SJ10PW0 h I JOIWERY Cabinet. Making Carpentry R13SC/\-CONWAY Class T \ 1^ Book 1^ ^5 ()opyrig]it)^?_ CQEXRIGHT DEPOSm Heavy Stand of Red Fie with Hemlock Undeegeowth, Pieece County, Wash. SHOP WORK Joinery — Cabinet-Making — Carpentry BT HERMAN F. RUSCH Director of Manual Training, Oldalioma City, OTcla. CLAUD CARLTON CONWAY Director of Iron Worlc, OJclahonm City High School, Oklahoma Industrial Book & Equipment Company, Indianapolis 191S COPYRIGHT 1918 By INDUSTRIAL BOOK & EQUIPMENT COMPANY, Indianapolis. OCT -7 isifi; : ©CI.A503728 INDUSTRIAL AND VOCATIONAL TEXTS BEING A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS DESIGNED FOR USE IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, COLLEGES AND ACADEMIES OFFERING COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE TRADES, CRAFTS, WAGE-EARNING PURSUITS AND HOME ECONOMICS. Edited By Charles Kettleborough, Ph. D. Director, Indiana Legislative Bureau. EDITOR'S PREFACE The importance of industrial and vocational training has long since been recognized by the leading educators of the country and has now been formally installed in the public schools by the necessary stat- utory action of the federal government and most of the states. Its necessity has been emphasized and its introduction greatly facilitated by the acute exigencies produced by the World War. In the period of reconstruction and re-adjustment following the war, the amplification of courses of vocational instruction will doubtless be greatly accelerated. The complete and successful fruition of industrial training has been somewhat retarded by a lack of satisfactory scientific texts and other indispensable instrumentalities. In offering this series to the public, it is the confident belief of the editor that a rational approach to a knowledge of the fundamental principles and technique of the various trades, crafts and industrial pursuits will be afforded. This text, which is a treatise on shop work in its various aspects, has been compiled by Herman F. Rusch and Claud Carlton Conway. Both authors possess an accurate scientific knowledge of the principles of cabinet-making, carpentry and joinery, to which has been added extensive experience in the application of these principles to practical work, supplemented by a working knowledge of the most approved methods of imparting information to students. This treatise is put forth as the first of a series of texts dealing with industrial and vocational subjects in the confident belief that it will prove successful as a working manual in the subject to which it is devoted. The Editor. AUTHORS' PREFACE This book is the outgrowth of eighteen years of teaching in high schools and many more spent in practical construction work, in wood and iron, before our affiliation with industrial school work began. It consists of a compilation of such notes and lectures as we believe are important to the wood-worker. It is not intended in any way to sup- plant any of the work at the bench, but is designed to be used in connec- tion with bench work to enable the student to approach his work more intelligently. The book is not designed as a self-instructor, but as a student's text to be used by the teacher, just as he would use a text in mathematics. To secure the best results in the use of any text, supple- mentary work must be done, and wood-working is no exception to the rule. The work presented in this text is so designed as to require two years, working two hours per day, in its completion, and is intended as a ready reference for the pupil and the teacher. It will be observed that in this text cabinet-making follows joinery. It is not necessary that cabinet work should be taken before carpentry. If the student so desires, he may take either cabinet-making or carpentry or both, after he has finished joinery. All joint exercises should be worked out by the teacher in class demonstrations. The following brief, synoptical analysis may be of service to the teacher in the development of the subject as a whole. Part I deals exclusively with the tools used in manual training shops, and with illustrations relative to the correct positions. Chapter III, Development of a Project, is worthy of careful analysis, since it indicates a general method of approach and order of work, and since the constructive work involves the use of so many methods. Care must be taken that too many tools are not presented to the pupil at once. Do not take up the use of a new tool for the sake of the tool but for the sake of the exercise which calls for the use of that particular tool. Part II outlines a course in bench work, beginning with a series of joints which are standard the world over. Just how many joints the pupil shall make is a matter the teacher himself must determine. They are arranged in an order such that there is a gradual rise from the simpler to the more difficult and complex joints. This continuity should be followed in the presentation. In this series of joints, the fundamentals of all joint construction, whether they are in cabinet- making, in common carpentry, or in bridge building, will be found. The extended list of suggested projects for construction Should prove of viii AUTHORS' PREFACE great value to the instructor. Just enough is presented on each project to start the student in its development. Part III consists of a series of talks which cover a wide field in practical tool usage, and which present many other things of vital im- portance to the artisan. It gives information which may be applied daily by the mechanic. These talks should be taken up, not necessarily in the order given, but in the order best suited to the teacher's own course. For example, a demonstration is given on how to sharpen a plane iron. It would naturally follow that this would be the proper time to present the talk on "Abrasives" ; or if the first lesson on sandpapering is before the class, the talk on "Sandpaper" should be given. Part IV deals with miscellaneous topics as applied to shop work. The questions should be given in class, in oral recitations, so that each pupil may familarize himself with the technical terms. The problems may be assigned for work outside of recitation, and others may be substituted to embody certain features of the pupil's own exercise under construction. The glossary is intended for the use of those who are not familiar with certain technical terms and phrases. There is no special reason for numbering the Blue Prints as they are, beginning with 400. It will be observed that the number of illus- trative Figures is just under three hundred. To avoid duplication in numbering and to facilitate the location of the cuts, figures and draw- ings referred to were the only considerations observed in assigning numbers beginning with 400 to the Blue Prints. The letters B. P., which will be found at the end of the paragraphs in the chapter on Joinery, refer, of course, to the Blue Prints. It is the belief of the authors that the working drawings, lectures, tool references, constructive information, suggested projects, questions and problems amply justify the publication of this book. If the book shall prove to be of material assistance in the unification of a course of study, embodying both practical and cultural training, it will have served its purpose. While we believe that the cultural side of industrial work should not be overlooked, yet "the search-light of practical expe- rience should illuminate the dark places of theory". In conclusion, the authors wish to acknowledge their obligations and indebtedness to the many persons whose generous contributions and suggestions have aided materially in making possible the publica- tion of this work, and in particular to Helen Ferris, English critic, Oklahoma City High School, for valuable assistance in correcting and clarifying the English. H. F. RuscH. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. C. C. Conway. June 14, 1918. SHOP ETHICS AND REGULATIONS. No other deparUiient of educational work offers a better chance for the student to learn to work harmoniotisly with others than the Industrial Department. The following suggestions will help those who try to observe the proper ethics of work shops. Be prompt to begin work, and work faithfully until quitting time. Check your tool list and make sure all your tools are in the proper place. In case of shortage^ report it at once to the instructor in charge, so you will not be held responsible for those missing. Tools that are b^'oken by carelessness are to be replaced by the students breaking them. Each student must furnish the "individual equipment." Borrow no private tools and be neat and considerate with the tools for general use. Return the tools for general use to their special rack or cabinet as soon as you are through with them. Lock up your private tools only. Be deliberate and thoughtful. Work for quality, not quantity. At the close of the period, put your tools away, brush the shavings to the end of the bench, have everything neat and in good order, so you will not be called back when you leave. Both enjoy and make a business of your work. Demonstrations of the uses of the woodworking machinery will be made, but no students will be permitted to run any of the machines, except the tool grinder, unless it is- under the direct supervision of the instructor in charge. The department is not responsible to any of the students in case of a breach of its regulations. RESAWS. It is easier to criticise than to create. Courtesy costs little and buys much. Confidence is the companion of success. Many a man shortens his days by lengthening his nights. To be successful, you nntst plan the start as well as the finish. The devil tempts all men, but the idle man teinpts the devil. If you resent authority, you stand a small chance of assuming it. Inspiration is more liable to strike a busy man than an idle one. Failure is not the worst thing in the world; the very worst is not to try. It is a little farther around the corners of a square deal, but the road is better. A bold front is a good thing only when anchored to a stiff back- hone. Bad luck ruins one man in a hundred, good luck ruins the other ninety-nine. The man of good judgvient is like a pin, his head prevents his going too far. The nuan who thinks ahead of his work is a sure winner over the one who works ahead of his think. True efficiency will come only to the man whose heart is in his work, and tuill never come with discontent. CONTENTS Editor's Preface _ . t Authors' Preface __ _ vii Shop Ethics and Regulations ix Resaws ^ xi Part I — Drawings, Equipment, Projects and Accidents. CHAPTER I Working Drawings Working Drawings — Scale — Blue Prints — Elevation — Lines — Plan of Work 3 CHAPTER II Shop Equipment Tool and Machine Equipment — Bench Design and Construction — ^Vises — Bench Stop — Bench Dog — Bench Hook — Drawing Board, Triangles and T-Square — Bench Brush — Bench Types, Equipment and Methods — Historic Measures — Stand- ard Yard — Metric Standard — Units — Linear Measure — Graduated Measuring Tools — Steel Square — Try Square — Rule— Marking Gauge — TrBevel — Level — Wing Divider or Compass — Sloyd Kiiife — ^Awl — Saws — Ripsaw — Use of Handsaw — Backsaw — Use of Backsaw — Planes— Bench Planes — Block Plane — Cabinet Scraper — Burnisher — Draw Knife — Spoke Shave — Cornering Tool — Squaring Stock — Wood Chisel — Tang and Socket Firmer Chisels — Chisel Handles — Chisel Blades — Sharpening Tools — Halving Joints — Concave Sur- faces — End Beveling — Beveling — Mortises — Circular Pieces — Mallets — Ham- mers — Driving Nails — Nail Sets — Pulling Nails — Carpenters' Pincers — Screw Drivers — Driving Screws — ^Vises — Hand Screws — Clamps — C-Clamps — Impro- vised Clamp — Use of Braces and Bits — Locating Centers — Securing Bored Stock — Boring Through — Depth Gauge — Ratchet — Tool Sharpening — Chisel Sharpening — Plane Iron Sharpening — Gouge Sharpening — Knife Sharpening — Cabinet Scraper Sharpening 5 CHAPTER HI . . Development of a Project Plans and Specifications — Construction of Rack — Parts — Laying Out the Back — Shaping the Back — The Support — The Arms — Cross Rail and Dowel — As- sembling — Finishing 33 CHAPTER IV Machinery Woodworking Machinery — Universal Saw Bench — Band Saw — Surfacer — Hand Planer and Jointer — Lathes — Trimmer — Oil Stone Edge Grinder — Machine Tools— Wrenches — Oiler — Pliers — Snips — Safe Guards 40 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTEPt V Accidents and Theik Treatment Accidental Injuries— Wounds — Fractures — Bums and Scalds — Sprains , 46 Part II — Shop Work. CHAPTER I JOINEBT Joints — Joint Types — Classification; of Joints — Box Joints — Plain Butt Joints — Butt Joints, Blocked and Glued — Hopper Butt Joints — Rabbet Joints — Dove- tail Dado Joints — Plain Dado Joints — Multiple Dovetail Joints — Half Blind Dovetail Joints — Ledged Miter Joints — Miter and Butt Joints — Framing Joints — Butt Joints — Draw-Bolt Joints — Cross Lap Joints — Beveled Halving Joints — Lap-Dovetail Joints — Cogged Joints — Mortised and Tenou Joints — Blind Mortise and Tenon Joints — Doweled Mortise and Tenon Joints — Keyed Mortise and Tenon Joints — Open Mortise and Tenon Joints — Mortise and Tenon Joints with Relish— Trussed Mortise and Tenon Joints — Wedged Mor- tise and Tenon Joints — Fox-Tail Tenon Joints — Double Mortise and Tenon Joints — Single Dove-Tail Joints — Thrust Joints — Housed Brace Joints — Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints — Bridle Joints — Scarf Joints — Splice Joints — Bird's Mouth Joints — Surface Joints — Plain Miter Joints — Splined Miter Joints — Stretcher Joints — Edge-to-Edge Joints — Stress — Tensional Stress — Compressional Stress— Transverse Stress — Computation of Stress 51 CHAPTER II Cabinet Making as Applied in Fuenituee Consteuction Furniture — Legs — Panel Leg — Mission Style Leg — Modified Mission Style Leg — French Leg — Turned and Fluted Leg — Back Legs — Rails — Straight Rails Curved Rails — Turned Rails — Chair Arms and Rockers — Shelving — Foot Boards — Panels and Paneling — Rabbeting — Panel Effects — Moulding — Batting Drawer Fronts — Tops — Cleating — Edging — Surfacing— Forms of Tops — As- sembling — Laying Tops — Designs — ^Ascertaining Cost — Specimen Bill 61 CHAPTER III Caepentey House Planning — Estimate of Cost — Procedure — Staking out for Foundation — Excavation — Foundation — Plates — Sills — Joists — Beams — Bridging — Studs — Floor Lining — Boxing — Cornice — Classification of Roofs — Rafters — Sheathing — Shingling — Comb-Boards — Window and Door Frames — Window Frames — Door Frames — Jambs — Grounds — Corner Strips — Siding — Base — Floor — Stairs — Pitch — Risers — Landing — Risers, Treads and Skirting Boards — Newel Posts, Hand Rails and Spindles — Well Hole — Porches — Scaffolding — Snapping Lines 75 CHAPTER IV Beads and Mouldings Beads — Mouldings — Crown Mouldings — Intermediate Mouldings — Base Mouldings — Designation of Moulding Forms 89 CHAPTER V Veneek and Its Application Veneering — Sawed and Rotary Cut Veneer — Veneer and Solid Built Stock — Core Stock — Preparing Veneer — Veneering Regular and Irregular Surfaces — Veneer Designs — Veneering Cylinders and Cones — Panel Work Veneer 91 CONTENTS XV Part III— Shop Talks. CHAPTER I Steel Square Steel Square— Scales and Tables— Essex Board Measure— Octagon Scale— Angle Cuts for Polygons— Brace Measure— Rise of Rafters— Run of Rafters- Pitch of Rafters— Rafter Cuts— Hip Rafters— Plumb and Side Cuts— Valley Rafters— Jack and Cripple Rafters . 9'^ CHAPTER II Saws Special Handy Saw— Compass Saws— Scroll and Web Saws— Butcher Saws— Hack Saws- Band Saws— Circular Saws— Coping Saws— Cylinder Saws— Miter Box— Saw Construction- Material— Process of Manufacture— Tempering— Smithing— Grinding— Final Touches— Vanadium Saws— Saw Parts— Sharp- ening— Sharpening Rip Saws— Finishing— Sharpening a Two-Man Cross-Cut Saw— Sharpening Circular Saws— Sharpening Cut-ofC Saws— Sharpening Band Saws — History of Saw Sets— Use of Saw Sets 104 CHAPTER nil Fastening Devices Nails— Classification of Nails— Common Nails— Casing Nails— Finish Nails— Brads —Wrought Nails— Cut Nail&— Standard Gauges— Screws— Sizes of Screws— Kinds of Screws— Lag Screws— Corrugated Steel Fasteners— Tacks— Glue- Glue Material— Liquid Glue — Glue Joints 113 CHAPTER IV Braces Parts of Brace— Carpenters' Bit Brac^-Chuck— Ratchet— Cranked Handle Swing — Cap — Reciprocating Drill — Breast Drills 119 CHAPTER V Auger Bits Boring Tools— Cutting Action— Manufacture — Head, Nib, Lip and Spur— Sizes of Auger Bits— Resharpening of Auger Bits— Shanks— Dowel and Ship Bits- Extension Bit— Irwin Bit— Russell Jennings Bit— Ford Bit— Fostner Bit- Expansion Bit— Gimlet Bit— Counter and Gauge Sinks— Reamers— Screw Drivers— Spoke Pointers, Fore Augers, Hollow Augers and Dowel Sharpeners 121 CHAPTER VI Abrasives Grindstones— Composition— Truing— Speed of Stones— Oil Stones— Artificial Stones Emery Corundum — Carborundum — Speed of Artificial Stones 125 ^ CHAPTER VII Sandpaper Details of Manufacture— Strength— Gluc^-Ingredients— Process of Manufacture — Quality and Care — Steel Wool 128 xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII Files and Rasps Historical — Hand Cut Files — Machinery Cut Files — Sizes and. Kinds — Features — Cuts — Length, Tang, Thickness and Kind — File Cleaners — Use of Files — Machine and Hand-made Files 131 CHAPTER IX Facts Aboxjt Wood Uses and Nature of Wood — Logging — Transportation — Sawmills — Timber — Milling — Seasoning — Warping and Cracking — Decay of Woods — Methods of Preser- vation — Strength of Timber — Gtrain— Markings — Board Measure — Tulip or Yellow Poplar — The White Ash — The Sugar Maple — American Elm — The Chestnut — The Hickory — Basswood — The American White Oak — Black Walnut — Western Red Cedar — Red Gum — The Redwoods — White Pine — The Longleaf Pine — The Shortleaf Pine — The Bald Cypress — Spruce — Douglas Fir— Birch 135 CHAPTER X Facts About Brushes Materials and Methods — Dusters and Artists' P.rushes — Bristles — Care of Brushes 159 CHAPTER XI Wood Finishing I'urpose — Classes of Finishes — Exterior Finishes — Pigments — White Lead — Dutch Process — Carter Processi — Linseed Oil — Chinese Wood Oil — Colors — Color Shades — Composition — Application of Paint — Interior Finishes — Stains — Stain Shades — Fuming — Fillers — Use of Liquid Fillers — Use of Paste Fillers — Application of Fillers — Shellac — Use of Shellac — Turpentine — Varnishes — Rubbing Varnish — Pitting of Varnish — Cracking or Checking of Var- nish — Chilling of Varnish — Kauri Gum — Manilla Gum — Zanzibar Copal — Damar Gum — Filtering and Aging of Varnish — Uses of Varnish — Wax — ^Application of Interior Finishes — Natural Finish — Stains — Order of Appli- cation — Things to Remember 163 CHAPTER XII Period Furniture Furniture Types — Egyptian — Early European — Renaissance — Lines and Harmony — Jacobean — William and Mary — Queen Anne — Louis XIV. XV, and XVI — Chippendale — The Brothers Adam— Hepplewhite — Sheraton— The Empire Period — Mission Craft 174 Part IV — Questions, Problems, Glossary. CHAPTER I Questions . 187 CHAPTER II Problems 190 CHAPTER III Glossary 194 PART I DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, PROJECTS AND ACCIDENTS CHAPTER I WORKING DRAWINGS Working Draivings. — Working drawings are exact projections or representations of objects, in whole or in part, usually reduced, but frequently enlarged, to a convenient scale ; they are used for the guidance and c\ construction, to work to given angles, or build up work to fit an angle. In either case, the tool most commonly used for this purpose is a T-Bevel. The bevel is similar in construction to a try- square, except that it has no graduations on the blade, and the blade is free so that it may be set at any angle and locked with a thumbscrew. These angles and pitches are generally taken from the steel square. (See Fig. 22.) Bevels differ in size, form and material. Some are made entirely of metals; others of a combination of hard wood and metal. (See Fig. 15). Level. — The level is a tool con- sisting either of a steel or of a wooden frame with a level glass inset. Levels are made in many lengths, and are sometimes equipped with a level glass on a protractor scale for special work. In case there are two glass insets — one set at an angle of 90 degrees to the other — the tool is called a plumb and level. Levels are used for testing perpendicular and horizontal sur- faces during the process of building construction, in installing machin- ery, and in many other branches of engineering work. (See Figs. 23 and 16). Wing Divider or Compass. — The wing divider is a tool used to divide lines, draw arcs, or trans- pose measurements. It is some- times called a compass. For laying Fig. 17. — Wing Divider. off a definite measurement with a pair of wing dividers, clamp one leg to the wing, approximately correct, and adjust it to the correct measurement by the spring and thumbscrew attachment. Fig. 24 clear- ly illustrates one method of establishing angles. These angles may be established on a block and transposed to the work by the use of the T- Bevel. (See Fig. 17). Fig. 1G. — Plumb and Level. SHOP EQUIPMENT 13 il.l.l.l.l'l.l.lllil.,. 1 2t IT H Fig. 20. — Laying Off Lengths. Fig. 21. — Pencil Lining. Fig. 22. — Determining Angles and Pitches. Fig. 23. — Plumbing. Fig. 24. — Establishing Angles. Fig. 25. — Establishing Lines. Fig. 26. — Testing With Try Square. 3 14 SHOP WORK Fig. is. — Sloyd Knife. Fig. 19.— Awl. Fig. 27. — Typical Hand Saw Sloyd Knife. — A sloyd knife is an excellent tool for laying out, whit- tling, or any other light work. It is made of high carbon steel, properly tempered, and is handled. The knife is used in conjunction with a try-square in most grades of fine work. (See Fig. 18.) ' AiuL—The Awl, commonly called "Scratch Awl", is a tool used to make fine lines, point off measurements, and to start holes for small nails or screws ; it is especially adapted to enlarging holes in leather belting during the process of lacing. (See Fig. 19.) Saws. — Saws of different kinds occupy an important place among the tools used on hand-work of all kinds, and of these the hand saws are of the first importance. Hand saws are made from 14 to 28 inches in length of blade. For all work of small and moderate size, the 20 or 22 inch saw shown in Fig. 27 is the most convenient. Hand saws are of two kinds — rip saws and crosscut saws. Ripsaw. — The ripsaw, as the name indicates, is for cutting with the grain, or lengthwise of the board to be sawed. For pine or other soft wood, a ripsaw having three teeth, or four points to the inch, may be used ; but for ordinary work, especially for hardwood, a ripsaw hav- ing six points, and a crosscut of nine points to the inch is recommended. Use of Handsaw. — It is not the intention to suggest any work for practice in the use of the handsaw, as the correct use will be acquired gradually while cutting out stock for different articles required later. In general, it is well to say to the beginner : Do not press on or force the saw to cut too rapidly. Hold the saw firmly in the hand with the first finger pressed against the side of the handle and run it lightly and free- ly in the kerf, or cut. Take time to see that the line is followed exactly, thus avoiding all wasteful and crooked edges on the work, which must afterward be planed off. While sawing, be careful to stand in a position to saw the edge square with the surface of the board. This position may be tested from time to time by setting a try-square on the board and against the side of the saw, as shown at A, Fig. 9. SHOP EQUIPMENT 15 Fig. 28. — Back Saw. ; ° o ]t^/ --loO> Fig. 20. — Use or Back Saw. Backsaw. — The backsaw, shown in Fig. 28, is used on the bench, and is a bench saw, being used for light, fine work and for fitting and dove-tailing. The metal back is provided to stiffen the blade, thus making it possible to saw with exceptional accuracy. Backsaws are made in many sizes. A 10 or 12 inch backsaw is a con- venient size for general use. Use of Backsaw. — ^When using the backsaw, hold tv'ith one hand only. Never, under any circumstances, press on the saw with the other hand, but run the saw lightly on the wood. Should any trouble be found in start- ing the cut, first draw the saw back- ward against the finger of the left hand, which hand grips the block of wood being sawed. This steadies the saw and holds it firmly to the correct place for beginning the cut. Much trouble is sometimes experienced by the beginner in starting the cut, the tendency being to cut too deeply in- to the wood, especially if the saw is sharp. This makes it hard to begin the cut close to the line, and often splits off a corner from the wood. To avoid this trouble, hold the handle of the saw high as shown in Fig. 29, drawing the saw backward toward the operator with a pulling stroke, and steadying the blade of the sav/ with the first finger of the left hand. This will make a slight kerf, which can be increased with a light push- ing stroke. At each succeeding stroke, gradually lower the handle end of the saw until a horizontal position is gained. The sawing in all cases must be done with a light lifting stroke, without any forcing into the wood, using long steady strokes so as to use the entire length of the saw, and to bring all of the teeth into use. To use a back-saw in such a way as to follow closely to the dimension line, and to do exact and closely fitting work, requires from the beginner a considerable amount of careful practice. To all iTfj/nH+ffi^ Fig. 30. — Practice Exercise. 16 SHOP WORK who wish to acquire skill in the use of this important tool, we recom- mend the 'following exercise for practice. Take any block of wood, about two inches wide, about one and three-quarters inches thick, and about eight to ten inches long, and with a try-square and a sharp pointed knife, lay out lines on the front, upper and back sides of the block as partially shown in Fig. 30. The knife cuts must be at least one-sixteenth of an inch deep, and one-fourth to three-eights of an inch distant one from the other. Next, proceed to saw up the block in thin sections thus marked, sawing each time so that the saw kerf will be just outside of, and close to, the knife line as shown by the first partial cut at a in Fig. 30. Each saw-cut through the block should be true to each of the three lines. While the saw passes along one side (the outside) of the line, its teeth should not scratch the opposite side of the knife cut, but should leave the smooth, clean cut of the knife on the block, as shown at h, in Fig. 30. At the same time it should be so close as to leave no wood to be smoothed off with plane or chisel. Planes. — To a woodworker the plane is one of the most important tools. It is made either of cast iron or wood. Besides the regular bench planes, there are many other planes used for special work, such as the router, rabbet, dado, beading and matching, circular, carriage maker's, tongue and groove, core box, scraper plane, etc. (See Fig. 31) . Fig. 31. — Jack Plane. Fig. 32. — Jack Plane And Parts. lA Double Plane Iron. 1 Single Plane Iron. 2 Plane Iron C^p. 3 Cap Screw. 4 Lever Cap. o JLever Cap Screw. G Frog Complete. 7 "Y" A(i.1usting Lever. S Adjusting Nut. 9 Lateral Adjusting Lever. 11 Plane Handle. 12 Plane Knob. 13 Handle Bolt and Nut. 14 Knob P>olt and Nut. 15 Piano Handle Screw. IG Plane Bottom. 4G Frog Adjusting Screw. SHOP EQUIPMENT 17 Bench Planes. — The bench planes commonly found in school shops are: Smooth, jack, jointer and block. The smooth plane is used for finishing or smoothing off flat surfaces, where the uneven spots are of slight area. Its short length will permit it to locate these irregularities, leaving the work with a smooth surface when it is finished. The jack plane is used to true up edges of boards in the rough and prepare them for the jointer. The jointer plane is a finishing plane for large surfaces and is invariably used to true up the edges of boards so that they can be closely fitted or joined together; hence the name. (See Fig. 32.) Block Plane. — The block plane, which can easily be held in one hand, is used to plane the ends of boards. The cutter on the block plane rests on a seat, at an angle of 20 degrees, as against 45 degrees in the ordinary bench plane, and the cutter bevel is made on the upper instead of the lower side. All iron planes have adjustable throats which permit of the opening or closing of the mouth as coarse or fine work may require. Experience has proved that the proper bevel for grinding the cutter is at an angle of about 25 degrees. This angle should be observed when regrinding or rehoning the cutter. (See Fig. 33.) Cabinet Scraper. — A cabinet scraper may be in the form of a plane or merely a thin piece of steel, usually rectangular, with rounded cor- ners. It is used, as its name indicates, to scrape surfaces (as in Fig. 43) and is indispensible in working curly or twisted grain wood. (See Fig. 34.) Fig. 33. — Block Plane. \ j^ Adjustable. Fig. 34. — Cabinet Sceapees. Concave-Convex. Convex. Fig. 35. — Burnishek. Burnisher. — A burnisher is a tool made of steel, variously shaped, with a hard, smooth, rounded end or sur- face, and is used to smooth, polish, and turn up edges. (See Fig. 35.) 18 SHOP WORK Deaw Knifk. Draw Knife. — The draw knife is used for roughing out forms rap- idly, as shown in Fig. 44. The handles are so placed that the workman draws the tool toward him and can thus regulate the cut- ting edge quite easily. Draw knives with folding handles protect the cutting edge and are best for tool kits. (See Fig. 36.) Spoke Shave. — The spoke shave is some- what similar to the draw knife. It is made either of wood or metal. Its blade, fastened in a frame, is adjusted with a set screw. The spoke shave is used for irregular work as shown in Fig. 45. There are a number of designs of spoke shaves, but their method of operation is identical. (See Fig. 37.) Cornering Tool. — ^A tool used to slightly bevel or round the cor- ners of porch rails, stair treads, etc., is a cornering tool. It is made of a strip of sheet steel. Fig. 3S.— Coeneeing Tool. (^^^ -^^^- ^°'> Fig. 37. — Spoke Shave. Squaring Stock. — In squaring stock, the following method should be observed. Fig. 39 represents a piece of stock to be squared. Use the smoothing plane over side A in the direction of the grain, and remove all rough places. Test with the square as in Fig. 40, or with any straight edge, to determine if the entire side A lies in the same plane. Then, using the jack plane, work side B to make it at right angles to side A. Test with a try square, as in Fig. 26, mark for width, as shown in Fig. 25, then plane side C in the same manner as you did side B, at right angles to side A. Test with try square as side B. Mark for thickness with marking gauge, as shown in Fig. 25, and, with a smoothing plane, work side D parallel to side A and at right angles to sides B and C. Using try square, measure for length and mark ends as shown in Fig. 41, then saw as shown by H, I, J, Fig. 11. When planing end grain, move the plane only part way across the end, stopping about one inch from the back edge as shown at arrow in Fig. 42. Reverse the plane and work back again, stopping about one inch from the first edge. This prevents the edges from splitting. SHOP EQUIPMENT 19 Fig. 39.— Squaring Stock. Fig. 40. — Testing With Square. Fig. 41. — Marking End. Fig. 43. — Use of Cabinet Scraper. Fig. 44. — Use of Draw Knife. Fig, 45, — Use of Spoks Shave, 20 SHOP WORK Fig. 46. — Typical Wood Chisel. Fig. 47. — Chisel Types. Upper, Tang ; Lower, Socket Firmer. Wood Chisel. — No tool has yet been devised to replace the wood chisel, and for years to come it will be used universally for gaining, mortising, beveling and for re- ducing wood generally. Wood and steel are the materials necessary for the construction of chisels. The parts of the wood chisel are the socket or tang and bolster, according to classification, blade, cutting edge and handle. Tang and Socket Firmer Chis- els. — Wood chisels are of two kinds — tang and socket firmer, the names being derived from the way the handles are attached. The tang chisel has the shank, bolster and material for the tang set down in dies, while the socket firmer has the Bocket or barrel made of sheet metal rolled over a form to the proper shape and welded to a "mood" which is a piece of steel properly set down for welding purposes. Some of the sockets of the chisels and gouges are made by the boss and punch method, a process which in- volves the use of machinery. Socket firmer chisels are designed for heavy work. Tang chisels are lighter, better balanced, and bet- ter designed for cabinet work. Most of the carving tools, many flat chisels, and many of the gouges are of this type. Chisel Handles. — The handles of chisels are made of wood, usual- ly maple or hickory, highly pol- ished, and very commonly capped with leather to prevent the shattering of the wood by the blows of the mallet. In case the handle is for a tang chisel, there is a brass or V • J f^^^^MiiBii^a»i''^^^i iron ferrule slipped on the end. This goes over the tang to pre- vent it from splitting the wood. Chisel Blades. — The blades of chisels may be of any width or length. Some have the edges of Fig. 49. — Special Chisel Types. Gouge, one side beveled. Other blades are Carving Tool, Butt Chisel, worked over forms and are known Corner Chisel. Fig. 48.- — Chisel Handles. Upper, Tang; Lower, Socket Firmer. SHOP EQUIPMENT 21 as gouges, corner chisels, turning chisels, carving tools, etc. Like many other tools, chisels are ground, tempered, polished and handled before they are ready for the market. (See Fig. 49.) Sharpening Tools. — In sharpening any tool, care should be taken to keep it inj the proper position, to retain the original bevel, and to keep from drawing the temper. The two first mentioned operations are very important, yet, even if they are done correctly, and the temper is drawn, the tool is worthless. Keep the tool as cool as possible while grinding, for, if it becomes hot, and the steel turns blue, the temper is drawn, and the tool is too soft to do satisfactory work. The sharpen- ing of the wood chisel furnishes no exception to these rules. In addition, attention should be paid to the angles made by the various edges, each with another. The ordinary wood chisel should be ground with the cutting edge at 90 degrees to its long axis. A bevel should be made on one side only, and the plane of this bevel should make an included an- gle with the plane of the reverse side, of 15 to 80 degrees, the variation depending upon the class of work for which the chisel will be used. More chisels are ruined by over grinding than in any other way. Never grind one unless it is out of true, or the bevel has become rounded by whetting, and then only enough to make it true. Put the keen cutting edge on by the use of the oil stone and the leather strop. Never grind a tool on a dry stone. Halving Joints. — Fig. 50 illustrates the method used with a chisel in reducing stock for halving joints. The work is carefully laid out, and the saw kerfs, A,A, are made. Saw kerfs prevent splitting. The chisel B is then started — about one-fourth of the depth of the saw kerfs— and upward — at a slight angle. This cut is to test the direction of the grain of the wood. This cut should be carried down on one side and returned cuts made from the back side. The edge of the chisel may be used for testing the trueness of the surface. Concave Surfaces. — Fig. 51 shows the method commonly used to cut out concave surface on light short stock. Saw kerfs are made about an inch apart and the chisel is used in removing the stock. These cuts With the chisel — in a straight grained piece — should be made in the di- rection of the grain, as from A to C and from B to C. End Beveling. — Fig. 52 shows the method used in cutting a bevel across the end of a piece. If the best results are desired, the tool must have a keen edge and be given a shearing position. Beveling. — Fig. 53 illustrates the practice of laying out and making a bevel. The ends are first cut as at A, and the stock removed on the 22 SHOP WORK Fig. 50. — Halving Joints. FIg. 51. — Cutting Concave Surface. Fig. 52. — Cutting End Bevel. Fig. 53.^ — Cutting Edge Bevel. Fig. 54. — Cutting Mortise. Fig. 55. — Testing Mortise. Fig. 56. — Cutting Circular Piece. SHOP EQUIPMENT 23 edge with a chisel. Where the bevel runs the length of the edge, a jack plane may be used to advantage. Mortises. — Fig. 54 illustrates the manner in which a mortise is cut with a chisel. The cut is started at A with a chisel which is a little narrower than the mortise, and cuts are made from side to side, each cut a little deeper than the one before, until the end is reached. The end cuts should be light, square, and the corners cut clean. The return cut from A to C may be made in the same manner. This will leave the mortise packed with fine chips about half way through the piece. The piece may then be turned over and the same method practised on the other side until all cuts are through, after which the chips may be forced out and the walls trued. This chisel as shown in Fig. 55 may be used to test the trueness of the walls. Circular Pieces. — Occasionally it is necessary to cut out a circular piece of wood. This may be done by careful use of the chisel as illus- trated in Fig. 56. As far as possible, the chisel cuts should be made with the grain of the wood, shearing cuts, as shown in Fig. 52, being made across the end grain. In case the grain runs in the direction of the arrow, it will be necessary to make the cuts from A to B, from A to D, from C to B and from C to D. Mallets. — The mallet is a tool used for driving cutting tools which have wooden handles. Vari- ous materials are used in the con- struction of mallets, chief of which are wood, lignum-vitae, raw-hide, a combination of wood and metal, and rubber. Rubber mallets are used in setting up cabinet work. Mallets are manufactured in many forms, but the best form for ordinary work is the one with the faces cut radial. (See Fig. 57.) Haimners. — Hammers are de- signed to meet all classes of work such as driving nails, pounding metal and working in stone; they are most commonly found in forms suitable for the carpenter, black- smith, machinist, mason and tin- ner. The materials used in con- structing hammers are wood and fig. 5S.-Claw Hammers, ball Pein. steel. The stock of the hammer is maydole. Fig. 57. — Eadial Face Mallet. 24 SHOP WORK of high grade crucible steel, forged into the proper shape, ground, tempered, and finally polished. The handles are put in afterwards. Hammer handles should be straight grained and tough, and should be Fig. 59.— HAMMEE HANDLE. finished in such a way that they will not become sticky when held in a moist hand. In order to secure a straight grained piece of young, heavy hickory, trees are selected and cut into lengths suitable for turn- ing into handles. These pieces are split — not sawed — into blanks and permitted to air dry, or season, for about six months before they are turned into proper shape. Air drying leaves them tough, while kiln drying makes the wood brittle. A common method of finishing handles is to hold them on sanding, filling, and polishing belts, each doing its work in turn. Driving Nails. — It will be found that nails driven into wood at a slight angle — See Fig. 64 — have a greater resisting capacity than those driven straight in. This is true because it is necessary either to bend the nails or to split the pieces held together in this fashion to separate them. In driving a nail, hold it at a slight angle, tap it lightly with the hammer to start it, follow with several sharp blows squarely on the head, thus forcing it into the material, until the top of the head becomes flush with the surface of the wood. Be careful not to mar the wood. Fig. 63 indicates the position of the hammer to the face of the wood to pre- vent scarring. Fig. 65 shows a method of toe-nailing one piece to an- other. Nails that are to be set should never be driven home with a ham- mer, but the head should be left partly above the surface of the wood; the nail then may be set with a nail set and hammer. Nail Sets. — The nail set is made of tool steel and has its point cup shape to prevent it from slip- ping off of the head of the nail and Fig. 60.— nail Set. scarring the wood. Pulling Nails. — To pull a nail, place the claws of the hammer under the head of the nail and then place a block of wood under the eye of the hammer — ^to prevent the scarring of the material as well as to increase the leverage; pull the handle back over the block; if the nail is not clinched or rusted, it can be easily removed. Carpenter's Pincers. — Carpen- ter's pincers, which are used in cut- ting and pulling nails, should be 1^61.— Carpenter's PinceksT^ made of good steel. The arrange- SHOP EQUIPMENT 25 merit of the jaws makes it possible to pull short broken nails with but little effort. Screw Drivers. — A screw driver is a tool used for turning screws into ma- terial. It is designed especially for this Fig. 62.— Screw Dkivek. work, having a blade, A, Fig. 66, formed so that it will fit the slot B of the screw E, a shank, and a handle. The sides of the end of the blade should be parallel in order to prevent the scarring of the head of the screw. (See Fig. 67) . Screw drivers with shanks from three to eighteen inches long are very common. Screw driver handles are made of wood, leather- washers, wood fibre and metal, all of which are designed to give the best possible grip 'to the hand. A very convenient form is that with the shank bent at right angles and a blade on each end. Driving Scretvs. — To secure the greatest efficiency, screws must be driven home with care. Screws may be driven into soft wood with an ordinary screw-driver, but in tough or twisted grain or hard wood, it is best to bore a hole to receive the screw. In fastening two boards to- gether with screws (See Fig. 66), bore a hole in the first board a little larger than the gauge of the screw D ; bore a hole in the second piece the size of the short diameter of the threads of the screw, F. Countersink C in the first board to receive the head and slip the point of the screw through the first board and start it into the second. By revolving the screw E to the right — clock wise — the screw will pull the two boards together at that point. Care should be taken not to strip the threads in the wood, especially in the end grain, A little soap or grease on the point of the screw will cause it to enter the wood more easily. Some screws are designed to be driven with a hammer, but most screws in common use should never be more than well started with a hammer. To do more, one incurs the danger of closing the slot of a round head screw and the possibility of breaking off half of or the whole head of a flat head screw. Vises. — To facilitate the better handling of wood during the pro- cess of construction, vises, handscrews and clamps are used. Vises are made of both wood and metal and are constructed in many forms. Probably the oldest and most used form is the wooden jaw vise, the one that has one jaw built to the bench. Rapid acting metal vises are very common and save much time in changing the stock in the vise. They are usually bolted to the bench and may have the jaws lined with wood to prevent the scarring of the piece to be held. 26 SHOP WORK 63 ^ 1/ ^ c xn. 'U.-J. \^-i\ 1^ /y 66 Jcreiv-- driver Slot H Screw U B'iG. 63. — Hammer Position. Fig. 64.— Method of. Nailing. Fig. 65. — Toe-Nailing. Fig. 66. — Driving Screws. Fig. 67. — Adjustment of Screw and Driver. SHOP EQUIPMENT 27 ■nUMta- Fig. 68. — Hand Sckews. Hand Screws. — Hand Screws are used to hold pieces of wood to- gether while laying out work, glu- ing, chiseling, etc. The jaws are made of wood, but the better and the more convenient hand screws have the spindles made of metal, and so arranged that the jaws may be set at an angle for special work. In all cases where possible, the jaws should be worked in a parallel posi- tion, so as to distribute and gain the most pressure. (See Figs. 70 and 68.) Clamps. — ^Like hand screws, clamps are used because of their ca- pacity to hold wood together. The better clamps are made of steel and range in size from the small C-clamp to the carpenter's door and trestle clamp. These larger clamps are used in the gluing of table tops, and in clamping together large frames. The long clamps have a tail stop Fig. 69. — Clamps. C-Clamp and Bar Clamp. which slides the length of the steel bar. This makes the clamp quick acting. Most of the clamps are worked with a screw, but some of them secure their pressure by the use of an eccentric. Fig. 72 illustrates a method commonly used in clamping boards together with a carpenter's clamp. It is necessary to face the jaws A with the blocks B to prevent bruising the pieces C to be held. C-Clamps. — The C-clamp, or screw clamp, is used most in holding work together temporarily while it is being laid out. It is also common- ly used toiiold work to the bench. (See Fig. 71.) Improvised Clamp. — An improvised clamp is illustrated in Fig. 73 by which the pressure is secured by wedges. The boards to be glued, C and D, are backed against the strips B. Wedges A, A are driven up tight thus forcing the two boards tightly together. If the surface to be glued is wide, it will be necessary to put weights on the boards C to prevent their buckling. 28 SHOP WORK FlG. 70. — Use of Hand Screws. Fig. 71.— Use of 0-Clamp. Fig. 72. — Use of Bar Clamp. Fig. 73. — Improvised Clamp. SHOP EQUIPMENT 29 Use of Braces and Bits. — Braces and bits are thoroughly discussed in Chapters IV and V in Part III. However, a few illustrations here may not be amiss. Locating Centers. — Fig. 74 shows the method of locating or laying out centers for bored work. The measurements for holes are always given to the center, unless otherwise specified, and usually from two di- rections. In case of a series of holes the measurements are given from center to center. Securing Bored Stock. — Work to be bored should be held securely in a position most convenient to the workman, so as not to slip or bend and break the bit. This will materially assist in boring the hole true. Fig. 75 illustrates one method of shifting the cap of the brace so the bit is square to the place of the piece being bored. A try-square may be placed beside the bit to insure accuracy. Boring Through. — Extreme care should be taken with finished pieces to prevent splitting on the back side by boring through. To pre- vent this, stop boring when the spur (See A in Fig. 76) has come through. Return the cut from the back side. Another method is to clamp a piece of scrap material securely behind the _ board and bore through into the scrap material. This will leave a clean cut hole. Depth Gauge. — Fig. 77 illustrates the use of the depth gauge. This serves as a stop since it prevents the bit from feeding in farther than the distance to which it was adjusted. This gauge is used in boring deep mortises. The cuts should be overlapping. (See Fig. 78.) The overlapping cuts make the walls easy to true "with a chisel. Ratchet. — It is often necessary to bore a hole in a corner or close to an obstacle where it is impossible to get a full swing with the brace. This is done by the use of the ratchet. Fig. 79 illustrates a corner in which the cranked-handle moves through a quadrant of a circle. Tool Sharpening. — In sharpening tools, care must be taken to re^ tain the grind or bevel. If the original bevel has not been retained, the tool must be put on the grindstone as in Fig. 80. A shows an adjust- able tool rest on which the tool is held while being ground. The stone must revolve in the direction of the arrow and against the cutting edge of the tool. It is not the function of the grindstone to sharpen tools, but to remove metal so the desired bevel may be given. Fig. 81 shows a tool, the bevel of which has not been retained, and which must be put on the grindstone and ground to the dotted line. 30 SHOP WORK 4 , t- _ i_ _1 15- ■Bgrsgr: 75 \^4'-\ 74 Fig, 74. — Locating Centers. Fig. 75. — Starting Bit. Fig. 76. — Boring Through. Fig. 77. — Use of Depth Gauge. Fig. 78. — Boring Mortise. Fig. 79. — Use of Ratchet Brace. SHOP EQUIPMENT 31 Chisel Sharpening.- — Fig. 82 shows how the chisel must be held on the oil stone to put on the cutting edge. Bear on the chisel when pushing it in the direction of the arrow. Fig. 83 shows how to lay the chisel on the oil stone when removing the wire edge that may have re- sulted from the operation in Fig. 80. Care must be taken that the oil stone retains its flat sides. However, if the surfaces become irregular, place it on the side of the grindstone and grind until the sides are flat. Fig. 80. — ^Adjustment of Tool to Grindstone. Fig. 81. — Impkoper Bevel. Fig. 82. — Adjustment of Tool to Oil Stone. Fig. 83. — Removing Wire Edge. Fig. 84. — Rounded Plane Iron Edges. Fig. 85. — Plane Iron and Cap Attached. Fig. 86. — Sharpening Outside Beveled Gouge. Fig. 87. — Sharpening Inside Beveled Gouge. Fig. 88. — Sharpening Knife. Fig. 89. — Sharpening Cabinet Scraper. Plane Iron Sharpening. — The bevel or grind on a plane iron is from 3/16" to Y', depending upon the thickness of the tool and the character of the wood for which it is intended. The sharpening of the plane iron is the same as the chisel. Test the cutting edge for squareness vdth a try square. Fig. 84 shows the edges slightly rounded. This avoids ridges which would otherwise result from a square corner. Fig 85 shows the plane iron cap fastened to the plane iron. How near the cap is to be set to the cutting edge is determined by the character of the work. 32 SHOP WORK Gouge Sharpening. — Fig. 86 shows how a gouge beveled on the out- side may be sharpened with a shp stone, and Fig. 87 shows how a gouge beveled on the inside may be sharpened with a slip stone. Knife Sharpening. — To sharpen a knife, give it a circular motion — both clockwise and anti-clockwise — as shown in dotted circle. Fig. 88. Cabinet Scraper Sharpening. — A, in Fig, 89, shows how to sharpen a cabinet scraper. Run the file horizontally along the edge of the scf aper until the edge forms a right angle to the sides. If, during this process, a wire edge has formed, remove it on the oil stone. After this operation, run the burnisher across the edge of the scraper, forming a convex sur- face — a burr on each side of the edge, as shown in B and C of Fig. 89. The angle at which the scraper is used, is determined by the angle of the burr. (See Fig. 43.) CHAPTER III DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT (A typical line of procedure to follow in the construction of any article.) Plan^ and Specifications. — In making any project, the first and most important consideration is a clear understanding of what the piece is really to be. This should be followed by a knowledge of the purpose it is to serve, and lastly one should know definitely what parts are neces- sary for the construction of the whole. All of this information is, or should be, included in the plans and specifications. Construction of Rack. — In this chapter, the article proposed for development and construction is a rack. The project was chosen neither for its intrinsic value when completed nor for its utility but because its construction involves the use of so many tools and the sequence of the operations is so clearly marked. The development of this project is a typical line of procedure. In this case the name itself indicates that it is to be a complete article, assembled and finished; perhaps to match some piece of furniture. The purpose which it is to serve is implied in the name. The plan (Fig. 90) shows the parts needed in its con- struction. Paints. — This rack is composed of six parts : A — back (1) B — support (1) C — arms (2) D — crossrail (1) ' E — dowel pin (1) These parts are carefully worked out and assembled so that the frame C D E swings on E as the bearing. F is a ^" hole bored at a point equidistant from the sides of the frame and one inch from the top so that the rack may be hung on a nail or hook. Laying Out the Back. — The back should be of clear wood and of the same kind as the piece of furniture the project is designed to match. Dress this part to measurements ^x5|^x7 inches as given on .the plans. The rule, saw, try-square, and plane will be all the tools necessary for this part of the work. The board is now ready for laying out the 33 34 SHOP WORK Fig. 90. — Working Drawing of a Rack. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT S5 O— design. (See Fig. 91.) The first step in making a layout for a design is drawing the center lines; from these cen- ter lines all centers are placed, as for centers of arcs, holes, etc. Draw both center lines, as XX and 00, the former running vertical, the latter horizontal. From line 00 measure down one and three- eights inches and draw a line parallel with line 00 ; on this line, from the intersection of line XX, each side of XX, measure off If inches. At these two points your large arcs will be swung. From line 00 measure up 2'' and draw a line parallel with line 00. On this line, each side of XX, measure off 1^^\ From these points the two small upper arcs are swung. On line XX measure up from intersection of line 00 If. Draw a light line parallel with line 00. On this line, each side of line XX, measure off If. From these points draw lines tangent to large arcs. With com- pass point set at 6 inches, with one point on line XX produced, scribe the upper arc, being careful that this arc is tangent to the two small arcs. After scribing the four arcs with a light line, connect the arcs with tangent lines as shown in Fig. 91. The bevel, J, f inch, should be laid out by the use of a fine pointed pencil and the hand, a finger of which serves as a guide or gauge. Making gauge lines will leave a scratch after the bevel is cut. Since the above provides for all the work to be laid out on this part of the project, the shaping may begin. Shaping the Back. — The holes F and G in Fig. 91 may be bored with an ordinary auger bit, but extreme care should be taken not Fig. 91. — The Back. C^ ^ •f • 1 Fig. 92. — Counteesinking eor Screw. 36 SHOP WORK \ Fig. 93. — Laying Out the Support. to split the back surface when the bit goes through. It is better prac- tice to stop boring when the spur of the bit shows through, and to re- turn the boring from the opposite side. Fig. 92 shows the use of the countersink P in reaming out the hole G. This forms a seat for the head of the screw which holds the support and back together. The beveled edges J in Fig. 91 may be cut with a smoothing plane, making the strokes parallel with the grain of the wood. The bevel edges across the ends may also be cut with the plane if the plane is turned so the plane iron will have a shearing cut with the grain of the piece. The Support. — Fig. 93 illus- trates the manner in which the support B (Fig. 90) is laid out after it has been squared to the proper measurements. The inter- section of the two lines at R in Fig. 93 indicates the center of the hole in which the dowel E (Fig. 90) is to be inserted. The dotted lines on the end show the picket point with which the support is embellished, and are shown in this cut to indicate that all of the work cannot be laid out at first as some of the piece is cut away exposing new surfaces. The work must be laid out after these cuts are made. Fig. 94 shows clearly the meth- od used in cutting a picket point which is formed by four triangular bevel surfaces meeting in a com- mon point. The cuts are made with a saw, usually a back saw, as illustrated by S, removing the slab T. On the newly-exposed bevel surfaces, lines are drawn from the corners to the center of the ridge. These cuts are then made with a saw and the four triangular bevel surfaces are smoothed by the care- ful use of the plane. In cutting the bevel surfaces to form the neck on the support, the saw kerfs U are made 5/16 inch deep on all four sides. The material is removed by the use of the chisel W, but extreme care should be taken to keep the surfaces of the bevels perfectly flat. The other end of the support rests on the Fig. 94. — Forming the Support. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT 37 back piece just completed. On this end, draw diagonal lines from cor- ner to corner. The intersection of these lines locates the center, at which a hole, equal to the short diameter of the screw thread, should be bored deep enough to receive the screw. The Arms. — A careful study of the plan will reveal that the length of the arms (C in Fig. 90) is not given, but that the run and rise is. The run is 2| inches and the rise is 6 inches, plus | inch, or 6f inches. It is best to make a cardboard pattern with the use of the steel square. Lay the square on the cardboard, and at the point 6| inches on the blade of the square, square out a line | inch, and on the tongue at 2f inches make a mark. Scribe a miu^ f^rr-r^/ Fig. 95. — Laying Ol't the Arms. line on the inside edge of the square forming the plumb and level cuts. The curves may be developed free hand and the pattern may be cut out and used for both pieces. This as- sures one of having the two arms similar. Brad two pieces of the right width and thickness together and tack the pattern on the face side as illustrated in Fig. 95. Saw kerfs X may be made at irregular intervals and the surplus stock removed with a chisel or draw knife, but a better way is by the use of a band or jig saw. (See B. P. 400.) All cuts of the chisel should be in the direction of the arrows. The saw kerfs prevent split- ting. The round corners may be formed with a chisel as shown in Fig. 96. The edge of the tool must have a shearing motion. The centers for holes which re- seive the dowels and cross rails should be carefully laid out and bored. Cross Rail and DoweL- FlG. 9t). FOEMING THE AeMS. The method used in making the cross rail (D Fig. 90) and the dowel, (E Fig. 90) are exactly identical and since the are the same size, | inch, they may be made in one piece. First, square up a piece of the necessary length to f inch. On each end, form an octagon, and run pencil lines on the stock connecting the octagons. (See Fig. 97.) These corners may be removed by the use of a plane. Fig. 97.-rLAYiNG Out the Rail and Dowel. 38 SHOP WORK A device used to hold the stock while the, corners are planed off is called a chute board. Two boards, Y-Y (Fig. 98) having their inner edges beveled at 45 degrees, are nailed together, and a stop or pin is set in at one end of the groove thus made. The chute board is clamped in the vise and the piece is laid in the groove with one end against the stop. Now plane off the edges by changing posi- tion of piece in chute board. Next drive the stock through a dowel plate, which, as a rule, is a rectangular piece of low carbon steel with holes drilled in it as shown in Fig. 99. This illustration shows the method of driving the stock through. Care should be taken to hit the stock square with a mallet, and, if the stock is long, it should be held about the mid- dle to prevent buckling. If the stock is well worked down, it will come Fig. 98. — Use of a Chute Boakd. Fig. 99. — Use of a Dowel Plate. out clean, smooth and round. Improvised plates may be made by bor- ing holes in hard wood. The piece may now be cut into suitable lengths for the cross rail and the dowel, or D and E in Fig. 90. Assembling. — All of the pieces should be gone over carefully with sand paper to make them smooth and clean. Always sand paper with DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT 39 the grain. . The back A may be screwed to the support B, but the point of contact should be coated with glue. Care should be taken to see that the sides of the support and back are parallel before the screw is finally driven home. The dowel E should be made to rotate in the hole in the end of the support so that the frame formed by the arms, the cross rail and the dowel, will swing. This frame should be glued together in posi- tion, but no glue should find its way into the hole in the support. The frame should be free from wind. The work should set for twenty-four hours to permit the glue to dry. Then remove all glue streaks, bruises or scars with sand paper. The rack is now ready for finishing. Finishing.— A very good finish for this rack is one coat of shellac (white) and two coats of wax. The shellac should be brushed on and given plenty of time to dry thoroughly. Then it should be worked down with fine, or worn-out, sandpaper until the surface is smooth. Over this add a coat of wax. This may be put on with a rag. When it sets, that is when it has become dull and its solvent is partially or totally evapo- rated, it may be polished by rubbing with a soft rag. Another coat of wax may be added in the same manner. CHAPTER IV machinery; Woodworking Machinery. — For the rapid shaping and reproduc- tion of similar forms, woodworking machinery is used. Machines de- signed for practically all classes of work are on the market, and new machines, as well as improvements on the old, are developed readily. Probably the most common machines used in industrial schools are the following : Saw bench with ripsaw and cross-cut saw; Band saw ; Surf acer ; Hand planer and jointer; Speed lathes; Trimmer; Tool grinder. These machines vary in form and size and in their equipment with special parts best suited for diversified kinds of work. Universal Saw Bench. — The rip saw is indispensable in a modern school shop. The accompanying cut (Fig. 100) shows a modern saw bench which can be fitted up with attachments for many classes of special work. The base is cast in one piece, making the machine rigid. The table, which is provided with a tilting mechanism, and is operated by hand, and which has a stationary and rolling section, is also made of metal. This machine is provided with a yoke, having two arbors, on which the saws are mounted and revolved by a hand wheel, engaging worm and gear. The latter is protected by a dust-proof casing. The saw can be fitted with either direct motor or countershaft drive. The equipment consists of a rip saw, a cross-cut saw, a universal ripping fence, a miter cut-off gauge, a universal miter gauge, and a clearance block. 40 Fig. 100. — Univeesal Saw Bench. MACHINERY 41 Fio. lUl. — Band Saw. Frame ; Guide post ; Wheels ; Table ; Band Smu. — The band saw is a piece of woodworking machinery, consisting of a steel band, from whence the name is de- rived, which runs over two wheels in the same manner as a belt. It is used in pat- tern shops, saw mills, planing mills, and in wood novelty shops. It is used extensively for sawing curves, ripping, and sawing ir- regular work in general. With the band saw blade in motion, the wood is fed to it. The operator slides the wood over a table, which can be tilted to any angle, thus mak- ing it easy to hold and guide the piece of wood. The important parts which make up a band saw are the following : Saw tension; Safety guards ; Special equipment for re- sawing, etc. Band saw blades are made in all widths, and in lengths suitable for the capacity of the machine. By capacity is meant the working clearance under the guide and between the blade and column. (See Fig. 101.) Surfacer. — The surfacer is a machine which is used extensively by cabinet makers, pattern makers, and manufacturers of pianos, or- gans, vehicles, cars, doors, sashes, boats, blinds, and wood novelties of all kinds, for planing or surfacing stock. It does, on a large scale, the same kind of work which may be done with smooth and jack planes. It is a great time saver. The frame of the surfacer is made of cored sec- tion sides, and heavy ribbed girts, machine jointed and bolted. The bed is raised and lowered by a hand wheel. The surfacer can be fitted with either direct motor or counter- shaft drive. The rough stock is fed through the machine by means of four rollers. The cylindrical head, which makes 5,000 revolutions per minute, cuts from beneath the surface, thus retaining the keen cutting Fig. 102. — Surfacer. 42 SHOP WORK edge longer. Experience has proved that the knives should be ground at an angle of 42 degrees in order to obtain the best results. (See Fig. 102.) Hand Planer and Jointer. — The hand planer and jointer is used in all woodworking shops for dressing and joining wood. The principal parts of the machine are the fol- lowing : Bed; Rabbeting at- Tables; tachment ; Cylinder ; Fence ; Cylinder bear- Pulley. ings; Fig. 103.-HAND joiNTEK. Tj^e YiQdidi, or cylinder, with two knives inset, should make about 5,000 revolutions per minute in or- der to develop the maximum cutting efficiency. The cutting blades, like those of the surfacer, cut from underneath the face of the wood, thus making it possible to work over finished material. The knives should be shielded as much of the time as possible. For all joint work, the line of the take-off table should be tangent to the circle described by the revolving knives. (See Fig. 103.) Lathes. — Lathes are used extensively in school and pattern making shops in doing cylindrical and spherical work. They are either motor Fig. 104. — Lathe. or belt driven, and the drive must be so arranged as to give variable speeds. The parts of the lathe are the following : Bed; Tail stock, in which is placed the Head, in which is placed the live dead center ; center; Face plates; Tool rests. MACHINERY 43 A pattern maker's lathe is generally provided with a tool carriage, hand fed, which has a longitudinal and cross feed. All cylindrical and spherical work, with their variations, can be done on the lathe. The swing of the lathe is determined by the distance between the live center and the top of the bed, this being one-half the size of the stock worked. The distance between the centers determines the length of stock that can be worked. (See Fig. 104.) Trimmer. — The wood trimmer is a tool used in all pattern, cabinet and novelty shops for trimming the ends of small pieces of wood. The cutting is done by knives. These knives are forced through the wood which is held against a stop at the correct an- gle. The principal parts of the wood trimmer are the following: Knife carriage; Gauges ; Bed; Standard ; Driving mechan- ism; Trial gauges; Column. Fig. 105. — Tkimmee. The knives have a shearing motion which leaves a clean unbroken cut. The points of the knives should al- ways be shielded, and only one per- son at a time should operate the wood trimmer. (See Fig. 105.) Oilstone Tool Edge Grinder. — A tool grinder is indispensable in any shop, no matter whether natural or artificial stones are used. However, artificial stones must be used with the knife grinding attachment. Grinders with two wheels, one of medium and one of fine grit, are most desirable. The principal parts of the edge tool grinder are the following: Base ; Oil pan; Oil reservoir; Wheels ; Wheel arbor; Knife grinding at- tachment ; Driving mechan- ism; Special equipment. Fig. lOG. — Tool Grinder. 44 SHOP WORK FlG 107. — Monkey Wrench. New wheels should be thoroughly soaked with kerosene before using and a little added from time to time. They readily absorb the oil and will appear to be dry when not running, but the centrifugal force will bring the oil to the face of the wheel when the proper speed is reached. (See Fig. 106.) Machine Tools. — In the upkeep of machinery, it is necessary to have tools for making adjustments, in order that the maximum effi- ciency of the machine may be developed and maintained. Wrenches, pliers, chisels, large screw drivers, scrapers and oilers are the tools most frequently used. Wrenches. — Many machines have wrenches made for special work; but it will be found that the ordi- nary monkey wrench may be used to advantage on most woodworking machinery. This wrench is made in many styles and sizes and is used in turning nuts and lag screws. (See Fig. 107.) Oiler. — The oiler, more commonly called the oil can, is indispensable in properly lubricating the moving parts of machinery. It is made in many sizes and some have long spouts, designed for oiling locomotives, etc. (See Fig. 108.) Pliers. — Pliers are used in cutting, twisting and hand- ling wire or small nails. The jaws are made in many forms for special classes of work. Probably the most common and best adapted design for work in general is the pair with flat jaws. (See Fig. 109.) Snips. — Snips are used by tin- ners, sheet metal workers, copper- smiths, etc., to cut metal rapidly and easily. They are made in many sizes and designs and must be eas- FiG. 110.— Snips. i\y operated to do efficient work. (See Fig. 110.) Safe Guards. — Many machines are so designed as to protect the workman as much as possible; in fact many states require that the machinery be properly shielded. But even these safe guards will not Fig. 109. — Pliers. Fig. 108.— Oil Can. MACHINERY 45 totally eliminate all of the accidents in industrial and manufacturing plants. Carelessness, working too rapidly, and taking big risks are, in a way, responsible for three-fourths of the accidents. The following suggestions should be carefully observed. All gearing should be properly encased; An old style set screws should be replaced with hollow set screws; Hand jointers should be equipped with cylindrical heads and care- fully shielded; The band saw should be screened; Table saws should be run in wooden shields; Cleated floors, to prevent slipping, should be built in front of saws and planers; Plenty of help should be employed in overhauling high piles of lumber or moving heavy pieces. All these things have been found most essential and effective in preventing serious accidents. REMEMBER ! SAFETY FIRST, CHAPTER V ACCIDENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT Accidental Injuries. — Wounds, fractures, scalds, burns and sprains are the most common accidents likely to call for treatment in a school shop. Wounds. — ^Wounds are divided into five classes: (1) Incised wounds, which consist of simple divisions of the fibers made by cutting instruments; (2) lacerated wounds, in which the edges of the wound are torn, usually irregularly; (3) contused wounds, those in which the edges are bruised (contused wounds are usually lacerated) ; (4) punc- tured wounds, inflicted with the point of a weapon ; they are generally narrow and deep and are usually followed by much swelling and in- flammation; (5) poisoned wounds, caused by the bites of animals, the stings of insects, etc. Wounds are dangerous, according to their char- acter, i. e., whether incised, lacerated, poisoned or otherwise ; the extent of the soft parts which they involve; the place where they are located in the body; the age, habits, surroundings and state of health of the patient ; and the treatment they receive. The attendant consequences of a wound are pain, hemorrhage, displacement, loss of function and shock. The loss of function may be temporary or permanent and may manifest itself in stiffness, paralysis, deformities or death. As a precaution, scratches, bruises and light cuts should receive prompt and proper at- tention and more serious wounds should be carefully treated and dressed. In treating wounds, it is essential first of all to remove any accumula- tion of blood, dirt or other foreign matter by washing. When the wound is thoroughly cleansed place some absorbent cotton over the bleeding portion. The cotton may be moistened with an antiseptic such as di- oxygen. Finally the wound should be carefully bandaged. If the wound is serious such as the severing of an artery, the bleeding may be con- trolled by a compress between the wound and the heart. In the latter event, a good physician should be called immediately. Fractures. — Bones may be broken by force resulting from various causes. Fractures are either complete, simple, comminuted, compound, or impacted. The symptoms of fractures are pain, swelling, the crack felt or heard by the patient when the fracture occurs, abnormal mobil- ity, displacement, crepitation, and loss of function and injury to the neighboring soft parts. The repair of fractured bones should be at- 46 ACCIDENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT 47 tempted only by skilled surgeons. The treatment of the fracture, of course, consists, first, in restoring the broken ends to their natural posi- tion ; and, second, bandaging and splinting to keep them in position. Burns and Scalds. — Burns are produced by dry heat and scalds by hot liquids, but the lesions of both are essentially identical. The effects of burns or scalds vary with the degree of the injuries. If the injury to the patient is not severe, nothing but local treatment is required ; if severe, all clothing near the injured part should be removed at once. It is imperative that all dirt, shreds of clothing, etc., be removed from the burned surface. If the burn is deep, it has been found satisfactory to immerse the burned part or the patient, as the case requires, in a warm bath. A solution, consisting of equal parts of lime water and lin- seed oil, applied to the burned surface, will give very satisfactory results. Sprains. — A sprain results from the wrenching of a joint, causing some of the ligaments (the bands of tissue that unite the bones) to be torn or severely stretched. In many cases, the bones are also injured. In treating sprains, measures should be taken to prevent inflammation by restoring healthy action. A most valuable means of reducing the swelling and pain resulting from sprains, consists in wrapping the joint with cloths saturated with water as hot as can be comfortably endured. These fomentations should be continued for three or four hours. As soon as the pain and swelling have somewhat subsided, an elastic band- age should be placed around the joint. When the acute symptoms have disappeared, absorption should be promoted by systematic rubbing and the application of stimulating liniments. PART II SHOP WORK CHAPTER I JOINERY Joints. — A joint, in wood craft, is the place where two pieces of timber are joined or united together. The joining may be edge-to-edge, as in Fig. Ill ; Fig. 111. — EdgetTO-Edge Joint. it may be in the direction of the length, as in Fig. 112 ; ^^^=2 ■ Fig. 112. — End-to-End Joint. it may be at right angles, as in Fig. 113; Fig. 113. — ^Right Angle Joint. or it may be at an angle, other than a right angle, as in Fig. 114. Fig. 114. — ^Angle Joint. Joint Types. — For the purpose of increasing the strength, effec- tiveness and rigidity of joints, adhesive and fastening devices, such as 51 52 SHOP WORK glue, nails, screws, bolts, dowels, etc., are used. Before these modern fastening devices came into use, dowels, mortises and wedges, which are found in old wooden structures, especially in the hulls of old vessels which have been floating a half century or more, were used exclusively. The fundamentals of joint construction, with their manifold variations, which are found in modern joints, were evolved by necessity many years ago, and those types of joints and joint construction which have stood the test of centuries are now recognized by artisans the world over as standard and as suitable for all kinds of construction work, whether cabinet making, carpentry, shipbuilding or pattern making. As joints are designed for utility, they should be so constructed as to weaken the uniting pieces as little as possible; to distribute the load uniformly; to fit accurately without winding strain ; and the supporting timber should be directly under, and perpendicular to, the load sustained. A careful study of the construction of joints and their application to practical problems will soon teach the beginner the proper proportions of joints, as well as the selection of stock for joint construction. In the descrip- tion of the types of joints which follows, no attempt has been made to name and describe all joints, but all the fundamentals of joint construc- tion are given and minor details may be varied to satisfy individual tastes or needs. Classification of Joints. — In this treatise, joints are grouped, accord- ing to their use in practical construction work, under three divisions, namely, box joints, framing joints and surface joints. BOX JOINTS. Box Joints. — Box joints, as the name implies, are used in the con- struction of boxes and other similar articles such as cases, cabinets, hoppers, bins and filing cases. They are used mainly, however, in con- structing boxes to be used in storing and transporting merchandise. In their general construction, box joints have return sides at right angles to each other. The method of forming the joint is largely determined by the use and strain to which it is to be put in commercial use. Plain Butt Joints. — In common usage, a plain butt joint is formed by the end of one piece meeting or butting against the side of another at right angles, without overlapping. This is the joint commonly used by wholesale grocery houses in constructing boxes and cases. (See B. P. 401.) Butt Joints, Blocked and Glued. — A butt joint blocked and glued is made like a plain butt joint, with the addition of an angle block which may be square as in Fig. 115, and which is glued in the corner to add firmness. The joint may be glued or nailed, or both. This joint is used JOINERY 53 in cabinet work, furniture making and stair building. For wholesale dry goods and hardware houses, this joint is reinforced by cleats at- tached to the outer edges to withstand the rough handling in transporta- tion. (See Fig. 116 and B. P. 402.) Fig. 117. — Hopper Joint. Fig. 115. — Butt Joint (.Blocked and Fig. 116. — Butt Joint (Cleated). Glued). Hopper Butt Joints.— A hop- per butt joint is formed by two pieces which do not meet each other at right angles on account of the slant of the sides. It may be cut at a miter, as in Fig. 117. Hoppers are used for corn grind- ers, for grain drills, bins, chutes, elevators and flouring mills. (See B. P. 403.) Rabbet Joints. — A rabbet joint is one in which the side of one piece is grooved to receive the end tenon of the other. This method of joining adds glue surface and therefore makes the joint stronger. This joint is used in box and drawer construction. It presents a neat, fin- ished appearance. (See B. P. 404.) Dovetail Dado Joints. — A dovetail dado joint has one of the pieces grooved on the side and the other piece has a tenon to fit the groove. This groove must have one or both sides cut at an angle and the tenon cut to match, as in Fig. 118. This joint prevents spreading. It is used in making china closets, book cases, in partitions for drawers and in filing cases. (See B. P. 405.) Fig. lis. — Dovetail Dado Joint. 54 SHOP WORK Fig. 119. — Plain Dado Joint. Plain Dado Joints. — A plain dado joint is used for shelf fasten- ing, for the bottom of drawer con- struction and for water-tight boxes, tanks and ice boxes. (See Fig. 119.) Multiple Dovetail Joints. — ^A multiple dovetail joint (through) is one in which the projections and in- dentations on the ends of the two pieces alternate and fit one another. This joint is used in constructing tool chests, fine boxes for jewelry cases, etc. (See B. P. 406.) Half Blind Dovetail Joints. — A half blind dovetail joint is one in which the projections of one piece do not show through the face side of the other. This joint is used to fasten the sides of drawers to the front. The blind dovetail shows no projections on either side, being on the order of a mitered joint. This style of joint is used' in making fancy and highly finished boxes. (See B. P. 407.) hedged Miter Joints. — A ledged miter joint is one with rabbeting and mitering combined, the miter being on the outer edge to give the joint a finished effect. The large glue surface makes it a strong and durable joint. It is used for costly boxes. (See B. P. 408.) Miter and Butt Joints. — A miter and butt joint is similar to the ledged miter joint, only more simple. It is used in joining pieces of different widths or thicknesses. (See B. P. 409.) FRAMING JOINTS. Framing Joints. — Framing joints are those applied in frame-skele- ton-construction. They may be used in light framing such as desks, tables and taborets, as well, as in heavy framing, such as house and barn construction, trestle work, shipbuilding,^ etc. These joints are formed by the timbers meeting each other at any angle desired or in the direc- tion of the length. Butt Joints. — A butt joint, un- [ 7 der this division of joinery, is formed with heavier stock than box joints. It is fastened by nails set at an angle — toenailing — and by dowels, as in Fig. 120. This joint is used in carpentry for fast- ening the stud to the plate. (See B. P. 410.) Fig. 120. — Butt Joint (Doweled). JOINERY 55 Draw-Bolt Joints. — A draw-bolt joint is a butt joint with a hole bored through the one piece into the end of the other and a bolt inserted to receive a nut which is put in from the side. It is a very strong joint and is used in bench making, wooden frames for machines, and farm implements. (See B. P. 411.) . Cross-Lap Joints. — A cross-lap joint is one in which both pieces are notched so that one fits into the other. The surfaces may or may not be flush. This mode of joining prevents side lashing. It is used in cabi- net work and carpentry where timbers cross each other. (See B. P. 412.) Beveled Halving Joints. — A beveled halving joint is the same as a cross-lap joint except that the joining is made at the ends and the ad- joining cheeks are beveled to match. The pieces are held in place by nails. It is used in carpentry. (See B. P. 413.) Lap-Dovetail Joints. — A lap-dovetail joint has a dovetail notch cut into one timber and on the other a projection — a tenon — to match. This mode of fastening prevents spreading. It is used in rig construction and in bridge and shipbuilding. (See B. P. 414.) Cogged Joints. — A cogged joint is one with only parts of the notch cut on the lower piece, leaving a portion uncut. The upper piece is cut to fit the uncut portion of the lower. The joint prevents side lashing, is strong and-is used in heavy framing. (See B. P. 415.) Mortised and Tenoned Joints. — Joints of the mortised-and-tenoned type are of the same general construction. The tenon is made by cut- ting slabs from the sides at the end of the timber, leaving cheeks and shoulders. The cheeks are the sides of the tenon and the shoulders are the parts abutting against the mortised piece. The shoulders serve as depth gauges. The mortise is the hole cut to receive the tenon. In general construction, the rails are tenoned and the stiles are mortised to hide the grain of the wood. Blind Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A blind mortise-and-tenon joint does not permit the tenon to project through the mortise. The cheeks may be cut on two, three or four sides. This joint is used in fastening studdings to plates. It is used extensively in furniture construction. (See B. P. 416.) Doweled Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A doweled mortise-and-tenon joint (through) is one that has the mortise cut through one piece and the tenon cut equal to or more than the depth of the mortised piece. A pin or dowel is driven into a hole bored through both mortise and tenon 56 SHOP WORK (when in position) to keep the tenon from pulling out. The tenon may have two or four cheek cuts. This joint is used in constructing wooden machine frames, bridges, wagons and window sash. (See B. P. 417.) Keyed Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A keyed mortise-and-tenon joint is constructed the same as a doweled mortise and tenon joint except that the tenon projects far enough through the mortise to admit the insertion of a tapering key which draws the mortised piece firmly against the shoulder of the tenon. This joint is used in bench building and in fur- niture of the knock-down type. (See B. P. 418.) Open Mortise and Tenon Joints. — An open mortise-and-tenon joint is one with the mortise cut through the side and end of the mortised piece. It may be made single or in series. When used singly, it is adapted for window screens, frames for panels, etc. Articles such as machine-made boxes are commonly fastened with this joint, used in series. (See B. P. 419.) Mortise and Tenon Joints with Relish. — A mortise-and-tenon joint with relish is one in which a part of the tenon is cut shorter than the rest. This device adds glue surface and therefore strengthens the joint. This joint is commonly used where a rail is joined to a leg, as in table construction. (See B. P. 420.) Trussed Mortise and Tenon Joints. — ^A trussed mortise-and-tenon joint is one in which both ends of the cheeks have shoulders. It is used in cabinet work on tea tables, taborets, etc., and for ornamentation. (See B. P. 421.) Wedged Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A wedged mortise-and-tenon joint is one with the mortise cut wider on the outer edge than on the inner. Saw kerfs are cut into the end of the tenon to admit wedges, which, when driven home, will spread the tenon and fill the mortise. It is used in carpentry, also for fastening handles in axes, hammers, sledges, etc. (See B. P. 422.) Fox-Tail Tenon Joints. — A fox-tail tenon joint is constructed the same as a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint, except that the tenon does not come through, but is blinded. It is used where the mortised piece is already a fixture and the tenoned piece must fit close to the mortised ane. It is also used in strong door construction. (See B. P. 423.) Double Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A double mortise-and-tenon joint is one which has two tenons and two mortises, side by side. It is used in constructing door frames. (See B. P. 424.) JOINERY 57 Single Dovetail Joints. — A single dovetail joint (through) is simi- lar in construction to a single open mortise-and-tenon joint. However, the sides of the mortise-and-tenon are cut at an angle. This angle or bevel, cut on the sides, keeps the joint from pulling apart in one direc- tion. It is used in heavy framing. Machine-made boxes for packing small merchandise are constructed by using this joint in series. (See B. P. 425.) Thrust Joints. — A thrust joint is formed by two beams meeting at an oblique angle. It is held in place by spikes, bolts or iron strappings. This joint is used in heavy timber construction to distribute the load and give stiffness to the frame. (See B. P. 426.) Housed Brace Joints. — A housed brace joint is made by cutting a mortise into the timber at the desired angle to receive the brace. The housing of the brace prevents it from falling out if the timbers shrink for want of thorough seasoning. Its use is the same as a thrust joint. (See B. P. 427.) Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints. — An oblique mortise-and-tenon joint differs from the general mortise-and-tenon type only in that the timbers join each other at an oblique angle. This joint is commonly used to fasten braces in heavy frames. The tenon and mortise pre- vent the brace from working out of position sidewise, and the shoulders on the mortised and tenoned piece prevent the brace from slipping down when the load is applied. (See. B. P. 428.) Bridle Joints. — A bridle joint has a notch cut into one timber at an angle, leaving a tongue or cog in the notch, and the brace timber is cut to fit into the notched timber. The tongue prevents the brace from falling out sidewise, and the shoulder prevents the brace from slipping out when the load is applied. It is used in heavy framing. (See B. P. 429.) Scarf Joints. — A scarf joint is formed where two timbers lap each other in the direction of the grain, with flush surfaces. This joint is so constructed as to resist tension and compression. A key is inserted to h"old the timbers firmly together. The joint may be bolted or strapped with iron. It is used in heavy construction and shipbuilding. (See B. P. 430.) Splice Joints. — A splice joint is one constructed similarly to a scarf joint, and its functions are the same. (See B. P. 431.) Bird's Mouth Joints. — A bird's mouth joint has a notch cut at an angle to fit a piece on which it rests. This joint is used in rafter cutting and is determined by the pitch of the roof. (B. P. 432.) 58 SHOP WORK SURFACE JOINTS. Surface Joints. — Surface joints are used to unite pieces lying in the same plane to form large surfaces or frames. These surfaces may be circular or flat; paneled or lapped as in siding. In most cases these joints are formed by edge-to-edge contact, and in other cases the miter contact is used. Plain Miter Joints. — A plain miter joint is formed by the junction of the beveled ends of the two pieces which are secured by glue or nails. It is used in picture framing, etc. (See B. P. 433.) Splined Miter Joints.— A splined miter joint is the same as a plain miter with the exception that it has a slit cut across the end of the miter and a spline inserted. This prevents ripping and buckling, and there- fore, increases the efficiency of the joint. It is used in heavy framing. (See B. P. 434.) Stretcher Joints. — A stretcher joint is constructed the same as a slip joint. One or both sides may be mitered. B. P. 436 shows both sides mitered. They are used in making frames for stretching painters' canvas and lace curtains. (See B. P. 435 and 436.) Edge-to-Edge Joints. — Edge-to-edge joints are used when large or wide surfaces are desired. The mode of fastening these joints is deter- mined by their use. A. A plain butt joint is used in the construction of pieces where there is little strain, as the tops of taborets, tea tables and articles of similar nature. B. A rabbeted joint overlaps the edge» with the side remaining flush. It is used in sub-floors and boxing of houses and granaries. C. A spline joint is grooved on the adjoining sides with a spline inserted to prevent lateral rising. It is used in making water tanks, heavy tops and heavy floors. D. A tongue-and-groove joint has one edge grooved to admit the tongue of the other edge. It is used in flooring, ceiling, partitions, etc. E. A doweled joint has holes bored in the uniting pieces at inter- vals along the edges to admit the dowels or pins. If the boards are not well seasoned this, device prevents cupping at the joint. This method of joining is used in gluing table tops. F. A dovetail edge joint is similar to the tongue-and-groove joint, only the tongue-and-groove is dovetailed. It is used in building tops for benches, doors and patterns for cores. JOINERY 59 G. A matched and beaded joint is a tongue-and-grooved joint with the beads. The beads serve the purpose of breaking wide plain surfaces. This joint is used for wainscoting and ceihng. H. A lap siding joint is one with the edges overlapping to keep the water from getting into the cracks. It is used in putting lap siding on buildings, roofing for cheap sheds and for shingling. (See B. P. 437.) RESISTING POWER OF WOODS. Stress. — Stress is the force exerted in any direction or manner be- tween contiguous bodies, and taking specific names according to its direction or mode of action. a. Tensional Stress. — Stresses in wood construction may be ap- plied in three diflferent ways : Tensional stress which pulls in the direc- tion of the grain of the wood, as in a wagon tongue, coupling pole, lift- ing rod on a windmill, rails, etc. (See Fig. 121.) .^ Fig. 121. — Dikectton of Tensional, Stress. b. Compressional Stress. — Compressional stress, which is pressure in the direction of the grain — reducing in length — as in pillars, studs, posts, supports", etc. (See Fig. 122.) Fig. 122. — Direction of Compkessionai, Stress. c. Transverse Stress. — Transverse stress which is applied across the grain and has a tendency to bend, as in joists, flooring, etc. (See Fig. 123.) Fig. 123. — Direction of Transverse Stress. 60 SHOP WORK Computation of Stress. — Stresses are generally computed at so many pounds per square inch. The following table gives the average safe load or allowable working unit stresses, in pounds, per square inch of some of the common woods. AVERAGE SAFE ALLOWABLE WORKING UNIT STRESSES IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. Recommended by the Committee on Strength of Bridge and Trestle Tim- bers, Association of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings. Tension Compression Transverse Kind of Timber With Grain Across Grain With Grain Across Grain Extreme Fiber Stress End Bearing Columns under 15 Diams. Factor of Safety Ten Ten Five Five Four Six White Pine Yellow Pine (S) Oregon Fir 700 1200 1200 900 800 600 600 800 900 700 1000 50 60 ~50 50 2(5o 1100 1600 1600 1200 1200 1200 1200 1400 700 1000 1200 800 800 800 800 800 1000 800 900 200 350 300 250 200 150 200 200 250 200 500 700 1200 ^ 1100 Yello^A^ Pine (N) Spruce 1000 700 Hemlock 600 Cypress 800 Cedar 800 Chestnut 800' Redwood (Cal.) White Oak 750 1000 u -' \ v.^ f '"f \ 1 r ■'o 1 1 .^1 ; ■ -?- y^ /\ \ 4- -» - * - ■ * - -*- ._i _ 1 L =«, J ■5 o ;3 A:^ -m—. kS ( 1 ■ ( [ " 1 • * ■ 1 ^ r-^tl r-: ^ y — IX / \ \ ^ 10 CJ / \ \ ^ lO ( )vA<^ Ci ?^ V /\\\ ■ — - — ^ — '^ ■ — H 1 1 ' i)/\ ; •«.* 1 '^ ' --V* J ^v , ! 1 1 ! T , ^ ■ 4 i 1 i f " ;' ~1r -.^- -rr~ V le— \ ^'^-i— M ^ — ^ -^, ^ ^ <— ><^ W* '^ »«r— j^^?^-,) \4 -N^ xi^U 1^ J 1 — -- 1 — 1 1 — 1^1 — 1 - r -..«. m- I I 1 III! 1 ri« 1 U,^ s- |<_. .* — ^ l\J?J — i_^^— K 1 1, = ,<< A l^-L^- L 1 I^H-I 1 1 r 1 r^„^ 1 1 til! 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 L - 1 |-| -V -X.— o 'f^4-i 1 ^-- «7ao J 1 -"'^^ ' ^:- ^r»--C: 1 ^ 1 - ♦ ' -^ 1 «!«,. 1 'o„j« If- ii?_,je_ -m^ M |« =.o\« ^ Lj^ ^ / / 1*^ ^V- -^^5— ^ !^-^> ' - i I T 1- -r-| '■ . ^■\^ 1 - ' " s-/ / is*" W --V-f v;:? ^'f . :?|*y2«-_l'3^t. :.:^--4^*i! n 1 t^**. K^ 1 n — -,: — *— -;:: — i * •-5'^ ^ ~ 5 ^^ s — m *.-^-T g$~ ? ^"^ s^ ^ //-f^^yVI o ^^ --5-^ "->^1 ,4 !__Vf»">? -^"^ ^ ^ ■ ' <-„ - \ \ 1 1 w^ "T r — '~i 1 "n is? -% - ■ ^^-^ 1 .+ .-•■ — 1 ■^^:^?< ■ ~5l" — •— -I - * > \ I ' I I 1 • 1 1 1 1 1 1 Mil ' 'Trt- 1 . _ II I ' ! ! ' ii i 1 1 '- 1 1 . 1 1 ' ' *l 1 ^ 1 1* <^ 'i*i<;f^^T"^r ^1 '^ — 1__! — !^ M ' ' li r' 1 ^ \. ]■ 1 1 1 1 \ ■ - L IhbibesbbI .* ■> r .-**. / \ h 1- '<^? ^ — : ^ -t" o^ — — ^ h — N l\ 1 \. 1 \. 1 i' \ 1 ^: A \ ■^ ^ / \ .0 ort. structed separately. The combination davenport and bed affords the most common example, while combinations of chairs and tables, chairs and sewing cabinets and music racks and bookcases are not at all un- common. All pieces of furniture have legs, rails, panels and tops, al- though these parts are often modified in shape and proportion so as to 61 62 SHOP WORK produce the various designs. The rails and legs form the frame of any piece of cabinet work, while the addition of a top and panels give it character. In the creation of pleasing patterns, care should be taken to see that the same idea of design is carried out in the entire piece, i. e., if the leg is curved in its length, or tapers, the rails, top and panels should be' so fashioned as to harmonize with it. (See Fig, 124.) Legs. — A suitable foundation or support is the first thing to be con- sidered in the construction of any piece of furniture. Since the sup- porting timbers in cabinet work are the legs, they form the real founda- tion and should be given first attention. The legs of a piece of cabinet work may be of any length or diameter suitable for the article to be con- structed. They may be of such length as to serve as a stile for a panel, as in the case of a chair, roll top desk, etc. Frequently they are modi- fied to serve as a combination of pretty designs in foot stools. Panel Leg. — A, in Fig. 125, illustrates the simplest kind of support. It is used for the ends of book-racks, stools, taborets and cellarets, and is a combination of a leg and a panel. Many pretty designs are cut in or built upon it, and sometimes a mould is used in forming a rectangle on the outside to give a more striking effect. The relief at the bottom adds stability in that it localizes the weight over rough floors and has a suggestion of the ancient Egyptian feature — ^the claw or foot. This fea- ture may be made even more pronounced by gluing on blocks and shap- ing them with a hand turning saw. These ends are built into the frame by the use of screws and nails or by the use of keyed mortise and tenon joints. Mission Style Leg. — B, in Fig. 125, is characteristic of the Mission Style. Its very appearance speaks stability. The stock for the leg is either solid, built up or veneered. If not properly seasoned, the solid stock is liable to cause trouble after the project is put together If of hardwood, it makes a very cumbersome structure. The built-up piece is better than the solid because well seasoned pieces and prettier grain may be selected. The veneered leg is the best, as it is lighter in weight, is easier to work, and the veneer will show the same grain on all four sides. A light bevel should be cut around the bottom of these legs to prevent splitting in moving them around. Legs of this type are usually built into the frame by the use of the mortise and tenon joint. Modified Mission Style Leg. — The leg illustrated by C, in Fig, 125, is a modified form of B. It is usually of solid stock and has a portion tapered. Square brass or bronze ferrules at the bottom give a very pleasing effect. CABINET MAKING 63 French Leg. — D, in Fig. 125, is commonly known as the French Leg, and should be built only in such patterns as have circular or ellip- tical tops or seats, and swelled or curved rails. Patterns using the French leg are usually void of panel effects. These legs are of many proportions and lengths. Carving found its way into these patterns, since the top swell and foot offered an exceptional opportunity for the wood carver. Glue, screws, dowel pins and light mortises and tenons are used in building up the frame of a structure including legs of this type. ^..^ Ir z=^