gerry was governor of Massachusetts. 
 
 79. Government, the direction and control of human inter- 
 ests; the persons authorized to direct and control. 
 
 80. Habeas Corpus, a writ issued by a judge to produce a 
 prisoner before a court or judge. 
 
 81. High Seas, that part of the ocean common to all nations. 
 
 82. Impeachment, a formal accusation or charge brought 
 against a public officer and his arraignment before a proper 
 tribunal. 
 
 83. Income Tax, a tax on a person's income, profits, etc., 
 or on the excess over a certain amount. 
 
 84. Indictment, a formal charge or accusation found by a 
 grand jury. 
 
 85. Inheritance Tax, a death duty, or a tax imposed on 
 property received by inheritance or will. 
 
 86. Initiative, the power by which the people originate or 
 propose laws or measures by their petition. 
 
 87. Injunction, a judicial order requiring a party to do or 
 refrain from doing a certain act. It usually prohibits. 
 
 88. Larceny, a theft of goods or property. 
 
 89. Letters of Marque and Reprisal, commissions issued by 
 the government to private parties, authorizing them to cross 
 the frontiers of another nation, and to take persons and prop- 
 erty of its subjects in retaliation for injuries received. 
 
 90. Local Option, the right of the people, by popular vote 
 or by local legislation, to determine whether certain things shall 
 be permitted or prohibited in their locality, as the sale of intoxi- 
 cating drinks. 
 
 91. Majority Vote, more than half of all the votes cast. 
 
 92. Mandamus, a writ issued by a superior court, directed to 
 
38 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 
 
 any person, corporation, or inferior court, requiring them to do 
 some specific act. 
 
 93. Minority Vote, fewer than half of all the votes cast. 
 
 94. Ordinance, a resolution of a common council. 
 
 95. Parcels-Post, the collection, transmission and delivery 
 by postoffice department of small packages and parcels up to a 
 restricted weight. 
 
 96. Pardon, a full release from a punishment. 
 
 97. Plank, a principle or declaration of intention stated in 
 the platform of a political party. 
 
 98. Platform, a statement of principles upon which a person 
 or party stands. 
 
 99. Plurality Vote, the excess of votes cast for any one of 
 three or more candidates over those cast for any one of the 
 others. 
 
 100. Pocket Veto, the act of a chief magistrate in retaining a 
 bill over a period within which the legislative session will end, 
 thus making it fail to become a law. 
 
 101. Preamble, the introductory part of a constitution or 
 statute. 
 
 102. Progressives, those who advocate change in policy of 
 principles to meet the demands of changed conditions, and favor 
 a more democratic government. 
 
 103. Prohibitionists, those who favor forbidding by law the 
 sale of alcoholic liquors. 
 
 104. Protest, a declaration that acceptance or payment of a 
 bill or promissory note has been refused. 
 
 105. Protocol, the rough draft or chief heads of some 
 diplomatic document. 
 
 106. Proxy, a writing by which one person authorizes another 
 to. vote in his stead. 
 
 107. Quorum, such a number of the members of any board 
 or body as is competent to transact business. 
 
 108. Radicals, those who advocate extreme or thorough 
 measures in political reform. 
 
 109. Recall, the right of the people to remove an unworthy 
 elected ofifiicer from office. 
 
 110. Referendum, the right of the voters, upon the petition 
 of a fixed per cent, to ratify or reject a legislative act. 
 
 111. Reprieve, the temporary suspension of the execution of 
 a criminal's sentence. 
 
 112. Requisition, a formal demand made by one government 
 upon another for the surrender of a fugitive criminal. 
 
 113. Royalty, in the United States, a payment made by a 
 manufacturer or publisher to an inventor or author as his share 
 of the profits. 
 
 114. Sinkmg Fund, a fund set apart for the gradual extinc- 
 tion of a debt. 
 
 115. Socialism, a doctrine advocating more democratic gov- 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT 39 
 
 ernment and the public ownership and operation of the principal 
 instruments of wealth, as railroads, mines, mills and factories. 
 
 116. Standpatter, one who stands by the traditions, policy or 
 principles of his party regardless of changed conditions. 
 
 117. State, a community of persons living within certain 
 limits of territory, under a permanent organization, which aims 
 to secure prevalence of justice by self-imposed laws; in the 
 United States, one of the commonwealths composing the Union. 
 
 118. Subpoena, a writ commanding the attendance of a person 
 in court as a witness, under a penalty for failure. 
 
 119. Suffrage, the right or act of voting in political affairs. 
 
 120. Suffragette, a woman who advocates woman's suffrage. 
 
 121. Suffragist, one who favors, possesses or exercises the 
 political right of suffrage. 
 
 122. Syndicate, a combination of capitalists for the promotion 
 of some enterprise. 
 
 123. Tariff, a list or table of goods with the duties or 
 customs to be paid for the same. 
 
 124. Territory, an extent of land and waters belonging to, or 
 under the jurisdiction or sovereignty of a government. 
 
 125. Traitor, one who violates his allegiance and betrays his 
 country. 
 
 126. "Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
 levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
 them aid and comfort." 
 
 127. Treaty, a compact or contract between two or more 
 nations. 
 
 128. Tribute, a fixed amount paid at certain intervals by one 
 nation to another as an acknowledgment of submission, or as 
 price of peace and protection by virtue of some treaty. 
 
 129. Truce, a temporary suspension of hostilities by agree- 
 ment of the commanders of opposing forces. 
 
 130. True Bill, the words indorsed upon an indictment by a 
 grand jury, when satisfied that the charge against the accused 
 person is made out. 
 
 131. Trust, a combination of two or more corporations for 
 the purposes of limiting production and advancing prices for 
 their own benefit. 
 
 132. Ultimatum, the final propositions offered by either of the 
 parties in a diplomatic negotiation. 
 
 133. Veto, a right or power vested in a chief executive to 
 prevent a legislative act from becoming a law. 
 
 134. Watered Stock, an increase in capitalization without a 
 corresponding increase in assets. 
 
 135. Will, the legal declaration of a person, setting forth how 
 he wishes his property disposed of after his death. 
 
 136. Woman Suffrage, the right of women to vote and to 
 share equally with men the privilege of citizenship. 
 
40 PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY 
 L The Three Kingdoms of Nature are the mineral, the 
 vegetable, and the animal. 
 
 2. Organic Bodies are those having organs by which they 
 grow, as plants and animals. 
 
 3. The Ameba is the simplest form of animal life, consist- 
 ing of a tiny lump of jelly-like substance called protoplasm. It 
 is a single-celled animal, lives in stagnant water, and eats, moves, 
 and produces other amebas. 
 
 4. A Cell is a granular mass of protoplasm containing a 
 nucleus. The body of man is made of tiny cells like an army of 
 amebas. Every living thing is composed of cells. 
 
 5. A Tissue is a group of cells which do the same kind of 
 work. The tissues are muscular, epithelial, nervous, connective, 
 osseous and adipose. 
 
 6. An Organ is a collection of different tissues having a 
 definite compact form and doing a special work. 
 
 7. A System is several organs similar in structure, work- 
 ing together for a definite purpose. 
 
 8. Anatomy treats of the structure of the body. 
 
 9. Physiology is the study of the function of the various 
 parts of the body. 
 
 10. Hygiene treats of the preservation and improvement of 
 health. 
 
 11. Vertebrates are animals with backbones. They are 
 fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. 
 
 12. The Skeleton is the framework of the body. Its 
 functions are (1) to support the body; (2) to protect important 
 organs; (3) to provide a system of levers, by means of which 
 the body can be moved. 
 
 13. Materials in Bone are of two kinds, animal matter and 
 mineral matter. The first gives toughness, and the second gives 
 stiffness and firmness to the bones. 
 
 14. The Periosteum is a thin, tou^h membrane which covers 
 and nourishes the bones. 
 
 15. Cartilage is a soft substance forming a part of the 
 joints, air passages, nose, ears, etc. The bones of very young 
 animals are cartilage. 
 
 16. Joints are the places where the bones come together. 
 The two great classes are (1) movable, which are of three 
 principal kinds, ball-and-socket, hinge, and gliding; (2) im- 
 movable, as those of the cranium. 
 
 17. Synovia is the fluid secreted by the synovial membranes. 
 It lubricates the joints. 
 
 18. Ligaments are tough bands of connective tissue around 
 the movable joints. Their function is to hold the bones of the 
 skeleton together. 
 
 19. Muscle is the lean meat or flesh of the body. The 
 muscles number more than five hundred. Their functions are 
 
PHYSIOLOGY 41 
 
 to move the body, to help protect delicate organs, and to help 
 the ligaments in holding the bones together. The two great 
 classes are (1) the voluntary, which are under control of the 
 will; (2) the involuntary, which are not under the control of 
 the will. 
 
 20. Tendons are strong white cords which connect the 
 muscles with the bones. 
 
 21. Food is anything which, taken inside of the body, sup- 
 plies it with weight, heat, or energy. The three great classes 
 are (1) the carbohydrates (starches and sugars), obtained 
 chiefly from plants; (2) the fats and oils, obtained from fat 
 meat, eggs, butter, milk, vegetable oils, etc.; (3) the proteids, as 
 lean meats, eggs, milk, cheese, grains, peas and beans. 
 
 22. Digestion is the process by which food in the alimentary 
 canal is so changed that it can be absorbed by the lymphatics 
 and blood vessels. 
 
 23. The Organs of Digestion are the mouth, tongue, teeth, 
 salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, lacteals, 
 thoracic duct, liver, and pancreas. 
 
 25. The Teeth are developed in two sets — temporary (twenty 
 in number) and permanent (thirty-two in number). There are 
 four kinds — incisors, cuspids, bicuspids, and molars. The parts 
 of a tooth are a crown, a neck, and one or more roots. The 
 three kinds of material in the structure are dentine, cement, 
 and enamel. 
 
 25. The Salivary Glands are six in number — two sublingual 
 (under the tongue), two sub-maxillary (under the lower jaw). 
 two parotid (in front of the ears). The saliva softens the food, 
 and through its ferment, called ptyalin, digests starch. 
 
 26. The Pharynx, or throat, is the cavity behind the mouth 
 and the nose, leading to the esophagus. 
 
 27. The Esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the 
 pharnyx with the stomach. 
 
 28. The Stomach is a large pouch lying mostly on the left 
 side of the abdomen. It is composed of a layer of muscle cov- 
 ered with peritoneum and lined with mucous membrane. It is 
 a storehouse for food; and it secretes gastric juice, which con- 
 tains two ferments, rennin and pepsin. The stomach has two 
 openings, the cardiac orifice, near the heart, and the pyloric 
 orifice, in the right end. 
 
 29. The Intestine is divided into (1) the small intestine, 
 about twenty-five feet long, which consists of three parts, duo- 
 denum, jejunum, and ileum; (2) the large intestine, about five 
 feet in length, which includes the cecum, colon, and rectum. 
 The vermiform appendix is a tube extending from the cecum. 
 In the walls of the small intestines are the glands which secrete 
 the intestinal juice. The villi are found in the small intestine, 
 but not in the large Intestine. In each of these villi is a tube, 
 called a lacteal. The lacteals take up fat from the intestine. 
 
42 PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 30. The Liver is the largest gland in the body. It lies 
 under the lowest ribs upon the right side. Its principal function 
 is to secrete bile. 
 
 31. The Pancreas is a gland about six inches long, situated 
 behind the stomach. It secretes the pancreatic juice, which 
 digests albumin, fat and sugar. The pancreas is the most im- 
 portant of all the digestive glands. 
 
 32. Absorption is the process of sucking up the liquids and 
 digested foods by the blood vessels or lymphatics. 
 
 33. The Lymphatics are the tubes which convey the lymph 
 back to the veins. The lymphatics of the small intestine are 
 called lacteals. 
 
 34. Lymph is the blood plasma which has left the capillaries 
 to nourish the cells of the body. 
 
 35. The Blood is the red fluid of the body. It is composed 
 of a liquid called plasma, in which float a multitude of red cor- 
 puscles, and fewer white corpuscles. The red corpuscles carrv 
 oxygen to the cells of the body. The white corpuscles kill 
 disease germs, or repair injuries to the body. 
 
 36. The Circulation is the regular flow of the blood through 
 the different blood vessels of the body. 
 
 37. The Spleen is a soft organ in w^hich red corpuscles are 
 formed. 
 
 38. The Organs of Circulation are the heart, arteries, veins, 
 and capillaries. 
 
 39. The Heart is a hollow muscular organ, situated between 
 the lungs and the thorax. In the adult man it is about the size 
 of the closed fist. It is divided by a muscular partition into 
 two chambers, the right and the left heart. Each chamber is 
 divided into two cavities, the auricle and the ventricle. 
 
 40. The Arteries are tough cylindrical tubes which convey 
 the blood from the heart to different parts of the body. 
 
 41. The Veins are cylindrical tubes which carry the blood 
 from the different parts of the bodv to the heart. 
 
 42. The Capillaries are minute blood vessels which connect 
 the termination of the arteries with the commencement of the 
 veins. 
 
 43. The Course of the Circulation: The dark, impure blood 
 is forced from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, 
 and thence to the capillaries of the lungs. After being purified 
 in the lungs, it is conveyed through the pulmonary vein to the 
 left auricle, then through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. 
 This is called the pulmonary circulation. 
 
 By a contraction of the left ventricle the blood passes 
 through the aortic seinilunar valve into the aorta; and through 
 its branches the blood is conveyed to all parts of the body, 
 from which it returns through the capillaries and veins to the 
 right auricle. This is called the systemic circulation. 
 
 44. The Organs of Respiration are (1) the air passages, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY 43 
 
 through which the air enters and leaves the lungs; (2) the 
 lungs, in which the blood is exposed to the action of the air; 
 and (3) certain muscles used in breathing. 
 
 45. The Air Passages include the nostril chambers, the 
 pharynx (throat), the larnyx, the trachea, the bronchia, and the 
 air-cells. 
 
 46. The Lungs are two in number, and lie inside the thorax 
 (chest), one on each side of the heart. They are elastic, spongy 
 masses, full of tiny cavities called air-cells. 
 
 47. The Diaphragm is a thin, broad, circular partition, sepa- 
 rating the abdomen from the chest. 
 
 48. Respiration is the breathing of air into (inspiration) 
 and out of (expiration) the lungs. 
 
 49. The Nervous System is composed of the brain, the 
 spinal cord, the ganglionic system, and the nerves. 
 
 50. The Brain is the great center of the nervous system, 
 and it is the seat of the mind. It is a pulpy mass found in the 
 cavity of the skull, and is made up of two parts, — the cerebrum, 
 which occupies the upper and anterior parts of the cranium, 
 and the cerebellum, the lower and smaller portion. 
 
 51. The Spinal Cord is the cylindrical, long mass of nerve- 
 matter found in the spinal canal. It extends from the pons to 
 the second lumbar vertebra. 
 
 52. The Pons is the bridge of nerve fibres connecting the 
 cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord. 
 
 53. The Medulla Oblongata is the upper enlarged part of 
 the spinal cord. It is about one inch long, and lies within the 
 skull. 
 
 54. The Sympathetic System (Ganglionic) consists of two 
 nerves, one on each side, containing many ganglia. They ex- 
 tend the whole length of the spinal column. 
 
 55. Nerves are small white cords of nervous matter, used 
 to conduct the nervous influence. 
 
 56. The .Special Senses are the means by which the mind 
 becomes acquainted with external objects. The organs of the 
 special senses are the tongue, nose, ear, eye, and skin. 
 
 57. The Tongue is the organ of taste. It is composed of 
 muscles, and is situated within the arch of the lower jaw. 
 
 58. The Nose is the organ of smell. It is composed of car- 
 tilage covered by muscle and skin. The nasal passages are 
 separated from each other by a partition consisting of bone and 
 cartilage. The olfactory nerves end in the mucous membrane 
 lining the air passages of the nose. 
 
 59. The Ear is the special organ of hearing. It is composed 
 of the external ear, the middle ear, and the internal ear. 
 
 60. The External Ear consists of a tube about one inch in 
 length, which spreads out into a broad expansion seen on the 
 exterior of the head. 
 
 61. The Middle Ear, or Tympanum, is an air chamber in the 
 
44. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 temporal bone. It contains three small bones — the malleus 
 (hammer), the incus, (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup). 
 
 62. The Internal Ear consists of chambers and canals, hol- 
 lowed out in the temporal bone. Its three parts are the vesti- 
 bule, the semi-circular canals, and the cochlea. 
 
 63. The Eye, the organ of sight, includes the eyeball, the 
 adjusting machinery, and the protecting organs. 
 
 64. The Eyeball has three membranes or coats, — the scle- 
 rotic coat (the white of the eye); the choroid coat, next within; 
 the retina, the innermost coat. 
 
 65. The Cornea is the front part of the sclerotic coat. 
 
 66. The Iris is a flat disk whose circumference is connected 
 with the choroid coat. It surrounds the pupil, and gives the 
 blue, gray, or black color to the eye. 
 
 The Human Skeleton 
 
 The Head (22) 
 
 The Trunk (54) 
 
 Upper Extremities (64) 
 
 ^r.ower Extremities (60) 
 
 Skull (8) 
 
 Face (14) 
 
 lEars (3) 
 
 Frontal 
 2 Temporal 
 2 Parietal 
 
 Sphenoid 
 
 Ethmoid 
 
 Occipital 
 
 '2 Superior Maxillary 
 Inferior Maxillary 
 
 2 Nasal 
 
 2 Malar 
 
 2 Lachrymal 
 
 2 Turbinated 
 
 2 Palate 
 Vomer 
 
 Hammer. 
 
 Anvil. 
 
 Stirrup. 
 
 Sp 
 
 ^ (7 Cervical Vertebrae. 
 nal Column (24)t. ) 12 
 
 J 1.^ Dorsal Vertebrae 
 I 5 Lumbar Vertebrae 
 
 Ribs (24) 14 True, 6 False, 4 Floating 
 The Sternum. Hyoid Bone 
 
 2 Innominate 
 LPelvis (4) 
 
 rShoulder 
 
 Arm 
 
 Hand 
 
 Leg 
 
 Foot 
 
 Sacrum 
 
 Coccyx 
 \ Clavicle 
 1 Scapula 
 f Humerus 
 ) Radius 
 ^Ulna 
 f 8 Carpal 
 ■) 5 Metacarpal 
 ^ 14 Phalanges 
 fFemur 
 J Patella 
 1 Tibia 
 I^Fibula 
 
 7 Tarsal 
 
 5 Metatarsal 
 
 14 Phalanges 
 
PHYSIOLOGY 45 
 
 Defined Briefly 
 
 1. Abscess, a collection of dead creamy matter in the 
 flesh of a living person. 
 
 2. Adenoid, a tissue resembling gland tissue, growing in 
 soft, grape-like bodies in the upper part of the pharnyx. 
 
 3. Albumen, the chief constituent of the white of an egg. 
 
 4. Albumin, a term applied to a class of substances, some 
 form of which is the essential part of every living cell. 
 
 5. Aorta, the great artery that conducts the blood from 
 the left ventricle of the heart. 
 
 6. Amylopsin, the ferment in the pancreatic juice for 
 digesting starches. 
 
 7. Anemia, a state of the blood in which there are too few 
 red blood cells and too little plasma. 
 
 8. Anesthetic, a drug that produces insensibility. 
 
 9. Antidote, a substance which counteracts the effects of 
 poison. 
 
 10. Antiseptic, anything used to destroy disease germs. 
 
 11. Antitoxin, a substance that counteracts or neutralizes 
 toxin, especially that of diphtheria. 
 
 12. Apoplexy, a sudden loss of sensation and voluntary 
 motion, usually due to pressure upon the brain caused by a 
 burst artery. 
 
 13. Appendicitis, inflammation of the vermiform appendix. 
 
 14. Asphyxia, suspended animation, or apparent death. 
 
 15. Bacterium, the simplest and smallest form of plant life. 
 
 16. Biceps, a muscle with two heads; the muscle that bends 
 the elbow. 
 
 17. Bicuspid, a tooth with two points; also a valve of the 
 heart. 
 
 18. Bronchi, the two branches of the trachea or windpipe. 
 
 19. Bright's Disease, a disease of the kidneys, so-called 
 because Dr. Bright gave the first true description of kidney 
 diseases. 
 
 20. Caffeine, the active principle of coffee. 
 
 21. Casein, the part of the albumin of the milk that forms 
 the curd. 
 
 22. Contagious disease, a disease which can be transmitted 
 through the air. 
 
 23. Diastole, the relaxation of the heart when the blood 
 enters It. 
 
 24. Dorsal, pertaining to the back. 
 
 25. Dropsy, an abnormal collection of lymph due to dis- 
 turbance in the circulation of the blood. 
 
 26. Dyspepsia, a disordered state of the digestive organs. 
 
 27. Enamel, the hard calcified tissue that covers the crown 
 of the teeth. 
 
 28. Epidemic, a disease affecting a great number of people. 
 
 29. Epiglottis, the lid-like cover that fits over the larnyx 
 at time of swallowing. 
 
46 PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 30. Epilepsy, a disease of the brain attended by convulsions 
 and unconsciousness. 
 
 31. Extensor, a muscle that serves to extend any part of the 
 body. 
 
 32. Fever, elevation of the body temperature due to poisons 
 of disease. 
 
 33. Fibrin, a substance contained in the blood, which coagu- 
 lates into a fibrous mass. 
 
 34. Flexor, a muscle that bends the limbs. 
 
 35. Germs, the rudimentary form of a new plant or animal. 
 
 36. Germicide, a substance used for destroying the germs 
 of disease. 
 
 37. Haversian canals, the minute tunnels in bone through 
 which the arteries run. 
 
 38. Hemoglobin, the coloring matter in the red blood cor- 
 puscles. 
 
 39. Hemorrhage, the flow of blood from a blood tube. 
 
 40. Hepatic, pertaining to the liver. 
 
 41. Hookworm, a slender white worm that enters the body 
 and grows in the intestines, causing disease. 
 
 42. Hydrophobia (Rabies), a disease usually caused by the 
 bite of a rabid animal. 
 
 43. Incisor, a term applied to the front teeth. 
 
 44. Influenza (Grip), a disease caused by a very small 
 bacillus that grows in the respiratory passages. 
 
 45. Malaria, a disease caused by a germ introduced into the 
 body by a certain species of mosquito. Formerly it was thought 
 that the cause was exhalations which arise from decaying vege- 
 table matter. 
 
 46. Myosin, a protein contained in lean meat. 
 
 47. Narcotic, a drug that dulls body action. 
 
 48. Nicotine, the active principle in tobacco. 
 
 49. Oxidation, a union of some substance with oxygen. 
 
 50. Pulse, a wave of pressure which passes along the artery 
 with each heart beat. 
 
 51. Reflex actions, actions that take place without the 
 exercise of the will. 
 
 52. Sterilizing, heating some substances until all living or- 
 ganisms are destroyed. 
 
 53. Systole, the contraction of the heart forcing the blood 
 into the arteries. 
 
 54. Toxin, a virulent poison formed within a living body. 
 Toxins are produced by germs. 
 
 55. Tetanus (Lockjaw), a disease caused by a bacillus which 
 enters the body through wounds, especially wounds made by 
 unclean instruments. 
 
 56. Triceps, the muscle that straightens the elbow. 
 
 57. Tuberculosis, a disease caused by a slender bacillus, 
 which most frequently attacks the lungs. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 47 
 
 DEFINITIONS AND FACTS 
 
 1. Geography is a description of the Earth. 
 
 2. Mathematical Geography treats of the earth as a planet 
 of the solar system, and how to represent the earth's surface 
 on maps and globes. 
 
 3. Political Geography treats of the nations of the earth 
 as to their governments and laws, their moral and social con- 
 dition, their languages, their religious and national customs. 
 
 3. Physical Geography treats of the land, the water, the 
 atmosphere, animal and vegetable life, and their relations to one 
 another. 
 
 5. The Shape of the Earth is nearly that of a sphere; it is 
 flattened at the poles, the polar diameter being about twenty- 
 six miles less than the equatorial diameter. Among the proofs 
 of the earth's sphericity are: (1) Navigators have sailed round 
 it; (2) the curvature of the water surface; (3) the circular shape 
 of the horizon; (4) it casts a circular shadow; (5) the fact that 
 all other planets are globular. 
 
 6. The Earth Has Two Motions. It rotates on its axis 
 once in twenty-four hours, producing day and night; it revolves 
 around the sun once a year, producing the four seasons. 
 
 7. The Orbit of the earth is the path in which it moves 
 around the sun. 
 
 8. The Equator is a great circle midway between the poles. 
 
 9. The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle 23^ degrees 
 north of the Equator. 
 
 10. The Tropic of Capricorn is a small circle 23 >4 degrees 
 south of the Equator. 
 
 11. The Arctic Circle is a small circle 23 >4 degrees from the 
 North Pole. 
 
 12. The Antarctic Circle is a small circle 23^ degrees from 
 the South Pole. 
 
 13. The Meridian Circles are great circles passing around 
 the earth from north to south through the poles. 
 
 14. Meridians are semicircles of longitude, drawn from one 
 pole to the other. 
 
 15. Longitude Is the distance east or west of an established 
 meridian. It is measured 180 degrees east and west of the 
 prime meridian. 
 
 16. Latitude is distance measured north and south of the 
 Equator. 
 
 17. Zones are belts of earth parallel to the Equator. 
 
 18. The Ocean Movements are waves, tides, and currents. 
 
 19. Waves are the rise and fall of the ocean waters, caused 
 by the wind. 
 
 20. Tidal Waves are immense waves that sometimes roll 
 in upon the shore when earthquakes occur near the ocean. 
 
 21. Tides are the periodical risings and fallings of the 
 ocean, caused by the attractive forces of the moon and the sun, 
 
48 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and by the rotation of the Earth. The rising is flood tide, the 
 falling, ebb tide. The tides differ from wind waves in their 
 extent, in their regularity, and in their cause. 
 
 22. Ocean Currents are vast streams of water flowing 
 through the ocean. They are caused by the unequal heating 
 of the waters of the oceans, by the winds, and by the rotation 
 of the earth. The heating of the equatorial waters increases 
 their bulk and causes a current toward the poles, and these 
 movements are balanced by cold under currents of water flow- 
 ing from the polar regions toward the Equator. 
 
 23. The Equatorial Current is a steady flow of water west- 
 ward from the equatorial regions. 
 
 24. The Gulf Stream is a branch of the Equatorial Current 
 which enters the Gulf of Mexico through the Yucatan Channel. 
 It flows out through the Strait of Florida, and takes a course 
 nearly parallel to our Atlantic seaboard, until it reaches the 
 latitude of Newfoundland, where it turns more directly east- 
 ward. 
 
 25. The Effect of Ocean Currents. The great office of the 
 ocean currents in general is to modify climate. If they come 
 from a warm region, they tend to raise the temperature; if 
 from a colder region, to lower it. 
 
 26. Climate is the condition of a region with reference to 
 heat and moisture. It is modified chiefly by latitude, altitude, 
 distance from the sea, direction of the winds, direction of the 
 ocean currents, and position and distance of high mountain 
 ranges. 
 
 27. Isotherms are lines drawn on maps through places 
 having the same average temperature. 
 
 28. An Avalanche is an immense mass of snow or ice that 
 slides or rolls down the slope of a high mountain. Avalanches 
 occur in the Alps with great frequency, owing to their abrupt 
 slopes. 
 
 29. A Glacier is a great mass of snow and ice which moves 
 with extreme slowness down the higher mountain valleys or 
 slopes. Glaciers are formed by snow collected in ravines, and 
 thexe partially changed to ice by the pressure of its own weight. 
 The motion of glaciers varies in rapidity from a few inches 
 to several hundred feet a year. 
 
 30. An Iceberg is a vast mass of floating ice, broken from 
 the end of a glacier pushed out into the sea. Only about one- 
 eighth of an iceberg is above water. It floats along with some 
 ocean current, until it is melted. 
 
 31. A Volcano is a mountain which emits from openings, 
 (craters), lavas, cinders, ashes, steam, and various gases. Vol- 
 canoes are probably caused by the outbreak of steam confined 
 in rocks beneath the sea or near to it. 
 
 32. An Earthquake is a shaking or trembling of the crust 
 of some part of the Earth. Earthquakes are probably, caused 
 
GEOGRAPHY 49 
 
 by the strain produced by the contraction of a cooling crust 
 and the formation of gases beneath the surface; or by the slid- 
 ing of vast masses of subterranean rock one upon another. 
 
 33. A Geyser is a hot spring whose water is thrown high 
 into the air in intermittent jets. Geysers occur in volcanic 
 regions. 
 
 34. Winds are movements of the atmosphere, caused by the 
 unequal distribution of heat, and by the rotation of the earth. 
 They are classified as constant, periodical, and variable. 
 
 35. Trade Winds are the constant, gentle northeasterly and 
 southeasterly winds, occupying a belt of about twenty degrees 
 of latitude on each side of the Equator. 
 
 36. Monsoons are winds that blow toward the land in sum- 
 mer and from the land in winter. They blow from the north- 
 east in winter, and from the southeast in summer. The most 
 famous monsoons are those of Southern Asia. 
 
 37. The International Date Line is the meridian of 180 de- 
 grees, at which ships sailing eastward drop a dav. and sailing 
 westward add a day. The line is crooked because it was made 
 to mark the limit of colonization of the Spaniards from the 
 west and of other nations from the east. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL FACTS 
 
 The surface of the Earth covers about 197,000,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 The water area is about 144,000,000 square miles. 
 
 The land area is about 53,000,000 square miles. 
 
 The population of the world is about 1,500.000,000. 
 
 The Pacific is the deepest ocean. 
 
 The Amazon is the largest river. 
 
 The Mississippi is the longest river. 
 
 The Dead Sea is the lowest depression. 
 
 Lake Superior is the largest fresh-water lake. 
 
 Mount Everest is the loftiest peak. 
 
 Thibet is the highest plateau. 
 
 Aconcagua is the highest volcano. 
 
 Belgium is the most densely populated country. 
 
 Greenland is the largest island. 
 
 London is the largest city. 
 
 Eiffel Tower, in Paris, is the highest edifice, 989 feet. 
 
 The largest cave is the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 
 
 The .Caspian Sea is the largest lake. 
 
 Nearly half of the world's length of railroad is in the 
 United States. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS 
 North America — Rocky, Sierra Nevada, and Appalachian. 
 South America — Andes, Brazilian Parime, and Acaray. 
 Europe — Alps, Cantabrian, Pyrenees, Cevenes, Balkan 
 Kiolen, and Carpathian. 
 
50 GRAMMAR 
 
 Asia — Himalayas, Kuenlun, Thian Shan, Hindoo Koosh and 
 Altai. 
 
 Africa — Atlas, Kong, Snow, and .Mountains of the Moon. 
 Australia — Australian Alps and Blue Mountains. 
 
 The Longest Rivers 
 
 North America — Mississippi, Missouri, Yukon, St. Law- 
 rence, Alackensie, Nelson, Rio Grande, Arkansas, Columbia, 
 and Colorado. 
 
 South America — Amazon, La Plata, Orinoco. San Fran- 
 cisco, Aladeira and Magdalena. 
 
 Europe — Volga, Danube, Don, Dnieper, Ural, Rhine, and 
 Dwina. 
 
 Asia — Yang-tse Kiang, Yenisei, Hoang-Ho, Obi, Lena, and 
 Amoor. 
 
 Africa — Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi, Orange, and Senegal. 
 
 Australia — Murray. Darling, and Warburton. 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 Classes of Sentences 
 
 1. As to Form: 
 
 1. Simple — Susan reads. 
 
 2. Compound — He came to study and to recite. 
 
 3. Complex — He came to study to learn. 
 
 2. As to Use: 
 
 1. Declarative — The children play. 
 
 2. Interrogative — Do the children play? 
 
 3. Exclamatory — How the children play! 
 
 4. Imperative — Children, play. 
 
 Classes of Phrases 
 
 1. As to Form: 
 
 1. Simple — He came to study. 
 
 2. Compound — He came to study and to recite. 
 
 3. Complex — He came to study to learn. 
 
 2. As to Basis: 
 
 1. Prepositional — John lives on the hill. 
 
 2. Infinitive — He came to learn. 
 
 3. Participial — Being unwell, he remained. 
 
 4. Gerundial — Playing ball is good sport. 
 
 3. As to Use: 
 
 1. Adjective — He has apples to sell. 
 
 2. Adverbial — They came to work. 
 
 3. Substantive — To forgive is divine. 
 
 Classes of Clauses 
 1. As to Form: 
 
 1. Simple — That he studies is evident. 
 
 2. Compound — That he studies and that he improved is 
 evident. 
 
 ,3. Complex — That he was wrong when he said it is 
 evident. 
 
GRAMMAR 51 
 
 2. As to Use: 
 
 1. Adjective — We need men who are honest. 
 
 2. Adverbial — He came when I called him. 
 
 3. Substantive — I know that he is honest. 
 
 A Synopsis of the Parts of Speech 
 
 THE NOUN 
 
 1. Classes: 
 
 1. Common — Common to all of a class. 
 
 1. Class — One of a class of objects. 
 
 2. Abstract — Name of a property or quality. 
 
 3. Collective — Singular in form, but denoting more 
 
 more than one. 
 
 4. Verbal (gerund) — Like both a verb and a noun. 
 
 2. Proper — Name of a particular object. 
 
 2. Properties: 
 
 1. Gender — Based upon sex. 
 
 1. Masculine — Denotes males. 
 
 2. Feminine — Denotes females. 
 
 3. Common — Denotes either males or females. 
 
 4. Neuter — Denotes neither males nor females. 
 
 2. Person. 
 
 1. First — Denotes the speaker. 
 
 2. Second — Denotes the person addressed, 
 
 3. Third — Denotes the person or object spoken of. 
 
 3. Number. 
 
 1, Singular — Denotes but one. 
 
 2. Plural — Denotes more than one. 
 
 4. Case. 
 
 1. Nominative — Used as subject or predicate. 
 
 2. Possessive — Denotes ownership, etc. 
 
 3. Objective — Object of a verb or of a preposition. 
 
 4. Nominative Absolute — Independent of any gov- 
 erning word. 
 
 THE PRONOUN 
 
 1 Classes : 
 
 1. Personal— Form shows the person. 
 
 1. Simple — I, thou, he, she, it, etc. 
 
 2. Compound— Myself, thyself, etc. 
 
 2. Relative— Joins an adjective clause. 
 
 1. Simple — Who, which, what, that, as. 
 2. Compound — Whoever, whatever, etc. 
 
 3. Interrogative — One used in asking a question. 
 
 2. Properties — Same as that of antecedent— case excepted. 
 
 1. Gender. 
 
 2. Person. 
 
 3. Number. 
 
 4. Case. 
 
52 GRAMMAR 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 1. Classes: 
 
 1. Descriptive — Adds quality. 
 
 1. Common — An ordinary quality. 
 
 2. Proper — Derived from a proper noun. 
 
 3. Participial — Derived from a verb. 
 
 2. Definitive — Limits without expressing quality. 
 
 1. Articles — The, a, an. 
 
 1. Definite — The. 
 
 2. Indefinite — A, an 
 
 2. Pronominal — May stand for a noun. 
 
 1. Demonstrative — Points out definitely. 
 
 2. Distributive — Limits nouns taken separately. 
 
 3. Indefinite — Limits in a general way. 
 
 3. Numeral — Denotes number or order. 
 
 1. Cardinal — Denotes the number. 
 
 2. Ordinal — Indicates position in a series. 
 
 3. Multiplicative — Indicates how many fold. 
 
 2. Comparison: 
 
 1. Ascending — Good, better, best. 
 
 2. Descending — Good, less good, least good. 
 
 THE VERB 
 
 1. Classes: 
 
 1. As to Use: 
 
 1. Copulative — Joins a predicate. 
 
 2. Transitive — Requires an object, 
 
 3. Intransitive — Does not require an object. 
 
 2. As to Form: 
 
 1. Weak — Sometimes called regular verbs. 
 
 2. Strong — Sometimes called irregular verbs. 
 
 2. Sub-Classes: 
 
 1. Defective — Wanting in some principal part. 
 
 2. Redundant — Have two forms in the past tense. 
 
 3. Auxiliary — Help in verb-phrases. 
 
 4. Verbals — Verb-forms that do not assert. 
 
 1. Infinitives — Usually preceded by to. 
 
 2. Participles — Modify a noun or pronoun. 
 
 3. Gerunds — Like both verbs and nouns. 
 
 3. Properties: 
 
 1. Voice — A form of the transitive verb. 
 
 1. Active — Represents subject as acting upon an 
 object. 
 
 2. Passive — Represents the subject as being acted 
 upon, 
 
 2, Mode — Indicates manner of assertion. 
 
 1. Indicative — Asserts a thing as a fact. 
 
 2. Subjunctive — Expresses a wish, a supposition, a 
 future uncertainty. 
 
GRAMMAR 53 
 
 3. Potential — Asserts power, necessity, duty, lib- 
 erty, etc. 
 
 4. Imperative — Expresses a command, an entreaty, 
 etc. 
 
 3. Tense — Denotes the time of an action. 
 
 1. Present absolute. 
 
 2. Present relative. 
 
 3. Past absolute. 
 
 4. Past relative. 
 
 5. Future absolute. 
 
 6. Future relative. 
 
 4. Person — Agrees with the subject. 
 
 5. Number — Agrees with the subject. 
 
 THE ADVERB 
 
 1. Classes: 
 
 1. Of Time — Now, then, when, daily, never, after, re- 
 
 cently, often, soon, etc. 
 
 2. Of Place — There, where, here, hither, whence, any- 
 where, below, etc. 
 
 3. Of Manner — How, rapidly, thus, lazily, happily, well, 
 easily, etc. 
 
 4. Of Degree — Much, more, most, so, little, less, far, 
 too, etc. 
 
 5. Of Cause — Why, wherefore, therefore, thence, hence, 
 
 etc. 
 
 2. Sub-Classes: 
 
 1. Subjunctive — When, where, while, as, after, since, till, 
 
 before, etc. 
 
 2. Interrogative — When, how, where, etc. 
 
 3. Relative — When, where, wherein, etc. 
 
 4. Modal — Yes, no, not, truly, verily, etc. 
 
 3. Comparison: 
 
 1. Ascending— Rapidly, more rapidly, most rapidly. 
 
 2. Descending— Rapidly, less rapidly, least rapidly. 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION 
 1. Classes: 
 
 1. Co-ordinate — Join elements of equal rank. 
 
 1. Copulative— And, both . . . and, also, besides, 
 
 likewise. 
 
 2. Adversative — But, whereas, however, neverthe- 
 less. 
 
 3. Alternative — Neither, nor, or, neither . . nor. 
 
 2. Subordinate — Connect clauses of different rank. 
 
 1. Time — After, before, ere, since. 
 
 2. Cause — Because, since, for, as. 
 
 3. Condition — If, unless, provided. 
 
 4. Concession— Though, although. 
 
 5. Purpose — That, in order that, lest. 
 
54 GRAMMAR 
 
 6. Result— That, so that. 
 
 7. Degree — Than, as. 
 2. Other Sub-Classes: 
 
 1. Correlative — Used in pairs. 
 
 2. Phrase — Phrases used as conjunctions. 
 
 3. Introductory — One that introduces a sentence. 
 
 GRAMMAR— QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 1. What is natural language? 
 
 A. Natural language is instinctive methods of communi- 
 cating thought or feeling. It is used by the brute animals. 
 
 2. What is artificial language? 
 
 A. Artificial language is that which must be learned before 
 it can be used. 
 
 3. What is an idea? 
 
 A. An idea is a mental picture; or a mental representation 
 of an object. 
 
 4. What is an object? 
 
 A. An object is anything toward which the mind may be 
 directed. 
 
 5. What is meant by the unit of a language? 
 
 A. The unit of a language is the portion of it that is 
 necessary to express a thought. 
 
 6. What is the unit of language called? 
 A. It is called a sentence. 
 
 7. What is a sentence? 
 
 A. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. 
 
 8. What is grammar? 
 
 A. Grammar is the science of language. It is the study 
 of the sentence. 
 
 9. What is English grammar? 
 
 A. English grammar is the study that teaches how the 
 best speakers and writers use the English language. 
 
 10. What is meant by parts of speech? 
 
 A. Parts of speech means the classes of words according 
 to their uses in the sentence. 
 
 11. Show why we have about nine parts of speech. 
 
 A. Words have about nine different uses; some name 
 objects; some describe or point out; some stand for nouns; 
 some affirm; some connect and show relation; some merely 
 connect; etc. 
 
 12. Give a sentence containing each of the nine parts oi 
 speech. 
 
 A. "Oh, our hopes so fondly cherished in youth and early 
 manhood are now blighted!" 
 
 13. Why is a simple sentence so called? 
 A. Because it is but a single statement. 
 
 14. Why is a complex sentence so called? 
 
 A. Because it contains a single independent clause and 
 one or more dependent clauses. 
 
GRAMMAR 55 
 
 15. Why is a compound sentence so called? 
 
 A. Because it is composed of co-ordinate assertions. 
 
 16. What are the parts of a complex sentence called? 
 
 A. Principal and subordinate sentences; principal and 
 subordinate propositions; principal and subordinate clauses; 
 independent and dependent clauses; or principal and subordinate 
 assertions. 
 
 17. What are the parts of a compound sentence called? 
 
 A. Most authors call them members. Some call them 
 clauses; others call them the leading and co-ordinate sentences. 
 
 18. What parts of speech does a clause sentence always 
 parallel in its use? 
 
 A. A noun, adjective, or adverb. 
 
 19. What is a restrictive clause? 
 
 A. A restrictive clause defines or restricts the meaning of 
 the antecedent: "The man that set the fire has been found." 
 In this sentence the application of the noun man is restricted to 
 a particular person. 
 
 20. What relative pronoun should be used in restrictive 
 clauses? 
 
 A. Modern authors claim that only the relative pronoun 
 that should be used in restrictive clauses; however some gram- 
 marians claim that the use of who and which in some sentences 
 is sanctioned by good authority. 
 
 21. What is a non-restrictive, or explanatory clause? 
 
 A. It is an adjective clause that explains the antecedent, or 
 expresses an additional thought. It must be set off bv commas. 
 
 22. What is the subiect of a sentence? 
 
 A. The subject of a sentence is that of which something 
 is asserted or declared. 
 
 23. What may the simple subject be? 
 
 A. A noun, a pronoun, a clause, or a phrase. 
 
 24. What is the predicate of a sentence? 
 
 A. The predicate of a sentence is that which is asserted 
 or declared of the subject. 
 
 25. Of what may the predicate consist? 
 
 A. The predicate may consist of a verb alone, or a verb 
 and an attribute. 
 
 26. What maj^ the attribute be? 
 
 A. An adjective, a pronoun, or a substantive. 
 
 27. What is a complement? 
 
 A. A complement is what must be added to an incomplete 
 verb to give meaning to the sentence. 
 
 28. What is an incomplete verb? 
 
 A. An incomplete verb is one that requires an additional 
 word, or words, to complete the assertion, "John went to the 
 city." "John was sick." In the first sentence the verb is com- 
 plete; in the second sentence the verb is incomplete, and takes 
 a complement — an adjective complement. 
 
 29. What is an attribute complement? 
 
56 GRAMMAR 
 
 A. An attribute complement is one that completes the 
 predicate by naming or describing the subject. 
 
 30. What is a predicate adjective. 
 
 A. An adjective that completes the predicate and explains 
 the subject. 
 
 31. What is a predicate noun? 
 
 A. A noun that completes the predicate and explains the 
 subject. 
 
 32. What are predicate nouns and predicate adjectives 
 usually called? 
 
 A. Attribute complements. 
 
 33. What is an object complement? 
 
 A. An object complement is one that completes the predi- 
 cate by naming that which receives the action expressed by the 
 verb. It is the direct object of the verb. 
 
 34. What is an objective complement? 
 
 A. Verbs of making, calling, choosing, naming, etc., take 
 two objects. The second object is often called an objective 
 complement. Some authors call it a factitive complement, or 
 a factitive object. It belongs to the object complement. 
 
 35. What is an indirect object? 
 
 A. An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that tells for 
 whom or what the direct object is intended. 
 
 36. Name verbs that may take an indirect object. 
 
 A. Bring, buy, give, hand, lend, make, pay, refuse, sell 
 teach, etc. 
 
 37. Give sentences containing double possessives. 
 
 A. This book of John's is a grammar. "This hat of hers 
 is new." 'T want that horse of ours." 
 
 38. Give the principal words used as adjective pronouns. 
 
 A. All, another, any, both, each, either, few, former, latter, 
 many, more, most, much, neither, none, one, other, own, same, 
 several, some, such, this, that, these, those. 
 
 39. Give three rules for the uses of shall and will. 
 
 A. (1) To express simple future time, use shall with the 
 first person, will with the second and third. (2) To express 
 volition (acts of the will, as threats, resolves, etc.), use will 
 with the first person, shall with the second and third. (3) In an 
 interrogative sentence use shall with the first person always. 
 With the second person and the third, use shall when shall is 
 expected in the answer, and will when will is expected in the 
 answef. 
 
 40. What distinction is made between should and would? 
 A. In general, the uses of should and would are parallel to 
 
 those of shall and will. 
 
 41. What is a cognate object? 
 
 A. A cognate object of a verb is an object like the verb 
 in meaning; as, "The horse ran a, race." 
 
GRAMMAR 57 
 
 PARALLEL USES OF 
 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 
 
 1. Construction of a Noun: 
 
 1. Subject of a Finite Verb: 
 
 1. To steal is base. 
 
 2. Playing checkers is a waste of time. 
 
 2. Attribute: 
 
 1. To die is to sleep. 
 
 2. Playing is exercising. 
 
 3. Apposition With a Word: 
 
 1. The task, to sweep the floor, was imposed. 
 
 2. His task, carrying coal, is finished. 
 
 4. Apposition With a Phrase: 
 
 1. To die, to cease, is not so pleasant. 
 
 2. To gain by mean acts, cheating, is contemptible. 
 
 5. Object of Finite Verb: 
 
 1. I desire to sleep. 
 
 2. They commenced plowing. 
 
 6. Object of a Preposition: 
 
 1. He is about to go. 
 
 2. He is an expert at playing ball. 
 
 7. Independent: 
 
 1. To lie to me! Shame! 
 
 2. Boating! Racing! 
 
 2. Construction of an Adjective: 
 
 1. Limiting a Noun: 
 
 1. He has apples to sell. 
 
 2. The man standing in the door is my brother. 
 
 2. Limiting a Pronoun: 
 
 1. I saw him buy the property. 
 
 2. I saw her singing at her work. 
 
 3. Construction of an Adverb: 
 
 1. Modifying a Verb: 
 
 L He came to get grapes. 
 
 2. He came running into the house. 
 
 2. Modifying an Adjective: 
 
 1. He is anxious to depart. 
 
 2. (No corresponding construction.) 
 
 3. Modifying an Adverb: 
 
 1. The tree is old enough to be cut. 
 
 2, (No corresponding construction.) 
 
 COMPOSITION 
 Questions and Answers 
 
 1. What is composition? 
 
 A. Composition is any oral or written expression of 
 thought. 
 
 2. Where should the first lessons in composition be taught? 
 
58 COMPOSITION 
 
 A. The first lesson in composition should be given in the 
 home. The child should be required to express himself in good 
 English. 
 
 3. Where should the teaching of composition begin in our 
 public schools? 
 
 A. In the first grade. Oral composition should always 
 come before written. Every lesson should be a language lesson. 
 
 4. What is the value of oral reproduction? 
 
 A. Oral reproduction helps the child to give back in good 
 English whatever is furnished to the mind. 
 
 5. With what other study should all language work be 
 done for the first two years. 
 
 A. All language work for the first two years should be 
 done mainly in connection with the reading. 
 
 6. Why should similes and metaphors be taught in the pri- 
 mary grades? 
 
 A. The use of easy similes and metaphors in the primary 
 readers makes it necessary that the teacher explain the meaning 
 of the "picture" words. 
 
 7. Upon what may the oral language teaching be based in 
 the third grade? 
 
 A. Historical stories, biographies, and journeys. 
 
 8. Of what should the first steps in written work consist? 
 A. Copying from easy models; reproduction of one or 
 
 more facts brought out in nature study lessons; writing answers 
 to questions so arranged that the result will be a brief compo- 
 sition. 
 
 9. State two points to be observed in the teaching of com- 
 position in connection with other subjects. 
 
 A. (1) TTie teacher must not give too much written work. 
 (2) Careful attention must be given to the mechanical features 
 of all written work. 
 
 10. In what grade should the study of formal grammar 
 begin? 
 
 A. The elements of grammar may be taught in the fifth, 
 sixth and seventh grades in connection with the regular lan- 
 guage work. Formal grammar should be studied in the eighth 
 grade. 
 
 11. What is the study of language? 
 
 A. The study of language is the study of words and of 
 the proper use of them in expressing what we have to say. 
 
 12. What does errammar show? 
 
 A. Grammar shows how words are made, how their forms 
 are changed, and how they are put together in sentences ac- 
 cording to their kind. 
 
 13. Under what heads may the subject of composition be 
 treated? 
 
 A. (1) The Selection of a Subject. 
 
 (2) The Cumulation of Materials. 
 
 (3) Plan of Construction. 
 
COMPOSITION 59 
 
 (4) The Construction of a Composition. 
 
 14. Name the chief varieties of composition. 
 
 A. Narration, Description, Exposition, Argumentation, 
 Oratory, and Poetry. 
 
 15. What is narration? 
 
 A. Narration is the form of composition that recounts a 
 series of events. 
 
 16. What is description? 
 
 A. Description is the form of composition that tells the 
 qualities of things. It is a picture in words. 
 
 17. What is exposition? 
 
 A. Exposition is the form of composition that aims to 
 explain (expound) any general term or general proposition. 
 
 18. What is argumentation? 
 
 A. Argumentation is the form of composition in which the 
 aim is to modify or induce belief by means of argument. 
 
 19. What is persuasion, or oratory? 
 
 A. Persuasion, or oratory, is that form of composition 
 the aim of which is to induce the hearers to act. 
 
 20. What is style? 
 
 A. Style as applied to language means the manner of ex- 
 pressing thought. 
 
 21. What is diction? 
 
 A. Diction is that part of style which deals with the 
 choice and use of words. 
 
 22. Paraphrase, "He speaks the truth." 
 
 A. He tells no lies. He is truthful. He is a man of his 
 word. 
 
 23. What are included in the mechanical processes in the 
 making of a composition? 
 
 A. The manuscript, capital letters, punctuation and inden- 
 tation of paragraphs. 
 
 24. What rule should be observed? 
 A. 1. Choose a familiar subject. 
 
 2. Know what you want to say and say it in your own 
 
 language. 
 
 3. Write legibly and neatly. 
 
 4. Do not crowd your writing. 
 
 5. Write on only one side of the paper. 
 
 6. Write the title above the theme. 
 
 7. Leave a margin of about an inch and a half. 
 
 8. Indent your paragraphs. 
 
 9. Number the pages of your manuscript. 
 
 25. What is the topic sentence of a paragraph? 
 
 A. The topic sentence is the sentence that states the topic. 
 It is usually the first sentence in the paragraph. 
 
 26. Make an outline for a composition on Letter-Writmg. 
 A. 1. Importance. 
 
 2. Kinds of letters. 
 1. Business. 
 
60 
 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 
 2. Social. 
 
 
 3. Public. 
 
 3. 
 
 Parts of a letter. 
 
 
 1. Heading. 
 
 
 2. Address. 
 
 
 3. Salutation. 
 
 
 4. Body. 
 
 
 5. Complimentary close. 
 
 
 6. Signature. 
 
 
 7. Superscription. 
 
 4. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 5. 
 
 Punctuation. 
 
 ENGLISH SYNONYMS 
 
 Abandon — desert, forsake. 
 
 Abase — depress, debase, disgrace. 
 
 Abhor — hate detest, abominate, loathe. 
 
 Abide — stay, continue, remain. 
 
 Ability — capacity, capability, competence. 
 
 Abode — habitation, dwelling, residence, house. 
 
 Abridge — abbreviate, compress, contract, epitomize, con- 
 dense. 
 
 Abrupt — sudden, unexpected, unforeseen. 
 
 Accomplish — effect, achieve, execute, perform, complete, 
 realize, fulfill. 
 
 Account — description, explanation, narration, history, story. 
 
 Actual — real, true, authentic, certain, genuine, positive. 
 
 Advice— counsel, information, instruction. 
 
 Affront — insult, indignity, outrage. 
 
 Aim — purpose, intention, design, object, end, scope. 
 
 Allay — calm, quiet, soothe, compose, appease, soften. 
 
 Alone — solitary, desolate, forlorn, lonely. 
 
 Amiable— lovely^ sweet, gentle, kind, obliging. 
 
 Attempt — effort, endeavor, trial, experience. 
 
 Barren — sterile, unfruitful, unproductive. 
 
 Beam — ray, gleam, glitter. 
 
 Becoming — decent, benefiting, suitable, fit. 
 
 Bury — inter, entomb, conceal. 
 
 Certain — sure, infallible, secure, doubtless. 
 
 Clever — expert, dexterous, adroit, ready. 
 
 Contrive — devise, plan, scheme, invent. 
 
 Danger — peril, hazard, risk, jeopardy. 
 
 Dead — lifeless, deceased, defunct, inanimate. 
 
 Disciple — adherent, follower, partisan. 
 
 Dull — stupid, doltish, blockish, slow of understanding. 
 
 Expensive — costly, sumptuous, valuable. 
 
 Expert — dexterous, skillful, ready. 
 
 Faint — weak, feeble, languid, exhausted, low. 
 
 Follower — adherent, partisan, dependent. 
 
SYNONYMS 61 
 
 Force — compel, coerce, constrain, oblige. 
 
 Form — shape, mold, fashion, model, modify. 
 
 Gay — merry, jovial, sportive, frolicsome. 
 
 Genteel — polite, well-bred, gentlemanly, urbane, courteous, 
 polished refined. 
 
 Genuine — real, authentic, natural, pure. 
 
 Godly — holy, sanctified, righteous, pious, religious, devout. 
 
 Grateful — thankful, impressed, mindful. 
 
 Grief — sorrow, regret, lamentation, weeping, mourning, 
 affliction. 
 
 Handsome— elegant, nice, beautiful. 
 
 Harbor — haven, port, bay, inlet. 
 
 Heretic — schismatic, sectarian, skeptic, infidel, unbeliever, 
 disbeliever. 
 
 Honesty — integrity, rectitude, uprightness, justice, purity, 
 sincerity. 
 
 Idle — unemployed, inactive, leisure, vacant. 
 
 Indifferent — neutral, careless, heedless, regardless, uncon- 
 cerned. 
 
 Infection — contamination, taint, pollution, poison, vitiation, 
 defilement. 
 
 Jealousy — suspicion, fear, apprehension, caution, vigilance, 
 envy. 
 
 Joy — ecstasy, rapture, transport, exultation. 
 
 Justice — law, legality, right. 
 
 Kill — murder, assassinate, slay, massacre. 
 
 Kingdom — realm, state, territory, country. 
 
 Large — big, great, huge, spacious, roomy. 
 
 Lavish — prodigal, wasteful, wanton, profuse, extravagant. 
 
 League — confederacy, alliance, covenant, union, com- 
 bination. 
 
 Lie — falsehood, untruth, mendacity, fabrication, fiction, fib. 
 
 Lucky — fortunate, successful, prosperous. 
 
 Lusty — fat, corpulent, stout, robust, vigorous, healthful. 
 
 Many— manifold, multiform, several, divers, sundry, various, 
 numerous. 
 
 Mechanic — artisan, artist, workman. 
 
 Mistake — error, misconception, misunderstanding. 
 
 Move — impel, carry, convey, draw. 
 
 Naked — bare, nude, uncovered, undressed. 
 
 Nice — soft, delicate, tender, dainty, fine sweet, delicious. 
 
 Noted — conspicuous, eminent, famous, celebrated, renowned. 
 
 Nourish — nurture, cherish, foster, support, maintain, en- 
 courage. 
 
 Offspring — child, descendant, progeny, issue, generation, 
 production. 
 
 Opinion — sentiment, idea, notion, judgment. 
 
 Overcome — conquer, vanish, subdue, subjugate, overpower. 
 
 Own — acknowledge, avow, confess, admit, recognize. 
 
 Part — portion, piece, fragment, share, division, section. 
 
62 SYNONYMfS 
 
 Party — faction, clique, set, cabal, company. 
 
 Passive — suffering, enduring, patient, unresisting. 
 
 Pest — plague, pestilence, epidemic, infection, nuisance. 
 
 Petition — request, supplication, prayer, suit, entreaty. 
 
 Plot — conspiracy, intrigue, confederacy, combination, cabal. 
 
 Plunder — pillage, rapine, prey, booty, spoil. 
 
 Prince — sovereign, monarch, potentate, king, emperor, chief, 
 rulef. 
 
 Promiscuous — mingled, mixed, confused, undistinguished. 
 
 Quarrel — wrangle, dispute, contest, jar, altercation, differ- 
 ence. 
 
 Quickness — speed, velocity, fleetness, briskness. 
 
 Quiet — rest, repose, peace, tranquility. 
 
 Ramble — rove, wander, stroll, range, walk. 
 
 Reasonable — rational, equitable, just, fair. 
 
 Religion — godliness, piety, devotion, sanctity. 
 
 Repentance — sorrow, pain, grief, regret. 
 
 Riches — wealth, opulence, affluence, possessions, fortune. 
 
 Saving — preserving, sparing, frugal, economical, thrifty. 
 
 Severe — rigid, harsh, stern, austere, strict, hard, rigorous. 
 
 Shun — avoid, eschew, evade, elude, escape. 
 
 Sorry — grieved, pained, afflicted, affected. 
 
 Stream — current, course, tide, river, rivulet. 
 
 System — method, order, mode, manner. 
 
 Terrify — frighten, appal, alarm, dismay. 
 
 Tired — fatigued, wearied, harassed, exhausted. 
 
 Trade — business, traffic, barter, commerce, occupation. 
 
 Tumult — commotion, disturbance, agitation, riot, broil, 
 uproar. 
 
 Unbelief — incredulity, infidelity, disbelief, distrust. 
 
 Unbury — exhume, exhumate, disinter. 
 
 Unrelenting — relentless, implacable, hard, inexorable, cruel. 
 
 Untimely — premature, inopportune, unreasonable, ill-timed. 
 
 Vale — valley, dale, dell, dingle. 
 
 Vaunting — boasting, glorying, vainglory, ostentation, dis- 
 play, parade. 
 
 Vexation — chagrin, mortification, teasing, trouble, uneasi- 
 ness. 
 
 Wander — rove, ramble, stroll, roam, range. 
 
 Waste — spoil, ravage, desolation, havoc, loss, squandering. 
 
 Watchful — vigilant, attentive, careful, heedful, observant, 
 cautious. 
 
 Weary — reduce, exhaust, tire, fatigue, harass. 
 
 Wicked — evil, sinful, immoral, impious, profane, irreligious. 
 
 Wonder — surprise, amazement, astonishment. 
 
 Work — employment, occupation, labor, toil, drudgery. 
 
 Young — youthful, juvenile, infantile. 
 
 Zeal — ardor, heat, fervency, earnestness. 
 
 Zealous — ardent, earnest, warm, fervent, solicitous, anxious, 
 intense. 
 
SYNONYMS 63 
 
 SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED 
 
 Artisan — one skilled in a mechanical art. 
 
 Artist — one who pursues one of the fine arts. 
 
 Authentic — not false (history, memoirs, etc.). 
 
 Genuine — not spurious (manuscript). 
 
 Expect — to look forward to. We expect trouble. 
 
 Hope — to look for with desire. We hope for success. 
 
 Ancient — when not modern. 
 
 Antiquated — when out of fashion. 
 
 Adjacent — when near to each other. 
 
 Adjoining^meeting at some point. 
 
 Empty — when there is nothing in it. 
 
 Vacant — when the usual occupant is absent. 
 
 Fertile — applied to soil. 
 
 Fruitful — applied to plants, animals, and soils. 
 
 Grandeur — of the ocean. 
 
 Sublimity — of the heavens. 
 
 Competition — strife for the same object. 
 
 Emulation — desire to excel others. 
 
 Rivalry — a personal, selfish contest. 
 
 Allow — what in fairness ought to be granted. 
 
 Admit — what is due in the case. 
 
 Firmness— belongs to the will. 
 
 Constancy— belongs to the affections and principles. 
 
 Beseech — belongs more to the feeling. 
 
 Entreat — belongs to argument. 
 
 Repentance — sorrow for past acts, with a change of con- 
 duct. 
 
 Penitence — sorrow for sin. 
 
 Lonely — melancholy or forsaken. 
 
 Solitary — absence of life or society. 
 
 Noted — well known, favorably or eminently. 
 
 Notorious — usually carries an unfavorable meaning. 
 
 Peaceable — inclined to peace. 
 
 Peaceful — generally in a state of peace. 
 
 Eternal — having neither beginning nor end. 
 
 Everlasting — without end. 
 ^ Watch — infers a strict, constant, close, and eager obser- 
 vation. 
 
 Observe — infers coolness in observation. 
 
 Education — trains the mind. 
 
 Instruction — fills the mind with information. 
 
 Character — the sum of one's qualities. 
 
 Reputation — what others think of him. 
 
 Hunt — searching after. 
 
 Chase — driving away, or before. 
 
 Invalid — one not strong in health. 
 
 Patient — one suffering under disease. 
 
 Invasion — the act of a regular army. 
 
 Incursion — a hasty and sudden invasion. 
 
64 AGRICULTURE 
 
 Kill — a general and indefinite term. 
 
 Murder — to kill with open violence and injustice. 
 
 Assassinate — to murder by surprise, or by means of lying 
 in wait. 
 
 Outlive — to live longer than another. 
 
 Survive — to live beyond any given period. 
 
 Recline — to lean back. 
 
 Repose — to place one's self back. 
 
 Remember — to call to mind readily. 
 
 Recollect — to recall with effort. 
 
 Convince — by argument. 
 
 Persuade — by advice and entreaty. 
 
 Healthful — gives health. 
 
 Healthy — has health. 
 
 Robber — one who takes unlawfully by violence or compul- 
 sion. 
 
 Thief — one who takes unlawfully in secret. 
 
 Servant — one who serves, whether voluntarily or involun- 
 tarily. 
 
 Slave — one compelled to serve. 
 
 Specimen — represents a class of things. 
 
 Sample — a part of the thing, showing the quality of the 
 whole. 
 
 Teach — to impart instruction. 
 
 Learn — to receive instruction. 
 
 Custom — the repetition of an act. 
 
 Habit — the effect of repetition on character. 
 
 Truth^ — belongs to propositions. 
 
 Veracity — belongs to persons. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 1. What is Agriculture? 
 
 A. Agriculture is the science which treats of the man- 
 agement of farms and the production of plants and animals 
 that are useful to man. 
 
 2. What is horticulture? 
 
 A. Horticulture treats of the growing of fruits, vegetables, 
 and ornamental plants. 
 
 3. What is floriculture? 
 
 A. Floriculture is the science which treats of the cultiva- 
 tion of flowers. 
 
 4. What is forestry? 
 
 A. Forestry is the growing of timber for lumber and wood, 
 and to modify water supply. 
 
 5. What is the soil? 
 
 A. The soil is the surface of the earth down to solid rock. 
 
 6. What is the origin of soils? 
 
 A. All soils have been derived directly or indirectly by 
 the disintegration of rocks, generally through the prolonged 
 action of heat, cold, air, water, frost and ice. 
 
AGRICULTURE 65 
 
 7. What is an agricultural soil? 
 
 A. An agricultural soil is a soil made up of finely pul- 
 verized earth, soil water, soil air, decaying organic matter, and 
 living organisms. 
 
 8. What is the subsoil? 
 
 A. The subsoil is the harder and colder earth under the 
 top soil. 
 
 9. How does it differ from the top soil? 
 
 A. It contains less organic matter; it is lighter in color; 
 it is more compact; it contains less plant food; and it is less 
 finely divided. 
 
 10. Name the principal kinds of soil. 
 A. Sandy, clay, loam, and limestone. 
 
 11. What three substances may be regarded as the basis 
 of soils? 
 
 A. Sand, clay, and humus. 
 
 12. Which of these is the finest in texture? 
 
 A. Clay. It is composed mainly of fine, sticky, plastic 
 material. It contains over 50 per cent of clay. 
 
 13. What is a sandy soil? 
 
 A. A sandy soil is one composed in large part of sand. 
 It contains more than 70 per cent of sand. 
 
 14. What is humus? 
 
 A. Humus is partly decayed organic matter, as decaying 
 leaves, roots and animal life. 
 
 15. What is a loam soil? 
 
 A. Loam is composed of a mixture of sand, clay and 
 humus. 
 
 16. What are the uses of humus? 
 
 A, It binds together the particles of sand; it makes clay 
 less adhesive or sticky; it increases the water-holding power 
 of the soil; it loosens heavy soil; it promotes aeration; it en- 
 courages the growth of helpful bacteria. 
 
 17. What is a limestone soil? 
 
 A. A limestone soil is one derived from limestone rock. 
 
 18. What is meant by vegetable swamp soils? 
 
 A. Swamp soils that consist almost entirely of vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 19. What are alkali soils? 
 
 A. Alkali soils are soils that contain large deposits of 
 mineral salts, which impede the growth of vegetation. 
 
 20. What are arid soils? 
 
 A. Arid soils are unwatered soils, as parts of Arizona. 
 New Mexico, Utah and Nevada. 
 
 21. What are humid soils? 
 
 A. Humid soils are those that have plenty of rain, as the 
 Mississippi Valley, Western Washington, etc. 
 
 22. Name the important rnetallic elements of the soil. 
 
 A. Iron, calcium, magnesium^ potassium, . spdium and 
 aluminium. 
 
66 AGRICULTURE 
 
 23. Name the most important non-metallic elements of 
 the soil. 
 
 A. Silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, oxygen, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon. 
 
 24. Name the two most abundant elements in the soil. 
 A. Oxygen and silicon. 
 
 25. From what two sources does a plant derive its food? 
 A. From the soil and from the air. 
 
 26. Which source furnishes the greater part? 
 A. The air furnishes about 95 per cent. 
 
 27. Name the elements derived from the air. 
 A. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. 
 
 28. How is nitrogen in the soil or in the air prepared for 
 plant use? 
 
 A. By little organisms called bacteria. 
 
 29. What food is taken in by the leaves? 
 
 A. Carbon dioxide, which is formed by carbon and oxygen. 
 
 30. What is a fertile soil? 
 
 A. A fertile soil is any soil that is in a condition to produce 
 good crops under ordinary tillage. 
 
 31. What does a fertile soil contain? 
 
 A. Vegetable and animal matter in a partly decayed con- 
 dition; also the chemical elements necessary for plant growth. 
 3'2. What is the chief cause of decreased productivity of the 
 soil? 
 
 A. Constant cropping. Each crop removes a certain 
 amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. These are 
 three most valuable elements in commercial fertilizers. 
 
 33. Mention other causes of decreased production. 
 
 A. Erosion by wind or water; the exhaustion of humus; 
 unfavorable conditions for the development of soil organisms. 
 
 34. How can a "run-down" soil be restored? 
 
 A. By supplying humus and whatever plant food the soil 
 lacks. 
 
 35. What are the best sources of humus in the soil? 
 A. Barnyard and green manures. 
 
 36. What is meant by green manures? 
 
 A. Green manures are crops plowed under when green. 
 
 37. What are the best green crops for soil improvement? 
 A. The legumes, such as cowpeas, crimson clover, beans, 
 
 etc. 
 
 38. Why are the legumes valuable plants to the farmer? 
 
 A. Because the tubercles on their roots are the homes of 
 helpful bacteria. 
 
 39. What is the most costly plant food? 
 A. Nitrogen. 
 
 40. Where do plants get their supply of nitrogen? 
 A. They get it all from the soil. 
 
 41. Where does the soil get nitrogen to supply growing 
 
 crops? 
 
AGRICULTURE 67 
 
 A. A small part is deposited from the air by rain water, 
 but most of it is taken from the air and stored in the soil 
 through the activity of bacteria living in the tubercles on the 
 roots of the legumes. 
 
 42. How may the mechanical condition of the soil be im- 
 proved? 
 
 A. By proper cultivation; by drainage and irrigation; by 
 adding humus and lime. 
 
 43. How does lime benefit the soil? 
 
 A. Lime improves the physical condition of some soils. 
 It corrects acidity. It helps to liberate plant food. It aids 
 helpful bacteria. 
 
 44. Why is water needed in the soil? 
 A. To dissolve the plant food. 
 
 45. What two kinds of water exist in the soil? 
 A. Free water and film water. 
 
 46. What is free water? 
 
 A. Free water occupies the pore spaces between the soil 
 particles, and may be removed by drainage. 
 
 47. What is meant by film water? 
 
 A. Film water is the film moisture or thin coat of mois- 
 ture on each soil grain. It is also called capillary water. 
 
 48. How do they differ in movement? 
 
 A. The free water moves downward by gravity. The 
 film or capillary water can move in any direction by adhesion, 
 just as oil moves in a lamp wick, or as ink moves in a blotter' 
 
 49. What is tillage? 
 
 A. Tillage is the breaking up and pulverizing of the soil to 
 increase the growth of plants. 
 
 50. What is intertillage? 
 
 A. Intertillage is tillage among growing plants. 
 
 51. What are the chief benefits of tillage? 
 
 A. It increases the plant food supply, destroys weeds, 
 regulates soil moisture, and admits air and heat to the soil. 
 
 52. What are the chief benefits of drainage? 
 
 A. Drainage removes the excess of free water, aerates the 
 soil, warms the soil, conserves moisture, and permits early 
 plowing in the spring. 
 
 53. How does drainage conserve moisture? 
 
 A. The soil being more porous, receives and holds the 
 rainfall better, and promotes capillarity from the table water 
 below. 
 
 54. What^ is the best kind of drainage? 
 
 A. The tile system is the best, and tile drains are probably 
 the cheapest that can be used. Surface ditches and stone under- 
 drains are used. 
 
 55. Where does the water enter the tiles? 
 
 A. The water runs into the tiles at the joints and trickles 
 in through the porous walls. 
 
 56. Name the parts of a plant. 
 
68 AGRICULTURE 
 
 A. Root, stem, leaf, flower, and seed. 
 
 57. What are the functions of roots? 
 
 A. To hold the plant in place; to absorb soil water con- 
 taining dissolved plant food; to serve as storage places for 
 plant food. 
 
 58. How is plant food absorbed by the roots? 
 
 A. By osmosis, or the passing of liquids from one side of 
 a membrane to another. 
 
 59. What are the uses of the stem? 
 
 A. The stem supports the leaves, buds, flowers and fruit 
 or seeds; serves as a store house for plant food; and serves as 
 channels for the passage of sap. 
 
 60. What are the functions of the leaves? 
 
 A. They are the breathing and digesting organs of the 
 plant. 
 
 61. Name the parts of a flower. 
 
 A. (1) Calyx, with parts called sepals; (2) Corolla, with 
 parts called petals; (3) Stamen, with parts called filament, 
 anther and pollen; (4) Pistil, with parts called stigma, style, 
 and ovary. 
 
 62. What parts has a perfect flower? 
 
 A. The pistil, or female part, and the stamens, or male 
 parts. An imperfect flower has not both male and female 
 parts. 
 
 63. How do imperfect flowers bear seed? 
 
 A. The pollen is carried to the flower having the pistil 
 by the wind, or by insects. 
 
 64. As to length of life, how are plants classified? 
 A. Annuals, biennials, and perennials. 
 
 65. What is an annual? 
 
 A. A plant that bears seed the first year, then dies. 
 
 66. What is a biennial? 
 
 A. A plant that produces seed the second year, then dies. 
 
 67. What are perennials? 
 
 A. Plants that live more than two years. 
 
 68. What is meant by rotation of crops? 
 
 A. Rotation means that the crops grown on each field 
 are changed from time to time in some regular order. 
 
 69. What are some of the benefits of rotation? 
 
 A. Rotation destroys weeds, adds humus and nitrogen to 
 the soil, avoids diseases and insects, and economizes labor. 
 
 70. Name plants that add nitrogen. 
 
 A. Glover, alfalfa, cow-pea, and soy-bean. 
 
 71. Name crops that remove much nitrogen from the soil. 
 A. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and oats. 
 
 72. What do the forage crops include? 
 
 A. All crops used as green or dry feed, including crops 
 for pasturage. 
 
 72). Name the most valuable farm crops. 
 A. Grass, corn, wheat, cotton, oats, potatoes, and tobacco. 
 
AGRICULTURE 69 
 
 This is the order in which they rank. 
 
 74. Name the fiber crops. 
 A. Cotton, flax, and hemp. 
 
 75. What are the sugar-producing plants? 
 A. Sugar cane, sorghum, and sugar beets. 
 
 Id. What are cereals? 
 A. Cereals are plants of the grass family that are raised 
 for the food contained in their seeds, such as corn, wheat, rice 
 and oats. 
 
 11 . What are silos? 
 A. Silos are air-tight buildings in which are stored green 
 crops of any kind for winter use in feeding stock. The first 
 silo in America was built in 1879. 
 
 78. What is the best silage material? 
 
 A. Corn. Alfalfa, clover, soy-beans, and cow-peas are used 
 to some extent. 
 
 79. What two types of cotton are raised in the United 
 States? 
 
 A. Sea island and upland. 
 
 80. What are insects? 
 
 A. An insect is a small animal that breathes air through 
 its body, has six legs, usually has wings, and has a body divided 
 into three parts, — head, thorax, and abdomen. 
 
 81. What are the stages in an insect's life? 
 A. Egg, larva, pupa, and imago. 
 
 82. Name the chief insect enemies of the farmer. 
 
 A. The Hessian fly, the chinch-bug, the codling-moth, the 
 peach borer, the San Jose scale, the potato beetle, the plum 
 curculio, the Mexican bollweevil, and the cotton-boll worm. 
 
 83. What is a weed? 
 
 A. A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted. 
 
 84. How do weeds injure the farmer? 
 
 A. They use plant food, take up moisture, and increase the 
 expense of cultivating the crops. 
 
 85. What is meant by the propagation of plants? 
 
 A. The propagation of plants is their reproduction by 
 natural or artificial means. 
 
 86. What are the means by which plants in nature repro- 
 duce their kind? 
 
 A. Seeds, spores, rootstocks, stolons, suckers, bulbs, corms, 
 and tujbers. 
 
 87. Name two methods of grafting fruit trees. 
 A. Tongue or whip grafting and cleft grafting. 
 
 88. Give an important rule in grafting. 
 
 A. The cambium of the scions must come in contact with 
 the cambium of the stock 
 
70 AGRICULTURE 
 
 89. What are the objects in feeding farm animals? 
 
 A. To make them grow; to keep them warm and active; to 
 furnish special products. 
 
 90. What is a feeding standard? 
 
 A. Experiments have been conducted in order to determine 
 what is the best proportion of the different nutrients, and how 
 much of each is required daily by an animal weighing one 
 thousand pounds. The results are embodied in what are call- 
 ed "feeding standards." 
 
 91. What is the nutritive ratio? 
 
 A. It is the proportion of digestible protein to digestible 
 carbohydrate contained in feeding stufif. 
 
 92. What is a balanced ration? 
 
 A. A balanced ration is a statement of the quantities of 
 various feeds that will provide a nutritive ratio that is proper. 
 
 93. What is the balanced ration usually given for a dairy 
 cow and a work horse? 
 
 A. One with a ratio 1:6; that is, six times as much carbo- 
 hydrates as protein. 
 
 94. Name the two distinct types of horses. 
 A. Draft horses and driving horses. 
 
 95. What are the best known draft breeds? 
 
 A. The Percheron, from the province of Perche in France; 
 the Clydesdale, the draft horse of Scotland; the Belgian Draft, 
 developed by Belgian farmers; the EngHsh Shire, developed in 
 the eastern part of England. 
 
 96. What are the leading breeds of driving horses? 
 
 A. The Cleveland Bay, the French Coach, the German 
 Coach, and the English Hackney. 
 
 97. For what two main purposes are cattle kept? 
 
 A. For the production of milk and for the production of 
 beef 
 
 98. Name the two chief classes of cattle. 
 A. The beef breeds, and the dairy breeds. 
 
 99. How do they differ in form? 
 
 A. The dairy breed are wedged-shaped and the beef breed 
 are rectangular in shape. 
 
 100. Name the chief beef breeds. 
 
 A. The Shorthorn, the Hereford, the Polled Angus, and 
 the Galloway. 
 
 101. Name the chief dairy breeds. 
 
 A. The Jersey, the Guernsey, the Holstein, and the Ayr- 
 shire. 
 
 102. What is the Babcock milk-tester? 
 
 A. It is a machine invented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wis- 
 consin. By its use the amount of butter-fat in a given sample 
 of milk may be determined. 
 
AGRICULTURE 71 
 
 103. Name some diseases of cattle? 
 
 A. Tuberculosis, milk fever, black-leg, and Texas fever. 
 
 104. For what purposes are sheep kept by farmers? 
 A. For their w^ool and for their mutton. 
 
 105. Name the two types of sheep as to form of the body. 
 A. The mutton type — blocky in form, and the wool type — 
 
 lean and angular in form. 
 
 106. What are the best-known mutton breeds? 
 
 A. The Southdown, the Shropshire, the Hampshire, the Ox- 
 ford, and the Dorset. 
 
 107. Name the type of sheep as to the kind of wool produced. 
 A. (1) Fine-wool breeds, as the Merino, the Delaine, and 
 
 the Rambouillet; (2) the middle-wool breeds, as the South- 
 down, the Shropshire, the Dorset, the Hampshire, and the Ox- 
 ford; (3) the long-wool breeds, as the Lincoln, the Leicester, 
 and the Cots wold. 
 
 108. Name the large breeds of swine. 
 
 A. The Chester White, the Improved Yorkshire and the 
 Tamworth. 
 
 109. What are the most popular of the medium breeds? 
 A. The Berkshire, the Poland-China, the Duroc-Jersey, and 
 
 the Cheshire. 
 
 110. Name the most popular kinds of poultry. 
 A. Chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese. 
 
 111. How are breeds of chickens classified? 
 
 A. (1) The meat breeds, — Brahma. Cochin, Langshan, and 
 Dorking; (2) The general-purpose breeds, — Plymouth Rock, 
 Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Orpington; (3) The egg 
 breeds, — Leghorn. Minorca, Black Spanish, etc. 
 
 112. Name breeds of ducks. 
 
 A. The Pekin duck is the best for profit; the Rouen, the 
 Cayuga, and the Aylesbury are also important breeds. 
 
 113. Name two popular breeds of turkeys. 
 A. The Bronze and the White Holland. 
 
 114. What are the principal breeds of bees? 
 A. Cyprian, Italian, and Caucasian. 
 
 115. What three kinds of bees are found in a colony or 
 swarm in the spring? 
 
 A. One queen, several hundred drones and from thirty-five 
 to forty thousand workers. 
 
n ARITHMETIC 
 
 ARITHMETIC PROBLEMS 
 
 1. 2/3 of the difference between two numbers is 16; the 
 smaller number is 12, what is the greater? Ans. 36. 
 
 2. A has 3/4 of $8560, which is 2^^ times B's money; how 
 much money has B? Ans. $2,568. 
 
 3. What is the smallest sum of money for which I could hire 
 workmen for one month, paying either $30. $48, or $60 a 
 month? Ans. $240. 
 
 4. On what sum of money is $100 the difference between the 
 interest calculated at 4 per cent per annum and that at 3>4 
 per cent for every 10 months? Ans. $50,000. 
 
 5. 24+12x13— 3r=what? Ans. 177. 
 
 6. 24+12x(13— 3)=what? Ans. 144. 
 
 7. (24+12)Xl3— 3=what? Ans. 465. 
 Remark. — The signs X and -^ cannot extend their power, 
 
 forward or backward, beyond a -I- or a — , without the aid of 
 the parenthesis. 
 
 8. A has $2,000; Y^ of his money+$100 is 4/7 of B's; what 
 sum has B? Ans. $2800. 
 
 9. At what rate per cent per annum will any sum of money 
 double itself at simple interest in 30 years? Ans. 3 1/3. 
 
 10. What number is that from which if we deduct '^H of 
 itself and 2/9 of the remainder, there will be 28 left? Ans. 63. 
 
 11. A and B can do a piece of work in 2 daj^s, A and C in 
 3 days, and B and C in 4 days; in what time can C alone 
 do the work? Ans. 24 days. 
 
 12. A lot 320 feet long and 210 feet wide contains a gravel- 
 walk 6 feet wide iust inside. Find the area of the walk. 
 
 Ans. 690 2/3 sq. yds. 
 
 13. A loaned B $50 at 6 per cent.; on payment $75 was due. 
 Find the time. Ans. 8 yr. 4 mo 
 
 14. A man can row a boat down stream 12 miles per hour, 
 and up stream 6 miles per hour; how far can he go down and 
 return in 24 hours? Ans. 96 mi. 
 
 15. A man owning 40 per cent, of an iron foundry sold 25 
 per cent, of his share for S1246.50; what was the value of the 
 foundry? Ans. $12,465. 
 
 16. A's money is 20 per cent, more than B's; then B's money 
 is how many per cent, less than A's? Ans. 16 2/3. 
 
 17. A walk 9 feet wide surrounds a square garden • the 
 area of the walk being ^4 of an acre, what is a side of the 
 enclosed square? Ans. 293^/2 ft. 
 
 18. Bacon which costs 12 cents per pound wastes 15 per 
 cent, before it is sold; at what price per pound must it be 
 sold to gain 25 ner cent? Ans. 17 11/17 cts. 
 
 19. A ladder 82 feet long stands close against a building; 
 how far must it be drawn out at the bottom that the top may be 
 lowered 2 feet? Ans. 18 ft. 
 
 30. I spent 25 per cent of my money, then 10 per cent of 
 
ARITHMETIC 1^ 
 
 the remainder, and had $567 left; what had I at first? Ans. $840. 
 
 21. Find the difference between the compound interest and 
 the annual interest of $500, at 6 per cent, for 3 yr. 3 mo. 
 
 Ans. $0.19. 
 
 22. Omitting days of grace, find the difference between the 
 bank discount and the true discount of $960, for 3 yr. 6 mo. 
 at 8 per cent. Ans. $58.80. 
 
 23. What is the height of a tree which casts a shadow 36 
 feet long, if a staff 8 ft. 6 in. casts a shadow 12 ft. 9 in? 
 
 Ans. 24 ft. 
 
 24. What sum invested in U. S. 6 per cent, bonds at 105, will 
 produce an annual income of $600 in currency, when gold is 
 worth $120? Ans. $8,750. 
 
 25. I have a 60-day note of $300 with which to buy wheat, at 
 75 cents per bushel; after discounting the note in bank at 10 
 per cent, how many bushels can I buy? Ans. 393 bu. 
 
 26. I wish to borrow $725 from a bank, for 60 davs; for 
 what sum must I give my note, if the rate of discount is 8 per 
 (.gnt? Ans. $735.29. 
 
 27. How many gallons of water will exactly fill a vessel 
 which holds 110 bushels of grain? Ans. $1,025 gal. 
 
 28. A factor sold wheat on a commission of 2 per cent, for 
 $2,548; he then invested the net proceeds in corn at 50 cents 
 a bushel, after retaining a commission of 4 per cent. How 
 many bushels of corn did he buy? Ans. 4,802. 
 
 29. A trader sold two cows at $30 each, gaining 25 per 
 cent on one, losing 25 per cent on the other, what was his 
 gain or loss by the transaction? Ans. $4 loss. 
 
 30. A cube has an area of 2,400 sq. in.; find its solid con- 
 tents. Ans. 8,000 cu. in. 
 
 31.* The principal is $400, the interest $137.60, and the time 4 
 yr. 3 mo. 18 da.; what is the rate? Ans. 8 per cent. 
 
 32 If 44 of a farm is worth $1,800, what is the value of 5/6 
 of it? Ans. $2,000. 
 
 33. A, B, and C dine on 8 loaves of bread; A furnishes 5 
 and B 3; C pays them 18 cents; how should A and B divide the 
 money? Ans. A 15^ c, B 2^ c. 
 
 34. In what time will $126.50 give $2.53 interest at 5 per 
 cent? Ans. 4 mo. 24 da. 
 
 35. Find the asking price of a hat, which cost $1.20, so as 
 to abate 6^ per cent, and still make a profit of 25 per cent. 
 
 Ans. $1.60. 
 
 36. 100 eggs are placed in a right line, exactly 2 yards apart, 
 the first being 2 yards from a basket; how far will a man 
 travel who gathers them up singly, and places them in the 
 basket? Ans. 11 mi. 152 rd. 4 yd. 
 
 37. A window sill is just 40 feet from the ground; how far 
 from the wall of the house must a ladder 50 feet long be 
 placed to reach the sill ? Ans. 30 ft. 
 
 38. Find the diagonal of a room 40 feet long, 30 feet wide, 
 
74 ARITHMETIC 
 
 12 feet high. Ans. 51.4+ft. 
 
 39. How large a square can be cut out of a circular board 
 whose circumference is 100 inches? Ans. 22.5+in. 
 
 40. How many feet of lumber in 21 planks, each 16 feet 
 long, 18 inches wide, and 2 inches thick? Ans. 1,008 ft. 
 
 41. Divide the square root of 57,600 by the cube root of 512, 
 and multiply the quotient by the cube of 4. Ans. 1,920. 
 
 42. A sphere is 4 feet in diameter; find its contents. 
 
 Ans. 33.5104 cu. ft. 
 
 43. The area of a circle is 490.875 square feet; what is the 
 diameter? Ans. 25. 
 
 44. If a ball 3 inches in diameter weighs 9 pounds, what is 
 the weight of a ball 4 inches in diameter? Ans. Zlys lbs. 
 
 45. Compare the areas of two circles whose diameters are 
 as 4:6. Ans. 16 : 36. 
 
 46. I bought a horse for $70 cash, and sold him for $84, at 
 a credit of 10 months; reckoning the interest at 6 per cent, 
 how much did I gain? Ans. $10. 
 
 47. The boundaries of a square and circle are each 64 feet; 
 find the difference between the areas. Ans. 69.93 sq. ft. 
 
 48. Find the solid contents of a cone, diameter of base be- 
 ing 20 feet, altitude 30 feet. Ans. 3141.6 cu. ft. 
 
 49. A cubical cistern holds 200 gallons; what is its depth? 
 
 Ans. 35 in. 
 
 50. The solidity of a sphere is 33.5104 cu. ft.; what is the 
 diameter? Ans. 4 ft. 
 
 51. Find the cost of fencing a square lot, containing 160 
 acres at the rate of $4 per rod. Ans. $2560. 
 
 52. A general wishes to place 7,225 men in the form of a 
 sqquare; how many must he put in each line? Ans. 85. 
 
 53. Fmd the area of a triangle whose sides are 16, 18, and 
 20 feet. Ans. 136+sq. ft. 
 
 54. A field containing 8 a. 72 sq. rd. is twice as long as it is 
 wide; find the cost of fencinof it at 20 cents per rod. 
 
 Ans. $31.20. 
 
 PROBLEMS AND HOW TO SOLVE THEM 
 
 1. A buys 16 cows and 8 horses for $960, and B buys 24 
 cows and 6 horses of equal quality for the same amount. What 
 is the cost of each horse? Ans. $80. 
 
 Hint — Since B buys 8 more cows and 2 fewer horses than 
 A, the value of 8 cows is equal to that of 2 horses. 
 
 2. What is the length of the longest chain that will meas- 
 ure exactly the length and the width of a field 697 rods long 
 and 391 rods wide? Ans. 17 rods. 
 
 Hint. Find the greatest common divisor. 
 
 3. Find the least number of apples that arranged in 
 groups of 6, 8, 9 or 12 have just three over in each case. 
 
 Ans. 75 apples. 
 Hint. Add 3 to the least common multiple. 
 
ARITHMETIC 75 
 
 4. A pair of horses, carriage, and harness cost $570. If the 
 carriage cost 40 per cent, less, and the harness 70 per cent less 
 than the horses, what was the cost of the horses? Ans. $'300. 
 
 Hint. The cost of all equals 190 per cent, of the cost of 
 the horses. 
 
 5. If I sell one-half of an article for as much as three- 
 fourths of it costs me, what per cent do I gain? Ans. 50 per cent. 
 
 Hint. The whole article would bring one and one-half 
 times as much as the article cost. 
 
 6. A man bought a horse for $150. How much must he 
 ask for the horse so that he can fall 10 per cent, and still 
 make 20 per cent, profit? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 Let 100%=the asking price. 
 10%=the discount from asking price. 
 Then 100%— 10%=90%, the selling price. 
 20% of $150=$30, the profit. 
 $150+$30r=$'180, the selling price. 
 Therefore 90 %=$180. 
 
 l%r=$2. 
 
 100%=$200, the asking price. 
 
 7. A spends 4/5 of his income, and B, having the same 
 income, spends 1 1/3 times as much as A, and finds himself $75 
 in debt at the end of the year. What is the income of each? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 Let 30%=the annual income of each. 
 
 4/5 of 30%=24%, amount spent by A. 
 
 li^X24%=32%, amount B spends. 
 
 32% — 30%=2%, B's indebtedness. 
 
 Therefore 2%=$75. 
 
 l%z=$37.50. 
 
 30%=$1125. 
 
 8 A cylinder is 10 inches in diameter and 10 inches long. 
 What part of the cylinder is lost in shavings if the largest 
 possible sphere is cut from it? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 100=the square of the diameter of the cylinder. 
 
 100X.7854X 10=785.4 cu. in., the volume. 
 
 10 inches=:the diameter of the sphere. 
 
 1000=:the cube of the diameter. 
 
 lOOOX .5236=523.6 cu. in., the volume. 
 
 785 4—523.6=261.8, the number of cubic inches lost. 
 
 261 8^ 785.4=1/3, the nart lost in shaving. 
 
 9. A farmer engaged a man to work for him for a year 
 for $216 and a suit of clothes; the man left at the end of 10 
 months and received $175 and the suit of clothes. What was 
 the value of the suit? 
 
Id ARITHMETIC 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 $216 — S175=:$41, two months' wages. 
 $41-f-2=$20.50, one month's wages. 
 10X$20.50— $205, salary for ten months. 
 $205— $175 =$30, value of the suit of clothes. 
 
 10. A grocer mixes equal amounts of 36c tea and 60c 
 tea and sells the mixture at 56c a pound. What is his per 
 cent, of profit? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 36c+60c=96c, cost of 2 lbs. of the mixture. 
 96c-=-2=48c, cost of 1 lb. of the mixture. 
 56c — 48c=8c, gain per lb. 
 8^48=:.16 2/3=the gain per cent. 
 
 11. Which is better, and how much better annuallv. to 
 invest $33,750 in 5% bonds at 150. or 4% bonds at 135? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 $33750-^1. 50=$2250O, amount of the 5% bonds. 
 5% of $22,500=$! 125, income annually. 
 $33750-f-1.35=$25000, the amount of the 4% bonds. 
 4% of $25000= $1000, income annually. 
 $1125— $10O0=$125, gain by the first. 
 
 12. The battle of Manila (121° 20' E.) began at 5:41 A. M 
 Sunday, May 1. What was the time at Washington {IT' V W.) 
 when the battle began? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 121° 20' E.=longitude of Manila. 
 
 Il" 3'=longitude of Washington. 
 
 198° 23' := difference of longitude through Greenwich. 
 
 360°— 198° 23'=161° ?,!' difference of longitude. 
 
 61° ZT corresponds to 10 hrs. 46 min. 28 sec. of time. 
 
 This time after 5:41 A. M. Saturday gives 27 min. 28 sec. 
 past 4 o'clock P. M. Saturday, considering the International 
 Date line. 
 
 13. John agreed to labor on condition that for every day 
 he worked he should receive $1.50, and for every day he was 
 idle he should pay 50c for his board. At the expiration of 60 
 days he received $'68. How many days did he work? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 60X$l-5O=$9O, what he could have earned. 
 $90— $68=$22, loss by being idle. 
 $1.50+$0.50=$2, loss each day he was idle. 
 $22-^$2=ll, number of idle days. 
 60 — 11=:49, number pf days he worked. 
 
 14. The head of a fish is 9 inches long the tail is as long 
 as the head and half the body, and the body is as long as the 
 head and tail together. How long is the fish? 
 
ARITHMETIC 11 
 
 SOLUTION 
 One half the length of the body,-f-9 inches, equals the 
 length of the tail, which added to the length of the head, equals 
 Yz the length of the body, + 18 inches, which, by the condition 
 of the problem, equals 2/2 of the length of the body. If 2/2 of 
 the length of the b6dy equals ^ the length of the body 4- 18 
 inches, ^ of the length of the body must equal 18 inches, which 
 is Va the length of the fish, 72 inches being the length. 
 
 15. If a man row 10 miles in 2^ hours against a current 
 of a stream, the rate of which is 3 miles an hour, how long will 
 he be in rowing 5 miles with the stream? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 1-2^=2/5. 
 
 2/5 of 10 miles=4 miles, the rate per hour against the 
 stream. 
 
 3 miles=:velocity of the current. 
 
 4 miles+3 miles=7 miles, velocity in still water. 
 
 7 miles-f-3 miles:=10 miles, rate per hour down stream. 
 5-^10=J^, the time in hours, as required. 
 
 16. Find the volume of the frustum of a square pyramid, 
 the sides of whose bases are 4 feet and 5 feet, respectively, and 
 whose altitude is 9 feet. 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 4X4=16, number of square feet in upper base. 
 
 5x5=25, number of square feet in lower base. 
 
 The square root of 16X25=20, the mean base. 
 
 16+25+20=61, sum of three bases. 
 
 1/3 of 9 feet=3 feet. 
 
 61X3=183, the number of cubic feet. 
 
 Rule. — To the sum of the area of both bases add the 
 square root of the product and multiply this sum by one-third 
 of the altitude. 
 
 17. What is the difiference between the true and the bank 
 discount of $360, due 6 months hence, at 6%? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 $10.80=the bank discount for 6 months. 
 $1.03=amount of $1 for 6 months. 
 $360-=-1.03=$349.51, the present worth. 
 $360— $349. 51 =$10.49, the true discount. 
 $10.80— $10.49=$0.31. the difference. 
 
 18. A dealer bought two horses for $150 each; on one 
 he gained 25%, and on the other he lost 25%. How much 
 did he lose by the transaction? 
 
 100%=cost of first horse. 
 125%=the selling price. 
 125%=$150, the selling price. 
 1%=$1.20. 
 
78 ARITHMETIC 
 
 100%=:$120, cost of the first horse. 
 
 100%=the cost of the second horse. 
 
 25%=the loss. 
 
 75%=:the selling price. 
 
 75%=$150, the selling price. 
 
 1%=$2. 
 
 100%=$200, the cost of the second horse. 
 
 $150+$150=$300, selling price of both horses. 
 
 $200-4-$120=$320, cost of both horses. 
 
 $320— $300=$'20, the loss, as required. 
 
 19. The face of a draft, payable in 60 days, is $2625; ex- 
 change being 1^% premium, and interest 6% what is the cost 
 of the draft? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 $1.015=rate of exchange. 
 $0.0105=bank discount of $1 (63 days). 
 $1.015— $O.O105=:$l.OO45, cost of exchange for $1. 
 $2625X1.0045=2636.81, the cost. 
 
 20. Find the interest and the amount of $8000 for 5 yr., at 
 6 %, interest payable annually. 
 
 SOLUTION 
 $480=interest one year. 
 $2400=interest five years. 
 10 years:=the sum of 4 yr., 3 yr., 2 yr., 1 yr. 
 $288=interest of $480 for 10 years. 
 $2400-L$288=$2688. total annual interest. 
 $8000-f$2688=$10688, amount, as required. 
 
 21. If the interest on the sum of A's and B's money for 3 
 vr. 9 mo., at 8 %, is $3213. and 2/3 of A's money is e^ual to 3/4 
 of B's, how much has each? 
 
 SOLUTION 
 30c^interest on $1 for the given time, at 8%. 
 $3213^.30=$10710. their combined sums. 
 V?, of A'sr=^ of B's. 
 Vj, of A's=3/^ of B's. 
 3/3 of A's=9/8 of B's. 
 Then 9/8 of B's=A's. 
 Let 16%=B's money, then 18%=A's. 
 16%+18=34%. what both have. 
 $10710=iwhat both have. 
 34%=$10710. 
 1%=$315. 
 16%=$5040, B's. 
 18%=$5670, A's. 
 
TEACHING 
 
 TEACHING 
 
 1. What is knowledge? 
 
 A. Knowledge is that which is known. 
 
 2. What is mj-stery? 
 
 A. Myster}- is that which is not known. 
 
 3. What is science" 
 
 A. Science is kno\vledge systematized and explained. 
 
 4. What is empirical knowledge? 
 
 A. Knowledge derived through the senses. 
 
 5. What is rational knowledge? 
 
 A. Knowledge of which reason is the source. 
 
 6. What is a mental power or faculty? 
 
 A. The capability of the mind or soul to act in a definite 
 wa}'. 
 
 7. Give the threefold division of the mental faculties. 
 
 A. (I) The Intellect, or those powers by which we 
 know: (2) The Sensibilities, or the powers by which we feel: 
 (3) the Will, or the power by which we choose and execute. 
 
 8. How is the intellect subdivided? 
 
 A. Into four groups of powers or faculties: (1) Pre- 
 sentative (Terceptive). by which the mind knows immediate- 
 ly and directly present material objects; (2) Representative 
 (Conceptive), "by which it retains and recalls: (3) Reflective 
 (Thought), by which it correlates: (4) Intuitive, by which it 
 knows without proof. 
 
 9. Why is perception sometimes called Sense-Percep- 
 tion? 
 
 A. Because present material objects are perceived by 
 means of the special senses. 
 
 10. What is a sensation? 
 
 A. A sensation is that simple mental state resulting from 
 the stimulation of a sensory nerve. 
 
 11. What is a percept? 
 
 A. A percept is a simple sense-product. By touch we 
 gain percepts of surface and texture. Through sight we gain 
 percepts of color, light and shade. 
 
 12. What is consciousness? 
 
 A. Consciousness is the recognition by the thinking sub- 
 ject of its own acts and states. By some authors the term is 
 used almost as a synon^-m for mind. 
 
 13. What do the representative or conceptive powers 
 include? 
 
 A. Memory, imagination, and phantasy. 
 
 14. What is memory? 
 
 A. Memory is the power of the mind to retam. revive, 
 and recognize mental experiences. 
 
 15. What is imagination? 
 
 A. Imagination is that power of the mind by which it 
 makes pictures without the present help of the senses. 
 
80 TEACHING 
 
 16. What is phantasy? 
 
 A, Phantasy (Fancy) is the power or act of conceiving 
 in the mind strange, impossible, whimsical combinations of 
 things. This spontaneous activity of the imaging power is 
 usually occasioned by some nervous or sensorial excitement, 
 which may be caused by indigestion, or other derangement. 
 
 17. What is a concept? 
 
 A. A concept is a product of conception. It is an object 
 conceived in the mind. 
 
 18. Explain briefly the difference between perception and 
 conception. 
 
 A. When an object is seen with the eyes, there is a per- 
 ception of it, when the same object is presented to the mind in 
 an idea only, or in memory, there is a conception of it. 
 
 19. What is apperception? 
 
 A. Apperception is that form of mental activity under 
 which the mind calls upon past experiences to aid in interpret- 
 ing a new experience. 
 
 20. What is attention? 
 
 A. Attention is the direction of the mind to any object. 
 
 21. Name three kinds of attention. 
 
 A. (1) Voluntary, in which the will directs the mind; (2) 
 Involuntary, in which the mind is drawn by interest; (3) Ex- 
 pectant, in which the mind dwells upon something expected. 
 
 22. What are the principal divisions of the Reflective or 
 Thought Power? 
 
 A. Judgment and reason. 
 
 23. What are the various appellations by which diflferent 
 authors designate the Thought Power? 
 
 A. The Understanding, th^ Intelligence, the Reason, the 
 Rational Faculty, the Elaborative Faculty, the Reflective Facul- 
 ty, the Thought Power, or Thought. 
 
 24. What is judgment? 
 
 A. Judgment is the power of the mind to discern and affirm 
 agreements and disagreements of objects of thought. 
 
 25. What is reasoning? 
 
 A. Reasoning is the process by which we reach conclu- 
 sions. 
 
 26. What are the two kinds or processes of reasoning? 
 A. Induction and deduction. 
 
 27. What is induction? 
 
 A. Induction is the process of reasoning from a particular 
 judgment (a judgment concerning individuals) to a general 
 judgment. Example: (1) This sheep is woolly; (2) The same 
 thing is true of all observed sheep; (3) Therefore, all sheep are 
 woolly. 
 
 28. What is deduction? 
 
 A. Deduction is the process of reasoning from a general to 
 a particular judgment. Example: (1) All sheep are woolly, (2) 
 This animal is a sheep; (3) Therefore, this animal is woolly. 
 
TEACHING 81 
 
 29. Define Psychology. 
 
 A. Psychology is the science of the human mind. It treats 
 of the activities and powers of the mind. 
 
 30. What mind powers should be especially cultivated dur- 
 ing the first ten or twelve years of the child's life? 
 
 A. Sensation, perception, and memory. 
 
 31. Define Education, 
 
 A. Education is the development and cultivation of all the 
 human powers — physical, mental, and moral. The end is knowl- 
 edge, power, and skill. 
 
 32. What are the three principal divisions of Education? 
 
 A. (1) Physical Education, which pertains to the develop- 
 ment of the powers of the body; (2) Intellectual Education, 
 which has for its aim the development of the intellectual pow- 
 ers; (3) Moral Education, which deals with the education of 
 the will and conscience. 
 
 33. As to grades and kind of instruction, how is Educa- 
 tion divided? ^ . . , , 
 
 A, Elementary, Secondary, Higher, Professional, and 
 Special Education. 
 
 34. What does Elementary Education include? 
 
 A. Instruction in common and graded schools below the 
 high school academy. 
 
 35. What does Secondary Education include? 
 
 A. Instruction in hieh schools, academies, and other schools 
 of similar grade. 
 
 36. What is meant by Higher Education? 
 A. Instruction in colleges and universities. 
 
 38. What is the purpose of Professional Education? 
 
 A. The training for special vocations, as medicine, law, en- 
 gineering, etc. , 1 ^• 
 
 39. Mention five great factors in formal education. 
 
 A. The home, the school, the press, the pulpit, and the plat- 
 form. 
 
 40. What is teaching? 
 
 A. (1) "Teaching is the process by which one mind, from 
 set purposes, produces the life-unfolding process in another."— 
 Tomokins. 
 
 (2) "Teaching is consciously doing three things— instruct- 
 ing, developing, training." — Roafk. 
 
 (3) "Teaching is simply helping the mind to perform its 
 function of knowing and growing." — Laurie. 
 
 41. What is instructing? 
 
 A. Instructing is directly giving information. 
 
 42. What is training? . . 
 
 A. "Training is the occasioning and directinsr of the pu- 
 pil's activities in such a manner as to result in power and skill 
 -—mental, moral and physical."— Dr. White. 
 
 43. ^Vhat is testing? 
 
 A. Testing is the disclosing of the pupil's attainments. 
 
82 TEACHING 
 
 44. What is meant by Method in teaching? 
 
 A. Method in teaching is the systematic way in which ob- 
 jects and subjects are presented to the mind of the pupil. 
 
 45. What is meant bv "normal methods" of teaching? 
 
 A. Methods which follow the correct principles in the per- 
 fect growth of the child's physical, mental and moral nature 
 by means of proper exercise. 
 
 46. What is the analytic method of teaching? 
 
 A. It is the method in which the teacher begins with a 
 whole and nroceeds to its elements or parts, as in the sentence 
 method of teaching reading. 
 
 47. What is the synthetic method of teaching? 
 
 A. That in which the teacher begins with the elements 
 or parts and proceeds to the whole. 
 
 48. What is the inductive method of teaching? 
 
 A. The inductive method of teaching begins with individual 
 facts and by induction reaches a general principle, or rule. It 
 closely resembles the synthetic method. However, it is used as 
 a means of reaching principles and rules, while the synthetic 
 method is a means of forming concepts and classes. 
 
 49. What is the deductive method of teaching? 
 
 A. That in which the rule, or principle, or definition, is 
 learned first, then application is made of it to particular cases. 
 
 50. Which of these methods should be used in primary in- 
 struction? 
 
 A. The inductive method. Induction completes itself in 
 deduction, therefore the combined method should be followed 
 quite early. 
 
 51. Why should the powers of observation be carefully 
 trained? 
 
 A. Because it is by these powers we gain knowledge 
 through the senses. In psychology the powers of observation 
 are known as sensation and perception (sense-perception). 
 
 52. Give hints on training attention. 
 
 A. (1) Create an interest in all work; (2) Encourage dili- 
 gent study; (3) Let your pupils feel their success; (4) Do not 
 make the work too difficult; (5) Preserve proper conditions 
 for attention. 
 
 53. Quote Joseph Cook on interest. 
 
 A. ''Interest is the mother of attention; attention is the 
 mother of knowledge. If you would win the daughter, make" 
 sure of the mother and grandmother." 
 
 54. What is object teaching? 
 
 A. Instruction in which pupils obtain knowledge directly 
 from an object throuerh the senses. 
 
 55: State some of the advantages of lessons on objects. 
 
 A. (1) They furnish information; (2) They give habits of 
 analytic observation; (3) They lead to habits of scientific in- 
 quiry. • • ■ 
 
 •56;.- ..What;- are the two i^eneral forms of recitation? : 
 
TEACHING 83 
 
 A. Oral and written. 
 
 57. Mention three methods of the oral recitation. 
 
 A. (1) The Socratic (Question), as used by Socrates; 
 
 (2) The Topical, pupils recite by topics; (3) the Lecture, used 
 in professional schools. 
 
 58. What are some of the advantages of the written reci- 
 tation? 
 
 A. (1) It is a drill in rapid writing; (2) It accustoms 
 pupils to spell by the eye; (3) Each pupil is tested on the whole 
 lesson; (4) It trains the pupils to express their thoughts on 
 paper. 
 
 59. What are the prerequisites of the recitation? 
 
 A. (1) The proper assignment of the lesson; (2) The 
 teacher's preparation; (3) The pupil's preparation; (4) Proper 
 conditions for successful study. 
 
 60. State five objects of the recitation. 
 
 A. (1) To test the pupil's knowledge; (2) To enable the 
 teacher to estimate the daily progress of the pupils; (3) To 
 explain difficulties; (4) To cultivate the power of expression; 
 (5) To excite and stimulate interest. 
 
 61. Mention some of the necessary qualifications of a 
 teacher. 
 
 A. Scholarship, professional training, a knowledge of 
 children, a cheerful and hopeful disposition, love for the work, 
 firmness, patience, punctuality, and good health. 
 
 62. Give six maxims of elementary instruction. 
 
 A. (1) Observation before reason; (2) The concrete pre- 
 cedes the abstract; (3) Proceed from the simple to the complex; 
 (4) Proceed from the known to the related unknown; (5) Facts 
 should precede definitions; (6) Processes should precede rules. 
 
 63. What are the three fundamental ends of teaching? 
 A. Knowledge, power, and skill. — Dr. White. 
 
 64. Give Dr. Raub's laws of teaching. 
 
 A. (1) The human mind embraces a number of distinct 
 faculties; (2) The faculties of the mind develop in a fixed order; 
 
 (3) Self-activity is a law of mental growth; (4) The mind is 
 both acquisitive and productive; (5) Human beings are created 
 with different tastes and talents; (6) The human mind is finite. 
 
 65. Give Dr. Hewett's laws of teaching. 
 
 A. (1) Any power under the control of the will may be 
 cultivated or trained; (2) The powers are trained in one way, 
 and in one way only; viz., by wise use; (3) The wisest training 
 will be directed to those powers that are conspicuously active 
 at the time; (4) An indispensable prerequisite to any profitable 
 training is careful attention to the matter in hand. 
 
 66. Give the law of sense-perception. 
 
 A. "There is nothing in the mind that has not first been 
 in the senses." — Colgrove. 
 
 67. State the law of apperception. 
 
84 TEACHING 
 
 A. "New experiences of every kind are interpreted and 
 assimilated only by means of old experiences." — Colgrove. 
 
 68. Give the law of induction. 
 
 A. "In the earlier stages of learning, inductive thinking 
 must precede deductive thinking." — Colgrove. 
 
 69. What is an incentive to study? 
 
 A. An incentive to study is a stimulus to effort. 
 
 70. Mention some proper incentives. 
 
 A. (1) A desire for approbation; (2) A desire for good 
 standing; 3) A desire for knowledge and efficiency; (4) A hope 
 of future success; (5) A sense of duty. 
 
 71. Mention some improper incentives. 
 
 A. (1) Infliction of pain; (2) Withholding of some pleas- 
 ure; (3) Fear of ridicule; (4) Fear of shame; (5) Emulation. 
 
 72. What incentives are of doubtful benefit? 
 
 A. (1) Prizes; (2) Marks of honor; (3) Privileges— as 
 holidays, early dismissals, choice of seats, etc.; (4) Immunities 
 — as exemption from duty, tasks, etc. 
 
 72). What are the ends of school discipline? 
 
 A. Self-control, self-direction, right motives, and proper 
 conditions for work. 
 
 74. What are the aims of the course of study? 
 
 A, (1) To provide proper arrangement of studies; (2) To 
 furnish a definite standard; (3) To secure order and continuity 
 of work; (4) To unify the work; (5) To secure the interest and 
 co-operation of the patrons. 
 
 75. Why is reading the most important work of the first 
 three years? 
 
 A. Because when reading is once mastered, all literature 
 is within reach and the pupil passes at once from the dependent 
 to the independent stage. 
 
 76. Name five methods in teaching beginners to read. 
 
 A. The alphabet method, the word method, the phonic 
 method, the sentence method, and the combined method (the 
 eclectic method). 
 
 77. Which of these methods was used almost universally in 
 America until about 1870? 
 
 A. The alphabet method. 
 
 78. Explain the alphabet method. 
 
 A. This method teaches the letters first. The letters are 
 combined into syllables, and the child is taught to spell the 
 syllables; as, a-b, ab; a-t, at; a-n, an. Then words of one syl- 
 lable are taught. Later, syllables are joined to make easy words, 
 and words are joined to make sentences. Spelling syllables 
 and words, and pronouncing them, comes before reading. 
 
 79. Describe the word method. 
 
 A. In this method words that represent familiar objects 
 are taught as wholes without reference to the letters. The 
 child learns to know the words by their forms. Such words as 
 
TEACHING 85 
 
 a, an, the, is, are, my, etc., are early taught. Words are then 
 combined in phrases and short sentences, which the child is 
 taught to read. The letters are taught incidentally. 
 
 80. Describe the phonic method. 
 
 A. This method teaches the sounds of the letters before 
 their names. The word is built of these sounds and their com- 
 binations. The words " c then put into sentences. The rapid 
 utterance of the sounda of the letters of a word will give the 
 sound of the word itself. 
 
 81. What is the sentence method? 
 
 A. That in which the child is taught to recognize a short 
 sentence as a whole. The sentence, not the letter, the sound, 
 or the word, is the unit in this method. 
 
 82. What is the combined or electic method? 
 
 A. It is a union of the best parts of the other methods. 
 It is probably the best method used in teaching primary reading. 
 
 83. What is supplementary reading? 
 
 A. Any reading given the pupil in addition to that in the 
 regular reading book. Various primers and first readers should 
 be read by pupils in the first grade. 
 
 84. Give causes of poor reading in school. 
 
 A. (1) Poor teaching; (2) Promotion before preparation; 
 (3) Want of enough supplementary reading; (4) Selections too 
 difficult; (5) The pupil does not feel what is read; (6) Poor ex- 
 pression. 
 
 85. How may history be made interesting to children? 
 
 A. By making it biographical. Give the facts, body and 
 interest by putting in plenty of anecdotes and stories. 
 
 85. With what branches may history be correlated? 
 
 A. Drawing, reading, writing, literature, geography, and 
 civil government. 
 
 86. When should the teaching of arithmetic begin? 
 
 A. Many courses of study provide for arithmetic (number) 
 in the first grade. Some authorities advise postponing it until 
 the fourth grade. 
 
 87. What is an abnormal child? 
 
 A. One that is noticeably larger or smaller, far superior 
 or much inferior in mental powers or attainments than the 
 majority of children of his age. 
 
 88. Give hints on making rules for the school. 
 
 A, Make but few definite rules; do not suggest possibilities 
 of misbehavior; do not fix the penalty in advance; do not make 
 a rule you cannot enforce; repeal a rule when no longer needed; 
 lead the child to obey from a sense of duty; encourage self-con- 
 trol. 
 
 89. What does order involve? 
 
 A. Order involves the doing of the right thing in the right 
 way, time, and place by the right person. 
 
 90. How may parental co-operation be secured? 
 
86 TEACHING 
 
 A. By correspondence, occasional visits, school entertain- 
 ments, residence among or near the parents, participation in 
 local affairs, and aid of the local press. 
 
 91. What is the purpose of punishment? 
 
 A. To reform the offender and obtain proper discipline in 
 the school. 
 
 92. Name some of the qualities nv -xssary to a good dis- 
 ciplinarian. 
 
 A. Tact, sympathy, self-control, impartiality, firmness, love, 
 cheerfulness, courage, and tidiness. 
 
 93. What is school economy? 
 
 A. School economy treats of the organization of the school, 
 of building, ventilation, heating, seating, light, decoration, etc. 
 
 94. What are the chief objects of schoolroom decoration? 
 A. (1) To create a love for the beautiful; (2) To make the 
 
 schoolroom attractive and homelike; (3) To furnish material for 
 observation and thought. 
 
 95. What temperature should be maintained in the school- 
 room? 
 
 A. From 64 to 74 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 96. Give two devices for admitting fresh air into the school- 
 room. 
 
 A. (1) Lower the upper window sash. Warm air will pass 
 out above the upper sash, while cooler fresh air will enter 
 between the two sashes. (2) Raise the lower sash a few inches 
 and insert a narrow board in the lower opening, so that a space 
 is left between the sashes for the entrance of fresh air. 
 
 97. Give six rules for the formation of good questions. 
 
 A. (1) Questions should be simple, clear, definite, and 
 concise; (2) They should be suited to the capacity of the class; 
 (3) They should follow in proper sequence; (4) They must 
 cause the pupils to think vigorously; (5) They must not suggest 
 their own answers; (6) They must find out what the pupils do 
 know, not what they do not know. 
 
 98. Who originated the kindergarten? 
 
 A, Friedrich Froebel, a German educational reformer. 
 
 99. What is the nature and object of the kindergarten? 
 
 A. Kindergarten is the name of a kind of school or training 
 place for young children. It is an educative system of play. Its 
 object is to develop all the faculties,, cultivate observation, and 
 generate a desire to learn by self-effort. The teacher's work is 
 mainly direction. 
 
 100. Name other reformers in education. 
 
 A. John Amos Comenius, Jean Jacques Rousseau, John 
 Henry Pcstalozzi, John Frederick Herbart, and Horace Mann. 
 
TEACHING 87 
 
 TEACHERS' DUTIES 
 (Compiled by Ex-superintendent Duane Doty, of Detroit) 
 
 I. Duties of Teachers to Themselves, 
 
 1. To use every effort to improve in the science and art 
 of teaching, and in the art of school management. 
 
 2. To exercise a watchful care over every act and word, 
 teaching by example as well as by precept. 
 
 3. To attend teachers' meetings and educational associa- 
 tion. 
 
 4. To spare no pains to preserve your health. 
 
 5. To pursue some branch of study outside of your pro- 
 fessional work. 
 
 6. To read your educational books and journals. 
 
 II. Duties of Teachers to Each Other. 
 
 1. To aid and encourage fellow teachers by a friendly 
 appreciation and recognition of their work. 
 
 2. To give other teachers the benefit of methods you con- 
 sider good. 
 
 3. To extend every courtesy and render every assistance 
 to teachers just entering upon duty. 
 
 4. To sustain your fellow teachers in the discharge of duty. 
 
 III. Duties of Teachers to School Property. 
 
 1. To make the school room a pleasant and attractive place 
 for children. 
 
 2. To ornament the school room, when practicable, with 
 pictures, drawings, etc. 
 
 3. To take good care of all books, maps, charts, blanks and 
 other school propertv entrusted to you. 
 
 4. To inspect daily the stoves, furniture and other school 
 property, reporting any damage at once to the school board. 
 
 5. To take every precaution to guard against danger from 
 fire. 
 
 6. To leave everything in satisfactory shape at the close ot 
 the school. 
 
 7. To improve the school grounds. 
 
 IV. Duties of Teachers to Parents. 
 
 1. To avoid wounding the feelings of any parent by word 
 or manner. 
 
 2. To endeavor to secure the confidence and co-operation 
 of parents in your efforts to benefit their children. 
 
 3. To know that a dispassionate conversation with a parent 
 will almost always convince him that you are pursuing a correct 
 course with his child. 
 
 4. To keep parents fully informed of the doings and 
 progress of their children. 
 
 V. Duties of Teachers to Pupils. 
 
 1. To know that a pupil's true education is a growth con- 
 sequent upon the proper exercise of all his faculties. 
 
88 TEACHING 
 
 2. To know that growth and discipline come through the 
 acquisition of useful knowledge. 
 
 3. To know that neglect, mistakes, blunders or carelessness 
 on your part arc disastrous to pupils and most difficult .d 
 remedy. 
 
 4. To remember that children are children, and need 
 assistance in many ways, but that the most valuable work for 
 a pupil, under wise guidance, is the work which he does for him- 
 self. 
 
 5. To be ever thoughtful of the future of your pupils, and 
 to make all school work and discipline such as will be lasting 
 service to them. 
 
 6. To remember that what a pupil grows to be is of more 
 importance than what he lives to know. 
 
 7. To make yourself acquainted with the home influences 
 affecting your pupils, 
 
 8. To talk to your pupils in a natural tone of voice. 
 
 9. To commend your pupils for all earnest work and eflfort. 
 
 10. To teach your pupils how to study. 
 
 11. To teach the reasons for, and the value of good school 
 order. 
 
 12. To train your pupils to the habit of obeying the laws 
 to health. 
 
 13: To train your pupils to do right because it is right. 
 
 14. To encourage a cheerful spirit in all school work. 
 
 15. To require nothing of a pupil that there is a doubt of 
 his ability to do. 
 
 16. To notice faults in manner, conduct, and language and 
 kindly correct them. 
 
 17. To understand thoroughly any complaint against a pupil 
 before acting upon it. 
 
 18. To make no mention of former faults or irregularities 
 that have been settled. 
 
 19. To be just and impartial in all your dealings with pupils. 
 
 20. To keep your school room at the proper temperature 
 and well ventilated. 
 
PUNCTUATION 
 
 PUNCTUATION MARKS AND HOW TO USE THEM 
 
 There is such a diversity of opinion on the subject of 
 punctuation that we hesitate to lay down any rules whatever 
 governing the use of punctuation marks. However, let it be 
 understood at the beginning that these rules are not infallible. 
 They are given only as a basis on which to work. 
 
 While the omission of punctuation marks may not mar 
 the appearance of writing, as do bad spelling and improper use of 
 capitals, its correct use is essential to the proper construction 
 of a sentence. It is true that ludicrous, and sometimes serious, 
 mistakes result from improper punctuation. 
 
 Punctuation, like everything else, has its underlymg prm- 
 ciples, and it is our endeavor to show here, by rules and ex- 
 amples, what constitutes these principles. With this informa- 
 tion and an ordinary knowledge of grammar, teachers will be 
 able to punctuate correctly, and they will be able to teach 
 language with better results. 
 
 The Period 
 
 The period is used — 
 
 1. After all sentences that are not interrogatory or exclam- 
 
 ( Almost every sentence in this lesson is an illustration of this statement.') 
 
 2. After abbreviations. , . n. ,t, n 
 Esq. (Esquire); Jas. (James); N. Y. (New York); Treas. (Treasurer). 
 
 Co. (CompanyX , 
 
 3. After Roman numerals and Arabic figures when they are 
 used to number lists of subjects, tables of contents, or any 
 index matter. p^^^ 
 
 I. The period ,5 
 
 II. The colon l\ 
 
 III. The semicolon -^ 
 
 4. Between dollars and cents expressed in figures. 
 
 $1.50 $10.25 $104.36 
 
 5. To separate decimals from whole numbers. ,^^,^,^ 
 
 1.435 54.8766 156.3436 
 
 In columns of index matter or tabulated work periods are 
 sometimes used, thus: 
 
 VII. Abbreviations • • • • • ^^^. , 
 
 Such names as Will, Tom, Ben, Ed and Fred are not fol- 
 lowed by periods, as they have become shortened names and are 
 not, in a technical sense, considered as abbreviations. 
 
 Periods are not placed after words in which the omission 
 of letters is indicated by an apostrophe; as rec'd (received). 
 
 It is now considered the best form to omit periods from 
 the ends of lines arranged in indexed or tabulated form. 
 
 The Colon 
 
 The colon is used — . . 
 
 1. After a formal introduction to a quotation, a speech, 
 or an enumeration of items or particulars. 
 
90 PUNCTUATION 
 
 Wilson, in an article on punctuation, says: ""To study literature is to 
 study punctuation.'' 
 
 The order of display in commercial stationery is as follows : First, the 
 firm name; second, the business; third, the address. 
 
 2. After the formal salutation of a letter. 
 
 Deaf Sir: 
 
 We are in receipt of your letter dated the 3d inst., and in answer, etc. 
 
 3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause 
 which illustrates or explains the same idea without a con- 
 junction. 
 
 The darkness of death is like the evening twilight: it makes all objects 
 appear more lovely to the dying. — Ricliter. 
 
 4. Between two members of a compound sentence, when 
 each member makes a distinct statement by semicolons. 
 
 A beautiful form is better than a beautiful face ; a beautiful behavior 
 is better than a beautiful form : it gives a higher pleasure than statutes or 
 pictures; it is the finest of the fine arts. _ 
 
 5. In imprints, between the name and location of the pub- 
 lisher. 
 
 Chicago : The Henry O. Shepard Company. 
 
 6. Between hours and minutes, when the time is expressed 
 in figures. 
 
 10:40 a. m. 9:33 p. m. 
 
 In railroad time-tables the period is used in this connec- 
 tion, and many prefer the period at all times. This, however, 
 is a matter of personal taste. 
 
 The Semicolon 
 
 The semicolon is used — 
 
 1. After each member of a series dependent upon an intro- 
 ductory or final clause. 
 
 The following officers were elected: Edward Gandy, president; George 
 Haines, vice-president; Frederick Samuels, secretary, and Thomas Short, 
 
 Frorn Boston to Albany; Albany to Buflfalo ; Bufifalo to Pittsburgh; 
 Pittsburgh to New York; New York back to Boston — this was the extent 
 of my trip. 
 
 2. Between successive members of a compound sentence, 
 
 when the conjunction is omitted and the connection is not 
 
 close. 
 
 Everything grows old; everything passes away; everything disappears. 
 
 3. Between the members of a compound sentence which 
 are subdivided by commas, even though the members are joined 
 by connectives. 
 
 Books are the food of youth, the delight of old age; the ornament of 
 prosperity, the refuge and comfort of adversity ; a delight at home, and no 
 hindrance abroad ; companions by night, in traveling, in the country. — Cicero. 
 
 4. Between the members of a compound sentence, when 
 each member makes a distinct statement and depends on state- 
 ments in other members. 
 
 Wisdom hath builded her house ; she hath hewn out her seven pillars : 
 she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath furnished 
 hef table. 
 
 The Comma 
 The comma is used — 
 
 1. After introductory expressions independently beginning 
 a sentence. . vr , 
 
 Young man, young woman, what is your aim m life? 
 
PUNCTUATION 91 
 
 2. Before and after an expression placed independently 
 within a sentence without destroying- its meaning. 
 
 You must know, however, that this young man is seldom at home. 
 He had, on the contrary, returned to his oflfice. 
 
 3. Before and after an explanatory expression within a 
 sentence. 
 
 His departure, which was prearranged, was very hasty indeed. 
 
 4. After a phrase or clause which, if placed either at the 
 end or in some other part of a sentence, would not change 
 the meaning. 
 
 To be frank with you, this is not a true statement of the case. 
 
 5. After each one of a series of words or phrases which 
 have the same connection with what follows and between 
 which, excepting the last two, no conjunctions are used. 
 
 He was tall, thin, stoop-shouldered and pale. 
 
 6. After an informal introduction to a quotation. 
 
 As Caesar was going to the senate house, he saluted the seer, saying', 
 "Well, the Ides of March are come." But the seer mildly replied, "Yes, they 
 are come, but they are not yet over." 
 
 7. To separate contrasting words or phrases in the same 
 clause. 
 
 Pope, in 1688. 
 
 Speak for, not against, the principles of love, peace and honor. 
 
 8. To indicate the omission of a noun, a verb, or a phrase, 
 so that the meaning will be clear. 
 
 Milton was born in 1608; Dryden, in 1631. 
 
 9. After adjectives and adverbs, except the last, when three 
 or more are used in succession. 
 
 He looked upon the world as a glad, bright, glorious abode. 
 
 10. Before the conjunction, when words or phrases are used 
 for emphasis or contrasted antithetically. 
 
 He, and he alone, was willing to sacrifice his life. 
 
 11. After each of a series of words and phrases arranged 
 in pairs and connected by conjunctions. 
 
 Ease and indulgence, luxury and sloth, are causes of misery. 
 
 12. Before and after participial and adjective phrases. 
 
 The village, quaint and rustic, nestled among the verdant hills. 
 
 13. To separate vocative words or expressions from the 
 context. 
 
 Mr. Chairman, I am proud of this honor. 
 You may say, my friend, that I was delighted. 
 
 14. After each member of a series composed of several 
 words not connected by conjunctions. 
 
 The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms. 
 
 15. Between two independent nouns and phrases con- 
 nected by a conjunction. 
 
 The door was closed, and the people were patiently waiting. 
 
 16. After an informal salutation at the beginning of a 
 letter. 
 
 My dear boy, Dear old Bob. 
 
 The rules and examples given herewith are, we believe, 
 sufficient to show the use of commas. It can be seen that they 
 indicate slight interruptions in the grammatical construction o^' 
 sentences. 
 
 Use commas sparingly, and when in doubt omit them. 
 
92 PUNCTUATION 
 
 The Interrogation Point 
 
 The interrogation point is used — 
 
 1. After a direct question, to which an answer is expected 
 or implied. 
 
 Is this a true statement of the case? 
 
 One is sometimes at a loss to decide whether to use the 
 mark of interrogation or the exclamation point after a sen- 
 tence interrogative in form but exclamatory in spirit. This is 
 governed, however, by whether an answer is expected or 
 implied. 
 
 How can I ever forgive him ! 
 
 Do you reahze what that means? 
 
 2. After a sentence declarative in form but intended as a 
 question. 
 
 You will leave me alone? 
 
 3. Within parentheses, to express doubt. 
 
 He was a very religious (?) man. 
 
 They were convicted in 1839 (?) for sedition and high treason. 
 After the statement of a question no interrogation point 
 is used; as, 
 
 He inquired when it would be ready. 
 
 The Exclamation Point 
 
 The exclamation point is used — 
 
 1. After a word, clause or sentence indicating surprise, 
 pain, grief or emotion. 
 
 O God ! that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away 
 their brains ! — Shakespeare, 
 
 Oh I How you frighten me 1 (A comma should be used after Oh except 
 where especial emphasis on that word is indicated.) 
 
 God save the King ! 
 
 2. After the last interjection, when several are repeated to 
 express a certain sound. 
 
 Ho, ho, ho ! You're the village joker. 
 
 3. More than once after words in order to add strength. 
 These cases are rare. 
 
 Fire ! Fire ! ! Fire 1 1 I The sound seemed to be directly over our heads. 
 
 Never use the exclamation point after O. It has no par- 
 ticular meaning except to indicate a wish or an imprecation, 
 or to add strength or feeling to that which it precedes: as, 
 
 O that I were a man ! Away ! Away ! O ye unkind gods ! 
 
 Marks of Parenthesis 
 
 Marks of parenthesis are used — 
 
 1. To enclose words having no necessary connection with 
 the rest of a sentence. 
 
 An amateur (literally, a lover) is one who pursues an art, a science, 
 or a game, for the love of it, not for a livelihood. 
 
 2. To enclose an amount in figures, when it is preceded by 
 the same amount expressed in words. 
 
 The amount was one thousand dollars ($1,000). 
 
 The following examples show the use of other punctua- 
 tion marks in connection with parenthesis. Note that the words 
 enclosed within parenthesis are punctuated as independent 
 sentences. 
 
PUNCTUATION 93 
 
 The proceedings, as stated by Blackstone (Chapter III of Commen- 
 taries), were all written 
 
 Where foresight and good morals exist (and do they not here?), the 
 taxes do not stand in the way of an industrious man's comfort. 
 
 One was armed with a long dagger (about ten inches) ; the other car- 
 ried a sword. 
 
 Brackets 
 
 Brackets are used — 
 
 1. To enclose all extraneous matter written by some one 
 other than the speaker or writer. 
 
 The gain of one thousand [rather high, we think] was effected in one 
 month. 
 
 2. In reports of speeches, to enclose words explanatory 
 of the emotions of the audience. 
 
 While woman may never be elected to Congress, she will continue 
 to be the "speaker of the house." [Laughter.] 
 
 3. To enclose stage directions in printed dramas. 
 Shylock [Aside]. How like a fawning publican he looks I 
 
 Lennox. May't please your highness, sit. [The ghost of Banquo enters, 
 and sits in Macbeth's place.] 
 
 4. To enclose drop-folios (folios placed at the foot of 
 each page of a book or booklet; as [64]). 
 
 The Dash 
 
 The dash is used — 
 
 1. To indicate a sudden change in the thought, or the 
 grammatical construction of a sentence. 
 
 If you go — and I know you will — you will never regret it. 
 Now, resuming our talk — but I see yovi are disinterested. 
 
 2. To denote faltering speech. 
 
 I — ah — well, you can hardly expect it. 
 
 3. Before a concluding clause upon which a series of 
 phrases or classes are dependent. 
 
 To be good and kind ; to be honest and trustworthy — let this be our 
 endeavof. 
 
 4. To indicate an abrupt termination of speech, or an 
 unfinished speech. 
 
 I forgot — well, you know the rest. 
 
 He didn't walk, he wad — . Well, anyhow, he was a very corpulent person. 
 
 5. Between words or expressions repeated for emphasis or 
 explanation. 
 
 He talked of the ghosts — the ghosts of his ancestors. 
 
 6. After a side-head, to connect it with the words of a 
 paragraph. 
 
 ART. — A complete account of the various principles of design. 
 
 7. Before the name of the author or work from which an 
 extract is taken. 
 
 No more ! Oh, how majestically mournful are those words. — Longfellow. 
 
 To indicate an omission of letters or words, when it is not 
 desirable to give the words in full, a long dash is used. 
 
 He was presented to Mr. , the diplomat. 
 
 His home was on H street, but we never could trace him to it. 
 
94 PUNCTUATION 
 
 Quotation Marks 
 Quotation marks are used — 
 
 1. To enclose the exact words of an author, a speaker or 
 a writer. 
 
 Goethe tells us that "Man makes mistakes so long as he strives." 
 
 2. Before each paragraph of quoted matter, but at the 
 end of the last paragraph only. 
 
 The following paragraphs are taken from an essay by 
 Goodwin: 
 
 "No subject is of more importance in the morality of private life than 
 that of domestic or family life. 
 
 "Every man has his ill-humors, his fits of peevishness and exacerbation. 
 Is it better that he should spend these upon his fellow beings, or sufifer 
 them to subside of themselves?" 
 
 3. Singly, to enclose a quotation within another quota- 
 tion. 
 
 "Yes," he said: "I know it's true that 'chickens come home to roost.' " 
 
 Note how the foregoing sentence is finished. 
 
 4. To enclose names of books, articles, plays, pictures, 
 subjects of sermons and addresses, etc. 
 
 A very good book is "The Three Musketeers." 
 
 The new play, "The Open Door," is a spectacular production. 
 
 "Liberty" was the subject of his address. 
 
 5. To enclose words or phrases intended by the writer to 
 possess an unusual, technical or ironical meaning. 
 
 His ""research" work was a case of misdirected energy. 
 Her literary "salon" will long be remembered. 
 
 The Apostrophe 
 
 The apostrophe is used — 
 
 1. To denote the possessive case of common and proper 
 nouns. 
 
 He stays at my brother's house. 
 Moses' hat did not fit him. 
 
 2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters in a 
 contraction of two words used as one. 
 
 I'm going home. (I'm means I am.") 
 We're far from being satisfied- (We're means we are.) 
 
 3. To indicate the plural of figures and letters. 
 
 There were five hundred 5's and three hundred N's in this one column. 
 
 The Hyphen 
 
 The hyphen is used — 
 
 1. To divide words into syllables so as to show the proper 
 pronunciation. 
 
 in-dus-tri-ous (industrious). 
 
 2. To indicate the division of a word at the end of a line. 
 
 (An examination of the ends of the lines in these columns will show 
 examples of word divisions.) 
 
 3. In columns of index matter or tabulated work hyphens 
 are sometimes used, thus: 
 
 22. Songs -.-...- 440 
 
Lai 
 
 ■ • 
 
 rAsf 
 
 lEL 
 
 PH 
 
 EACH 
 
 El 
 
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