rj^ y ,•0' ^OO^ '-''•' > ' ° ~ ' •>= ' ' • • ' \o-j^ • ■ ' ■ . :% '■■-' \^^ i-^V-^'j '"^■; V. \Q ^^. >■ ' ,0^ A,^. t --f, /.^^_ -^ ^ ./ .^'^r^'"' xOo. "oo'^ A- o. ,-o- .<-^' a\ .^^ \ ^^ ■-^ ^N^ A • % -^z::;^^ ^o^ c- '^ \^ ■^ •^^ ■00^ " ''-^ .-^^ ^ J .. . ^ ■\ ,0 A^' ^.. '^>, ' " » ■i:\.^-. •"00^ ^ tt' . .0^ ■/. o. C .6 y ^ » v -^ v'^ r A -^^' "^^> < .^<^ .-^^ cP' .• i^ ... A- "b. '■^ ^^. * "V .V A SCIENTIFIC TREATISE on FOOD SUBSTANCES and their DIETETIC PROPERTIES, TOGETHER WITH A PRACTICAL EXPLANATION OF THE Principles of Healthful Cookery, AND A LARGE NUMBER O r ORIGINAL, PALATABLE, and WHOLESOME RECIPES. ^7^ MRS. E. E. KELLOGG, A. M. Superintendent of the Sanitarium School of Cookery and of the Bay View Assembly School of Cookery, and Chairman of the World's Fair Committee on Food Supplies, for Michigan. PUBLISHED BY THE HEALTH PUBLISHING COMPANY, Battle Creek, Mich. \ \ ^ S^3^9 > J^ Copyrighted i892, by Mrs. E. E. Kellogg. PREFACE. ''PHE interest in scientific cookery, particularly in cookery as related to health, has X manifestly increased in this country within the last decade, as is evidenced by the success which has attended every intelligent effort toward the establishment of schools for instruction in cookery in various parts of the United States. While those in charge of these schools have presented to their pupils excellent opportunities for the acquirement of dexterity in the preparation of toothsome and tempting viands, but little attention has been paid to the science of dietetics, or what might be termed the hygiene of cookery. A little less than ten years ago the Sanitarium at Battle Creek, Mich., established an experimental kitchen and a school of cookery under the supervision of Mrs. Dr. Kellogg, since which time, researches in the various lines of cookery and dietetics have been in constant progress in the experimental kitchen, and regular sessions of the school of cookery have been held. The school has gradually gained in popularity, and the demand for instruction has become so great that classes are in session during almost the entire year. During this time, Mrs. Kellogg has had constant oversight of the cuisine of both the Sanitarium and the Sanitarium Hospital, preparing bills of fare for the general and diet tables, and supplying constantly new methods and original recipes to meet the changing and growing demands of an institution numbering always from 500 to 700 inmates. These large opportunities for observation, research, and experience, have gradu- ally developed a system of cookery, the leading features of which are so entirely novel and so much in advance of the methods heretofore in use, that it may be justly styled, A New System of Cookery. It is a singular and lamentable fact, the evil consequences of which are wide-spread, that the preparation of food, although involving both chemical and physical processes, has been less advanced by the results of modern researches and discoveries in chemistry and physics, than any (ither department of human industry. Iron-mining, glass-making, even the homely art of brick-making, and many of the operations of the farm and the dairy, have been advantageously modified by the results of the fruitful labors of modern scientific investigators. But the art of cookery is at least a century behind in the march of scientific progress. The mistress of the kitchen is still groping her way amid the uncertainties of mediseval methods, and daily bemoaning the sad results of the "rule of thumb." The chemistry of cookery is as little known to the average housewife as were the results of modern chemistry to the old alchemists ; and the [3] 4 PREFACE. attempt to make wholesome, palatable, and nourishing food by the methods com- monly employed, is rarely more successful than that of those misguided alchemists in transmuting lead and copper into silver and gold. The new cookery brings order from out the confusion of mixtures and messes, often incongruous and incompatible, which surrounds the average cook, by the eluci- dation of the principles which govern the operations of the kitchen, with the same certainty with which the law of gravity rules the planets. Those who have made themselves familiar with Mrs. Kellogg's system of cook- ery, invariably express themselves as trebly astonished : first, at the simplicity of the methods employed ; secondly, at the marvelous results both as regards palatableness, wholesomeness, and attractiveness ; thirdly, that it had never occurred to them "to do this way before." This system does not consist simply of a rehash of what is found in every cook book, but of new methods, which are the result of the application of the scientific principles of chemistry and physics to the preparation of food in such a manner as to make it the most nourishing, the most digestible, and the most inviting to the eye and to the palate. Those who have tested the results of Mrs. Kellogg's system of cookery at the Sanitarium tables, or in their own homes through the instruction of her pupils, have been most enthusiastic in their expressions of satisfaction and commendation. Hun- dreds of original recipes which have appeared in her department in Good Health, " Science in the Household," have been copied into other journals, and are also quite largely represented in the pages of several cook books which have appeared within the last few years. The great success which attended the cooking school in connection with the Bay View Assembly (the Michigan Chautauqua), as well as the uniform success which has met the efforts of many of the graduates of the Sanitarium school of cookery who have undertaken to introduce the new system through the means of cooking classes in vari- ous parts of the United States, has created a demand for a fuller knowledge of the system. This volume is the outgrowth of the practical and experimental work, and the popular demand above referred to. Its preparation has occupied the entire leisure time of the author during the last five or six years. No pains or expense has been spared to render the work authoritative on all the questions upon which it treats, and in presenting it to the public, the publishers feel the utmost confidence that the work will meet the highest expectations of those who have waited impatiently for its ap- pearance during the months which have elapsed since its preparation was first announced. Publishers. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Foods 25 Properties of food — Food elements — Uses of food elements — Proper combinations of food — Proper proportion of food elements — Condiments — Relation of condiments to in- temperance — Variety in food — Table topics. The Digestion of Foods 35 The digestive organs — The digestion of a mouthful of bread — Salivary digestion — Stomach digestion — Intestinal diges- tion — Other uses of the digestive fluids — Absorption- — Liver digestion — Time required for digestion — Dr. Beau- mont's table made from experiments on Alexis St. Martin — Hygiene of digestion — Hasty eating — Drinking freely at meals — Eating between meals — Simplicity in diet — Eat- ing when tired — Eating too much — How much food is enough — Excess of certain food elements — Deficiency of certain food elements — Food combinations — Table topics. Cookery 45 Evils of bad cookery — The principles of scientific cookery — Fuels — Making fires — Care of fires — Methods of cooking — Roasting — Broiling or grilling — Baking — The oven thermometer — Boiling — The boiling point of water — How to raise the boiling point of water — Action of hot and cold water upon foods — Steaming — Stewing — Frying — Evap- oration — Measuring — Comparative table of weights and measures — Mixing the material — Stirring — Beating — Kneading — Temperature — Cooking utensils — Porcelain ware — Granite ware — Galvanized iron ware — Tests for lead — Adulterated tin — Table topics. The Household Workshop 66 Description of a convenient kitchen — The kitchen furniture — Cupboards — A convenient kitchen table — The kitchen sink — Drainpipes — Stoves and ranges — Oil and gas stoves — [5] 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. The "Aladdin Cooker" — Kitchen utensils — The tin closet — The dish closet — The pantry — The storeroom — The refrigerator — The water supply — Test for pure water — Fil- ters — Cellars — Kitchen conveniences — The steam cooker — The vegetable press — The lemon drill — The handy waiter — The wall cabinet — The percolater holder — Kneading table — Dish-towel rack — Kitchen brushes — Vegetable brush — Table topics. The Grains, or Cereals, and their Preparation 76 General properties of grains — Cooking of grains — The double boiler — Table showing amount of liquid, and time required for cooking different grains — Grains for breakfast — Grains an economical food — Wheat — Description of a grain of wheat — Preparation and cooking — Recipes: Pearl wheat, Cracked wheat, Rolled wheat. Boiled wheat. Wheat with raisins, Wheat with fresh fruit. Molded wheat — Finer mill products of wheat — Recipes : Farina, Farina with fig sauce, Farina with fresh fruit, Molded farina, Graham grits, Gra- ham mush, Graham mush No. 2, Graham mush No. 3, Graham mush with dates. Plum porridge, Graham apple mush, Granola mush, Granola fruit mush, Granola peach mush, Bran jelly — -The oat, description of — Oatmeal — Brose — Budrum — Flummery — Preparation and cooking of oats — Recipes-: Oatmeal mush, Oatmeal fruit mush, Oatmeal blancmange. Oatmeal Blancmange No. 2, Jellied oatmeal, Mixed mush. Rolled oats. Oatmeal with apple, Oatmeal porridge — Barley, description of — Gofio — Scotch milled or pot barley — Pearl barley — Suggestions for cooking barley — Recipes: Baked barley. Pearl barley with raisins, Pearl barley with lemon sauce — Rice, descrip- tion of — Rice paddie — Preparation and cooking of rice — -Recipes: Steamed rice. Boiled rice. Rice with fig sauce. Orange rice. Rice with raisins, Rice with peaches, Browned rice — Rye, description of — Rye meal — Rye flour — Reci- pes : Rolled rye. Rye mush — Maize, or Indian corn, descrip- tion of — Suggestions for cooking corn — Recipes: Corn meal mush. Corn meal mush with fruit, Corn meal cubes. Browned mush. Samp, Cerealine flakes. Hulled corn. Coarse hominy, Fine hominy or grits. Popped corn — Macaroni, description of — Semolina — Spaghetti — Vermicelli — To select macaroni — To prepare and cook macaroni — Reci- pes : Homemade macaroni, Boiled macaroni, Macaroni with cream sauce. Macaroni with tomato sauce, Macaroni baked with granola, Eggs and macaroni — Table topics. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 7 Breadstuffs and Bread-making log The origin of bread — Chestnut bread — Peanut bread — Bread- stuffs — Qualities necessary for good bread — Superiority of bread over meat — Graham flour — Wheat meal — Whole- wheat or entire wheat "flour — How to select flour — To keep flour — Deleterious adulterations of flour — Tests for adulterated flour — Chemistry of bread-making — Bread made light by fermentation — The process of fermentation — Fermentative agents — Yeast — Homemade yeasts — How to keep }east — Bitter yeast — Tests for yeast — Start- ing the bread — Proportion of materials needed — Utensils — When to set the sponge — Temperature for bread-making — How to set t^he sponge — Lightness of the bread — Kneading the dough — How to manipulate the dough in kneading — How many times shall bread be kneaded— Dry- jiess of the surface — Size of loaves — Proper temperature of the oven — How to test the heat of an oven — Care of bread after baking — Best method of keeping bread — Test of good fermented bread -^ Whole-wheat and Crraham breads — Toast — Steamed bread — Liquid yeast — Recipes : Raw potato yeast, Raw potato }east No. 2, Hop yeast, ■ Boiled potato yeast, Boiled potato yeast No. 2 — Fermented breads — j^f'(7/o- .• Milk bread with wlieat flour, \'ienna bread, Water bread, Fruit roll, Fruit loaf, Potato bread, Pulled bread, ^^'hole-wheat bread, Whole-wheat bread No. 2, Miss B's one-ri!^ing bread. Potato bread with whole-Avheat flour. Rye bread, (iraham bread, Ciraham bread No. 2, Graham bread No. 3, Raised biscuit, Rolls, Imperial rolls, French rolls, Crescents, Parker House rolls, Braids, Brown bread, Date bread, Fruit loaf with Graham and whole- wheat flour. Raised corn bread. Corn cake, Oatmeal bread, Milk yeast bread, Graham salt rising bread — Unfermented breads — Passover cakes — Tortillas — Evils of chemical bread raising — Rochelle salts in baking pow- ders — General directions — Gem irons — Perforated sheet- iron pan for rolls — L^nfermented batter breads — Un- fermented dough breads — Recipes : Whole-wheat puffs. Whole-wheat puffs No. 2, Whole-wheat puffs No. 3, Graham puffs, Graham puffs No. 2, Currant puffs, Graham gems, Crusts, Rye puffs. Rye puffs No. 2, Rye gems. Blueberry gems. Hominy gems, Sally Lunn gems. Corn puffs, Corn puffs No. 2, Corn puffs No 3, Corn puffs No. 4, Corn dodgers, Corn dodgers No. 2, Cream corn cakes, Hoe cakes. Oatmeal gems. Snow gems. Pop overs, Granola gems. Bean gems, Breakfast rolls. Sticks, Cream Graham O TABLE OF CONTENTS. rolls, Corn mush rolls, Fruit rolls. Cream mush rolls. Beaten biscuit, Cream crisps, Cream crisps No. 2, Gra- ham crisps. Oatmeal crisps, Graham crackers, Fruit crackers — Table topics. Fruits 164 Chemical constituents of — Value as nutrients — Structure of fruits — The jelly-producing principle — Digestibility of fruits — Unripe fruits — Table of fruit analysis — Ripe fruit and digestive disorders — Over-ripe and decayed fruits — Dangerous bacteria on unwashed fruit — Free use of fruit lessens desire for alcoholic stimulants — Beneficial use of fruits in disease — Apples — The pear — The quince — The peach — The plum — The prune — The apricot — The cherry — The olive ; its cultivation and preservation — The date, description and uses of — The orange — The lemon — The sweet lemon or bergamot — The citron — The lime ^ The grape-fruit— The pomegranate, its antiquity — The grape — Zante currants — The gooseberry — The currant — The whortleberry — The blueberry — The cranberry — The strawberry — The raspberry — The blackberry — The mul- berry — The melon — The fig, its antiquity and cultivation — The banana — Banana meal — The pineapple — Fresh fruit for the table — Selection of fruit for the table — Direc- tions for serving fruits — Keeping fresh fruit — Directions for packing, handling, and keeping fruits — Recipes : To keep grapes, To keep lemons, oranges, and cranberries — Cooked fruit — General suggestions for 'cooking fruit — Recipes : Baked apples, Citron apples, Lemon apples. Baked pears, Baked quince. Pippins and quince. Baked apple sauce. Baked apple sauce No. 2, Apples stewed whole, Steamed ap- ples, Compote of apples, Apple compote No. 2, Stewed pears, Stewed apple sauce, Boiled apples with syrup. Stewed apples, Stewed crab apples, Sweet apple sauce with condensed apple juice. Apples with raisins. Apples with apricots, Peaches, pears, cherries, berries, and other small fruits. Baked apples. Baked pears. Baked peaches, Cranberries, Cranberries with raisins, Cranberries with sweet apples, Oranges and apples. Stewed raisins, Dried apples, Dried apples with other dried fruit, Dried apricots and peaches, Evaporated peach sauce, Dried pears. Small fruits, Prunes, Prune marmalade — Can- ning fruit — Selection of cans — -How to test and sterilize cans — Selection of fruit — Directions for preparing fruit — Cooking fruit for canning — Storing of canned fruit — Mold oh canned fruit — Opening of canned fruit — Rules for selecting canned fruit — Fruit jellies — Fruit juices, value TABLE OF CONTENTS. 9 of — How to prepare fruit juices — Recipes: Grape juice or unfermented wine, Grape juice No. 2, Another method, Fruit syrup, Currant syrup, Orange syrup, Lemon syrup, Lemon syrup No 2, Blackberry syrup. Fruit ices — Nuts — Composition and nutritive value of — The almond — Al- mond bread — The Brazil nut — The cocoanut, its uses in tropical countries — The chestnut — Chestnut flour — The acorn — The hazel nut — The filbert — The cobnut — The walnut — The butternut — The hickory nut — The pecan — The peanut or ground nut — Recipes : To blanch almonds, Boiled chestnuts. Mashed chestnuts, Baked chestnuts. To keep nuts fresh — Table topics. The Legumes 217 (Composition and nutritive value — Legumes as a substitute for animal food — Legumin, or vegetable casein — Chinese cheese — Legumes the "pulse" of Scripture — Diet of the pyramii builders — Digestibility of legumes — A four- teenth century recipe — The green legumes — Suggestions for cooking — Slow cooking preferable — -Soaking the dry seeds — Effects of hard water upon the legumes — Tempera- ture of water for cooking — Amount of water required — Addition of salt to legumes — Peas, description of — -Buying votes with peas — A commemorative dinner — Peas bain- ocks — Peas sausages — Peas pudding — Time required for cooking — Recipes : Stewed split peas, Peas puree. Mashed peas. Peas cakes. Dried green peas — Beans, description of — Mention of beans in Scripture — Beans in mythology — Time required for digestion — Method of cooking — Ex- periment of an English cook — Parboiling beans — Time required to cook — Recipes: Baked beans, Boiled beans. Beans boiled in a bag. Scalloped beans, Stewed beans, Mashed beans. Stewed Lima beans, Succotash, Pulp suc- cotash — Lentils, description of — Use of lentils by the ancients — Lentil meal — Preparation for cooking — Recipes : Lentil puree, Lentils mashed with beans, Lentil gravy with rice — Table topics. Vegetables 228 Composition and nutritive value of vegetables — Exclusive diet of vegetables not desirable — To select vegetables — - Poison in potato sprouts — Stale vegetables a cause of illness — Keeping vegetables — To freshen withered vegetables-^ Storing winter vegetables — Preparation and cooking — To clean vegetables for cooking — Methods of cooking — lO TABLE OF CONTENTS. — -The Irish potato, description of — The chemistr}^ of cooking — Digestibility of the potato — New potatoes — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Potatoes boiled in "jackets," Boiled potatoes without skins, Steamed potatoes. Roasted potatoes, Baked potatoes, Stuffed potatoes, Stuffed potatoes No. 2, Mashed potatoes. New potatoes. Cracked potatoes. Creamed potatoes, Scalloped potatoes. Stewed potatoes, Potatoes stewed with celery. Potato snow balls, Potato cakes, Potato cakes with egg. Potato puffs, Browned potatoes, Ornamental potatoes. Broiled potatoes. Warmed- over potatoes. Vegetable hash — The sweet potato, descrip- tion of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Baked sweet potatoes. Baked sweet potatoes No. 2, Boiled sweet pota- toes. Steamed sweet potatoes. Browned sweet potatoes, Mashed sweet potatoes, Potato hash. Roasted sweet pota- toes—Turnips, description of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes: Boiled turnips. Baked turnips. Creamed tur- nips, Chopped turnips, Mashed turnips. Scalloped turnips, Steamed turnips, Stewed turnips. Turnips in juice, Turnips with cream sauce — Parsnips, description of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Baked parsnips. Baked parsnips No. 2, Boiled parsnips, Browned parsnips, Creamed parsnips. Mashed parsnips. Parsnips with cream sauce, Parsnips with egg sauce. Parsnips with potatoes. Stewed parsnips. Stewed parsnips with celery — Carrots, description of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Boiled carrots. Carrots with egg sauce. Stewed carrots — ^ Beets, description of — Preparation and. cooking — Recipes : Baked beets, Baked beets No. 2, Beets and potatoes. Beet hash. Beet greens. Beet salad or chopped beets. Beet salad No 2, Boiled beets. Stewed beets — Cabbage, description of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Baked cabbage, Boiled cabbage. Cabbage and to- matoes, Cabbage and celery. Cabbage hash. Chopped cab- bage or cabbage salad. Mashed cabbage, Stewed cabbage ^ — Cauliflower and Broccoli, description of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Boiled cauliflower, Browned cauliflower, Cauliflower with tgg sauce. With tomato sauce, Stewed cau- liflower, Scallope,d cauliflower — Spinach, description of — Preparation and cooking — Celery — To keep celery fresh — Recipes: Celery salad, Stewed celery, Stewed celery No. 2, Celery with tomato sauce. Celery and potato hash ■ — Asparagus, description of — Preparation and cooking — Recipes : Asparagus and peas. Asparagus points, Asparagus on toast. Asparagus with cream sauce, Asparagus with egg sauce. Stewed asparagus — Sea-kale, description of — Let- tuce and radish, description of — Winter squash — Prepara- TABLE OF CONTENTS. II tion and cooking — Time required for cooking — Recipes: Baked squash, Steamed squash — The pumpkin, descrip- tion of — 'Recipes : Baked pumpkin, Stewed pumpkin. Dried pumpkin — Tomato, description of — Preparation and cook- ing — Recipes: Baked tomatoes, Baked tomatoes No. 2, Scalloped tomatoes. Stewed corn anei tomatoes, Tomato gravy, Tomato salad. Tomato salad No. 2, Broiled toma- toes, Tomato pudding, Stewed tomatoes. Tomato with okra — Egg plant, description of — Nutritive value — Recipes : Scalloped egg plant. Baked egg plant — Cucumber, descrip- tion of — Digestibility — Preparation and cooking — Salsify or vegetable oyster, description of — Preparation and cook- ing — Recipes: Scalloped vegetable oysters, Stewed vege- table oysters — Cxreen corn, peas, and beans, description of — General suggestions for selecting and cooking — Recipes for corn : Baked corn, Baked corn No. 2, Boiled green corn, Stewed corn pulp, Corn cakes, Corn i)udding. Roasted green corn. Stewed green corn, Summer succotash. Dried corn — Recipe for peas : Stewed peas — Recipes for beans : Lima beans, Shelled beans. String beans — Canning vege- tables — Recipes : Canned corn and tomatoes. Canned peas, Canned tomatoes. Canned tomatoes No. 2, String beans, Canned pumpkin and squash — Table topics. Soups 271 \'alue of soup as an article of diet — Superiority of soups made from grain and legumes — Economical value of such soup.s Digestibility of soups — Cooking of material for soups — Use of a colander in preparing soups — Quantity of salt re- quired — -Flavoring soups — Seasoning of soup — Chinese soup strainer — Whole grains, macaroni, shredded vegeta- bles, etc., for soups — Milk in the preparation of soups — Consistency of soups — Preparation of soups from left-over fragments — Croutons — Recipes: Asparagus soup. Baked bean soup, Bean and corn soup. Bean and hominy soup, Bean and potato soup. Bean and tomato soup. Black bean soup. Black bean soup No. 2, Bran stock, Brown soup. Canned green pea soup, Canned corn soup, Carrot soup, Celery soup. Chestnut soup. Combination soup, Combina- tion soup No. 2, Another, Another, Cream pea soup, Cream barley soup, Green corn soup. Green pea soup, Green bean soup, Kornlet soup, Kornlet and tomato soup, Lentil soup, Lentil and parsnip soup, Lima bean soup, Macaroni soup. Oatmeal soup. Parsnip soup, Parsnip soup No. 2, Pea and tomato soup, Plain rice soup, Potato and rice soup, Potato 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS. soup, Potato and vermicelli soup, Sago and potato soup, Scotch broth, Split pea soup, Sweet potato soup, Swiss potato soup, Vermicelli soup No. 2, White celery soup — Table topics. Breakfast Dishes 287 Importance of a good breakfast — Requirements for a good breakfast — Pernicious custom of using fried and indigesti- ble foods for breakfast — Use of salted foods an auxiliary to the drink habit — The ideal breakfast — Use .of fruit for breakfast — Grains for breakfast — An appetizing dish — Preparation of zwieback — Preparation of toast — Recipes: Apple toast, Apricot toast. Asparagus toast. Banana toast. Berry toast. Berry toast No. 2, Celery toast. Cream toast. Cream toast with poached egg. Cherry toast. Gravy toast. Dry toast with hot cream, Grape toast, Lentil toast. Prune toast. Peach toast, Snowflake toast. Tomato toast, Vege- table oyster toast — Miscellaneous breakfast dishes : Brewis, Blackberry mush. Dry granola. Frumenty, Macaroni with raisins. Macaroni with kornlet. Peach mush. Rice with lemon — Table topics. Desserts . ••" 296 Appropriate and healthful desserts — Objections to the use of desserts — The simplest dessert — General suggestions — Im- portance of good material — Preparation of dried fruit for dessert — ■ Molded desserts — Suggestions for flavoring : To prepare almond paste, Cocoanut flavor. Orange and lemon flavor. To color sugar. Fruit desserts — Recipes : Apple des- sert, Apple meringue dessert, Apple rose cream, Apple snow. Baked apples with cream. Baked sweet apple dessert. Ba- nanas in syrup. Baked bananas. Fresh fruit compote. Grape apples. Peach cream. Prune dessert — Desserts made of fruit with grains, bread, etc. — Recipes : Apple sandwich, Apple sandwich No. 2, Baked apple pudding. Barley fruit pudding. Barley fig pudding, Blackberry cornstarch pudding, Cocoanut, and cornstarch blancmange. Cornstarch blanc- mange. Cornstarch with raisins. Cornstarch with apples. Cornstarch fruit mold. Cornstarch fruit mold No. 2, Cracked wheat pudding, Cracked wheat pudding No. 2, Farina blanc- mange, Farina fruit mold. Fruit pudding. Jam pudding. Plain fruit pudding or Brown Betty, Prune pudding. Rice meringue. Rice snowball. Rice fruit dessert. Rice dumpling, Rice cream pudding, Rice pudding with raisins. Red rice TABLE OF CONTENTS. 1 3 mold, Rice and fruit dessert, Rice and tapioca pudding, Rice flour mold. Rice and stewed apple dessert, Rice and strawberry dessert, Stewed fruit pudding, Strawberry minute pudding. Sweet apple pudding, Whortleberry pudding — Des- serts with tapioca, sago, manioca, and sea iwoss — Recipes : Apple tapioca, Apple tapioca No. 2, Banana dessert. Black- berry tapioca. Cherry pudding, Fruit tapioca. Molded tapi- oca with fruit. Pineapple tapioca. Prune and tapioca pudding, Tapioca and fig pudding. Peach tapioca. Tapioca jelly, Apple sago pudding. Red sago mold. Sago fruit pudding. Sago pudding, Manioca with fruit, Raspberry manioca mold. Sea moss blancmange — Desserts made with gela- tine — Gelatine an excellent culture medium — Dangers in the use of gelatine — Quantity to be used — Recipes: Ap- ples in jelly, Apple shape. Banana dessert, Clear dessert, Fruit foam dessert. Fruit shape, (ielatine custard. Layer pudding, Lemon jelly, Jelly with fruit. Orange dessert, Oranges in jelly, Orange jelly, Snow pudding — Desserts with crusts — Recipes: Apple tart, Gooseberry tart, Cherry tart. Strawberry and other fruit shortcakes, Banana short- cake, Lemon shortcake. Berry shortcake with prepared cream. Cream, Raised pie. Baked apple loaf, Custard pud- dings — Importance of slow cooking — Best utensils for cooking — Custard desserts in cups — To stir beaten eggs into heated milk — To flavor custards and custard pud- dings — Recipes : Apple custard, Apple custard No. 2, Apple custard No. 3, Apple cornstarch custard, Apple and bread custard. Almond cornstarch pudding. Almond cream, Apple charlotte. Banana custard. Boiled custard, Boiled custard bread pudding. Bread and fruit custard. Bread custard pudding. Bread and fig pudding, Bread and apricot pudding. Caramel custard, Carrot pudding, Cocoanut corn- starch pudding, Cocoanut custard, Cocoanut rice custard. Corn meal pudding. Corn meal pudding No. 2, Corn meal and fig pudding. Cornstarch meringue. Cracked wheat pud- ding. Cup custard, Farina custard, Farina pudding, Floating island, Fruit custard, Graham grits pudding. Ground rice pudding, Lemon pudding. Lemon cornstarch pudding, Lemon cornstarch pudding No. 2, Macaroni pudding. Molded rice or snowballs. Orange float. Orange custard, Orange pudding, Peach meringue, Picnic jnidding. Plain cornstarch pudding, Plain custard, Prune pudding. Prune whip, Rice apple custard pudding, Rice custard pudding. Rice snow. Rice snow with jelly. Rice with eggs. Snow pud- ding, Steamed custard. Tapioca custard. Tapioca pudding. Vermicelli pudding, White custard. White custard No. 2 — 14 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Steamed pudding — Precautions to be observed in steaming puddings — Recipes : Batter pudding, Bread and fruit cus- tard, Date pudding, Rice balls, Steamed bread custard, Steamed fig pudding — Pastry and cake — Deleterious effects from the use of — Reasons for indigestibility — General di- rections for making pies — Recipes : Paste for pies, Corn meal crust, Granola crust, Paste for tart shells, Cream filling, Grape tart. Lemon filling, Tapioca filling, Apple custard pie, Banana pie. Bread pie. Carrot pie, Cocoanut pie, Cocoanut pie No. 2, Cream pie, Cranberry pie. Dried apple pie. Dried apple pie with raisins, Dried apricot pie. Farina pie. Fruit pie. Grape jelly pie. Jelly custard pie. Lemon pie, Lemon meringue custard. One crust peach pie, Orange pie, Peach custard pie. Prune pie. Pumpkin pie. Pumpkin pie No. 2, Pumpkin pie without eggs. Simple custard pie. Squash pie, Squash pie without eggs. Sweet apple custard pie. Sweet po- tato pie — Cake — General suggestions for preparation of — Cake made light Avith yeast — Cake made light with air — Recipes : Apple cake, Cocoanut custard cake. Cream cake, Delicate cup cake. Fig layer cake. Fruit jelly cake, Gold and silver cake. Icing for cakes. Orange cake, Fruit cake. Loaf cake, Pineapple cake. Plain buns. Sponge cake, Sugar crisps, Variety cake — Table topics. Gravies and Sauces 350 Importance of proper preparation — Accuracy of measurement — Proportion of material necessary — The double boiler for cooking gravies — Flavoring of gravies for vegetables — Gravies and sauces for vegetables — Recipes: Brown sauce, Cream and white sauce, _Celery sauce, PZgg sauce, Pease gravy, Tomato gravy. Tomato cream gravy — Sauces for desserts and puddings — Recipes : Almond sauce. Caramel sauce, Cocoanut sauce, Cream sauce. Cranberry pudding sauce, Custard sauce. Egg sauce, Egg sauce No. 2, Foamy sauce. Fruit cream. Fruit sauce, Fruit sauce No. 2, Lemon pudding sauce. Mock cream, Molasses sauce, Orange sauce, Peach sauce, Plain pudding sauce. Red sauce, Rose cream Sago sauce. Whipped cream sauce — Table topics. Beverages 357 Large quantities of fluid prejudicial to digestion — Wholesome beverages — The cup that cheers but not inebriates — Harm- ful substances contained in tea — Theine — Tannin — Use of tea a cause of sleeplessness and nervous disorders — Tea a sliniulant — Tea not a food - — -Coffee, cocoa, and chocolate TABLE OF CONTENTS. I 5 — Caffein — Adulteration of tea and coffee — Substitutes for tea and coffee — Recipes : Beet coffee, Caramel coffee, CaraTiel coffee No. 2, Caramel coffee No. 3, Caramel coffee No. 4, Mrs. T's caramel coffee, Parched grain coffee, Wheat, oats, and barley coffee — Recipes for cold beverages : Blackberry beverage. Fruit beverage. Fruit beverage No. 2, Fruit cordial. Grape beverage, Lemonade, Mixed lemonade, Oatmeal drink. Orangeade, Pineapple beverage, Pineapple lemonade, Pink lemonade. Sherbet, Tisane — Table topics. Milk, Cream, and Butter 364 Milk, chemical composition of — Proportion of food elements — Microscopic examination of milk — Casein — Casein coagulated by the introduction of acid — Spontaneous co- agulation or souring of milk — Adulteration of milk — Quality of milk influenced by the food of the animal — Diseased milk — Kinds of milk to be avoided — Distribution of germs by milk — Proper utensils for keeping milk — Where to keep milk — Dr. Dougall's experiments on the absorbent properties of milk — Washing of milk dishes — Treatment of milk for cream rising — Temperature at which cream rises best — Importance of sterilizing milk — To sterilize milk for immediate use — To sterilize milk to keep — Condensed milk — Cream, composition of — Changes produced by churning — Skimmed milk, compo- sition of — Buttermilk, composition of — Digestibility of cream — Sterilized cream — Care of milk for producing cream — Homemade creamery — Butter, the composition- of — Rancid butter — Tests of good butter — Flavor and color of butter — Artificial butter — Test for oleomargarine — Butter in ancient times — Butter making — Best condi- tions fur the rising of cream — Upon what the keeping qualities of butter depend — (Cheese — Tyrotoxicon — Recipes : Hot milk, Devonshire or clotted cream. Cottage cheese. Cottage cheese froui buttermilk, Cottage cheese from sour milk, French butter, Shaken milk, Fmulsified butter — Table topics. Eggs 380 Eggs a concentrated food — Composition of the egg — How to choose eggs — Quality of eggs varied by the food of the fowl — Stale eggs — Test for eggs — How to keep eggs — To beat eggs — Albumen susceptible to temperature — Left- over eggs — Recipes : Eggs in shell, Eggs in sunshine, Eggs poached in tomatoes. Eggs in cream. Poached or dropped eggs, Poached eggs with cream sauce, Quickly prepared l6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. eggs, Scrambled eggs, Steamed eggs, Whirled eggs — Omelets — Recipes : Plain omelets, Foam omelets. Fancy omelets, Soft omelets — Table topics. Meats 38g Character of meat — Nutritive value — Excrementitious elements — Flesh food a stimulant — Diseased meats — Jewish cus- toms in regard to meat — Trichina — Tapeworm and other parasites — Meat unnecessary for health — The excessive use of meat tending to develop the animal propensities — Objections to its use — -Pork — Calves' brains and other vis- cera — Meat pies — Scallops — Pates — Comparative nutri- tious value — Variation and flavor — Composition and digestibility — Selection of meats — Preservation of meats — Jerked beef — Pemmican — Preparation and cooking of meat — Frozen beef — Best methods of cooking — Boiling — Stewing — Steaming — Roasting — Broiling — Beef, econ- omy and adaptability in selection of — Recipes: Broiled beef. Cold meat stew, Pan-broiled steak, Pan-broiled steak No. 2, Roast beef, Smothered beef, Vegetables with stewed beef, Stewed beef — Mutton — Cause of strong flavor of — Recipes: Boiled leg of mutton. Broiled chops, Pot roast lamb, Roast mutton. Stewed mutton. Stewed mutton chop, Stewed mutton chop No. 2, Veal and lamb — Poultry and game To truss a fowl or bird — To stuff a fowl or bird — Recipes : Birds baked in sweety potatoes, Boiled fowl, Broiled birds, Broiled fowl, Corn and chicken. Pigeons, quails, and par- tridges. Roast chicken, Roast turkey. Smothered chicken, Steamed chicken. Stewed chicken — Fish, two classes of — Difference in nutritive value — Flavor and wholesomeness — Poison fish — Parasites in fish — Fish as a brain food — Salted fish — Shellfish — Oysters — Clams — Lobsters • — Crabs — Not possessed of high nutritive value — Natural scavengers — Poisonous mussels — How to select and pre- pare fish — Frozen fish — Methods of cooking — Recipes: Baked fish. Broiled fish — Meat soup — Preparation of stock — Selection of material for stock — Quantity of materials needed — Uses of scraps — Extracting the juice — Tempera- ture of the water to be used — Correct proportion of water — Time required for cooking — Straining the stock — To re- move the fat — Simple stock or broth — Compound stock or double broth — To clarify soup stock — Recipes : Asparagus soup. Barley, rice, sago, or tapioca soup. Caramel for color- ing soup brown, Juilienne soup, Tomato soup. White soup, Vermicelli or macaroni soup, Puree with chicken. Tapioca cream soup — Table Topics. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 1 7 Food for the Sick 418 Need of care in the preparation of food fur the sick — What constitutes proper food for the sick — Knowledge of dietetics an important factor in the education of every woman — No special dishes for all cases — Hot buttered toast and rich jellies objectionable — The simplest food the best — Scrupulous neatness in serving important- — -To coax a capricious appetite — A "purple" dinner — A "yellow" dinner — To facilitate the serving of hot foods — Cooking utensils — Gruel — Long-continued cooking needed — Use of the double boiler in the cooking of gruels — Gruel strainer — Recipes : Arrowroot gruel, Barley gruel, Egg gruel, Egg gruel No. 2, Farina gruel, Flour gruel, Gluten gruel. Gluten gruel No. 2, Gluten cream, Gluten meal gruel, Graham gruel, Graham grits gruel, Gruel of prepared flour, Indian meal gruel. Lemon oatmeal gruel. Milk oatmeal gruel, Milk porridge, Oatmeal gruel, Oatmeal gruel No. 2, Oat- meal gruel No. 3, Peptonized gluten gruel, Raisin gruel — Rice water — Preparations of milk — Milk diet — Advan- tages of — Quantity of milk needed — Digestibility of milk — Recipes : Alburaenized milk. Hot milk, Junket, or curded milk. Koumiss, Milk and lime water. Peptonized milk for infants — Beef tea, broths, etc. — Nutritive value — Testi- mony of Dr. Austin Flint — Recipes : Beef extract. Beef juice. Beef tea. Beef tea and eggs. Beef broth and oatmeal. Bottled beef tea, Chicken broth. Mutton broth, Vegetable broth. Vegetable broth No. 2, Mixed vegetable broth — Rec- ipes for Panada : Broth panada. Chicken panada. Egg pa- nada, Milk panada, Raisin panada — Grains for the sick — Recipes : Gluten mush, Tomato gluten. Tomato gluten No. 2 — Meats for the sick — Importance of simple prepa- ration — Recipes: Broiled steak, Chicken, Chicken jelly. Minced chicken. Mutton chop. Minced steak. Scraped steak — Eggs for the sick — Recipes: Floated egg. Gluten meal custard. Gluten custard. Steamed eggs. Soft custard, Raw egg, White of egg, White of egg and milk — Refresh- ing drinks and delicacies for the sick — Nature's delicacies — How to serve — Fruit juices — Recipes: Acorn coffee. Almond milk, Apple beverage, Apple beverage No. 2, Apple toast water. Baked milk. Barley lemonade. Barley and fruit drinks. Barley milk. Cranberry drink, Currantade, Crust cof- fee, Eggnog, Eggnog No. 2, Eggnog No. 3, Egg lemonade, Flaxseed coffee. Gum Arabic water. Hot Avater, Hot lemon- ade, Irish moss lemonade, Orangeade, Plain lemonade, Slip- pery elm tea, Toast water, Tamarind water — Bread — Rrri- l8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. pes : Diabetic biscuit, Diabetic biscuit No. 2, Gluten meal gems — Jellies and other desserts for the sick — Recipes: Arrowroot jelh', Arrowroot blancmange, Currant jelly, Ice- land moss jelly, Iceland moss blancmange, Orange whey. White custard — Table topics. Food for the Aged and the Very Young 439 Requisites of food for the aged — Stimulating diet not necessary — Flesh food unsuitable — Bill of fare — Quantity of food for the aged — Heavy meals a tax upon digestion — Cornaro's testimony — Diet for the young — Causes of mortality among young children — Best artificial food — Use of steril- ized milk — Difference between cows' milk and human milk — Common method of preparing cows' milk — Artificial human milk — Artificial human milk No. 2 — Artificial human milk No. 3 — Peptonized milk — Mucilaginous food excellent in gastro-enteritis — Preparation of food for in- fants — Time required for digestion of artificial food — Quantity of food for infants — Rules for finding the amount of food needed — Table for the feeding of infants — In- terval between feeding — Intervals for feeding at different ages — Manner of feeding artificial foods — Danger from unclean utensils — Diet of older children — An abundance of nitrogenous material important — Flesh food unneces- sary — Experiments of Dr. Camman — Testimony of Dr. Clouston — Candy and similar sweets — Eating between meals — Education of the appetite — Inherited appetites and tendencies — Table topics. Fragments and Left-over Foods 452 Preserving and utilizing the left-over fragments — Precautions to * be observed — Uses of stale bread — To insure perfect pres- ervation of fragments — Preparation of zwieback and crou- tons — Left-over grains — Left-over vegetables — Left-over meats — Left-over milk — Table topics. The Art of Dining 456 Pleasant accessories essential — The dining room — Neatness an essential — Care of the dining room — Furnishings of the dining room — Table talk — A pleasant custom — Table manners — Importance of good table manners — Sugges- tions for table etiquette — The table — Its appearance and appointments — The table an educator in the household — A well ordered table an incentive to good manners — Osten- tation not necessary — Setting the table — The sub-cover TABLE OF CONTENTS. I9 — Napkins — The center piece — Arrangement of dishes — "Dishing up" — Setting the table over night — Warming the dishes — The service of meals — A capital idea — Fruit as the first course at breakfast — To keep the food hot — A dinner of three courses — Plan of service when a servant is employed — General suggestions for waiters — Suggestions concerning dinner parties — Proper form of invitation — Arrangement and adornment of table — A pleasing custom — The menu card — Service for a company dinner — Eti- quette of dinner parties — Table topics. After Mealtime 471 Clearing the table — Washing the dishes — papier-mache tubs — Ammonia, uses of — Clean dishes not evolved from dirty dishwater — Washing all dishes of one kind together — Washing milk dishes — Uses of the dish mop — Cleaning of dishes soiled by eggs — To clean an Q.gg beater — To clean grain boilers and mush kettles — Washing of tin dishes — To clean iron ware — To wash wooden ware — Care of steel knives and forks — Draining the dishes — - Dishcloths and towels — To make a dish mop — The care of glass and sil- ver — To keep table cutlery from rusting — To wash trays and Japanned ware — Care of the table linen — To remove stains — To dry table linen — To iron table linen — Wash- ing colored table linen — The garbage — Table topics. A Year's Breakfasts and Dinners 481 A perplexing problem — Requisites for a well arranged menu — Suggestions for preparing bills of fare — Table of food analy- ses — Fifty-two weeks' breakfasts and dinners — Average cost — Analysis of various bills of fare — Table topics. A Batch of Dinners 543 Holiday dinners — Holiday feasting — Holiday dinners opposed to temperance — Thanksgiving menus — Holiday menus — Picnic dinners — The lunch basket, provision for — Fruit sandwiches — Egg sandwiches — Picnic biscuit — Fig wafers — Suitable beverages — School lunches — Deficiency of food material in the ordinary school lunch — Why the after dinner session of school drags wearily — Simple lunches de- sirable — Suggestions for putting up the lunch — Creamy rice — Neatness and daintiness essential — The lunch bas- ket — Sabbath dinners — A needed reform — Feasting on the Sabbath, deleterious results of — Simple meals for the Sabbath — A Sabbath bill of fare — Table topics. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The Alimentary Canal .... An Oven Thermometer .... Convenient Kitchen Table A Double Boiler Compartment Sink for Dish-Washing (open) Compartment Sink for Dish-Washing (closed) The Steam Cooker Vegetable Press Lemon Drill The Handy Waiter Wall Cabinet Percolator Holder Kneading Table Dish-Towel Rack . Vegetable Brush A Double Boiler .... Sectional View of Wheat Kernel Measuring Cups .... Mexican Woman Making Tortillas Stone Metate .... Gem Irons Perforated Sheet Iron Pan for Rolls Making Unfermented Bread Canning Utensils . Bain Marie Chinese Soup Strainer Creamery Oriental Butter-Making Arrangement for Straining Stoci- Gruel Strainer Extension Strainer Wire Dishcloth 36 50 63 67 68 69 71 71 72 72 73 74 74 75 76 81 86 127 148 149 152 152 153 197 232 273 371 374 413 421 421 474 LIST OF PLATES The Household Workshop. Some Ancient Millers. A Japanese Dinner— The Macaroni Vender. Oranges, Cherries, Pears, and Peaches. (Colored) [20] A Neapolitan Macaroni Factory. Melon, Pineapple, Grapes. (Colored) A Center Piece of Assorted Fruits. (Colored) A Model Dining Room, A Picnic Dinner, INTRODUCTION. \TO one thing over which we have control exerts so marked ^^ an influence upon our physical prosperity as the food we eat ; and it is no exaggeration to say that well-selected and scientifically prepared food renders the partaker whose diges- tion permits of its being well assimilated, superior to his fellow- mortals in those qualities which will enable him to cope most successfully with life's difficulties, and to fulfill the purpose of existence in the best and truest manner. The brain and other organs of the body are affected by the quality of the blood which nourishes them, and since the blood is made of the food eaten, it follows that the use of poor food will result in poor blood, poor muscles, poor brains, and poor bodies, incapable of first-class work in any capacity. Very few persons, however, ever stop to inquire Avhat particular foods are best adapted to the manufacture of good blood and the maintenance of perfect health ; but whatever gratifies the palate or is most conven- iently obtained, is cooked and eaten without regard to its die- tetic value. Far too many meals partake of the characteristics of the one described in the story told of a clergyman who, when requested to ask a blessing upon a dinner consisting of bread, hot and tinged with saleratus, meat fried to a crisp, potatoes swimming in grease, mince pie, preserves, and pickles, de- murred on the ground that the dinner was " not worth a bless- ing. " He might with equal propriety have added, "and not worth eating." [21] 22 INTRODUCTION. The subject of diet and its relation to human welfare, is one deserving of the most careful consideration. It should be studied as a science, to enable us to choose such materials as are best adapted to our needs under the varying circumstances of cli- mate, growth, occupation, and the numerous changing condi- tions of the human system ; as an art, that we may become so skilled in the preparation of the articles selected as to make them both appetizing and healthful. It is an unfortunate fact that even among experienced housekeepers the scientific prin- ciples which govern the proper preparation of food, are but lit- tle understood, and much unwholesome cookery is the result. The mechanical mixing of ingredients is not sufficient to secure good results ; and many of the failures attributed to "poor ma- terial," "bad luck," and various other subterfuges to which cooks resort to excuse themselves, are more correctly attributable to ignorance of scientific principles. The common method of blindly following recipes, with no knowledge of "the reason, why," can hardly fail to be often productive of unsatisfactory results, which to the uninformed seem quite inexplicable. Cookery, when based upon scientific principles, ceases to be the difficult problem it so often appears. Cause and effect fol- low each other as certainly in the preparation of food as in other things ; and with a knowledge of the underlying principles, and faithfulness in carrying out the necessary details, failure be- comes almost an impossibility. There is no department of hu- man' activity where applied science offers greater advantages than in that of cookery, and in our presentation of the subjects treated in the following pages, we have endeavored, so far as consistent with the scope of this work, to give special promi- nence to the scientific principles involved in the successful pro- duction of wholesome articles of food. We trust our readers will find these principles so plainly elucidated and the subject INTRODUCTION. 23 SO interesting, that they will be stimulated to undertake for themselves further study and research in this most important branch of household science. We have aimed also to give special precedence of space to those most important foods, the legumes, and grains and their products, which in the majority of cook books are given but little consideration or are even left out altogether, believing that our readers will be more interested in learning the many palatable ways in which these especially nutritious and inexpensive foods may be prepared, than in a reiteration of such dishes as usually make up the bulk of the average cook book. For reasons stated elsewhere (in the chapter on Milk, Cream, and Butter), we have in the preparation of all recipes made use of cream in place of other fats ; but lest there be some who may suppose because cream occupies so frequent a place in the recipes, and because of their inability to obtain that article, the recipes are therefore not adapted to their use, we wish to state that a large proportion of the recipes in which it is mentioned as seasoning, or for dressing, will be found to be very palatable with the cream omitted, or by the use in its place of some one of the many substitutes recommended. We ought also to mention in this connection, that wherever cream is recommended, unless otherwise designated, the quality used in the preparation of the recipes is that of single or twelve hour cream sufficiently diluted with milk, so that one fourth of each quart of milk is reckoned as cream. If a richer quality than this be used, the quantity should be diminished in proportion ; otherwise, by the excess of fat, a wholesome food may become a rich, unhealthful dish. In conclusion, the author desires to state that no recipe has been admitted to this work which has not been thoroughly tested by repeated trials, by far the larger share of such being 24 INTRODUCTION. • original, either in the combination of the materials used, the method employed, or both materials and method. Care has been taken not to cumber the work with useless and indifferent recipes. It is believed that every recipe will be found valu- able, and that the variety offered is sufficiently ample, so that under the most differing circumstances, all may be well served. We trust therefore that those who undertake to use the work as a guide in their culinary practice, will not consider any given recipe a failure because success does not attend their first efforts. Perseverance and a careful study of the direc- tions given, will assuredly bring success to all who possess the natural or acquired qualities essential for the practice of that most useful of the arts, — " Healthful Cookery." Ella E. Kellogg. Battle Creek, April 20, i8p2. "j^ilE purposes of food are to promote growth, to supply % force and heat, and to furnish material to repair the y waste which is constantly taking place in the body. ^^J Every breath, every thought, every motion, wears out some portion of the delicate and wonderful house in which we live. Various vital processes remove these worn and useless particles ; and to keep the body in health, their loss must be made good by constantly renewed supplies of material properly adapted to replenish the worn and impaired tissues. This ren- ovating material must be supplied through the medium of food and drink, and the best food is that by which the desired end may be most readily and perfectly attained. The great di- versity in character of the several tissues of the body, makes it necessary that food should contain a variety of elements, in order that each part may be properly nourished and replenished. The Food Elements. — The various elements found in food are the following : Starch, sugar, fats, albumen, mineral substances, indigestible substances. [25] 26 scip:nce in the ki'ichen. The digestible food elements are often grouped, according to their chemical composition, into three classes ; viz., carbo- naceous, nitrogenous, and inorganic. The carbonaceous class includes starch, sugar, and fats ; the nitrogenous, all albuminous elements ; and the inorganic comprises the mineral elements. Stai'ch is only found in vegetable foods ; all grains, most vegetables, and some fruits, contain starch in abundance. Sev- eral kinds of sugar are made in nature's laboratory ; cane, grape, fruit, and milk sugar. The first is obtained from the sugar-cane, the sap of maple trees, and from the beet root. Grape and fruit sugars are found in most fruits and in honey. Milk sugar is one of the constituents of milk. Glucose, an arti- ficial sugar resembling grape sugar, is now largely manufactured by subjecting the starch of corn or potatoes to a chemical proc- ess ; but it lacks the sweetness of natural sugars, and is by no means a proper substitute for them. Albumen is found in its purest, uncombined state in the white of an ^%^, which is almost wholly composed of albumen. It exists, combined with other food elements, in many other foods, both animal and vegetable. It is found abundant in oatmeal, and to some ex- tent in the other grains, and in the juices of vegetables. All natural- foods contain elements which in many respects resemble albumen, diwd are so closely allied to it that for convenience they are usually classified under the general name of" albumen." The chief of these is gluten, which is found in wheat, rye, and bar- ley. Casein, found in peas, beans, and milk, and the fibi'in of flesh, are elements of this class. Fats are found in both animal and vegetable foods. Of animal fats, butter and suet are common examples. In vegeta- ble form, fat is abundant in nuts, peas, beans, in various of the grains, and in a few fruits, as the olive. As furnished by nature in nuts, legumes, grains, fruits, and milk, this element is always found in a state of fine subdivision, which condition is the one best adapted to its digestion. As most commonly used, in the form of free fats, as butter, lard, etc., it is not only difficult of digestion itself, but often interferes with the digestion of the other food elements which are mixed with FOODS. 2/ it. It was doubtless never intended that fats should be so modified from their natural condition and separated from other food elements as to be used as a separate article of food. The same may be said of the other carbonaccoLis elements, sugar and starch, neither of wliich, when used alone, is capable of sustaining life, although when combined in a proper and natural manner with other food elements, they perform a most im- portant part in the nutrition of the bod}-. Most foods contain a percentage of the j/a'nera/ elements. Grains and milk furnish these elements in abundance. The cellulose, or woody tissue, of vegetables, and the bran of wheat, are examples of z'n- digestible elements, which although they cannot be converted into blood and tissue, serve an important purpose by giving bulk to the food. With the exception of gluten, none of the food elements, when used alone, are capable of supporting life. A true food substance contains some of all the food elements, the amount of each varying in different foods. Uses of the Food Elements. — Concerning the purpose which these different elements serve, it has been demonstrated by the experiments of eminent physiologists that the carbona- ceous elements, which in general comprise the greater bulk of the food, serve three purposes in the body, i. They furnish material for the production of heat ; 2. They are a source of force when taken in connection with other food elements ; 3. They replenish the fatty tissues of the body. Of the carbona- ceous elements,— starch, sugar, and fats, — fats produce the greatest amount of heat in proportion to quantity ; that is, more lieat is developed from a pound of fat than from an equal weight of sugar or starch ; but this apparent advantage is more than counterbalanced by the fact that fats are much more diffi- cult of digestion than are the other carbonaceous elements, and if relied upon to furnish adequate material for bodily heat, would be productive of much mischief in overtaxing and producing disease of the digestive organs. The fact that nature has made a much more ample provision of starch and sugars than of fats in man's natural diet, would seem to indicate that they were 28 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. - intended to be the chief source of carbonaceous food ; never- theless, fats, when taken in such proportion as nature supphes them, are necessary and important food elements. The nitrogenous food elements especially nourish the brain, nerves, muscles, and all the more highly vitalized and active tissues of the body, and also serve as a stimulus to tissue change. Hence it may be said that a food deficient in these elements is a particularly poor food. The inorganic elements, chief of which are the phosphates, and the carbonates of potash, soda, and lime, aid in furnishing the requisite building material for bones and nerves. Proper Combinations of Foods.— While it is important that our foods should contain some of all the various food ele- ments, experiments upon both animals and human beings show it is necessary that these elements, especially the nitrogenous and carbonaceous, be used in certain definite proportions, as the system is only able to appropriate a certain amount of each ; and all excess, especially of nitrogenous elements, is not only useless, but even injurious, since to rid the system of the sur- plus imposes an additional task upon the digestive and excre- tory organs. The relative proportion of these elements neces- sary to constitute a food which perfectly meets the requirements of the system, is six of carbonaceous to one of nitrogenous. Scientists have devoted much careful study and experimenta- tion to the determination of the quantities of each of the food elements required for the daily nourishment of individuals under the varying conditions of life, and it has come to be commonly accepted that of the nitrogenous material which should consti- tute one sixth of the nutrients taken, about tJiree o?inces is all that can be made use of in twenty-four hours, by a healthy adult of average weight, doing a moderate amount of work. Many articles of food are, however, deficient in one or the other of these elements, and need to be supplemented by other articles containing the deficient element in superabundance, since to employ a dietary in which any one of the nutritive elements is lacking, although in bulk it may be all the digestive organs can manage, is really starvation, and will in time occasion serious results. FOODS. 29 It is thus apparent that much care should be exercised in the selection and combination of food materials. The table on page 484, showing the nutritive values of various foods, should be carefully studied. Such knowledge is of first importance in the education of cooks and housekeepers, since to them falls the selection of the food for the daily needs of the household ; and they should not only understand what foods are best suited to supply these needs, but how to combine them in accordance with physiological laws. Condiments. — By condiments are commonly meant such substances as are added to season food, to give it "a relish" or to stimulate appetite,, but which in themselves possess no real food value. To this category belong mustard, ginger, pepper, pepper sauce, Worcestershire sauce, cloves, spices, and other similar substances. That anything is needed to disguise or improve the natural flavor of food, would seem to imply either that the article used was not a proper alimentary substance, or that it did not answer the purpose for which the Creator designed it. True condiments, such as pepper, pepper sauce, ginger, spice, mustard, cinnamon, cloves, etc., are all strong irritants. This may be readily demonstrated by their application to a raw surface. The intense smarting and burning occasioned are ample evidence of their irritating character. Pepper and mus- tard are capable of producing powerfully irritating effects, even when applied to the healthy skin where wholly intact. It is surprising that it does not occur to the mother who applies a mustard plaster to the feet of her child, to relieve congestion of the brain, that an article which is capable of producing a blister upon the external covering of the body, is quite as capable of producing similar effects when applied to the more sensitive tissues within the body. The irritating effects of these substances upon the stomach are not readily recognized, simply because the stomach is supplied with very few nerves of sensation. That condiments induce an intense degree of irritation of the mucous membrane of the stomach, was abundantly demon- strated by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont upon the unfor- tunate Alexis St. Martin. Dr. Beaumont records* that when St. Martin took mustard, pepper, and similar condiments svith 30 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. his food, the mucous membrane of his stomach became intensely red and congested, appearing very much h'ke an inflanled eye. It is this irritating effect of condiments which gives occasion for their extended use. They create an artificial appetite, similar to the incessant craving of the chronic dyspeptic, whose irritable stomach is seldom satisfied. This fact with regard to condiments is a sufficient argument against their use, being one of the greatest causes of gluttony, since they remove the sense of satiety by which Nature says, " Enough." To a thoroughly normal and unperverted taste, irritating condiments of all sorts are very obnoxious. It is true that Nature accommodates herself to their use with food to such a degree that they may be employed for years without apparently producing very grave results ; but this very condition is a source of injury, since it is nothing more nor less than the go- ing to sleep of the sentinels which nature has posted at the portal of the body, for the purpose of giving warning of danger. The nerves of sensibility have become benumbed to such a degree that they no longer offer remonstrance against irritat- ing substances, and allow the enemy to enter into the citadel of life. The mischievous work is thus insidiously carried on year after year until by and by the individual breaks down with some chronic disorder of the liver, kidneys, or some other im- portant internal organ. Physicians have long observed that in tropical countries where curry powder and other condiments are very extensively used, diseases of the liver, especially acute congestion and inflammation, are exceedingly common, much more so than in countries and among nations where condiments are less freely used. A traveler in Mexico, some time ago, described a favorite Mexican dish as composed of layers of the following ingredients : " Pepper, mustard, ginger, pepper, po- tato, ginger ; mustard, pepper, potato, mustard, ginger, pep- per." The common use of such a dish is sufficient cause for the great frequency of diseases of the liver among the Mexicans, noted by physicians traveling in that country. That the use of condiments is wholly a matter of habit is evident from the fact that different nations employ as condiments articles which FOODS. 3 1 would be in the highest degree obnoxious to people of other countries. For example, the garlic, so freely used in Russian cookery, would be considered by Americans no addition to the natural flavors of food ; and still more distasteful would be the asafetida frequently used as a seasoning in the cuisine of Persia and other Asiatic countries. The use of condiments is unquestionably a strong auxiliary to the formation of a habit of using intoxicating drinks. Persons addicted to the use of intoxicating liquors are, as a rule, fond of stimulating and highly seasoned foods ; and although the converse is not always true, yet it is apparent to every thoughtful person, that the use of a diet composed of highly seasoned and irritating food, institutes the conditions neces- sary for the acquirement of a taste for intoxicating liquors. The false appetite aroused by the use of food that " burns and stings," craves something less insipid than pure cold water to keep up the fever the food has excited. Again, condiments, like all other stimulants, must be continually increased in quantity, or their effect becomes diminished ; and this leads directly to a demand for stronger stimulants, both in eating and drinking, until the probable tendency is toward the dram-shop. A more serious reason why high seasonings lead to intem- perance, is in the perversion of the use of the sense of taste. Certain senses are given us to add to our pleasure as well as for the practical, almost indispensable, use they are to us. For instance, the sense of sight is not only useful, but enables us to drink in beauty, if among beautiful surroundings, without doing us any harm. The same of music and other harmonies which may come to us through the sense of hearing. Rut the sense of taste was given us to distinguish between wholesome and unwholesome foods, and cannot be used for merely sensuous gratification, without debasing and making of it a gross thing. An education which demands special enjoyment or pleasure through the sense of taste, is wholly artificial ; it is coming down to the animal plane, or below it rather ; for the instinct of the brute creation teaches it merely to eat to live. 32 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Yet how wide-spread is this habit of sensuous gratification through the sense of taste ! If one calls upon a neighbor, he is at once offered refreshments of some kind, as though the greatest blessing of life came from indulging the appetite. This evil is largely due to wrong education, which begins with childhood. When Johnnie sits down to the table, the mother says, "Johnnie, what would you like?" instead of putting plain, wholesome food before the child, and taking it as a matter of course that he will eat it and be satisfied. The child grows to think that he must have what he likes, whether it is good for him or not. It is not strange that an appetite thus pampered in childhood becomes uncontrollable at maturity ; for the step from gormandizing to intoxication is much shorter than most people imagine. The natural, unperverted taste of a child will lead him to eat that which is good for him. But how can we expect the children to reform when the parents continually set them bad examples in the matter of eating and drinking.^ The cultivation of a taste for spices is a degradation of the sense of taste. Nature never designed that pleasure should be divorced from use. The effects of gratifying the sense of taste differ materially from those of gratifying the higher senses of sight and hearing. What we see is gone ; nothing remains but the memory, and the same is true of the sweetest sounds which may reach us through the ears. But what we taste is taken into the stomach, and what has thus given us brief pleasure through the gratification of the palate, must make work in the alimentary canal for fourteen hours before it is disposed of. Variety in Food. — Simplicity of diet should be a point of first consideration with all persons upon whom falls the respon- sibility of providing the family bills of fare, since the simplest foods are, as a rule, the most healthful. Variety is needed ; that is, a judicious mingling of fruits, grains, and vegetables ; but the general tendency is to supply our tables with too many kinds and to prepare each dish in the most elaborate manner, until, in many households, the cooking of food has come to be almost the chief end of life. While the preparation of food FOODS. 33 should be looked upon as of so much importance as to demand the most careful consideration and thout^ht as to its suitability, wholesomeness, nutritive qualities, and digestibility, it should by no means be made to usurp the larger share of one's time, when simpler foods and less labor would afford the partakers equal nourishment and strength. A great variety of foods at one meal exerts a j^otent inllu- ence in creating a love of eating, and is likewise a constant temptation to overeat. Let us have well-cooked, nutritious, and palatable food, and i)lenty of it ; variety from day to day, but not too great a variety at each meal. The prevalent custom of loading the table with a great num- ber of viands, upon occasions when guests are to be enter- tained in our homes, is one to be deplored, since it is neither conducive to good health nor necessary to good cheer, but on the contrary is so laborious and expensive a practice that many arc debarred from social intercourse because they cannot afford to entertain after the fashion of their neighbors. Upon this subject a well-known writer has aptly said: " Simplify cook- ery, thus reducing the cost of living, and how many longing individuals would thereby be enabled to afford themselves the pleasure of culture and social intercourse ! When the barbarous practice of stuffing one's guests shall have been abolished, a social gathering will not then imply, as it does now, hard labor, expensive outlay, and dyspepsia. Perhaps when that time arrives, we shall be sufficiently civilized to demand pleasures of a higher sort. True, the entertainments will then, in one sense, be more costly, as culture is harder to come by than cake. The profusion of viands now heaped upon the table, betrays poverty of the worst sort. Having nothing better to offer, we offer victuals ; and this we do with something of that complacent, satisfied air with which some more northern tribes present their tidbits of whale and walrus." 3 TABLE TOPICS. "Let appetite wear reason's golden chain, And find in due restraint its luxury." A man's food, when he has the means and opportunity of selecting it, suggests his moral nature. Many a Christian is trying to do by prayer that which cannot be done except through corrected diet. — Talmage. Our pious ancestors enacted a law that suicides should be buried where four roads meet, and that a cart-load of stones should be thrown upon the body. Yet, when gentlemen or ladies commit suicide, not by cord or steel, but by turtle soup or lobster salad, they may be buried on consecrated .ground, and the public are not ashamed to read an epitaph upon their tombstones false enough to make the marble blush. — Horace Mann. It is related by a gentleman who had an appointment to breakfast with the late A. T. Stewart, that the butler placed before them both an elaborate bill of fare ; the visitor selected a list of rare dishes, and was quite abashed when Mr. Stewart said, " Bring me my usual breakfast, — oatmeal and boiled eggs." He then explained to his friend that he found simple food a necessity to him, otherwise he could not think clearly. That unobscured brain applied to nobler ends would have won higher results, but the principle remains the same. — Sel. Study simplicity in the number of dishes, and variety in the character of the meals. — Sel. I HAVE come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which em- bitters life is due to avoidable errors in diet, . ,. . and that more mischief, in the form of actual disease, of impaired vigor, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man from erroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil to be. — Sir Henry Thompson. The ancient Gauls, who were a very brave, strong, and hardy race, lived very abstemiously. Their food was milk, berries, and herbs. They made bread of nuts. They had a very peculiar fashion of wearing a metal ring around the body, the size of which was regulated by act of Parliament. Any man who outgrew in circum- ference his metal ring was looked upon as a lazy glutton, and consequently was dis- graced. To keep in health this rule is wise : Eat only when you need, and relish food. Chew thoroughly that it may do you good. Have it well cooked, unspiced, and undisguised. — Leonardo da Vitici, [34] :i^' GE5TION 'T is important that the housekeeper not only understand the nature and composition of foods, but she should also know something" of their digestive properties, since food, to ^ be serviceable, must be not only nutritious, but easily di- gested. Digestion is the process by which food is rendered soluble, and capable of being absorbed for use in carrying on the various vital processes. The digestive apparatus consists of a long and tortuous tube called the alimentary canal, varying in length from twenty-five to thirty feet, along which are arranged the various digestive organs, — th-e mouth, the stomach, the liver, and the pancreas, — each of which, together with the intestines, has an important function to perform. In these various organs nature manufact- ures five wonderful fluids for changing and dissolving the sev- eral food elements. The mouth supplies the saliva ; in the walls of the stomach are little glands which produce the gastric juice ; the pancreatic juice is made by the pancreas ; the liver secretes bile ; while scattered along the small intestines are minute [35] 36 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. glands which make the intestinal juice. Each of these fluids has a particular work to do in transforming some portion of the food into suitable material for use in the body. The saliva acts upon the starch of the food, . changing it into sugar ; the gastric juice digests albumen and other nitrogenous ele- ments ; the bile digests fat, and aids in the ab- sorption of other food elements after they are digested ; the pancreatic juice is not confined in its action to a single ele- ment, but' digests starch, fats, and the albuminous elements after they have been acted upon by the gastric juice ; the intes- tinal juice is capable of acting upon all digestible food elements. The Digestion of a Mouthful of Bread.— A mouthful of bread repre- sents all, or nearly all, the elements of nutrition. Taking a mouthful of bread as a representative of food in general, it may be said that its digestion begins the moment it en- ters the mouth, and con- The Alimentary Canal. «. Esoptiagus ; i. Stomach ; tUlueS the entire length c. Cardiac Orifice; d. Pylorus; e. Small Intestine; c ^v q 1 irriF" n1-Q rx7 r-anal /. Bile Duct: g. Pancreatic Duct; h. Ascending Co- ^^ ^Ue dlimeutary CaUdl, I'^n ; i. Transverse Colon; /'. Descending Colon; k, .•■> , i j- .-i i Rectum. or until the digestible 'nil-: DIGESTION OF FOODS. 3/ portion of the food has been completely digested and absorbed. We quote the following brief description of the digestive proc- ess from Dr. J. H. Kellogg's Second Book in Physiology -' : — ''Mastication. — The first act of the digestive process is mas- tication, or chewing the food, the purpose of \\hich is to crush the food and divide it into small particles, so that the various digestive fluids may easily and promptly come into contact with every part of it. '' Salivary Digestion. — During the mastication of the food, the salivary glands are actively pouring out the saliva, which mingles with the food, and by softening it, aids in its division and prepares it for the action of the other digestive fluids. It also acts upon the starch, converting a portion of it into grape- sugar, ^'Stomach Digestion. — After receiving the food, the stomach soon begins to pour out the gastric juice, which first makes its appearance in little drops, like beads of sweat upon the face when the perspiration starts. As the quantity increases, the drops run together, trickle down the side of the stomach, and mingle with the food. The muscular walls of the stomach con- tract upon the food, moving it about with a sort of crushing- action, thoroughly mixing the gastric juice with the food. During this process both the openings of the stomach are closed tightly. The gastric juice softens the food, digests albumen, and coagulates milk. The saliva continues its action upon starch for some time after the food reaches the stomach. " After the food has remained in the stomach from one to three hours, or even longer, if the digestion is slow, or indiges- tible foods have been eaten, the contractions of the stomach become so vigorous that the more fluid portions of the food are squeezed out through the pylorus, the lower orifice of the stomach, thus escaping into the intestine. The pylorus does not exercise any sort of intelligence in the selection of food, as was once supposed. The increasing acidit\' of the contents of the stomach causes its muscular walls to contract with increasing *Good Health Pub. Co., Battle Creek, Mich. 38 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. vigor, until finally those portions of the food which may be less perfectly broken up, but which the stomach has been unable to digest, are forced through the pylorus. ^^ Intestinal Digestion. — As it leaves the stomach, the par- tially digested mass of food is intensely acid, from the large quantity of gastric juice which it contains. Intestinal digestion cannot begin until the food becomes alkaline. The alkaline bile neutralizes the gastric juice, and renders the digesting mass slightly alkaline. The bile also acts upon the fatty elements of the food, converting them into an emulsion. The pancreatic juice converts the starch into grape-sugar, even acting upon raw starch. It also digests fats and albumen. The intestinal juice continues the work begun by the other digestive fluids, and, in addition, digests cane-sugar, converting it into grape- sugar. " Othej- Uses of the Digestive Fluids. — In addition to the uses which we have already stated, several of the digestive fluids possess other interesting properties. The saliva aids the stomach by stimulating its glands to make gastric juice. The gastric juice and the bile are excellent antiseptics, by which the food is preserved from fermentation while undergoing digestion. The bile also stimulates the movements of the intestines by which the food is moved along, and aids absorption. It is re- markable and interesting that a fluid so useful as the bile should be at the same time composed of waste matters which are being removed from the body. This is an illustration of the Avonder- ful economy shown by nature in her ope»"ations. " The food is moved along the alimentary canal, from the stomach downward, by successive contractions of the muscular walls of the intestines, known as peristaltic movements, which occur with great regularity during digestion. ''Absorption. — The absorption of the food begins as soon as any portion has been digested. Even in the mouth and the esophagus a small amount is absorbed. The entire mucous membrane lining the digestive canal is furnished with a rich supply of blood-vessels, by which the greater part of the di- gestive food is absorbed. THE DIGESTION OF FOODS. 39 " Liver Digestion. — The liver as well as the stomach is a digestive organ, and in a double sense. It not only secretes a digestive fluid, the bile, but it acts upon the food brought to it by the portal vein, and regulates the supply of digested food to the general system. It converts a large share of the grape- sugar and partially digested starch brought to it into a kind of liver starch, termed glycogen, which it stores up in its tissues. During the interval between the meals, the liver gradually re- digests the glycogen, reconverting it into sugar, and thus sup- plying it to the blood in small quantities, instead of allowing the entire amount formed in digestion to enter the circulation at once. If too large an amount of sugar entered the system at once, it would be unable to use it all, and would be compelled to get rid of a considerable portion through the kidneys. The liver also completes the digestion of albumen and other food elements." Time Required for Digestion. — The length of time re- quired for stomach digestion varies with different food sub- stances. The following table shows the time necessary for the stomach digestion of some of the more commonly used foods : — Rice ^Sago Tapioca Barley Beans, pod, boiled. . . . Bread, wheaten Bread, corn Apples, sour and raw. Apples, sweet and raw Parsnips, boiled Beets, boiled Turnips, flat, boiled . . Potatoes, Irish, boiled. Potatoes, Irish, baked. Cabbage, raw Cabbage, boiled Milk, boiled Milk, raw Eggs, hard boiled .... Eggs, soft boiled Eggs, fried Eggs, raw rs. min. I CX) I 45 2 oo 2 oo 2 JO 3 30 3 15 2 00 I 30 2 30 3 45 3 30 3 30 2 30 2 30 4 30 2 00 2 15 3 30 3 00 3 30 2 00 hrs. min. Eggs, whipped i 30 Salmon, salted, boiled 4 00 Oysters, raw 2 55 Oysters, stewed 3 30 Beef, lean, rare roasted 3 00 Beefsteak, boiled 3 00 Beef, lean, fried 4 00 Beef, salted, boiled 4 15 Pork, roasted 5 15 Pork, salted, fried 4 15 Mutton, roasted 3 15 Mutton, broiled 3 00 Veal, broiled 4 00 Veal, fried 4 30 Fowls, boiled 4 00 Duck, roasted 4 30 Butter, melted 3 30 Cheese 3 30 Soup, marrowbone 4 '5 Soup, bean 3 00 Soup, mutton 3 3° Chicken, boiled . . . .^ 3 00 40 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. The time required for the digestion of food also depends upon the condition under which the food is eaten. Healthy stomach digestion requires at least five hours for its completion, and the stomach should have an hour for rest before another meal. If fresh food is taken before that which preceded it is digested, the portion of food remaining in the stomach is likely to undergo fermentation, thus rendering the whole mass of food unfit for the nutrition of the body, besides fostering various dis- turbances of digestion. It has been shown by recent observa- tions that the length of time required for food to pass through the entire digestive process to which it is subjected in the mouth, stomach, and small intestines, is from twelve to four- teen hours. Hygiene of Digestion.— With the stomach and other di- gestive organs in a state of perfect health, one is entirely un- conscious of their existence, save when a feeling of hunger calls attention to the fact that food is required, or satiety warns us that a sufficient amount or too much has been eaten. Perfect digestion can only be maintained by careful observance of the rules of health in regard to habits of eating. On the subject of Hygiene of Digestion we again quote a few paragraphs from Dr. Kellogg's work on Physiolog}', in which is given a concise summary of the more important points relating to this : — " The hygiene of digestion has to do with the quality and quantity of food eaten, and the manner of eating it. " Hasty Eating. — If the food is eaten too rapidly, it will not be properly divided, and when swallowed in coarse lumps, the digestive fluids cannot readily act upon it. On account of the insufficient mastication, the saliva will be deficient in quantity, and, as a consequence, the starch will not be well digested, and the stomach will not secrete a sufficient amount of gastric juice. It is not well to eat only soft or liquid food, as we are likely to swallow it without proper chewing. A considerable proportion of hard food, which requires thorough mastication, should be eaten at every meal. TIIK DKJESTION OF FOODS. 41 '' Dri)iki)tg- Freely at Meals is harmful, as it not only encour- ages hasty eating, but dilutes the gastric juice, and thus lessens its activity. The food should be chewed until sufficiently moistened by saliva to allow it to be swallowed. When large quantities of fluid are taken into the stomach, digestion does not begin until a considerable portion of the fluid has been absorbed. If cold foods or drinks are taken with the meal, such as ice-cream, ice-water, iceid milk or tea, the stomach is chilled, and a long delay in the digestive process is occa- sioned. " The Indians of Brazil carefully abstain from drinking when eating, and the same custom prevails among many other savage tribes. '^Rating betzveeii Meals. — The habit of eating apples, nuts, fruits, confectionary, etc., between meals is exceedingly harm- ful, and certain to produce loss of appetite and indigestion. The stomach as well as the muscles and other organs of the body requires rest. The frequency with which meals should be taken depends somewhat upon the age and occupation of an individual. Infants take their food at short intervals, and, ow- ing to its simple character, are able to digest it very quickly. Adults should not take food oftener than three times a dai)' ; and persons whose employment is sedentary may, in many cases at least, adopt with advantage the plan of the ancient Greeks, who ate but twice a day. The latter custom is quite general among the higher classes in France and Spain, and in several South American countries. " Simplicity in Diet. — Taking too many kinds of food at a meal is a common fault which is often a cause of disease of the digestive organs. Those nations are the most hard}' and enduring whose dietary is most simple. The Scotch peasantry live chiefly upon oatmeal, the Irish upon potatoes, milk, and oatmeal, the Italian upon peas, beans, macaroni, and chestnuts ; yet all these are noted for remarkable health and endurance. The natives of the Canary Islands, an exceedingly well-developed and vigorous race, subsist almost chiefly upon 42 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. a food which they call gofio, consisting of parched grain, coarsely ground in a mortar and mixed with water. "'Eating when Tired. — It is not well to eat when exhausted by violent exercise, as the system is not prepared to do the work of digestion well. Sleeping immediately after eating is also a harmful practice. The process of digestion cannot well be performed during sleep, and sleep is disturbed by the ineffec- tive efforts of the digestive organs. Hence the well-known evil effects of late suppers. ''Eating too Much. — Hasty eating is the greatest cause of over-eating. When one eats too rapidly, the food is crowded into the stomach so fast that nature has no time to cry, ' Enough,' by taking away the appetite before too much has been eaten. When an excess of food is taken, it is likely to ferment or sour before it can be digested. One Avho eats too much usually feels dull after eating. '' Hoiv Mucli Food is En&ngh ? —^ThQ proper quantity for each person to take is what he is able to digest and utilize. This amount varies with each individual, at different times. The amount needed will vary with the amount of work done, mental or muscular ; with the weather or the season of the year, more food being required in cold than in warm weather : with the age of an individual, very old and very young per- sons requiring less food than those of middle age. An unper- verted appetite, not artificially stimulated, is a safe guide. Drowsiness, dullness, and heaviness at the stomach are indica- tions of an excess of eating, and naturally suggest a lessening of the quantity of food, unless the symptoms are known to arise from some other cause. " Excess of Certain Food Elements. — When sugar is too freely used, either with food or in the form of sweetmeats or candies, indigestion, and even more serious disease, is likely to result. Fats, when freely used, give rise to indigestion and ' biliousness.' An excess of albumen from the too free use of meat is harmful. Only a limited amount of this element can be used ; an excess is treated as waste matter, and must be re- moved from the system by the liver and the kidneys. The THE DIGESTION OF FOODS. 43 majority of persons would enjoy better health by using meat more moderately than is customary in this country. '^Deficiency of Certain Food Elements. — A diet deficient in any important food element is even more detrimental to health than a diet in which certain elements are in excess. "The popular notion that beef-tea and meat extracts con- tain the nourishing- elements of meat in a concentrated form, is a dangerous error. Undoubtedly many sick persons have been starved by being fed exclusively upon these articles, which are almost wholly composed of waste substances. Prof. Paule Bernard, of Paris, found that dogs fed upon meat extracts died sooner than those which received only water." Food=Combinations. — Some persons, especially those of weak digestive powers, often experience inconvenience in the use of certain foods, owing to their improper combinations with other articles. Many foods which are digested easily when partaken of alone or in harmonious combinations, create much disturbance when eaten at the same meal with several different articles of food, or with some particular article with which they are especially incompatible. The following food combinations are among the best, the relative excellence of each being in- dicated by the order in which they are named : Milk and grains ; grains and eggs ; grains and vegetables or meats ; grains and fruits. Persons with sound stomachs and vigorous digestion will seldom experience inconvenience in making use of other and more varied combinations, but dyspeptics and persons troubled with slow digestion will find it to their advantage to select from the bill of fare such articles as best accord with each other, and to avoid such combinations as fruits and vegetables, milk and vegetables, milk and meats, sugar and milk, meat or vege- tables, fats with fruits, meats, or vegetables, or cooked with grains. TABLE TOPICS. Now good digestion waits on appetite, and health on lioth. — Shakespeare. We live not upon what we eat, but upon what we digest. — Aheniethy. If we consider the amount of ill temper, despondency, and general unhappiness which arises from want of proper digestion and assimilation of our food, it seems ob- viously well worth while to put forth every effort, and itndergo any sacrifice, for the purpose of avoiding indigestion, with its resulting bodily ills ; and yet year after year, from the cradle to the grave, we go on violating the plainest and simplest laws of health at the temptation of cooks, caterers, and confectioners, whose share in short- ening the average term of human life is probably nearly equal to that of the combined armies and navies of the world. — Richardson. Almost every human malady is connected, either by highway or byway, with the stomach. — Sir Fraftcis Head. It is a well-established fact that a leg of mutton caused a revolution in the affairs of Europe. Just before the battle of Leipsic, Napoleon the Great insisted on dining on boiled mutton, although his physicians warned him that it would disagree with him. The emperor's brain resented the liberty, taken with its colleague, the stom- ach ; the monarch's equilibrium was overturned, the battle lost, and a new page opened in history. — Sel. Galloping consumption at the dinner table is one of the national disorders.— .SV/. The kitchen (that is, your stomach) being out of order, the garret (the head) cannot be right, and every room in the house becomes affected. Remedy the evil in the kitchen, and all will be right in parlor and chamber. If you put improper food into the stomach, you play the mischief with it, and with the whole machine besides. — Abernethy. C.A.TTLE know when to go home from grazing, but a foolish man never knows his stomach's measures. — Scatidinavian Proverb. Enough is as good as a feast. Simplicity of diet is the characteristic of the dwellers in the Orient. Ac- cording to Niebuhr, the sheik of the desert wants only a dish of pillau, or boiled rice, which he eats without fork or spoon. Notwithstanding their frugal fare, these sons of the desert are among the most hardy and enduring of all members of the human family. A traveler tells of seeing one of them run up to the top of the tallest pyra- mid and back in six minutes. One fourth of what we eat keeps us, and the other three fourths we keep at the peril of our lives. — Ahernetltv. [44] T is not enough that good and proper food material be pro- vided ; it must have such preparation as will increase and not diminish its alimentary value. The unwholesome- <^^ ness of food is quite as often due to bad cookery as to improper selection of material. Proper cookery renders good food material more digestible. When scientifically done, cook- ing changes each of the food elements, with the exception of fats, in much the same manner as do the digestive juices, and at the same time it breaks up the food by dissolving the soluble portions, so that its elements are more readily acted upon by the digestive fluids. Cookery, however, often fails to attain the desired end ; and the best material is rendered useless and unwholesome by improper preparation. It is rare to find a table, some portion of the food upon which is not rendered unwholesome either by improper preparatory treatment, or by the addition of some deleterious substance. This is doubtless due to the fact that the preparation of food being such a commonplace matter, its important relations to L45J 46 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. health, mind, and body have been overlooked, and it has been regarded as a menial service which might be undertaken with little or no preparation, and without attention to matters other than those which relate to the pleasure of the eye and the pal- ate. With taste only as a criterion, it is so easy to disguise the results of careless and improper cookery of food by the use of flavors and condiments, as well as to palm off upon the digest- ive organs all sorts of inferior material, that poor cookery has come to be the rule rather than the exception. Another reason for this prevalence of bad cookery, is to be found in the fact that in so many homes the cooking is in- trusted to an ignorant class of persons having no knowledge whatever of the scientific principles involved in this most im- portant and practical of arts. An ethical problem which we have been unable to solve is the fact that Avomen who would never think of trusting the care of their fine china and bric-a- brac to unskilled hands, unhesitatingly intrust to persons who are almost wholly untrained, the preparation of their daily food. There is no department of life where superior intelligence is more needed than in the selection and preparation of food, upon which so largely depend the health and physical welfare of the family circle. The evils of bad cookery and ill-selected food are manifold, so many, in fact, that it has been calculated that they far exceed the mischief arising from the use of strong drink ; indeed, one of the evils of unwholesome food is its decided tendency to create a craving for intoxicants. Bad cookery causes indiges- tion, indigestion causes thirst, and thirst perpetuates drunken- ness. Any one who has suffered from a fit of indigestion, and can recollect the accompanying headache and the lowness of spirits, varying in degree from dejection or ill-humor to the most extreme melancholy, until the intellectual faculties seemed dazed, and the moral feelings blunted, will hardly wonder that when such a condition becomes chronic, as is often the case from the use of improperly prepared food, the victim is easily led to resorc to stimulants to drown depression and enliven the spirits. COOKERY. 47 A thorough practical knowledge of simple, wholesome cook- ery ought to form a part of the education of every young woman, whatever her station in life. No position in life is more responsible than that of the person who arranges the bills of fare and selects the food for the household ; and what higher mission can one conceive than to intelligently prepare the wherewithal to make shoulders strong to bear life's bur- dens and heads clear to solve its intricate problems } what worthier work than to help in the building up of bodies into pure temples fit for guests of noble thoughts and high pur- poses ? Surely, no one should undertake such important work without a knowledge of the principles involved. THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC COOKERY. Cookery is the art of preparing food for the table by dress- ing, or by the application of heat in some manner. Fuels. — Artificial heat is commonly produced by combus- tion, caused by the chemical action of the oxygen of the air upon the hydrogen and carbon found in fuel. The different fuels in common use for cooking purposes are hard wood, soft wood, charcoal, anthracite coal, bituminous coal, coke, lignite, kerosene oil, gasoline, and gas. As to their respective values, much depends upon the purpose for which they are to be used. Wood charcoal produces a greater amount of heat than an equal weight of any other fuel. Soft wood burns quicker and gives a more intense heat than hard wood, and hence is best for a quick fire. Hard wood burns slowly, produces a larger mass of coals, and is best where long-continued heat is desired. Anthracite coal kindles slowly, and burns with little flame or smoke, but its vapor is sulphurous, and on that account it should never be burned in an open stove, nor in one with an imperfect draft. Its heat is steady and intense. Bituminous coal ignites readily, burns with considerable flame and smoke, and gives a much less intense heat than anthracite. Lignite, or brown coal, is much less valuable as fuel. Coke is useful when a short, quick fire is needed. Kerosene and gas are convenient and economical fuels. 48 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Making Fires.-^If coal is the fuel to be used, first clean out the stove by shaking the grate and removing all ashes and cinders. Remove the stove covers, and bru§h the soot and ashes out of all the flues and draft holes into the fire-box. Place a large handful of shavings or loosely twisted or crumpled papers upon the grate, over which lay some fine pieces of dry kindling-wood, arranged crosswise to permit a free draft, then a few sticks of hard wood, so placed as to allow plenty of air spaces. Be sure that the wood extends out to both ends of the fire-box. Replace the covers, and if the stove needs blacking, mix the polish, and apply it, rubbing with a dry brush until nearly dry, then light the fuel, as a little heat will facilitate the polishing. When the wood is burning briskly, place a shovel- ful or two of rather small pieces of coal upon the wood, and, as they ignite, gradually add more, until there is a clear, bright body of fire, remembering, however, never to fill the stove above the fire bricks ; then partly close the direct draft. When wood or soft coal is used, the fuel may be added at the same time with the kindling. Care of Fires. — Much fuel is wasted through the loss of heat from too much draft. Only just enough air should be sup- plied to promote combustion. A coal fire, when well kindled, needs only air enough to keep it burning. When the coal be- comes red all through, it has parted with the most of its heat, and the fire will soon die unless replenished. To keep a steady fire, add but a small amount of fuel at a time, and repeat often enough to prevent any sensible decrease of the degree of heat. Rake the fire from the bottom, and keep it clear of ashes and cinders. If a very hot fire is needed, open the drafts ; at other times, keep them closed, or partially so, and not waste fuel. There is no economy in allowing a fire to get low before fuel is added ; for the fresh fuel cools the fire to a temperature so low that it is not useful, and thus occasions a direct waste of all fuel necessary to again raise the heat to the proper degree, to say nothing of the waste of time and patience. The addition of small quantities of fuel at short intervals so long as continuous heat is needed, is far better than to let the fuel burn nearly out, COOKERY. 49 and then add a larger quantity. The improper management of the drafts and dampers has also much to do with waste of fuel. As stoves are generally constructed, it is necessary for the heat to pass over the top, down the back, and under the bottom of the oven before escaping into the flue, in order to properly heat the oven for baking. In order to force the heat to make this circuit, the direct draft of the stove needs to be closed. With this precaution observed, a quick fire from a small amount of fuel, used before its force is spent, will produce better results than a fire-box full under other circumstances. An item of economy for those who are large users of coal, is the careful sifting of the cinders from the ashes. They can be used to good advantage to put first upon the kindlings, when building the fire, as they ignite more readily than fresh coal, and give a greater, quicker heat, although much less enduring. Methods of Cooking. — A proper source of heat having been secured, the next step is to apply it to the food in some manner. The principal methods commonly employed are roasting, broiling, baking, boiling, stewing, simmering, steam ing, and frying. Roasting is cooking food in its own juices before an open fire. A clear fire with intense heat is necessary. Broiling, or gj-illing, is cooking by radiant heat over glow- ing coals. This method is only adapted to thin pieces of food with a considerable amount of surface. Larger and more com- pact foods should be roasted or baked. Roasting and broiling are allied in principle. In both, the work is chiefly done by the radiation of heat directly upon the surface of the food, although some heat is communicated by the hot air surrounding the food. The intense heat applied to the food soon sears its outer surfaces, and thus prevents the escape of its juices. If care be taken frequently to turn the food so that its entire surface will be thus acted upon, the interior of the mass is cooked by its own juices. Baking \s the cooking of food by dry heat in a closed oven. Only foods containing a considerable degree of moisture are adapted for cooking by this method. The hot; dry air which 4 50 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. fills the oven is always thirsting for moisture, and will take from every moist substance to which it has access a quantity of water proportionate to its degree of heat. Foods contain- ing but a small amount of moisture, unless protected in some manner from the action of the heated air, or in some way sup- plied with moisture during the cooking process, come from the oven dry, hard, and unpalatable. Proper cooking by this method depends greatly upon the facility with which the heat of the oven can be regulated. When oil or gas is the fuel used, it is an easy matter to secure and maintain almost any degree of heat desirable, but with a wood or coal stove, especial care and painstaking are necessary. It is of the first importance that the mechanism of the oven to be used, be thoroughly understood by the cook, and she should test its heating capacity under various conditions, with a light, quick fire and with a more steady one ; she should carefully note the kind and amount of fuel requisite to produce a certain de- gree of heat ; in short, she should thoroughly know her "machine" and its capabilities before at- tempting to use it for the cook- ing of food. An oven thermome- ter is of the utmost value for testing the heat, but unfortu- nately, such thermometers are not common. They are obtainable in England, although quite expensive. It is also possible at the present time to obtain ranges with a very reliable thermometer attachment to the oven door. •A cook of good judgment by careful observation and com- parison of results, can soon learn to form quite a correct idea of the heat of her oven by the length of time she can hold her hand inside it without discomfort, but since much depends upon the construction of stoves and the kind of fuel used, and since An Oven Thermometer. COOKERY. 51 the dei^rec of heat bearable will vary with every hand that tries it, each person Avho depends upon this test must make her own standard. When the heat of the oven is found to be too great, it may be lessened by placing in it a dish of cold water. Boiling \s the cooking of food in a boiling liquid. Water is the usual medium employed for this purpose. When water is heated, as its temperature is increased, minute bubbles of air which have been dissolved by it are given off. As the tempera- ture rises, bubbles of steam will begin to form at the bottom of the vessel. At first these will be condensed as they rise into the cooler water above, causing a simmering sound ; but as the heat increases, the bubbles will rise higher and higher before collapsing, and in a short time will pass entirely through the water, escaping from its surface, causing more or less agitation, according to the rapidity with which they are formed. Water boils when the bubbles thus rise to the surface, and steam is thrown off. If the temperature is now tested, it will be found to be about 212° F. When water begins to boil, it is impos- sible to increase its temperature, as the steam carries off the heat as rapidly as it is communicated to the water. The only way in which the temperature can be raised, is by the confinement of the steam ; but owing to its enormous expansive force, this is not practicable with ordinary cooking utensils. The mechan- ical action of the water is increased by rapid bubbling, but not the heat ; and to boil anything violently does not expedite the cooking process, save that by the mechanical action of the water the food is broken into smaller pieces, which are for this reason more readily softened. But violent boiling occasions an enormous waste of fuel, and by driving away in the steam the volatile and savory elements of the food, renders it much less palatable, if not altogether tasteless. The solvent properties of water are so increased by heat that it permeates the food, rendering its hard and tough constituents soft and easy of digestion. The liquids mostly employed in the cooking of foods are water and milk. Water is best suited for the cooking of most foods, but for such farinaceous foods as rice, macaroni, and 52 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. farina, milk, or at least part milk, is preferable, as it adds to tlicir nutritix'e \alue. In using- milk for cooking' 2)iirposes, it should be remembered that beini^ more dense than water, M'hen heated, less steam escapes, and consecjuently it boils sooner than does water. Then, too, milk being- more dense, when it is used alone for cooking-, a little larger quantity of fluid will be required than when water is used. The boiling" point for water at the sea level is 212°. At all points above the sea level, water boils at a temperature ))e- low 212°, the exact temperature depending upon the altitude. At the top of Mt. Blanc, an altitude of 15,000 feet, water boils at 185°. The boiling point is lowered one degree for every 600 feet increase in altitude. The boiling point may be increased by adding soluble substances to the water. A saturated solution of common baking soda boils at 220°. A saturated solution of chloride of sodium boils at 227°. A simi- lar solution of sal ammoniac boils at 238°. Of course such solutions cannot be used advantageously, except as a means of cooking articles placed in hermetically sealed vessels and immersed in the liquid. Different effects upon food are produced by the use of hard and soft water. Peas and beans boiled in hard water containing lime or gypsum, will not become tender, because these chem- ical substances harden vegetable casein, of which element peas and beans are largely composed. For extracting the juices of meat and the soluble parts of other foods, soft water is best, as it more readily penetrates the tissue ; but when it is desired to preserve the articles whole, and retain their juices and flavors, hard water is preferable. Foods should be put to cook in cold or boiling water, in ac- cordance with the object to be attained in their cooking. Foods from which it is desirable to extract the nutrient prop- erties, as for broths, extracts, etc., should be put to cook in cold water. Foods to be kept intact as nearly as may be, should be put to cook in boiling water. Hot and cold water act differently upon the different food elements. Starch is but slightly acted upon by cold water. COOKERY. 53 When starch is added to several times its bulk of hot water, all the starch granules burst on approachins^^ the boiling point, and swell to such a degree as to occupy nearly the whole volume of the water, forming a pasty mass. Sugar is dissolved readily in either hot or cokl water. Cold water extracts albumen. Hot water coagulates it. Steaviiiig, as its name implies, is the cooking of food by the use of steam. There are several ways of steaming, the most common of which is by placing the food in a perforated dish over a vessel of boiling Avater. For foods not needing the solvent powers of water, or which already contain a large amount of moisture, this method is preferable to boiling. Another form of cooking, which is usually termed steaming, is that of placing the food, with or without water, as needed, in a closed vessel which is placed inside another vessel containing boiling water. Such an apparatus is termed a double boiler. Food cooked in its own juices in a covered dish in a hot oven, is sometimes spoken of as being steamed or smothered. Stewing is the prolonged cooking of food in a small quantity of liquid, the temperature of which is just below the boiling point. Stewing should not be confounded with simmering, which is slow, steady boiling. The proper temperature for stewing is most easily secured by the use of the double boiler. The water in the outer vessel boils, while that in the inner vessel does not, being kept a little below the temperature of the water from Avhich its heat is obtained, by the constant evaporation at a temperature a little below the boiling point. Frying, which is the cooking of food in hot fat, is a method not to be recommended. Unlike all the other food elements, fat is rendered less digestible by cooking. Doubtless it is for this reason that nature has provided those foods which require the most prolonged cooking to fit them for use with only a small proportion of fat, and it would seem to indicate that any food to be subjected to a high degree of heat should not be mixed and compounded largely of fats. The ordinary way of frying, which the French call santeing, is by the use of only a little fat in a shallow pan, into which the food is put and cooked first 54 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. on one side and then the other. Scarcely anything could be more unwholesome than food prepared in this manner. A morsel of food encrusted with fat remains undigested in the stomach because fat is not acted upon by the gastric juice, and its combination with the other food elements of which the morsel is composed interferes with their digestion also. If such foods are habitually used, digestion soon becomes slow and the gastric juice so deficient in quantity that fermentation and putre- factive changes are occasioned, resulting in serious disturbance of health. In the process of frying, the action of the heat par- tially decomposes the fat ; in consequence, various poisonous substances are formed, highly detrimental to the digestion of the partaker of the food. Adding Foods to Boiling Liquids. — ^Much of the sod- denne'ss of improperly cooked foods might be avoided, if the following facts were kept in mind : — When vegetables, or other foods of ordinary tempera- ture, are put into boiling water, the temperature of the water is lowered in proportion to the quantity and the tempera- ture of the food thus introduced, and will not again boil until the mass of food shall have absorbed more heat from the fire. The result of this is that the food is apt to become more or less water-soaked before the process of cooking begins. This diffi- culty may be avoided by introducing but small quantities of the food at one time, so as not to greatly lower the temperature of the liquid, and then allowing the latter to boil between the introduction of each fresh supply, or by heating the food before adding it to the liquid. Evaporation is another principle often overlooked in the cooking of food, and many a sauce or gravy is spoiled because the liquid, heated in a shallow pan, from which evaporation is rapid, loses so much in bulk that the amount of thickening requisite for the given quantity of fluid, and which, had less evaporation occurred, would have made it of the proper consis- tency, makes the sauce thick and unpalatable. Evaporation is much less, in slow boiling, than in more rapid cooking. Measuring. — One of the most important principles to be observed in the preparation of food for cooking, is accuracy in COOKERY. 55 measuring. Many an excellent recipe proves a failure simply from lack of care in this respect. Measures are generally more convenient than weights, and are more commonly used. The common kitchen cup, which holds a half pint, is the one usually taken as the standard ; if any other size is used, the ingredients for the entire recipe should be measured by the same. The following points should be observed in measuring: — 1. The teaspoons and tablespoons to be used in measuring, are the silver spoons in general use. 2. Any material like flour, sugar, salt, that has been packed, should either be sifted or stirred up lightly before measuring. 3. A cupful of dry material is measured level with the top of the cup, without being packed down. 4. A cupful of liquid is all the cup will contain without running over. Hold the cup in a saucer while measuring, to prevent spilling the liquid upon the floor or table. Comparative Table of Weights and Measures. — The following comparative table of weights and measurements will aid in estimating different materials : — One heaping tablespoonful of sugar weighs one ounce. Two round tablespoonfuls of flour weigh one ounce. Two cupfuls of granulated sugar weigh one pound. Two cupfuls of meal weigh one pound. Four cupfuls of sifted flour weigh one pound. One pint of oatmeal, cracked wheat, or other coarse grains, weighs about one pound. One pint of liquid weighs one pound. One pint of meat chopped and packed solid weighs one pound. Seven heaping tablespoonfuls of sugar = one cupful. Five heaping tablespoonfuls of flour = one cupful. Two cupfuls of liquid or dry material = one pint. Four cupfuls of liquid or dry material= one quart. Mixing Materials. ^ — In the compounding of recipes, vari- ous modes are employed for mingling together the different ingredients, chief of which are stirring, beating, and kneading. By stirring is meant a continuous motion round and round with a spoon, without lifting it from the mixture, except to 56 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. scrape occasionally from the sides of the dish any portion of the material that may cling to it. It is not necessary that the stirring should be all in one direction, as many cooks suppose. The object of the stirring is to thoroughly blend the ingredi- ents, and this may be accomplished as well bj' stirring in one direction as in another. Beating- is for the purpose of incorporating as much air in the mixture as possible. It should be done by dipping the spoon in and out, cutting clear through and lifting from the bottom with each stroke. The process must be continuous, and must never be interspersed with any stirring if it is desired to retain the air within the mixture. Kneading is the mode by which materials already in the form of dough are more thoroughly blended together ; it also serves to incorporate air. The process is more fully described in the chapter on " Bread." Temperature. — Many a cook fails and knows not why, be- cause she does not understand the influence of temperature upon materials and food. Flour and liquids for unfermented breads cannot be too cold, while for bread prepared with yeast, success is largely dependent upon a warm and equable tem- perature throughout the entire process. Cooking Utensils. — The earliest cookery was probably ac- complished without the aid of any utensils, the food being roasted by burying it in hot ashes or cooked by the aid of heated stones ; but modern cookery necessitates the use of a greater or less variety of cooking utensils to facilitate the prep- aration of food, most of which are so familiar to the reader as to need no description. (A list of those needed for use will be found on page 66.) Most of these utensils are manufactured from some kind of metal, as iron, tin, copper, brass, etc. All metals are dissolvable in certain substances, and some of those em- ployed for making household utensils are capable of forming most poisonous compounds when used for cooking certain foods. This fact should lead to great care on the part of the housewife, both in purchasing and in using utensils for cooking purposes. COOKERY. 57 Iron utensils, although they arc, when new, apt to dis- color and impart a disagreeable flavor to food cooked in them, are not objectionable from a health standpoint, if kept clean and free from rust. Iron rust is the result of the combination of the iron with oxygen, for which it has so great an affinity that it will decompose water to get oxygen to unite with ; hence it is that iron utensils rust so qu-ickly when not carefully dried after using, or if left where they can collect moisture. This is the reason why a coating of tallow, which serves to exclude the air and moisture, will preserve ironware not in daily use from rusting. "Porcelain ware" is iron lined with a hard, smooth enamel, and makes safe and very desirable cooking utensils. German porcelain ware is unexcelled for culinary purposes. "Granite ware" is a material quite recently come into use, the composition of which is a secret, although pronounced by eminent chemists to be free from all injurious qualities. Uten- sils made from it are light in weight, easily kept clean, and for most cooking purposes, are far superior to those made from any other material. What is termed "galvanized iron" is unsuitable for cook- ing utensils, it being simply sheet iron coated with zinc, an exceedingly unsafe metal to be used for cooking purposes. Tin, \\hich is simply thin sheet iron coated with tin by dip- ping several times into vats of the melted metal, is largely employed in the manufacture of cooking utensils. Tinware is acted upon by acids, and when used for holding or cooking any acid foods, like sour milk, sour fruits, tomatoes, etc., harm- ful substances are liable to be formed, varying in quantity and harmfulness with the nature of the acid contained in the food. In these daj's of fraud and adulteration, nearly all the cheaper grades of tinware contain a greater or less amount of lead in their composition, which owing to its greater abun- dance and less price, is used as an adulterant of tin. Lead is also used in the solder with which the parts of tinware are united. The action of acids upon lead form very poison- 58 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. ous compounds, and all lead-adulterated utensils should be wholly discarded for cooking purposes. Test for Lead- Adulterated Tin. — Place upon the metal a small drop of nitric acid, spreading it to the size of a dime, dry with gentle heat, apply a drop of water, then add a small crystal of iodide of potash. If lead is present, a yellowish color will be seen very soon after the addition of the iodide. Lead glazing, which is frequently employed on crockery and ironware in the manufacture of cooking utensils, may also be detected in the same manner. Cooking utensils made of copper are not to be recommended from the point of healthfulness, although many cooks esteem them because copper is a better conductor of heat than iron or tin. The acids of man}^ fruits combine with copper to form extremely poisonous substances. Fatty substances, as well as salt and sugar, act upon copper to a greater or less degree, also vegetables containing sulphur in their composition, and pro- duce harmful compounds. Utensils made of brass, which is a compound of copper and zinc, are not safe to use for cooking purposes. t TABLE TOPICS. Bad cooking diminishes happiness and shortens life. — Wisdom of As^es. Says Mrs. Partington : " Many a fair home has been desiccated by poor cooking, and a man's table has been the rock on which his happiness has split." Significant F.\ct. — Lady — "Have you had much experience as a cook?" Applicant — "Oh, indeed I have. I was the cook of Mr. and Mrs. I'eterby for three years." Z. — " Why did you leave them ? " A. — "I didn't leave them. They left me. They both died." Z._"Whatof?" A. — " Dyspepsia." Cooking is generally bad because people fall into routine ; hal)it dulls their appre- ciation, and they do not think about what they are eating. — Didslniry. ZzV/j' (Secretary of the cooking class) — " Now, girls, we've learned nine cakes, two kinds of angel food, and seven pies. What next ? " Sttsie (engaged) — " Dick's father says I must learn to bake bread." Indignant choms — " Bread ? How absurd ! What are bakers for ? '' It is told of Philip Hecgnet, a French physician who lived in the 17th century, that when calling upon his wealthy patients, he used often to go to the kitchen and pantry, embrace the cooks and butlers, and exhort them to do their duty well. " I owe you so much gratitude, my dear friends," he would say ; " you are so useful to us doctors ; for if you did not keep on poisoning the people, we should all have to go to the poorhouse." There are innumerable books of recipes for cooking, but unless the cook is master of the principles of his art, and unless he knows the why and the wherefore of its processes, he cannot choose a recipe intelligently and execute it successfully. — Richard Estcom-t. They who provide the food for the world, decide the health of the world. You have only to go on some errand amid the taverns and the hotels of the United States and Great Britain, to appreciate the fact that a vast multitude of the human race are slaughtered by incompetent cookery. Though a young woman may have taken lessons in music, and may have taken lessons in painting, and lessons in astronomy, she is not well educated unless she has taken lessons in dough ! — Talmage. [59] 'T is a mistake to suppose that any room, however small and unpleasantly situated, is "good enough" for a kitchen. This is the room where housekeepers pass a great portion ^ of their time, and it should be one of the brightest and most convenient rooms in the house ; for upon the results of no other department of woman's domain depend so greatly the health and comfort of the family as upon those involved in this '■ household workshop." The character of a person's work is more or less dependent upon his surroundings, hence is it to be greatly wondered at that a woman immured in a small, close, dimly-lighted room, whose only outlook may be the back alley or the woodshed, supplies her household with products far below the standard of health and housewifely skill ? Every kitchen should have windows on two sides of the room, and the sun should have free entrance through them ; the windows should open from the top to alloAV a complete change of air, for light and fresh air are among the chief essen- tials to success in all departments of the household. Good [60] THE HOUSEHOLD WORKSHOP. 6 1 drainac^c should also be provided, and the ventilation of the kitchen ought to be even more carefully attended to than that of a sleeping room. The ventilation of the kitchen should be so ample as to thoroughly remove all gases and odors, which, to- gether with steam from boiling and other cooking i^rocesses, generally invade and render to some degree unhealthful every other portion of the house. It is the steam from the kitchen which gives a fusty odor to the parlor air and provides a wet- sheet pack for the occupant of the " spare bed." The only way of wholly eradicating this evil, is the adoption of the suggestion of the sanitary philosopher who places the kitchen at the top of the house. To lessen the discomforts from heat, a ventilator may be placed above the range, that shall carry out of the room all supcr- lluous heat, and aid in removing the steam and odors from cook- ing food. The simplest form of such a ventilator is an inverted hopper of sheet iron fitted above the range, the upper and smaller end opening into a large flue adjacent to the smoke flue for the range. Care must be taken, however, to provide an am- ple ventilating shaft for this purpose, since a strong draft is required to secure the desired results. There should be ample space for tables, chairs, range, sink, and cupboards, yet the room should not be so large as to neces- sitate too many steps. A very good si/e for the ordinary dwelling is i6 x [8 feet. Undoubtedly much of the distaste for, and neglect of, "house- work," so often deplored in these days, arises from unpleasant surroundings. If the kitchen be light, air}-, and tidy, and the utensils bright and clean, the work of compounding those articles of food which grace the table and satisfy the appetite will be a pleasant task, and one entirely worthy of the most intelligent and cultivated woman. It is desirable, from a sanitary standpoint, that the kitchen floor be made impervious to moisture ; hence, concrete or tile floors are better than wooden floors. If wooden floors are used, they should be constructed of narrow boards of hard wood, carefully joined and thoroughly saturated with hot linseed oil, well rubbed in to give polish to the surface. 62 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Cleanliness is the great dcsideratiiui, and this can be best at- tained by having- all woodwork in and about the kitchen coated with varnish ; substances which cause stain and grease spots, do not penetrate the wood when varnished, and can be easily removed with a damp cloth. Paint is preferable to whitewash or calcimine for the walls, since it is less affected by steam, and can be more readily cleaned. A carpet on a kitchen floor is as out of place as a kitchen sink would be in a parlor. The elements of beauty should not be lacking in the kitchen. Pictures and fancy articles are inappropriate ; but a few pots of easily-cultivated flowers on the window ledge or arranged upon brackets about the window in winter, and a window box arranged as 2ijardinilre, with vines and blooming plants in sum- mer, will greatly brighten the room, and thus serve to lighten the task of those whose daily labor confines them to the pre- cincts of the kitchen. The Kitchen Furniture.— The ^rniture for a kitchen should not be cumbersome, and should be so made and dressed as to be easily cleaned. There should be plenty of cupboards, and each for the sake of order, should be devoted to a special purpose. Cupboards with sliding doors are much superior to closets. They should be placed upon casters so as to be easily moved, as they are thus not only more convenient, but admit of more thorough cleanliness. Cupboards used for the storage of food should be well ven- tilated ; otherwise, they furnish choice conditions for the de- velopment of mold and germs. Movable cupboards may be ventilated by means of openings in the top, and doors covered with very fine wire gauze which will admit the air but keep out flies and dust. All stationary cupboards and closets should have a ventilating flue connected with the main shaft by which the house is ventilated, or directly communicating with the outer air. No kitchen can be regarded as well furnished without a good timepiece as an aid to punctuality and economy of time. An eight-day clock with large dial and plain case is the most suitable. THE HOUSEHOLD WORKSHOP. 63 Every kitchen should also be provided with a slate, with sponge and pencil attached, on one side of which the market orders and other memoranda may be jotted down, and on the other the bills of fare for the day or week. In households where servants are kept, the slate will save many a vexatious blunder and unnecessary call to the kitchen, wdiile if one is herself mis- tress, cook, and housekeeper, it may prove an invaluable aid and time-saver if thus used. Lack of sufficient table room is often a great source of inconvenience to the housekeeiJer. To avoid this, arrange A Convenient Kitchen Tabic. swinging tables or shelves at convenient points upon the wall, which may be put up or let down as occasion demands. For ordinary kitchen uses, small tables of suitable height on easy- rolling casters, and with zinc tops, are the most convenient and most easily kept clean. It is quite as well that they be made without drawers, which are too apt to become receptacles for a heterogeneous mass of rubbish. If desirable to have some handy place for keeping articles which are frequently required for use, an arrangement similar to that represented in the ac- companying cut may be made at very small expense. It may 64 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. be also an advantage to arrange small shelves about and above the range, on which may be kept various articles necessary for cooking purposes. Otie of the most indispensable articles of furnishing for a well-appointed kitchen is a sink ; however, a sink must be properly constructed and well cared for, or it is likely to be- come a source of great danger to the health of the inmates of the household. Earthen-ware is the best material for kitchen sinks. Iron is very serviceable, but corrodes, and if painted or enameled, this soon wears off. Wood is objectionable from a sanitary standpoint. A sink made of wood lined with copper answers well for a long time if properly cared for. The sink should if possible stand out from the wall, so as to allow free access to all sides of it for the sake of cleanliness, and under no circumstances should there be any inclosure of woodwork or cupboards underneath to serve as a storage place for pots and kettles and all kinds of rubbish, dust, and germs. It should be supported on legs, and the space below should be open for inspection at all times. The pipes and fixtures should be selected and placed by a competent plumber. Great pains should be taken to keep the pipes clean and well disinfected. Refuse of all kinds should be kept out. Thoughtless housekeepers and careless domestics often allow greasy water and bits of table waste to find their way into the pipes. Drain pipes usually have a bend, or trap, through which water containing no sediment flows freely ; but the melted grease which often passes into the pipes mixed with hot water, becomes cooled and solid as it descends, adhering to the pipes, and gradually accumulating until the drain is blocked, or the water passes through very slowly. A grease-lined pipe is a hotbed for disease germs. Water containjng much grease should be cooled and the grease removed before being turned into the kitchen sink, while bits of refuse should be disposed of elsewhere, since pre- vention of mischief is in this case, as in most others, far easier than cure. It is customary for housekeepers to pour a hot solution of soda or potash do\Yn the sink pipes occasionally, to THK HOUSEHOr.D WORKSHOP. 6$ dissolve any grease which may tend to obstruct the passage ; but this is only a partial safeguard, as there is no certainty that all the grease will be dissolved, and any particles adhering to the pipes very soon undergo putrefaction. A frequent flushing with hot water is important ; besides which the pipes should be disinfected two or three times a week by pouring down a gallon of water holding in solution a pound of good chloride of lime. Stoves and Ranges. — The furnishing of a modern kitchen would be quite incomplete without some form of stove or range The multiplicity of these articles, manufactured each with some especial merit of its own, renders it a somewhat diffi- cult task to make a choice among them. Much must, how- ever, depend upon the kind of fuel to be used, the size of the household, and various other circumstances which make it necessary. for each individual housekeeper to decide for herself what is best adapted to her wants. It may be said, in brief, that economy of fuel, simplicity of construction, and efficiency in use arc the chief points to be considered in the selection of stoves and ranges. A stove or range of plain finish is to be preferred, because it is much easier t-o keep clean, and will be likely to present a better appearance after a few months' wear than one of more elaborate pattern. But whatever stove or range is selected, its mechanism should be thoroughly understood in every particu- lar, and it should be tested with dampers open, with dampers closed, and in every possible way, until one is perfectly sure she understands its action under all conditions. Oil and Gas Stoves. — In many households, oil, gas, and gasoline stoves have largely taken the place of the kitchen range, especially during the hot weather of summer. They can be used for nearly every purpose for which a wood or a coal range is used ; they require much less labor and litter, and can be instantly started into full force and as quickly turned out when no longer required, while the fact that the heat can be regulated with exactness, makes them superior for certain proc- esses of cooking to any other stove. But while these stoves 5 66 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN, are convenient and economical, especially in small families, they should be used with much care. Aside from the danger from explosion, which is by no means inconsiderable in the use of gasoline and oil stoves, they are not, unless well cared, for alto- gether healthful. Unless the precaution is taken to use them in well-ventilated rooms or to connect them with a chimney, they vitiate the atmosphere to a considerable extent with the products of combustion. Oil stoves, unless the wicks are kept well trimmed, are apt to smoke, and this smoke is not only dis- agreeable, but extremely irritating to the mucous membrane of the nose and throat. Oil stoves are constructed on the same principle as ordinary oil lamps, and require the same care and attention. Quite recently there has been invented by Prof. Edward Atkinson a very unique apparatus for cooking by means of the heat of an ordinary kerosene lamp, called the "Aladdin Cooker.' The food to be cooked is placed in a chamber around which hot water, heated by the flame of the lamp, circulates. The uni- form heat thus obtained performs the process of cooking, slowly, but most satisfactorily and economically, the result being far superior to that obtained by the ordinary method of cooking by quick heat. The cooker is only used for stewing and steaming ; but Mr. Atkinson has also invented an oven in which the heat is conveyed to the place where it is needed by a column of hot air instead of hot water. With this oven, which consists of an outer oven made of non-conducting material, and an inner oven made of sheet iron, with an intervening space between, through which the hot air circulates, no smoke or odor from the lamp can reach the interior. • Kitchen Utensils. — The list of necessary kitchen utensils must of course be governed somewhat by individual circum- stances, but it should not be curtailed for the sake of display in some other department, Avhere less depends upon the results. A good kitchen outfit is one of the foundation-stones of good housekeeping. The following are some of the most essential : — Two dish pans ; two or more papier uiache tubs for. washing glassware ; one kneading board ; one bread board ; one pair THE HOUSEHOLD WORKSHOP. ^7 A Double Boiler. scales, with weights ; scrubbing and stove brushes ; brooms ; dustpans ; roller for towel ; washbowl ; soap dish ; vegetable brushes. For the Tin Closet. — One dipper; one egg-beater; one two-quart pail ; one four-quart pail ; six brick-loaf bread pans ; three shallow tins ; three granite-ware pie tins ; two perfo- rated sheet iron pans for rolls, etc. ; one set of measures, pint, quart, and two-quart ; two colanders ; two fine wire strainers ; one flour sifter ; one apple corer ; one set patty-pans ; two dripping-pans ; two sets gem irons ; one set muffin-rings ; one toaster ; one broiler ; six saucepans, different sizes ; two steamers ; six milk- pans ; one dozen basins, different sizes ; one chopping bowl and knife ; six double boilers ; two funnels, large and small ; one can-opener ; griddle ; kettles, iron and granite ware ; two water baths. For the Dish Closet. — One half dozen iron-stone china cups ; three quart bowls ; three pint bowls ; two large mixing bowls ; two two-quart bowls with lip ; six deep plates ; three kitchen pitchers ; one glass rolling-pin ; six wooden and six iron spoons, assorted sizes ; six kitchen teaspoons ; one stone bak- ing pot ; glass jars for stores ; crocks and jars. The Pantry. — The pantry and china closet should have direct light and good ventilation. The dark, dingy places some- times used for this purpose are germ-breeders. There should be plenty of shelf room and cupboards for the finer glass and china-ware, with a well-arranged sink for washing the dishes. The sink for this purpose is preferably one lined with tinned or planished copper ; for dishes will be less liable to become injured and broken than when washed in an iron or earthen-ware sink. Extension or folding shelves are a great convenience, and can be arranged for the sink if desired. The accompanying cuts illustrate a sink of four compartments for dish-washing, devised by the writer for use in the Sanitarium Domestic Economy kitchen, which can be closed and used as a table. Two zinc 68 SCIENCE IX THE KITCHEN. trays fit the top, upon which to place the dish drainers. If pre- ferred, the top might be arranged as a drainer, by making it of well-seasoned hard wood, with a number of inclined grooves to allow the water to run into the sink. If the house be heated by steam, a platc-warmcr is an important part of the pantry furnishing. The Storeroom. — If possible to do so, locate the room for the keeping of the kitchen su})plies on the cool side of the house. Plenty of light, good ventilation, and absolute cle^nli- Comixutmciil Sink for Disli-W'asliing. Open. ness are essential, as the slightest contamination of air is likely to render the food supply unfit for use. The refrigerator should not be connected with the kitchen drain pipe, and the greatest care should bo taken to keep it clean and sweet. It should be thoroughly scrubbed with borax or sal soda and water, and well aired, at least once a week. Strongly flavored foods and milk should not be kept in the same refrigerator. The ice to be used should ahvaj-s be care- fully A\'ashed before putting in the refrigerator. Care should also be taken to replenish it before the previous supply is entirely melted, as the temperature rises when the ice becomes low, and double the quantity will be required to cool the refrigera- THE HOUSEHOLD WORKSHOP 69 tor that would be necessary to keep it of uniform temperature if added before the ice was entirely out. The Water Supply. — The water used for drinking and cooking purposes should receive equal consideration with the food supply, and from whatever source obtained, it should be frequently tested for impurities, since that which looks the most refreshing may be contaminated with organic poison of the most treacherous character. A good and simple test solution, which any housewife can use, may be prepared by dissolving twelve grains of caustic C'i'f. Mat tic II ] Villi mils. Half the trouble between mistresses and maids arises from the disagreeable sur- roundings to which servants are conlined. There is no place more dismal than the ordinary kitchen in city dwellings. It is half underground, ill-lighted, and unwhole- some. What wonder, then, in the absence of sunlight, there is a lack of sunny temper and cheerful service ? An ill-lighted kitchen is almost sure to be a dirty one, -where germs will thrive and multiply. Let sanitary kitchens be provided, and we shall have more patient mistresses and more willing servants. — Sel. A SLl.GtnsH housemaid exclaimed, when scolded for the uncleanliness of her kitchen, " I 'm sure the room would be clean enough if it were not for the nasty sun, which is always showing the dirty corners." — Scl. Ik we would look for ready hands and willing hearts in our kitchens, we should make them pleasant and inviting for those who literally bear the " burden and heat of the day " in this department of our homes, where, emphatically, " woman's work is never done." We should no longer be satisfied to locate our kitchens in the most un- desirable corner of the house. We should demand ample light, — sunshine if pos- sible, — and justly, too ; for the very light itself is inspiring to the worker. It will stir up cheer and breed content in the minds of those whose lot is cast in this work-a-day room. — Scl. Any invention on the part of the housekeeper intended to be a substitute for watchfulness, will prove a delusion and a snare. — Scl. "The first wealth is health," says Emerson. A KNOWLEDGE of Sanitary principles should be regarded as an essential part of every woman's education, and obedience to sanitary laws should be ranked, as it was in the Mosaic code, as a religious duty. — Scl. ]\It'CH of the air of the house comes from the cellar. A heated house acts like a chimney. A German experimenter states that one half of the cellar air makes its way into the first story, one third into the second, and one fifth into the third. -i^^lEREAL is the name s^iven to those seeds used as MjBr food (wheat, rye, oats, barley, corn, rice, etc.), which are MvMl produced by plants belonging to the vast order known ^AP '• as the grass family. They are used for food both in the unground state and in various forms of mill products. The grains are pre-eminently nutritious, and when well prepared, easily digested foods. In composition they are all similar, but variations in their constituent elements and the relative amounts of these various elements, give them dif- ferent degrees of alimentary value. They each contain one or more of the nitrogenous elements, — gluten, albumen, caseine, and fibrin, — together with starch, dextrine, sugar, and fatty matter, and also mineral elements and woody matter, or cel- lulose. The combined nutritive value of the grain foods is nearly three times that of beef, mutton, or poultry. As regards the proportion of the food elements necessary to meet the various requirements of the system, grains approach more nearly the proper standard than most other foods ; indeed, [78] THE CEREALS, OR GRAINS. 79 wheat contains exactly the correct proportion of the food elements. Being thus in themselves so nearly perfect foods, and when properly prepared, exceedingly palatable and easy of diges- tion, it is a matter of surprise that they are not more generally used ; yet scarcely one family in fifty makes any use of the grains, save in the form of flour, or an- occasional dish of rice or oatmeal. This use of grains is far too meager to adequately rep- resent their value as an article of diet. Variety in the use of grains is as necessary as in the use of other food material, and the numerous grain preparations now to be found in market render it quite possible to make this class of foods a staple article of diet, if so desired, without their becoming at all monotonous. In olden times the grains were largely depended upon as a staple food, and it is a fact well authenticated by history that the highest condition of man has always been associated with wheat-consuming nations. The ancient Spartans, whose powers of endurance are proverbial, were fed on a grain diet, and the Roman soldiers who under Caesar conquered the world, carried each a bag of parched grain in his pocket as his daily ration. Other nationalities at the present time make extensive use of the various grains. Rice used in connection with some of the leguminous seeds, forms the staple article of diet for a large pro- portion of the human race. Rice, unlike the other grain foods, is deficient in the nitrogenous elements, and for this reason its use needs to be supplemented by other articles containing an excess of the nitrogenous material. It is for this reason, doubt- less, that the Hindoos use lentils, and the Chinese eat peas and beans in connection with rice. We frequently meet people who say they cannot use the grains, — that they do not agree with them. With all defer- ence to the opinion of such people, it may he stated that the difficulty often lies in the fact that the grain was either not properly cooked, not properly eaten, or not properly accom- panied. A grain, simply because it is a grain, is by no means warranted to faithfully fulfil its mission unless properly treated. 80 ^ SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Like many another good thing excellent in itself, if found in bad company, it is prone to create mischief, and in many cases the root of the whole difficulty may be found in the excessive amoun-t of sugar used with the grain. Sugar is not needed with grains to increase their alimentary value. The starch which constitutes a large proportion of their food elements must itself be converted into sugar by the di- gestive processes before assimilation, hence the addition of cane sugar only increases the burden of the digestive organs, for the pleasure of the palate. The Asiatics, who subsist largely upon rice, use no sugar upon it, and Avhy should it be con- sidered ^requisite for the enjoyment of wheat, rye, oatmeal, barley, and other grains, any more than it is for our enjoy- ment of bread or other articles made from these same grains ? Undoubtedly the use of grains would become more universal if they were served with less or no sugar. The continued use of sugar upon grains has a tendency to cloy the appetite, just as the constant use of cake or sweetened bread in the place of ordinary bread would do. Plenty of nice, sweet cream or fruit juice, is a sufficient dressing, and there are few persons who after a short trial would not come to enjoy the grains without sugar, and would then as soon think of dispensing with a meal altogether as to dispense with the grains. Even when served without sugar, the grains may not prove al- together healthful unless they are properly eaten. Because they are made soft by the process of cooking and on this account do not require masticating to break them up, the first process of digestion or insalivation is usually overlooked. But it must be remembered that grains are largely composed of starch, and that starch must be mixed with the saliva, or it will remain undigested in the stomach, since the gastric juice only digests the nitrogenous elements. For this reason it is desirable to eat the grains in connection with some hard food. Whole- wheat wafers, nicely toasted to make them crisp and tender, toasted rolls, and unfermented zwieback, are excellent for this purpose. Break two or three wafers into rather small pieces over each individual dish before pouring on the cream. In THE CEREALS, OR GRAINS. 8 1 this way, a morsel of the hard food may be taken with each spoonful of the grains. The combination of foods thus secured, is most pleasing. This is a specially advantageous method of serving grains for children, who are so liable to swallow their food without proper mastication. Cooking of Grains. — All grains, with the exception of rice, and the various grain meals, require prolonged cooking with gentle and continuous heat, in order to so disintegrate their tissues and change their starch into dextrine as to render them easy of digestion. Even the so-called "steam-cooked" grains, advertised to be ready for use in five or ten minutes, require a much longer cooking to properly fit them for diges- tion. These so-called quickly prepared grains are simply steamed before grinding, which has the effect to destroy any low organisms contained in the grain. They are then crushed and shredded. Bicarbonate of soda and lime is added to help dissolve the albuminoids, and sometimes diastase to aid the conversion of the starch into sugar ; but there is nothing in this preparatory process that so alters the chemical nature of the grain as to make it possible to cook it ready for easy diges- tion in five or ten minutes. An insufficiently cooked grain, although it may be palatable, is not in a condition to be readily acted upon by the digestive fluids, and is in consequence left undigested to act as a me- chanical irritant. For the proper cooking of grains the double boiler is the best and most convenient utensil for ordinary purposes. If one does ^ D^^^ie Boiler. not possess a double boiler, a very fair substi- tute may be improvised by using a covered earthen crock placed within a kettle of boiling water, or by using two pails, a smaller within a larger one containing boiling water. A closed steamer or steam-cooker is also valuable for the cooking of grains. Grains may be cooked in an ordinary kettle, but the difficulties to be encountered, in order to prolong the cooking sufficiently and prevent burning, make it the least desirable utensil for this purpose. 6 82 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Water is the liquid usually employed for cooking grains, but many of them are richer and finer flavored when milk is mixed with the water, — one part to two of water. Especially is this true of rice, hominy, and farina. When water is used, soft water is preferable to hard. No salt is necessary, but if used at all, it is generally added to the water before stirring in the grain or meal. The quantity of liquid required varies with the different grains, the manner in which they are milled, the method by which they are cooked, and the consistency desired for the cooked grain, more liquid being required for a porridge than for a mush. The following table gives the time necessary for cooking and the quantity of liquid required for the various grains, with the exception of rice, when cooked in a double boiler or closed steamer, to produce a mush of ordinary con- sistency. If an ordinary kettle is used for cooking the grains, a larger quantity of water will be needed : — TABLE SHOV^ING PROPORTION OF GRAIN AND LIQUID REQUIRED, WITH APPROXIMATE TIME, WHEN A DOUBLE BOILER IS USED. Graham Grits. . . Rolled Wheat . . , Cracked " Pearl " Whole " . . Rolled Oats Coarse Oatmeal. Rolled Rye Pearl Barley .... Coarse Hominy.. Fine Cerealine Quantity of Water Hours to Grain. Required. Cook. I part 4 parts 3 to 5 3 3 to 4 AYz " 3 to 4 4 4 to 5 s 6 to 8 3 3 to 4 4 " " 4 to 6 3 3 to 4 5 4 to 5 5 6 to lo 4 4 to 6 part All grains should be carefully looked over before being put to cook. In the cooking of grains, the following points should be observed : — T. Measure both liquid and grain accurately with the same utensil,, or with two of equal size THE CEREALS, OR GRAINS. 83 2. Have the water boilinij when the grain is introduced, but do not allow it to boil for a long time previous, until it is con- siderably evaporated, as that will change the proportion of water and grain sufficiently to alter the consistency of the mush when cooked. Introduce the grain slowly, so as not to stop the boiling of the water, and let it boil rapidly until the grain ceases sinking to the bottom, and the whole becomes thickened. If the grain is cooked in a double boiler, this first boiling should be done with the inner dish directly over the fire, and when the grain has thickened or become " set," as it is termed, the dish should at once be placed in the outer boiler, the water in which should be boiling. It will then require no further care during the entire cooking, save to keep the outer boiler filled and the water boiling. If the grain is to be cooked in a steam- cooker, as soon as set it may be turned into a china or an earthen dish, suitable for use on the table, and placed at once in the steamer to complete the cooking. If an ordinary kettle is used, it is well to place it upon an iron ring or brick on some part of the range where it will just simmer, for the remainder of the cooking. 3. Stir the grain continuously until it has set, but not at all afterward. Grains are much more appetizing if, while properly softened, they can still be made to retain their original form. Stirring renders the preparation pasty, and destroys its appear- ance. Grains cooked in a double boiler will require no stirring, and there will be little danger of their being lumpy, underdone on top, and scorched at the bottom, as is so often the case when cooked in a single boiler. 4. Cook continuously. If it be necessary to replenish the water in the outer boiler at any time, let it be done with water of boiling temperature. If it is desired to have the mush quite thick and dry, the boiler should be left uncovered during the latter part of the cooking. If preferred moist, keep the cover on. In the preparation of all mushes with meal or flour, it is a good plan to make the material into a batter with a portion of the liquid retained from the quantity the common mode of dividi^^g it was by break- ing^, and hence the expression '''breaking^ bread"* so common in Scripture. Various substances have been and are employed for making this needful article. Until the last few decades, barley was the grain most universally used. Chestnuts, ground to a flour, are made into bread in regions where these nuts abound. Quite recently, an immense peanut crop in the Southern States was utilised for bread-making purposes. In ancient times, the Thracians made bread from flour made from the ■wattrr cQltrart^ a prickly root of triangular form. In Syria, mulberries were dried and ground into flour. Rice, moss, palm tree piths, and starch-producing roots are used by different nationalities in the preparation of bread. In many parts of Sweden, bread is made from dried fish, using one half fish flour and one half barley flour : and in winter, flour made from the bark of trees is added. Desiccated tomatoes, potatoes, and other veg"etables are also mixed with the cereals for bread-making. In India> the lower classes make their bread chiefly from millet. Moss bread is made in Icelatid from the reindeer moss, which toward autumn becomes soft, tender, and moist, with a taste iike wheat bran. It contains a large quantity of starch, and the Icelanders gather, dry, pulverize it. and thus prepare it for bread-making. The ancient Eg\'ptians often made their bread from equal parts of the whole grain and meal. The breadstuff? most universally used among civilized na- tions at the present time are barley, rye, oats, maize, buck- wheat, rice, and wheat, of which the last has acquired a decided preference. If made in the proper manner and from suitable material, bread is, with the exception of milk, the article best fitted for the nourishment of the body, and if need be, can supply the place of all other foods. Good bread does not cloy the appe- tite as do many other articles of food, and the simplest bill of iSkl'lADSI'UKI'S ANIJ IlkMAD-MAKlNCJ. Ill fare whicli incliiclcs liijht, wholesome bread, is far more satisfy- ing than an cKiborate iiual without it. Were the tables of our land supplied with good, nutritious, vvell-baUed bread, there would be less desire for cake, pastry, and other indigestible articles, which, under the [)r(;scnt system of cookery, are allowed to compensate for the inferior quality and p(jor preparation of more wholesome foods. Bread has been proverbially styled the " staff of life." In nearly all ancient languages the etymology of the word "bread" signifies all, indicating that the bread of earlier periods was in truth what it should be at the present time, — a staff upon which all the functions of life might with safety depend. Notwithstanding the important part bread was designed to play in the economy of life, it would be hardly possible to mention another aliment which so universally falls below the standard, either through the manner of its preparation or in the material used. Bread, to answer the requirements of a good, wholesome article of food, beside being palatable, must be light, porous, and friable, so that it can be easily insalivated and digested. It should not contain ingredients which will in any way be injurious if taken into the system, but should contain as many as possible of the elements of nutrition. Wheat, the substance from which bread is most generally made, contains all the nec- essary food elements in proper proportions to meet the require- ments of nutrition, and bread should also contain them. The flour, however, must be made from the whole grain of the wheat, with the exception of the outer husk. What is ordinarily termed fine flour has a large part of the most nutritive properties of the grain left out, and unless this deficiency is made up by other foods, the use of bread made from such material will leave the most vital tissues of the body poorly nourished, and tend to produce innumerable bad results. People who eat bread made from fine white flour naturally crave the food elements which have been eliminated from the wheat, and are thus led to an excessive consumption H2 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. of meat, and the nerve-starvation and consequent irritability thus induced may also lead to the use of alcoholic drinks. We believe that one of the strongest barriers women could erect against the inroads of intemperance would be to supply the tables of the land with good bread made from flour of the entire wheat. The superiority of bread made from the entire wheat or unbolted meal has been attested by many notable examples in history. In England, under the administration of William Pitt, there was for several years such a scarcity of wheat that to make it hold out longer, a law was passed by Parliament that the army should be supplied with bread made of unbolted flour. This occasioned much murmuring on the part of the soldiers, but nevertheless the health of the army improved so greatly as to be a subject of surprise. The officers and the physicians at last publicly declared that the soldiers had never before been so robust and healthy. According to the eminent Prof. Liebig, whole-wheat bread contains 60 per cent more of the phosphate or bone-forming ma- terial than does meat, and 200 per cent more gluten than white bread. To the lack of these elements in a food so generally used as white flour bread, is undoubtedly due the great preva- lence of early decaying teeth, rickets, and other bone diseases. Indeed, so many are the evils attendant upon a continued use of fine flour bread that we can in a great measure agree with a writer of the last century who says, in a quaint essay still to be seen at the British Museum, that " fine flour, spirituous liq- uors, and strong ale-house beer are the foundations of almost all the poverty and all the evils that affect the labouring part of mankind." Bread made from the entire wheat is looked upon with far more favor than formerly, and it is no longer necessary to use the crude products of the grain for its manufacture, since mod- ern invention has worked such a revolution in milling proc- esses that it is now possible to obtain a fine flour containing all the nutritious elements of the grain. The old-time millstone has been largely superceded by machinery with which the entire BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. II3 grain may be reduced to fine flour without the loss of any of its valuable properties. To be sure, the manufacture of fine white flour of the old sort, is still continued, and doubtless will be continued so long as color takes precedence of food value. The improved processes of milling have, however, enabled the millers to utilize a much larger proportion of the nutritious elements of the grain than formerly, and still preserve that whiteness so pleasing to many consumers. Although it is true that there are brands of white flour which possess a large per- centage of the nutrient properties of the wheat, it is likewise true that flour which contains a// the nutritive elements is noi white. Of flours made from the entire grain there are essentially two different varieties, that which is termed unbolted wheat meal or Graham flour, and that called zvheat-berty, whole-wheat, or entire- wheat flour. The principal difference between the two consists in the preliminary treatment of the wheat kernel before reduc- tion, Graham flour containing more or less of the flinty bran, which is wholly innutritions and to a sensitive stomach some- what irritating. In the manufacture of whole or entire-w\\.e.dX flour, the outer, flinty bran is first removed by special machinery, and then the entire grain pulverized, by some approved method, to different grades of fineness. The absence of the indigestible bran renders the entire-wheat flour superior in this respect to Graham, though for many persons the latter is to be preferred. How to Select Flour. — The first requisite in the making of good bread is good flour. The quality of a brand of flour will of course depend much upon the kind of grain from which it is prepared — whether new or old, perfect, or deteriorated by rust, mold, or exposure, and also upon the thoroughness with which it has been cleansed from dust, chaff, and all foreign substances, as well as upon the method by which it is ground. It is not possible to judge with regard to all these particulars by the appearance of the flour, but in general, good flour will be sweet, dry, and free from any sour or musty smell or taste. Take up a handful, and if it falls from the hand light and elas- tic, it is pretty sure to be good. If it will retain the imprint 8 114 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. of the fingers and falls in a compact mass, or is damp, clammy, or sticky to the touch, it is by no means the best. Wet and knead a little of it between the fingers ; if it works soft and sticky, it is poor. Good flour, when made into dough, is elas- tic, and will retain its shape. This elastic property of good flour is due to the gluten which it contains. The more gluten and the stronger it is, the better is the flour. The gluten of good flour will swell to several times its original bulk, while that of poor flour will not. In buying white flour, do not select that which is pure white with a bluish tinge, but that which is of a creamy, yellowish-white tint. While the kinds of flour that contain the entire nutritive properties of the wheat will necessarily be darker in color, we would caution the reader not to suppose that because flour is dark in color it is for that reason good, and rich in nutritive elements. There are many other causes from which flour may be dark, such as the use of uncleansed or dark varieties of wheat, and the large admixture of bran and other grains ; many unscrupulous millers and flour dealers make use of this fact to palm off upon their unsuspecting cus- tomers an inferior article. Much of the so-called Graham flour is nothing more than poor flour mixed with bran, and is in every way inferior to good white flour. Fine flour made from the entire wheat may generally be distinguished from a spu- rious article by taking a small portion into the mouth and chewing it. Raw flour made from the entire grain has a sweet taste, and a rich, nutty flavor the same as that experienced in chewing a whole grain of wheat, and produces a goodly quan- tity of gum or gluten, while a spurious article tastes flat and insipid like starch, or has a bitter, pungent taste consequent upon the presence of impurities. This bitter taste is noticeable in bread made from such flour. A given quantity of poor flour will not make as much bread as the same quantity of good flour, so that adulteration may also be detected in this way. Doubtless much of the prejudice against the use of whole- wheat flour has arisen from the use of a spurious article. BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. II5 As it is not always possible to determine accurately with- out the aid of chemistry and a microscope whether flour is genuine, the only safe way is to purchase the product of reli- able mills. It is always best to obtain a small quantity of flour first, and put it to the test of bread-making ; then, if satisfactory, purchase that brand so long as it proves good. It is true economy to buy a flour known to be good even though it may cost more than some others. It is not wise to purchase too large a quantity at once unless one has exceptionally good facilities for storage, as flour is subject to many deteriorating influences. It is estimated that a barrel of good flour contains sufficient bread material to last one person one year ; and from this standard it can be easily estimated in what proportion it is best to purchase. To Keep Flour. — Flour should always be kept in a tight receptacle, and in a cool, dry, well-ventilated place. It should not be allowed to remain in close proximity to any substances of strong odor, as it very readily absorbs odors and gaseous im- purities. A damp atmosphere will cause it to absorb moisture, and as a result the gluten will lose some of its tenacity and be- come sticky, and bread made from the flour will be coarser and inferior in quality. Flour which has absorbed dampness from any cause should be sifted into a large tray, spread out thin and exposed to the hot sun, or placed in a warming oven for a few hours. Deleterious Adulterations of Flour. — Besides the fraud frequently practiced of compounding whole-wheat flour from inferior mill products, white flour is sometimes adulterated — more commonly, however, in European countries than in this — with such substances as alum, ground rice, plaster of Paris, and whiting. Alum is doubtless the most commonly used of all these substances, for the reason that it gives the bread a whiter color and causes the flour to absorb and retain a larger amount of water than it would otherwise hold. This enables the user to make, from an inferior brand of flour, bread which Il6 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. resembles that made from a better quality. Such adulteration is exceedingly injurious, as are other mineral substances used for a similar purpose. The presence of alum in flour or bread may be detected in the following way: Macerate a half slice of bread in three or four tablespoonfuls of water ; strain off the water, and add to it twenty drops of a strong solution of logwood, made either from the fresh chips or the extract. Then add a large teaspoonful of a strong solution of carbonate of ammonium. If alum is present, the mixture will change from pink to lavender blue. The Journal of Trade gives the following simple mode of testing for this adulterant : " Persons can test the bread they buy for themselves, by taking a piece of it and soaking it in water. Take this water and mix it with an equal part of fresh milk, and if the bread contains alum, the mixture will coagulate. If a better test is required, boil the mixture, and it will form a perfect clot." Whiting can be detected by dipping the ends of the thumb and forefinger in sweet oil and rubbing the flour between them. If whiting is present, the flour will become sticky like putty, and remain white ; whereas pure flour, when so rubbed, be- comes darker in color, but not sticky. Plaster of Paris, chalk, and other alkaline adulterants may be detected by a few drops of lemon juice : if either be present, effervescence will take place. Chemistry of Bread=Making. — Good flour alone will not insure good bread. As much depends upon its preparation as upon the selection of material ; for the very best of flour may be transformed into the poorest of bread through improper or careless preparation. Good bread cannot be produced at ran- dom. It is not the fruit of any luck or chance, but the prac- tical result of certain fixed laws and principles to which all may conform. The first step in the conversion of flour into bread is to incorporate with it a given amount of fluid, by which each atom of flour is surrounded with a thin film of moisture, in order to hydrate the starch, to dissolve the sugar and albumen, and to BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 11/ develop the adhesiveness of the gluten, thus binding the whole into one coherent mass termed dough, a word from a verb meaning to wet or moisten. If nothing more be done, and this simple form of dough be baked, the starch granules will be ruptured by the heat and thus properly prepared for food ; but the moistening will have developed the glue-like property of the gluten to the extent of firmly cementing the particles of flour together, so that the mass will be hard and tough, and almost incapable of mastication. If, however, the dough be thoroughly kneaded, rolled very thin, made into small cakes, and then quickly baked with sufficient heat, the result will be a brittle kind of bread termed unleavened bread, which, although it requires a lengthy process of mastication, is more wholesome and digestible than soft bread, which is likely to be swallowed insufficiently insalivated. The gluten of wheat flour, beside being adhesive, is likewise remarkably elastic. This is the reason why wheat flour is much more easily made into light bread than the product of other cereals which contain less or a different quality of gluten. Now if while the atoms of flour are supplied with moisture, they are likewise supplied with some form of gaseous sub- stance, the elastic walls of the gluten cells will become dis- tended, causing the dough to "rise," or grow in bulk, and at the same time become light, or porous, in texture. This making of bread light is usually accomplished by the introduction of air into the dough, or by carbonic acid gas generated within the mass, either before or during the baking, by a fermentative or chemical process. When air is the agency used, the gluten, by its glue-like properties, catches and retains the air for a short period ; and if heat is applied before the air, which is lighter than the dough, rises and escapes, it will expand, and in expanding distend the elastic glutinous mass, causing it to pufl*up or rise. If the heat is sufficient to harden the gluten quickly, so that the air cells throughout the whole mass become firmly fixed before the air escapes, the result will be a light, porous bread. If the heat is not sufficient, the air does not properly expand ; Il8 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. or if before a sufficient crust is formed to retain the air and form a framework of support for the dough, the heat is less- ened or withdrawn, the air will escape, or contract to its former volume, allowing the distended glutinous cell walls to collapse ; in either case the bread will be heavy. If carbonic acid gas, generated within the dough by means of fermentation or by the use of chemical substances, be the means used to lighten the mass, the gluten by virtue of its tenacity holds the bubbles of gas as they are generated, and prevents the large and small ones from uniting, or from rising to the surface, as they seek to do, being lighter than the dough. Being thus caught where they are generated, and the proper conditions supplied to expand them, they swell or raise the dough, which is then termed a loaf. (This word "loaf" is from the Anglo-Saxon hlifian, to raise or lift up.) The structure is rendered permanent by the application of heat in baking. BREAD MADE LIGHT BY FERMENTATION. For general use, the most convenient form of bread is usually considered to be that made from wheat flour, raised or made light by some method of fermentation, although in point of nutritive value and healthfulness, it does not equal light, unfermented, or aerated bread made without the aid of chemicals. The Process of Fermentation. — Fermentation is a proc- ess of decomposition, and hence more or less destructive to the substances subjected to its influence. When animal and vege- table substances containing large amounts of nitrogenous ele- ments are in a moist state and exposed to air, they very soon undergo a change, the result of which is decomposition or decay. This is occasioned by the action of germs, which feed upon nitrogenous substances, as do the various species of fungi. Meat, eggs, milk, and other foods rich in nitrogenous elements can be preserved but a short time if exposed to the atmos- phere. The carbonaceous elements are different in this re- spect. When pure starch, sugar, or fat is exposed to the air BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 1 19 in a moistened state, they exhibit very little tendency to change or decay. Yet if placed in contact with decompos- ing substances containing nitrogen, they soon begin to change, and are themselves decomposed and destroyed. This com- munication of the condition of change from one class of sub- stances to another, is termed fermentation. If a fermenting substance be added to a watery solution containing sugar, the sugar will be changed or decomposed, and two new sub- stances, alcohol and carbonic acid gas, are produced. The different stages of fermentation are known scientifically as alcoholic, acetous, and putrefactive. The first is the name given to the change which takes place in the saccharine matter of the dough, which results in the formation of alcohol and carbonic acid gas. This same change takes place in the sac- charine matter of fruits under the proper conditions of warmth, air, and moisture, and is utilized in the production of wines and fermented liquors. In bread-making, the alcohol and carbonic acid gas produced during the fermentation, are formed from sugar, — that originally contained in the flour and the additional quantity formed from starch during the fermenting process. It is evident, therefore, that bread cannot be fermented without some loss in natural sweetness and nutritive value, and bread made after this method should be managed so as to deteriorate the material as little as possible. If this fermentation continues long enough, the acetous fermentation is set up, and acetic acid, the essential element of vinegar, is formed, and the dough becomes sour. If the process of fermentation is very much prolonged, the putrefactive change is set up, and the gluten is more or less decomposed. If the dough be baked during the alcoholic and carbonic- acid stage of fermentation, the gas will render the loaf light and porous. The alcohol will be dissipated by the heat during the baking, or evaporated shortly afterward, provided the baking be thorough. If the fermentation is allowed to proceed until the acetous fermentation has begun, the loaf, when baked, will be "sad" and heavy, since there is no longer any gas to puff it up. I20 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. If, however, during the first or alcoholic stage of fermentation, new material be added, the same kind of fermentation will con- tinue for a certain period longer. These facts serve to show that great care and attention are necessary to produce good bread by a fermentative process. If the fermentation has not been allowed to proceed far enough to generate a sufficient amount of gas to permeate the whole mass, the result will be a heavy loaf; and if allowed to pro- ceed too far, acid fermentation begins, the gas escapes, and we have sour as well as heavy bread. It is not enough, however, to prevent bread from reaching the acetous or sour stage offer- mentation. Bread may be over-fermented when there is no ap- preciable sourness developed. Fermentation may be carried so far as to destroy much of the richness and sweetness of the loaf, and yet be arrested by the baking process just before the acetous stage begins, so that it will be light and porous, but de- cidedly lacking in flavor and substance. Over-fermentation also develops in the bread various bitter substances which obscure the natural sweetness of the bread and give to it an unpleasant flavor. Many of these substances are more or less harmful in character, and include many poisons known as ptomaines, a class of chemical compounds produced by germs whenever fermentation or decomposition of organic matter takes place. Much skill is required to determine at what point to arrest the fermentation, in order to save the sweetness and richness of the bread. Fermentative Agents. — Fermentation in vegetable mat- ter is always accompanied by the growth of living organisms. The development of these minute organisms is the exciting cause of fermentation and putrefaction. The germs or spores of some of these fermenting agents are always present in the air. It is well known to housekeepers that if a batter of flour and water and a little salt be kept in a jar of water at a tem- perature of from ioo° to II0°, it will ferment in the course of five or six hours. Scientists assure us that this fermentation is occasioned by the introduction of the spores of certain species of fungi which are continually floating in the atmosphere, and i;ri:ai)S rui'Ks and uread-making. 121 the proper conditions of warmth and moisture being supplied, they at once begin to grow and multiply. This method of se- curing fermentation is utilized by housewives in making what is termed salt-rising bread. The raising of dough by this proc- ess is lengthy and uncertain, and a far more convenient method is to accelerate the fermentation by the addition of some active ferment. The ancient method of accomplishing this was by adding to the dough a leaven, a portion of old dough which had been kept until it had begun to ferment ; but since the investigations of modern chemistry have made clear the properties of yeast, that has come to be considered the best agent for setting up the process of alcoholic fermentation in bread. The use of leaven is still practiced somewhat in some European countries. The bread produced with leaven, al- though light and spongy in texture, has an unpleasant, sour taste, and is much less wholesome than that produced with fresh yeast. Yeast is a collection of living organisms or plants belonging to the family of fungi, which, like all other plants, require warmth, moisture, and food, in order to promote growth, and when properly supplied with these, they begin to grow and multi- ply rapidly. Fermentation will not take place at a temperature below 30°, it proceeds slowly at 45°, but from 70° to 90° it goes on rapidly. Fermentation may be arrested by the ex- haustion of either the fermenting agent or the food supply, or by exposure to heat at the temperature of boiling water. This latter fact enables the housewife to arrest the process of fer- mentation, when the loaf has become sufficiently light, by baking it in a hot oven. Heat destroys most of the yeast cells ; a few, however, remain in the loaf unchanged, and it is for this reason that yeast bread is considered less wholesome for dyspeptics than light unleavened bread. It is apparent, then, that the more thoroughly fermented bread is baked, the more whole- some it will be, from the more complete destruction of the yeast germs which it contains. Yeast. — Next to good flour, the most important requisite in the manufacture of fermented bread is good yeast. The best 122 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. of flour used in conjunction with poor yeast will not produce good bread. The most convenient and reliable kind of mar- ketable yeast, when fresh, is the compressed yeast. The dry yeast cakes sold at the stores are less to be recommended ; for, though they are always ready for use, the quality of the bread they produce is generally inferior to that made with either compressed yeast or good liquid yeast. If this sort of yeast must be depended upon, the cakes known as " Yeast Foam '' are the best of any with which we are acquainted. Of homemade yeasts there are almost as many varieties as there are cooks. Their comparative value depends mainly upon the length of time they will keep good, or the facility with which they can be prepared. Essentially the same prin- ciples are involved in the making of them all ; viz., the intro- duction of a small quantity of fresh, lively yeast into a mixture of some form of starch (obtained from flour, potato, or a com- bination of both) and water, with or without the addition of such other substances as will promote fermentation, or aid in preventing the yeast from souring. Under proper conditions of warmth, the small amount of original yeast begins to supply itself with food at once by converting the starch into dextrine, and then into grape sugar, and multiplies itself with great rapidity, and will continue to do so as long as there is material to supply it with the means of growth. While its growth is rapid, its decay is equally so ; and unless some means of preser- vation be employed, the yeast will die, and the mixture become sour and foul. Ordinarily it can be kept good for several days, and under the best conditions, even three or four weeks. After it has been kept from four to six hours, it should be placed in some receptacle as nearly air-tight as possible and set in the cellar or refrigerator, where it can be kept at a temperature not conducive to fermentation. Thus the little yeast organisms will remain in a quiescent state, but yet alive and capable of multiplying themselves when again surrounded with favorable conditions. The yeast should be kept in glass or glazed earthen ware. The vessel containing it should be washed and scalded with BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 123 scrupulous care before new yeast is put in, since the smallest particle of sour or spoiled yeast will ruin the fresh supply in a very short time. It is generally conceded that yeast will keep longer if the material of which it is made be mixed with liquid of a boiling temperature, or cooked for a few minutes at boiling heat before adding the yeast. The reason for this undoubtedly lies in the fact that the boiling kills foreign germs, and thus pre- vents early souring or putrefaction. The yeast must not be added, however, until the liquid has cooled to a little more than blood heat, as too great heat will kill the yeast cells. The starch of the potato is thought to furnish better mate- rial for the promotion of yeast growth than that of wheat flour ; but whether the potato be first cooked, mashed, and then com- bined with the other ingredients, or grated raw and then cooked in boiling water, makes little difference so far as results are concerned, though the latter method may have the advan- tage of taking less time. If potatoes are used for this purpose, they should be perfectly mature. New ones will not answer. Sugar assists in promoting the growth of the yeast plant, and a small amount is usually employed in making yeast. Hops serve to prevent the yeast from souring, and an infusion of them is frequently used for this purpose. While it is essential that the water used should be boiling, it is also necessary that the mixture should cool to a lukewarm temperature before the introduction of the original yeast, as intense heat will kill the yeast plant. Freezing cold will like- wise produce the same result. While a cool temperature is one of the requisites for keeping yeast fresh, care must be taken, especially in winter, that it does not get chilled. When yeast is needed for bread, it is always the best plan to take a cup to the cellar or refrigerator for the desired quan- tity, and re-cover the jar as quickly as possible. A half hour in a hot kitchen would be quite likely to spoil it. Always shake or stir the whole well before measuring out the yeast. In making yeast, use earthen bowls for mixing, porcelain-lined or granite-ware utensils for boiling, and silver or wooden spoons for stirrine. 124 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Bitter Yeast. — It sometimes happens that an excessive use of hops in the making of yeast gives to it so bitter a flavor as to comrnunicate a disagreeable taste to the bread. To cor- rect this bitterness, mix with the yeast a considerable quantity of water, and let it stand for some hours, when the thickest portion will have settled at the bottom. The water, which will have extracted much of the bitterness, can then be turned off and thrown away. Yeast also sometimes becomes bitter from long keeping. Freshly burnt charcoal thrown into the yeast is said to absorb the odors and offensive matter and render the yeast more sweet ; however, we do not recommend the use of any yeast so stale as to need sweetening or purify- ing. Yeast that is new and fresh is always best ; old and stale yeast, even though it may still possess the property of raising the dough, will give an unpleasant taste to the bread, and is much less wholesome. Tests for Yeast. — Liquid yeast, when good, is light in color and looks foamy and effervescent ; it has a pungent odor somewhat similar to weak ammonia, and if tasted will have a sharp, biting flavor. Yeast is poor when it looks dull and watery, and has a sour odor. Compressed yeast, if good, breaks off dry and looks white ; if poor, it appears moist and stringy. If there is any question as to the quality of yeast, it is always best to test it before use by adding a little flour to a small quantity and setting it in a warm place. If it begins to ferment in the course of fifteen or twenty minutes, it is good. Starting the Bread. — Having secured good yeast, it is nec- essary in some way to diffuse it throughout the bread material so that it will set up an active fermentation, which, by the evolution of gas, will render the whole mass light and porous. As fermentation is more sure, more rapid, and requires less yeast to start it when set in action in a thin mixture than when introduced into stiff dough, the more common method of start- ing fermented bread is by " setting a sponge ; " viz., preparing a batter of flour and liquid, to which potato is sometimes added, and into which the }'east is introduced. Some cooks, in mak- BKEADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 12$ tng the batter, use the whole amount of liquid needed for the bread, and as the sponge rises, add flour in small quantities, beating it back, and allowing it to rise a second, third, or even fourth time, until sufficient flour has been added to knead ; others use only half the liquid in preparing the sponge, and when it has well risen, prepare a second one by adding the remainder of the liquid and fresh flour, in which case the fer- mented batter acts as a double portion of yeast and raises the second sponge very quickly. The requisite amount of flour is then added, the dough kneaded, and the whole allowed to rise a third time in the loaf. Other cooks dispense altogether with the sponge, adding to the liquid at first the requisite amount of flour, kneading it thoroughly and allowing it to rise once in mass and again after molding into loaves. As to the superiority of one method over another, much depends upon their adaptability to the time and convenience of the user ; light bread can be produced by either method. Less yeast but more time will be required when the bread is started with a sponge. The end to be attained by all is a complete and equal diffusion of gas bub- bles generated during fermentation throughout the whole mass of dough. The preferable method of combining the materials needed for the batter is by first mingling the yeast with the water or milk. If condensed or dry yeast is used, previously dissolve it well in a half cupful or less of lukewarm water. Stir the flour slowly into the liquid mixture, and beat it very tJioronghly so that the yeast shall be evenly distributed throughout the whole. Proportion of Materials Needed. — The material needed for making the bread should all be carefully measured out be- forehand and the flour well sifted. Many housekeepers fail in producing good bread, because they guess at the quantity of material to be used, particularly the flour, and with the same quantity of liquid will one time use much more flour than at another, thus making the results exceedingly variable. With the same brand of flour, the same quantity should always be used to produce a given amount of bread. This amount will de- 126 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. pend upon the quality of the material used. Good flour will absorb a larger quantity of liquid than that of an inferior quality, and the amount of liquid a given quantity of flour will take up de- termines the quantity of bread that can be produced from it. This amount is chiefly dependent upon the proportion of gluten contained in the flour. One hundred pounds of good flour will absorb sufficient water to produce one hundred and fifty pounds of bread. One reason why bread retains so much water is that during the baking a portion of starch is converted into gum, which holds water more strongly than starch. Again : the gluten, when wet, is not easily dried, while the dry crust which forms around the bread in baking is nearly impervious to water, and, like the skin of a baking potato, prevents the moisture from escaping. Kinds of flour vary so considerably in respect to their ab- sorbent properties that it is not possible to state the exact proportions of flour and liquid required ; approximately, three heaping measures of flour for one scant measure of liquid, in- cluding the yeast, will in general be found a good proportion. Bread made from the entire wheat will require from one half to one cupful less flour than that made of white flour. A quart of liquid, including the yeast, is sufficient for three ordinary-sized loaves. One half or two thirds of a cup of homemade yeast, according to its strength, or one half a cake of compressed yeast dissolved in a half cup of lukewarm water, will be suffi- cient for one quart of liquid. It is a common mistake to use too much yeast. It lessens the time required, but the result is less satisfactory. Bread to be set over night requires less yeast. Whether water or milk should be used for bread-making, depends upon taste and convenience. Bread retains more nearly the natural flavor of the grain if made with water, and is less apt to sour ; at the same time, bread made with milk is more tender than that made with water. Bread made with milk requires from one half to one cupful less of flour. Potatoes are sometimes used in conjunction with flour for bread-making. They are by no means necessary when good BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 127 flour is used, but bread made from inferior flour is improved by their use. Only potatoes that are fully matured should be used for this purpose, and they should be well cooked and smoothly mashed. Neither sugar nor salt is essential for the production of good bread, though most cook books recommend the use of one or both. The proportion of the former should not exceed one even tablespoonful to three pints of flour, and the very smallest amount of salt, never more than a half tea- spoonful, and better less. No butter or other free fat is re- quired ; the tenderness of texture produced by its use can be secured as well by the use of unskimmed milk and thorough kneading. Utensils. — For bread-making purposes, earthen or china ware is preferable to either tin or wooden utensils : being a poor conductor, it pro- tects the sponge from the cold air much more effectually than tin, and is much more easily kept clean and sweet than wood. The utensil should be kept exclusively for the purpose of bread-making, and should never be allowed to contain any sour substance. The bowl should be thoroughly scalded before and after each using. Use silver or granite-ware spoons for stirring the bread. Iron and tin discolor the sponge. For measuring the material, particularly the liquid and the yeast, half-pint cups, divided by marks into thirds and fourths, as shown in the cut, are especially serviceable. When to Set the Sponge. — The time to set the sponge for bread-making is a point each housekeeper must determine for herself. The fact before stated, that temperature controls the activity of fermentation, and that it is retarded or accel- erated according to the conditions of warmth, enables the housewife, by keeping the bread-mixture at a temperature of about 50° F., to set her bread in the evening, if desired, and find it light and ready for further attention in the morning. Measuring Cup. Me.isuring Cup. 128 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. In winter, the sponge will need to be prepared early in the evening and kept during the night at as even a temperature as possible. A good way to accomplish this is to cover the bowl with a clean napkin and afterwards wrap it about very closely with several folds of a woolen blanket. In extremely cold weather bottles of hot water may be placed around the bowl outside the wrappings. In case this plan is employed, care must be taken to have sufficient wrappings between the bread and the bottles to prevent undue heat, and the bottles should be covered with an additional blanket to aid in retain- ing the heat as long as possible. If the sponge is set in the evening, if in very warm weather, it should be started as late as practicable, and left in a rather cool place. Cover closely to exclude the air, but do not wrap in flannel as in winter. It will be likely to need atten- tion early in the morning. Temperature for Bread=Making. — Except in very warm weather, the ferment or sponge should be started with liquid at a lukewarm temperature. The liquid should never be so cold as to chill the yeast. Milk, if used, should be first sterilized by scalding, and then cooled before using. After the sponge is prepared, the greatest care must be taken to keep it at an equable temperature. From 70° to 90° is the best range of temperature, 75° being considered the golden mean throughout the entire fermentative process of bread-making. After fermentation has well begun, it will continue, but much more slowly if the temperature be gradually lowered to 45° or 50°. If it is necessary to hasten the rising, the tempera- ture can be raised to 80° or 85°, but it will necessitate careful watching, as it will be liable to over-ferment, and become sour. Cold arrests the process of fermentation, while too great heat carries forward the work too rapidly. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of an equable temperature. The housewife who permits the fermentation to proceed very slowly one hour, forces it rapidly by increased heat the next, and per- BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. I29 haps allows it to subside to a chilling temperature the third, will never be sure of good bread. Putting the bowl containing the sponge into a dish of warm (not hot) water, or keeping it in the warming oven, or on the back of the range, are all methods which may bring about good results, provided the same degree of heat can be maintained continuously ; but if the fire is one which must be increased or diminished to suit the exigencies of household details, nothing but the closest and most careful attention will keep the sponge at uniform temperature. The better way is to cover the bowl with a napkin, and in cold weather wrap closely in several thicknesses of flannel, and place on a stand behind the stove, or in some warm place not exposed to draughts. A bread- raiser purposely arranged for keeping the bread at proper tem- perature is a great convenience. Two small and rather thick earthen ware crocks of the same size, serve very well for this purpose. Scald both with hot water, and while still warm, put the sponge in one, invert the other one for a cover, and leave in a warm room. All flour used in the bread should be warm when added. Lightness of the Bread. — The time required for bread in its different stages to grow light will vary according to the quantity and strength of the yeast used and the amount of warmth supplied. A thin batter is light enough when in ap- pearance it resembles throughout a mass of sea foam. It will not greatly increase in bulk, but will be in a state of constant activity, sending up little bubbles of gas and emitting a sharp, pungent odor like fresh yeast. When the thicker batter or second sponge is sufficiently light, it will have risen to nearly double its original bulk and become cracked over the top like " crazed " china. It should never be allowed to rise to the point of sinking or caving in, and should be kneaded as soon as ready. If for any reason it is not possible to knead the bread at once when it has arrived at this stage, do not allow it to stand, but take a knife or spoon and gently beat it back a little. This dissipates some of the gas and reduces the volume somewhat. Let it rise again, 9 I30 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. which it will do in a short time, if it has not been allowed to become too light. If dough that has been kneaded and allowed to rise in mass, becomes sufficiently light at some in- opportune moment for shaping into loaves, it may be kept from becoming too light and souring, by taking a knife and cutting it away from the sides of the bowl and gradually working it over toward the center. Re-cover and put in a warm place. It will soon assume its former bulk. This "cutting down" may be repeated several times if necessary, provided the bread has not been allowed to become too light at any time, and some cooks recommend it as a uniform practice. We do not, how- ever, except in case of necessity ; since, though it may possibly make the bread more light, the long-continued fermenta- tion destroys more than is necessary of the food elements of the flour, and develops an unnecessary arhount of the products of fermentation. Lightness is not the only requisite for bread, and should be secured with as little deterioration of the flour as possible. An important point in the preparation of bread is to decide when it is sufficiently light after having been molded and placed in pans. The length of time cannot be given, because it will vary with the temperature, the quality of the flour, and the quantity added during the kneading. At a temperature of 75°, an hour or an hour and a half is about the average length of time needed. A loaf should nearly double its size after being placed in a pan, before baking ; when perfectly risen, the bread feels light when lifted and weighed upon the hand. It is better to begin the baking before it has perfectly risen than to wait until it has become so light as to commence to fall, since if the fermentation proceeds too far, the sweetness of the grain will be destroyed, and the bread will be tasteless and innutritions, even if it does not reach the acetous stage. The exercise of a little judgment and careful attention to detail will soon enable a person successfully to determine the proper degree of lightness of bread in its various stages. Bread which passes the extreme point of fermentation, or in common phrase gets " too light," will have a strong acid odor, and will BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 131 pull away from the bowl in a stringy mass, having a watery appearance very different from the fine, spongy texture of properly risen dough. The acidity of such dough may be neutralized by the addition of an alkali, and housewives who through carelessness and inattention have allowed their bread to become " sour," often resort to saleratus or soda to neutral- ize the acid. The result of such treatment is unwholesome bread, wholly unfit for food. It is better economy to throw away bread material which needs to be sweetened with soda than to run the risk of injury to health by using it. Kneading the Dough. — As fresh flour is added during the bread-making, it is necessary to mix it in thoroughly. As long as the batter is thin, this can be done by thoroughly beating the mixture with the addition of material ; but when it is a thick dough, some other method must be adopted to bring about the desired result. The usual way is by mixing the dough to a proper consistency, and working it with the hands. This is termed kneading. Much of the excellence of bread de- pends upon the thoroughness of this kneading, since if the yeast is not intimately and equally mixed with every particle of flour, the fermentation will not proceed evenly, and the porosity of the bread will not be uniform ; some portions will be heavy and compact, while others will be full of large, open cavities, from the excessive liberation of gas. The length of time required for kneading depends upon the perfection with which the yeast cells have been previously dif- fused throughout the sponge, and upon the quality of the flour used in preparing the bread, much less time being required for kneading dough made from good flour. Some consider an hour none too long to knead bread. Such a lengthy process may be advantageous, since one of the objects of kneading is to render the glutinous parts of the flour so elastic that the dough may be capable of expanding to several times its bulk without cracking or breaking, but excellent results can be obtained from good flour with less labor. Bread has been kneaded all that is necessary when it will work clean of the board, and when, after a smart blow with the fist in the center of the mass, 132 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN, it will spring- back to its original shape like an India rubber ball. Its elasticity is the surest test of its goodness ; and when dough has been thus perfectly kneaded, it can be molded into any shape, rolled, twisted, or braided with ease. Chopping, cutting, stretching, and pulling the dough are other methods for accomplishing the same end. If a large mass is to be kneaded, it is better to divide it into several portions and knead each separately. It is less laborious and more likely to result in an equal diffusion of the yeast. Bread is often spoiled by the addition of too much flour during kneading. Dough should always be kneaded as soft as it can be handled, and only sufficient flour added to prevent its stick- ing to the board. Stiff bread is close in texture, and after a day or two becomes dry and hard. How to Manipulate the Dough in Kneading. — Sprinkle the board well with flour, and scrape the dough from the bowl with a knife. Dust the hands with flour, and then draw the dough with a rolling motion from the farthest side toward you, using the finger tips for the purpose, but pressing firmly down upon the rfiass with the palm of the hands. Reach forward again with the finger tips, and again press the ball of the hands upon the dough. Continue this process of manipulation until the mass is very much elongated ; then turn at right angles and repeat the process, taking care that the finger tips do not break through the light film which will form upon the outside of soft dough when well managed. Keep the dough constantly in motion until it is smooth, elastic, and fine-grained. The hands and the board may need a light dusting of flour at fre- quent intervals. If the dough sticks, lift it quickly, and clean the board, that it may be kept smooth. The dough will not stick if kept in constant motion. Do not rub off little wads of dough either from the hands or the board and keep kneading them into the loaf; they will seriously injure the uniform text- ure of the bread. How Many Times Shall Bread be Kneaded? — As the objects to be attained in kneading dough are to render the BREADSTIJFFS AXD BREAD-MAKING. I33 gluten more elastic and thoroughly to diffuse the yeast, it will be seen that there has been sufficient kneading when all the flour necessary for the bread has been added. Further- more, it must be apparent that continued manipulation of the dough at this stage will dissipate and press out the little vesi- cles of gas held in place by the elastic gluten, and thus lose in part what so much pains has been taken to secure. At what- ever stage the requisite amount of flour be added, the dough should then be thoroughly kneaded once for all. If allowed to rise in bulk, when light it should be shaped into loaves with the greatest care, handled lightly, and worked as little as pos- sible, and if at all diminished, allowed to rise again before baking. Dryness of the Surface. — Bread in all stages should be covered over the top, since it rises much more evenly, and does not have a stiff", dried surface, as when placed in a warm place exposed to air. It sometimes happens that this precaution is forgotten or not sufficiently attended to, and a dry crust forms over the dough, which, if kneaded into the loaves, leaves hard, dry spots in the bread. In case of such a mishap, take the dry crust off, dissolve it in a little warm water, add flour enough to mold, make it into a small loaf, and raise it separately. Size of Loaves. — The lightness of the bread after baking depends upon the perfection with which the little air-cells, formed during the fermenting process, have become fixed by the heat during the baking. The heat expands the carbonic acid gas contained within the open spaces in the dough, and at the same time checks further development of gas by de- stroying the yeast plant. The sooner, then, that the cells can be made permanent after the arrest of fermentation, the more light and porous the bread will be. Although this fixing of the cells is largely dependent upon the degree of heat main- tained, it likewise in a measure depends upon the size of the loaf, as the heat will penetrate and fix the cells of a small loaf throughout much sooner than those of a large one. Therefore, bake in small loaves, and have a separate pan for each, as that 134 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. admits of an equal degree of heat to all sides. This aids in a more rapid fixing of the air-cells and likewise gives more crust, which is the sweetest and most digestible part of the bread. Sheet-iron pans, about eight inches in length, four in width, and five in depth, are the most satisfactory. After the dough is molded, divide it into loaves which will fill such pans to the depth of two inches. Let them rise until double their first vol- ume, and then put into the oven. In baking, the loaves will rise Bread fa.n. .,,,., i • r i r still higher, and it about five inches high when done, will have expanded to about the right proportions. Proper Temperature of the Oven. — The objects to be attained in the baking of bread are to break up the starch and gluten cells of the flour so as to make them easily digesti- ble, to destroy the yeast plant, and render permanent the cells formed by the action of the carbonic acid gas. To accomplish well these ends, the loaf must be surrounded by a temperature ranging from 400° to 600°. The oven should be one in which the heat is equal in all parts, and which can be kept at a steady, uniform heat. Old-fashioned brick ovens were superior in this respect to most modern ranges. The fire for baking bread should be of sufficient strength to keep the oven heated for at least an hour. If the oven has a tendency to become too hot upon the bottom, a thin, open grate, broiler, or toasting rack, should be placed underneath the tins to allow a circulation of air and avoid danger of burning. If the heat be insufficient, fermentation will not cease until the bread has become sour ; the cells will be imperfectly fixed or entirely collapsed ; too little of the moisture will have evaporated, and the result will be a soft, wet, and pasty or sour loaf. If the heat be too great, the bread will be baked before it has perfectly risen, or a thick, burned crust will be produced, forming a non-conducting cover- ing to the loaf, which will prevent the heat from permeating the interior, and thus the loaf will have an overdone exteriori but BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 1 35 will be raw and doughy within. If, however, the temperature of the oven be just right, the loaf will continue for a little time to enlarge, owing to the expansion of the carbonic acid gas, the conversion of the water into steam, and the vaporizing of the alcohol, which rises in a gaseous form and is driven off by the heat ; a nicely browned crust will be formed over the surface, the result of the rapid evaporation of water from the surface and consequent consolidation of the dough of this portion of the loaf, and a chemical change caused by the action of the heat upon the starch by which it is converted into dextrine, finally assuming a brown color due to the production of a sub- stance known to the chemist as assama. Bread is often spoiled in the baking. The dough may be made of the best of flour and yeast, mixed and kneaded in the most perfect manner, and may have risen to the proper degree of lightness before going to the oven, yet if the oven is either too hot or not hot enough, the bread will be of an inferior quality. Without an oven thermometer, there is no accurate means of determining the temperature of the oven ; but housekeepers resort to various means to form a judgment about it. The baker's old-fashioned method is to throw a handful of flour on the oven bottom. If it blackens without igniting, the heat is deemed sufficient. Since the object for which the heat is de- sired is to cook the flour, not to burn it, it might be supposed that this would indicate too high a temperature ; but the flour within the loaf to be baked is combined with a certain amount of moisture, thee vaporation of which lowers the temperature of the bread considerably below that of the surrounding heated atmosphere. The temperature of the inner portion of the loaf cannot exceed 212° so long as it continues moist. Bread might be perfectly cooked at this temperature by steam, but it would lack that most digestible portion of the loaf, the crust. A common way of ascertaining if the heat of the oven is sufificient, is to hold the bare arm inside it for a few seconds. If the arm cannot be held within while thirty is counted, it is too hot to begin with. The following test is more accurate : 136 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. For rolls, the oven should be hot enough to brown a teaspoon- ful of flour in one minute, and for loaves \xvfive minutes. The temperature should be high enough to arrest the fer- mentation, which it will do at a point considerably below the boiling point of water, and at the same time to form a shell or crust, which will so support the dough as to prevent it from sinking or collapsing when the evolution of carbonic acid gas shall cease ; but it should not be hot enough to brown the crust within ten or fifteen minutes. The heat should increase for the first fifteen minutes, remain steady for the next fifteen minutes, and may then gradually decrease during the remain- der of the baking. If by any mischance the oven be so hot as to brown the crust too soon, cover the loaf with a clean paper for a few minutes. Be careful that no draught reaches the bread while baking ; open the oven door very seldom, and not at all for the first ten minutes. If it is necessary to turn the loaf, try to do so without bringing it to the air. From three fourths of an hour to an hour is usually a sufficient length of time to bake an ordinary sized loaf. Be careful not to remove the bread from the oven until perfectly done. It is better to allow it to bake ten minutes too long than not long enough. The crust of bread, when done, should be equally browned all over. The common test for well-baked bread is to tap it on the bottom with the finger ; if it is light and well done, it will sound hollow ; heavy bread will have a dull sound. A thor- oughly baked loaf will not burn the hand when lifted upon it from the pan. Care of Bread after Baking. — When done, remove the loaves from the tins, and tilt them upon edge so that the air may circulate freely on all sides of them to prevent " sweat- ing." Do not, however, lay them on a pine shelf or table to absorb the odor of the wood. A large tin dripping pan turned over upon the table does very well to tilt them on, if they are turned often, so that they will not soften on one side, but a fine wire bread cooler is the best thing. If this is not obtainable, a BREADSTUFKS AND MKKAI )-MAKlNG. 137 fair substitute can be easily improvised by tacking window- screen wire to a light frame of sufficient size to hold the requi- site number of loaves. If the bread is left exposed to the air until cold, the crust will be crisp ; if a soft crust is desired, it can be secured by brushing the top of the loaf while hot, with tepid water, and covering with several thicknesses of a clean bread cloth. If by accident any portion of the crust is burnt, grate it away as soon as cold ; this is preferable to cutting or clipping it off Hcst Method of Kcepinii"; Bread. — When the bread is quite cold, put it away in a bread box, which should be of tin, or of wood lined with tin, convenient in form and supplied with a well-fitting cover. Never use an unlined wooden box of any kind, as it cannot easily be kept fresh and free from musty odors, which bread so readily absorbs. Stone and earthen ware are not open to this objection, but they are likely to collect moisture, and hence are not equal to a tin receptacle. Do not keep bread in the cellar or any other damp place, nor in a close closet, where there are other foods from which it can absorb odors. The bread box should be kept well covered, and free from crumbs and stale bits. It should be carefully washed in boiling soapsuds, scalded, and dried, every two or three days. If cloths are used to wrap or cover the bread, they too should be washed and scalded every week, and oftener if at any time the loaf about which they are wrapped becomes moldy or musty. Test of Good Fermented Bread. — A loaf of good bread, well risen and perfectly baked, may be taken in the hands, and, with the thumb on the top crust and fingers upon the bottom of the loaf, pressed to less than half its thickness, and when the pressure is removed, it will immediately expand like a sponge, to its former proportions. Good yeast bread, while it should be firm and preserve a certain amount of moisture, will, when cold, crumble easily when rubbed between the fingers. If, instead, it forms a close, 138 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. soggy mass, it may be regarded as indigestible. This is one reason why hot, new yeast bread and biscuit are so indigesti- ble. In demonstration of this, take a small lump of new bread, gently roll it into a ball, and put into a glass of water, adding a similar quantity of stale bread of the same kind also. The lat- ter will crumble away very soon, w^hile the former will retain its form for hours, reminding one of its condition in the stomach, "as hard as a bullet," for a long time resisting the action of the gastric juice, although, meanwhile, the yeast germs which have not been killed in the oven are converting the mass into a lump of yeast, by which the whole contents of the stomach are soured. A soluble article like salt or sugar in fine powdered form is much more easily and quickly dissolved than the same article in solid lumps, and so it is with food. The apparent dryness of stale bread is not caused by loss of its moisture ; .for if care- fully weighed, stale bread will be found to contain almost ex- actly the same proportion of water as new bread that has become cold. The moisture has only passed into a state of concealment, as may be demonstrated by subjecting a stale loaf inclosed in a tightly-sealed receptacle to a temperature equal to boiling heat in an oven for half an hour, when it will again have the appearance of new bread. Hot bread eaten with butter is still more unwholesome, for the reason that the melted grease fills up the pores of the bread, and further interferes with the action of the digestive fluids. Whole=\Vheat and Graham Breads. — The same general principles are involved in the making of bread with whole- wheat and Graham flours as in the production of bread from white flour. Good material and good care are absolutely es- sential. Whole-wheat flour ferments more readily and rises more quickly than does white flour, hence bread made with it needs more careful management, as it is more liable to sour. The novice in bread-making should not undertake the preparation of bread with whole-wheat flour, until she has thoroughly mastered all the details of the art by practical experience, and can produce a perfect loaf from white flour. BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 139 Breads from whole-wheat and Graham flours require less yeast and less flour than bread prepared from white flour. A slower process of fermentation is also advantageous. Such breads will be lighter if at least one third white flour be employed in their manufacture. When the bread is made with a sponge, this white flour may be utilized for the purpose. Thus the length of time the whole-wheat flour will be under- going fermentation will be somewhat lessened, and its liability to become sour diminished. This plan is a preferable one for beginners in bread-making. Graham and whole-wheat flour breads must be kneaded longer than white-flour bread, and require a hotter oven at first and a longer time for baking. Much Graham and whole- wheat bread is served insufficiently baked, probably owing to the fact that, being dark in color, the crust appears brown very soon, thus deluding the cook into supposing that the loaf is well baked. For thorough baking, from one to one and a half hours are needed, according to the size of the loaf and the heat of the oven. Toast. — Toasting, if properly done, renders bread more digestible, the starch being converted into dextrine by the toasting process ; but by the ordinary method of preparing toast, that of simply browning each side, only the surfaces of the slices are really toasted, while from the action of the heat upon the interior of the slice, it is rendered exactly in the con- dition of new bread, and consequently quite as indigestible. If butter is added while the toast is hot, we have all the dys- pepsia-producing elements of new bread and butter combined. Although considered to be the dish par excellence for invalids, nothing could be more unwholesome than such toast. To properly toast the bread, the drying and browning should ex- tend throughout the entire thickness of the slice. Bread may be thus toasted before an open fire, but the process would be such a lengthy and troublesome one, it is far better to secure the same results by browning the bread in a moderate oven. Such toast is sometimes called zwieback (twice baked), and when prepared from good whole-wheat bread, is one of the 140 ^ SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. most nourishing and digestible of foods. Directions for its preparation and use will be found in the chapter on " Breakfast Dishes." Steamed Bread. — Steaming stale bread is as open to objection as the surface toasting of bread, if steamed so as to be yielding and adhesive. It is not, perhaps, as unwholesome as new bread, but bread is best eaten in a condition dry and hard enough to require chewing, that its starch may be so changed by the action of the saliva as to be easily digested. LIQUID YEAST. RECIPES. Raw Potato Yeast. — Mix one fourth of a cup of flour, the same of white sugar, and a teaspoonful of salt to a paste with a little water. Pare three medium-sized, fresh, and sound potatoes, and grate them as rapidly as pos- sible into the paste ; mix all quickly together with a silver spoon, then pour three pints of boiling water slowly over the mixture, stirring well at the same time. If this does not rupture the starch cells of the flour and potatoes so that the mixture becomes thickened to the consistency of starch, turn it into a granite-ware kettle and boil up for a minute, stirring well to keep it from sticking and burning. If it becomes too much thick- ened, add a little more boiling water. It is impossible to give the exact amount of water, since the quality of the flour will vary, and likewise the size of the potatoes ; but three pints is an approximate proportion. Strain the mixture through a fine colander into an earthen bread bowl, and let it cool. When lukewarm, add one cup of good, lively yeast. Cover with a napkin, and keep in a moderately warm place for several hours, or until it ceases to ferment. As it begins to ferment, stir it M^ell occasionally, and when well fermented, turn into a clean glass or earthen jar. The next morning cover closely, and put in the cellar or refrigerator, not, however, in contact with the ice. It is best to reserve enough for the first baking in some smaller jar, so that the larger portion need not be opened so soon. Always shake the yeast before using. Raw Potato Yeast No. 2. — This is made in the same manner as the preceding, with this exception, that one fourth of a cup of loose hops tied in a clean muslin bag, is boiled in the water for five minutes before pour- ing it into the potato and flour mixture. Many think the addition of the hops aids in keeping the yeast sweet for a longer period. But potato yeast may be kept sweet for two weeks without hops, if well cared for, BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. I4I and is preferred by those who disHke the peculiar flavor of ths bread made from hop yeast. Hop Yeast. — Put half a cup of loose hops, or an eighth of an ounce of the pressed hops (put up by the Shakers and sold by druggists), into a granite-ware kettle ; pour over it a quart of boiling water, and simmer about five minutes. Meanwhile stir to a smooth paste in a tin basin or another saucepan, a cup of flour, and a little cold water. Line a colander with a thin cloth, and strain the boiling infusion of hops through it onto the flour paste, stirring continually. Boil this thin starch a few minutes, until it thickens, stirring constantly that no lumps be formed. Turn it into a large earthen bowl, add a tablespoonful of salt and two of white sugar, and when it has cooled to blood heat, add one half cup of lively yeast, stirring all well together. Cover the bowl with a napkin, and let it stand in some moderately warm place twenty-four hours, or until it ceases to ferment or send up bubbles, beating back occasionally as it rises ; then put into a wide-mouthed glass or earthen jar, which has been previously scalded and dried, cover closely, and set in a cool place. Yeast made in this manner will keep sweet for two weeks in summer and longer in winter. Boiled Potato Yeast. — Peel four large potatoes, and put them to boil in two quarts of cold water. Tie two loose handfuls of hops securely in a piece of muslin, and place in the water to boil with the potatoes. When the potatoes are tender, remove them with a perforated skimmer, leaving the water still boiling. Mash them, and work in four tablespoonfuls of flour and two of sugar. Over this mixture pour gradually the boiling hop infusion, stirring constantly, that it may form a smooth paste, and set it aside to cool. When lukewarm, add a gill of lively yeast, and proceed as in the preceding recipe. Boiled Potato Yeast No. 2. — To one teacupful of very smoothly mashed, mealy potato, add three teaspoonfuls of white sugar, one teaspoonful of salt, and one cup of lively yeast, or one cake of Yeast Foam, dissolved in a very little warm water. The potato should be warm, but not hot enough to destroy the yeast. Allow this to stand until light, when it is ready for use. 142 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. FERMENTED BREADS. In the preparation of breads after the following recipes, the measure of flour should be heaping. RECIPES. Milk Bread with White Flour. — Scald and cool one pint of unskimmed milk. Add to the milk when lukewarm, one fourth of a cup, or three tablespoonfuls, of liquid yeast, and three cups of flour. Give the batter a vigorous beating, turn it into a clean bread bowl or small earthen crock, cover, and let it rise over night. In the morning, when well risen, add two or three cupfuls of warm flour, or sufficient to knead. Knead well until the dough is sufficiently elastic to rebound when struck forcibly with the fist. Allow it to rise again in mass ; then shape into loaves ; place in pans ; let it stand until light, and bake. If undesirable to set the bread over night, an additional tablespoonful or two of yeast may be used, to facilitate the rising. "Vienna Bread. — Into a pint of milk sterilized by scalding, turn a cup and a half of boiling water. When lukewarm, add one half cup of warm water, in which has been dissolved a cake of compressed yeast, and a quart of white flour. Beat the batter thus made very thoroughly, and allow it to rise for one hour ; then add white flour until the dough is of a consistency to knead. Knead well, and allow it to rise again for about three hours, or until very light. Shape into four loaves, handling lightly. Let it rise again in the pans, and bake. During the baking, wash the tops of the loaves with a sponge dipped in milk, to glaze them. Water Bread. — Dissolve a tablespoonful of sugar in a pint of boiling water.. When lukewarm, add one fourth of a cupful of liquid yeast, and sufficient flour to make a batter thick enough to drop from the spoon. Beat vigorously for ten minutes, turn into a clean, well-scalded bread bowl, cover (wrapping in a blanket if in cold weather), and let it rise over night. In the morning, when well risen, add flour to knead. Knead well for half an hour, cover, and let it become light in mass. When light, . shape into loaves, allow it to rise again, and bake. Fruit Roll. — Take some bread dough prepared as for Milk Bread, which has been sufficiently kneaded and is ready to mold, and roll to about one inch in thickness. Spread over it some dates which have been washed, dried, and stoned, raisins, currants, or chopped figs. Roll it up tightly into a loaf. Let it rise until very light, and bake. Fruit Loaf. — Set a sponge with one pint of rich milk, one fourth cup of yeast, and a pint of flour, over night. In the morning, add two cups of BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. I43 Zante currants, one cup of sugar, and three cups of flour, or enough to make a rather stiff dough. Knead well, and set to rise; when light, mold into loaves ; let it rise again, and bake. Potato Bread. — Cook and mash perfectly smooth, potatoes to make a cupful. Add a teaspoonful of best white sugar, one cup and a half of warm water, and when the mixture is lukewarm, one half cup of yeast, prepared as directed for Boiled Potato Yeast No. 2, and flour to make a very thick batter. Allow it to rise over night. In the morning, add a pint of warm water and flour enough to knead. The dough will need to be considerably stiffer than when no potato is used, or the result will be a bread too moist for easy digestion. Knead well. Let it rise, mold into four loaves, and when again light, bake. Pulled Bread. — Remove a loaf from the oven when about half baked, and lightly pull the partially set dough into pieces of irregular shape, about half the size of one's fist. Do not smooth or mold the pieces ; the rougher the shape the better. Place them on perforated tins, and bake in a slow oven until browned and crisp throughout. Whole- Wheat Bread. — The materials needed for the bread are : one pint of milk, scalded and cooled, one quart of wheat berry flour, one pint Minnesota spring wheat flour, one third cup of soft yeast, or one fourth cake of compressed yeast, dissolved in one third cup of cold water. Stir enough flour into the milk to make a stiff batter, put in the yeast, and let it rise until foamy. Have the milk so warm that, when the flour is put in, the batter will be of a lukewarm temperature. Wrap in a thick blanket, and keep at an equable temperature. When light, stir in, slowly, warm flour to make a soft dough. Knead for fifteen minutes, and return to the bowl (which has been washed and oiled) to rise again. When risen to double its size, form into two loaves, place in separate pans, let rise again, and bake from three fourths to one and one half hours, according to the heat of the oven. Whole-Wheat Bread No. 2. — Scald one pint of unskimmed milk ; when lukewarm, add one half cup of liquid yeast, or one fourth cake of com- pressed yeast, dissolved in one half cup of warm water, and a pint of Pills- bury's best white flour. Beat this batter thoroughly, and allow it to rise. When well risen, add three and two thirds cups of wheat berry flour. Knead thoroughly, and allow it to become light in- mass ; then shape into two loaves, allow it to rise again, and bake. Miss. B's One-Rising Bread. — Sift and measure three and three fourths cups of wheat berry flour. Scald and cool a pint of unskimmed milk. When lukewarm, add one tablespoonful of lively liquid yeast. By slow degrees add the flour, beating vigorously until too stiff to use a spoon, then knead thoroughly for half an hour, shape into a loaf, place 144 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. in a bread pan, cover with a napkin in warm weather, wrap well with blankets in cold weather, and let rise over night. In the morning, when perfectly light, put in a well heated oven, and bake. Potato Bread with Wliole-Wheat Flour. — Take a half gill of liquid yeast made as for Boiled Potato Yeast No. 2, and add milk, sterilized and cooled to lukewarm, to make a pint. Add one cup of well-mashed, mealy potato and one cup of white flour, or enough to make a rather thick bat- ter. Beat thoroughly, cover, and set to rise. When well risen, add sufficient whole-wheat flour to knead. The quantity will vary somewhat with the brand of flour used, but about four and one fourth cupfuls will in general be needed. Knead well, let it rise in mass and again in the loaf, and bake. Rye Bread. — Prepare a sponge over night with white flour as for Water Bread. In the morning, when light, add another tablespoonful of sugar, and rye flour to knead. Proceed as directed for the Water Bread, taking care to use only enough rye flour to make the dough just stiff enough to mold. Use white flour for dusting the kneading board, as the rye flour is sticky. Grraham Bread. — Take two tablespoonfuls of lively liquid yeast, or a little less than one fourth cake of compressed yeast, dissolved in a little milk, and add new milk, scalded and cooled to lukewarm, to make one pint. Add one pint of white flour, beat very thoroughly, and set to rise. When very light, add three and one half cupfuls of sifted Graham flour, or enough to make a dough that can be molded. Knead well for half an hour. Place in a clean, slightly oiled bread bowl, cover, and allow it to rise. When light, shape into a loaf ; allow it to rise again, and bake. Graham Bread No. 2. — Mix well one pint of white and two pints of best Graham flour. Prepare a batter with a scant pint of milk, scalded and cooled, two tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, or a little less than one fourth of a cake of compressed yeast, dissolved in two tablespoonfuls of milk, and a portion of the mixed flour. Give it a vigorous beating, and put in a warm place to rise. When well risen, add more flour to make a dough sufficiently stiff to knead. There will be some variation in the amount required, dependent upon the brands of flour used, but in gen- eral, two and one half pints of the flour will be enough for preparing the sponge and kneading the dough. Knead thoroughly for twenty-five or thirty minutes. Put into a clean and slightly oiled bread bowl, cover, and set to rise again. When double its first bulk, mold into a loaf ; allow it to rise again, and bake. Oraham Bread No. 3. — Mix three pounds each of Graham and Minn- esota spring wheat flour. Make a sponge of one and a half pints of warm water, one half cake compressed yeast, well dissolved in the wa- BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. I45 ter, and flour to form a batter. Let this rise. When well risen, add one and a half pints more of warm water, one half ciipful of New Or- leans molasses, and sufficient flour to knead. Work the bread thor- oughly, allow it to rise in mass ; then mold, place in pans, and let it rise again. The amount of material given is sufficient for four loaves of bread. Raised Biscuit. — These may be made from dough prepared by any of the preceding recipes for bread. They will be more tender if made with milk, and if the dough is prepared expressly for biscuits, one third cream may be used. When the dough has been thoroughly kneaded the last time, divide into small, equal-sized pieces. A quantity of dough sufficient for one loaf of bread should be divided into twelve or sixteen such por- tions. Shape into smooth, round biscuits, fit closely into a shallow pan, and let them rise until very' light. Biscuit should be allowed to become lighter than bread before putting in the oven, since, being so much smaller, fermentation is arrested much sooner, and they do not rise as much in the oven as does bread. Rolls. — Well kneaded and risen bread dough is made into a variety of small forms termed rolls, by rolling with the hands or with a rolling-pin, and afterward cutting or folding into any shape desired, the particular manner by which they are folded and shaped giving to the rolls their characteristic names. Dough prepared with rich milk or part cream makes the best rolls. It may be divided into small, irregular portions, about one inch in thickness, and shaped by taking each piece separately in the left hand, then with the thumb and first finger of the right hand, slightly stretch one of the points of the piece and draw it over the left thumb toward the center of the roll, holding it there with the left thumb. Turn the dough and repeat the operation until you have been all around the dough, and each point has been drawn in ; then place on the pan to rise. Allow the rolls to become very light, and bake. Rolls prepared in this manner are termed Imperial Rolls, and if the folding has been properly done, when well baked they will be composed of a succession of light layers, which can be readily separated. French Rolls may be made by shaping each portion of dough into small oval rolls quite tapering at each end, allowing them to become light, and baking far enough apart so that one will not touch another. If, when the dough is light and ready to shape, it be rolled on the board until about one eighth of an inch in thickness, and cut into five-inch squares, then divided through the center into triangles, rolled up, be- ginning with the wide side, and placed in the pan to rise in semicircular shape, the rolls are called Crescents. What are termed Parker House Rolls may be made from well-risen dough prepared with milk, rolled upon the board to a uniform thickness of 10 146 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. about one-fourth inch ; cut into round or oval shapes with a cutter ; folded, one third over the other two thirds ; allowed to rise until very light, and baked. The light, rolled dough may be formed into a Braid by cutting into strips six inches in length and one in width, joining the ends of each three, and braiding. The heat of the oven should be somewhat greater for rolls and biscuit than for bread. The time required will depend upon the heat and the size of the roll, but it will seldom exceed one half hour. Neither rolls nor bis- cuit should be eaten hot, as they are then open to the same objections as other new yeast bread. Brown Bread. — To one and one fourth cups of new milk which has been scalded and cooled, add one fourth of a cup of lively yeast, three tablespoonfuls of sugar, and one cup each of white flour, rye flour or sifted rye meal, and yellow corn meal. With different brands of flour there may need to be some variation in the quantity of liquid to be used. The mixt- ure should be thick enough to shape. Allow it to rise until light and cracked over the top ; put into a bread pan, and when again well risen, bake for an hour and a half or two hours in an oven sufficiently hot at first to arrest fermentation and fix the bread cells, afterwards allowing the heat to diminish somewhat, to permit a slower and longer baking. Graham flour may be used in place of rye, if preferred. Date Bread. — Take a pint of light white bread sponge prepared with milk, add two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and Graham flour to make a very stiff batter. Add last a cupful of stoned dates. Turn into a bread pan. Let it rise, and bake. Fruit Loaf with Graham and Whole-Wheat Flour. — Dissolve one fourth cake of compressed yeast in a pint of sterilized milk ; add a pint of white flour ; beat thoroughly, and set to rise. When well risen, add three and one fourth cups of flour (Graham and whole-wheat, equal proportions, thoroughly mixed), or sufficient to knead. Knead well for half an hour, and just at the last add a cup of raisins, well washed, dried, and dusted with flour. Let the loaf rise in mass ; then shape, put in the pan, allow it to become light again, and bake. Raised Corn Bread. — Into two cupfuls of hot mush made from white granular corn meal, stir two cupfuls of cold water. Beat well, and add one half cup of liquid yeast, or one half cake of compressed yeast, dissolved in one half cup of warm water, and two teaspoonfuls of granulated sugar. Stir in white or sifted Graham flour to make it stiff enough to knead. Knead very thoroughly, and put in a warm place to rise. When light, mold into three loaves, put into pans, and allow it to rise again. When well risen, bake at lea^st for three fourths of an hour. BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 147 Corn Cake. — Sterilize a cupful of rich milk or thin cream. Cool to lukewarm, and dissolve in it half a cake of compressed yeast. Add two small cupf uls of white flour ; beat very thoroughly, and put in a warm place to rise. When light, add a cup of lukewarm water or milk, and two cups of best yellow corn meal. Turn into a shallow square pan, and leave until again well risen. Bake in a quick oven. A tablespoonful of sugar may be added with the corn meal, if desired. Oatmeal Bread. — Mix a quart of well-cooked oatmeal mush with a pint of water, beating it perfectly smooth ; add a cupful of liquid yeast and flour to make a stiff batter. Cover, and let it rise. When light, add sufficient flour to mold ; knead as soft as possible, for twenty or thirty minutes ; shape into four or more loaves, let it rise again, and bake. Milk Yeast Bread. — Prepare the yeast the day before by scalding three heaping teaspoonfuls of fresh corn meal with boiling milk. Set in a warm place until light ( from seven to ten hours ) ; then put in a cool place until needed for use. Start the bread by making a rather thick batter with one cupful of warm water, one teaspoonful of the prepared yeast, and white flour. Put in a warm place to rise. When light, add to it a cupful of flour scalded with a cupful of boiling milk, and enough more flour to make the whole into a rather stiff batter. Cover, and allow it to rise. When again well risen, add flour enough to knead. Knead well ; shape into a loaf; let it rise, and bake. Three or four cupfuls of white flour will be needed for all purposes with the amount of liquid given ; more liquid and flour may be added in forming the second sponge if a larger quantity of bread is desired. In preparing both yeast and bread, all utensils used should first be sterilized by scalding in hot sal-soda water. Graham Salt-Rising' Bread. — Put two tablespoonfuls of milk into a half-pint cup, add boiling water to fill the cup half full, one half teaspoon- ful of sugar, one fourth teaspoonful of salt, and white flour to make a rather stiff batter. Let it rise over night. In the morning, when well risen, add a cup and a half of warm water, or milk scalded and cooled, and sufficient white flour to form a rather stiff batter. Cover, and allow it again to rise. When light, add enough sifted Graham flour to knead. When well kneaded, shaps into a loaf ; allow it to become light again in the pan, and bake. All utensils used should be first well ster- ilized by scalding in hot sal-soda water. 148 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. UNFERMENTED BREADS. The earliest forms of bread were made without fermenta- tion. Grain was broken as fine as possible by pounding on smooth stones, made into dough with pure water, thoroughly kneaded, and baked in some convenient way. Such was the " unleavened bread " or " passover cakes " of the Israelites. In many countries this bread is the only kind used. Unleavened Mexican Woman Making Tortillas. bread made from barley and oats is largely used by the Irish and Scotch peasantry. In Sweden an unleavened bread is made of rye meal and water, flavored with anise seed, and baked in large, thin cakes, a foot or more in diameter. Some savage tribes subsist chiefly upon excellent corn bread, made simply of meal and water. Unleavened bread made of corn, called tortillas, forms the staple diet of the Mexi- can Indians. The corn, previously softened by soaking in lime water, is ground to a fine paste between a stone slab and foller called a metate, then patted and tossed from hand to BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 149 hand until flattened into thin, wafer-like cakes, and baked over a quick fire, on a thin iron jDlate or a flat stone. Unquestionably, unleavened bread, well kneaded and prop- erly baked, is the most wholesome of all breads, but harder to masticate than that made light by fermentation, but this is an advantage ; for it insures more thorough mixing with that im- portant digestive agent, the saliva, than is usually given to more easily softened food. What is usually termed unfermented bread, however, is prepared with flour and liquid, to which shortening of some kind is added, and the whole made light by the liberation of gas generated within the dough during the process of baking. This is brought about either by mixing with the flour certain chemical substances, which, when wet and brought into contact, act upon each other so as to set free car- bonic acid gas, which expands and puffs up the loaf; or by intro- ducing into the dough some volatile sub- stance, as carbonate of ammonia, which the heat during baking will cause to vapor- ize, and which in rising produces the same result. Carbonic acid gas may be for this purpose developed by the chemical decomposition of bicarbonate of potassa (saleratus), or bicarbonate of soda, by some acid such as sour milk, hydro- chloric acid, tartaric acid, nitrate of potassa, or the acid phos- phate of lime. The chemical process of bread-raising originally consisted in adding to the dough definite proportions of muriatic acid and carbonate of soda, by the union of which carbonic acid gas and common salt were produced. This process was soon aban- doned, however, on account of the propensity exhibited by the acid for eating holes in the fingers of the baker as well as in his Stone Metate. I50 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. bread pans ; and the more convenient one for hands and pans, that of using soda or saleratus with cream of tartar or sour milk, was substituted. When there is an excess of soda, a por- tion of it remains in the loaf uncombined, giving to the bread a yellow color and an alkaline taste, and doing mischief to the delicate coating of the stomach. Alkalies, the class of chem- icals to which soda and saleratus belong, when pure and strong, are powerful corrosive poisons. The acid used with the alkali to liberate the carbonic-acid gas in the process of bread-making, if rightly proportioned, destroys this poisonous property, and unites with it to form a new compound, which,, although not a poison, is yet unwholesome. We can hardly speak too strongly in condemnation of the use of chemicals in bread-making, when we reflect that the majority of housewives who combine sour milk and saleratus, or cream of tartar and soda, more frequently than otherwise guess at the proportions, or measure them by some " rule of thumb," without stopping to consider that although two cups of sour milk may at one time be sufficiently acid to neutralize a teaspoonful of saleratus, milk may vary in degree of acidity to such an extent that the same quantity will be quite insuffi- cient for the purpose at another time ; or that though a tea- spoonful of some brand of cream of tartar will neutralize a half teaspoonful of one kind of soda, similar measures will not always bring about the same result. Very seldom, indeed, will the proportions be sufficiently exact to perfectly neutralize the alkali, since chemicals are subject to variations in degree of strength, both on account of the method by which they are manufactured and the length of time they have been kept, to say nothing of adulterations to which they may have been sub- jected, and which are so common that it is almost impossible to find unadulterated cream of tartar in the market. Baking powders are essentially composed of bicarbonate of soda and cream of tartar, mixed in the proper proportions to exactly neutralize each other, and if they were always pure, would certainly be as good as soda and cream of tartar in any form, and possess the added advantage of perfect propor- BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 151 tions ; but as was demonstrated not long ago by the govern- ment chemist, nearly every variety of baking powder in the market is largely adulterated with cheaper and harmful sub- stances. Alum, a most frequent constituent of such baking powders, is exceedingly injurious to the stomach. Out of several hundred brands of baking powder examined, only one was found pure. Even when in their purest state, these chemicals are not harmless, as is so generally believed. It is a very prevalent idea that when soda is neutralized by an acid, both chemical com- pounds are in some way destroyed or vaporized in the process, and in some occult manner escape from the bread during the process of baking. This is altogether an error. The alkali and acid neutralize each other chemically, but they do not destroy each other. Their union forms a salt, exactly the same as the Rochelle salts of medicine, a mild purgative, and if we could collect it from the bread and weigh or measure it, we would find nearly as much of it as there was of the baking powder in the first place. If two teaspoonfuls of baking powder to the quart of flour be used, we have remaining in the bread made with that amount of flour 165 grains of crystallized Rochelle salts, or 45 grains more than is to be found in a Seidlitz powder. It may be sometimes useful to take a dose of salts, but the daily consumption of such chemical substances in bread can hardly be considered compatible with the conditions necessary for the maintenance of health. These chemical substances are unusable by the system, and must all be removed by the liver and excretory organs, thus imposing upon them an extra and unnecessary burden. It has also been determined by scientific experimentation that the chemicals found in baking powders in bread retard digestion. These substances are, fortunately, not needed for the pro- duction of good light bread. The purpose of their use is the production of a gas ; but air is a gas much more economical and abundant than carbonic-acid gas, and which, when introduced into bread and subjected to heat, has the property of expand- ing, and in so doing, puffing up the bread and making it 152 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. light. Bread made light with air is vastly superior to that compounded with soda or baking powder, in point of health- fulness, and when well prepared, will equal it in lightness and palatableness. The only difficulty lies in catching and holding the air until it has accomplished the de- sired results. But a thorough un- derstanding of the necessary condi- tions and a little practice will soon enable one to attain sufficient skill ^'"^ ^'■°"'- in this direction to secure most satisfactory results. General Directions. — All materials used for making aerated bread should be of the very best quality. Poor flour will no,t produce good bread by this or by any other process. Aerated breads are of two kinds : those baked while in the form of a batter, and such as are made into a dough before baking. All breads, whether fermented or unfermented, are lighter if baked in some small form, and this is particularly true of un- fermented breads made light with air. For this reason, breads made into a dough are best baked in the form of rolls, biscuits, or crackers, and batter breads in small iron cups similar to those in the accompanying illustration. These cups or "gem irons" as they are sometimes called, are to be ob- tained in various shapes and sizes, but for this purpose the more shallow cups are preferable. For baking the dough breads a perforated sheet of Russia iron or heavy tin, which any tinner can make to fit the oven, is the most serviceable, as it permits the hot air free access to all sides of the bread at once. If such is not obtainable, the up- S TTtrflTlTTTTl Perforated Sheet Iron Pan for Rolls. BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 153 per oven grate, carefully washed and scoured, may be used. Perforated pie tins also answer very well for this purpose. The heat of the oven for baking should be sufficient to form a slight crust over all sides of the bread before the air escapes, but not sufficient to brown it within the first fifteen minutes. To aid in forming the crust on the sides and bottom of batter breads, the iron cups should be heated previous to introducing Making Unfermented Bread. the batter. The degree of heat required for baking will be abotit the same as for fermented rolls and biscuit, and the fire should be so arranged as to keep a steady but not greatly increasing heat. Air is incorporated into batter breads by brisk and con- tinuous agitating and beating ; into dough breads by thorough kneading, chopping, or pounding. Whatever the process by which the air is incorporated, it must be continuous. For this reason it is especially essential 154 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. in making aerated bread that everything be in readiness before commencing to put the bread together. All the materials should be measured out, the utensils to be used in readiness, and the oven properly heated. Success is also dependent upon the dexterity with which the materials when ready are put together. Batter bread often proves a failure although the beating is kept up without cessation, because it is done slowly and carelessly, or interspersed with stirring, thus permitting the air to escape between the strokes. If the bread is to be baked at once, the greater the dispatch with which it can be gotten into a properly-heated oven the lighter it will be. Crackers, rolls, and other forms of dough breads often lack in lightness because they were allowed to stand some time before baking. The same is true of batter breads. If, for any reason, it is necessary to keep such breads for any length of time after being prepared, before baking, set the dish containing them directly on ice. The lightness of aerated bread depends not only upon the amount of air incorporated in its preparation, but also upon the expansion of the air during the baking. The colder the air, the greater will be its expansion upon the application of heat. The colder the materials employed, then, for the bread-making, the colder will be the air confined within it, and the lighter will be the bread. For this reason, in making batter bread, it will be found a good plan, when there is time, to put the materials together, and place the dish containing the mixture on ice for an hour or two, or even over night. When ready to use, beat thoroughly for ten or fifteen minutes to incorporate air, and bake in heated irons. Rolls and other breads made into a dough, may be kneaded and shaped and put upon ice to be- come cold. Thus treated, less kneading is necessary than when prepared to be baked at once. Many of the recipes given for the batter breads include eggs. The yolk is not particularly essential, and if it can be put to other uses, may be left out. The white of an egg, be- cause of its viscous nature, when beaten, serves as a sort of trap to catch and hold air, and added to the bread, aids in making it BREADSTUKFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 155 light. Very nice light bread may be made without eggs, but the novice in making aerated breads will, perhaps, find it an advan- tage first to become perfectly familiar with the processes and conditions involved, by using the recipes with eggs before at- tempting those without, which are somewhat more dependent for success upon skill and practice. When egg is used in the bread, less heating of the irons will be necessary, and not so hot an oven as when made without. If the bread, when baked, appears light, but with large holes in the center, it is probable that either the irons or the oven was too hot at first. If the bread after baking, seems sticky or dough-like in the interior, it is an indication that either it was insufficiently baked, or that not enough flour in proportion to the liquid has been used. It should be stated, that although the recipes given have been prepared with the greatest care, and with the same brands of flour, careful measurement, and proper conditions, prove successful every time, yet with differ- ent brands of flour some variation in quantity may be needed, — a trifle more or less, — dependent upon the absorbent properties of the flour, and if eggs are used, upon the size of the eggs. A heavy bread may be the result of the use of poor flour, too much flour, careless or insufficient beating, so that not enough air was incorporated, or an oven not sufficiently hot to form a crust over the bread before the air escaped. Breads made into a dough, if moist and clammy, require more flour or longer baking. Too much flour will make them stiff and hard. The length of time requisite for baking aerated breads made with whole-wheat, wheat berry, or Graham flours, will vary from forty minutes to one hour, according to the kind and form in which the bread is baked, and the heat of the oven. The irons in which batter breads are to be baked should not be smeared with grease ; if necessary to oil them at all, they should only be wiped out lightly with a clean, oiled cloth. Irons well cared for, carefully washed, and occasionally scoured with Sapolio to keep them perfectly smooth, will require no greasing whatever. 156 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. In filling the irons, care should be taken to fill each cup at first as full as it is intended to have it, as the heat of the irons begins the cooking of the batter as soon as it is put in, and an additional quantity added has a tendency to make the bread less light. RECIPES. Whole- Wheat Puffs. — Put the yolk of an egg into a basin, and beat the white in a separate dish to a stiff froth. Add to the yolk, one half a cupful of rather thin sweet cream and one cupful of skim milk. Beat the egg, cream, and milk together until perfectly mingled and foamy with air bubbles ; then add, gradually, beating well at the same time, one pint of wheat berry flour. Continue the beating vigorously and without interrup- tion for eight or ten minutes ; then stir in, lightly, the white of the egg. Do not beat again after the white of the egg is added, but turn at once into heated, shallow irons, and bake for an hour in a moderately quick oven. If properly made and carefully baked, these puffs will be of a fine, even texture throughout, and as light as bread raised by fermentation. Whole-Wheat Puffs No. 2. — Make a batter by beating together until perfectly smooth the yolk of one egg, one and one half cups of new or un- skimmed milk, and one pint of whole-wheat flour. Place the dish contain- ing it directly upon ice, and leave for an hour or longer. The bread may be prepared and left on the ice over night, if desired for breakfast. When ready to bake the puffs, whip the white of the egg to a stiff froth, and after vigorously beating the batter for ten minutes, stir in lightly the white of the egg ; turn at once into heated irons, and bake. If preferred, one third white flour and two thirds sifted Graham flour may be used in the place of the wheat berry flour. Whole-Wheat Puffs No. 3. — Take one cupful of sweet cream (twelve- hour cream), one half cupful of soft ice water, and two slightly rounded cupfuls of wheat berry flour. Beat the material well together, and set the dish containing it on ice for an hour or more before using. When ready to bake, beat the mixture vigorously for ten minutes, then turn into heated iron cups (shallow ones are best), and bake for about an hour in a quick oven. Graham Puffs. — Beat together vigorously until full of air bubbles, one pint of unskimmed milk, the yolk of one egg, and one pint and three or four tablespoonfuls of Graham flour, added a little at a time. When the mixture is light and foamy throughout, stir in lightly and evenly the white of the egg, beaten to a stiff froth ; turn into heated irons, and bake in a rather quick oven. Instead of all Graham, one third white flour may be used if preferred. BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 157 Graham Puffs No. 2. — Beat the yolks of two eggs in two cupfuls of ice water; then add gradually, beating well meantime, three and one fourth cupfuls of Graham flour. Continue the beating, after all the flour is added, until the mixture is light and full of air bubbles. Add last the whites of the eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, and bake at once in heated irons. Currant Puffs. — Prepare the puffs as directed in any of the foregoing recipes with the addition of one cup of Zante currants which have been well washed, dried, and floured. Oraham Gems. — Into two cupfuls of unskimmed milk which has been made very cold by standing on ice, stir gradually, sprinkling it from the hand, three and one fourth cupfuls of Graham flour. Beat vigorously for ten minutes or longer, until the batter is perfectly smooth and full of air bubbles. Turn at once into hissing hot gem irons, and bake in a hot oven. If preferred, the batter may be prepared, and the dish containing it placed on ice for an hour or longer ; then well beaten and baked. Gra- ham gems may be made in this manner with soft water instead of milk, but such, in general, will need a little more flour than when made with milk. With some ovens, it will be found, an advantage in baking these gems to place them on the upper grate for the first ten minutes or until the top has been slightly crusted, and then change to the bottom of the oven for the baking. Crusts. — Beat together very thoroughly one cupful of ice-cold milk, and one cupful of Graham flour. When very light and full of air bubbles, turn into hot iron cups, and bake twenty-five or thirty minutes. The best irons for this purpose are the shallow oblong, or round cups of the same size at the bottom as at the top. Only a very little batter should be put in each cup. The quantity given is sufficient for one dozen crusts. Rye Piiffs. — Beat together the same as for whole-wheat puffs one cup- ful of milk, one tablespoonful of sugar, and the yolk of an egg. Add one cupful of good rye flour, mixed with one half cupful of Graham flour, and stir in lastly the well beaten white of the egg. Bake at once, in heated gem-irons. Rye Puffs No. 2. — Beat together until well mingled one pint of thin cream and the yolk of one egg. Add gradually, beating meanwhile, four cups of rye flour. Continue to beat vigorously for ten minutes, then add the stiffly-beaten white of the egg, and bake in heated irons. Rye Gems. — Mix together one cupful of corn meal and one cupful of rye meal. Stir the mixed meal into one and one half cupfuls of ice water. Beat the batter vigorously for ten or fifteen minutes, then turn into hot irons, and bake. Blueberry Gems. — To one cupful of rich milk add one tablespoonful of sugar, and the yolk of an egg. Beat well till full of air bubbles ; then add 158 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. gradually one cupful of Graham flour, and one cupful of white flour, or white corn meal. Beat vigorously until light ; stir in the beaten white of the egg, and one cupful of fresh, sound blueberries. Bake in heated irons, in a moderately quick oven. Chopped sweet or sour apples may be used in place of the berries. Hominy Gems. — Beat one egg until very light, add to it one table- spoonful of thick sweet cream, a little salt, if desired, and two cupfuls of cooked hominy (fine). Thin the mixture with one cupful or less of boiling water until it will form easily, beat well, and bake in heated irons. Sally Lunii Gems. — Beat together the yolk of one egg, two tablespoon- fuls of sugar, and one cupful of thin, ice-cold, sweet cream. Add slowly, beating at the same time, one cup and two tablespoonfuls of sifted Gra- ham flour. Beat vigorously, until full of air bubbles, add the white of the egg beaten stiffly, and bake in heated irons. Corn Pnflfs. — Mingle the yolk of one egg with one cupful of rich milk. Add to the liquid one cupful of flour, one-half cupful of fine, yellow corn meal, and one-fourth cupful of sugar, all of which have previously been well mixed togethet. Place the batter on ice for an hour, or until very cold. Then beat it vigorously five or ten minutes, till full of air bubbles ; stir in lightly the stiffly beaten white of the egg, and put at once into heated irons. Bake in a moderately quick oven, thirty or forty minutes. Corn Puffs No. 2. — Scald two cupfuls of fine white corn meal with boiling water. When cold, add three tablespoonfuls of thin sweet cream, and the yolk of one egg. Beat well, and stir in lastly the white of the egg, beaten to a stiff froth. The batter should be sufficiently thin to drop easily from a spoon, but not thin enough to pour. Bake in heated irons, in a moderately quick oven. Corn Puffs No. 3. — Take one cupful of cold mashed potato, and one cupful of milk, rubbed together through a colander to remove all lumps. Add the yolk of one well beaten egg, and then stir in slowly, beating vigorously meantime, one cupful of good corn meal. Lastly, stir in the white of the egg beaten to a stiff froth, and bake in heated irons, in a rather quick oven. Corn Puffs No. 4. — Beat together one and one-half cupfuls of un- skimmed milk and the yolks of two eggs, until thoroughly blended. Add two cupfuls of flour, and one cupful best granular corn meal. Beat the batter thoroughly ; stir in lightly the whites of the eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, turn into heated irons, and bake. Corn Dodgers. — Scald one cupful of best granular corn meal, with which a tablespoonful of sugar has been sifted, with one cup of boiling milk. Beat until smooth, and drop on a griddle, in cakes about one inch in thickness, and bake slowly for an hour. Turn when brown. BREADSTUFFS AND BREAD-MAKING. 159 Corn Dodders No. 2. — Mix one tablespoonful of sugar with two cups best corn meal. Scald with one cup of boiling water. Add rich milk to make a batter thin enough to drop from a spoon. Lastly, add one egg, yolk and white beaten separately, and bake on a griddle in the oven from three fourth of an hour to one hour. Cream Corn Cakes. — Into one cup of thin cream stir one and one half cups of granular corn meal, or enough to make a stiff batter ; beat well, drop into heated irons, and bake. Hoe Cako. — Scald one pint of white corn meal, with which, if desired, a tablespoonful of sugar, and one half teaspoonful of salt have been mixed, with boiling milk, or water enough to make a batter sufficiently thick not to spread. Drop on a hot griddle, in large or small cakes, as preferred, about one half inch in thickness. Cook slowly, and when well browned on the under side, turn over. The cake may be cooked slowly, until well done throughout, or, as the portion underneath becomes well browned, the first browned crust may be peeled off with a knife, and the cake again turned. As rapidly as a crust laecomes formed and browned, one may be removed, and the cake turned, until the whole is all browned. The thin wafer-like crusts are excellent served with hot milk or cream. Oatmeal Gems. — To one cupful of well-cooked oatmeal add one half cupful of rich milk or thin cream, and the yolk of one egg. Beat all to- gether thoroughly ; then add, continuing to beat, one and one third cup- fuls of Graham flour, and lastly the stiffly beaten white of the egg. Bake in heated irons. If j^referred, one cupful of white flour may be used in place of the Graham. Snow Gems. — Beat together lightly but thoroughly two parts clean, freshly fallen, dry snow, and one part best granular corn meal. Turn into hot gem irons and bake quickly. The snow should not be packed in measuring, and the bread should be prepared before the snow melts. Pop Overs. — For the preparation of these, one egg, one cupful of milk, and one scant cupful of white floor are required. Beat the egg, yolk and white, separately. Add to the yolk, when well beaten, one half the milk, and sift in the flour a little at a time, stirring until the whole is a perfectly smooth paste. Add the remainder of the milk gradually, beating well until the whole is an absolutely smooth, light batter about the thickness of cream. Stir in the stiffly beaten white of the egg, and bake in hot earthen cups or muffin rings, and to prevent them from sticking, sift flour into the rings after slightly oiling, afterward turning them upside down to shake off all the loose flour. Granola Gems. — Into three fourths of a cup of rich milk stir one cup of Granola (prepared by the Sanitarium Food Co.). Drop into heated irons, and bake for twenty or thirty minutes. l6o SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Bean Gems. — Prepare the gems in the same manner as for Whole- Wheat Puffs, using one half cup of milk, one egg, one cup of cooked beans which have been rubbed through a colander and salted, and one cup and one tablespoonful of white flour. A little variation in the quantity of the flour may be necessary, dependent upon the moisture contained in the beans, although care should be taken to have them quite dry. Breakfast Rolls. — Sift a pint and a half of Graham flour into a bowl, and into it stir a" cupful of very cold thin cream, or unskimmed milk. ^ Pour the liquid into the flour slowly, a few spoonfuls at a time, mixing each spoonful to a dough with the flour as fast as poured in. When all the liquid has been added, gather the fragments of dough together, knead thoroughly for ten minutes or longer, until perfectly smooth and elastic. The quantity of flour will vary somewhat with the quality, but in general, the quantity given will be quite sufficient for mixing the dough and dusting the board. When well kneaded, divide into two portions ; roll each over and over with the hands, until a long roll about one inch in diameter is formed ; cut this into two-inch lengths, prick with a fork and place on perforated tins, far enough apart so that one will not touch another when baking. Each roll should be as smooth and perfect as possible, and with no dry flour adhering. Bake at once, or let stand on ice for twenty minutes. The rolls should not be allowed to stand after forming, unless on ice. From thirty to forty minutes will be re- quired for baking. When done, spread on the table to cool, but do not pile one on top of another. Very nice rolls may be made in the same manner, using for the wetting ice-cold soft water. They require a longer kneading, are more crisp, but less tender than those made with cream. With some brands of Graham flour the rolls will be much lighter if one third white flour be used. Whole-wheat flour may be used in place of Graham, if preferred. Sticks. — Prepare, and knead the dough the same as for rolls. When ready to form, roll the dough much smaller ; scarcely larger than one's little finger, and cut into three or four-inch lengths. Bake the same as rolls, for about twenty minutes. Cream Gfraham Bolls. — To one half cup cold cream add one half cup of soft ice water. Make into a dough with three cups of Graham flour, sprinkling in slowly with the hands, beating at the same time, so as to in- corporate as much air as possible, until the dough is too stifle to be stirred ; then knead thoroughly, form into rolls, and bake. Corn Mush Rolls. — Make a dough of one cup of corn meal mush, one half cup of cream, and two and one half cups of white flour ; knead thor- oughly, shape into rolls, and bake. I'.Kl'ADSTUl'FS AND J'.KKAI )-M A K IXC. I 6 [ Fruit Rolls. — Prepmt' tlu> rolls as directi'd in the reciiie fur Break- fast Rolls, and when well kneaded, work into the douj;li a half cupful of Zante currants which have been well washed, dried, and floured. Form the rolls in the usual manner, and bake. Croani Miisli Bolls. — Into a cupful of cold Graham mush beat thor- oughly three tablespuonfuls of thick, sweet cream. Add sufficient Graham flour to make a rather stiff dough, knead thoroughly, shape into rolls, and bake. Corn meal, farina, and other mushes may be used in the place of the Graham mush, if preferred. IJoaten Biscuit. — Into a quart of whole-wheat flour mix a large cup of thin sweet cream in the same manner as for breakfast rolls. The dough must be very stiff, and rendered soft and pliable by thorough kneading and afterward pounding with a mallet for at least half an hour in the fol- lowing manner : Pound the dough out flat, and until of the same thickness throughout ; dredge lightly with flour ; double the dough over evenly and pound quickly around the outside, to fasten the edges together and thus retain the air within the dough. When well worked, the dough will ap- pear flaky and brittle, and pulling a piece off it quickly will cause a sharp, snajiping sound. Mold into small biscuits, making an indenture in the center of each with the thumb, prick well with a fork, and place on per- forated sheets, with a space between, and put at once into the oven. The oven should be of the same temperature as for rolls. If they are "sad" inside when cold, they were not well baked, as they should be light and tender. If preferred, use one third white flour, instead of all whole-wheat. Excellent results are also obtained by chopping instead of pounding the dough. Cream Crisps. — Make a dough of one cupful of thin cream, and a little more than three cups of Graham flour. Knead until smooth, then divide the dough into several pieces, and place in a dish on ice for an hour, or until ice cold. Roll each piece separately and quickly as thin as brown paper. Cut with a knife into squares, prick with a fork, and bake on perforated tins, until lightly browned on both sides. Cream Crisps No. 2. — Into two and one half cups of cold cream or rich milk, sprinkle slowly with the hands, beating meanwhile to incorpo- rate air, four cups of best Graham flour, sifted with one half cup of granulated sugar. Add flour to knead ; about two and one fourth cups will be required. When well kneaded, divide into several portions, roll each as thin as a knife blade, cut into S(|uares, i)rick well with a fork, and bake. (xraliam Crisps. — Into ouv. half cupful of ice-coUl soft water, stir slowly, so as to incorporate as much air as possible, enough Graham flour to make a dough stiff enough to knead. A tablespoonful of sugar may be added to the water before stirring in the flour, if desired, Aftei' kneading II l62 SCIE^XE IN THE KITCHEN. fifteen minutes, divide the dough into six portions ; roll each as thin as brown paper, prick with a fork, and bake on perforated tins, turning often until both sides are a light, even brown. Break into irregular pieces and serve. Oatmeal Crisps. —Make a dough with one cupful of oatmeal porridge and Graham flour. Knead thoroughly, roll very thin, and bake as directed for Graham Crisps. A tablespoonful of sugar may be added if desired. Grrahaiu Crackers.— Make a dough of one cup of cream and Graham flour sufficient to make a soft dough. Knead thoroughly, and place on ice for half an hour; then roll thin, cut into small cakes with a cooky- cutter, prick with a fork, and bake on floured pans, in a brisk oven. A tablespoonful of sugar, may be added if desired. Fruit Craclcers. — Prepare a dough with one cup of cold sweet cream and three cups of Graham flour, knead well, and divide into two portions. Roll each quite thin. Spread one thickly with dates or figs seeded and chopped ; place the other one on top and press together with the rolling pin. Cut into squares and bake. An additional one fourth of a cup of flour will doubtless be needed for dusting the board and kneading. TABLE TOPICS. Behind the nutty loaf is the mill wheel ; behind the mill is the wheat field ; on the wheat field rests the sunlight ; above the sun is God. — yames Russell Lowell. Bread forms one of the most important parts of the ration of the German sol- dier. In time of peace, the private soldier is supplied day by day with one pound and nine ounces of bread ; when fighting for the Fatherland, every man is entitled to a free ration of over two pounds of bread, and field bakery trains and steam ovens for providing the large amount of bread required, form a recognized part of the equip- ment of the German army. The wandering Arab lives almost entirely upon bread, with a few dates as a relish. According to Count Rumford, the Bavarian wood-chopper, one of the most hardy and hard-working men in the world, receives for his weekly rations one large loaf of rye bread and a small quantity of roasted meal. Of the meal he makes an infusion, to which he adds a little salt, and -with the mixture, ^\hich he calls burned soup, he eats his rye bread. No beer, no beef, no other food than that mentioned, and no drink but water ; and yet he can do more work and enjoys a better digestion and possesses stronger muscles than the average American or Englishman, with their varied dietary. TABLE TOPICS. 163 The following truthful hit of Scandinavian history well illustrates the influence of habits of frugality upon national character : " The Danes were approaching, and one of the Swedish bishops asked ln)w many men the province of Dalarna could furnish. " 'At least twenty thousand,' was the reply ; 'for the old men are just as strong and lirave as the young ones.' " ' But what do they live upon ? ' "'Upon bread and water. They take little account f)f hunger and thirst, and when corn is lacking, they make their bread out of tree bark.' " ' Nay,' said the bishop, ' a peo[)le who eat tree bark and drink water, the devil himself could not vancpiish 1 ' and neither were they vanquished. Their progress was one series of triumphs, till they placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden." Thi-: word bisciiil embodies the process by which this form of bread was made from time immemorial down to within the last century. Bis (twice), and coc/us (cooked), show that they were twice baked. Fragments of unfermented bread were discovered in the Swiss lake-dwellings, which belong to the Neolithic age. P'ermented bread is seldom seen in Northern Europe and Asia except among the rich or the nobility. At one time, the captain of an English vessel requested a baker of Gottenburg to bake a large quantity of loaves of raised bread. The baker refused to undertake an order of such magnitude, saying it would be quite impossible to dispose of so much, until the captain agreed to take and pay for it all. I M.A.nE a study of the ancient and indispensable art of bread-making, consulting such authorities as offered, going back to the primitive days and first invention of the unleavened kind, and traveling gradually down in my studies through that accidental souring of the dough which it is supposed taught the leavening process, and through the various fermentations thereafter till I came to" good, sweet, wholesome bread," — the staff of life. Leaven, which some deemed the soul of bread, the spiriliis which fills its cellular tissues, which is religiously preserved like the vestal fire, — some precious bottleful, I suppose, brought over in the Mayflower, did the business for America, and its influence is still rising, swelling, spreading in cerulean billows over the land, — this seed I regularly and faithfully procured from the village, until one morning I forgot the rules and scalded my yeast ; by which accident I discovered that even this was not indispensable, and I have gladly omitted it ever since. Neither did I put any soda or other acid or alkali, into my bread. It would seem that I made it according to the recipe which Marcus Porcius Cato gave about two centuries before Christ: " Make kneaded bread thus : Wash your hands and trough well. Put the meal into the trough, add water gradually, and knead it thoroughly. When you have kneaded it well, mold it, and bake it under a cover," that is in a baking kettle. — ThoreuH in IVn/deii. ^s^^ftF all the articles which enter the list of foods, none are ^,,jipvi|| more wholesome and pleasing than the fruits which na- Vwvf ^^^^ so abundantly provides. Their delicate hues and ^'^ perfect outlines appeal to our sense of beauty, while their delicious flavors gratify our appetite. Our markets are supplied with an almost unlimited variety of both native and tropical fruits, and it might be supposed that they would always appear upon the daily bill of fare ; yet in the ma- jority of homes this is rarely the case. People are inclined to consider fruit, unless the product of their own gardens, a luxury too expensive for common use. Many who use a plenti- ful supply, never think of placing it upon their tables, unless cooked. Ripe fruit is a most healthful article of diet when par- taken of at seasonable times ; but to eat it, or any other food, between meals, is a gross breach of the requirements of good digestion. Fruits contain from seventy-five to ninety-five per cent of water, and a meager proportion of nitrogenous matter ; hence [164] FRUITS. 165 their value as nutrients, except in a few instances, is rather small ; but they supply a variety of agreeable acids which refresh and give tone to the system, and their abundant and proper use does much to keep the vital machinery in good working order. Aside from the skin and seeds, all fruits consist essentially of two parts, — the cellulose structure containing the juice, and the juice itself The latter is water, with a small proportion of fruit sugar (from one to twenty per cent in different varieties), and vegetable acids. These acids are either free, or combined with potash and lime in the form of acid salts. They are mallic, citric, tartaric, and pectic acids. The last-named is the jelly-producing principle. While the juice, as we commonly find it, is readily trans- formable for use in the system, the cellular structure of the fruit is not so easily digested. In some fruits, as the straw- berry, grape, and banana, the cell walls are so delicate as to be easily broken up ; but in watermelons, apples, and oranges, the cells are coarser, and form a larger bulk of the fruit, hence are less easily digested. As a rule, other points being equal, the fruits which yield the richest and largest quan- tity of juices, and also possess a cellular framework the least perceptible on mastication, are the most readily digested. A certain amount of waste matter is an advantage, to give bulk to our food ; but persons with weak stomachs, who cannot eat cer- tain kinds of fruit, are often able to digest the juice when taken alone. Unripe fruits differ from ripe fruits in that they contain starch, which during ripening is changed into sugar, and gener- ally some proportion of tannic acid, which gives them their astringency. The characteristic constituent of unripe fruit, however, is pectose, an element insoluble in water, but which, as maturation proceeds, is transformed into pectic and pectosic acids. These are soluble in boiling water, and upon cooling, yield gelatinous solutions. Their presence makes it possible to convert the juice of ripe fruits into jelly. Raw starch in any form is indigestible, hence unripe fruit should never be eaten i66 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. uncooked. As fruit matures, the changes it undergoes are such as best fit it for consumption and digestion. The following' table shows the composition of the fruits in common use: — ANALYSIS. Apples ...... Pears Peaches Grapes Plums Gooseberries . Strawberries . Raspberries . Currants . . . . Blackberries . Cherries Apricots Oranges Dates Bananas Turkey Figs . Wate S3 . o 84.0 85.0 80.0 82.0 86.0 87.6 86.+ 85.2 86.4 75.0 85.0 86.0 20.8 73-9 17-5 0.4 0.3 0-5 0.7 0.2 0.4 0-5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.9 .08 6.6 4.8 6.1 6.8 7.0 1.8 Glucose. 13.0 3.6 7.0 4-5 4-7 6.4 4-4 I3-I 1 .0 8 to 10 54-0 19. 7f 57-5 Free Acid I .0 0. I 0.7 Tartaric. 0.8 o.S 1-5 1-3 1-3 1.8 1 . I Fat. 0.2 Fat. 0.6 Fat. 0.9 Cellulose. 41: jNIineral Matter. 0.4 0-3 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.4 0-5 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.6 0.8 2.3 * Small quantities of albumen, citric acid, citrate of potash, cellulose, etc. t Sugar and pectose. t Starch, pectose, etc. There is a prevailing notion that the free use of fruits, especially in summer, excites derangement of the digestive organs. When such derangement occurs, it is far more likely to have been occasioned by the way in which the fruit was eaten than by the fruit itself. Perhaps it was taken as a surfeit dish at the end of a meal. It may have been eaten in combi- FRUITS. 167 naticMi witli rich, oily foods, [);istr\", stront^ coffee, and other indigestible viands, which, in themselves, often excite an attack of indigestion. Possibly it was partaken of between meals, or late at night, with ice cream and other confections, or it was swallowed without sufficient mastication. Certainly, it is not marvelous that stomach and bowel disorders do result under such circumstances. The innocent fruit, like many other good things, being found in "bad company," is blamed accordingly. An excess of any food at meals or between meals, is likely to prove injurious, and fruits present no exception to this rule- Fruit taken at seasonable times and in suitable quantities, alone or in combination with proper foods, gives us one of the most agreeable and healthful articles of diet. Fruit, fats, and meats do not affiliate, and they arc liable to create a disturb- ance whenever taken together. Partially decayed, stale, and overripe, as well as unripe fruit, should never be eaten. According to M. Pasteur, the French scientist, all fruits and vegetables, Avhen undergoing even incipient decay, contain numerous germs, which, introduced into the system, are liable to produce disturbances or disease. Perfectly fresh, ripe fruit, with proper limitations as to quantity and occasion, may be taken into a normal stomach with im- punity at any season. It is especially important that all fruits to be eaten should not only be sound in quality, but should be made perfectly clean by washing if necessary, since fruit grown near the ground is liable to be covered with dangerous bacteria (such as cause typhoid fever or diphtheria), which exist in the soil or in the material used in fertilizing it. Most fruits, properly used, aid digestion either directly or indirectly. The juicy ones act as diluents, and their free use lessens the desire for alcohol and other stimulants. According to German analysts, the apple contains a larger percentage of phosphorus than any other fruit, or than any vegetable. In warm weather and in warm climates, when foods are not needed for a heat-producing purpose, the diet may well consist largely of fruits and succulent vegetables, eaten in combination with l68 SCIKXCK IN THE KITCHEN. bread and grains. In case of li\-er and kidne}- affections, rheu- matism, and gout, the use of fruit is considered very beneficial by many scientific authorities. To serve its best purpose, raw fruit should be eaten without sugar or other condiments, or with the addition of as small a quantit}- as possible. It is a disputed question whether fruits should begin or end the meal ; but it is generalh- conceded by those who have given the matter attention, that fruit eaten at the beginning of a meal is itself the more readily digested, and aids in the diges- tion of other foods, since fruits, like soups, have the property of stimulating the flow of the digestive juices. Something, however, must depend upon the character of the fruit ; oranges, melons, and like juicy fruits, are especially useful as appe- tizers to begin the meal, while bananas and similar fruits agree better if taken with other food, so as to secure thorough mix- ture with saliva. This is true of all fruits, except such pulpy fruits as strawberries, peaches, melons, grapes, and oranges. It is often erroneously asserted that fruit as dessert is injurious to digestion. For those people, however, who regulate their bill of fare in accordance with the principles of hygiene, a simple course of fruit is not only wholesome, but is all that is needed after a dinner ; and much time, labor, and health will be saved when housekeepers are content to serve desserts which nature supplies all ready for use, instead of those harm- ful combinations in the preparing of vv'hich they spend hours of tiresome toil. Description. — For convenience, fruits may be grouped together ; as, poniaceous fruits, including the apple, quince, pear, etc. ; the drupaceous fruits, those provided with a hard stone surrounded by a fleshy pulp, as the peach, apricot, plum, cherry, olive, and date ; the orange or citron group, includ- ing the orange, lemon, lime, citron, grape fruit, shaddock, and pomegranate ; the baccate or berry kind, comprising the grape, gooseberry, currant, cranberry, whortleberry, blueberry, and others ; the arterio group, to which belong raspberries, straw- berries, dewberries, and blackberries ; the fig group ; the iRirrs. 169 gourd group, includiiii;" melons and cantaloupes ; and foreign fruits. It is impossible, in the brief scope of this work, to enumerate the infinite varieties of fruit ; but we will brief!}' speak of some of the most common fount! in the gardens and markets of tliis latitude. Apples. — The origin and first home of the apple, is un- known. If tradition is to be believed, it was the inauspicious fruit to which may be traced all the miseries of mankind. In pictures of the temptation in the garden of Eden, our mother Eve is generally represented as holding an apple in her hand. We find the apple mentioned in tlie mytliologies of the Greeks, Druids, and Scandinavians. The Thebans offered apples instead of sheep as a sacrifice to Hercules, a custom derived from the following circumstance : — "At one time, when a sacrifice was necessar\', the river Asopus had so inundated tlie country that it was impossible to take a slieep across it for the purpose, when some }'outlis, recol- lecting that the Greek word melon signified both sheep and an apple, stuck wooden pegs into the fruit to represent legs, and brought this vegetable quadruped as a substitute for the usual offering. After this date, the apple was considered as especially devoted to Hercules." In ancient times, Greece produced most excellent apples. They were the favorite dessert of Pliillip of Macedon and Alexander the Great, the latter causing tliem to be served at all meals. Doubtless the}' came to be used to excess ; for it is recorded of the Athenian lawgixer, Solon, that he made a decree prohibiting a bridegroom from partal<:ing of more than one at his marriage banquet, a law whicli was zealously kept b}' the Greeks, and final!}' adopted b}' tlie Persians. In Homer's time the apple was regarded as one of the precious fruits. It was extensive!}' cultivated b}' the Romans, who gave to new \arieties tlie names of man}' eminent citizens, and after the conquest of Gaul, introduced its culture into South- western Europe, whence it lias come to be wide!}' diffused througliout all parts of the temperate zone. . 170 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Apples were introduced into the United States by the early settlers, and the first trees were planted on an island in Boston Harbor, which still retains the name of Apple Island. The wild crab tree is the parent of most of the cidtivated varieties. The Pear. — The origin of the pear, like that of the apple, is shrouded in obscurity, though Egypt, Greece, and Palestine dispute for the honor of having given birth to the tree which bears this prince of fruits. Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher of the fourth century, speaks of the pear in terms of highest praise ; and Galen, the father of medical science, mentions the pear in his writings as possessing " qualities which benefit the stomach." The pear tree is one of the most hardy of all fruit trees, and has been known to live several hundred years. The Quince. — This fruit appears to have been a native of Crete, from whence it was introduced into ancient Greece, and was largely cultivated by both Greeks and Romans. In Persia, the fruit is edible in its raw state ; but in this country it never ripens sufficiently to be palatable without being cooked. The fruit is highly fragrant and exceedingly acid, and for these reasons is largely employed to flavor other fruits. The Peach. — This fruit, as its botanical name, pi'imis Persica, indicates, is a native of Persia, and was brought from that country to Greece, from whence it passed into Italy. It is frequently mentioned by ancient writers, and was regarded with much esteem by the people of Asia. The Romans, how- ever, had the singular notion that peaches gathered in Persia contained a deadly poison, but if once transplanted to another soil, this injurious effect was lost. In composition, the peach is notable for the small quantity of saccharine matter it con- tains in comparison with other fruits. The Plum. — The plum is one of the earliest of known fruits. Thebes, Memphis, and Damascus were noted for the great number of their plum trees in the early centuries. Plum trees grow wild in Asia, America, and the South of Europe, and from these a large variety of domestic plum fruits have been cultivated. FKun>. 171 Plums are more liable than most other fruits to produce disorders of digestion, and when eaten raw should be carefully selected, that they be neither unripe nor overripe. Cooking renders them less objectionable. The Prune. — The plum when dried is often called by its French cognomen, prune. The larger and sweeter varieties are generally selected for drying, and when good and properly cooked, are among the most wholesome of prepared fruits. The Aprieot. — This fruit seems to be intermediate between tlie peach and the plum, resembling the former externally, while its stone is like that of the plum. The apricot originated in Armenia, and the tree which bears the fruit was termed by the Romans "the tree of Armenia." It was introduced into England in the time of Henry VIII. The apricot is cultivated to some extent in the United States, but it requires too much care to permit of its being largely grown, except in certain sections. The Cherry. — The common garden cherry is supposed to have been derived from the two species of wild fruit, and his- torians tell us that we are indebted to the agricultural experi- ments of Mithridates, the great king of ancient Pontus, for this much esteemed fruit. It is a native of Asia Minor, and derives its name from Cerasus, the city or country which was its birthplace. The Olive. — From time immemorial the olive has been as- sociated with history. The Scriptures make frequent reference to it, and its cultivation was considered of first importance among the Jews, who used its oil for culinary and a great variety of other purposes. Ancient mythology venerated the olive tree above all others, and invested it with many charming bits of fiction. Grecian poets sang its praises, and early Roman writers speak of it with high esteem. In appearance and size the fruit is much like the plum ; when ripe it is very dark green, almost black, and possesses a strong, and, to many peo- ple, disagreeable flavor. The pulp abounds in a bland oil, for the production of which it is extensively cultivated in Syria, 1/2 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Egypt, Italy, Spain, and Southern France. The fruit itself is also pickled and preserved in various ways, but, like all other similar commodities when thus prepared, it is by no means a wholesome article of food. The Dale. — The date is the fruit of the palm tree so often mentioned in the Sacred Writings, and is indigenous to Africa and portions of Asia. The fruit grows in bunches which often weigh from twenty to twenty-five pounds, and a single freewill bear from one to three thousand pounds in a season. The date is very sweet and nutritious. It forms a staple article of diet for the inhabitants of some parts of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, and frequently forms the chief food of their horses, dogs, and camels. The Arabs reduce dried dates to a meal, and make therefrom a bread, Avhich often constitutes their sole food on long journeys through the Great Desert. The inhabitants of the countries where the date tree flourishes, put its various pro- ductions to innumerable uses. From its leaves they make baskets, bags, mats, combs, and brushes ; from its stalks, fences for their gardens ; from its fibers, thread, rope, and rigging ; from its sap, a spirituous liquor ; from its fruit, food for man and beast ; while the body of the tree furnishes them with fuel. The prepared fruit is largely imported to this country. That which is large, smooth, and of a soft reddish yellow tinge, with a whitish membrane betw^een the flesh and stone, is considered the best. The Orange. — According to some authors, the far-famed " golden fruit of the Hesperides," which Hercules stole, was the orange ; but it seems highly improbable that it was known to writers of antiquity. It is supposed to be indigenous to Central and Eastern Asia. Whatever its nativity, it has now spread over all the warmer regions of the earth. The orange tree is very hardy in its own habitat, and is one of the most prolific of all fruit-bearing trees, a single tree having been known to produce twenty thousand good oranges in a season. Orange trees attain great age. There are those in Italy and Spain Avhich are known to have flourished for six hundred years. Numer- ous varieties of the orange are grown, and are imported to our FRUITS. 173 markets from every part of the i,dobe. Florida oranges are among the best, and when obtained in their perfection, are the most luscious of all fruits. The Lemon. — This fruit is supposed to be a native of the North of India, although it is grown in nearly all sub-tropical climates. In general, the fruit is very acid, but in a variety known as the sweet lemon, or bergamot (said to be a hybrid of the orange and lemon), the juice is sweet. The sour lemon is highly valued for its antiscorbutic properties, and is largely employed as a flavoring ingredient in culinary preparations, and in making a popular refreshing beverage. The Citron. — The citron is a fruit very similar to the lemon, though larger in size and less succulent. It is supposed to be. identical with the Hebrew tappnacJi, and to be the fruit which is mentioned in the English version of the Old Testa- ment as "apple." The citron is not suitable for eating in its raw state, though its juice is used in connection with water and sugar to form an excellent acid drink. Its rind, which is very thick, with a warty and furrowed exterior, is prepared in sugar and largely used for flavoring purposes. The Lime. — The fruit of the lime is similar to the lemon, though much smaller in size. It is a native of Eastern Asia, but has long been cultivated in the South of Europe and other sub- tropical countries. The fruit is seldom used except for making acidulous drinks, for which it is often given the preference over the lemon. The Grape Fruit. — This fruit, a variety of shaddock, be- longs to the great citrus family, of which there are one hundred and sixty-nine known varieties. The shaddock proper, how- ever, is a much larger fruit, frequently weighing from ten to fourteen pounds. Although a certain quantity of grape fruit is brought from the West Indies, our principal supply is derived from Florida. It is from two to four times the size of an or- dinary orange, and grows in clusters. It is rapidly gaining in favor with fruit lovers. Its juice has a moderately acid taste and makes a pleasing beverage. The pulp, carefully separated, is also much esteemed. 1 7.1- SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. The Pomegranate. — This fruit has been cultivated in Asia from earliest antiquity, and is still quite generally grown in most tropical climes. In the Scriptures it is mentioned with the vine, fig, and olive, among the pleasant fruits of the prom- ised land. It is about the size of a large peach, of a fine golden color, with a rosy tinge on one side. The rind is thick and leathery. The central portion is composed of little globules of pulp and seeds inclosed in a thin membrane, each seed being about the size of a red currant. It is sub-acid, and slightly bitter in taste. The rind is strongly astringent, and often used as a medicine. The Grape. — Undoubtedly the grape was one of the first fruits eaten by mankind, and one highly valued from an- tiquity down to the present time. Although this fruit is often sadly perverted in the manufacture of wine, when rightly used it is one of the most excellent of all fruits. The skins and seeds are indigestible and should be rejected, but the fresh, juicy pulp is particularly wholesome and re- freshing. Several hundred varieties of the grape are culti- vated. Some particularly sweet varieties are made into raisins, by exposure to the sun or to artificial heat. Sun- dried grapes make the best raisins. The so-called English or Zante currant belongs to the grape family, and is the dried fruit of a vine which grows in the Ionian Islands and yields a very small berry. The name currant, as applied to these fruits, is a corruption of the word Corinth, where the fruit was formerly grown. The Gooseberry. — The gooseberry probably derives its name from gorse or goss, a prickly shrub that grows wild in thickets and on hillsides in Europe, Asia, and America. It was known to the ancients, and is mentioned in the writings of Theocritus and Pliny. Gooseberries were a favorite dish with some of the emperors, and were extensively cultivated in gar- dens during the Middle Ages. The gooseberry is a wholesome and agreeable fruit, and by cultivation may be brought to a high state of perfection in size and flavor. FRITTTS. 175 The Currant. — This fruit derives its name from its re- semblance to the small grapes of Corinth, sometimes called Corinthus, and is ' indigenous to America, Asia, and Europe. The fruit is sharply acid, though very pleasant to the taste. Cultivation has produced white currants from the red, and in a distinct species of the fruit grown in Northern Europe and Russia, the currants are black or yellow. The Whortleberry and Blueberry. — These are both spe- cies of the same fruit, which grows in woods and waste places in the North of Europe and America. Of the latter species there are two varieties, the high-bush and the low-bush, which are equally palatable. The fruit is very sweet and pleasant to the taste, and is one of the most wholesome of all berries. The Cranberry. — A German writer of note insists that the original name of this fruit was cram-berry, because after dinner, when one was filled with other food, such was its pleasant and seductive flavor that he could still "cram" quite a quantity thereof, in defiance of all dietetic laws. Other writers consider the name a corruption of craneberry, so called because it is eagerly sought after by the cranes and other birds which frequent the swamps and marshes where it chiefly grows. The fruit is extremely acid, and is highly valued for sauces and jellies. Cranberries are among the most convenient fruits for keeping. Freezing docs not seem to hurt them, and they may be kept frozen all winter, or in water without freezing, in the cellar, or other cool places, for a long period. The Strawberry. — The flavor of antiquity rests upon the wild strawberry. Its fruit was peddled by itinerant dealers about the streets of ancient Grecian and Roman cities. Virgil sings of it in pastoral poems, and Ovid mentions it in words of praise. The name by which the fruit was known to the Greeks indicates its size ; with the Latins its name was symbolic of its perfume. The name strawberry probably came from the old Saxon strc(nvbcrigi\ either from some resemblance of the stems to straw, or from the fact that the berries have the appearance 1/6 SCIENCE IX THE KITCHEN. when growing- of being strewn upon the ground. In olden times, children strung the berries upon straws, and sold so many " straws of berries " for a penny, from which fact it is possible the name may have been derived. The strawberry is indigenous to the temperate regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, but it seems to have been matured in gardens, only within the last two centuries. The Raspberry. — This fruit grows in both a wild and a cul- tivated state. It derives its name from the rough rasps or spines with which the bushes are covered. Among the an- cients it was called " the bramble of Mt. Ida," because it was abundant upon that mountain. It is a hardy fruit, found in most parts of the world, and is of two special varieties, the black and the red. The Blackberry. — This fruit is a native of America and the greater part of Europe. There are one hundred and fifty- one named species, although the high-blackberry and the low- blackberry, or dewberry, are said to have furnished the best cultivated varieties. The Mulberry. — Different varieties of the mulberry tree produce white, red, and black mulberries of fine aromatic flavor, and acidulous or sweet taste. Persia is supposed to be the native home of this fruit, from whence it was carried, at an early date, to Asia Minor and to Greece. The Hebrews were evidently well acquainted with it. It was also cultivated by the farmers of Attica and Peloponnesus. The ancient mul- berry was considered the wisest and most prudent of trees, because it took care not to put forth the smallest bud until the cold of winter had disappeared, not to return. Then, however, it lost no time, but budded and blossomed in a day. Several varieties are found in the United States. The Melon. — This is the generic name for all the members of the gourd tribe known as cantaloupes, muskmelons, and watermelons. The fruit varies greatly in size and color, and in the character of the rind. When fresh and perfectly ripe, melons are among the most delicious of edible fruits. The Fig. — In the most ancient histories, the fig tree is referred to as among the most desirable productions of the FRUITS. 177 earth. It was the only tree in the t^arden of Eden of which the Sacred Writings make particular mention. Among the inhabitants of ancient Syria and Greece, it formed one of the principal articles of food. Its cultivation was, and is still, extensively carried on in nearly all Eastern countries ; also in Spain, Southern France, and some portions of the United States. The fruit is pear-shaped, and consists of a pulpy mass full of little seeds. Dried and compressed figs are largely im- ported, and are to be found in all markets. Those brought from Smyrna are reputed to be the best. The Baiicina. — This is essentially a tropical fruit growing very generally in the East, the West Indies, South American countries, and some of the Southern States. The plant is an annual, sending up stems to the height of ten or fifteen feet, while drooping from the top are enormous leaves three or four feet in length, and looking, as one writer has aptly said, like "great, green quill pens." It is planted in fields like corn, which in its young growth it much resembles. Each plant produces a single cluster of from eighty to one hundred or more bananas, often weighing in the aggregate as high as seventy pounds. The banana is exceedingly productive. According to Hum- boldt, a space of 1,000 feet, which will yield only 38 pounds of wheat, or 462 pounds of potatoes, will produce 4,000 pounds of bananas, and in a much shorter period of time. It is more nutritious than the majority of fruits, and in tropical countries is highly valued as a food, affording in some localities the chief alimentary support of the people. Its great importance as a food product is shown by the fact that three or four good sized bananas are equal in nutritive value to a pound of bread. The amount of albumen contained in a pound of bananas is about the same as that found in a pound of rice, and the total nutri- tive value of one pound of bananas is only a trifle less than that of an equal quantity of the best beefsteak. The unripe fruit, which contains a considerable percentage of starch, is often dried in the oven and eaten as bread, which, in this state, it considerably resembles in taste and appear- ance. Thus prepared, it may be kept for a long time, and is very serviceable for use on long journeys. The variety of 12 1/8 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. the banana thus used is, however, a much larger kind than any of those ordinarily found in our Northern markets, and is known as the plantain. The dried plantain, powdered, furnishes a meal of fragrant odor and bland taste, not un- like common wheat flour. It is said to be easy of digestion, and two pounds of the dry meal or six pounds of the fruit is the daily allowance for a laborer in tropical America. The Pineapple. — This delicious fruit is a native of South America, where it grows wild in the forests. It is cultivated largely in tropical America, the West Indies, and some portions of Europe. The fruit grows singly from the center of a small plant having fifteen or more long, narrow, serrated, ridged, sharp-pointed leaves, seemingly growing from the root. In general appearance it resembles the century plant, though so much smaller that twelve thousand pineapple plants may be grown on one acre. From the fibers of the leaves is made a costly and valuable fabric called pina muslin. Nothing can surpass the rich, delicate flavor of the wild pineapple as found in its native habitat. It is in every way quite equal to the best cultivated variety. The most excel- lent pineapples are imported from the West Indies, but are seldom found in perfection in our Northern markets. FRESH FRUIT FOR THE TABLE. AH fruit for serving should be perfectly ripe and sound. Immature fruit is never wholesome, and owing to the large percentage of water in its composition, fruit is very prone to change ; hence overripe fruit should not be eaten, as it is liable to ferment and decompose in the digestive tract. Fruit which has begun, however slightly, to decay, should be rejected. Juice circulates through its tissues in much the same manner as the blood circulates through animal tissues, though not so rapidly and freely. The circulation is suf- ficient, however, to convey to all the parts the products of decomposition, when only a small portion has undergone decay. FRUITS. 179 and although serious results do not always follow the use of such fruit, it certainly is not first-class food. If intended to be eaten raw, fruit should be well ripened be- fore gathering, and should be perfectly fresh. P'ruit that has stood day after day in a dish upon the tabic, in a warm room, is far less wholesome and tempting than that brought fresh from the storeroom or cellar. All fruits should be thoroughly cleansed before serving. Such fruit as cherries, grapes, and cur- rants may be best washed by placing in a colander, and dip- ping in and out of a pan of water until perfectly clean, draining and drying before serving. DIRECTIO/\/S FOR SERVI/S/G FRUITS. Apples. — In servinj^ tliese, the " (jueeu of all fruits," much oppor- tunity is afforded for a display of taste in their arrangement. After wiping clean with a damp towel, they may be piled in a fruit basket, with a few sprigs of green leaves here and there between their rosy cheeks. The feathery tops of carrots and celery are pretty for this purpose. Oranges and apples so arranged, make a highly ornamental dish. Raw mellow sweet apples make a delicious dish when pared, sliced, and served with cream. Bananas. — Cut the ends from the fruit and serve whole, piled in a basket with oranges, grapes, or plums. Another way is to peel, slice, and serve with thin cream. Bananas are also very nice sliced, sprinkled lightly with sugar, and before it has (juite dissolved, covered with orange juice. Sliced bananas, lightly sprinkled with sugar, alternating in layers with sections of oranges, make a most delicious dessert. Cherries. — Serve on stems, piled in a basket or high dish, with bits of green leaves and vines between. Rows of different colored cherries, arranged in pyramidal form, make also a handsome dish. Currants. — Large whole clusters may be served on the stem, and when it is j^ossible to obtain both red and white varieties, they make a most attractive dish. Put them into cold water for a little time, cocjI thoroughly, and drain well before using. Currants, if picked from the stems after being carefully washed and drained, may be served lightly sprinkled with sugar. Currants and raspberries served together, half and half, or one third currants and two thirds raspberries, are excellent. Only the ripest of currants should be used. Gooseberries, — When fresh and ripe, the gooseberry is one of the most delicious of small fruits. Serve with stems on. Drop into cold l8o SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN, water for a few moments, drain, and pile in a glass dish for the table. Grapes. — Grapes need always to be washed before serving. Drop the bunches into ice water, let them remain ten or fifteen minutes, then drain and sei-ve. An attractive dish may be made by arranging bunches of different colored grapes together on a plate edged with grape leaves. Melons. — Watermelons should be served very cold. After being well washed on the outside, put on ice until needed. Cut off a slice at the ends, that each half may stand upright on a plate, and then cut around in even slices. Instead of cutting through the center into even halves, the melon may be cut in points back and forth around the entire circumfer- ence, so that when separated, each half will appear like a crown. An- other way is to take out the central portion with a spoon, in cone-shaped pieces, and arrange on a plate with a few bits of ice. Other melons may be served in halves, with the seeds removed. The. rough skin of the can- taloupe should be thoroughly scrubbed with a vegetable brush, then rinsed and wiped, after which bury the melon in broken ice till serving time ; divide into eighths or sixteenths, remove the seeds, reconstruct the melon, and serve surrounded with ice, on a folded napkin, or arranged on a bed of grape leaves. Do not cool the melon by placing ice upon the flesh, as the moisture injures the delicate flavor. Oranges. — Serve whole or cut the skin into eighths, half-way down, separating it from the fruit, and curling it inward, thus showing half the orange white and the other half yellow ; or cut the skin into eighths, tw'o- thirds down, and after loosening from the fruit, leave them spread open like the petals of a lily. Oranges sliced and mixed with well ripened strawberries, in the proportion of three oranges to a quart of berries, make a palatable dessert. Peaches and Pears. — Pick out the finest, and wipe the wool from the peaches. Edge a plate with uniform sized leaves of foliage plant of the same tints as the fruit, and pile the fruit artistically upon it, tucking sprays or tips of the plant between. Bits of ice may also be intermingled. Yellow Bartlett pears and rosy-cheeked peaches arranged in this way are most ornamental. Peaches and Cream. — Pare the peaches just as late as practicable, since they become discolored by standing. Always use a silver knife, as steel soon blackens and discolors the fruit. If sugar is to be used, do not add it until the time for serving, as it will start the juice, and likewise turn the fruit brown, destroying much of its rich flavor. Keep on ice until needed for the table. Add cream with each person's dish. Pineapples. — The pineapple when fresh and ripened to perfection, is as mellow and juicy as a ripe peach, and needs no cooking to fit it for the table. Of course it must be pared, and have the eyes and fibrous center FRUITS. l8l removed. Tlieii it in;iy be sliced in generous pieces and piled upon a plate, or cut into smaller portions and served in saucers. No condiments are necessary ; even the use of sugar detracts from its delicate flavor. Pineapples found in our Northern markets are, however, generally so hard and tough as to require cooking, or are valuable only for their juice, which may be extracted and used for flavoring other fruits. When suffi- ciently mellow to be eaten raw, they are usually so tart as to seem to re- quire a light sprinkling of sugar to suit most tastes. Pineapples pared, cut into dice or small pieces, lightly sprinkled with sugar, to which just before serving, a cup of orange juice is added, form a delicious dish. PIiiiiis. — Plums make a most artistic fruit piece, served whole and ar- ranged with bunches of choice green grapes, in a basket or glass dish. A fine edge may be made from the velvety leaves of dark purple foliage plants. Presse«l Figs. — Look over carefully, and select only such as are per- fectly good. They may be sei'ved dry, mixed with bunches of raisins, or steamed over a kettle of boiling water. Steamed figs make an excellent breakfast dish, and are considered much more wholesome than when used dry. Steamed raisins are likewise superior to dried raisins. Ras])berrie.s, Blackberries, Denlxrries, IJliieherrios, and Whortle- berries, require careful looking over to remove all insects, stems, and overripe fruit. Blueberries and whortleberries frequently need to be washed. They are then drained by spreading on a sieve or colander. Perfectly ripe, they are more healthful without condiments ; but sugar and cream are usually considered indispensable. If necessary to wash strawberries, they should be put into cold water, a few at a time, pushed down lightly beneath the water several times until entirely clean, then taken out one by one, hulled, and used at once. Like all other small fruits and berries the)^ are more whole- some served without cream, but if cream is used, each person should be allowed to add it to his own dish, as it quickly curdles and renders the whole dish unsightly ; if allowed to stand, it also impairs the flavor of the fruit. Frosted Fruit. — Prepare a mixture of the beaten white of egg, sugar, and a very little cold water. Dip nice bunches of clean currants, cherries, or grapes, into the mixture ; drain nearly dry, and roll lightly in powdered sugar. Lay them on white paper to dry. Plums, apricots, and peaches may be dipped in the mixture, gently sprinkled with sugar, then allowed to drj\ This method of preparing fruit is not to be commended for its wholesomeiu'ss, but it is sometimes desirable for ornament. 182 SCIENCE IX THE KITCHEN. KEEPING FRESH FRUIT. Of the numerous varieties of fruits grown in this country, apples and pears are about the only ones that can be kept for any length of time without artificial means. As soon as fruit has attained its maturity, a gradual change or breaking down of tissues begins. In some fruits this process follows rapidly ; in others it is gradual. There is a certain point at which the fruits are best suited for use. We call it mellowness, and say that the fruit is in "good eating condition." When this stage has been reached, deterioration and rotting soon follow. In some fruits, as the peach, plum, and early varieties of apples and pears, these changes occur within a few days after maturity, and it is quite useless to attempt to keep them ; in others, like the later varieties of apples and pears, the changes are slow but none the less certain. To keep such fruits we must endeavor to retard or prolong the process of change, by avoiding all con- ditions likely to hasten decay. Even with ordinary care, sound fruit will keep for quite a length of time ; but it can be pre- served in better condition and for a longer period by careful attention to the following practical points : — 1. If the fruit is of a late variety, allow it to remain on the tree as long as practicable without freezing. 2. Always pick and handle the fruit with the greatest care. 3. Gather the fruit on a dry, cool day, and place in heaps or bins for two or three weeks. 4. Carefully sort and pack in barrels, placing those most mellow and those of different varieties in different barrels ; head the barrels, label, and place in a cool, dry place where the temperature will remain equable. Some consider it better to keep fruit in thin layers upon broad shelves in a cool place. This plan allows frequent inspection and removal of all affected fruit without disturbance of the remainder. 5. Warmth and moisture are the conditions most favorable to decomposition, and should be especially guarded against. 6. The best temperature for keeping fruit is about 34° F., or 2° above freezing. FRUITS. ■ 183 Another method which is highly recommended is to sprinkle a layer of sawdust on the bottom of a box, and then put in a layer of apples, not allowing them to touch each other. Upon this pack more sawdust ; then another layer of apples, and so on until the box is filled. After packing, place up from the ground, in a cellar or storeroom, and they will keep perfectly, retaining their freshness and flavor until brought out. The Practical Fcxrmer gives the following rough but good way to store and keep apples : " Spread plenty of buckwheat chaff on the barn floor, and on this place the apples, filling the inter- stices with the chaff. Cover with the chaff and then with straw two or three feet deep. The advantage of this is that cover- ing and bedding in chaff excludes cold, prevents air cur- rents, maintains a uniform temperature, absorbs the moisture of decay, and prevents the decay produced by moisture." The ordinary cellar underneath the dwelling house is too warn1 and damp for the proper preservation of fruit, and some other place should be provided if possible. A writer in the American Agriculturist thus calls attention to an additional reason why fruit should not be stored beneath living-rooms : "After late apples are stored fov the winter, a gradual change begins within the fruit. It absorbs oxygen from the air of the room, and gives off carbonic acid gas. Another change results in the formation of water, which is given off as moisture. The taking up of oxygen b\' the fruit and the giving off of carbonic acid, in a short time so vitiates the atmosphere of the room in which the fruit is kept, that it will at once extinguish a candle, and destroy animal life. An atmosphere of this kind tends to preserve the fruit. There being little or no oxygen left in the air of the room, the process of decay is arrested. Hence it is desirable that the room be air tight, in order to maintain such an atmosphere." The production of carbonic acid shows that a cellar in or under a dwelling, is an improper place for storing fresh fruit. When the gas is present in the air in sufficient proportion, it causes death, and a very small quantity will cause headache, listlessness, and other unpleasant effects. No doubt many lS4 SCIl'lNCl'; IM THK KITCIIKN. Iroubk-s iittributcd to malaria, arc due to gases from vegetables ami fruits stored in the cellar. A fruit cellar should be under- neath some other building rather than the dwelling, or a fruit liouse ma)' be built entirely above the ground. A house to keep fruit properly must be built upon the principle of a refrig- erator. Its walls, floor, and ceiling should be double, and the si)ace between filled with sawdust. The doors and windows should be double ; and as light is undesirable, the windows should be provided with shutters. There sliould be a small stove for use if needed to keep a proper temperature in severe weather. To K(M^1> (ijrjipes. ^ — Select such bunches as are perfect, rejecting all ni)oii whicli tliere are any bruised grapes, or from which a grape has fallen. vSj)read tlieni upon slielves in a cool place for a week or two. Tluni pack in boxes in sawdust wliich has been recently well dried in an oven. Bran which has been dried may also be used. Dry cotton is em- ployed by some. Keep in a cool place. Some consider the followitig a more (•i'liciciit nuUhod : Select perfect bunches, and dip the broken end of the stems in nu;lted paraffine or seal- ing wax. Wrap separately in tissue paper, hang in a cool place, or jiack in sawdust. To Keep liOiiions and Oniiig-os. — Lemons may be kept fresh for weeks by placing them in a vessel of cold water in a very cool cellar or ice house. Change the water every day. Oranges may be kei)t in the same way. Tlie usual method employed by growers for keejung these fruits is to wrap each one scpai-ately in tissue paper, and put in a cool, dry place. To Keep (Irnnberries. — Put tluuu in water and keep in a cool place where they will not freeze. Ciiangc- tlie water often, and sort out berries which may have become spoiled. KRUI'I'S. 185 COOKED FRUIT. lY'rfc'ctly ri])c fruit is, as a rule.-, incji'c desirable used fresh tlian in any other way. I*'niits which arc- iminature, require c<;okiiij^. Stevviii}^ and baking are the simplest methods of cookinj^ fruits, and nearly all kinds admit of one of these modes of preparation. (iencral Stij^ji*;esli characterized by a very large percentage of the nitroge- nous elements, by virtue of which they possess the highest nu- tritive value. Indeed, when mature, they contain a larger proportion of nitrogenous matter than any other food, either animal or vegetable. In their immature state, they more nearly resemble the vegetables. On account of the excess of nitrogenous elements in their composition, the mature legumes are well adapted to serve as a substitute for ani- mal foods, and for use in association with articles in which starch or other non-nitrogenous elements are predominant ; as, for example, beans or lentils with rice, which combinations constitute the staple food of large populations in India. The nitrogenous matter of legumes is termed legumin, or vegetable casein, and its resemblance to the animal casein of milk is very marked. The Chinese make use of this fact, and [217] 2l8 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. manufacture cheese from peas and beans. The legumes were largely used as food by the ancient nations of the East. They were the "pulse" upon which the Hebrew children grew so fair and strong. According to Josephus, legumes also formed the chief diet of the builders of the pyramids. They are particu- larly valuable as strength producers, and frequently form a considerable portion of the diet of persons in training as ath- letes, at the present day. Being foods possessed of such high nutritive value, the legumes are deserving of a more extended use than is generally accorded them in this country. In their mature state they are, with the exception of beans, seldom found upon the ordinary bill of fare, and beans are too generally served in a form quite difficult of digestion, being combined with large quantities of fat, or otherwise improperly prepared. Peas and lentils are in some respects superior to beans, being less liable to disagree with persons of weak digestion, and for this reason better suited to form a staple article of diet. All the legumes are covered with a tough skin, which is in itself indigestible, and which if not broken by the cooking pro- cess or by thorough mastication afterward, renders the entire seed liable to pass through the digestive tract undigested, since the digestive fluids cannot act upon the hard skin. Even when the skins are broken, if served with the pulp, much of the nutritive material of the legume is wasted, because it is im- possible for the digestive processes to free it from the cellulose material of which the skins are composed. If, then, it be de- sirable to obtain from the legumes the largest amount of nutri- ment and in the most digestible form, they must be prepared in some manner so as to reject the skins. Persons unable to use the legumes when cooked in the ordinary way, usually ex- perience no difficulty whatever in digesting them when di- vested of their skins. The hindrance which even the partially broken skins are to the complete digestion of the legume, is well illustrated by the personal experiments of Prof. Striimpell, a German scientist, who found that of beans boiled with the skins on he was able to digest only 6o per cent of the nitroge- nous material they contained. When, however, he reduced the LEGUMES. 219 same quantity of beans to a fine powder previous to cooking, he was enabled to digest 91.8 per cent of it. The fact that the mature legumes are more digestible when prepared in some manner in which the skins are rejected, was doubtless understood in early times, for we find in a recipe of the fourteenth century, directions given " to dry legumes in an oven and remove the skins away before using them." The green legumes which are more like a succulent vege- table are easily digested with the skins on, if the hulls are broken before being swallowed. There are also some kinds of beans which, in their mature state, from having thinner skins, are more readil}^ digested, as the Haricot variety. Suggestions for Cooking. — The legumes are best cooked by stewing or boiling, and when mature, require prolonged cooking to render them tender and digestible. Slow cooking, when practicable, is preferable. Dry beans and peas are more readily softened by cooking if first soaked for a time in cold water. The soaking also has a tendency to loosen the skins, so that when boiled or stewed, a considerable portion of them slip off whole, and being lighter, rise to the top during the cooking, and can be removed with a spoon ; it likewise aids in removing the strong flavor characteristic of these foods, which is considered objectionable by some persons. The length of time required for soaking will depend upon the age of the seed, those from the last harvest needing only a few hours, while such as have been kept for two or more years require to be soaked twelve or twenty-four hours, h'or cook- ing, soft water is best. The mineral elements in hard water have a tendency to harden the casein, of which the legumes are largely composed, thus rendering it often very difficult to soften them. The dry, unsoaked legumes are generally best put to cook in cold water, and after the boiling point is reached, allowed to simmer gently until done. Boiling water may be used for legumes which have been previously soaked. The amount of water required will vary somewhat with the heat employed and the age and condition of the legume, as will also the time re- 220 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. quired for cooking, but as a general rule two quarts of soft water for one pint of seeds will be quite sufficient. Salt should not be added until the seeds are nearly done, as it hinders the cooking process. PEAS. Description. — The common garden pea is probably a native of countries bordering on the Black Sea. A variety known as the gray pea {^pois chiche) has been used since a very remote period. The common people of Greece and Rome, in ancient times made it an ordinary article of diet. It is said that peas were considered such a delicacy by the Romans that those who coveted public favor distributed them gratuitously to the people in order to buy votes. Peas were introduced into England from Holland in the time of Elizabeth, and were then considered a great delicacy. His- tory tells us that when the queen was released from her con- finement in the tower. May 19, 1554, she went to Staining to perform her devotions in the church of Allhallows, after which she dined at a neighboring inn upon a meal of which the prin- cipal dish was boiled peas. A dinner of the same kind, com- memorative of the event, was for a long time given annually at the same tavern. Peas, when young, are tender and sweet, containing a con- siderable quantity of sugar. The nitrogenous matter entering into their composition, although less in quantity when unripe, is much more easily digested than when the seeds are mature. When quite ripe, like other leguminous seeds, they require long cooking. When very old, no amount of boiling will soften them. When green, peas are usually cooked and served as a vegetable ; in their dried state, they are put to almost every variety of use in the different countries where they are cul- tivated. In the southeast of Scotland, a favorite food is made of ground peas prepared in thick cakes and called peas-bainocks. In India and southern Europe, a variety of the pea is eaten parched or lightly roasted, or made into cakes, puddings, and LEGUMES. 221 sweetmeats. In Germany, in combination with other ingre- dients, peas are compounded into sausages, which, during the Franco-Prussian war, served as rations for the soldiers. Dried peas for culinary use are obtainable in two forms ; the split peas, which have had the tough envelope of the seed removed, and the green or Scotch peas. The time required for cooking will vary from five to eight hours, depending upon the age of the seed and the length of time it has been soaked previous to cooking. RECIPES. Stewed Split Peas. — Carefully examine and wash the peas, rejecting any imperfect or worm-eaten ones. Put into cold water and let them come to a boil ; then place the stewpan back on the range and simmer gently until tender, but not mushy. Season with salt and a little cream if desired. Peas Puree. — Soak a quart of Scotch peas in cold water over night. In the morning, drain and put them to cook in boiling water. Cook slowly until perfectly tender, allowing them to simmer very gently toward the last until they become as dry as possible. Put through a colander to render them homogeneous and remove the skins. Many of the skins will be loos- ened and rise to the top during the cooking, and it is well to remove these with a spoon so as to make the process of rubbing through the colander less laborious. Season with salt if desired, and a cup of thin cream. Serve hot. Mashed Peas. — Soak and cook a quart of peas as for Peas Puree When well done, if the Scotch peas, rub through a colander to remove the skins. If the split peas are used, mash perfectly smooth with a potato masher. Season with a teaspoonful of salt and a half cup of sweet cream, if desired. Beat well together, turn into an earthen or granite-ware pudding dish, smooth the top, and bake in a moderate oven until dry and mealy throughout, and nicely browned on top. Serve hot like mashed potato, or with a tomato sauce prepared as follows : Heat a pint of strained, stewed tomato, season lightly with salt, and when boiling, thicken with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water. Peas Cakes. — Cut cold mashed peas in slices half an inch in thickness, brush lightly with cream, place on perforated tins, and brown in the oven. If the peas crumble too much to slice, form them into small cakes with a spoon or knife, and brown as directed. Serve hot with or without a to- 222 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. mato sauce. A celery sauce prepared as directed iii the chapter on Sauces, is also excellent. Dried G-reen Peas. — Gather peas while young and tender and care- fully dry them. When needed for use, rinse well, and put to cook in cold water. Let them simmer until tender. Season with cream the same as fresh green peas. BEANS. Description. — Some variety of the bean family has been cultivated and used for culinary purposes from time imme- morial. It is frequently mentioned in Scripture ; King David considered it worthy of a place in his dietary, and the prophet Ezekiel was instructed to mix it with the various grains and seeds of Avhich he made his bread. Among some ancient nations the bean was regarded as a type of death, and the priests of Jupiter were forbidden to eat it, touch it, or even pronounce its name. The believer in the doctrine of transmigration of souls carefully avoided this arti- cle of food, in the fear of submitting beloved friends to the ordeal of mastication. At the present day there is scarcely a country in hot or temperate climates where the bean is not cultivated and universally appreciated, both as a green vegetable and when mature and dried. The time required to digest boiled beans is two and one half hours, and upwards. In their immature state, beans are prepared and cooked like other green vegetables. Dry beans may be either boiled, stewed, or baked, but Avhatever the method employed, it must be very slow and prolonged. Beans to be baked should first be parboiled until tender. We mention this as a precautionary measure lest some amateur cook, misled by the term "bake," should repeat the experiment of the little English maid whom we employed as cook while living in London, a few years ago. In ordering our dinner, we had quite overlooked the fact that baked beans are almost wholly an American dish, and failed to give any suggestions as to the best manner of preparing it. Left to her own resources, the poor girl did the best she knew LEGUMES. 223 how. but her face was full of perplexity as she placed the beans upon the table at dinner, with, " Well, ma'am, here are the beans, but I do n't see how you are going to eat them." Nor did we, for she had actually baked the dry beans, and they lay there in the dish as brown as roasted coffee berries, and as hard as bullets. Beans to be boiled or stewed do not need parboiling, although many cooks prefer to parboil them, to lessen the strong flavor which to some persons is quite objectionable. From one to eight hours are required to cook beans, vary- ing with the age and variety of the seed, whether it has been soaked, and the rapidit)' of the cooking process. REC/PES. Baked Beaus. — Pick over a quart of best white beans and soak in cold water over night. Put them to cook in fresh water, and simmer gently till they are tender, but not broken. Let them be quite juicy when taken from the kettle. Season ^ith salt and a teaspoonful of molasses. Put them in a deep crock in a slow oven. Let them bake two or three hours, or until they assume a reddish brown tinge, adding boiling water occasionally to prevent their becoming diy. Turn into a shallow dish, and brown nicely before sending to the table. Boiled Beaus. — Pick over some fresh, dry beans carefully, and wash thoroughly. Put into boiling water and cook gently and slowly until tender, but not broken. They should be moderately juicy when done. Serve with lemon juice, or season with salt and a little cream as preferred. The colored varieties, which are usually quite strong in flavor, are made less so by parboiling for fifteen or twenty minutes and then pour- ing the water off, adding more of boiling temperature, and cooking slowly until tender. Beans Boiled in a Bag-. — Soak a pint of white beans over night. When ready to cook, put them into a clean bag, tie up tightly, as the beans have already swelled, and if given space to move about with the boiling of the water will become broken and mushy. Boil three or four hours. Serve hot. Scalloped Beaus. — Soak a pint of white beans over night in cold water. When ready to cook, put into an earthen baking dish, cover well with new milk, and bake in a slow oven for eight or nine hours, refilling the dish with milk as it boils away, and taking care that the beans do not at any time get dry enough to brown over the top till they are tender. 224 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. When nearly done, add salt to taste, and a half cup of cream. They may be allowed to bake till the milk is quite absorbed, and the beans dry, or may be served when rich with juice, according to taste. The beans may be parboiled in water for a half hour before beginning to bake, and the length of time thereby lessened. They should be well drained be- fore adding the milk, however. Stewed Beans. — Soak a quart of white beans in water over night. In the morning drain, turn hot water over them an inch deep or more, cover, and place on the range where they will only just simmer, adding boiling water if needed. When nearly tender, add salt to taste, a tablespoonful of sugar if desired, and half a cup of good sweet cream. Cook slowly an hour or more longer, but let them be full of juice when taken up, never cooked down dry and mealy. Mashed Beans. — Soak over night in cold water, a quart of nice white beans. When ready to cook, drain, put into boiling water, and boil till perfectly tender, and the water nearly evaporated. Take up, rub through a colander to remove the skins, season with salt and a half cup of cream, put in a shallow pudding dish, smooth the top with a spoon, and brown in the oven. Stewed Lima Beans. — Put the beans into boiling water, and cook till tender, but not till they fall to pieces. Fresh beans should cook an hour or more, and dry ones require from two to three hours unless previously soaked. They are much better to simmer slowly than to boil hard. They should be cooked nearly dry. Season with salt, and a cup of thin cream, to each pint of beans. Simmer for a few minutes after the cream is turned in. Should it happen that the beans become tender before the water is sufficiently evaporated, do not drain off the water, but add a little thicker cream, and thicken the whole with a little flour. A little flour stirred in with the cream, even when the water is nearly evaporated, may be preferred by some. Succotash. — Boil one part Lima beans and two parts sweet corn sepa- rately until both are nearly tender. Put them together, and simmer gently till done. Season with salt and sweet cream. Fresh corn and beans may be combined in the same proportions, but as the beans will be likely to require the most time for cooking, they should be put to boil first, and the corn added when the beans are about half done, unless it is exceptionally hard, in which case it must be added sooner. Pulp Succotash. — Score the kernels of some fresh green corn with a sharp knife blade, then with the back of a knife scrape out all the pulp, leaving the hulls on the cob. Boil the pulp in milk ten or fifteen minutes, or until well done. Cook some fresh shelled beans until tender, and rub them through a colander. Put together an equal quantity of the beans LEGUMES. 225 thus prepared and the cooked corn pulp, season with salt and sweet cream, boil together for a few minutes, and serve. Kornlet and dried Lima beans may be made into succotash in a similar manner LENTILS. Description. — Several varieties of the lentil are cultivated for food, but all are nearly alike in composition and nutritive value. They have long been esteemed as an article of diet. That they were in ordinar)' use among the Hebrews is shown by the frequent mention of them in Scripture. It is thought' that the red pottage of Esau was made from the red variety of this legume. The ancient Egyptians believed that a diet of lentils would tend to make their children good tempered, cheerful, and wise, and for this reason constituted it their principal food. A gravy made of lentils is largely used with their rice by the natives of India, at the present day. The meal which lentils yield is of great richness, and gen- erally contains more casein than either beans or peas. The skin, however, is tough and indigestible, and being much smaller than peas, when served without rejecting the skins, they appear to be almost wholly of tough, fibrous material ; hence they are of little value except for soups, purees, toasts, and such other dishes as require the rejection of the skin. Len- tils have a stronger flavor than any of the other legumes, and their taste is not so generally liked until one has become accus- tomed to it. Lentils are prepared and cooked in the same manner as dried peas, though they require somewhat less time for cooking. The large dark variety is better soaked for a time pre- vious to cooking, or parboiled for a half hour and then put into new water, to make them less strong in flavor and less dark in color. IS 226 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. REC/PES. Lentil Pur^e. — Cook the lentils and rub through a colander as for peas puree. Season, and serve in the same manner. Lentils Mashed with Beans. — Lentils may be cooked and prepared in the same manner as directed for mashed peas, but they are less strong in flavor if about one third to one half cooked white beans are used with them. Lentil Grayy with Rice. — Rub a cupful of cooked lentils through a col- ander to remove the skins, add one cup of rich milk, part cream if it can be afforded, and salt if desired. Heat to boiling, and thicken with a tea- spoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Serve hot on nicely steamed or boiled rice, or with well cooked macaroni. TABLE TOPICS. The men who kept alive the flame of learning and piety in the Middle Ages were mainly vegetarians. — Sir William Axon. According to Xenophon, Cyrus, king of Persia, was brought up on a diet of water, bread, and cresses, till his fifteenth year, when honey and raisins were added ; and the family names of the Fabii and Lentuli were derived from their customary diet. Thomson, in his poem, "The Seasons," written one hundred and sixty years ago, pays the following tribute to a diet composed of seeds and vegetable products : — " With such a liberal hand has Nature flung These seeds abroad, blown them about in winds — . . . But who their virtues can declare ? who pierce. With vision pure, into those secret stores Of health and life and joy — the food of man. While yet he lived in innocence and told A length of golden years, unfleshed in blood ? A stranger to the savage arts of life — Death, rapine, carnage, surfeit, and disease — The lord, and not the tyrant of the world." Most assuredly I do believe that body and mind are much influenced by the kind of food habitually depended upon. I can never stray among the village people of our windy capes without now and then coming upon a human being who looks as if he had been split, salted, and dried, like the salt. fish which has built up his arid organism. If the body is modified by the food which nourishes it, the mind and character very certainly will be modified by it also. We know enough of their close connection with each other to be sure of that without any statistical observation to prove it. — Oliver Wendell Holmes. LEGUMES. 227 The thoughts and feelings which the food we partake of provokes, are not re- marked in common life, but they, nevertheless, have their significance. A man who daily sees cows and calves slaughtered, or who kills them himself, hogs " stuck," hens "plucked," etc., cannot possibly retain any true feeling for the sufferings of his own species. . . . Doubtless, the majority of flesh-eaters do not reflect upon the manner in which this food comes to them, but this thoughtlessness, far from being a virtue, is the parent of many vices. . . . How very different are the thoughts and sentiments produced by the non-flesh diet ! — Gustav Von Stnive. 'rH.\T the popular idea that beef is necessary for strength is not a correct one, is well illustrated by Xenophon's description of the outfit of a Spartan soldier, whose dietary consisted of the very plainest and simplest vegetable fare. The complete accoutrements of the Spartan soldier, in what we would call heavy marching order, weighed seventy-five pounds, exclusive of the camp, mining, and bridge-building tools, and the rations of bread and dried fruit which were issued in weekly install- ments, and increased the burden of the infantry soldier to ninety, ninety-five, or even to a full hundred pounds. This load was often carried at the rate of four miles an hour for twelve hours per diem, day after day, and only when in the burning deserts of southern Syria did the commander of the Grecian auxiliaries think prudent to shorten the usual length of the day's march. Diet of Trainers. — The following are a few of the restrictions and rules laid down by experienced trainers : — Little salt. No coarse vegetables. No pork or veal. Two meals a day ; break- fast at eight and dinner at two. No fat meat is allowed, no butter or cheese, pies or pastry. VEGETABLES used for culinary purposes comprise roots and tubers, as potatoes, turnips, etc. ; shoots .]i and stems, as asparagus and sea-kale ; leaves and in- florescence, as spinach and cabbage ; immature seeds, grains, and seed receptacles, as green peas, corn, and string- beans ; and a few of the fruity products, as the tomato and the squash. Of these the tubers rank the highest in nutri- tive value. Vegetables are by no means the most nutritious diet, as water enters largely into their composition ; but food to sup- ply perfectly the needs of the vital economy, must contain water and indigestible as well as nutritive elements. Thus they are dietetically of great value, since they furnish a large quantity of organic fluids. Vegetables are rich in mineral ele- ments, and are also of service in giving bulk to food. An exclusive diet of vegetables, however, would give too great bulk, and at the same time fail to supply the proper amount of food elements. To furnish the requisite amount of nitroge- nous material for one day, if potatoes alone were depended upon as food, a person would need to consume about nine pounds ; of turnips, sixteen pounds ; of parsnips, eighteen [228] VEGETABLES. 229 pounds ; of cabbage, twenty-two pounds. Hence it is wise to use them in combination with other articles of diet — grains, whole-wheat bread, etc. — that supplement the qualities lack- ing in the vegetables. To Select Vegetables. — All roots and tubers should be plump, free from decay, bruises, and disease, and with fresh, unshriveled skins. They are good from the time of maturing until they begin to germinate. Sprouted vegetables are unfit for food. I'otato sprouts contain a poison allied to belladonna. All vegetables beginning to decay are unfit for food. Green vegetables to be wholesome should be freshly gath- ered, crisp, and juicy ; those which have lain long in the market are very questionable food. In Paris, a law forbids a market-man to offer for sale any green vegetable kept more than one day. The use of stale vegetables is known to have been the cause of serious illness. Keeping Vegetables. — If necessary to keep green vege- tables for any length of time, do not put them in water, as that will dissolve and destroy some of their juices ; but lay them in a cool, dark place, — on a stone floor is best, — and do not remove their outer leaves until needed. They should be cooked the day they are gathered, if possible. The best way to freshen those with stems when withered is to cut off a bit of the stem or stem-end, and set only the cut part in water. The vegetables will then absorb enough water to replace what has been lost by evaporation. Peas and beans should not be shelled until wanted. If, however, they are not used as soon as shelled, cover them with pods and put in a cool place. Winter vegetables can be best kept wholesome by storing in a cool, dry place of even temperature, and where neither warmth, moisture, nor light is present to induce decay or ger- mination. They should be well sorted, the bruised or decayed, rejected, and the rest put into clean bins or boxes ; and should be dry and clean when stored. Vegetables soon absorb bad flavors if left near anything odorous or decomposing, and are 230 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. thus rendered unwholesome. They should be looked over often, and decayed ones removed. Vegetables, to be kept fit for food, should on no account be stored in a cellar with barrels of fermenting" pickle brine, soft soap, heaps o\' decomposing rubbish, and other similar things frequently found in the dark, damp vegetable cellars of modern houses. Preparation and Cookinj>-. — Most vegetables need thor- ough washing before cooking. Roots and tubers should be well cleaned before paring. A vegetable brush or a small whisk broom is especially serviceable for this purpose. If necessary to wash shelled beans and peas, it can best be accomplished by putting them in a colander and dipping in and out of large pans of water until clean. Spinach, lettuce, and other leaves may be cleaned in the same way. Vegetables admit of much variety- in preparation for the table, and are commonly held to require the least culinary skill of any article of diet. This is a mistake. Though the usual processes employed to make vegetables palatable are simple, )et man)- cooks, from carelessness or lack of knowl- edge of their nature and composition, convert some of the most nutritious vegetables into dishes almost worthless as food or almost impossible of digestion. It requires no little care and skill to cook vegetables so that they will neither be under-done nor over-done, and so that the}' will retain their natural flavors. A general rule, applicable to all \egetablcs to be boiled or stewed, is to cook them in as little water as ma)' be without burning. The salts and nutrient juices are largelv' lost in the water ; and if this needs to be drained oft', much of the nutriment is apt to be wasted. IManv cooks throw away the true rich- ness, while they serve the "husks'" only. Condiments and seasonings ma)' cover insipid taste, but the)- cannot restore lost elements. Vegetables contain so much water in their composition that it is not necessary to add large quantities for cooking, as in the case of the grains and legumes, which have lost nearly all their moisture in the ripening process. Some VEGETABLES. i^t vegetables are much better cooked without the addition of water. Vegetables to be cooked by boiling should be put into boiling water ; and since water loses its goodness by boiling, vegetables should be put in as soon as the boiling begins. The process of cooking should be continuous, and in general gentle heat is best. Remember that when water is boiling, the tem- perature is not increased by violent bubbling. Keep the cooking utensil closely covered. If water is added, let it also be boiling hot. Vegetables not of uniform size should be so assorted that those of the same size may be cooked together, or large ones may be divided. Green vegetables retain their color best if cooked rapidly. Soda is sometimes added to the water in which the vegetables are cooked, for the purpose of preserving their colors, but this practice is very harmful. Vegetables should be cooked until they are perfectly tender but not overdone. Many cooks spoil their vegetables by cooking them too long, while quite as many more serve them in an underdone state to preserve their form. Either plan makes them less palatable, and likely to be indigestible. Steaming or baking is preferable for most vegetables, be- cause their finer flavors are more easily retained, and their food value suffers less diminution. Particularly is this true of tubers. The time required for cooking depends much upon the age and freshness of the vegetables, as well as the method of cook- ing employed. Wilted vegetables require a longer time for cooking than fresh ones. Time Required for Cooking. — The following is the ap- proximate length of time required for cooking some of the more com.monly used vegetables : — Potatoes, baked, 30 to 45 minutes. Potatoes, steamed, 20 to 40 minutes. Potatoes, boiled (in jackets), 20 to 25 minutes after the water is fairly boil- ing. Potatoes, pared, about 20 minutes, if of medium size ; if very large, they will require from 25 to 45 minutes. Green corn, young, from 15 to 20 minutes. Peas, 25 to 30 minutes. 232 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Asparagus, 15 to 20 minutes, young ; 30 to 50 if old. Tomatoes, I to 2 hours. String beans and shelled beans, 45 to 60 minutes or longer. Beets, boiled, I hour if young ; old, 3 to 5 hours. Beets, baked, 3 to 6 hours. Carrots, I to 2 hours. Parsnips, 45 minutes, young ; old, i to 2 hours. Turnips, young, 45 minutes; old, lyi to 2 hours. Winter squash, i hour. Cabbage, young, i hour ; old, 2 to 3 hours. Vegetable oysters, i to 2 hours. Celery, 20 to 30 minutes. Spinach, 20 to 60 minutes or more. Cauliflower, 20 to 40 minutes. Summer squash, 20 to 60 minutes. If vegetables after being cooked cannot be served at once, dish them up as soon as done, and place the dishes in a bain Diarie or in pans of hot water, where they will keep of even temperature, but not boil. Vegetables are never so good after Bain Marie. standing, but they spoil less kept in this way than any other. The water in the pans should be of equal depth with the food in the dishes. Stewed vegetables and others prepared with a sauce, may, when cold, be reheated in a similar manner. If salt is to be used to season, one third of a teaspoonful for each pint of cooked vegetables is an ample quantity. VEGETABLES. 233 THE IRISH POTATO. Description. — The potato, a plant of the order Solanaccce, is supposed to be indigenous to South America. Probably it was introduced into Europe by the Spaniards early in the six- teenth century, but cultivated only as a curiosity. To Sir Walter Raleigh, however, is usually given the credit of its introduction as a food, he having imported it from Virginia to Ireland in 1 586, where its valuable nutritive qualities were first appreciated. The potato has so long constituted the staple article of diet in Ireland, that it has come to be commonly, though incorrectly, known as the Irish potato. The edible portion of the plant is the tuber, a thick, fleshy mass or enlarged portion of an underground stem, having upon its surface a number of little buds, or "eyes," each capable of independent growth. The tuber is made up of little cells filled with starch granules, surrounded and permeated with a watery fluid containing a small percentage of the albuminous or ni- trogenous elements. In cooking, heat coagulates the albumen within and between the cells, while the starch granules absorb the watery portion, swell, and distend the cells. The cohesion between these is also destroyed, and they easily separate. When these changes are complete, the potato becomes a loose, farinaceous mass, or " mealy." When, however, the liquid por- tion is not wholly absorbed, and the cells are but imperfectly separated, the potato appears waxen, watery, or soggy. In a mealy state the potato is easily digested ; but when waxy or water-soaked, it is exceedingly trying to the digestive powers. It is obvious, then, that the great dcsideratiun in cooking the potato, is to promote the expansion and separation of its cells ; in other words, to render it mealy. Young potatoes are al- ways waxy, and consequently less wholesome than ripe ones. Potatoes which have been frozen and allowed to thaw quickly are much sweeter and more watery, because in thawing the starch changes into sugar. Frozen potatoes should be thawed in cold water and cooked at once, or kept frozen until ready for use. 234 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Preparation and Cooking. — Always pare potatoes very thin. Much of the most nutritious part of the tuber lies next its outer covering ; so care should be taken to waste as little as possible. Potatoes cooked with the skins on are undoubt- edly better than those pared. The chief mineral element con- tained in the potato is potash, an important constituent of the blood. Potash salts are freely soluble in water, and when the skin is removed, there is nothing to prevent these salts from escaping into the water in which the potato is boiled. If the potato is cooked in its "jacket," the skin, which does not in general burst open until the potato is nearly done, serves to keep this valuable element largely inside the potato while cooking. For the same reason it is better not to pare potatoes and put them in water to soak over night, as many cooks are in the habit of doing, to have them in readiness for cooking for breakfast. Potatoes to be pared should be first washed and dried. It is a good plan to wash quite a quantity at one time, to be used as needed. After paring, drop at once into cold water and rinse them thoroughly. It is a careless habit to allow pared potatoes to fall among the skins, as in this way they become stained, and appear black and discolored after cooking. Scrubbing with a vegetable brush is by far the best means for cleaning potatoes to be cooked with the skins on. When boiled in their skins, the waste, according to Leth- eby, is about three per cent, while without them it is not less than fourteen per cent, or more than two ounces in every pound. Potatoes boiled without skins should be cooked very gently. Steaming, roasting, and baking are much better methods for cooking potatoes than boiling, for reasons already given. Very old potatoes are best stewed or mashed. When with- ered or wilted, they are freshened by standing in cold water for an hour or so before cooking. If diseased or badly sprouted, potatoes are wholly unfit for food. VEGETABLES. 235 RECIPES. Boiled Potatoes (in Jackets). — Choose potatoes of uniform size, free from specks. Wash a id scrub them well with a coarse cloth or brush ; dig out all eyes and rinse in cold water ; cook in just enough water to prevent burning, till easily pierced with a fork, not till they have burst the skin and fallen in pieces. Drain thoroughly, take out the potatoes, and place them in the oven for five minutes, or place the kettle back on the range ; remove the skins, and cover with a cloth to absorb all moisture, and let them steam three or four minutes. By either method they will be dry and mealy. In removing the skins, draw them off without cutting the potatoes. Boiled Potatoes (without Skins). — Pare very thin, and wash clean. If not of an equal size, cut the larger potatoes in two. Cook in only suf- ficient water to prevent burning until a fork will easily pierce their center ; drain thoroughly, place the kettle back on the range, cover with a cloth to absorb the moisture, and let them dry four or five minutes. Shake the kettle several times while they are drying, to make them floury. Steamed Potatoes. — Potatoes may be steamed either with or without the skin. Only mature potatoes can be steamed. Prepare as for boiling ; place in a steamer, over boiling water, and steam until tender. If water is needed to replenish, let it always be boiling hot, and not allow the potatoes to stop steaming, or they will be watery. When done, uncover, remove the potatoes to the oven, and let them dry a few minuter. If peeled before steaming, shake the steamer occasionally, to make them floury. Roasted Potatoes. — Potatoes are much more rich and mealy roasted than cooked in any other way. Wash them very carefully, dry with a cloth, and wrap in tissue paper ; bury in ashes not too hot, then cover with coals and roast until tender. The coals will need renewing occasion- ally, unless the roasting is done very close to the main fire. Baked Potatoes. — Choose large, smooth potatoes as near the same size as possible ; wash and scrub with a brush until perfectly clean ; dry with a cloth, and bake in a moderately hot oven until a fork will easily pierce them, or until they yield to pressure between the fingers. They are better turned about occasionally. In a slow oven the skins become hardened and thickened, and much of the most nutritious portion is wasted. When done, press each one till it bursts slightly, as that will allow the steam to escape, and prevent the potatoes from becoming ^oggy- They should be served at once, in a folded napkin placed in a hot dish. Cold baked potatoes may be warmed over by rebaking, if of good quality and not overdone the first time. 236 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Stuffed Potato. — Prepare and bake large potatoes of equal size, as directed in the preceding recipe. When done, cut them evenly three fourths of an inch from the end, and scrape out the inside, taking care not to break the skins. Season the potato with salt and a little thick sweet cream, being careful not to have it too moist, and beat thoroughly with a fork until light ; refill the skins with the seasoned potato, fit the broken portions together, and reheat in the oven. When hot throughout, wrap the potatoes in squares of white tissue paper fringed at both ends. Twist the ends of the paper lightly together above the fringe, and stand the potatoes in a vegetable dish with the cut end uppermost. When served, the potatoes are held in the hand, one end of the paper untwisted, the top of the potato removed, and the contents eaten with a fork or spoon. Stuffed Potatoes No. 2. — Prepare large, smooth potatoes, bake until ten- der, and cut them in halves ; scrape out the inside carefully, so as not to break the skins ; mash smoothly, mix thoroughly with one third freshly prepared cottage cheese ; season with nice sweet cream, and salt if de- sired. Fill the shells with the mixture, place cut side uppermost, in a pudding dish, and brown in the oven. Mashed Potatoes. — Peel and slice potatoes enough to make two quarts ; put into boiling water and cook until perfectly tender, but not much broken; drain, add salt to taste; turn into a hot earthen dish, and set in the oven for a few moments to dry. Break up the potatoes with a silver fork ; add nearly a cup of cream, and beat hard at least five minutes till light and creamy ; serve at once, or they will become heavy. If preferred, the potatoes may be rubbed through a hot sieve into a hot plate, or mashed with a potato beetle, but they are less light and flaky when mashed with a beetle. If cream for seasoning is not obtainable, a well-beaten egg makes a very good substitute. Use in the proportion of one egg to about five potatoes. For mashed potatoes, if all utensils and ingredients are first heated, the result will be much better. New Potatoes. — When potatoes are young and freshly gathered, the skins are easiest removed by taking each one in a coarse cloth and rub- bing it ; a little coarse salt used in the cloth will be found serviceable for this purpose. If almost ripe, scrape with a blunt knife, wash very clean, and rinse in cold water. Boiling is the best method of cooking; new potatoes are not good steamed. Use only sufficient water to cover, and boil till tender. Drain thoroughly, cover closely with a clean cloth, and dry before serving. Cracked Potatoes. — Prepare and boil new potatoes as in the preceding recipe, and when ready to serve- crack each by pressing lightly upon it with the back of a spoon, lay them in a hot dish, salt to taste, and pour over them a cup of hot thin cream or rich milk. VEGETABLES 237 Creamed Potatoes. — Take rather small, new potatoes and wash well; rub off all the skins ; cut in halves, or if quite large, quarter them. Put a pint of divided potatoes into a broad-bottomed, shallow saucepan ; pour over them a cup of thin sweet cream, add salt if desired ; heat just to the boiling point, then allow them to simmer gently till perfectly tender, tossing them occasionally in the stewpan to prevent their burning on the bottom. Serve hot. Scalloped Potatoes. — Pare the potatoes and slice thin ; put them in layers in an earthen pudding dish, dredge each layer lightly with Hour, add salt, and pour over all enough good, rich milk to cover well. Cover, and bake rather slowly till tender, removing the cover just long enough before the potatoes are done, to brown nicely. If preferred, a little less milk may be used, and a cup of thin cream added when the potatoes are nearly done. Stewed Potato. — Pare the potatoes and slice rather thin. Put into boiling water, and cook until nearly tender, but not broken. Have some rich milk boiling in the inner dish of a double boiler, add to it a little salt, then stir in for each pint of milk a heaping teaspoonful of corn starch or rice flour, rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Stir until it thickens. Drain the potatoes, turn them into the hot sauce, put the dish in the outer boiler, and cook for a half hour or longer. Cold boiled potatoes may be sliced and used in the same way. Cold baked potatoes sliced and stewed thus for an hour or more, make a particularly appetizing dish. Potatoes Stewed with Celery. — Pare and slice the potatoes, and put them into a stewpan with two or three tablespoonfuls of minced celery. Use only the white part of the celery and mince it finely. Cover the whole with milk sufficient to cook and prevent burning, and stew until tender. Season with cream and salt. Potato Snowballs. — Cut large potatoes into quarters ; if small, leave them undivided ; boil in just enough water to cover. When tender, drain and dry in the usual way. Take up two or three pieces at a time in a strong, clean cloth, and press them compactly together in the shape of balls. Serve in a folded napkin on a hot dish. Potato Calces. — Make nicely seasoned, cold mashed potato into small round cakes about one half an inch thick. Put them on a baking tin, brush them over with sweet cream, and bake in a hot oven till golden brown. Potato Cakes with Egg-. — Bake nice potatoes till perfectly tender ; peel, mash thoroughly, and to each pint allow the yolks of two eggs which have been boiled until mealy, then rubbed perfectly smooth through a fine wire sieve, and one half cup of rich milk. Add salt to taste, mix all well together, form the potato into small cakes, place them on oiled tins, and brown ten or fifteen minutes in the oven. 238 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Potato Puff. — Mix a pint of mashed potato (cold is just as good if free from lumps) with a half cup of cream and the well-beaten yolk of an egg ; salt to taste and beat till smooth ; lastly, stir in the white of the egg beaten to a stiff froth. Pile up in a rocky form on a bright tin dish, and bake in a quick oven until heated throughout and lightly browned. Serve at once. Browned Potatoes. — Slice cold potatoes evenly, place them on an oiled tin, and brown in a very quick oven ; or slice lengthwise and lay on a wire broiler or bread-toaster, and brown over hot coals. Sprinkle with a little salt if desired, and serve hot with sweet cream as dressing. Ornamental Potatoes. — No vegetable can be made palatable in so many ways as the potato, and few can be arranged in such pretty shapes. Mashed potatoes made moist with cream, can easily be made into cones, pyramids, or mounds. Cold mashed potatoes may be cut into many fancy shapes with a cookie-cutter, wet with a little cold water, and browned in the oven. Mounds of potatoes are very pretty smoothed and strewn with well- cooked vermicelli broken into small bits, and then lightly browned in the oven. Scoring the top of a dish of mashed potato deeply in triangles, stars, and crosses, with the back of a carving knife, and then browning lightly, gives a very pretty effect. Broiled Potato. — Mashed potatoes, if packed firmly while warm into a sheet-iron bread tin which has been dipped in cold water, may be cut into slices when cold, brushed with cream, and browned on a broiler over hot coals. Warmed-over Potatoes. — Cut cold boiled potatoes into very thin slices ; heat a little cream to boiling in a saucepan ; add the potato, season lightly with salt if desired, and cook until the cream is absorbed, stirring occa- sionally so as to prevent scorching or breaking the slices. Vegetable Hash. — With one quart finely sliced potato, chop one car- rot, one red beet, one white turnip, all boiled, also one or two stalks of celery. Put all together in a stewpan, cover closely, and set in the oven ; when hot, pour over them a cup of boiling cream, stir well together, and serve hot. THE SWEET POTATO. Description. — The sweet potato is a native of the Malayan Archipelago, where it formerly grew wild ; thence it was taken to Spain, and from Spain to England and other parts of the globe. It was largely used in Europe as a delicacy on the VEGETABLES. 239 tables of the rich before the introduction of the common potato, which has now taken its place and likewise its name. The sweet potato is the article referred to as potato by Shake- speare and other English writers, previous to the middle of the seventeenth century. Preparation and Cooking. — What has been said in ref- erence to the common potato, is generally applicable to the sweet potato ; it may be prepared and cooked in nearly all the ways of the Irish potato. In selecting- sweet potatoes, choose firm, plump roots, free from any sprouts ; if sprouted they will have a poor flavor, and are likely to be watery. The sweet potato is best cooked with the skin on ; but all discolored portions and the dry portion at each end, together with all branchlets, should be carefully removed, and the potato well washed, and if to be baked or roasted, well dried with a cloth before placing in the oven. The average time required for boiling is about fifty minutes ; baking, one hour ; steaming, about one hour ; roasting, one and one half hours. REC/PES. Baked Sweet Potatoes. — Select those of uniform size, wash clean, cut- ting out any imperfect spots, wipe dry, put into a moderately hot oven, and bake about one hour, or until the largest will yield to gentle pressure be- tween the fingers. Serve at once without peeling. Small potatoes are best steamed, since if baked, the skins will take up nearly the whole potato. Baked Sweet Potato No. 2. — Select potatoes of medium size, wash and trim but do not pare, and put on the upper grate of the oven. For a peck of potatoes, put in the lower part of the oven in a large shallow pan a half pint of hot water. The water may be turned directly upon the oven bot- tom if preferred. Bake slowly, turning once when half done. Serve in their skins, or peel, slice, and return to the oven until nicely browned. Boiled Sweet Potatoes. — Choose potatoes of equal size ; do not pare, but after cleaning them well and removing any imperfect spots, put into cold water and boil until they can be easily pierced with a fork ; drain thoroughly, and lay them on the top grate in the oven to dry for five or ten minutes. Peel as soon as dry, and send at once to the table, in a hot dish covered with a folded napkin. Sweet potatoes are much better baked than boiled. 240 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Steamed Sweet Potatoes. — Wash the potatoes well, cut out any dis- colored portions, and steam over a kettle of boiling water until they can be easily pierced with a fork, not allowing the water in the pot to cease boiling for a moment. Steam only sufficient to cook them, else they will be watery. Browned Sweet Potatoes. — Slice cold, cooked sweet potatoes evenly, place on slightly oiled tins in a hot oven, and brown. Mashed Sweet Potatoes. — Either bake or steam nice sweet potatoes, and when tender, peel, mash them well, and season with cream and salt to taste. They may be served at once, or made into patties and browned in the oven. Potato Hash. — Take equal parts of cold Irish and sweet potatoes ; chop fine and mix thoroughly ; season with salt if desired, and add sufficient thin cream to moisten well. Turn into a stewpan, and heat gently until boiling, tossing continually, that all parts become heated alike, and serve at once. Roasted Sweet Potatoes. — Wash clean and wipe dry, potatoes of uni- form size, wrap with tissue paper, cover with hot ashes, and then with coals from a hardwood fire ; unless near the main fire, the coals will need renewing a few times. This will require a longer time than by any other method, but they are much nicer. The slow, continuous heat promotes their mealiness. When tender, brush the ashes off with a broom, and wipe with a dry cloth. Send to the table in their jackets. To Dry Sweet Potatoes. — Carefully clean and drop them into boiling water. Let them remain until the skins can be easily slipped off ; then cut into slices and spread on racks to dry. To prepare for cooking, soak over night, and boil the next day. TURNIPS. Description. — The turnip belongs to the order Cruciferce, signifying " cross flowers," so called because their four petals are arranged in the form of a cross. It is a native of Europe and the temperate portions of Asia, growing wild in borders of fields and waste places. The ancient Roman gastronomists considered the turnip, when prepared in the following manner, a dish fit for epicures : " After boiling, extract the water from them, and season with cummin, rue, or benzoin, pounded in a mortar ; afterward add honey, vinegar, gravy, and boiled grapes. Allow the whole to simmer, and serve." VEGETABLES. 24 1 Under cultivation, the turnip forms an agreeable culinary esculent ; but on account of the large proportion of water entering into its composition, its nutritive value is exceedingly low. The Swedish, or Rutabaga, variety is rather more nutri- tive than the white, but its stronger flavor renders it less palatable. Unlike the potato, the turnip contains no starch, but instead, a gelatinous substance called pectose, which dur- ing the boiling process is changed into a vegetable jelly called pectine. The white lining just inside the skin is usually bitter ; hence the tuber should be peeled sufficiently deep to remove it. When well cooked, turnips are quite easily digested. Preparation and Cooking. — Turnips are good for culi- nary purposes only from the time of their ripening till they begin to sprout. The process of germination changes their proximate elements, and renders them less fit for food. Select turnips which are plump and free from disease. A turnip that is wilted, or that appears spongy, pithy, or cork-like when cut, is not fit for food. Prepare turnips for cooking by thoroughly washing and scraping, if young and tender, or by paring if more mature. If small, they may be cooked whole ; if large, they should be cut across the grain into slices a half inch in thickness. If cooked whole, care must be taken to select those of uniform size ; and if sliced, the slices must be of equal thickness. REC/PES. Boiled Turoips. — Turnips, like other vegetables, should be boiled in as small an amount of water as possible. Great care must be taken, however, that the kettle does not get dry, as scorched turnip is spoiled. An excellent precaution, in order to keep them from scorching in case the water becomes low, is to place an inverted saucer or sauce-dish in the bottom of the kettle before putting in the turnips. Put into boiling water, cook rapidly until sufficiently tender to pierce easily with a fork ; too much cooking discolors and renders them strong in flavor. Boiled turnips should be drained very thoroughly, and all water pressed out before pre- paring for the table. The age, size, and variety of the turnip will greatly vary the time necessary for its cooking. The safest rule is to allow plenty cf time, and test with a fork. Young turnips will cook in about forty-five 242 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. minutes ; old turnips, sliced, require from one and a quarter to two hours. If whole or cut in halves, they require a proportionate length of time. White turnips require much less cooking than yellow ones. Baked Turnips. — Select turnips of viniform size; wash and wipe, but do not pare ; place on the top grate of a moderately hot oven ; bake two or more hours or until perfectly tender ; peel and serve at once, either mashed or with cream sauce. Turnips are much sweeter baked than when cooked in any other way. Creamed Turnips. — Pare, but do not cut, youug sweet white turnips ; boil till tender in a small quantity of water ; drain and dry well. Cook a tablespoonful of flour in a pint of rich milk or part cream ; arrange the turnips in a baking dish, pour the sauce over them, add salt if desired, sprinkle the top with grated bread crumbs, and brown in a quick oven. Chopped Turnips. — Chop well-boiled white turnips very fine, add salt to taste and sufficient lemon juice to moisten. Turn into a saucepan and heat till hot, gently lifting and stirring constantly. Cold boiled turnip may be used advantageously in this way. Mashed Turnips. — Wash the turnips, pare, and drop into boiling water. Cook until perfectly tender ; turn into a colander and press out the water with a plate or large spoon ; mash until free from lumps, season with a little sweet cream, and salt if desired. If the turnips are especially wa- tery, one or two hot, mealy potatoes mashed with them will be an improve- ment. Scalloped Turnips. — Prepare and boil whole white turnips until nearly tender ; cut into thin slices, lay in an earthen pudding dish, pour over them a white sauce sufficient to cover, made by cooking a tablespoonful of flour in a pint of milk, part cream if preferred, until thickened. Season with salt, sprinkle the top lightly with grated bread crumbs, and bake in a quick oven until a rich brown. Place the baking dish on a clean plate, and serve. Rich milk or cream may be used instead of white sauce, if preferred. Steamed Turnips. — Select turnips of uniform size, wash, pare, and steam rapidly till they can be easily pierced with a fork ; mash, or serve with lemon juice or cream sauce, as desired. Stewed Turnips.— Prepare and slice some young, fresh white turnips, boil or steam about twenty minutes, drain thoroughly, turn into a sauce- pan with a cup of new milk for each quart of turnips ; simmer gently until tender, season with salt if desired, and serve. TuruijKS in Juice. — Wash young white turnips, peel, and boil whole in sufficient water to keep them from burning. Cover closely and cook gently until tender, by which time the water in the kettle should be re- duced to. the consistency of syrup. Serve at once. • VEGETABLES. 243 Turnips with Cream Sauce. — Wash and pare the turnips, cut them into half-inch dice, and cook in boiling water until tender. Meanwhile prepai-e a cream sauce as directed for Scalloped Turnips, using thin cream in place of milk. Drain the turnips, pour the cream sauce over them, let them boil up once, and serve. PARSNIPS. Description. — The common garden parsnip is derived by cultivation from the wild parsnip, indigenous to many parts of Europe and the north of Asia, and cultivated since Roman times. It is not only used for culinary purposes, but a wine is made from it. In the north of Ireland a table beer is brewed from its fermented product and hops. The percentage of nutritive elements contained in the pars- nip is very small ; so small, indeed, that one pound of parsnips affords hardly one fifth of an ounce of nitrogenous or muscle- forming material. The time required for its digestion, varies from two and one half to three and one half hours. Preparation and Cooking. — Wash and trim off any rough portions : scrape well with a knife to remove the skins, and drop at once into cold water to prevent discoloration. If the parsnips are smooth-skinned, fresh, and too small to need dividing, they need only be washed thoroughly before cooking, as the skins can be easily removed by rubbing with a clean towel. Reject those that are wilted, pithy, coarse, or stringy. Large parsnips should be divided, for if cooked whole, the outside is likely to become soft before the center is tender. They may be either split lengthwise or sliced. Parsnips may be boiled, baked, or steamed ; but like all other vegetables containing a large percentage of water, are preferable steamed or baked. The time required for cooking young parsnips, is about forty-five minutes ; when old, they require from one to two hours. 244 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. RECIPES. Baked Parsnips. — Wash thoroughly, but do not scrape the roots; bake the same as potatoes. When tender, remove the skins, shce, and serve with cream or an egg sauce prepared as directed for Parsnips with Egg Sauce. They are also very nice mashed and seasoned with cream. Baked and steamed parsnips are far sweeter than boiled ones. Baked Parsnips No. 2. — W^ash, scrape, and divide; drop into boiling water, a little more than sufficient to cook them, and boil gently till thoroughly tender. There should remain about one half pint of the liquor when the parsnips are done. Arrange on an earthen plate or shallow pudding dish, not more than one layer deep ; cover with the juice, and bake, basting frequently until the juige is all absorbed, and the parsnips delicately browned. Serve at once. Boiled Parsnips. — Clean, scrape, drop into a small quantity of boiling water, and cook until they can be easily pierced with a fork. Drain thoroughly, cut the parsnips in slices, and mash or serve with a white sauce, to which a little lemon juice may be added if desired. Browned Parsnips. — Slice cold parsnips into rather thick pieces, and brown as directed for browned potatoes. Creamed Parsnips. — Bake or steam the parsnips until tender; slice, add salt if desired, and a cup of thin sweet cream. Let them stew slowly until nearly dry, or if preferred, just boil up once and serve. Mashed Parsnips. — Wash and scrape, dropping at once into cold water to prevent discoloration. Slice thinly and steam, or bake whole until perfectly tender. When done, mash until free from lumps, remov- ing all hard or stringy portions ; add salt to taste and a few spoonfuls of thick sweet cream, and serve. Parsnips mtli Cream Sance. — Bake as previously directed. When ten- der, slice, cut into cubes, and pour over them a cream sauce prepared as for Turnips with Cream Sauce. Boil up together once, and serve. Parsnips witli Egg Sauce. — Scrape, wash, and slice thinly, enough pars- nips to make three pints ; steam, bake, or boil them until very tender. If boiled, turn into a colander and drain well. Have ready an egg sauce, for preparing which heat a pint of rich milk or very thin cream to boiling, stir into it a level tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth with a little milk. Let this boil a few minutes, stirring constantly until the flour is well cooked and the sauce thickened ; then add slowly the well-beaten yolk of one egg, stirring rapidly so that it shall be well mingled with the whole ; add salt to taste ; let it boil up once, pour over the parsnips, and serve. The sauce should be of the consistency of thick cream, VEGETABLES. 245 Parsnips with Potatoes. — Wash, scrape, and slice enough parsnips to make two and a half quarts. Pare and slice enough potatoes to make one pint. Cook together in a small quantity of water. When tender, mash smoothly, add salt, the yolks of two eggs well beaten, and a cup of rich milk. Beat well together, put into an earthen or china dish, and brown lightly in the oven. Stewed Parsnips. — Prepare and boil for a half hour ; drain, cover with rich milk, add salt if desired, and stew gently till tender. Stewed Parsnips witli Celery. — Prepare and steam or boil some nice ones until about half done. If boiled, drain thoroughly ; add salt if de- sired, and a tablespoonful of minced celery. Turn rich boiling milk over them, cover, and stew fifteen or twenty minutes, or till perfectly tender. CARROTS. Description. — The garden carrot is a cultivated variety of a plant belonging to the Uinbclliferce, and grows wild in many portions of Europe. The root has long been used for food. By the ancient Greeks and Romans it was much esteemed as a salad. The carrot is said to have been introduced into En- gland by Flemish refugees during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Its feathery leaves were used by the ladies as an adornment for their headdresses, in place of plumes. Carrots contain sugar enough for making a syrup from them ; they also )neld by fermentation and distillation a spirituous liquor. In Germany they are sometimes cut into small pieces, and roasted as a substitute for coffee. Starch does not enter into the composition of carrots, but a small portion of pectose is found instead. Carrots contain more water than parsnips, and both much cellulose and little nutritive material. Carrots when well cooked form a whole- some food, but one not adapted to weak stomachs, as they are rather hard to digest, and tend to flatulence. Preparation and Cooking. — The suggestions given for the preparation of parsnips are also applicable to carrots ; and they may be boiled, steamed, or browned in the same manner. From one to two hours' time will be required, according to age, size, variety, and method of cooking. 246 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. RECIPES. Boiled Carrots. — Clean, scrape, drop into boiling water, and cook till tender ; drain thoroughly, slice, and serve with a cream sauce. Varieties with strong flavor are better parboiled for fifteen or twenty minutes, and put into fresh boiling water to finish. Carrots with Eg-g' Sauce. — Wash and scrape well ; slice and throw into boiling water, or else steam. When tender, drain thoroughly, and pour over them a sauce prepared the same as for parsnips (page 244), with the addition of a tablespoonful of sugar. Let them boil up once, and serve. Stewed Carrots. — Prepare young and tender carrots, drop into boil- ing water, and cook for fifteen or twenty minutes. Drain, slice, and put into a stewpan with rich milk or cream nearly to cover ; simmer gently until tender ; season with salt and a little chopped parsley. BEETS. Description. — The beet is a native of the coasts of the Mediterranean, and is said to owe its botanical name, beta, to a fancied resemblance to the Greek letter B. Two varieties are in common use as food, the white and the red beet ; while a sub-variety, the sugar beet, is largely cultivated in France, in connection with the beet-sugar industry in that country. The same industry has recently been introduced into this country. It is grown extensively in Germany and Russia, for the same pose, and is also used there in the manufacture of alcohol. The beet root is characterized by its unusual amount of su- gar. It is considered more nutritive than any other esculent tuber except the potato, but the time required for its digestion exceeds that of most vegetables, being three and three fourths hours. Preparation and Cooking. — Beets, like other tubers, should be fresh, unshriveled, and healthy. Wash carefully, scrubbing with a soft brush to remove all particles of dirt ; but avoid scraping, cutting, or breaking, lest the sweet juices escape. In handling for storage, be careful not to bruise or break the skins ; and in purchasing from the market, select only such as are perfect. VEGETABLES. 247 Beets may be boiled, baked, or steamed. In boiling, if the skin is cut or broken, the juice will escape in the water, and the flavor will be injured ; for this reason, beets should not be punctured with a fork to find if done. When tender, the thickest part will yield readily to pressure of the fingers. Beets should be boiled in just as little water as possible, and they will be much better if it has all evaporated by the time they are cooked. Young beets will boil in one hour, while old beets require from three to five hours ; if tough, wilted, and stringy, they cannot be boiled tender. Baked beets require from three to six hours. REC/PES. Baked Beets. — Beets are far better baked than boiled, though it takes a longer time to cook properly. French cooks bake them slowly six hours in a covered dish, the bottom of which is lined with well-moistened rye straw ; however, they may be baked on the oven grate, like potatoes. Wipe dry after washing, and bake slowly. They are very nice served with a sauce made with equal quantities of lemon juice and whipped cream, with a little salt. Bakert Beets No. 2. — Wash young and tender beets, and place in an earthen baking dish with a very little water ; as it evaporates, add more, which must be of boiling temperature. Set into a moderate oven, and according to size of the beets, bake slowly from two to three hours. When tender, remove the skins and dress with lemon juice or cream sauce. Beets and Potatoes. — Boil newly matured potatoes and young beets separately till tender ; then peel and slice. Put them in alternate layers in a vegetable dish, with salt to taste, and enough sweet cream nearly to cover. Brown in the oven, and serve at once. Beet Hash. — Chop quite finely an equal quantity of cold boiled or baked beets and boiled or baked potatoes. Put into a shallow saucepan, add salt and sufficient hot cream to moisten. Toss frequently, and cook until well heated throughout. Serve hot. Beet Greens. — Take young, tender beets, clean thoroughly without separating the tops and roots. Examine the leaves carefully, and pick off inferior ones. Put into boiling water, and cook for nearly an hour. Drain, press out all water, and chop quite fine. Serve with a dressing of lemon juice or cream, as preferred. 248 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Beet Salad, or Chopped Beets. — Cold boiled or baked beets, chopped quite fine, but not minced, make a nice salad when served with a dressing of lemon juice and whipped cream in the proportion of three tablespoon- fuls of lemon juice to one half cup of whipped cream, and salt if desired. Beet Salad No. 2. — Chop equal parts of boiled beets and fresh young cabbage. Mix thoroughly, add salt to taste, a few tablespoonfuls of sugar, and cover with diluted lemon juice. Equal quantities of cold boiled beets and cold boiled potatoes, chopped fine, thoroughly mixed, and served with a dressing of lemon juice and whipped cream, make a palatable salad. Care should be taken in the preparation of these and the preceding salad, not to chop the vegetables so fine as to admit of their being eaten without mastication. Boiled Beets. — Wash carefully, drop into boiling water, and cook until tender. When done, drop into cold water for a minute, when the skins can be easily rubbed off with the hand. Slice, and serve hot with lemon juice or with a cream sauce. Stewed Beets. — Bake beets according to recipe No. 2. Peel, cut in slices, turn into a saucepan, nearly cover with thin cream, simmer for ten or fifteen minutes, add salt if desired, and thicken the gravy with a little corn starch or flour. CABBAGE. Description. — The common white garden cabbage is one of the oldest of cultivated vegetables. A variety of the plant known as red cabbage was the delight of ancient gormands more than eighteen centuries ago. The Egyptians adored it, erected altars to it, and made it the first dish at their repasts. In this they were imitated by the Greeks and Romans. Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, considered the cab- bage one of the most valuable of remedies, and often prescribed a dish of boiled cabbage to be eaten with salt for patients suffering with violent colic. Erasistratus looked upon it as a sovereign remedy against paralysis, while Cato in his writings affirmed it to be a panacea for all diseases, and believed the use the Romans made of it to have been the means whereby they were able, during six hundred years, to do without the assistance of physicians, whom they had expelled from their territory. The learned philosopher, Pythagoras, composed books in which he lauded its wonderful virtues. VEGETABLES. 249 The Germans are so fond of cabbage that it enters into the composition of a majority of their culinary products. The cab- bage was first raised in England about 1640, by Sir Anthony Ashley. That this epoch, important to the English horticult- ural and culinary world, may never be forgotten, a cabbage is represented upon Sir Anthony's monument. The nutritive value of the cabbag^ is not high, nearly ninety per cent being water ; but it forms an agreeable variety in the list of vegetable foods, and is said to possess marked antiscorbutic virtue. It is, however, difficult of digestion, and therefore not suited to weak stomachs. It would be impossible to sustain life for a lengthened period upon cabbage, since to supply the body with sufficient food elements, the quantity would exceed the rate of digestion and the capacity of the stomach. M. Chevreul, a French scientist, has ascertained that the peculiar odor given off during the boiling of cabbage is due to the disengagement of sulphureted hydrogen. Cabbage is said to be more easily digested raw than cooked. Preparation and Cooking. — A good cabbage should have a well-developed, firm head, with fresh, crisp leaves, free from worm-holes and decayed portions. To prepare for cooking, remove the outer leaves, divide into quarters, cut off the tough stalk, shake well to free from dirt, and if there are any signs of insects, lay in cold salted water for an hour or so to drive them out. Rinse away the salt water, and if to be boiled, drop into a small quantity of boiling water. Cover closely and boil vigorously until tender. If cooked slowly, it will be watery and stringy, while over-done cabbage is especially insipid and flavorless. If too . much water has been used, remove the cover, that evaporation may go on more rapidly ; if too little, replenish with boiling water. Cabbage should be cooked in a porcelain-lined or granite-ware sauce pan or a very clean iron kettle. Cabbage may also be steamed, but care must be taken to have the process as rapid as possible. Fresh young cabbage will cook in about one hour ; old cabbage requires from two to three hours. 250 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. RECIPES. Baked Cabbag-e. — Prepare and chop a firm head of young white cab- bage, boil until tender, drain, and set aside until nearly cold. Then add two well-beaten eggs, salt to taste, and a half cup of thin cream or rich milk. Mix and bake in a pudding dish until lightly browned. Boiled Cabbag'e. — Carefully clean a nice head of cabbage, divide into halves, and with a sharp knife slice very thin, cutting from the center of the head outward. Put into boiling water, cover closely, and cook rapidly until tender ; then turn into a colander and drain, pressing gently with the back of a plate. Return to the kettle, add salt to taste, and sufficient sweet cream to moisten well, heat through if at all cooled, dish, and serve at once. If preferred, the cream may be omitted, and the cabbage served with tomato sauce or lemon juice as a dressing. Cabbag-e and Tomatoes. — Boil finely chopped cabbage in as little water as possible. When tender, add half the quantity of hot stewed tomatoes, boil together for a few minutes, being careful to avoid burning, season with salt if desired, and serve. If pi^eferred, a little sweet cream may be added just before serving. Cabbage Celery. — A firm, crisp head of cabbage cut in slices half an inch or an inch thick, and then again into pieces four or five inches long and two or three inches wide, makes a quite appetizing substitute for celery. Cabbag'e Hash. — Chop fine, equal parts of cold boiled potatoes and boiled cabbage, and season with salt. To each quart of the mixture add one half or three fourths of a cup of thin cream; mix well and boil till well heated. Chopped Cabbag'e or Cabbage Salad. — Take one pint of finely chopped cabbage ; pour over it a dressing made of three tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, and a half cup of whipped cream, thoroughly beaten together in the order named ; or serve with sugar and diluted lemon juice. Mashed Cabbag'e. — Cut a fine head of cabbage into quarters, and cook until tender. A half hour before it is done, drop in three good-sized potatoes. When done, take all up in a colander together, press out the water, and mash very fine. Season with cream, and salt if desired. Stewed Cabbag'e. — Chop nice cabbage quite fine, and put it into boil- ing water, letting it boil twenty minutes. Turn into a colander and drain thoroughly ; return to the kettle, cover with milk, and let it boil till per- fectly tender; season with salt and cream to taste. The beaten yolk of an egg, stirred in with the cream, is considered an improvement bj^ some. VEGETABLES. 25 1 CAULIFLOWER AND BROCCOLL Description. — These vegetables are botanically allied to the cabbage, and are similar in composition. They are en- tirely the product of cultivation, and constitute the inflores- cence of the plant, which horticultural art has made to grow into a compact head of white color in the cauliflower, and of varying shades of buff, green, and purple in the broccoli. There is very little difference between the two aside from the color, and they are treated alike for culinary purposes. They were known to the Greeks and Romans, and highly appreciated by connoisseurs. They are not as nutritious as the cabbage, but have a more delicate and agreeable flavor. Preparation and Cooking. — The leaves should be green and fresh, and the heads of cauliflower creamy white ; when there are dark spots, it is wilted. The color of broccoli will depend upon the variety, but the head should be firm, with no discolorations. To prepare, pick off the outside leaves, cut the stalk squarely across, about two inches below the flower, and if very thick, split and wash thoroughly in several waters ; or better still, hold it under the faucet, flower downward, and allow a constant stream of water to fall over it for several minutes ; then place top downward in a pan of lukewarm salted water, to drive out any insects which may be hidden in it ; examine carefully for worms just the color of the stalk ; tie in a net (mosquito netting, say) to prevent breaking, or place the cauliflower on a plate in a steamer, and boil, or steam, as is most convenient. The time required for cooking will vary from twenty to forty minutes. RECIPES. (The recipes given are applicable to both broccoli and cauliflower.) Boiled Cauliflower. — Prepare, divide into neat branches, and tie se- curely in a net. Put into boiling milk and water, equal quantities, and cook until the main stalks are tender. Boil rapidly the first five minutes, afterward more moderately, to prevent the flower from becoming done before the stalks. Serve on a hot dish with cream sauce or diluted lemon juice 252 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Browned Cauliflower. — Beat together two eggs, a little salt, four tablespoonfuls of sweet cream, and a small quantity of grated bread crumbs well moistened with a little milk, till of the consistency of batter. Steam the cauliflower until tender, separate it into small bunches, dip each top in the mixture, and place in nice order in a pudding dish ; put in the oven and brown. Cauliflower with Eg-g- Sauce. — Steam the cauliflower until tender, sep- arate into small portions, dish, and serve with an egg sauce prepared as directed for parsnips on page 244. Cauliflower with Tomato Sauce. — Boil or steam the cauliflower until tender. In another dish prepare a sauce with a pint of strained stewed tomatoes heated to boiling, thickened with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little water, and salted to taste. When the cauliflower is tender, dish, and pour over it the hot tomato sauce. If preferred, a table- spoonful of thick sweet cream may be added to the sauce before using. Stewed Cauliflower. — Boil in as little water as possible, or steam until tender; separate into small portions, add milk, cream, and salt to taste ; stew together for a few minutes, and serve. Scalloped Cauliflower. — Prepare the cauliflower, and steam or boil until tender. If boiled, use equal quantities of milk and water. Separate into bunches of equal size, place in a pudding dish, cover with a white or cream sauce, sprinkle with grated bread crumbs, and brown in the oven. SPINACH. Description. — This plant is supposed to be a native of western Arabia. There are several varieties which are pre- pared and served as " greens." Spinach is largely composed of water. It is considered a wholesome vegetable, with slightly laxative properties. Preparation and Cooking. — Use only tender plants or the tender leaves of the older stalks, and be sure to have enough, as spinach shrinks greatly. A peck is not too much for a family of four or five. Pick it over very carefully, trim off the roots and decayed leaves, and all tough, stringy stalks, and the coarse fibers of the leaves, as those will not cook tender until the leaves are overdone. Wash in several waters, lifting it from one pan to another, that it may be freed from sand and grit. Shake each bunch well. Spinach is best cooked in its own juices ; this may be best accomplished by cooking it in a VEGETABLES. 253 double boiler, or if placed in a pot and slowly heated, it will in a short time yield sufficient juice to cook itself. It must, however, be stirred frequently at first, to prevent burning ; cover closely and cook till tender. The time required will vary from twenty minutes to an hour or more. If water is used in the cooking, have a half kettleful boiling when the spinach is put in, and continue to boil rapidly until the leaves are perfectly tender ; then drain in a colander, press with the back of a plate to extract all water, chop very fine, and either serve with lemon juice as a dressing, or add a half cup of sweet cream with or without a teaspoonful of sugar. Boil up once, stirring constantly, and serve very hot. A garnish of sliced boiled eggs is often employed with this vegetable. CELERY. Description. — The common celery is a native of Great Britain. In its wild state it has a strong, disagreeable taste and smell, and is known as smallage. By cultivation it be- comes more mild and sweet. It is usually eaten uncooked as a salad herb, or introduced into soups as a flavoring. In its raw state, it is difficult of digestion. Celery from the market may be kept fresh for some time by wrapping the bunches in brown paper, sprinkling- them with water, then wrapping in a damp cloth and putting in some cool, dark place. REOIPES. Celery Salad. — Break the stems apart, cut off all green portions, and after washing well put in cold water for an hour or so before serving. Stewed Celery. — Cut the tender inner parts of celery heads into pieces about a finger long. The outer and more fibrous stalks may be saved to season soups. Put in a stewpan, and add sufficient water to cover ; then cover the pan closely, and set it where it will just simmer for an hour, or until the celery is perfectly tender. When cooked, add a pint of rich milk, part cream if you have it, salt to taste, and when boiling, stir in a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little milk. Boil up once and serve. 254 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. Stewed Celery No. 2. — Cut the white part of fine heads of celery into small pieces, blanch in boiling water, turn into a colander, and drain. Heat a cup and a half of milk to boihng in a stewpan ; add the celery, and stew gently until tender. Remove the celery with a skimmer, and stir into the milk the beaten yolks of two eggs and one half cup of cream. Cook until thickened ; pour over the celery, and serve. Celery >vitli Tomato Sauce. — Prepare the celery as in the preceding I'ecipe, and cook until tender in a small quantity of boiling water. Drain in a colander, and for three cups of stewed celery prepare a sauce with a pint of strained stewed tomato, heated to boiling and thickened with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water. If desired, add a half cup of thin cream. Turn over the celery, and serve hot. Celery and Potato Hash. — To three cups of cold boiled or baked potato, chopped rather fine, add one cup of cooked celery, minced. Put into a shallow saucepan with cream enough to moisten well and salt to season. Heat to boiling, tossing and stirring so that the whole will be heated throughout, and serve hot. ASPARAGUS. Description. — The asparagus is a native of Europe, and in its wild state is a sea-coast plant. The young shoots form the edible portion. The plant was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who not only used it as a table delicacy but considered it very useful in the treatment of internal diseases. Roman cooks provided themselves with a supply of the vegetable for winter use by cutting fine heads and dry- ing them. When wanted, they were put into hot water and gently cooked. The asparagus is remarkable as containing a crystalline alkaloid called asparagin, which is thought to possess diuretic properties. Preparation and Cooking. — Select fresh and tender asparagus. Those versed in its cultivation, assert that it should be cut at least three times a week, and barely to the ground. If it is necessary to keep the bunches for some time before cooking, stand them, tops uppermost, in water about one half inch deep, in the cellar or other cool place. Clean each stalk separately by swashing back and forth in a pan of VEGETABLES. 255 cold water till perfectly free from sand, then break off all the tough portions, cut in equal lengths, tie in bunches of half a dozen or more with soft tape, drop into boiling water barely sufficient to cover, and simmer gently until perfectly tender. If the asparagus is to be stewed, break fnot cut) into small pieces ; when it will not snap off quickly, the stalk is too tough for use. Asparagus must be taken from the water just as soon as tender, while yet firm in appearance. If boiled soft, it loses its flavor and is uninviting. It is a good plan when it is to be divided before cooking, if the stalks are not perfectly tender, to boil the hardest portions first. Asparagus cooked in bunches is well done, if, when held by the thick end in a horizontal position between the fingers, it only bends lightly and does not fall heavily down. The time required for boiling asparagus depends upon its freshness and age. Fresh, tender asparagus cooks in a very few minutes, so quickly, indeed, that the Roman emperor Augustus, intimating that any affair must be concluded with- out delay, was accustomed to say, " Let that be done quicker than you can cook asparagus." Fifteen or twenty minutes will suffice if young and fresh ; if old, from thirt}' to fifty minutes will be required. REC/PES. Asparag'us and Peas. — Asparagus and green peas make a nice dish served together, and if of proportionate age, require the same length of time to cook. Wash the asparagus, shell and look over the peas, put together into boiling water, cook, and serve as directed for stewed asparagus. Asparag-us Points.— Cut off enough heads in two-inch lengths to make three pints. Put into boihng water just sufficient to cover. When tender, drain off the water, add a half cup of cream, and salt if desired. Serve at once. Asparaji'us on Toa.st. — Cook the asparagus in bunches, and when ten- der, drain and place on slices of nicely browned toast moistened in the asparagus liquor. Pour over all a cream sauce prepared as directed below. Asparagns with Cream Sance. — Thoroughly wash, tie in small bunches, and put into boiling water ; boil till perfectly tender. Drain thoroughly, 256 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. untie the bunches, place the stalks all the same way upon a hot plate, with a dressing prepared as follows : Let a pint of sweet cream (about six hours old is best) come to the boiling point, and stir into it salt to taste and a level tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth with a little cold cream. Boil till the flour is perfectly cooked, and then pass through a fine wire strainer. Asparag:iis with Esrg: Sauce. — Prepare and cook asparagus as directed above. When tender, drain thoroughly, and serve on a hot dish or on slices of nicely browned toast, with an egg sauce prepared in the follow- ing manner : Heat a half cup of rich milk to boiling, add salt, and turn into it very slowly the well-beaten yolk of an egg, stirring constantly at the same time. Let the whole just thicken, and remove from the fire at once. Stewed Asi)arag'US. — - Wash, break into inch pieces, simmer till tender in water just to cover, add sufficient rich milk, part cream if convenient, to make a gravy, thicken slightly with flour, a teaspoonful to a pint of milk ; add salt if desired, boil up together once, and serve. SEA=KALE. Description. — This plant, a native of Britain, and much esteemed as a vegetable in England and on the Continent, is also in its wild state a sea-coast plant. When properly cooked, it is nutritious and easy of digestion. In appearance and flavor it greatly resembles asparagus, and the suggestions for cooking and recipes given for that vegetable are applicable to sea-kale. LETTUCE AND RADISH. Description. — These two vegetables, although wholly dif- ferent, the one being the leaf of a plant, the other the root, are both so commonly served as relishes that we will speak of them together. Both have long been known and used. Wild lettuce is said to be the bitter herb which the Hebrevv's ate with the Paschal lamb. The ancient Greek and Roman epicures valued lettuce highly, 'and bestowed great care upon its cultivation, in some instances watering the plants with sweet wine instead of water, in order to communicate to them a delicate perfume ^nd flavor. The common garden lettuce of the present day VEGETABLES. 257 is a hardy plant, which supplies an agreeable, digestible, and, when served with a wholesome dressing, unobjectionable salad. The common radish is supposed to be indigenous to China. Ancient writers on foods mention the radish as used by the early Greeks and Romans, who fancied that at the end of three years its seed would produce cabbages. They had also the sin- gular custom of making the radish the ignominious projectile with which in times of tumult the mob pursued persons whose political opinions had made them obnoxious. When quiet was restored, the disgraced vegetable was boiled and eaten with oil and vinegar. Common garden radishes are of different shapes and of various colors on the outside, there being black, violet, red, and white radishes. The inside portion of all, however, is white. They are sometimes cooked, but more commonly served raw. A dish of crisp, coral radishes adds beauty to the appearance of the table, but they are not possessed of a high nutritive value, being very similar to the turnip in composition, and unless very young, tender, and when eaten thoroughly masticated, are quite difficult of digestion. REC/PES. Lettuce. — Wash well, put into cold water, and set on ice or on the cel- lar bottom for an hour or more before using. Dry the leaves with a soft towel and use whole or tear into convenient pieces with a silver fork ; never cut with a knife. Serve with a dressing prepared of equal quantities of lemon juice and sugar, diluted with a little ice water ; or, with a dressing of cream and sugar, in the proportion of three or four tablespoonfuls of thin cream to a teaspoonful of sugar. The dressing may be prepared, and after the sugar is dissolved, a very little lemon juice (just enough to thicken the cream slightly, but not sufficient to curdle it) may be added if desired. Radishes. — Wash thoroughly young and tender radishes, and arrange in a glass dish with the taper ends meeting. Scatter bits of cracked ice among them. An inch of the stem, if left on, serves as a convenience in handling. 17 258 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. CYMLING, SUMMER SQUASH, or VEGETABLE MARROW. Description. — The vegetable marrow (sometimes called cymling) is thought to be a variety of the common gourd, from which also the pumpkin and winter squash appear to have been derived. It is easily digested, but on account of the abundance of water in its composition, its nutritive value is very low. Preparation and Cooking. — When very young, most va- rieties need no preparation for cooking, aside from washing thoroughly. After cooking, the skin can be easily rubbed off and the seeds removed. If more mature, pare thinly, and if large, divide into halves or quarters and scoop out the seeds. Summer squashes are better steamed than boiled. If boiled, they should be cooked in so little water that it will be quite evaporated when they are tender. From twenty to sixty minutes will be required for cooking. REC/PES. ■ Mashed S(iuasli. — Wash, peel, remove seeds, and steam until tender. Place the squash in a clean cloth, mash thoroughly, squeeze until the squash is quite dry, or rub through a fine colander and afterward simmer until nearly dry ; season with cream, and a little salt if desired, and heat again before serving. A teaspoonful of sugar may be added with the cream, if desired. Squash with Eg-g' Sauce. — Prepare, steam till tender, cut into pieces, and serve with an egg sauce made the same as directed for asparagus, page 256. Stewed Squash. — Prepare, cut into pieces, and stew until tender in a small quantity of boiling water ; drain, pressing out all the water ; serve on toast with cream or white sauce. Or, divide in quarters, remove the seeds, cook in a double boiler, in its own juices, which when done may be thickened with a little flour. Season with salt if desired, and serve hot. VEGETABLES. 259 WINTER SQUASHES. The winter squash and pumpkin are allied in nature to the •summer squash. Preparation and Cooking. — Select squashes of a firm texture, wash, break in pieces with a hatchet if hard-shell, or if the shell is soft, divide with a knife ; remove all seeds, and boil, stew, steam, or bake, as preferred. To boil or steam, from thirty minutes to one hour's time will be needed ; to bake, one to two hours. RECfPES. Baked Squash. — The hard-shell varieties are best for baking. Wash, divide, and lay, shells downward, on the top grate of the oven, or place in a shallow baking dish with a little boiling water. Bake until tender, serve in the shell, or scrape out the soft part, mash and serve with two large tablespoonfuls of cream to a pint of squash. If preferred, the skins may be removed before baking, and the squash served the same as sweet po- tato, for which it makes a good substitute. Steamed Squash. — Prepare the squash, and steam until tender. Mash and season as for baked squash. THE PUMPKIN. Description. — When our forefathers came to this country, they found the pumpkin growing in the Indian cornfields, and at once made use of it. Although as food it did not supply what its handsome exterior promised, yet in the absence of other fruits and relishes, of which the exigencies of a new country deprived them, they soon found the pumpkin quite palatable ; and the taste, cultivated through necessity, has been handed down through generations, until the pumpkin stewed and baked in pies, has become an established favorite. 26o SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. REC/PES. Baked Pumpkin. — Wash the pumpkin well on the outside, divide into quarters if small, into sixths or eighths if large ; remove the seeds but not the rind. Bake as directed for squash. Serve in the rind, dishing it out by spoonfuls. Stewed Pumpkin. — Select a good, ripe pumpkin, and cut in halves; remove the seeds, slice halfway around, pare, cut into inch pieces, put over the fire in a kettle containing a small quantity of boiling water, and stew gently, stirring frequently until it breaks to pieces. Cool, rub through a colander, and place where it will just simmer, but not burn, until the water is all evaporated and the pumpkin dry. Pumpkin for pies is much richer baked like squash, and rubbed through a colander after the skin has been removed. Dried Pumpkin. — Pumpkin may be dried and kept for future use. The best way is first to cut and stew the pumpkin, then spread on plates, and dry quickly in the oven. Dried in this manner, it is easily softened, when needed, by soaking in a small quantity of water, and is considered nearly as good as that freshly stewed. TOMATO. Description. — The tomato, or "love apple," as it was called in the early part of the century, is a native of South America and Mexico. It was formerly regarded as poisonous, and though often planted and prized as a curiosity in the flower garden, it has only within the last half century come to be considered as a wholesome article of diet. Botanically, it is allied to the potato. It is an acid fruit, largely com- posed of water, and hence of low nutritive value ; but it is justly esteemed as a relish, and is very serviceable to the cook in the preparation of soups and various mixed dishes. Preparation and Cooking. — Tomatoes to be served in an uncooked state should be perfectly ripe and fresh. The medium-sized, smooth ones are the best. To peel, pour scald- ing water over them ; let them remain for half a minute, plunge into cold water, allow them to cool, when the skins can be easily rubbed off Tomatoes should always be cooked in porce- lain or granite ware ; iron makes them look dark, and being VEGETABLES. 261 slightly acid in character, they are not wholesome cooked in tin vessels. Tomatoes require cooking- a long time ; one hour is needed, and two are better. RECIPES. Baked Tomatoes. — Fill a pudding dish two thirds full of stewed tomatoes ; season with salt, and sprinkle grated crumbs of good whole- wheat or Graham bread over it until the top looks diy. Brown in the oven, and serve with a cream dressing. Baked Tomatoes No. 2. Wash and wipe a quantity of smooth, even- sized tomatoes ; remove the stems with a sharp-pointed knife. Arrange on an earthen pudding or pie dish, and bake whole in a moderate oven. Serve with cream. Scalloped Tomatoes. — Take a pint of stewed tomatoes, which have been rubbed through a colander, thicken with one and one fourth cups of lightly picked crumbs of Graham or whole-wheat bread, or a suffi- cient quantity to make it quite thick, add salt if desired, and a half cup of sweet cream, mix well, and bake for twenty minutes. Or, fill a pudding dish with alternate layers of peeled and sliced tomatoes and bread crumbs, letting the topmost layer be of tomatoes. Cover, and bake in a moderate oven for an hour or longer, according to depth. Uncover, and brown for ten or fifteen minutes. Stewed Corn and Tomatoes. — Boil dried or fresh corn until perfectly tender, add to each cup of corn two cups of stewed, strained tomatoes, either canned or freshly cooked. Salt to taste, boil together for five or ten minutes, and serve plain or with a little cream added. Tomato Gravy. — Heat to boiling one pint of strained stewed tomatoes, either canned or fresh, and thicken with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little water ; add salt and when thickened, if desired, a half cup of hot cream. Boil together for a minute or two and serve at once. Tomato Salad. — Select perfectly ripe tomatoes, and peel at least an hour before using. Slice, and place on ice or in a cool place. Serve plain or with lemon juice or sugar as preferred. Tomato Salad No. 2. — Use one half small yellow tomatoes and one half red. Slice evenly and lay in the dish in alternate layers. Powder lightly with sugar, and turn over them a cupful of orange juice to the pint of tomato, or if preferred, the juice of lemons may be used instead. Set on ice and cool before serving. Broiled Tomatoes. — Choose perfectly ripened but firm tomatoes of equal size. Place them on a wire broiler, and broil over glowing coals. 262 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. from three to eight minutes, according to size, then turn and cook on the other side. Broil the stem end first. Serve hot with salt to season, and a little cream. Tomato Piiddiiig'. — Fill an earthen pudding dish with alternate layers of stale bread and fresh tomatoes, peeled, sliced, and sprinkled lightly with sugar. Cover the dish and bake. Stewed Tomatoes. — Peel and slice the tomatoes. Put them into a double boiler, without the addition of water, and stew for an hour or longer. When done, serve plain with a little sugar added, or season with salt and a tablespoonful of rather thick sweet cream to each pint of tomatoes. If the tomatoes are thin and very juicy, they may be thickened with a little flour rubbed smooth in a little cold water. They are much better, how- ever, to stew a longer time until the water they contain is sufficiently evaporated to make them of the desired consistency. The stew may also be thickened, if desired, by the addition of bread crumbs, rice, or macaroni. Tomato with Okra. — Wash the okra, cut off the stem and nibs, and slice thin. For a quart of sliced okra, peel and slice three large toma- toes. Stew the tomatoes for half an hour, then add the okra, and simmer together for half an hour longer. Season with salt and a little cream. EGG PLANT. Description. — The egg plant, a vegetable indig-enous to the East Indies, is somewhat allied in character to the tomato. In shape, it resembles an egg, from which fact it doubtless de- rives its name. It ranks low in nutritive value. When fresh, the plant is firm and has a smooth skin. REC/PES. Scalloped Egg Plant. — Pare a fresh egg plant. If large, divide in quarters, if small, in halves, and put to cook in boiling water. Cook until it can be easily pierced with a straw, and drain in a colander. Turn into a hot dish, and beat with a silver fork until finely broken. Measure the egg plant, and add to it an equal quantity of grated bread crumbs, a little salt, and a tablespoonful of thick sweet cream. Lastlj', add one well beaten egg. Put in an earthen pudding dish, and brown in the oven until the egg is set, and the whole is heated throughout but not dry. Baked Eg-g- Plant. — Wash and cook whole in boiling water until tender. Divide in halves, remove the inside with a spoon, taking care not to break the skin. Beat the egg plant smooth with a fork. Season with salt and VEGETABLES. 263 cream, and if desired, a stalk of celery or a small slice of onion very finely minced, for flavor. Put back in the skin, sprinkle the top with bread crumbs, and brown the cut side uppermost in the oven. CUCUMBER. Description. — The cucumber is a native of Southern Asia, although it is quite commonly cultivated in most civilized countries. It formed a part of the dietary of the Israelites when in Egypt, where it grew very plentifully. The ancient Greeks held the cucumber in high esteem, and attributed to it wonderful properties. The cucumber is not a nutritious vegetable, and when served in its raw state, as it so generally is, dressed with salt, vinegar, pepper, and similar condiments, it is an exceedingly indigesti- ble article. If it is to be eaten at all, it should first be cooked. It may be pared, divided in quarters, the seeds removed, and cooked in a small quantity of water until perfectly tender, and served on toast with an egg sauce or a cream sauce ; or it may be prepared the same as directed for Escalloped Egg Plant. SALSIFY, OR YEGTABLE OYSTER. Description. — The vegetable oyster plant, sometimes called purple goat's-beard, or salsify, is indigenous to some portions of Great Britain. The long, slender root becomes fleshy and tender under cultivation, with a flavor, when cooked, somewhat resembling that of the mollusk for which it is named. On this account, it is much esteemed for soups. A variety of the plant grows near the line of perpetual snow, and forms the principal article of fresh vegetable food in the dietary of Kur- distan. Preparation and Cooking. — Select fresh and unshriveled roots, wash and scrape well, dropping into cold water as soon as cleaned, to prevent discoloration. If the roots are covered with cold water for a half hour or more before scraping, they can be cleaned much easier. Use a porcelain-lined kettle, for •264 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. cooking, as an iron one will discolor it and injure its flavor. From twenty minutes to one hour, according to age, is re- quired to cook it tender. REC/PES. Scalloped Vegetable Oysters. — Boil two quarts of sliced vegetable oysters in about two quarts of water until very tender. Skim them out, and fill a pudding dish with alternate layers of crumbs and oysters, having a layer of crumbs for the top. To the water in which they were boiled, add a pint and a half of thin cream, salt to taste, boil up, and thicken with a heaping tablespoonful or two of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold cream. Pour this over the oysters and crumbs, and bake a half hour. If this is not enough to cover well, add more cream or milk. Stewed tomatoes are a nice accompaniment for escalloped vegetable oysters. Stewed Vegetable Oysters. — Wash, scrape, and cut into slices not more than one half inch in thickness. Put into a small quantity of boiling water and cook until tender. If a large quantity of water is used, the savory juices escape, and leave the roots very insipid. When tender, pour in a cup of rich milk and simmer for five or ten minutes ; add a little flour rubbed smooth in milk, and salt if desired ; boil up once, and serve as a vegetable or on slices of nicely browned toast. If preferred, a well- beaten egg may be used in the place of flour. GREEN CORN, PEAS, AND BEANS. Description. — Corn, peas, and beans in their immature state are so nearly allied to vegetables, that we give in this connection recipes for cooking green corn, green beans, and green peas. A general rule applicable to all is that they should, when possible, be cooked and eaten the day they are gathered, as otherwise they lose much of their sweetness and flavor. For corn, select young, tender, well-filled ears, from which the milk will spurt when the grain is broken with the finger nail. Beans and peas are fresh only when the pods are green, plump, snap crisply when broken, and have unshriveled stems. If the pods bend and appear wilted, they are stale. Corn, peas, and beans are wholesome and nutritious foods when thoroughly cooked and sufficiently masticated, but they are almost indi- gestible unless the hull, or skin, of each pea, bean, or grain of corn, be broken before being swallowed. VEGETABLES. 265 REC/PES FOR CORN. Baked Corn. — Select nice fresh ears of tender corn of as nearly equal size as possible. Open the husks and remove all the silk from the corn ; replace and tie the husks around the ears with a thread. Put the corn in a hot oven, and bake thirty minutes or until tender. Remove the husks before serving. Baked Corn No. 2. — Scrape enough corn from the cob (as directed be- low for Corn Pulp) to make one and a half quarts. Put into a baking dish, season with salt if desired, add enough milk, part cream if convenient, barely to cover the corn, and bake in a hot oven twenty-five or thirty minutes. Boiled Green Corn. — Remove the husks and every thread of the silk fiber. Place in a kettle, the larger ears at the bottom, with sufficient boil- ing water nearly to cover. Cover with the clean inner husks, and cook from twenty to thirty minutes, according to the age of the corn ; too much cooking hardens it and detracts from its flavor. Try a kernel, and when the milk has thickened, and a raw taste is no longer apparent, it is suffi- ciently cooked. Green corn is said to be sweeter, boiled with the inner husks on. For cooking in this way, strip off all outer husks, and remove the silk, tying the inner husk around the ear with a bit of thread, and boil. Remove from the kettle, place in a heated dish, cover with a napkin and serve at once on the cob. Some recommend scoring or splitting the corn by drawing a sharp knife through each row lengthwise. This is a wise precaution against insufficient mastication. Stewed Corn Pulp. — Take six ears of green corn or enough to make a pint of raw pulp ; with a sharp knife cut a thin shaving from each row of kernels or score each kernel, and with the back of the knife scrape out the pulp, taking care to leave the hulls on the cob. Heat a cup and a half of rich milk — part cream if it can be afforded — to boiling, add the corn, cook twenty or thirty minutes ; season with salt and a teaspoonful of sugar if desired. Corn Cakes. — To a pint of corn pulp add two well-beaten eggs and two tablespoonfuls of flour; season with salt if desired, and brown on a grid- dle. Canned corn finely chopped can be used, but two tablespoonfuls of milk should be added, as the corn is less moist. Corn Puddinii'. — One quart of corn pulp prepared as for stewing, one quart of milk, three eggs, and a little salt. Mix the corn with a pint of the milk, and heat it to boiling. Break the eggs into the remainder of the milk, and add it to the corn, turn all into an oiled pudding dish, and bake slowly until the custard is well set. Roasted dJreen Corn. — Remove the husks and silk, and place the corn before an open grate or in a wire broiler over hot coals until the kernels 266 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. burst open, or bury in hot ashes without removing the husks. Score the grains, and serve from the cob. Stewed Green Corn. — Cut the corn from the cob and with the back of the knife scrape off all the pulp, being careful to leave the hull on the cob. Put into a stewpan with half as much water as corn, cover closely and stew gently until thoroughly cooked, stirring frequently to prevent the corn from sticking to the pan ; add cream or milk to make the requisite amount of juice, and season with salt if desired. A teaspoonful of white sugar may be added if desired. Cold boiled corn cut from the cob and stewed a few minutes in a little milk, makes a very palatable dish. Summer Succotash. — This may be made by cooking equal quantities of shelled beans and corn cut from the cob, separately until tender, and then mixing them ; or the beans may be cooked until nearly soft, an equal quantity of shaved corn added, and the whole cooked fifteen or twenty minutes or longer. Season with cream, and salt if desired. Dried Corn. — The sweet varieties of corn taken when young and ten- der and properly dried, furnish an excellent material for nearly all pur- poses to which green corn is put. Take green corn, just right for eating, have it free from silk ; cut the fleshy portion from the cob with a sharp knife, then with the back of the knife gently press the remaining pulp from the cob. Spread thinly on plates and put into an oven hot enough to scald, not scorch it. Watch closely for a half hour or more, turning and stirring frequently witl^ a fork. When thus thoroughly scalded, the corn may be left without further attention if placed in a moderate oven, save an occasional stirring to prevent its sticking to the plate, until the drying is complete, which ought to be in about forty-eight hours; however, if one can spend the time to watch closely and stir very frequently, the drying may be completed in a single afternoon in a rather hot oven. Be careful that it does not scorch. When needed for use, soak over night and cook in accordance with recipes for Stewed Corn, Succotash, etc., pages 265, 224, only remember- ing to allow a longer time. REC/PES FOR PEAS. Stewed Peas. — If from the garden, pick and shell the peas with clean hands ; if from the market, wash the pods before shelling, so that the peas will not require washing, as they are much better without. When shelled, put into a colander and sift out the fine particles and undeveloped blos- soms. If not of equal growth, sort the peas and put the older ones to cook ten minutes before the others. Use a porcelain kettle, with one half VEGETABLES. 267 pint of boiling water for each quart of peas, if young and tender ; older ones, which require longer stewing, need more. Cover closely, and sim- mer gently till tender. The time required for young peas is from twenty- five to thirty minutes; older ones require from forty to fifty minutes. Serve without draining, season with salt and enough sweet cream to make them as juicy as desired. If preferred, the juice may be thickened with a little flour. The peas may be purposely stewed in a larger quantity of water, and served in their own juices thickened with a little flour and seasoned with salt. RECIPES FOR BEAI\/S. Lima Beans. — Lima beans are not good until they are full grown and have turned white. Shell, wash, cover with boiling water, and cook about one hour or until tender. Let the water nearly evaporate, and add milk or cream thickened with a little flour. Season with salt to taste, boil up once, and serve. Shelled Beans. — Shell, wash, drop into boiling water sufficient to cover, and cook until tender. Let the water boil nearly away, and serve without draining. Season with thin cream, and salt if desired. String" Beans. — Wash well in cold water. Remove the strong fiber, or strings, as they are called, by paring both edges with a sharp knife ; few cooks do this thoroughly. Break off stems and points, carefully rejecting any imperfect or diseased pods. Lay a handful evenly on a board and cut them all at once into inch lengths. Put in a porcelain kettle, cover with boiling water, and cook from one to three hours, according to age and variety, testing frequently, as they should be removed from the kettle just as soon as done. When very young and tender, only water sufficient to keep them from burning will be needed. When done, add a half cup of thin cream, and salt to taste. If the quantity of juice is considerable, thicken with a little flour. THE ONION. The onion belongs to a class of foods containing an acrid oil of a strongly irritating character, on which account it cannot be considered a wholesome food when eaten raw, as it so gen- erally is. The essential oil is, however, quite volatile, so that when cooked, after being first parboiled in two or three waters, its irritating properties are largely removed. The varieties grown in warm climates are much milder and sweeter than 268 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. those grown in colder countries. The onion is valuable for flavoring purposes. It may also be boiled and served whole with a cream sauce, or cut in quarters and prepared as directed for Scalloped Turnips, page 242. CANNING VEGETABLES. Most housekeepers experience more difficulty in canning and keeping vegetables than fruit. This is frequently owing to lack of care to secure perfect cans, covers, and rubbers, and to cook the vegetables thoroughly. Whatever is to be canned must be cooked sufficiently to be eaten, and must be boiling at the time it is put into the cans. Care as to the cleanliness of the cans and their sterilization is also important, and after the canning process is completed, all vegetables put up in glass should be kept in a cool, dark place. The general directions given for canning fruits should be followed in canning vege- tables. RECIPES. Canned Corn. — Select corn just ripe enough for table use, and prepare as directed for stewed corn. It will require from twelve to fifteen ears to fill sufficiently each quart can. To insure success, the cans should be so full that when the corn is shrunken by the cooking, the can will still be well filled. Pack the corn in the cans, working it down closely by means of the small end of a potato masher, so the milk will cover the corn and completely fill the can ; heap a little more corn loosely on the top, and screw the covers on sufficiently tight to prevent water from getting into the can. Place the cans in a boiler, on the bottom of which has been placed some straw or a rack ; also take care not to let the cans come in contact with each other, by wrapping each in a cloth or by placing a chip between them. A double layer of cans may be placed in the boiler, one on top of the other, if desirable, provided there is^ some intervening sub- stance. Fill the boiler with cold water so as completely to cover the cans ; place over the fire, bring gradually to a boil, and keep boiling steadily for four hours. Remove the boiler from the fire, and allow the cans to cool gradually, tightening the covers frequently as they cool. If the corn in the can shrinks, do not open to refill. If cooked thoroughly, and due care is taken in other particulars, there need be no VEGETABLES. 269 failure. Wrap closely in brown paper, and put away in a dark, cool, dry place. Canned Corn and Tomatoes. — Use about one third corn and two thirds tomatoes, or in equal portions if preferred. Cook the tomatoes in a double boiler for an hour and a half or longer ; and in another double boiler, when the tomatoes are nearly done, cook the corn m its own juices until thoroughly done. Turn them together, heat to boiling, and can at once. Canned Peas. — Select peas which are fresh, young, and tender. Shell, pack into perfect cans, shaking and filling as full as possible, add suffi- cient cold water to fill them to overflowing, screw on the covers, and cook and seal the same as directed for canning corn. Canned Tomatoes. — Tomatoes for canning should be freshly gathered, ripe, but not at all softened. As they are best cooked in their own juices, peel, slice, put into a double boiler or a porcelain fruit-kettle set mside a dish filled with boiling water, and cook from one to two hours. Cooked in the ordinary way, great care will be required to keep the fruit from burning. When thoroughly cooked - — simple scalding will not do — put into cans, and be sure that all air bubbles are expelled before sealing. Wrap in dark brown paper, and put in a cool, dry, dark place. Canned Tomatoes No. 2. — Cut the fruit into thick slices, let it stand and drain until a large portion of the juice has drained off; then pack solid in new or perfect' cans. Allow them to stand a little time, then again drain off the juice; fill up a second time with sliced tomatoes, and screw on the top of the cans without the rubbers. Pack into a wash boiler as directed for canning corn, and boil for two hours, then put on the rubbers and seal. When cold, tighten the covers and put away. Strini? Beans. — Select young and tender beans, string them, and cut into pieces about one half inch in length. Pack the cans as full as pos- sible, and fill with water until every crevice between the beans is full. Screw on the covers and can in the same manner as corn. Shelled beans may be canned in the same way. Canned Pnmpkin and Squash. — These fruits when canned are quite as desirable for pies as the fresh material. The same general rules should be followed as in canning other vegetables and fruits. TABLE TOPICS. The word "vegetarian" is not derived from " vegetable," but from the Latin, homo vegetiis, meaning among the Romans a strong, robust, thoroughly healthy man. An Inteli.ectxial Feast. — Professor Louis Agassiz in his early manhood visited Germany to consult Oken, the transcendentalist in zoological classification. "After I had delivered to him my letter of introduction," he once said to a friend, " Oken asked me to dine with him, and you may suppose with what joy I accepted the invitation. The dinner consisted only of potatoes, boiled and roasted ; but it was the best dinner I ever ate ; for there was Oken. Never before were such potatoes grown on this planet ; for the mind of the man seemed to enter into what we ate sociably together, and I devoured his intellect while munching his potatoes." Dr. Abernethy's recipe for using cucumbers: "Peel the cucumber, slice it, pepper it, put vinegar to it, then throw it out the window." A green son of the Emerald Isle was eating sweet corn from the cob for the first time. He handed the cob to the waiter, and asked, " Will you plaze put some more beans on my shtick ? " A French physician styles spinach le balai de Pestomac (broom of the stomach). An o.x. is satisfied with the pasture of an acre or two ; one wood suffices for sev- eral elephants. Man alone supports himself by the pillage of the whole earth and sea. What ? Has Nature indeed given us so insatiable a stomach, while she has given us so insignificant bodies ? No ; it is not the hunger of our stomachs, but in- satiable covetousness which costs so much. — Seneca. The oftener we go to the vegetable M'orld for our food, the oftener we go to the first and therefore the cheapest source of supply. The tendencies of all advanced scholars in thrift should be to find out plans for feeding all the community, as far as possible, direct from the lap of earth ; to impress science into our service so that she may prepare the choicest viands minus the necessity of making a lower animal the living laboratory for the sake of what is iust a little higher than cannibal propensities. — Dr. B. W. Richardson. A Voice from the Corn. I was made to be eaten, not to be drank. To be husked in a barn, not soaked in a tank ; I come as a blessing when put in a mill. As a blight and a curse when run through a still. Make me up into loaves, and your children are fed ; But made into drink, I will starve them instead. In bread I'm a servant the eater shall rule, In drink I'm a master, the drinker a fool. Then remember my warning ; my strength I'll employ. If eaten, to strengthen, if drunk, to destroy. — Sel. [270] ^./sA'A/iffZHo/^/^ 'A^^k OUP is an easily made, economical, and when properly ;J^^ prepared from healthful and nutritious material, very ^iW/J wholesome article of diet, deserving of much more ^j^*" general use than is commonly accorded it. In general, when soup is mentioned, some preparation of meat and bones is supposed to be meant ; but we shall treat in this chapter of a quite different class of soups, viz., those pre- pared from the grains, legumes, and vegetables, without the previous preparation of a "stock." Soups of this character are in every way equal, and in many points superior, to those made from meat and bones. If we compare the two, we shall find that soups made from the grains and legumes rank much higher in nutritive value than do meat soups. For the prepara- tion of the latter, one pound of meat and bones, in about equal proportion, is required for each quart of soup. In the bone, there is little or no nourishment, it being valuable simply for the gelatine it contains, which gives consistency to the soup ; so in reality there is only one half pound of material contain- ing nutriment, for the quart of soup. Suppose, in comparison, [271 1 272 SCIENCE IX THE KITCHEN. we take a pea soup. One half pound of peas will be amply enough for a quart. i\s we take an equal amount of material as basis for each soup, we can easih* determine their relative value b}- comparing the amount of nutritive material contained in peas with that of beef, the most commonly used material for meat soups. As will be seen by reference to the table of food analyses on page 486, peas contain 8y.^ parts nutritive ma- terial, while lean beef contains only 28 parts in one hundred. Thus the pea soup contains more than three times as much nourishment as does the beef soup. Soups prepared from grains and legumes are no more ex- pensive than meat soups, and many kinds cost much less, while they have the added advantage of requiring less time and no more labor to prepare. The greater bulk of all meat soups is water, holding in solution the essence of meat, the nutritive value of which is of very doubtful character. When properly prepared, the solid matter which enters into the composition of vegetable soups, is so broken up in the pro- cess of cooking, that it is more easily digested than in any other form. Taken hot at the beginning of a meal, soup stimulates the flow of the digestive juices, and on account of the bulk, brings a sense of satiet}- before an excessive quantity of food has been taken. In preparing soups from grains, legumes, and vegetables, the material should be first cooked in the ordinar}' manner, using as small an amount of water as practicable, so as the more thoroughly to disintegrate or break it up. If the material be legum.es or grains, the cooking should be slow and pro- longed. The purpose to be attained in the cooking of all foods is the partial digestion of the food elements ; and in general, with these foods, the more slowly (if continuous) the cooking is done, the more completely will this be brought about. When the material is cooked, the next step is to make it homogeneous throughout, and to remove any skins or cellulose material it may contain. To do this, it should be put through SOUPS. 27: a colander. The kind of colander depends upon the material. Peas and beans require a fine colander, since the skins, of which we are seeking to rid them, would easily go through a coarse one. To aid in this sifting process, if the material be at all dry, a small quantity of liquid may be added from time to time. When the colander process is complete, a sufficient amount of milk or other liquid may be added to make the whole of the consistency of rather thick cream. If the material is now cold, it must be reheated, and the salt, if any is to be used, added. The quantity of salt will depend somewhat upon the taste of the consumer ; but in general, one Chinese Soup Strainer. half teaspoonful to the pint of soup will be an ample supply. If any particular flavor, as of onion or celery, is desired, it may be imparted to the soup by adding to it a slice of onion or a few stalks of celery, allowing them to remain during the reheat- ing. By the time the soup is well heated, it will be delicately flavored, and the pieces of onion or celery may be removed with a fork or a skimmer. It is better, in general, to cook the soup all that is needed before flavoring, since if allowed to boil, all delicate flavors are apt to be lost by evaporation. When re- heated, add to the soup a quantity of cream as seasoning, in the proportion of one cup of thin cream for every quart or three pints of soup. To avoid the possibility of any lumps or fragments in the soup, pour it again through a colander or a Chinese soup 18 274 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. strainer into the soup tureen, and serve. It is well to take the precaution first to heat the strainer and tureen, that the soup be not cooled during the process. If it is desired to have the soup especially light and nice, beat or whip the cream before adding, or beat the hot soup with an egg beater for a few minutes after adding the cream. The well-beaten yolk of an egg for every quart or three pints of soup, will answer as a very fair substitute for cream in po- tato, rice, and similar soups. It should not be added to the body of the soup, but a cupful of the hot soup may be turned slowly onto the egg, stirring all the time, in order to mix it well without curdling, and then the cupful stirred into the whole. Soups made from legumes are excellent without cream. The consistency of the soup when done should be about that of single cream, and equal throughout, containing no lumps or fragments of material. If it is too thick, it may be easily diluted with hot milk or water ; if too thin, it will require the addition of more material, or may be thickened with a little flour or cornstarch rubbed to a cream with a small quantity of milk, used in the proportion of one tablespoonful for a quart of soup, — heaping, if flour; scant, if cornstarch, — and remembering always to boil the soup five or ten minutes after the flour is added, that there may be no raw taste. The addition of the flour or cornstarch gives a smoothness "to their consistency which is especially desirable for some soups. A few spoonfuls of cooked oatmeal or cracked wheat, added and rubbed through the colander with the other ma- terial, is valuable for the same purpose. Browned flour pre- pared by spreading a cupful thinly on shallow tins, and placing in a moderately hot oven, stirring frequently until lightly and evenly browned, is excellent to use both for thickening and flavoring certain soups. If whole grains, macaroni, vermicelli, or shredded vegetables are to be used in the soup, cook them separately, and add to the soup just before serving. The nutritive value of soup depends of course upon its in- gredients, and these should be so chosen and combined as to SOUPS. 275 produce the best possible food from the material employed. Milk is a valuable factor in the preparation of soups. With such vegetables as potatoes, parsnips, and others of the class composed largely of starch, and containing but a small propor- tion of the nitrogenous food elements, its use is especially important as an addition to their food value, as also to their palatableness. Very good soups may, however, be made from legumes, if carefully cooked with water only. Soups oft'er a most economical way of making use of the "left-over" fragments which might otherwise be consigned to the refuse bucket. A pint of cold mashed potatoes, a cupful of stewed beans, a spoonful or two of boiled rice, stewed tomatoes, or other bits of vegetables and grains, are quite as good for soup purposes as fresh material, provided they have been pre- served fresh and sweet. To insure this it is always best to put them away in clean dishes ; if retained in the dish from which they were served, the thin smears and small crumbs on the sides which spoil much sooner than the larger portion, will help to spoil the rest. One may find some difficulty in rubbing them through the colander unless they are first moistened. Measure the cold food, and then determine how much liquid will be needed, and add a part of this before attempting to put through the colander. It is difficult to give specific directions for making soups of fragments, as the remnants to be utilized will vary so much in character as to make such inapplicable, but the recipes given for combination soups will perhaps serve as an aid in this direc- tion. Where a sufficient amount of one kind of food is left over to form the basis of a soup or to serve as a seasoning, it can be used in every way the same as fresh material. When, however, there is but a little of various odds and ends, the general rule to be observed is to combine only such materials as harmonize in taste. Soups prepared from the grains, legumes, and vegetables, are so largely composed of food material that it is important that they be retained in the mouth long enough for proper insaliva- tion ; and in order to insure this, it is well to serve with the 2/6 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. soup croutons, prepared by cutting stale bread into small squares or cubes, and browning thoroughly in a moderate oven. •Put a spoonful or two of the croutons in each plate, and turn the hot soup over them. This plan also serves another purpose, — that of providing a means whereby the left-over bits of stale bread may be utilized to advantage. RECIPES. Asparagus Soup. — Wash two bunches of fresh asparagus carefully, and cut into small pieces. Put to cook in a quart of boiling water, and simmer gently till perfectly tender, when there should remain about a pint of the liquor. Turn into a colander, and rub all through except the hard portion. To a pint of asparagus mixture add salt and one cup of thin cream and a pint of milk ; boil up for a few minutes, and serve. Baked Bean Soup. — Soak a half pint of white beans over night. In the morning turn off the water, and place them in an earthen dish with two or two and one half quarts of boiling water ; cover and let them simmer in a moderate oven four or five hours. Also soak over night a tablespoonful of pearl tapioca in sufficient water to cover. When the beans are soft, rub through a colander, after which add the soaked tapioca, and salt if desired ; also as much powdered thyme as can be taken on the point of a penknife and sufficient water to make the soup of proper consistency if the water has mostly evaporated. Return to the oven, and cook one half hour longer. A little cream may be added just before serving. Bean and Corn Soup. — Cold boiled or stewed corn and cold baked beans form the basis of this soup. Take one pint of each, rub through a colander, add a slice of onion, three cups of boiling water or milk, and boil for ten minutes. Turn through the colander a second time to remove the onion and any lumps or skins which may remain. Season with salt and a half cup of cream. If preferred, the onion may be omitted. Bean and Hominy Soup. — Soak separately in cold water over night a cupful each of dry beans and hominy. In the morning, boil them together till both are perfectly tender and broken to pieces. Rub through a col- ander, and add sufficient milk to make three pints. Season with salt, and stir in a cup of whipped cream just before serving. Cold beans and hominy may be utilized for this soup. Bean and Potato Soup. — Soak a half pint of dry white beans over night ; in the morning drain and put to cook in boiling water. When tender, rub through a colander. Prepare sHced potato sufficient to make one SOUPS. 27; quart, cook in as small a quantity of water as possible, rub through a colander, and add to the beans. Add milk or water sufficient to make two quarts, and as much prepared thyme as can be taken on the point of a penknife, with salt to season. Boil for a few minutes, add a teacup of thin cream, and serve. Bean and Tomato Soup. — Take one pint of boiled or a little less of mashed beans, one pint of stewed tomatoes, and rub together through a col- ander. Add salt, a cup of thin cream, one half a cup of nicely steamed rice, and sufficient boiling water to make a soup of the proper consist- ency. Reheat and serve. Black Bean Soup. — Soak a pint of black beans over night in cold water. When ready to cook, put into two and one half quarts of fresh water, which should be boiling, and simmer until completely dissolved, adding more boiling water from time to time if needed. There should be about two quarts of all when done. Rub through a colander, add salt, a half cup of cream, and reheat. When hot, turn through a soup strainer, add two or more teaspoonfuls of lemon juice, and serve. Black Bean Soup No. 2. — Soak a pint of black beans in water over night. Cook in boiling water until tender, then rub through a colander. Add sufficient boiling water to make about two quarts in all. Add salt, and one half a small onion cut in slices to flavor. Turn into a double boiler and reheat. When sufficiently flavored, remove the onion with a skimmer, thicken the soup with two teaspoonfuls of browned flour, turn through the soup strainer, and serve. If desired, a half cup of cream may be added, and the onion flavor omitted. Bran Stock. — For every quart of stock desired, boil a cup of good wheat bran in three pints of water for two or three hours or until reduced one third. This stock may be made the base of a variety of palatable and nutritious soups by flavoring with different vegetables and seasoning with salt and cream. An excellent soup may be prepared by flavoring the stock with celery, or by the addition of a quantity of strained stewed tomato sufficient to disguise the taste of the stock. It is also valuable in giving consistence to soups, in the preparation of some of which it may be advantageously used in place of other liquid. Brown Sonp. — Simmer together two pints of sliced potatoes and one third as much of the thin brown shavings (not thicker than a silver dime) from the top of a loaf of whole-wheat bread, in one quart of water. The crust must not be burned or blackened, and must not include any of the soft portion of the loaf. When the potatoes are tender, mash all through a colander. Flavor with a cup of strained, stewed tomatoes, a little salt, and return to the fire ; when hot, add a half cup of cream, and boiling water to make the soup of proper consistency, and serve at once. If care 2/^ SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. has been taken to prepare the crust as directed, this soup will have a brown color and a fine, pungent flavor exceedingly pleasant to the taste. Canned Green Pea Soup. — Rub a can of green peas through a colander to remove the skins. Add a pint of milk and heat to boiling. If too thin, thicken with a little flour rubbed smooth in a very little cold milk. Season with salt and a half cup of cream. A small teaspoonful of white sugar may be added if desired. Green peas, instead of canned, may be used when procurable. When they have become a little too hard to serve alone, they can be used for soup, if thoroughly cooked. Canned Corn Soup. — Open a can of green corn, turn it into a granite- ware dish, and thoroughly mash with a potato-masher until each kernel is broken, then rub through a colander to remove the skins. Add sufficient rich milk to make the soup of the desired consistency, about one half pint for each pint can of corn will be needed. Season with salt, reheat, and serve. If preferred, a larger quantity of milk and some cream may be used, and the soup, when reheated, thickened with a little corn starch or flour. It may be turned through the colander a second time or not, as preferred. Carrot Soup. — For a quart of soup, slice one large carrot and boil in a small quantity of water for two hours or longer, then rub it through a colander, add a quart of rich milk, and salt to season. Reheat, and when boiling, thicken with two teaspoonfuls of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Celery Soup. — Chop quite fine enough fresh, crisp celery to make a pint, and cook it until tender in a very little boiling water. When done, heat three cupfuls of rich milk, part cream if it can be afforded, to boihng, add the celery, salt to season, and thicken the whole with a tablespoon- ful of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk ; or add to the milk before heating a cupful of mashed potato, turn through a colander to remove lumps, reheat, add salt and the celery, and serve. Celery Soup No. 2. — Cook in a double boiler a cupful of cracked wheat in three pints of water for three or four hours. Rub the wheat through a colander, add a cup of rich milk, and if needed, a little boiling water, and a small head of celery cut in finger lengths. Boil all together for fifteen or twenty minutes, until well flavored, remove the celery with a fork, add salt, and serve with or without the hard-boiled yolk of an egg in each soup plate. Chestnut Soup.— Shell and blanch a pint of Italian chestnuts, as di- rected on page 215, and cook in boiling milk until tender. Rub the nuts through a colander, add salt and sufficient milk and cream to make a soup of the proper consistency, reheat and serve. SOUPS. 279 Combination Soup. — This soup is prepared from material already cooked, and requires two cups of cracked wheat, one and one half cups of Lima beans, one half cup of black beans, and one cup of stewed tomato. Rub the material together through a colander, adding, if needed, a little hot water to facilitate the sifting. Add boiling water to thin to the proper consistency, season with salt and if it can be afforded a little sweet cream, — the soup is, however, very palatable without the cream. Combination Sonp No. 2. — Take three and one half cups of mashed (Scotch) peas, one cup each of cooked rice, oatmeal, and hominy, and two cups of stewed tomato. Rub the material through a colander, add boiling water to thin to the proper consistency, season with salt, reheat, and add, just before serving, two cups of cooked macaroni. If preferred, a cup of cream may be used in place of the tomato, or both may be omitted. Anotber. — One half cup of cold mashed potato, one cup each of cooked pearl wheat, barley and dried peas. Rub all through a colander, add boiling milk to thin to the proper consistency, season with salt and a half cup of cream. Anotlier. — Take three cups of cooked oatmeal, two of mashed white beans, and one of stewed tomato. Rub the ingredients through a colan- der, add boiling milk to thin to the proper consistency, season with salt and a little cream. Cream Pea Soup. — Soak three fourths of a pint of dried Scotch peas over night in a quart of water. In the morning put to cook in boiling water, cover closely and let them simmer gently four or five hours, or until the peas are very tender and well disintegrated ; then rub through a colander to remove the skins. If the peas are very dry, add a little water or milk occasionally, to moisten them and facilitate the sifting. Just be- fore the peas are done, prepare potatoes enough to make a pint and a half, after being cut in thin slices. Cook the potatoes until tender in a small amount of water, and rub them through a colander. Add the potatoes thus prepared to the sifted peas, and milk enough to make three and one half pints in all. Return to the fire, and add a small head of celery cut in finger lengths, and let the whole simmer together ten or fifteen min- utes, until flavored. Remove the celery with a fork, add salt and a cup of thin cream. This should make about two quarts of soup. If pre- ferred, the peas may be cooked without soaking. It will, however, re- quire a little longer time. Cream Barley Soup. — Wash a cup of pearl barley, drain and simmer slowly in two quarts of water for four or five hours, adding boiling water from time to time as needed. When the barley is tender, strain off the liquor, of which there should be about three pints ; add to it a portion of 28o SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. the cooked barley grains, salt, and a cup of whipped cream, and serve. If preferred, the beaten yolk of an egg may be used instead of cream. Green Corn Soup. — Take six well-filled ears of tender green corn. Run a sharp knife down the rows and split each grain ; then with the back of a knife, scraping from the large to the small end of the ear, press out the pulp, leaving the hulls on the cob. Break the cobs if long, put them in cold water sufficient to cover, and boil half an hour. Strain off the water, of which there should be at least one pint. Put the corn water on again, and when boiling add the corn pulp, and cook fifteen minutes, or until the raw taste is destroyed. Rub through a rather coarse colander, add salt and a pint of hot unskimmed milk ; if too thin, thicken with a little corn- starch or flour, boil up, and serve. If preferred, a teaspoonful of sugar may be added to the soup. A small quantity of cooked macaroni, cut in rings, makes a veiy pretty and palatable addition to the soup. The soup is also excellent flavored with celery. Grreen Pea Soup. — Gently simmer two quarts of shelled peas in suffi- cient water to cook, leaving almost no juice when tender. Rub through a colander, moistening if necessary with a little cold milk. Add to the sifted peas an equal quantity of rich milk and a small onion cut in halves. Boil all together fiye or ten minutes until the soup is delicately flavored, then remove the onion with a skimmer ; add salt if desired, and serve. If preferred, a half cup of thin cream may be added just before serving. Celery may be used in place of the onion, or both may be omitted. Green Bean Soup. — Prepare a quart of fresh string beans by pulling off ends and strings and breaking into small pieces. Boil in a small quantity of water. If the beans are fresh and young, three pints will be sufficient ; if wilted or quite old, more will be needed, as they will require longer cooking. There should be about a teacupful and a half of liquid left when the beans are perfectly tender and boiled in pieces. Rub through a colander, return to the kettle, and for each cup of the bean pulp add salt, a cup and a half of unskimmed milk ; boil together for a few minutes, thicken with a little flour, and serve. The quart of beans should be sufficient for three pints of soup. Kornlet Soup. — Kornlet or canned green corn pulp, may be made into a most appetizing soup in a few minutes by adding to a pint of kornlet an equal quantity of rich milk, heating to boiling, and thickening it with a teaspoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Kornlet and Tomato Soup. — Put together equal quantities of kornlet and strained stewed tomato, season with salt and heat to boiling ; add for each quart one fourth to one half cup of hot thin cream, thicken with a tablespoonful of flour rubbed smooth in a little water, and serve. Cooked corn rubbed through a colander may also be used for this soup. SOUPS. 281 Lentil Soup. — Simmer a pint of lentils in water until tender. If de- sired to have the soup less dark in color and less strong in flavor, the len- tils may be first parboiled for a half hour, and then drained and put into fresh boiling water. Much valuable nutriment is thus lost, however. When perfectly tender, mash through a colander to remove all skins ; add salt and a cup of thin cream, and if too thick, sufficient boiling milk or water to thin to the proper consistency, heat again to boiling, and serve. If preferred, an additional quantity of liquid may be added and the soup slightly thickened with browned flour. Lentil and Parsni]) Soup. — Cook together one pint of lentils and one half a small parsnip, sliced, until tender in a small quantity of boiling water. When done, rub through a colander, and add boiling watar to make a soup of the proper consistency. Season with salt and if desired a little cream. Lima Bean Soup. — Simmer a pint of Lima beans gently in just suffi- cient water to cook and not burn, until they have fallen to pieces. Add more boiling water as needed. When done, rub the beans through a col- ander. Add rich milk or water to make of the proper consistency, and salt to season ; reheat and serve. White beans may be used in place of Lima beans, but they require more prolonged cooking. A heaping tablespoonful of pearl tapioca or sago previously soaked in cold water, may be added to the soup when it is reheated, if liked, and the whole cooked until the sago is transparent. Macaroni Soup. — Heat a quart of milk, to which has been added a tablespoonful of finely grated bread crust (the brown part only, from the top of the loaf) and a slice of onion to flavor, in a double boiler. When the milk is well flavored, remove the onion, turn through a col- ander, add salt, and thicken with two teaspoonfuls of flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Lastly add one cupful of cooked maca-^ roni, and serve. Oatmeal Soup. — Put two heaping tablespoonfuls of oatmeal into a quart of boiling water, and cook in a double boiler for two hours or longer. Strain as for gruel, add salt if desired, and two or three stalks of celery broken into finger lengths, and cook again until the whole is well flavored with the celery, which may then be removed with a fork ; add a lialf cup of cream, and the soup is ready to serve. Cold oatmeal mush may be thinned with milk, reheated, strained, flavored, and made into soup the same as fresh material. A slice or two of onion may be used with the celery for flavoring the soup if desired, or a cup of strained stewed tomato may be added. Parsnip Soup. — Take a quart of well scraped, thinly sliced parnips, one cup of bread crust shavings (prepared as for Brown Soup), one head 2o. 2. — Steep one half cup of cocoanut in a pint of milk for one half hour. Strani out the cocoanut and add sufficient fresh milk to make a pint. Allow it to become cold, then add a quarter of a cup of sugar and two well-beaten eggs. Bake with an under crust only. When done, the top may be covered with a meringue the same as in the preced- ing recipe. Cream Pic. — For one pie beat together one egg, one half cup of sugar, one tablespoouful of flour, and two cups of rich milk. Bake in one crust. Cranberry Pic. — Stew a quart of cranberries until broken in a pint of boiling water. Rub through a colander to remove the skins, add two cups of sugar and one half cup of sifted flour. ~Bake with under crust only. Dried Apple Pie. — Stew good dried apples till perfectly tender in as small a quantity of water as possible. When done, rub through a colan- der ; they should be about the consistency of fruit jam ; if not, a little flour may be added. Sweeten to taste, fill under crusts with the mix- ture, and bake. If lemon flavor is liked, a few pieces of the yellow rind may be added to' the apples a little while before they are tender. If the apples are especially tasteless, lemon juice or some sour apple jelly should be added after rubbing through the colander. The crusts may first be baked, and filled with the mixture when needed ; in which case the sauce should be simmered lightly till of the desired consistency. The top may be ornamented with strips or rings of crust, if desired. Dried Apple Pie with Raisins. — Rub a quart of well-stewed dried apples through a colander, add a cupful of steamed raisins, sugar to sweeten, and bake with two crusts. This is sufficient for two pies. Dried Api-icot Pie. — Stew together one third dried apricots and two thirds dried apples or peaches. When soft, rub through a colander, add gugar to sweeten, and if very juicy, stew again until the juice is mostly evaporated ; then beat until light and bake in a granola crust. Farina Pie. — Cook one fourth cup of farina in a double boiler for an hour in three cups of rich milk. Allow it to become cool, then add one half cup of sugar, the yolks of two eggs, and a little grated lemon rind. Bake with under crust only. Meringue the top with the white of the egg beaten to a stiff froth with one tablespoouful of sugar and a little grated lemon rind for flavoring. The quantity given is sufficient for two small pies. Fruit Pies. — Apples, peaches, and all small fruits and berries may be made into palatable pies without rich crusts or an excess of sugar, or the 340 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. addition of unwholesome spices and flavorings. Bake the crust sepa- rately, and fill when needed with prepared fruit ; or, fill with the fruit, using only sufficient sugar to sweeten ; add no spices, and bake quickly. Prepare apples for pies by paring, coring, and dividing in eighths. Peaches are best prepared in a similar manner. Fill crusts in which the fruit is to be baked quite full and slightly heaping in the center. If flavoring is desired, let it be that of some other fruit. For apple pies, a teaspoonful or two of pineapple juice, a little grated lemon or orange peel, or a little strawberry or quince syrup, may be used for flavoring. For pies made of apples, peaches, and fruits which are not very juicy, add a tablespoon- ful or so of water or fruit juice ; but for very juicy fruits and berries, dredge the under crust with a tablespoonful of sugar and a little flour mixed together before filling, or stir a spoonful of flour into the fruit so that each berry or piece may be separately floured. Grape Jelly Pie. — Cook perfectly ripe, purple grapes ; rub them through a colander to remove the seeds and skins. Return the pulp to the fire and thicken with rice flour or cornstarch, to the consistency of thick cream or jelly, and sweeten to taste. Fill an under crust with the mixture, and bake. The top may be ornamentedwith pastry cut in fancy shapes if desired. Jelly Custard Pie. — Dissolve three tablespoonfuls of nice, pure fruit jelly in very little warm water, add one and one half cups of milk and two well-beaten eggs, stirring the whites m last. Bake with under crust only. Jellies are usually so sweet that no sugar is needed. Apple, raspberry, currant, strawberry, and quince jellies all make nice pies, prepared in this way. Lemou Pie. — Take four tablespoonfuls of lemon juice (one large lemon or two small ones will yield about this quantity), the grated yellow por- tion only of the rind of half a lemon, and two thirds of a cup of sugar. Beat the lemon juice and sugar together. Braid a slightly heaping table- spoonful of cornstarch with as little water as possible, and pour over it, stirring constantly, one half pint of boiling water, to thicken the starch. Add the lemon and sugar to the starch, and let it cool ; then stir m the yolks of two eggs and half the white of one, well beaten together. Beat thoroughly, pour into a deep crust, and bake. When done, cover with the remaining whites of the eggs, beaten with one and a half tablespoon- fuls of sugar, and brown lightly in the oven. Lemou Meriugue Custard. — Heat two cups of milk to boiling, add a tablespoonful of cornstarch well braided with a little cold milk ; let the whole simmer till thickened, stirring constantly. Allow it to cool, add one third of a cup of sugar and the beaten yolks of two eggs. Bake in an under crust, and cover with a meringue made of the whites of the eggs DESSERTS. 341 beaten to a stiif froth with two tablespoonfuls of sugar mixed with grated lemon peel. If liked, a spoonful of lemon juice may be added, a few drops at a time, during the beating of the meringue. One-Crust Peach Pie. — Pare and remove the stones from ripe, nice flavored peaches ; stew till soft in the smallest quantity of water possible without burning. Rub through a colander, or beat smooth with a large spoon. Add sugar as required. Bake with one crust. If the peach sauce is evaporated until quite dry, it is very nice baked in a granola crust. When done, meringue with the whites of two eggs whipped stiff with two taI:)lespoonfuls of sugar. The flavor is improved by adding by degrees to the egg while whipping, a tablespoonful of lemon juice. Re- turn to the oven and brown lightly. Serve cold. Canned peaches or stewed dried peaches may be used in place of the fresh ones. In using the dried peaches, carefully e.xamine and wash ; soak them over night in cold water, and stew them in the same water until soft enough to rub through the colander. For each pie, add two tablespoonfuls of sweet cream, and sufficient sugar to sweeten ; too much sugar destroys the flavor of the fruit. Evaporated peaches, soaked over night and stewed carefully until tender, then removed from the syrup, which may be sweetened and boiled until thick and rich and afterward turned over the peaches, makes a delicious pie. Bake in one crust, with or without a meringue. Oraiigre Pie. — Rub smooth a heaping tablespoonful of cornstarch in three tablespoonfuls of water ; pour over it a cup of boiling water, and cook until clear, stirring frequently that no lumps form. Add one cupful of sour orange juice, a little grated rind, and the juice of one lemon, with sugar to taste. Lastly, when quite cool, stir in the well-beaten yolks of two eggs. Bake with under crust only. Meringue the top when baked, with the whites of the eggs well beaten with a tablespoonful of sugar, and a very little grated orange peel sprinkled over it. Peach Custard Pie. — Cover a pie plate with an under crust. Take fresh peaches, pare, halve, and stone them, and place a layer, hollow side up, in the pie. Prepare a custard with one egg, one cup of milk, and three tablespoonfuls of sugar. Pour the custard over the peaches, and bake. If the quantity given will not entirely cover the peaches, a little more must be prepared. Canned peaches which are not broken can be used instead of fresh ones. The pieces should be drained free from juice, and less sugar used. Prune Pie. — Prepare and cook sweet California prunes as directed for Prune Marmalade. Fill an under crust and bake. The top may be or- namented with strips of crust or pastry leaves ; or. if desired, may be meringued with the whites of two eggs beaten to a stiff froth with two 342 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. tablespoonfuls of sugar and a little grated lemon peel. This pie is excel- lent baked in a granola crust. Piimpkiu Pie. — To prepare the pumpkin, cut into halves, remove the seeds, divide into moderately small pieces, and bake in the oven until thoroughly done. Then scrape from the shell, rub through a colander, and proceed as follows : For one and one third pints of the cooked pump- kin use one quart of hot, rich, sweet milk. Add one half cup of sugar and the well-beaten yolks of three eggs, beat well together, add the whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth, and beat thoroughly. Line the tins with a stiff cream paste, fill, and bake in a moderate oven till the pies are barely firm in the center, or till the custard is well set. Pnmpkiu Pie No. 2. — For each pie desired, take one half pint of baked pumpkin, a pint of rich milk, one third of a cup of sugar, and two eggs. Mix the sugar and eggs, add the pumpkin, and lastly the milk, which should be hot, and beat all together with an egg beater until very light. Fill the crust, and bake slowly, Pnmpkiu Pie mtlioiit Eg'g'S. — Prepare the pumpkin as previously di- rected. For two medium-sized pies, heat a pint and a half of milk in a farina kettle, and when scalding, stir into it two scant tablespoonfuls of white flour rubbed smooth in a little cold milk. Cook, stirring often, until it thickens. Add half a cup of sugar, or a little less of syrup, to a pint and a half of the sifted pumpkin, and after beating well together, stir this into the hot milk. Bake in an under crust ; or, for three pies, take one quart and a cupful of pumpkin, three fourths of a cup of sugar, two thirds of a cup of best New Orleans molasses, and three pints of hot milk. Beat all together thoroughly. Line deep plates with a cream crust, and bake an hour and a half in a moderate oven. Simple Custard Pie. — For one pie, take one pint of milk, two well- beaten eggs, one third of a cup of sugar, and a little grated lemon rind for flavor. Bake in an under crust. If eggs are scarce, a very good pie can be made by using onlj' one egg, and a tablespoonful of cornstarch, with the above proportions of milk and sugar ; in which case, heat the milk to scalding, stir in the cornstarch, and cook till thickened ; cool, and then add the well-beaten egg. If preferred, the crust may be baked before fill- ing, and the custard steamed, meanwhile. Squasli Pie. — Squash prepared as directed for pumpkin, and flavored with rose water, makes an excellent pie. Or, for each pie desired, take one pint of rich milk ( part cream if it can be afforded ), add one cup of nicely baked mealy squash which has been rubbed through a colander, one third of a cup of sugar, and two well-beaten eggs. Beat all together thoroughly. Bake in a deep pan slowly and carefully until firm. DESSEUTfi. 343 Squash Pie without Eg-g-s. — Bake the squash in the shell ; when done, remove with a spoon and mash tlirough a colander. For one pie, take eight tablespoonfuls of the squash, half a cup of sugar, and one and one third cups of boiling milk. Pour the milk slowly over the squash, beating rapidly meanwhile to make the mixture light. Bake in one crust. Sweet-apple Tustard Pie. — Into one pint of new milk, grate three ripe sweet apples (Golden Sweets are excellent); add two well-beaten eggs, and sugar to taste. Bake with undev crust only. Sweet Potato Pie. — Bake sufficient sweet potatoes to make a pint of pulp when rubbed through a colander ; add a pint of rich milk, a scant cup of sugar, salt if desired, the yolks of two eggs, and a little grated lemon rind for flavor. Bake with under crust. Wlien done, meringue with the whites of the eggs beaten up with a tablespoonful of sugar. CAKE. General Suggestions. — Always sift the flour for cake before measurinf^ out the amount required. Use the best granulated white sugar. Eggs for use in cake are better to have the }^oll linio water is usually sufficient for a pint of milk. Peptonized Milk for Infants. — One gill of cows' milk, fresh and un- skimmed ; one gill of pure water ; two tablespoonfuls of rich, sweet cream ; two hundred grains of milk sugar ; one and one fourth grains of extractiini pancreafis ; four grains of sodium bicarbonate. Put the above in a clean nursing bottle, and place the bottle in water so warm that the whole hand cannot be held in it longer than one minute without pain. Keep the milk at this temperature for exactly twenty minutes. Prepare fresh just before using. BEEF=TEA, BROTHS, ETC. Beef tea and meat broths are by no means so useful as foods for the sick as is generally supposed. The late Dr. Austin Flint used to say of these foods, that "the valuation by most persons outside of the medical profession, and by many within it, of beef tea or its analogues, the various solutions, most of the extracts, and the expressed juice of meat, is a delusion and a snare which has led to the loss of many lives by starvation. "The quantity of nutriti\'e material in these preparations is insignificant or nil, and it is vastly important that they should be reckoned as of little or no value, except as indirectly con- ducive to nutrition by acting as stimulants for the secretion of the digestive fluids, or as vehicles for the introduction of the nutritive substances. Furthermore, it is to be considered that water and pressure not only fail to extract the alimentary prin- ciples of meat, but that the excrementitious principles, or the products of destructive assimilation, are thereby extracted." Vegetable broths prepared from grains and legumes possess a much higher nutritive value, while they lack the objection- able features of meat broths. RECIPES. Beef Extract, — Take a pound of lean beef, cut it up into small dice, and put it into a glass fruit jar. Screw on the cover tightly, put the jar into a vessel filled with cold water to a depth sufficient to come to the top of contents of the jar, and set over a slow fire. As soon as the water boils, set where it will keep just boiling, but no more ; and cook for an FOOD FOR THE SKK. 42/ hour or an hour and a quarter. Then strain, season, and serve. If pre- ferred, a double boiler may be used for the preparation of the extract. Bot'f Juice. — Cut a thick slice of round steak, trim off every particle of fat, and broil it over a clear fire just long enough to heat it throughout. Next gash it in many places with a sharp knife, and with the aid of a beef- juice press or lemon squee;ier, press out all the juice into a bowl set in hot water, salt but very slightly, remove all globules of fat, and serve. This may also be frozen and given the patient in small lumps, if so ordered. Beef Tea. — Take a pound of fresh, lean, juicy beef of good flavor, — the top of the round and the back and middle of the rump are the best portions for the purpose, — from which all fat, bones, and sinews have been carefully removed ; cut into pieces a cjuarter of an inch square, or grind in a sausage-cutter. Add a quart of cold water, and put into a clean double boiler. Place over the fire, and heat very slowly, carefully i"emoving all scum as it rises. Allow it to cook gently for two or three hours,- or until the water has been reduced one half. Strain, and put away to cool. Before using, remove all fat from the surface, and season. In reheating, a good way is to place a quantity in a cup, and set the cup into hot water until the tea is sufficiently hot. This prevents waste, and if the patient is not ready for the tea, it can be easily kept hot. Beef Tea aiul Egg'S. — Beat the yolk of an egg thoroughly in a tea- cujD and fill the cup with boiling beef tea, stirring all the while. Season with a little salt if desired. Beef Broth and Oatmeal. — Rub two tablespoonfuls of oatmeal smooth in an equal quantity of cold water, and stir into a quart of boiling beef broth. Cook in a double boiler for two hours, strain, and season with salt and a little cream if allowed. Or, thin well-cooked oatmeal mush with beef-tea ; strain, reheat, season, and serve. Bottled Beef Tea. — Cut two pounds oi round steak into small dice, rejecting all skin and fat. Put it into a glass fruit jar with one cup of cold water. Cover the can sufficiently tight to prevent any water from boiling in, and place it on a wisp of straw nr a muifti ring in a kettle of cold water. Heat very gradually, and keep it just below the boiling point for two or more houi's ; or, place the can in a deep dish of hot water, and cook in a moderate oven for three hours. Allow the meat to cook thus four or five hours, or until it appears white, by which time it will have discharged all its juice. Turn the liquor off, strain through a piece of muslin or cheese cloth laid in a colander, and cool ; then if any fat has been left, it will harden on the top, and can be removed. When needed for use, reheat, season, and serve. Chicken Broth. — Take a well dressed, plump spring chicken, cut it into half-inch pieces, cracking well all the bones; add cold water, — a 428 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. quart to the pound of meat and bones, — -and cook the same as beef-tea. Allow the broth to cool before using, and carefully skim off all particles of fat before reheating. If allowed, a tablespoonful of steamed rice may be added to the broth, or a well-beaten egg may be stirred in while hot, just before serving. Heat until the whole becomes thickened, but do not boil. If preferred, the broth may be prepared by using only the white por- tion of the chicken in connection with lean beef. This is liked better by some to whom the strong flavor of the chicken is not pleasant. Or, pre- pare a broth of the white portion only of the chicken, and add to it an equal quantity of rich milk, season with salt, reheat, and serve. The broth may be flavored with celery if allowed. Mutton Broth. — Cut a pound of perfectly fresh, lean mutton or lamb — the scrags of neck are best — into small dice. Add a quart of cold water, and simmer gently for two or three hours. Strain, and when cold, skim off all fat. Reheat when needed for use. If preferred, a tablespoonful of rice which has been soaked for an hour in a little warm water, or a tablespoonful of cooked barley, may be simmered in the broth for a half hour before serving. Season with salt as desired. Veg"etable Broth. — Put a cupful of well washed white beans into a quart of cold water in a double boiler, and cook slowly until but a cupful of the liquor remains. Strain off the broth, add salt, and serve hot. If preferred, a few grains of powdered thyme may be added as flavoring. Vegetable Broth ?fo. 2. — Pick over and wash a cup of dried Scotch peas, and put to cook in a quart of cold water, cook slowly in a double boiler or in a kettle placed on the range where they will just simmer, until but a cupful of liquid remains. Strain off the broth, add salt and one third of a cupful of the liquor, without pulp, from well-stewed toma- toes. Serve hot. Mixed Yeg-etable Broths. — Broths may be prepared as directed from both black and white beans, and combined in the proportion of one third of the former to two thirds of the latter ; or a broth of lentils may be used instead of the black bean. REC/PES FOR PANADA. Broth Panada. — Use beef or chicken broth in place of water, and proceed the same as in Egg Panada, omitting the egg. Chicken Panada. — Take a cupful of the white meat of chicken, pounded to a paste in a mortar, and half a cup of whole-wheat crust or zwieback crumbs. Add sufificient chicken broth to make a thick gruel. Season with salt, boil up for a few minutes, and serve hot. FOOD FOR THE SICK. 429 Eg'g: Panada. — Put two ounces of light, whole-wheat crusts into a pint of cold water in a gianite-ware stewpan ; simmer gently for three quarters of an hour, stirring occasionally. Season with a spoonful of sweet cream and a little salt, then stir in the well-beaten yolk of an egg, and serve. Milk Pauada. — Heat a pint of milk to boiling, then allow it to cool. Add two ounces of nice, light, whole-wheat crusts, and simmer for half an hour, stirring frequently. Season with a little sugar, if allowed. Gra- nola may be used in place of the crusts, if preferred. Raisin Panada. — Boil a half cup of raisins in a half pint of water. Break a slice of zwieback into fragments in a l)owl. Add a well-bcateu egg and a teaspoonful of sugar. Pour in the raisins, water and all, and beat very thoroughly. GRAINS FOR THE SICK. For invalids able to digest solid food, rice, cracked wheat, Graham grits, oatmeal, barley, farina and other grains may be prepared and cooked as previously directed in the chapter on Grains. The various cooked preparations of grains — granola, wheatena, avenola, wheat gluten, and gluten meal — manu- factured by the Sanitarium Food Co., Battle Creek, Mich., form excellent articles of diet for many invalids, when served with hot milk or cream, or prepared in the form of mush. Several recipes for their use have already been given in preceding chapters ; the following are a few additional ones : — REC/PES. Gluten Mush. — Heat together a cup of thin cream and three cups of water ; when boiling, sift in lightly with the fingers, stirring continuously meanwhile, enough wheat gluten to make a mush of the desired consist- ency. Boil up once and serve. A few blanched or roasted almonds may be stirred in just before serving, if desired. Tomato Gluten. — Heat a pint of stewed tomato, which has been rubbed through a fine colander to remove the seeds, to boiling, add salt to season, and three tablespoonfuls of gluten meal. Boil together for a moment until thickened, and serve hot. Tomato Gluten No. 2. — Prepare the same as the preceding, using five tablespoonfuls of the gluten meal, and seasoning with two tablespoonfuls of rather thick, sweet cream. 430 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. MEATS FOR THE SICK. All meats for the sick should be prepared in the very sim- plest way, served with the plainest possible dressing, and with- out the use of condiments other than salt. REC/PES. Broiled Steak. — Take a half pound of round steak and a slice of ten- derloin; wipe well with a clean, wet cloth. Have a clear fire ; place the meat in an open wire broiler or on a gridiron over the coals, and cook, turning as often as you can count ten, for four or five minutes, if the slices are about one inch thick ; then with a lemon squeezer squeeze the juice from the round steak over the tenderloin, season with a little salt, and serve at once on a hot plate. Chicken. — For an invalid, the breast of a tender chicken broiled quickly over hot coals is best. For directions for broiling chicken see page 406. Chicken Jelly. — Dress a small chicken. Disjoint, break or pound the bones, and cut the meat into half-inch pieces. Remove every parti- cle of fat possible. Cover with cold water, heat very slowly, and sim- mer gently until the meat is in rags, and the liquid I'educed about one half. Strain off the liquor, cool, and remove all the fat. To make the broth more clear, add the shell and white of an egg, then reheat slowly, stirring all the time until hot. Strain through a fine cloth laid inside of a colander. Salt and a little lemon may be added as seasoning. Pour into small cups, and cool. Minced Chicken. — Stew the breast of a young chicken until tender ; mince fine with a sharp knife. Thicken the liquor in which it was stewed with a little flour, add salt and a little cream if allowed, then the minced chicken, and serve hot on zwieback, softened with cream as directed in the chapter on Breakfast Dishes. Mutton Chop. — Select a chop containing a large tenderloin ; cut thick, and broil for eight or ten minutes as directed for beef steak. Season lightly with salt, and serve hot. Minced Steak. — Mince some nice, juicy steak with a chopping knife, or in a sausage-cutter, rejecting as much of the fiber as possible ; make into small cakes and broil the same as steak. Salt lightly when done, and for dressing use a little beef juice prepared as directed on page 427. It may be thickened with a little flour as for gravy, if preferred. Scraped Steak. — Take a small piece of nice, juicy steak, and with a blunt case-knife or ta!:>lespoon, scrape off all the pulp, being careful to FOOT) FOR THE SICK. 43 I get none of the fibers. Piess the pulp together in the form of patties, and broil quickly over glowing coals. Salt lightly, and serve hot. It is better to be as rare as the patient can take it. Instead of butter, turn a spoonful or two of thick, hot beef juice over the steak, if any dressing other than salt is required. EGGS FOR THE SICK. REC/PES. Floated Eg-g-. — Separate the white from the yolk, and drop the yolk, taking great care not to break it, into boiling, salted water. Cook until hard and mealy. In the meantime, beat the white of the egg until stiff and firm. When the yolk is cooked, remove it from the water with a skimmer. Let the water cease to boil, then dip the beaten white in spoonfuls on the top of the scalding water, allowing it to remain for a second or two until coagulated, but not hardened. Arrange the white in a hot egg saucer, and place the cooked yolk in the center, or serve on toast. This makes a very pretty, as well as appetizing dish, if care is taken to keep the yolk intact. Gluten Meal Custard. — Beat together thoroughly, one pint of rich milk, one egg, and four tablespoonfuls of gluten meal. Add a little salt if de- sired, and cook with the dish set in another containing boiling water, until the custard has set. Or, turn the custard into cups, which place in a dripping pan partly filled with hot water, and cook in a moderate oven until the custard is set. Grliiten Custard.— Into a quart of boiling milk stir four tablespoonfuls of wheat gluten moistened with a little of the milk, which may be reserved for the purpose. Allow it to cook until thickened. Cool to lukewarm temperature, and add three well-beaten eggs, and a trifle of salt, if desired. Turn into cups, and steam over a kettle of boiling water until the custard is set. Steamed Eg-grs. — Break an egg into an egg saucer, sauce-dish, or patty pan, salt very slightly, and steam until the white has just set. In this way, it will retain its shape perfectly, and not be mixed with the few drops of water so annoying to invalids, and so hard to avoid in dishing a poached egg from water. Soft Custard. — Boil some milk, then cool it to 180', add three whipped eggs to each quart of milk, and keep at the temperature of 180° for fifteen or twenty minutes. The object is to coagulate the eggs without producing the bad effect of exposure to a high temperature. Raw Eggs. — Break a fresh egg into a glass, add a tablespoonful of sugar, and beat to a stiff froth ; a little cold water may be added if liked. 432 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. White of Egg. — Stir the white of an egg into a glass of cold water, or water as warm as it can be without coagulating the egg, and serve. White of Egg and Milk. — The white of an egg beaten to a stiff froth and stirred into a glass of milk, forms a nourishing food for persons of weak digestion. REFRESHING DRINKS AND DELICACIES FOR THE SICK. In many fevers and acute diseases, but little food is re- quired, and that of a character which merely appeases hunger and quenches thirst, without stimulation and without afford- ing much nourishment. Preparations from sago, tapioca, and other farinaceous sub- stances are sometimes serviceable for this purpose. Oranges, grapes, and other perfectly ripened and juicy fruits are also most excellent. They are nature's own delicacies, and serve both for food and drink. They should not, however, be kept in the sick room, but preserved in some cool place, and served when needed, as fresh and in as dainty a manner as possible. Like all food provided for the sick, they should be arranged to please the eye as well as the palate. The capricious appetite of an invalid will often refuse luscious fruit from the hand of a nurse, which would have been gladly accepted had it been served on dainty china, with a clean napkin and silver. The juice of the various small fruits and berries forms a basis from which may be made many refreshing drinks espe- cially acceptable to the dry, parched mouth of a sick person. Fruit juices can be prepared with but little trouble. For directions see page 209. Beverages from fruit juices are prepared by using a small quantity of the juice, and sufficient cold water to dilute it to the taste. If it is desirable to use such a drink for a sick per- son in some household where fruit juices have not been put up for the purpose, the juice may be obtained from a can of strawberries, raspberries, or other small fruit, by turning the whole into a coarse cloth and straining off the juice ; or ^ FOOD FOR THE SICK. 433 tablespoonful of currant or other jelly may be dissolved in a tumbler of warm water, and allowed to cool. Either will make a good substitute for the prepared fruit juice, though the flavor will be less delicate. The hot beverages and many of the cold ones given in the chapter on Beverages will be found service- able for the sick, as will also the following additional ones : — RECIPES. Acorn Coftee. — Select plump, round, sweet acorns. Shell, and brown in an oven ; then grind in a coffee-mill, and use as ordinary coffee. Almond Milk. — Blanch a quarter of a pound of shelled almonds by pouring over them a quart of boiling water, and when the skins soften, rub- bing them off with a coarse towel. Pound the almonds in a mortar, a few at a time, adding four or five drops of milk occasionally, to prevent their oiling. About one tablespoonful of milk in all will be sufficient. When finely pounded, mi.x the almonds with a pint of milk, two tablespoon- fuls of sugar, and a little piece of lemon rind. Place the whole over the fire to simmer for a little time. Strain, if preferred, and serve cold. Apple Beyerag"e. — Pare and slice very thin a juicy tart apple into a china bowl. Cover with boiling water, put a saucer over the bowl, and allow the water to get cold. Strain and drink. Crab apples may be used in the same way. Apple Beverage No. 2. — Bake two large, sour apples, and when tender, sprinkle a tablespoonful of sugar over them, and return to the oven until the sugar is slightly browned. Break and mash the apples with a silver spoon, pour over them a pint of boiling water ; cover and let stand until cold ; then strain and serve. Apple Toast Water. — Break a slice of zwieback into small pieces, and mix with them two or three well-baked tart apples. Pour over all a quart of boiling water, cover, and let stand until cold, stirring occasionally. When cold, strain, add sugar to sweeten if desired, and serve. Baked Milk. — Put a quart of new milk in a stone jar, tie a white paper over it, and let it stand in a moderately heated oven eight or ten hours. It becomes of a creamy consistency. Barley Lemonade. — Put a half cup of pearl barley into a quart of cold water, and simmer gently until the water has become mucilaginous and quite thick. This will take from an hour to an hour and a half. The barley will absorb most of the water, but the quantity given should make a teacupful of good, thick barley water. Add to this two teaspoonfuls of lemon juice and a tablespoonful of sugar. Let it get cold before serving. By returning the barley to the stewpan with another quart of cold water, 28 434 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. and simmering for an hour or an hour and a half longer, a second cup of barley water may be obtained, almost as goo^i as the first. Barley and. Fruit Drink, — Prepare a barley water as above, and add to each cupful a tablespoonful or two of cranberry, grape, raspberry, or any tart fruit syrup. The pure juice sweetened will answer just as well ; or a little fruit jelly may be dissolved and added. Barley Milk. — Wash two tablespoonfuls of pearl barley in cold water until the water is clear. Put it to cook in a double boiler, with a quart of milk, and boil till the milk is reduced to a pint. Strain off the milk, and sweeten if desired. Cranberry Drink. — Mash carefully selected, ripe cranberries thor- oughly in an earthen dish, and pour boiling water over them. Let the mixture stand until cold, strain off the water, and sweeten to taste. Bar- berries prepared in the same manner make a nice drink. Currantade. — Mash thoroughly a pint of ripe, red currants, and one half the quantity of red raspberries ; add sugar to sweeten and two quarts of cold water. Stir, strain, cool on ice, and sei've. Crust Coft'ee. — Brown slices of Graham bread in a slow oven until veiy dark in color. Break in pieces and roll fine with a rolling pin. A quantity of this material may be prepared at one time and stored in glass fruit cans for use. When needed, pour a cupful of actively boiling water over a dessertspoonful of the prepared crumbs, let it steep for a few moments, then strain and serve. Eg'g'nog-. — Beat the white of an egg to a stiff froth, add one table- spoonful of white sugar, then beat again. Next add the yolk, and beat ; then a tablespoonful of milk, one of cold water, and one of any fruit juice desired. Eggnog- No. 2. — Prepare as above, using two tablespoonfuls of water instead of one of water and one of milk, and a teaspoonful of lemon juice in place of other fruit juice. Eggnog No. 3. — Beat the yolk of a freshly laid egg with a table- spoonful of sugar until it is light and creamy ; add to this, one half cup of hot milk and stir in lightly the stiffly beaten white of the egg. Serve at once. Egg Lemonade. — Beat the white of an egg to a stiff froth, then mix with it the juice of a small lemon, and one tablespoonful of sugar. Add a half pint of cold water. Or, beat together with an egg beater a table- spoonful of lemon juice, a teaspoonful of sugar, the white of an egg and a cup of cold water, until thoroughl)' mingled, then serve at once. Flaxseed Tea. — Take an ounce of whole flaxseed, half an ounce of crushed licorice root, an ounce of refined sugar, and four tablespoonfuls of lemon juice. Pour a quart of boiling water over them; keep near the fire for four hours, and then strain off the liquid. The flaxseed should P'OOJ~) FOR THE SICK. 435 not be crushed, as the mucilage is in the outer part of the kernel, and if bruised, the boiling water will extract the oil of the seed, and render the decoction nauseous. Make fresh daily. Gum Arabic Water. — Pour a pint of boiling water over an ounce of clean gum arable. When dissolved, add the juice of one lemon and a tea- spoonful of sugar, and strain. Hot Water. — Put good, fresh water into a perfectly clean granite-ware kettle, already warmed ; let it come to a boil very quickly, and use at once. Do not leave it to simmer until it has become insipid through the loss of the air which it contains. Hot Lemonade. — Put in a glass a thin slice of lemon and the juice of half a small lemon, being careful to remove all seeds ; mix with it one dessertspoonful of white sugar, and fill the glass with boiling water. Or, remove the peel of a lemon in very thin parings, turn one pint of boiling water over them, letting it stand for a few moments covered. Remove the peel, add the juice of a lemon and one tablespoonful of sugar, and serve. Irixli Moss Lemonade. — Soak one fourth of a cup of Irish moss in cold water until it begins to soften ; then work it free from sand and tiny shells likely to be on it, and thoroughly wash. Put it in a granite-ware basin, and pour over it two (Mips of boiling water. Leave on the back of the range where it will keep hot, but not boil, for half an hour ; strain, add the juice of one lemon, and sugar to taste. Drink hot or cold, as preferred. Orang'eade. — Rub lightly two ounces of lump sugar on the rind of two nice, fresh oranges, to extract the flavor ; put this sugar into a pitcher, to which add the juice expressed from the oranges, and that from one lemon. Pour over all one pint of cold water, stir thoroughly, and serve. Plain Lemonade. — For one glass of lemonade squeeze the juice of half a small lemon into the glass ; carefully remove all seeds and particles. Add a dessertspoonful of sugar, and fill the glass with cold water. Slippery Elm Tea. — Pour boiling water over bits of slippery elm bark . or slippery elm powder, cool, and strain. If desired, a little lemon juice and sugar may be added to fla\'or. Toast Water. — Toast a pint of whole-wheat or Graham bread crusts very brown, but do not burn. Co\er with a pint of cold water. Let it stand an hour, strain, and use. Sugar and a little cream may be added if allowed. Tamarind Water. — Boil four ounces of tamarinds and the same of raisins slowly, in three quarts of water, for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until the water is reduced nearly one fourth ; strain while hot into a bowl with a small slice of lemon peel in it. Set away until cold before usiui;. 436 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. BREAD. For invalids who are able to partake of solid foods, the Break- fast Rolls, Whole-wheat Puffs, Beaten Biscuit, Crisps, and other unfermented breads, directions for the preparation of which are given in the chapter on Bread, will be found excellent. The various crackers, wafers, and invalid foods manufac- tured by the Sanitarium Food Co., Battle Creek, Mich., are also to be recommended. Zwieback, prepared as directed on page 289, will be found serviceable and wholesome to be used with broths and gruels. It may be prepared so as to look especially tempting by cutting off the crust of the bread, and cutting the slice into fancy shapes with a cooky cutter before toasting. .In cases where their use is allowable, many of the various toasts given under the head of Breakfast Dishes will be relished. REC/PES. Diabetic Biscuit. — Make a stiff dough of Graham or entire-wheat flour and water. Knead thoroughly, and let it stand three hours ; then place on a sieve under a faucet, turn a stream of water over the dough, and wash out the starch, kneading and working with the hands so that all portions of the dough will be equally washed. When the starch has been all washed out, as will be indicated by the water running off clear, the dough will be a rubber-like, glutinous mass. It may then be cut into long strips, and these divided into equal-sized pieces or cubes. Place the pieces on shallow baking pans in a rather hot oven, which, after a short time, should be allowed to cool to moderate heat, and bake for two hours, when they should be of a dark, rich brown color and light and crisp throughout. If tough, they need rebaking. If the oven is too hot, the pieces will puff up, becoming mere hollow shells ; if not suffi- ciently hot, they will not rise properly. Diabetic Biscuit No. 2. — Prepare a dough and wash out the starch as in the preceding. Add coarse middlings so that the dough can be rolled into thin cakes, and bake. Grliiten Meal Gems. — Beat together one half cup of ice water, one half cup of thick, sweet cream, and one egg ; then add one cup and a table- spoonful of the gluten meal prepared by the Sanitarium Food Co. Turn into slightly heated gem irons, and bake in a moderately hot oven from one half to three fourths of an hour. FOOD I'OR '1"HK SIf'K 437 JEUIES AND OTHER SIMPLE DESSERTS FOR THE SICK. Invalids whose digestion will allow of other than the plain- est foods will find most of the desserts made with fruits and those with fruits and grains given in the chapter on Desserts, excellent for their use. The following are a few additional recipes of a similar character : — REC/PES. Arrowroot Jelly. — Rub two heaping teaspoonfuls of arrowroot smooth in a very little cold water„ and stir it into a cupful of boiling water, in which should be dissolved two teaspoonfuls of sugar. Stir until clear, allowing it to boil all the time ; lastly, add a teaspoonful of lemon juice. Serve cold, with cream and sugar if allowed. Arrowroot Blaucniang'e. — Rub two and a half tablespoonf uls of best arrowroot smooth in half a cup of cold milk, and stir slowly into two and one half cups of boiling new milk. When it begins to thicken, add three fourths of a cup of sugar, and cook, stirring constantly for several minutes. Turn into molds and cool. Serve with fruit juice or fruit sauces. Currant Jelly. — Soak an ounce of Cox's gelatine in half a pint of cold water for fifteen minutes, then pour over it a teacupful of boiling water ; strain, and add one pint of currant juice, one tablespoonful of sugar, and set on ice to cool. Iceland Moss Jelly. — Wash about four ounces of moss very clean in lukewarm water. Boil slowly in a quart of cold water. When quite dis- solved, strain it onto a tablespoonful of currant or raspberry jelly, stir- ring so as to blend the jell}' perfectly with the moss. Turn into a mold, and cool. Iceland Moss Blancmange. — Substitute milk for the water, and pro- ceed as in the foregoing. Flavor with lemon or vanilla. Strain through a muslin cloth, turn into a mold, and let stand till firm and cold. Orange Whey. — Add the juice of one sour orange to a pint of sweet milk. Heat very slowly until the milk is curded, then strain and cool. Wliite Custard. — Beat the whites of three eggs to a stiff froth, add a little salt if desired, and two tablespoonfuls of sugar. A bit of grated lemon rind may also be used for flavoring. Add lastly a pint of new milk, little by little, beating thoroughly all the while. Bake in cups set in a pan of hot water. When firm in the center, take out and set in a cool place. TABLE TOPICS. Regimen is better than physic. — I'oltair,'. Many dishes have induced many diseases. — Seneca. Dr. Lyman Beecher tells the following story of his aunt, which well illustrates a popular notion that sick people should be fed with all sorts of dainties, no matter what the nature of the disease. When a boy eight or nine years of age, he was one day suffering in the throes of indigestion, as the result of having swallowed a large amount of indigestible mince pie. His kind-hearted aunt noticed the pale and dis- tressed look on his face, and said to him, with genuine sympathy in her voice, " Lyman, you look sick. You may go into the pantry and help yourself to a nice piece of fruit cake just warm from the oven." * Fix on that course of life which is the most excellent, and custom will render it the most delightful. — Pythagoras. A MERE indigestion can temporarily metamorphose the character. The eel slews of Mohammed IL kept the whole empire in a state of nervous excitement, and one of the meat-pies which King Philip failed to digest caused the revolt of the Nether- lands. — Osivald. Few seem conscious that there is such a thing as physical morality. Men's habitual words and acts imply that they are at liberty to treat their bodies as they please. The fact is, that all breaches of the laws of health are physical sins. — Herbert Spencer. Practical right and good conduct are much more dependent on health of body than on health of mind. — Prof. Schneider. Dr. Aberxethy's reply to the Duke of York when consulted about his health was, " Cut off the supplies and the enemy will soon leave the citadel." [43SJ y-^A^n/iA^^^' FOOD FOR THE AGED. NE of the first requisites of food for the aged is that it shall be easy of digestion, since with advancing age and decreasing physical energy, digestion and assimilation ^<^ become correspondingly less vigorous, and foods that may be taken with impunity at an earlier period of life, overtax the enfeebled organs and prove highly injurious. The fact that the vital machinery is worn and weakened with age has led to the popular notion that old people require a stimulating diet as a "support " for their declining forces. That this is an error is apparent from the fact that stimulation either by drink or food lessens instead of reinforces vital strength, thus defeating the very purpose desired, Flesh food in quantities is a peculiarly unsuitable diet for the aged, not alone because it is stimulating", but because it produces a tendency to plethora, a condition which is especially inimical to the health of old persons. Eminent authorities on diet also reason that the loss of the teeth at this period, whereby thorough mastication of flesh food is done with difficulty, even with the best artificial aids, sliould be considered a sign that nature intends such foods to be discarded by the old. I 430 1 440 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. A milk, grain, and fruit diet is undoubtedly the one best suited to the average person in old age. Vegetables and legumes in well-prepared soups may also be used to advan- tage. Directions for such soups, as also for cooking grains and grain products, will be found in the preceding pages. The following bills of fare, one for each season of the year, will perhaps serve to illustrate how a varied and appetizing regimen may be provided without the use of flesh foods : — BREAKFAST Fresh Fruits Graham Grits and Cream Prune Toast Graham Puffs Cream Crisps Strawberries Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk DINNER Vegetable Broth with Toasted Rolls Baked Potato with Pease Gravy Stewed Asparagus Cracked Wheat and Cream Whole-Wheat Bread Canned Berries Manioca with Fruit Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk BREAKFAST Fresh Fruits Rolled Oats and Cream Baked Sweet Apples Macaroni with Cream Sauce Whole-Wheat Pui^s Stewed Peaches Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk DINNER Lentil Soup Baked Potato with Cream Sauce Escalloped Tomato Green Corn Pulp Browned Rice and Cream Fruit Bread Lemon Apple Sauce Prune Pie Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk BREAKFAST Fresh Fruits Blackberry Mush and Cream Cream Toast Graham Crusts Blueberries Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk DINNER Green Pea Soup Mashed Potato Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Pearl Barley and Cream Cream Rolls Blackberries Stewed Fruit Pudding Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk BREAKFAST Fresh Fruits Rolled Wheat and Cream Tomato Toast Corn Bread Graham Gems Stewed Prunes Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk DINNER Vegetable Oyster Soup Raked Sweet Potato Mashed Peas Steamed Rice with Fig Sauce Graham Bread Stewed Dried Fruit Apples Caramel Coffee or Hot Milk FOOD FOR I HE a(;ed and thk very young. 441 In the selection of a dietary for elderly persons, much must depend upon their physical condition, the daily amount of exercise to which they are accustomed, their habits in earlier life, and a variety of other circumstances. The quantity as well as quality of food for the aged should receive consideration. Diminished bodily activity and the fact that growth has ceased, render a smaller amount of food nec- essary to supply needs ; and a decrease in the amount taken, in proportion to the age and the activity of the subject, must be made or health will suffer. The system will become clogged, the blood filled with imperfectly elaborated material, and gout, rheumatism, apoplexy, or other diseased conditions will be the inevitable result. The digestion of heavy meals is a tax upon vital powers at any time of life, but particularly so as age ad- vances ; and for him who has passed his first half-century, over- feeding is fraught with great danger. Cornaro, an Italian of noble family, contemporary with Titian in the sixteenth cen- tury, after reaching his eighty-third year wrote several essays upon diet and regimen for the aged, in one of which he says : " There are old lovers of feeding Avho say that it is necessary that they should eat and drink a great deal to keep up their natural heat, which is constantly diminishing as they advance in years ; and that it is therefore their duty to eat heartily and of such things as please their palate, be they hot, cold, or tem- perate, and that if they were to lead a sober life, it would be a short one. To this I answer, Our kind Mother Nature, in order that old men may live to still greater age, has contrived matters so that they may be able to subsist on little, as I do ; for large quantities of food cannot be digested by old and feeble stomachs." Cornaro lived to be one hundred years old, doubtless owing largely to his simple, frugal habits. 442 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. DIET FOR THE YOUNG. A very large share of the mortality among young children results from dietetic errors which proper knowledge and care on the part of those who have them in charge might commonly avoid. From infancy to the age of twelve or eighteen months, milk is the natural and proper food. Milk contains all the food elements except starch, which cannot be digested by very young children, owing to the insufficient formation of digestive elements of the salivary secretion during the first few months. If the child is deprived of the milk provided by nature, the best artificial food is cow's milk ; it, however, requires very careful selection and intelligent preparation. The animal from which the milk comes, should be perfectly healthy and well cared for. The quality of her food should also receive attention, as there is little doubt that disease is often communicated to infants by milk from cows improperly fed and cared for. An eminent medical authority offers the following important points on this subject : — " The cow selected for providing the food for an infant should be between the ages of four and ten years, of mild dis- position, and one which has been giving milk from four to eight weeks. She should be fed on good, clean grain, and hay free from must. Roots, if any are fed, should be of good quality, and she should have plenty of good clean water from a living spring or well. Her pasture should be timothy grass or native grass free from weeds ; clover alone is bad. She should be cleaned and cared for like a carriage horse, and milked twice a day by the same person and at the same time. Some cows are unfit by nature for feeding infants." Milk from the same animal should be used if possible. Changing from one cow's milk to another, or the use of such milk as is usually supplied by city milkmen, often occasions serious results. The extraction of the heat from the milk immediately after milking and before it is used or carried far, especially in hot weather, is essential. While the milk FOOD FOR THE AOED AND IHE VERY YOUNG. 443 itself should be clean and pure, it should also be perfectly fresh and without any trace of decomposition. To insure all these requisites, besides great care in its selection, it must be sterilized, and if not intended for immediate use, bottled and kept in a cool place until needed. It is not safe to feed young children upon unsterilized milk that has stood a few hours. Even fresh milk from the cleanest cows, unless drawn into bottles and sealed at once, contains many germs. These little organisms, the cause of fermentation and decomposition, multi- ply very rapidly in milk, and as they increase, dangers from the use of the milk increase. There is no doubt that cholera infantum and other diges- tive disturbances common among young children would be greatly lessened by the use of properly sterilized milk. Direc- tions for sterilizing milk, and additional suggestions respecting points to be considered in its selection, are to be found in the chapter on Milk, etc. Cow's milk differs from human milk in that it contains nearly three times as much casein, but only two thirds as much fat and three fourths as much sugar. Cow's milk is usually slightly acid, while human milk is alkaline. The casein of cow's milk forms large, hard curds, while that of breast milk forms fine, soft curds. These facts make it im- portant that some modification be made in cow's milk to render it acceptable to the feeble stomach of an infant. Cases are rare where it is safe to feed a child under nine months of age on pure, undiluted cow's milk. A common method of preparing cow's milk so as to make it suitable for infant feed- ing, is to dilute it with pure water, using at first only one third or one fourth milk, the proportion of milk being gradually increased as the child's stomach becomes accustomed to the food and able to bear it, until at the age of four months the child should be taking equal parts of milk and water. When sterilized milk is to be thus diluted, the water should be first boiled or added before sterilizing. A small amount of fine white sugar, or what is better, milk sugar, should be added to the diluted milk. Barley water, and thin, well-boiled, and care- 444 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. fully strained oatmeal gruel thoroughly blended with the milk are also used for this purpose. A food which approximates more nearly the constituents of mother's milk may be prepared as follows : — Artificial Human Milk No. 1. — Blend one fourth pint of fresh, sweet cream and three fourths of a pint of warm water. Add one half ounce of milk sugar and from two to ten ounces of milk, according to the age of the infant and its digestive capacity. Artificial Human Milk No. 2. — Meigs's formula: Take two tablespoonfuls of cream of medium quality, one table- spoonful of milk, two of lime water, and three of water to which sugar of milk has been added in the proportion of seventeen and three fourths drams to the pint. This sac- charine solution must be prepared fresh every day or two and kept in a cool place. A child may be allowed from half a pint to three pints of this mixture, according to age. Artificial Human Milk No. 3. — Prepare a barley water by adding one pint boiling water to a pint of best pearl barley. Allow it to cool, and strain. Mix together one third of a pint of this barley water, two thirds of a pint of fresh, pure milk, and a teaspoonful of milk sugar. — Medical News. Peptonized milk, a formula for the preparation of which may be found on page 426, is also valuable as food for infants, especially for those of weak digestion. Mucilaginous Food Excellent in Gastro=Enteritis. — Wheat, one tablespoonful ; oatmeal, one half tablespoonful ; barley, one half tablespoonful ; water, one quart. Boil to one pint, strain, and sweeten. — Dietetic Gazette. Prepared Foods for Infants. — Of prepared infant foods we can recommend that manufactured by the Sanitarium Food Co., Battle Creek, Mich., as thoroughly reliable. There are hun- dreds of prepared infant foods in the market, but most of them are practically worthless in point of food value, being often largely composed of starch, a substance which the immature digestive organs of a young child are incapable of digesting. Hundreds of infants are yearly starved to death upon such foods. FOOD FOR THE AGED AND THE VERY YOUNG. 445 All artificial foods require longer time for digestion than the food supplied by nature ; and when making use of such, great care should be taken to avoid too frequent feeding. It is absolutely essential for the perfect health of an infant as well as ot grown people, that the digestive organs shall enjoy a due interval of rest between the digestion of one meal and the taking of another. As a rule, a new-born infant may be safely fed, when using human milk, not oftener than once in every three or four hours. When fed upon artificial food, once in five or six hours is often enough for feeding, llie intervals between meals in either case should be gradually' prolonged as the child grows older. Ouantity of Food tor Infants. — Dr. J. H. Kellogg gives the following rules and suggestions for the feeding of infants : — " During the first week of a child's life, the weight of the food given should be i-ioo of the weight of the infant at birth. The daily additional amount of food required for a child amounts to about one fourth of a dram, or about one ounce at the end of each month. A child gains in weight from two thirds of an ounce to one ounce per day during the first five months of its life, and an average of one half as much daily during the balance of the first year. " From a series of tables which have been prepared, as the result of experiments carefully conducted in large lying-in es- tablishments, we have devised this rule : — " To find the amount of food required by a child at each feed- ing during the first year of life, divide the weight of the child at birth by lOO and add to this amount 3-100 of the gain which the child has made since birth. Take, for example, a child which weighs 7^ lbs. at birth, or 120 ounces. Dividing by lOO we have 1.2. oz. Estimating the weight according to the rule above given, the child at the end of nine months will have gained 210 oz. Dividing this by lOO and multiplying by 3, we have 6.3 oz. Adding to this our previous result, 1.2, we have 7.5 oz. as the amount of food required at each feeding at the end of nine months by a child which weighed y^ lbs. at birth. To save mothers the trouble of making these calculations, we 446 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. have prepared the following table, which will be found to hold good for the average child weighing 7-^ lbs. at birth. This is rather more than the ordinary child weighs, but we have pur- posely chosen a large child for illustration, as it is better that the child should have a slight excess of food than too little. Age of Child. I w. I m. 2 m. 3 m- 4 m. 6 m. 9 m. 12 m Amount of each feeding in ounces Number of feedings I lu 10 2 8 12-16 2i 3 6 18 3 4 6 24 3 5 6 30 3 6 6 36 3. n 5 37* 3i 9 5 45 3i Amount of food daily, in ounces Interval between feedings, in hours "In the above table the first column represents quantities for the first week, the second for the end of the second month, the third for the end of the third month, etc. It need not be men- tioned that the change in quantity should be even more grad- ual than represented in the table. " Attention should also be called to the fact that the time mentioned as the interval for feeding at different ages, does not apply to the whole twenty-four hours. Even during the first week, the child is expected to skip two feedings during the night, making the interval four hours instead of two. By the end of the second month, the interval between the feedings at night becomes six hours, and at the end of the ninth month, six and one half hours. "From personal observation we judge that in many cases children will do equally well if allowed a longer interval be- tween feedings at night. The plan of feeding five times daily instead of six, may be begun at as early an age as six months in many instances." Manner of Feeding Artificial Foods. — All artificial foods are best fed with a teaspoon, as by this method liability to overfeeding and danger from unclean utensils are likely to be FOOD FOR THE AGED AND THE VERY YOUNG. 447 avoided. If a nursing-bottle is used, it should be of clear flint glass so that the slightest foulness may be easily detected, and one simple in construction, which can be completely taken apart for cleaning. Those furnished with conical black rubber caps are the best. Each time after using, such a bottle should have the cap removed, and both bottle and cap should be thor- oughly cleansed, first with cold water, and then with warm water in which soda has been dissolved in the proportion of a teaspoonful to a pint of water. They should then be kept im- mersed in weak soda solution until again needed, when both bottle and cap should be thoroughly rinsed in clean boiled Avater before they are used. Neglect to observe these precau- tions is one of the frequent causes of stomach disturbances in young children. It is well to keep two bottles for feeding, using them alternatel)'. Diet for Older Children. — No solid food or table-feeding of any kind should be given to a child until it has the larger share of its first, or milk teeth. Even then it must not be supposed that because a child has acquired its teeth, it may partake of all kinds of food with impunit\\ It is quite cus- tomary for mothers to permit their little ones to sit at the family table and be treated to bits of everything upon the bill of fare, apparently looking upon them as miniature grown peo- ple, with digestive ability equal to persons of mature growth, but simply lacking in stomach capacity to dispose of as much as older members of the family. The digestive apparatus of a child differs so greatly from that of an adult in its anatom- ical structure and in the character and amount of the digest- ive fluids, that it is by no means proper to allow a child to eat all kinds of wholesome foods which a healthy adult stom- ach can consume with impunity, to say nothing of the rich, highly seasoned viands, sweetmeats, and epicurean dishes which seldom fail to form some part of the bill of fare. It is true that many children are endowed with so much constitutional vigor that they do live and seemingly thrive, notwithstanding dietetic errors ; but the integrity of the digestive organs is liable to be so greatly impaired by continued ill-treatment that 448 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. sooner or later in life disease results. Till the age of three years, sterilized milk, whole-wheat bread in its various forms, such of the grains as contain a large share of gluten, prepared in a variety of palatable ways, milk and fruit toasts, and the easily digested fruits, both raw and cooked, form the best die- tary. Strained vegetable soups may be occasionally added for variety. For from three to six years the same simple regimen, with easily digested and simply prepared vegetables, macaroni, and legumes prepared without skins, will be all-sufficient. If desserts are desirable, let them be simple in character and easily digestible. Tea, coffee, hot bread and biscuit, fried foods of all kinds, salted meats, preserves, rich puddings, cake, and pastries should be wholly discarded from the children's bill of fare. It is especially important that a dietary for children should contain an abundance of nitrogenous material. It is needed not only for repairs, but must be on deposit for the purpose of growth, since it is the bone and muscle-forming element of food. Milk, whole-wheat bread, oatmeal, barley, and prepara- tions of wheat, contain this element in abundance, and should for this reason be given great prominence in the children's dietary. Flesh foods are in no way necessary for children, since the food elements of which they are composed can be supplied from other and better sources, and many prominent medical authorities unite in the opinion that such foods are decidedly deleterious, and should not be used at all by children under eight or ten years of age. Experiments made by Dr. Camman, of New York, upon the dietary of nearly two hundred young children in an orphans' home, offer conclusive evidence that the death rate among children from gastro-intestinal troubles is greatly lessened by the exclusion of meat from their dietary. Dr. Clouston, of Edinburgh, an eminent medical authority, states that in his experience, those children who show the greatest tendencies to instability of the brain, insanity, and immoral habits are, as a rule, those who use animal food in excess ; and that he has seen a change of diet to milk and FOOD FOR THE AGED AND THE VERY YOUNG. 449 farinaceous food produce a marked change in their nervous irritability. Scores of otli^r authorities corroborate Dr. Clouston's ob- servation, and assert that children fed largely on flesh foods have capricious appetites, suffer more commonly from indiges- tion in its various forms, possess an unstable nervous system, and have less resisting power in general. Candy and similar sweets generally given to children as a matter of course, may be excluded from their dietary with positive benefit in every way. It is true, as is often stated in favor of the use of these articles, that sugar is a food element needed by children ; but the amount required for the purpose of growth and repair is comparatively small, and is supplied in great abundance in" bread, grains, fruits, and other common articles of food. If an additional quantity is taken, it is not utilized by the system, and serves only to derange digestion, impair appetite, and indirectly undermine the health. Children are not likely to crave candy and other sweets unless a taste for such articles has been developed by indul- gence in them ; and their use, since they are seldom taken at mealtime, helps greatly to foster that most pernicious habit of childhood — eating between meals. No food, except at their regular mealtimes, should be the universal rule for children from babyhood up ; and although during their earliest years they require food at somewhat shorter intervals than adults, their meal hours should be arranged for the same time each day, and no piecing permitted. Parents who follow the too common practice of giving their little ones a cracker or fruit between meals are simply placing them under training for dyspepsia, sooner or later. Uninterrupted digestion proceeds smoothly and harmoniously in a healthy stomach ; but inter- ruptions in the shape of food sent down at all times and when the stomach is already at work, are justly resented, and such disturbances, if long continued, are punished by suffering. The appetite of a child is quite as susceptible of education, in both a right and wrong direction, as are its mental or moral faculties ; and parents in whose hands this education mainly 29 450 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. rests should give the subject careful consideration, since upon it the future health and" usefulness of their children not a little devolve. We should all be rulers of our appetites instead of subject to them ; but whether this be so or not, depends greatly upon early dietetic training. Many a loving mother, by thoughtless indulgence of her child, in season and out of season, in dainties and tidbits that simply serve to gratify the palate, is fostering a "love of appetite" which may ruin her child in years to come. There are inherited appetites and tendencies, it is true ; but even these may be largely overcome by careful early training in right ways of eating and drinking. It is possible to teach very young children to use such food as is best for them, and to refrain from the eating of things harm- ful ; and it should be one of the first concerns of every mother to start her children on the road to manhood and womanhood, well trained in correct dietetic habits. TABLE TOPICS. " The wanton taste no flesh nor fowl can choose. For which the grape or melon it wonld lose, Though all th' inhabitants of earth and air Be listed in the glutton's bill of fare." — Cowley. Jean Jacques Rousseau holds that intemperate habits are mostly acquired in early boyhood, when blind deference to social precedents is apt to overcome our natu- ral antipathies, and that those who have passed that period in safety, have generally escaped the danger of temptation. The same holds good of other dietetic abuses. If a child's natural aversion to vice has never been willfully perverted, the time will come when his welfare may be intrusted to the safe-keeping of his protective instincts. You need not fear that he will swerve from the path of health when his simple habits, sanctioned by nature and inclination, have acquired the additional strength of long practice. When the age of blind deference is past, vice is generally too unattractive to be very dangerous. — Osvahl. That a child inherits certain likes and dislikes in the matter of food cannot be questioned, and it does not in the least forbid the training of the child's taste tow ard that which is healthful and upbuilding ; it merely adds an element to be considered in the traininsr, — Sel. TABLE TOPICS. 45 I PREVKNTION is belter than eure. It is worth a liie effort to lift a man from degradation. To prevent liis fall is better. — Goiig/i. A CYNICAL French writer of tlie last century intending a satire upon the prin- ciples of vegetarianism adopted by Phillippe Hecquet, puts into the mouth of one of the character.s in his book what, in the grossly voluptuous life of that country and time, the author no doubt imagined to be the greatest absurdities conceivable in reference to diet, but which, in the light of present civilization are but the merest hygienic truths. A doctor had been called to a gouty and fever-stricken patient. "Pray what is your ordinary diet?" asked the physician. "My usual food," replied the patient, "is broth and juicy meat." "•Broth and juicy meat ! " cried the doctor, alarmed. "I do not wonder to lind you sick ; such dishes are poisoned pleasures and snares that luxury spreads for man- kind,- so as to ruin them the more effectually. . . . How old are you, pray ? " "I am in my sixty-ninth year," replied the patient. "Exactly," . . . saij.1 the physician; if you had drunk nothing else than pure water all your life, and had been satisfied with simple nourishment, — such as boiled apples for example, — you would not now be tormented with the gout, and all your limbs would perform their functions with ease." Dr. Horace Bl'shnell says : "The child is taken when his training begins in a state of naturalness as respects all the bodily tastes and tempers, and the endeavor should be to keep him in that key, to let no stimulation of excess or delicacy disturb the simplicity of nature, and no sensual pleasure in the name of food become a want or expectation of his appetite. Any artificial appetite begun is the beginning of dis- temper, disease, and a general disturbance of natural proportion. Nine tenths of the intemperate drinking begins, not in grief and destitution, as we so often hear, but in vicious feeding." Always let the food be simply for nourishment — never more, never less. Never should food be taken for its own sake, but for the sake of promoting bodily and mental activity. Still less should the peculiarities of food, its taste or delicacy ever become an object in themselves, but only a means to make it good, pure, wholesome nourishment; else in both cases the food destroys health. — Froebel. Since what need mortals, save twain things alone, Crushed grain (heaven's gift), and steaming water-draught ? Food nigh at hand, and Nature's aliment — Of which no glut contents us. Pamjiered taste hunts out device of other catal)lus. — Euripides. ICONOMY, one of the cardinal principles of success in ^^ the details of housekeeping, as in all other occupations in life, consists not alone in making advantageous use of fresh material, but in carefully preserving and utilizing the "left-over" fragments and bits of food which accrue in every household. Few cooks can make such perfect calcula- tion respecting the desires and needs of their families as to provide just enough and no more, and the improvident waste of the surplus thus prepared, is in many homes fully equal to one half the first cost of the meal. Scarcely anything need ever be wasted — certainly nothing which was at first well cooked. There are ways of utilizing almost every kind of cooked food so that it will be quite as appetizing and nutritious as when first prepared. All left-over foods, as grains, vegetables, or others of a moist character, should be removed to clean dishes before put- ting away. Unless this precaution is observed, the thin smears [452] FRAGMENTS AND LEFT-OVER FOODS. 453 and tiny bits about the edges of the dish, which become sour or moldy much sooner than the larger mass, are apt to spoil the whole. They should also be set on ice or be kept in a cool, dry place until needed. Left-over foods of any kind, to be suitable again for use, must be well preserved. Sour or moldy fragments are not fit for food. Uses of Stale Bread. — If properly made from wholesome and nutritious material and well preserved, there are few other foods that can be combined into more varied and palatable dishes than left-over bread. To insure the perfect preserva- tion of the fragments, the loaf itself should receive good care. Perfectly sweet, light, well-baked bread has not the same pro- pensity to mold as a poorer loaf; but the best of bread is likely to become musty if its surroundings are not entirely wholesome. The receptacle used for keeping the loaves should be frequently washed, scalded, and well dried. Crumbs and fragments should be kept in a separate receptacle and as thoroughly cared for. It is well in cutting bread not to slice more than will be needed, and to use one loaf before beginning on another. Bread grows stale much faster after being cut. Whole or half slices of bread which have become too dry to be palatable may be utilized for making zwieback, direc- tions for the use and preparation of which are given on page 289. Broken pieces of bread not suitable for zwieback, crusts, and trimmings of the loaf make excellent croutons, a most palatable accompaniment for soups, gruels, hot milk, etc. To prepare the croutons cut the fragments as nearly uniform in size as possible, — half-inch cubes are convenient, — and place them on tins in a warming oven to dry. Let them become crisply dry, and lightly browned, but not scorched. They are preferable to crackers for use in soups, and require so little work to pre- pare, and are so economical withal, that one who has once tried them will be likely to keep a supply on hand. The crumbs and still smaller fragments may be utilized for thicken- ing soups and for various dressings and puddings, recipes for many of which are given in preceding chapters. 454 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. If crumbs and small bits of bread accumulate more rapidly than they can be used, they may be carefully dried, not browned, in a warming oven, after which put them in a mortar and pound them, or spread them upon an old bread board, fold in a clean cloth and roll them with a rolling pin un- til fine. Prepared thus, stored in glass fruit cans and put away in a dry place, they will keep almost indefinitely, and can be used when needed. For preparing escalloped vegetables of all kinds, these prepared crumbs are excellent ; they give a fine, nutty flavor to the dish, which fresh crumbs do not possess. I/eft=over Grains. — Left-over grains, if well kept, may be reheated in a double boiler without the addition of water, so as to be quite as palatable as when freshly cooked. Small quantities of left-over grains can be utilized for preparing various kinds of desserts, where the ingredients require previ- ous cooking. Rice, barley, pearl wheat, and other whole grains can be satisfactorily used in soups in which a whole grain is required; oatmeal, rolled oats, corn meal, grits, etc., with the addition of a little milk and cream, may be made into delicious gruels ; they may also be used advantageously in the preparation of vegetable soups, many of which are even im- proved by the addition of a few spoonfuls of well-kept cooked oatmeal or rolled oats. The left-over grains may also be utilized in a variety of breads, directions for the preparation of which are given in,the chapter on Bread. Ireft=over Vegetables. — Left-over portions of most varie- ties of vegetables can be best utilized for soups as stated on page 275. Cold mashed potato may be made into potato cakes as directed on page 237 of the chapter on Vegetables, where will also be found many other recipes, suited to the use of these left-over foods. Ireft=over Meats. — Most cook books offer numerous recipes for croquettes, hashes, and fried dishes prepared from rem- nants of meat and fish, which, although they serve the purpose of using up the fragments, are not truly economical, because they are generally far from wholesome. Most fragments of this character are more digestible served cold as a relish, or TABLE TOPICS. 455 utilized for soups and stews, than compounded into fancy dishes requiring to be fried and highly seasoned or served with rich sauces. Lcft'Over Milk. — Small quantities of unsterilized milk or cream left over should always be carefully scalded, then cooled at once to a temperature of 60, ° and put in a cool place, in order to keep it sweet and fresh until the next meal. TABLE TOPICS. "Care preserves what Industry gains. He who attends to his business dili- gently, but not carefully, throws away with one hand what he gathers with the other." — Co/ ton. "What does cookery mean?" It means the knowledge of all fruits and herbs and balms and spices — it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and willingness, and readiness of appliance. It means the economy of your great grandmothers and the science of modern chemists, — it means much tasting and no wasting. — Riis/cin. A PENNY saved is two pence clear A pin a day 's a groat a year. — Franklin. Bad cooking is waste — waste of money and loss of comfort. Whom (iod has joined in matrimony, ill-cooked joints and ill-boiled potatoes have very often put asunder. — Smites. Never sacrifice the more precious things — time, health, temper, strength — in attempting to save the less precious — money. — Sel. Learn by how little life may be sustained and how much nature requires. The gifts of Cerea and water are sufficient nourishment for all peoples. — Phiirsalia. ^^UMAN nature is so susceptible to externals, while good digestion is so dependent upon interior conditions, that all the accessories of pleasant surroundings — neatness, ?g/(| cheeriness, and good breeding — should be brought into requisition for the daily gathering of the family at mealtime. The dining room should be one of the airiest, choicest rooms in the house, with a pleasant outlook, and, if possible, with east windows, that the morning sun may gladden the breakfast hour with its cheering rays. Let plants, flowers, birds, and pictures have a place in its appointments, that the association with things bright and beautiful may help to set the keynote of our own lives in cheerful accord. A dark, gloomy, ill-ventilated room brings depression of spirits, and will make the most elaborate meal unsatisfactory ; while the plainest meal may seem almost a feast when served amid attractive surrounding's. Neatness is an important essential ; any home, however humble, may possess cleanliness and order, and without these, all charms of wealth and art are of little account. A thorough airing each morning and opening of the windows a few minutes after each meal to remove the odor of food, are [ 456 ] THE ART OF DINING. 45/ important items in the care of the dining room. The furnishing may be simple and inexpensive, — beauty in a home is not dependent upon expense, — but let it be substantial, tasteful, harmonious in color and soft in tone, nothing gaudy or s'howy. Use no heavy draperies, and have no excess of ornament and bric-a-brac to catch dust and germs. A hard-finished wood floor is far superior to a carpet in point of healthfulness, and quite as economical and easy to keep clean. The general furnishing of the room, besides the dining table and chairs, should include a sideboard, upon which may be arranged the plate and glassware, with drawers for cutlery and table linen ; also a side-table for extra dishes needed during the service of a meal. An open fireplace, when it can be afforded, aids in ventilation as well as increases the cheerful aspect of the room. A moveable china closet with glass encasements for keeping the daintier china, glass, or silver ware not in common use is often a desirable article of furniture in small homes ; or a shal- low closet may be built in the wall of the dining-room for this purpose. A good size for such a closet is twelve inches deep and three feet wide. Four shelves, with one or more drawers below, in which may be kept the best table napery, afford ample space in general. The appearance of the whole may be made very pleasing by using doors of glass, and filling in the back and sides of the shelves with velvet paper in dark-brown, dull-red, or any shade suitable for background, harmonizing with the general furnishing of the room. The shelves should be of the same material and have the same finish as the woodwork of the room. The upper side may be covered with felt if desired ; and such artistic taste may be displayed in the arrangement of the china as to make the closet ornamental as well as convenient. Table=Talk. — A sullen, silent meal is a direct promoter of dyspepsia. "Laugh and grow fat" is an ancient adage embodying good hygienic doctrine. It has long been well understood that food digests better when seasoned with agree- able conversation, and it is important that unpleasant topics 458 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. should be avoided. Mealtime should not be made the occasion to discuss troubles, trials, and misfortunes, which rouse only gloomy thoughts, impair digestion, and leave one at the close of the meal worried and wearied rather than refreshed and strengthened. Let vexatious questions be banished from the family board. Fill the time with bright, sparkling conversa- tion, but do not talk business or discuss neighborhood gossip. Do not let the food upon the table furnish the theme of con- versation ; neither praise nor apology are in good taste. Par- ents who make their food thus an especial topic of conversation are instilling into their children's minds a notion that eating is the best part of life, whereas it is only a means to a higher end, and should be so considered. Of all family gatherings the meals should be the most genial and pleasant, and with a little effort they may be made most profitable to all. It is said of Dr. Franklin that he derived his peculiarly practical turn of mind from his father's table talk. Let themes of conversation be of general interest, in which all may take a part. If there are children, a pleasant custom for the breakfast hour is to have each in turn relate something new and instructive, that he or she has read or learned in the interval since the breakfast hour of the previous day. This stimulates thought and conversational power, while music, history, adventure, politics, and all the arts and sciences offer ample scope for securing interesting items. Another excellent plan is the selection of a special topic for conversation for each meal or for the meals of a day or a week, a previous announcement of the topic being made, that all, even the youngest, may have time to prepare something to say of it. The benefits from such social intercourse around the board can hardly be over-estimated ; and if thus the meal- time is prolonged, and too much appears to be taken out of the busy day, be sure it will add to their years in the end, by increasing health and happiness. Table Manners. — Good breeding and true refinement are nowhere more apparent than in manners at table. These do not relate alone to the proper use of knife and fork, napkin and THE ART OF DINING. 459 spoon, but to habits of punctuality, neatness, quietness, order, and that kind thoughtfuhiq;3s and courteous attention which spring" from the heart — "in honor preferring one another." The purpose of eating should not be merely the appeasement of hunger or the gratification of the palate, but the acquiring of strength for labor or study, that we may be better fitted for usefulness in the world. Consequently, we should eat like responsible beings, and not like the lower orders of animals. Good table manners cannot be put on for special occasions and laid aside like a garment. Persons not wont to observe the rules of politeness in the every-day life of their own house- holds can never deceive others into thinking them well bred on " company" occasions. Ease and refinement of manners are only acquired by habitual practice, and parents should early accustom their children by both precept and example to observe the requirements of good behavior and politeness at table. Elaborate details are not necessary. We subjoin a few of the more simple rules governing table etiquette : — • 1. Eat slowly, never filling the mouth very full and avoid- ing all appearance of greediness. 2. Masticate thoroughly, keeping the lips closed. Eating and drinking should be noiseless. 3. Never speak with the mouth full, nor interrupt another when talking. Any remark worthy of utterance will keep. 4. Do not express a choice for any particular portion or dish, unless requested to do so ; and do not find fault with the food. If by chance anything unpleasant is found in it, do not call the attention of others to the fact by either remark or manner. 5. Sit conveniently near the table, but not crowded up close against it ; and keep the hands, when not in use to convey food to the mouth, in the lap, beneath the table, never resting upon the table, toying with knife, fork, or spoon. 6. Do not tilt back your chair, or lean upon the table with the elbow, or drum with the fingers. 7. It is contrary to good breeding to shovel one's food into the mouth with a knife. Everything which can be eaten 460 _ SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. with a fork should be taken with that utensil alone. If neces- sary, use the knife for dividing the food, and afterward the fork to convey it to the mouth. Use a spoon for soups and juicy foods. 8. Bread should be broken, not cut. In eating large fruits, like apples or pears, divide' with a knife, and take in small portions, holding the knife by the handle rather than the blade. 9. Soup is eaten from the side of the spoon, which is filled without noisily touching the plate. 10. Seeds or stones to be rejected should be taken from the lips with a spoon, never with the fingers. The mouth should not go to the food, but the food to the mouth. 11. Do not crumble food about your plate, nor in any avoidable way soil the table linen. 12. Do not hang the napkin about the neck like a bib, but unfold and lay across the lap in such a manner that it will not slide to the floor. Carefully wipe the mouth before speak- ing, and as often at other times as may keep the lips per- fectly clean of food and drink. At the close of a meal, if at home, fold the napkin neatly and place it in the ring. If at a hotel or away from home, leave the napkin unfolded by your plate. 13. Do not appear impatient to be served, and ordinarily at the home meals wait until all are served before commencing to eat. At a public table where waiters are provided, it is proper to begin eating as soon as the food is served. This is admissible because the wants of other guests are supposed to be similarly looked after. . 14. Never reach across a neighbor's plate for anything. If something beyond him is needed, ask to have it passed to you. 15. Do not tilt your plate or scrape it for the last atom of food. 16. Drink very sparingly, if at all, while eating, and then do not pour the liquid down the throat like water turned from a pitcher. 17. Children should not be allowed to use their fingers to aid themselves in eating. If their hands are too small or too THE ART or DINING. 46 1 awkward to use a fork, a piece of bread or cracker may be held in the left hand to aid in pushing the food upon the fork or spoon. 18. To help one's self to butter or any other food from a common dish with one's own knife or spoon is a gross breach of table etiquette. 19. Never use the handkerchief unnecessarily at the table, and do not cough or sneeze if avoidable. 20. It is not considered proper to pick the teeth at table. If this becomes absolutely necessary, a napkin should be held before the mouth. 21. When a meal or course is finished, lay the knife and fork side by side upon the plate. 22. Except at a hotel or boarding house, it is not proper to leave the table before the rest of the family or guests, without asking the hostess to excuse you. 23. If a guest declines a dish, he need give no reason. " No, I thank you," is quite sufficient. The host or hostess should not insist upon guests' partaking of particular dishes, nor put anything upon their plates which they have declined. The Table. — None will deny that the appearance of the table affects one's enjoyment of the food upon it. A well-ap- pointed table with its cloth, though coarse in texture, perfectly clean and neatly laid, its glass and china bright and shining, and the silver showing by its glistening surface evidence of frequent polishings, gives far more comfort and enjoyment than one where little attention is given to neatness, order, or taste. In many families, effort is made to secure all these important accessories when guests have been invited ; but for common use, anything is considered ''good enough for just one's own folks." This ought not to be, and mothers who per- mit such a course, need not be surprised if their children exhibit a lack of self-respect and genuineness as well as awk- wardness and neglect of manners. The table around which the family meals are taken, ought to be at all times the model of what it should be when surrounded by guests. As a writer has well said, " There is no silent edu- 462 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. cator ill the household that has higher rank than the table. Surrounded each day by the family who are eager for refresh- ment of body and spirit, its impressions sink deep ; and its influences for good or ill form no mean part of the warp and woof of our lives. Its fresh damask, bright silver, glass, and china, give beautiful lessons in neatness, order, and taste ; its damask soiled, rumpled, and torn, its silver dingy, its glass cloudy, and china nicked, annoy and vex us at first, and then instill their lessons of carelessness and disorder. An attrac- tive, well-ordered table is an incentive to good manners, and being a place where one is incited to linger, it tends to control the bad habits of fast eating ; while, on the contrary, an unin- viting, disorderly table gives license to bad manners, and en- courages the haste which is proverbial among Americans. The woman, then, who looks after her table in these particulars, is not doing trivial work, for it rests with her to give silently these good or bad lessons in manners and morals to her house- hold as they surround the daily board." A well-appointed table requires very little time and labor. No pretense or ostentation is necessary ; neatness and simplic- ity are far more pleasing. Setting the Table.— Lay a piece of double-faced canton flannel underneath the tablecloth. Even coarse napery will present a much better appearance with a subcover than if spread directly upon the table. It will likewise lessen noise in changing courses and the likelihood of injury to the table from hot dishes. Spread the tablecloth evenly, without wrinkles, and so that the center fold shall be exactly in the middle, parallel with the sides of the table. Mats, if used, should be placed exactly straight and with regularity. If meat is served, spread a large napkin with points toward the center of the table at the carver's place, to protect the tablecloth. Place the plates upon the table, right side^up, at even distances from each other and straight with the cloth and the edge of the table. Lay the napkins directly in front or at the right of each plate. Place the fork at the left, the knife on the right with the edge toward the plate, beyond this the soup spoon and two THE ART OF DlNlNC'r. 463 teaspoons, and at the front of these set the glass, cream glass, and individual butter plate if these are used. A center piece consisting of a vase of freshly cut flowers, a pot of ferns, a jar of small plants in bloom, a dish of well-polished red apples, peaches, or other seasonable fruit, will add a touch of beauty and attractiveness. If the serving is to be done from the table by members of the family, place large spoons near dishes to be served, also the proper number and kind of separate dishes for the purpose. If fruit is to be served, a finger bowl should be placed for each person. If the service is by course, the extra dishes, knives, forks, and spoons needed, also the finger bowls, water service, and cold foods in reserve for a renewed supply or for other courses, should be made ready and arranged upon the sideboard. The soup ladle should be placed in front of the lady of the house, who always serves the soup ; and if meat is served, the carving knife and fork must, of course, be placed before the carver's place. The necessary dishes for each course should be brought on with the food, those for the first course being placed upon the table just a moment before dinner is announced. The arrangement of all dishes and foods upon the table should be uniform, regular, and tasteful, so as to give an or- derly appearance to the whole. The "dishing up" and arrang- ing of the food are matters of no small importance, as a dull appetite will often be sharpened at the sight of a daintily arranged dish, while the keenest one may have its edge dulled by the appearance of a shapeless mass piled up with no regard to looks. Even the simplest food is capable of looking its best, and the greatest care should be taken to have all dishes served neatly and tastefully. The table should not be set for breakfast the night before nor kept so from one meal to another, unless carefully covered with a cloth thick enough to prevent the dust from accumulat- ing upon the dishes. The plates and glasses should then be placed bottom-side up and turned just before mealtime. No food of any kind should ever be allowed to remain uncovered upon the table from one meal to another. The cloth for cover- 464 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. ing- the table should be carefully shaken each time before using, and always used the same side up until washed. Plates and individual meat dishes should be warmed, espe- cially in winter ; but the greatest care should be taken that no dish becomes hot, as that not only makes it troublesome to handle, but is ruinous to the dishes. The Service of Meals. — There are few invariable rules for either table-setting or service. We will offer a few sug- gestions upon this point, though doubtless other ways are equally good. A capital idea for the ordinary home meal, when no servant is kept, especially if in the family there are older children, is to make different members of the family responsible for the proper service of some dish or course. The fruit, which should be the first course at breakfast, may be prepared and placed upon fruit plates with the proper uten- sils for eating — napkins and finger bowls at each place before the meal is announced. If apples or bananas are served, a cracker should be placed upon each plate to be eaten in con- nection with the fruit. Oranges and grapes are, however, to be preferred when obtainable ; the former may be prepared as directed on page 180. The hot foods may be dished, and the dishes placed on a side table in a hain marie, the hot water in which should be as deep as the food within the dishes. The foods will thus be in readiness, and will keep much better than if placed upon the table at the beginning of the meal. When the fruit is eaten, some member of the family may remove the fruit plates, and bring the hot grains, toasts, and other foods, placing them, together with the necessary indi- vidual dishes, before those who have their serving in charge. One member may be selected to pass the bread, another to dish the sauce, etc. ; and thus each child, whether boy or girl — even those quite young — may contribute to the service, and none be overburdened, while at the same time it will be a means of teaching a due regard for the comfort and enjoy- ment of others. If the meal is dinner, usually consisting of three courses, after the soup has been eaten, it may be the duty of some THE ART OF DINING. 465 member of the family to remove the soup plates and place the vegetables, y^rains, and meats if any are to served, before those chosen to serve them. At the close of this course, another may remove the dishes and food, crumb the cloth, and place the dessert, with the proper dishes for serving, before the lady of the house or her oldest daughter, one of whom usually serves it. If a servant is employed, the following is an excellent plan of service : The soup plates or bowls should be placed hot upon the table, with the tureen of soup before the lady of the house, and the glasses filled before the dinner is announced. Grace having been said, the servant removes the cover of the soup tureen, and standing at the left of the lady, takes up with her left hand a soup plate, which she changes to the palm of her right hand and holds at the edge of the soup tureen until the lady has filled it, then carries it, still holding it upon the palm of the hand, and places it before the head of the table. In the same manner all are served to soup. If bowls instead of plates are used, a small silver or lacquered tray may be used on which to carry the bowl. While the soup is being eaten, the servant goes to the kitchen and brings in the hot dishes and foods for the next course, and places them upon the side table. When the soup has been finished, beginning with the one who sits at the head of the table, the servant places before each person in turn a hot dinner plate, at the same time removing his soup plate to the sideboard or pantry. After changing all the plates, she removes the soup tureen, and if meat is to be served, places that before the carver with the individual plates, which, when he has placed a portion thereon, she serves to each in turn ; then she takes the potato and other vegetables upon her tray, and serves them, going to the left of each person when passing them a dish, but placing individual dishes at the right ; next she passes the bread, refills the glasses, taking each one separately to the sideboard, and then serves the grains. When every one has finished the course, she begins the clearing of the table by first removing all large dishes of food ; 466 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. after that the plates and all soiled dishes, mats, and all table furniture except the glasses, napkin rings, and center-pieces. Lastly she removes all crumbs with a brush or napkin. When done, she places in front of each person a plate with a doily and finger bowl upon it, and then brings the dessert and dessert dishes, placing them before the lady of the house, and passes these for her as in the other courses. If the des- sert is pudding, a spoon or fork should be placed on the plate at one side of the finger bowl. If the dessert is fruit, a fruit napkin may be used in place of the doily, the real purpose of which is to prevent the bowl from sliding about the plate in moving it. A fork and silver knife, or knife and spoon as the fruit may require, should be served with it. General Suggestions for Waiters. — In serving a dish from which people are expected to help themselves, always go to the left side. Soup, food in individual dishes, clean plates, and finger bowls should be set down before people at their right hand. When removing soiled dishes after a course, always ex- change them for clean ones, remembering that the only time when it is allowable to leave the table without plates is when it is being cleared for the dessert. In serving grains either dish them in small dishes before serving or pass clean saucers at the same time for each to help himself, and in all cases see that each person is served to cream, sugar, and a teaspoon, with grains. Pass the bread two or three times during each meal, and keep careful watch that all are well supplied. Pour hot milk and all beverages on the side table ; fill only three fourths full, and serve the same as anything else in individual dishes, placing the glass at each person's right hand. Waiters should be noiseless and prompt, and neatly attired in dress suitable to their occupation. Suggestions Concerning Dinner Parties. — Much of the success of a dinner party depends upon the guests selected ; and the first point for consideration by the lady who decides upon entertaining her friends thus, should be the congeni- THE ART OF DINING. 467 lity of those whom she desires to invite, remembering that after the first greetings the guests see very little of their hostess, and consequently their enjoyment must largely depend upon each other. It is customary to issue invitations in the name of the host and hostess, from five to ten days in advance of the occasion. Printed or written invitations may be used. The following is a proper form : — Mr. and Mrs. George Brown request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Henry Clark's company at dinner December ^th, at four o'clock. 24 Maple Avenue. If the dinner is given in especial honor to some stranger, a second card is inclosed on which is written : — To meet Mrs. Harold Brooks of Philadelphia. Invitations to a dinner should be promptly accepted or de- clined, and if accepted, the engagement should on no account be lightly broken. Unless one has a large establishment, and is very sure of good service, the bill of fare selected should not be an elaborate one, and the choice of dishes should be confined to those which one is used to preparing, and which in cost will not exceed one's means. It is the quality of the dinner which pleases, and not the multiplicity of dishes. Small dinners for not less than six or more than ten guests are always the most pleasant, and for those of moderate means or those unaccustomed to dinner- giving are by far the most suitable. The arrangement and adornment of the table afford an opportunity for the display of much artistic taste and skill. An expensive outlay is by no means necessary, as highly pleasing effects may be produced by the addition of a few choice, well-arranged flowers or blossoming plants to a table 468 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. already well laid with spotless linen, bright silver, and clean glass and china ware. A profusion of ornament should be avoided, large pieces of plate, and high, elaborate designs of flowers or fruit should not be used, as they obstruct the inter- course of the guests. A center piece of flowers, with a small bouquet tied with ribbon for each guest, is quite sufficient. Low dishes filled with violets or pansies ; a basket filled with oranges, mingled with orange leaves and blossoms ; bowls of ferns and roses ; a block of ice wreathed in ferns, with an outer circle of water lilies ; dishes of vari-colored grapes resting amid the bright leaves of the foliage plant, are some of many pleasing designs which may be employed for the adornment of the dinner table. The amount of space occupied with decorations must depend upon the style of service employed. If no calculation need be made for placing the different dishes composing the dinner, a strip of colored plush or satin bordered with ivy, smilax, or some trailing vine, is quite frequently used for the decoration of a long table. A very pleasing custom consists in selecting some especial color for the decorations with which the table napery, dishes, and even the food to be served shall accord ; as, for example, a •' pink" dinner, with roses as the chief flower, strawberries, pink lemonade, and other pink attractions ; or a " yellow" luncheon, served on napery etched with yellow, with vases of goldenrod for center pieces, and dainty bouquets of the same tied with yellow ribbon at each plate, while yellow tapers in golden candlesticks cast a mellow light over all, during the serving of a bill of fare which might include peaches and cream, oranges, pumpkin pie, and other yellow comestibles. The menu cards afford much opportunity for adding attrac- tiveness to a company dinner. If one possesses artistic skill, a floral decoration or a tiny sketch, with an appropriate quota- tion, the guest's name, and date of the dinner, make of the cards very pleasing souvenirs. A proper quotation put after each dish is much in vogue as a means of promoting conversa- tion. The quotations are best selected from one author. THE ART OF DINING. 469 There are no absolute rules for the service of company din- ners, much depending upon social conditions and established customs. Two modes are in general use, — placing the dishes upon the table to be dished by the host and hostess, and plac- ing all food upon- the side table to be dished and served by a waiter. When the latter method is used, it is quite customary to place the plates of soup upon the table before dinner is announced. As many knives, forks, and spoons as will be needed for the courses may be placed beside each plate, or they may be brought in with the course, as preferred. Clean plates are necessary for every course. The manner of serving is essentiall}^ like that already described. Care should be taken to have the dining room at an agreeable temperature, neither too warm nor too cold. At large dinner parties, each gentleman, as he enters, receives a card upon which is written the name of the lady he is to take in to dinner, to whom the hostess at once presents him. When dinner is announced, the host leads the way with the oldest or most distinguished lady or the one to whom the dinner is given, while the hostess follows last, with the most honored gentleman. The host places the lady whom he es- corts on his right. If the number is small, the host indicates the places the guests should occupy as they enter the room ; if the party is large, the menu card at each plate bears the name of the guest for whom it is designed. The lady es- corted by the host should be the first one served. Soup is always taken and tasted, whether liked or not ; after the first course, it is proper to accept or refuse a dish, as preferred. No well-bred hostess ever apologizes for the food upon her table or urges anything upon her guests when once declined. No orders should be given to servants during the meal ; everything that will contribute to the proper serving of the dinner should be arranged beforehand, and all necessary instructions given. At the close of the dinner, the hostess gives the sign for retiriner. TABLE TOPICS. A MEAL — what is it ? Just enough of food To renovate and well refresh the frame, So that with spirits lightened, and with strength renewed, We turn with willingness to work again. — Se/. Do not bring disagreeable things to the table in your conversation any more than you would in j'our dishes. — Sl'/. Courtesy in the mistress of the house consists in feeding conversation ; never in usurping it. — Jlfrne. SwetcJiine. Good humor and good health follow a good meal ; and by a good meal we mean anything, however simple, well dressed in its way. — Smiles. Unquiet meals make ill digestion. — Shakespeare. Eat slowly and do not season your food with care. — Sel. To rise from the table able to eat a little more is a proverbially good rule for every one. There is nothing more idiotic than forcing down a few mouthfuls, because they happen to remain on one's plate after hmiger is satisfied, and because they may be " wasted " if left. It is the most serious waste to overtax the stomach with even half an ounce more than it can take care of. — Sel. I PRAY you, O excellent wife ! cumber not yourself and me to get a curiously rich dinner for this man and woman who have just alighted at our gate . . . These things, if they are desirous of them, they can get for a few shillings at any vil- lage inn ; but rather let that stranger see, if he will, in your looks, accents, and behavior, your heart and earnestness, your thought and will, that which he cannot buy at any price in any city, and which he may travel miles and dine sparely and sleep hardly to behold. — Emerson. [470] ^O no other department of domestic work perhaps is so little thought given or so little science applied as to the routine work of clearing the table and washing "^'' the dishes after mealtime. Any way to accomplish the object, seems to be the motto in very many households. But even for these prosaic tasks there is a best way, which, if employed, ma)' make of an otherwise irksome service a really pleasurable one. Clearing; the Table. — First of all, put back the chairs, and brush up the crumbs from the floor, then collect all untouched foods and store them away in clean dishes ; next gather the siK'er, place it handles upward in pitchers or other deep dishes, and pour hot water over it. For gathering the silver a com- partment tray in which knives, forks, and spoons may be placed separately is important. Many of the scratches and m.arks on their silver ware, which housekeepers deplore, come from the careless handling together of forks, knives, and spoons. Now in a deep basin upon a tray, collect all the refuse and partly eaten foods, carefully emptying cups, glasses, finger bowls, etc., and scraping all dishes which contained food as clean as possi- [471] 4/2 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. ble ;.for no crumbs or particles of food should be introduced into the dishwater. Pile the jdishes as fast as cleaned upon a second tray in readiness for washing. It saves much liability of breakage in transferring from the dining room to the kitchen, if each kind of soiled dishes is packed by itself. Wipe carefully, if not needing to be washed, and replenish all salts, granola cups, and sugar bowls before putting away. Gather the soiled napkins for the laundry, and put those clean enough to be used again in their proper places. Especial care must be taken, however, so to designate those reserved for future use that each shall receive the same again, as nothing is more disgusting to a sensitive person than to be tendered a napkin which has been used by some one else. Some form of napkin holder should be considered an essential part of the table furnishing. If rings cannot be afforded, ordinary clothes pins, gilded and decorated with a bit of ribbon, make very pretty substitutes. Brush the tablecloth, fold in its creases, also the sub-cover of canton flannel, and lay both away until again needed. Washing the Dishes. — Plenty of hot water and clean towels are the essential requisites for expeditious and thorough dish-washing. A few drops of crude ammonia added to the water will soften it and add to the luster of the silver and china. Soap may be used or not according to circumstances ; all greasy dishes require a good strong suds. There should also be provided two dish drainers or trays, unless there is a stationary sink with tray on which to drain the dishes. For washing glassware and fine china, papier-inacJie tubs are preferable to anything else, as they are less liable to occasion breakage of the ware. If many dishes are to be washed, fre- quent changes of water will be necessary as the first becomes either cold or dirty. Perfectly sweet, clean dishes are not evolved from dirty dishwater. The usual order given for the washing of dishes is, glasses, silver, fine china, cups, saucers, pitchers, plates and other dishes. This is, however, based upon the supposition that cups and saucers are used for beverages, and plates are soiled by the use of various greasy foods ; but AFTER MEALTIML;. 473 in families where tea and coffee and animal foods are dispensed with, and saucers are used for grains with cream dressing, the plates are often cleaner than the saucers and should be washed first. The general rule to be followed is always to wash the dishes least soiled first, and all of one kind together. The latter item is specially important, since much of the nicking of dishes and breaking of handles from cups, covers, and pitchers is the result of piling dishes promiscuously together while washing. It is quite as easy to finish washing one kind before begin- ning on another as to do it in any less safe and systematic way, and if wiped in the same order, it does away with the need of sorting when putting the dishes away. If for any reason the dishes must wait for a time before being washed, the best plan is to pack them carefully into large pans, cover with warm water, and let them soak. When ready to wash them, prepare hot suds and clear water for rins- ing in additional pans. Do not use too hot water, as a high temperature will break glass and "check" the enamel of ordi- nary ware. The law of expansion holds good with both china and glassware, and all glass and glazed wares should be dipped into hot water in such a manner that all its surfaces may receive the heat and expand together. All dishes used for milk should be first thoroughly rinsed in cold water before being washed in hot water or suds. Be sure that the inside of all cups and pitchers is thor- oughly clean. It is a good plan to have a mop made by fasten- ing finger-lengths of coarse cotton twine to a suitable handle, for washing the inside of pitchers. In cleaning forks, spoons, or cups, which have been em- ployed in beating or eating eggs, rinse them in cold water before putting them into hot suds, as hot water cooks the egg and causes it to adhere. Common table salt is said to be ex- cellent for removing the egg tarnish from silver. Clean Dover egg beaters by beating a dish of cold water, or by holding under a stream of cold water from the faucet, then carefully 474 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. rinse and wipe perfectly dry. Do not put the upper part of the beater into hot water, as it will remove the oil from the wheels so that they will not work easily. Grain-boilers and mush-kettles should be allowed to cool, then filled with cold water and allowed to soak during the meal hour, when they can be easily cleaned. Tin dishes should be washed with hot suds as soon as possible after using. For cleaning iron pots, use soft water and soap or washing- soda with a wire dishcloth or kettle scraper. If the food ad- heres to the sides, fill with cold water and soak. Kettles and all dishes placed over a fire should be cleaned on the outside as well as the inside. Tp re- move the soot, rub first with pieces of dry paper and afterward with damp paper ; then wash with hot suds and a cloth. Kettles and saucepans burned on the inside may be cleaned by putting a little cold water and ashes in them and allowing them to soak on the range until the water is warm. Porcelain-lined and granite-ware utensils stained from food burning on, may be cleaned after soaking for a time in a solution of sal soda, which may be prepared by pouring boil- ing water over the soda in the proportion of two pints of water to one pound of sal soda, and stirring Wire until dissolved. It may be prepared in quantity and Dishcloth. , . . ., 11 stored m a stone jar until needed. Wash wooden ware and bread boards with cold water and sand soap. In scraping dough from the bread board, always scrape with the grain of the wood and be careful not to roughen the surface. Steel knives and forks with ivory or wooden handles should not be put into dishwater. Hot water will expand the steel and cause the handles to crack. Wash them thoroughly with the dishcloth, scour with bath brick, and wipe dry. All tin and iron dishes should be thoroughly dried before putting away, to prevent rusting. AFTER MEALTIME. 475 If draining is considered preferable to wiping dishes, a good plan, if one has not a patent dish drainer, is to fold an old tablecloth in several thicknesses and spread upon the table. Wash the dishes carefully and rinse in hot water. Place a cup or bowl bottom upward, lay a plate on each side, then one be- tween and above them, with two more on the outside, and so on, not permitting them to touch more than necessary. Dishcloths and Towels. — No dishes or utensils can be well cared for without good, clean dishcloths and towels, and plenty of them. An excellent dishcloth may be either knit or crocheted in some solid stitch of coarse cotton yarn. Ten or twelve inches square is a good size. Several thicknesses of cheese-cloth basted together make good dishcloths, as do also pieces of old knitted garments and Turkish toweling. If a dish mop is preferred, it may be made as follows : Cut a groove an inch from the end of a stick about a foot in length and of suitable shape for a handle ; cut a ball of coarse twine into nine-inch lengths, and lay around the stick with the middle of the strands against the groove ; wind a fine wire or cord around the twine to fasten it in the groove ; then shake down the twine, so it will lie all one way like a mop, and fasten it to the handle by tying a second cord around it on the outside. Towels for drying dishes should be of three different grades, — fine ones without lint for glass, silver, and fine china ; coarser ones for the ordinary table ware, and still another quality for pans, kettles, and other kitchen ware. The right size is a yard in length and half as wide, with the ends hemmed. As to material, fine checked linen is usually employed for glass and silver towels, and crash for ordinary dishes, for iron and tin- ware towels which have become somewhat worn, or a coarse bag opened and hemmed, may be used. Old, half-worn table- cloths may be cut into excellent dish towels. It is of the greatest importance that all dishcloths, mops, and towels be kept perfectly sweet and clean. Greasy dish- cloths and sour towels are neither neat nor wholesome and are a most fertile source of germs, often breeding disease 4/6 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. and death. After each dish washing, the dishcloth, towels, and mops should be thoroughly washed in hot water with plenty of soap, well rinsed and hung up to dry either upon a line out of doors or a rack made for the purpose near the kitchen range. If care is always taken to clean the dishes as much as possible before washing and to change the suds as often as they become dirty, the towels will not be hard to keep clean and sweet-smelling. Those used during the week should go into the wash as regularly as other household articles. Dish towels are also much better for being ironed. It gives them a " surface " which facilitates the drying operation. The Care of Silver, Glass, Etc. — If silver is well washed in hot water containing a few drops of ammonia, and carefully dried with a fine, soft towel, it will keep bright for a long time without other cleaning. If special cleaning is necessary, try the following : Place the silver in a pan of hot water, then with a soft cloth, soaped and sprinkled with powdered borax, scour the silver well ; afterward rinse in clear cold water, and dry with a clean cloth. If a more thorough cleaning is needed, apply moistened Spanish whiting with a silver brush and soft flannel, afterward polishing with dry whiting and chamois skin. Frequent scouring should be avoided by careful washing, as too much rubbing wears out plated ware and dulls the best of silver. Silver ware and plate which is not in ordinary use can be kept from tarnishing by varnishing with collodion, a solu- tion of gun-cotton in ether. The articles should be carefully brushed in this colorless vanish with an elastic brush, taking care that the entire surface is covered. The film of collodion will protect the underlying metal from the action of the sul- phurous vapors to which is due the blackening of silver. Tinware which has become blackened may be made to look bright and shining again by rubbing with a damp cloth dipped in sal soda. Afterward wipe dry. Sand soap or sapolio may be used for the same purpose. Cut-glass ware which has become in any way blurred or tarnished can be restored by polishing it with a soft piece of newspaper. First rub well with a piece slightly moistened and AFTER MEALTIME. 477 afterward repeat the process with dr-y paper. Rubbing- with a soft brush dipi^cd in fine, soft whiting is another method often employed for the same purpose. Cut-glass water-bottles dim or stained on the inside are best cleaned by rinsing with dilute muriatic acid, then carefully rinsing- several times in clear cold water to remove all trace of the acid, which is a poison. All fine china should be handled carefully in washing and drying. There will be less danger of breakage if the china is gradually heated by allowing it to stand in a pan of warm water before being put into hot water. The same is true of all table ware, and is of especial importance in cold weather. Brass faucets and other brass or copper articles may be cleaned by rubbing with whiting wet with aqua ammonia. Yellowed ivory handles may be restored to their original whiteness by rubbing with sandpaper and emery ; mineral soap or pumice stone may be used for the same purpose. Nice table cutlery packed away for a season may be kept from rusting by covering the metal portion with a thin coating of paraffine. Rust may be removed from steel by scouring with emery and oil ; but if there is much corrosion, some weak muri- atic acid will be needed. This, however, will take some of the metal with the rust, and must be washed off quickly. Trays and japanned goods should never have boiling water poured over them, as it will make the varnish crack and peel. If a tray is badly soiled, wet with a sponge moistened in warm water and soap, and rub with a dry cloth ; if it looks smeary, dust on a little flour and rub again. Marks and scratches may sometimes be removed by rubbing with a flannel cloth dipped in sweet oil. Care of the Table Linen. — Much of the attractiveness of the table depends upon the linen used ; if this is not well cared for, the finest table ware cannot make up for the defect. Stains upon table linen made by acids and vinegar may be removed by simply washing in clear water ; berry stains arc easily taken out by pouring boiling water over them ; peach stains are best removed by soaking for some time in cold water and then washing \\ith soap before allowing warm water 478 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. to touch them. Chlorine water or a solution of chloride of lime will remove fruit stains, and vegetable colors. Coffee stains rubbed with a mixture of warm water and the yolk of egg, are said to disappear when the mixture is washed off with clean warm water. Sour buttermilk well rubbed into the material, dried in, and afterward washed out in several waters, is said to be effectual in removing tea stains. All stains should be removed as soon as possible after being made, and always before putting the linen into the wash. In washing table linen, housekeepers should remember that hard rubbing is the worst wear which it can receive. If soaked over night, a gentle squeezing will usually be quite sufficient to remove all soil, or if a little borax (a handful to ten gallons of water) or household ammonia in the proportion of two tablespoonfuls to a pail of water be added, two or three hours' soaking will suffice. Care should also be taken in hang- ing and fastening properly upon the line. Fold the cloth over the line six or eight inches at least, and in such a manner as to keep the thread straight, and fasten with three or more clothes pins. Table linen is often sadly frayed at the corners by being ginned so that all strain comes upon the corners, and if left to whip in the wind, is soon ruined. Napkins in summer are much nicer if dried upon the grass. Only the merest trifle of starch, if any, should be used for table linen. Table linen should be taken from the line while still damp, folded evenly lengthwise with the selvage together, then folded lengthwise again, rolled tight, and wrapped in damp towels so that the outside will not become dry, and ironed the same day. The irons should be heavy and as hot as pos- sible without danger of scorching, and the board should be well padded with several thicknesses of flannel. Iron the linen in single folds, keeping a damp cloth over portions which will not be immediately reached. When the entire surface has been ironed, fold evenly lengthwise and with the selvage edges toward the ironer, again go over the entire upper side ; then fold with the just completed portion inside, iron again, and so continue until the whole is ironed and folded. Both napkins AFTER MEALTIME. 479 and tablecloths arc ironed in this way. They should be thor- oughly dried with the iron and well aired before being laid away, in order to bring out the patterns well and to give them the desirable glossy finish. Colored tabic linen should be washed in tepid water contain- ing a little powdered borax, which serves to set the color. Very little, if any, soap should be used. Rinse in tepid water containing a small quantity of boiled starch ; dry in the shade, and iron while yet damp. Table linen should be carefully darned at once when it be- gins to wear and become thin, and may thus be preserved for a long time. When new, it should be washed before being made up, and the threads raveled or drawn, so as to make the ends exactly straight. Napkins should be washed before being cut apart. When not required for regular use, the linen should be folded loosely, and laid away without ironing in some place where it will not be subjected to pressure. When needed, it can be quickly dampened and ironed. The Garbage. — What to do with the waste accumulating from preparation of foods is a question of no small importance. The too frequent disposition of such material is to dump it into a waste-barrel or garbage box near the back door, to await the rounds of the scavenger. Unless more than ordinary precau- tions in regard to cleanliness are observed, such a proceeding is fraught with great danger. The bits of moist food, scraps of meat, vegetables, and other refuse, very quickly set up a fer- mentative process, which, under the sun's rays, soon breeds mi- asm and germs ; especially is this true if the receptacle into which the garbage is thrown is not carefully cleaned after each emptying. A foul-smelling waste-barrel ought never to be permitted under any circumstances. The best plan is to burn all leav- ings and table refuse as fast as made, which may be done without smell or smoke by opening all«the back drafts of the kitchen range, and placing them on the hot coals to dry and burn. Some housekeepers keep in one end of the sink a wire dish drainer into which all fruit and vegetable parings are put. 48o SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. If wet, the water quickly drains from them, and they are ready to be put into the stove, where a very little fire soon reduces them to ashes. All waste products which cannot-well be burned, may be buried at a distance from the house, but not too much in one spot, and the earth should be carefully cov- ered over afterward. Under no circumstances should it be scattered about on the surface of the ground near the back door, as heedless people are apt to do. If the table refuse must be saved and fed to animals, it should be carefully sorted, kept free from all dishwater, sour milk, etc., and used as promptly as possible. It is a good plan to have two tightly covered waste pails of heavy tin to be used on alternate days. When one is emptied, it may be thoroughly cleansed and left to purify in the air and sunshine while the other is in use. Any receptacle for waste should be entirely emptied and thoroughly disinfected each day with boiling suds and an old broom. This is especially imperative if the refuse is to be used as food for cows, since the quality of the milk is more or less affected by that of the food. TABLE TOPICS. A WOMAN cannot work at dressmaking, tailoring, or any other sedentary employ- ment, ten hours a day, year in and out, without enfeebling her constitution, impairing her eyesight, and bringing on a complication of complaints ; but she can sweep, cook, wash, and do the duties of a well-ordered house, with modern arrangements, and grow healthier every year. The times in New England when all women did housework a part of every day, were the times when all women were healthy. — Harriet Beecher Stowe. The best ways are commonly the easiest ways and those that give most comfort to the household. Know hozu is a great labor-saving invention, on which there is no patent. — ScL Who sweeps a room as for God's law jNIakA that and Ih' action fine. — George Herbert. ^c^prW^HAT to get for the family meals is frequently a -^ii' F\ 7 most perplexing problem, especially when one re- y members the many important points that should L,. e^to^H enter into the arrangement of the daily bill of fare. A well-arranged menu should be composed of articles which supply the requisite amount of food elements for proper nutri- tion, palatably prepared. These should be adapted to the season and also to the family purse. There should be an agreeable and pleasing change from day to day, with never too great variety at one meal, and no incongruous association of foods that do not harmonize, upon the same bill of fare. The amount of time and strength available for the prepara- tion of the meal must also receive consideration. The prob- lem would be easier of solution could one select her menu wholly from fresh material each time ; but in most households the odds and ends and "left-over" foods must be utilized, and if possible compounded into dishes that will not have the savor of yesterday's breakfast or dinner. The making of a bill of fare offers opportunity for thought and study under all circumstances ; but it is often particularly 31 [481:1 4?:: SCIENXE IN THE KITCHEN. difficult for the housewife long accustomed to the use of foods of a different character, to make up a menu of h\i:^ienic dishes properly adapted to all requirements. For such of our readers as need aid in this direction. \ve give in this chapter bills of fare for fifty-two weeks' breakfasts and dinners. Not that we presume to have arranged a model dietary which every one can adopt.— individual preferences, resources, and various other conditions would preclude that, — but we have endeavored to prepare a list of menus suitable for use should circumstances admit, and which we trust may be found helpfully suggestive of good, hygienic living. \\'e have given meats no place upon these bills of fare, as we wished particularly to illustrate how good, substantial menus of appetizing variety can be provided without their use ; but such of our readers as desire this class of foods will have no difficult)- in supplementing the bills we have arranged by adding such meats as accord with their tastes and purses, while our chapter on Meats will give them all needed informa- tion as to their preparation. In arranging the bills of fare it has been presupposed that the housewife has provided herself with at least a moderate al- lowance of canned or dried vegetables and fruits during their season, for use throughout the year. Effort has also been made to suggest an ample variety of seasonable and whole- some articles and to make provision for any probable let't- over foods ; and to illustrate how by planning and thinking beforehand the same material may be used to form the base of two different dishes for successive da\s. enough of which for both may often be cooked at the same time, thus econo- mizing in time and fuel. No particular year has been taken, as we desired the menus to be adapted to all years, and as no dates could be given, we have taken even weeks, ending each with a Sabbath menu, beginning with the first month of the year. A third meal, if desired, whether it be luncheon or supper, should, for health's sake, be so simple in character that we have not deemed it necessary to give bills of fare. Breads, A year's breakfasts axd dinners. 483 fruits, and grains, with milk, cream, and some simple relish, tastefully served, offer ample provision for a healthful and nourishing repast. No mention has been made of beverages uj^on the bills of fare. If any are used, hot milk or caramel coffee are to be pre- ferred. Cooked fruit, either fresh, dried, or canned, is desir- able for every meal, but the kind — as also of the fresh fruit upon the breakfast bill — may be arranged according to indi- vidual preferences and resources. The use of cream, sugar, and other accessories should be suited to circumstances. It is intended that croutons be served with the soups, and in arranging the variety of breads, an effort has been made to provide one of harder texture for use with grains and other soft foods. The wafers mentioned are the whole-wheat and gluten wafers manufactured by the Sanitarium Food Co., which by many families are considered more convenient for general use as a hard bread than the crisps, sticks, etc., which upon some of the menus are designed for the same purpose. Less variety may be used, and changes made to suit the taste and circumstances of those providing and partaking of the meals ; but whatever is subtracted should still leave upon the bill of fare the more nutritious articles, like grains, whole- wheat bread, and other foods rich in nerve and muscle form- ing elements. Whether the housewife follows the bills of fare given with such modifications as are best suited to the needs of her house- hold, or provides some of her own choosing, she will find it a great saving of vexation and trouble to make them out for several days or a week ahead, at one time, rather than from day to day or from meal to meal. She can then plan her work and her resources so as the more nearly to make " both ends meet," and can provide a more varied fare, while if changes are needed, they can be easily made by substituting one article for another, as circumstances demand. In the arrangement of her menus she will find it well to select first the grain and breads to be used, since being among the most nutritious of all foods, they may well form the chief 4.^4 SCI EN OK IN lllK KirCHFN. and staple lood, around ^vhich all other articles upon the bill of fare are i^rouped. If the grain chosen be rice, farina, or one lari^ely composoil o\' starch, the remainder of the menu should include some UhhIs rich in nitroi;"enous elements, such as macaroni, whole-wheat or C'iraham breads, the legumes, eggs, etc. If the choice o\ grviin be one containing a high percentage oi' nitrogenous material, less of this element will be required in the accompanying foods. As ai\ aid in deter- mining the nutritive value of an}- gi\en food substance, the following table, presenting the results of the chemical analysis of the more common articles used as food, which we have com- piled from the most recent scientific authorities, will be found helpful : — TABLK SHOWING. THK NUTRITIVE VAl IKS OF COMMON KOOn SUBSTANCES. RHn> SUBSTANXKS. Gkains. Wheat, Toland Mich. White •• Diehle ... Jaiv»nese Kye. Winter. German Barley So, Knssian Oats. Corn, Flint Pent Sweet Kice Millet Buckwheat Iceland Moss Flour. Graham Wheat Rve Barlev Oat Corn Buckwheat . Bean Pea Banana Arrowrvwt. . Brkai>s, Barlev Whole Wheat >o-4 '3.4 1J.6 n.S 1J.7 i6. T-7 13-5 I0.3 11.4 14.9 J3.4 >3- J 6. 5 J4- 10.5 9-4 11.4 6.7 »»-7 1 1. 1 11.4 tl 23.3 25.3 B.9 61.9 7»- 78.2 65.1 74.6 7S. 66.7 70.0 5S-3 ^S.^ 6S.5 62,7 rs.5 6S.a 7I.S 5f>-3 09,9 75-4 69.7 7i.a 67,2 69.5 74-3 S9-4 57.2 77-9 2.4 3.8 6.5 5-5 7.S .^3 10.0 5.a 4.!:: 1-4 1.7 7-i 5. 1-5 2.3 7.8 7-S 1.8 2.9 6.1 •<) .!> .S ii.S 4.a a.S =•,=; 6.9 1.9 '•9 J. 7 '■? 1-4 1-4 2.0 2.6 »-7 1.8 J.D 6.1 I, I ., .0 .3 6.S 9. 1-4 l.ti 6.1 1.5 .0 •5 6.3 7-> s. ■9 4-9 1.6 1-3 I. 1-5 • 7 S.5 a. I 3*3 »•- a.6 a. 2-9 1-3 2-3 •5 2.2 I.O 27- S2. 4-7 I. 3.8 4-3 i-* 4 • t>. •• 3- 5-3 86.8 87. S 84. 7 89.S 86. 86.7 84.9 84.4 S3.7 86.9 85.7 8>;.6 85.1 82.3 84.7 84-7 87.3 83. 5 Sa. St. 7 1 Chiefly sugar iwd starch. A ^l•;Al<'s i!ki;AKi'Asrs and dinnkks. 4«5 I'OOI) SlIHSTANCKS. VVliiir. Swedish Speisc Itiod. /wieljiii.U. Wliilc... kyc M.icriroiii M:iiiiiii Kki'sH Fi 20.6 8r,.8 80. '/.>. 84.. 94.3 75. 92.5 87.5 79. 8--!. 7. .8 95.2 93-7 90.9 90.4 90-3 5 ° ■5.8 46. 46.9 7'.'. 3 73-3 67.7 76.8 18.1 5.6 ■J U. 1.8 '4'. I 7-' •I 4. 'I 42. 8 1 .2 ■•7 2.3 I .2 1.4 4'' fS.9 3-'' ■- n A r,. C 3 ' J. 4 <4.9 •4.3 7.S '•4 • . S '.7 1.6 1.6 7. 5.' .6 1 .2 '.7 ■/..<) 12,1 i. 1 '.•4 4.6 2.5 3. 3.2 6.5 3. ! '3.9 ' • 2.9 ';^ 1 . 1.6 .8 1 .'/ ' -9 '.3 1.8 2. ; . .8 ■•4 1 . ■I • 7 2, 1 r . II. 6 1 . 8. .7 .4 '.9, .5 .8 •9 .7 1 . .7 1 .2 ii 1- 9- 7-7 8.5 12.5 '5. •5. 12.8 23.8 "4- 21 . 7.7 9' 6.4 6.8 37.8 15.8 23. 12.4 6.4 4.8 4.4 4. 2.6 '•7 7.8 8.1 1.8 9.6 4S6 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. FOOD SUBSTANCES. Onion Pumpkin Tomato Peas, green, garden. . . small African green shelled Beans, field. French or Kidney white Lima String beans Lentils German JMii.K AND Butter. Mothers' milk Cows' ■ ' Cream Swedish Butter French " Cheese, Stilton Skimmed milk , Buttermilk Milk of Cow Tree Meats. Lean Beef Lean INIuttou Veal Pork Poultry White Fish Salmon Entire Egg White of Egg Yolk of Egg 66. 13. S 12.6 aS c C V 1! J= J=li rt < c/: 1.7 1. 1 S.l r.6 6.4 12. 24.6 52.6 =3.4 57.8 21.7 57.7 25- 48. 3 23.7 SS.o 26.9 48. S 21.9 66.6 2.7 5.5 25.9 53. 33. 30.3 .0 4-1 2 . 7 .0 26.2 4- 4-1 1.7 ... 1 19-3 18.3 16. S 9.8 21 . 18. 1 16.1 M- 20.4 16. 2.S Milk Sug. .=;-4 5.2 2.8 .6 ti id d 3 i: c C^ V M close. on-N Subst ^ _o o.t: pt. tn £ 2 in U ^2 . I .. S. ■7 ■ 7 '•7 .1 7 I 2 6 ' S 8 I 8 9 I 2 « 3-5 2 6 6 4 2 2 0. 3 3 3 2 1 .0 2 8 ^ 2 2 1.7 3 5 8 2 ~-~ 3 7 S 3 2 8 8 2 I 1 .0 2 t 4 I 2 3 2 1.0 3 3 9 2 8.7 2 7 13 b I 2 3 2 ■ 4 3-9 .B 2.2 20.7 1.8 11. 84.4 .6 14. 86.4 .8 80.6 4. 1.4 J.S .8 1.4 .7 .8 I. 35 • - • 5 2.2 3.6 S.I .18 4-9 4 8 .26 15.8 4 7 .95 48.0 2 3 •49 3.8 2 .18 2.Q .16 5.5 4 • 34 10.5 5 6 .75 30 7 3 I 9 H 6 19.7 3 14. 34. 87.4 9.2 40.2 BILLS OF FARE FOR EVERY DAY IN THE YEAR. In the following pages will be found a breakfast and dinner bill of fare for every day in the year, beginning with January i. We would particularly recommend a trial of their use by the young and inexperienced matron just entering upon house- keeping, whose desire should be to begin right — provide sim- ple and healthful as Avell as palatable food for her family. To many such we trust that our " year's breakfasts and dinners " may come like the grateful suggestions of a helpful friend. An explanation of the bills of fare has been given in the pre- ceding pages, and need not be repeated here. I'MKiST WKKK. KiRsr n.w FOURTH DAY llKKAKl-AST lUii'.AKl'AS'l' Fresh Fruit Rolled Oiits Gravy Toast Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheal Dry Toast with Hot Cream Corn Puffs Breakfast Rolls Hominy Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Baked Sweet Potatoes with Tomato Gravy DINNER Celery Stewed Fruit Vegetable Oyster Soup DINNECR Baked Potato with Tomato Cream Sauce Tomato Cream Soup Mashed Peas Baked Squash Boiled Potatoes with Cream Sauce Rolled Rye Mashed J'cas 15aked Chestnuts Whole-Wheat Bread Cream Crisps Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Rice Stewed Fruit Pop Corn Pudding Stewed Fruit Pudding SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY liRHAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Cerealine Snowflake Toast Mi.ved Mush Browned Sweet Potato Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Macaroni with Cream Sauce Baked Sweet Apples Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit Graham Bread Corn Puffs Toasted Waters DINNER Stewed Fruit Swiss Potato Soup Baked Potato and Pease Gravy DINNER Macaroni with Kornlet Stewed Lima Beans Cream Pea Soup Pearl Barley Mashed Potatoes Baked Cabbage Corn Cake Cream Crisps Stewed Corn Pearl Wheat Stewed Fruit Zwieback Currant Puffs Graham Bread Cracked Wheat Pudding Stewed Fruit Apple Tart THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY HRKAKKAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rice with Fig Sauce Cream Toast Graham Grits Toasted Wafers ('elery Toast Jheakfast Rolls Whole-Wheat I'.read Raised Biscuit Whole-Wheat Puffs Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Friiit Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Lima Bean Soup Corn Soup IMashed Potato Scalloped Vegetable Oysters Baked Squash Mashed Beans Hominy Rolled Rye C'.ialiam Puffs Oatmeal Bread Toasted Wafers Beaten Biscuit Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Simple Custard Pie Apple Meringue Dessert SABE ATH I'.REAKFAST DINNER Oranges Tomato and Macaroni Soup Oatmeal Prune Toast Canned Green Peas Scalloped Potato Baked Sour Apples Steamed Rice Breakfast Rolls Fruit Bread Whole-Wheat Bread Plain Buns Zwieback Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit and Nuts (487) iSKCONO WKtCIv. riKsr p w UKKAKKAST Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Dates Cream Toast 'roasted Rolls Fruit Bveaii Whole-Wheat Pufts Stewed Fruit Combiuation Soup Boiled Potato with Creanj Sauce Pease Cakes Stewed Celery Cracked Wheat Whole-Wheat Hread Sally Lunn Gems Zwieback Stewed Kruit Apple Tapioca SKCONO DAY HKKAKFAST Fresh Fruit Plum Porridge Strawberry Toast Whole-Wheat Bread Graham Crisps Pop Overs Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Celery Soup No. 2. Mashed Siputsh Mashed Potato Chopped Turnip Rolled N\'heat liraliam Crisps Rye Gems Stewed Fruit Cream Rice FHidding THIRD DAY ISKEAKKAST Fresh Fruit Graiu^la Fruit Mush Corn Cake Toasted Waters iiraham Putts Boileil Macaroni Stewed PVuit IIINNER Swiss Potato Soup Baked Sweet Potato Boiled Beets, Sliced Succotash Graham Grits Gr-aham Bread Toasted Rolls Stewed Fruit Cornstarch Merinsjue I'tHK 111 D \Y HKHAKFAsr Fresh Fruit Gatmeal Snowflake Toast Toasted Wafers Currant Puffs (.irahani Breail Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Oatmeal Soup iSlashed Sweet Potato Scalloped Tomatoes Farina l.'>i-aham Fruit Bread Crusts Zwieback Stewed Fruit Apple Pie FIFTH DAY BR15AKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Apple Mush Gr;tvy Toast Breakfast Rolls Graham Fruit Bread Macaroni with Kornlet Stewed Fruit DINNER Vegetable Soup Mashed Potato Cabbage Salad Mashed Peas with Tomato Sauce Pearl Barley Toasted Wafers N'ieuna Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit Rice INtold with Fruit Sauce SIXIH PAY BKKAKFAST Fresh Fruit Orange Rice Blackberry Toast (."urrant Puffs Graham Crisps Baked Apples Steweil Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Potato Puff Baked Beets Stewed Corn and Tomatoes Pearl Wheat Parker House Rolls Zwieback Corn Puffs Stewed Fruit Prune Pudding SABBATH liRKAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Grope Toast Toasted Wafei-s Fruit Ihead N\hole-Wheat Pufts Cup Custard Stewed Fruit PINNER Cream Pea Soup Stewed Potato Canned Okra and 'Vomato Browned Rice Beaten Biscuit Graham Crackers Fruit Bread Stewed Fruit Prune Pie with Granola Crust l-^^ rillKl) VVKKK FIRST DAY lOlIRTII DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fniit IlKI'.AKFAS !■ Graham Mush wiili Raisins Gravy Toast Toasted liealeii His( nit Whole-Wheat I'uffs I'.aked Potato with Celery SaiK <• l''resh I''rnil Rolled Rye Apricot Toast Crusts Toasted Wafers Con. Putts (Jranola Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Frnil DlNNliK IJakcd Bean Soup Steamed I'(jlatoes with Pease (Jravy Scalloped Vegetable Oysters Mashed Parsnip (iraham Grits Whole-Wheat Bread Kye Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Bread Custard Pudding DINNKR Cream Pea Soup Mashed Potato C:abbagc Hash Steweil Vegetable Oysters (iraham Mush Graliam Puffs Buns Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Cornstarch with Raisins SECOND DAY KIFFH DAY UKF.AKFASr IlKtiAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Peach Toast Rice with Fig Sauce Graham Gruel Cottage Cheese Lentil 'I'oast Beaten Biscuits Hoe Cake Graham Wafers Graham Puffs Graham Gems Zwieback Stewed Fruit Baked I'otato with Cream Gravy DINNER Stewed Fruit Lentil and Parsnip Soup DINNER Mashed Potato Celery Hulle.l Corn Mixed Potato Soup Scalloped Tomato Macaroni with Kornlet Baked Beans Macaroni with Raisins Graham (Jrits Tt Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit Rye Bread Pop Overs Toasted Wafers DINNKU Roasted .■\lmonds Stewed Frui. Cream Barley Soup DINNER Steamed Potatoes with Cream Sauce liaked Parsnips Scalloped Bcaus Browned Rice Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Crisps Stewed Fruit. Cocoaniit Blancmange or Fresli Fruit Brown Soup B^kcd ]>olatoes Carrots with Kg;.; S;aue Mashed Peas Cum Meal Cubes with Hot Cream Rye Bread Graham Sticks Stewed Fruit Farina p'ruit Mold SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice with Lentil C.ravy SnowflaUe Toast Crusts Toasted Wafers Corn Puffs Baked Apples Slewed Fruit BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Dry Toast with Hot Cream Corn Puffs Toasted Wafers Rye Bread Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Cream Pea Soup Combination Soup Boiled Potato with Brown Sauce Baked Potato Mashed Siiuash Baked Cabbage Stewed Corn Turnips in Juice Rolled Rye Graham Grits Graham Crisps Currant Puffs Toasted Wafers Graliani Ihead Whole-Wheat Bread Zwieback Stewed F'ruit Stewed Fruit Orange Float Dale Pudding with Lemon Sauce THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Lentil Toast Oatmeal Porridge Snowfiake Toast Granola Toasted Wafers Graham Puffs Zwieback Whole-Wheat Puffs Crescents Creamed Potatoes Celery. Boiled Macaroni Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Bean and Tomato Soup Corn Soup Mashed Potatoes Scalloped Vegetable Oysters Steamed Potatoes with Cream Sauce Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Stewed Lima Beans Baked Beets Cracked Wheat Corn Bread Pearl Wheat A\"hole-Wheat Puffs Graham Crackers Vienna Bread Graham Crisps Oatmeal Gems Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Apples or Bananas Apple Manioca or Fresh Fruit SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Canned Pea Soup Stewed Potato Succotash (Jatmeal Tomato Toast Currant Buns Toasted Wafers Graham (jrits Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Rolls with Fruit Jelly Citron Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Bananas (493) KIGHXH WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Plum Porridge Peach Toast Fresh Fruit Wlu.le-Wheat Puffs Whole-Wheat Bread Brcwis Cream Toast Granola Toasted Wafers Macaroni with Cream Sauce Stewed Fruit Corn Puffs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers DINNER Stewed Fruit Dates Vegetable Soup DINNER 1\nato Rice Scalloped Tomatoes Tomato and Macaroni Soup Mashed Parsuips Boiled Wheat Potato Puff Stewed Split Peas Zwieback Whole-Wheat Bread Sliced Beets Sally Lunn Gems Crusts Graham Bread Fruit Rolls Stewed Fruit Yielded Cracked Wheat with Fruit Juice Oranges and Nuts Stewed Fruit Bananas SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rice with Fig Sauce Gravy Toast Graham Grits Prune Toast Hoe Caiie Toasted Wafers Peas Puree Whole-Wheat Bread Fruit Rolls Rye Gems Stewed Fruit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Lima Bean Soup Potato Soup with Vermicelli Boiled Polutoes Washed Turnips Boiled Potato with Brown Sauce Canned Green Peas Mashed Squash Baked Beans Pearl Barley Pearl Wheat Fruit Loaf Beaten Biscuit Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Farina Blancmange with Fruit Sauce Granola Gems Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Apple Tart THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Wheat Porridge Gravy Toast Oatmeal Banana Toast Graham Puffs Hoe Cake Toasted Wafers Corn Puffs Toasted Beaten Biscuit Lemon Apples Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER Lentil and Parsnip Soup Scalloped Potato Chopped Cabbage Hulled Corn Graham Apple Mush Graham Puffs Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Grape Apples DINNER Pea and Tomato Soup Steamed Potato Stewed Corn Macaroni Baked with Granola Graham Grits Whole-Wheat Bread Bean Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Orange Custard SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Canned Corn Soup Orange Rice Strawberry Toast Creamed Potatoes JNlacaroni with Tomato Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Roasted Almonds Boiled Wheat Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Cocoanut Layer Cake California Grapes [ 494 ,) MINTM week:. FIRST DAY IIRIJAKI'AST Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Dates Gravy Toast Graham (jeins Toasted Beaten Hiscuit Whole-Wheat Breatl liaked Ajjples Stewed Fruit DINNKK Brown Soup Mashed I'otato Stewed Lima I'eans Baked Beets Graham Grits Graham Gems Wliole-Wheat Bread Graham Craclrcad Toasted Wafers ISakcd Apples Stewed Fruit DINXIiR Plain Rice Soup Mashed Potato Scalloped Turnip Stewed Split Peas Farina Fruit Mush Wliolc-Whcat F.read Sally Lunn Gems Zwieback Stewed Fruit Rice and Tapioca I'uddiui; THIRD DAY UREAKKAST Fresh Fruit Parched F"arinosc Tomato Toast Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Pop Overs Browned Corn Meal Mush Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Brown Sou]) Slewed Potatoes Chojjped Beets Mashed Lima Beans Pearl Wheat Pulled Bread Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit Bread and Fruit Custard FOURTH DAY MHIiAKFAST I'resh Fruit Oatmeal Dry Toast with Hot Cream Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Roasted Almonds Stewed Fruit DINNER Oatmeal Soup Boiled Potato Cabbage and Tomato Mashed Peas Rice Cream Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Slewed Fruit Ta].iinca Lemon Jelly FIFTH DAY liRl'.AKFASf Fresh Fruit Corn Meal Gruel with Croutons Boiled Macaroni Graham Gems Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread liaked Potato with Gravy Cottage Cheese Stewed Fruit DINNER Baked Bean Soup Mashed Potato Carrots with Egg Sauce I Scalloped Tomato Graham Grits Graham Bread Buns Cream Crisps Stewed Fruit 1 hied Apple Pie or Fresh Fruit SIXTH DAY liREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Graham Bread Breakfast Rolls Potato Cakes Peas Puree Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Boiled Potato with Cream Sauce Succotash Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Rolled Wheat with Raisins Graham Puffs Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Graham Grits Pudding SABBATH BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Prune Toast I'ruit Rolls Graham Biscuit Puked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Lima Bean Soup Stewed Potato Cold Sliced Beets Kornlet Steamed Rice Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Fruit Rolls Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit and Nuts 32 (497) TWELFTH WEEK. FIRST DAV I'OURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cerealine Flakes Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Baked Potato with Cream Sauce Steamed Eggs BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Plum Porridge Prune Toast Toasted Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Citron Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DIN'NER Tomato and Yermicelli Soup Cream Pea Soup Beet Hash Mashed Peas Mashed Potatoes Scalloped Tomatoes Macaroni with Kornlet Stewed Cabbage Pearl Barley Orange Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Cream Crisps Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Currant Puffs Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange with Cocoanut Sauce Apple Sago Pudding SECOND DAY FH^'TH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Apple and Apricot Toast Cream Rolls Graham Bread Baked Apples • Stewed Fruit BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Browned Rice Gravy Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Potatoes Pease Cakes with Tomato Sauce DINNER Stewed Fruit Pea and Tomato Soup Potato Rice , Creamed Parsnips Chopped Turnip Graham INIush Crusts Graham Bread Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit Prune and Tapioca Pudding DINNER Black Bean Soup No. z. JMashed Potato Mashed Parsnips Stewed Corn Rolled Rye Corn Bread Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit Banana Dessert THIRD DAY BREAKFAST SIXTH DAY Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Corn Meal Mush with Fruit Cream Toast Fresh Fruit Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Parker House Rolls Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Rolled Oats Blackberry Toast INIacaroni with Raisins Pop Overs Toasted Wafers DINNER Vegetable Broth Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Baked Potato with Brown Sauce DINNER Boiled Beets Corn and Tomato Potato Soup Graham Grits Potato Puff Scalloped Tomato Baked Beans iMush Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Cracked Wheat Sally Lunn Gems Graham Bre?d Sticks Currant Puffs ■ Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Cream Rice Pudding Jlalaga Grapes SABi ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Tomato Toast Tomato and Macaroni Soup Stewed Potato Canned String Beans Buns Beaten Biscuit Boiled Wheat Baked Apples Cup Custard Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Buns Stewed Fruit Lemon Shortcake Nuts (498) THIRTRKNTTI r VVKP^iIv. FIRST DAY FOURTH HAY llKlCAKFAsr IlUKAKl'AST Krcsli Fruit Uralniu Musli with Dales Cru.iin ro.i-.t Breakfast Rolls witli Fruit Jelly Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Bread Slewed Fruit Fresh Fruit Plum Purridye Dry 'J'oast , with Hot Cream Graham Bread 'I'oasted Wafers Oirn I'uffs Creamed Potatoes Stewed Fruit DINNER lican and Potato Soup DINNER IVIashcd I'ulato Heets with Cream Sauce Cream Pea Soup Macaroni baked, with Granola PiAalo Rice Tomato and Macaroni Pearl P.arley with Raisins Hulled Corn Toaslcd Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread RyeCrms Rice Stewed Fruit (jraham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Lcnion Apples with Wliipped Cream Stewed Fruit Raised Pie or Fresh Fr\iit SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Porridge Poached Kgs;s on Tua^t Rolled Wheat Api)le Toast Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Wholc-WIieat Puffs Toasted Wafers Potato Cakes Breakfast Rolls Cottage Cheese Stewed Fruil Baked Bananas Stewed Fruit DINNER Swiss Lentil Soup Mashed Potato Cahljage Salad Mashed Turnip Graham (irits DINNER 15rown Soup (reamed I'otatocs Chopped Turnips Parsnips willi Cream Sauce Cracked Wheat Graham Bread Cream C'risps Stewed Fruil Baked Apple Dessert ■|-uaslcd Rolls Date Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Frcih Fruit Corn Meal Musli Snowllakc 'J'lKe.t (orealiiie Flakes Prune Toa^l Oatmeal Gems 'I'oastcd Wafers Macaroni with Egg Sauce Fruit Bread Hati; Bread Toasted Wafers Graham (Jems Baked Apples Stewed Fruil Baked Apples Stevi'ed Fruit DINNER DINNER Potato Soup liean and Tomato Soup }>aked Polalcjes with Tomato Cream Same Boiled Potatoes Macaroni with Lentil Giavy Mashed or Stewed Peas Canned Corn Stewed Carrols Graham Mush Graham Grits Pulled Bread Fruit Bread Oeam Crisps Rye (jcms Graham Crackers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Apple 'I'arl Cracked Wheat Puddiu'^ SABB ATH HUEAKKAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Tomato Soup with Vermicelli Rolled Oats Gravy ToHst Warmed-over Potato Canned Green Peas Breakfast Rolls Toasted Wafers Fruit Bread Cold Sliced Beets Rolled Wheat C\ip Custard Baked Apples Whole-Wheat Bread Beaten Biscuit Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Prune Pie Fruit { 499 ) KOURXEENTH WEEK. FIRST ]>AV FOURTH DAY BKEAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Kirc with Steamed Figs Cream Toast Rolled Oats Lentil Toast Wliole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Rolls Currant Puffs Breakfast Rolls Graham Bread Fruit Bread Granola Potato Cakes Stewed Fruit Granola Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Canned Corn Soup Tomato Cream Soup r.aked Potatoes with Cream Sauce Scalloped Potatoes Baked or Stewed Beans Scalloped Tomatoes Mashed Peas Macaroni Baked with Granola Browned Rice Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Vienna Bread Toasted Rolls Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit ' Stewed Fruit Pudding Prune Dessert Nuts SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Peach Toast Rolled Wheat Gravy Toast Cream Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Graham Bread Breakfast Rolls Graham Gems Rice and Corn Cakes Dates Stewed Fruit Baked Apples DINNER Roasted Almonds Stewed Fruit Cream Pea Soup DINNER Creamed Potatoes Baked Cabbage Pea and Tomato Soup Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Mashed Potato iNIaslied Parsnips Succotash Hominy- Graham Grits Toasted Rolls Corn Puffs Raised Corn Bread Graham Gems Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Fruit Cornstarch Pudding Rice and Tapioca Pudding THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Granola Fruit jNIush Snowflake Toast Graham Grits Ciruel with Croutons Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Strawberry Toast Macaroni with Raisins Parker House Rolls Cream Rolls Corn Bread Graham Puffs Lemon Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Bean and Hominy Soup Swiss Lentil Soup Mashed Potatoes Mashed Lentils Potato Cakes Chopped Cabbage Turnips with Cream Sauce Stewed Corn and Tomatoes Farina Pearl Barley Vienna Bread Sally Lunn Gems Toasted Rolls Graham Bread Pop Overs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Banana Dessert or Fresh Fruit Bread Pudding or Fresh Fruit SABi 5ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Prune Toast Currant Piuns Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Baked Apples Stewed Fruit White Custard in Cups Cream Barley Soup Baked PotatOiS with Tomato Cream Sauce Stewed Lima Beans Rice Graham Bread Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Apple Pie Oranges 500) KIKXEENIMI WEKK. KIKSl' ]>.\y I'.NI'.AKIASI' Fresh Fill it GialiMin Fruit Mush Dry 'I'oiist willi Hot Cream Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Hcaten I'.isiuit Uraham Hreatl Baked Bananas Stewed Fruit niNNKK Bean and Potato Soup Maslicd Potato Cal)l>age Celery Scalloped 'I'omato Lentil Puree Cerealinc ('.rali:uji Bread Corn Puffs 'I'oasled Wafers Stewed p'ruit Rice and Tapioca Puddinp; SECOND DAY nREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Tomato 'I'oast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers (irahani Bread Macaroni with Cream Sauce Oranola Stewed I''niit DINNKK Canned Corn Soup Broiled Potato Stewed Parsnips Mashed Peas Farina with Maple Syrup Oraham Puffs Cream Crisps Stewed Fruit Lemon Apples with Almond Sauce THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice with Lentil Gravy Poached Kgg on Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Breakfast Rolls Oranola Stewed Fruit DINNKK Cream Rice Soup Boiled Potato Mashed Turnip Pease Cakes with Tomato Sauce Oraham Grits Rye lircad Crusts Toastei)les Stewed Fruit DINNKR Carrot Soup Scallojied Potato Mashed Beans Cold Boiled Beets, sliced Rolled Rye Oraham Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Oraham Crackers Stewed Fruit Cornstarch with Raisins SIXTH DAY r.RF.AKFAST Fresh Fruit Frumenty Blueherry. Toast Breakfast Rolls Corn Puffs Toasted Wafers Baked Apples Stewed I'ruit DINNF.R Combination Soup Mashed Potatoes Stewed Split Peas Cahbage Salad Cracked Wheat with Raisins Tr.asted Rolls Currant Puffs (iraham Bread Stewed Fruit Rice Snowliall liRKAKFAST n-esh Fruit Oatmeal Blackberry Toast Raised Corn Bread Crescents Fruit Rolls Citron Apples Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNKR Cream Pea Soup Canned String Beans or Kornlet Macaroni, Tomato Sauce Rice with Oranges I'niit Rolls Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Nuts (501) SIXTEENTH WEEK. FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Granola Fruit Mush Cremi Toast ^\•l)ole-\Vheat Puft's Toasted Rolls Graham Bread Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit DINNER Lima Bean Soup Potato Rice Chopped Beets Egg and Macaroni Pearl Wheat Graham Bread Sally Lunn Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Cottage Cheese Nuts SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cerealine Flakes Grape Toast Graham Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit DINNER Pea and Tomato Soup Baked Potatoes Stewed Cahbage Stewed Dried Corn Rolled Wheat ' Graham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Rolls Stewed Fruit Rice Meringue THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmael Snowflake Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Fruit Bread Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Corn Soup Cabbage Hash Stewed Split Peas Scalloped Tomato Steamed Rice Graham Bread Cream Crisps Oatmeal Gems Stewed Fruit Prune Dessert FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Tomato Toast P.reakfast Rolls Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Cottage Clieese Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Oatmeal Soup Baked Potatoes Succotash JNIacaroni Baked with Granola Farina with Maple Syrup Graham Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Lemon Apples with Cocoanut Sauce FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Prune Toast Corn Puffs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Plain Omelet Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Potato Snowballs Baked Turnips Lentil Puree with Lemon Browned Rice Graham Crisps Currant Puffs Stewed Fruit Corn Meal Pudding SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Gravy Toast Macaroni with Egg Sauce Whole-Wheat Puffs Breakfast Rolls Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Lentil and Parsnip Soup Boiled Potatoes with Brown Sauce Chopped Beets Mashed Peas Graham Grits Toasted Rolls Graham Puffs Stewed Fruit Farina Custard BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice with Fig Sauce Peach Toast Sticks Fruit Crackers Graham P.read Baked Apples Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Canned Pea Sotip Stewed Potato Canned Okra and Tomatoes Boiled Wheat Toasted Wafers Graham Raised Biscuit Stewed Fruit Pineapple Tapioca Nuts C502) SEVENXERNTH WEEK. FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Browned Rice Strawberry Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit DINNER Plain Rice Soup Mashed Potato Scalloped Beans Macaroni with 'I'omato Rolled Rye ("irahani Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Bread Custard SKCOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit (irahani Apjile Mush Tomato Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs P.reakfast Rolls Koasted.Almonds Stewed Fruit DINiNER Brown Soup Boiled Potatoes with Cream Sauce Cliopjjed Cabbage Mashed Lentils Pearl ^Vheat with Raisins ('■raham Bread Toasted Wafers Oranola Gems Stewed I'ruit Apple Custard THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Lentil Toast Toasted Rolls Graham Crackers Currant Puffs Stewed Potatoes Cottage Cheese Stewed Fruit DINNER Black Bean Soup Mashed Potatoes Canned Green Pens Boiled Macaroni Pearl NVheat Oatmeal Crisps Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Cornstarch Merinc;ue or Fresh Fruit FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Wlieat Porridge with Croutons Banana Toast Molded Rice with Custard Sauce Whole-Wheat Puffs Sticks Stewed Fruit DINNER Potato Soup Baked Potatoes with Brown Sauce Mashed Turnips Stewed Split Peas I'eari Barley with Raisins Whole-Wheat Bread R\c Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Prune and Tapioca Puddiiig FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Dry Toast with Hot Cream \\'hole-Wheat Puffs Breakfast Rolls Granola Roasted Almonds Stewed Fruit DINNER Split Pea Soup Creamed Potatoes Scalloped Tomatoes Chopped Beets Graham Grits I'op Overs Toasted Wafers Graham Fruit Bread Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Mixed Mush Snowflake Toast Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Toasted Rolls Fruit Bread Corn Puffs Stewed Fruit DINNER Baked Bean Soup Mashed Potato Macaroni with Kornlet Stewed Carrots Rolled Rye Whole-Wheat Bread Mush Rolls (iraham Gems Stewed Fruit Cornstarch Blancmange with T'>uit Sauce BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Prune Toast Graham Raised Biscuit Toasted Rolls Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Tomato Soup with Vermicelli Broiled Potato Canned Corn Whole-Wheat Bread Beaten Biscuit Rolled \Vheat Stewed Fruit Custard Pie (503) KlOHXKEWrii WEEK. I'lRST I)AV FOURTH ]),\V BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit ('■ranola Banana Mush Gravy Toast Graham Grits Gra\y Toast JMacaroni with Egg Sauce AVhole-Wheat Puff's Toasted Wafers Granola WlioleAVheat Puffs Toasted Beaten Biscuits Lettuce Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNt;R Cream Barley Soup Corn Soup Cabbage Hash Asparagus Points Mashed Potatoes Spinach Stewed Lima Beans Boiled Macaroni Graham Grits Browned Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Waters Crusts Graham Bread Sally Lunn Gems Mush Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange Fig Pudding with Orange Sauce SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Apricot Toast Rolled Oats Tomato Toast Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat. Puffs Macaroni with Kornlet Cream Rolls Whole-Wheat Puff's Toasted Rolls Lettuce Stewed Fruit Graham Bread DINNER Stewed Fruit Bean Soup DINNER Steamed Potatoes Stewed Asparagus Potato Soup Scalloped Tomato Boiled Potatoes with Tomato Cream Sauce Pearl Wheat Mashed Peas Spinach Whole-Wheat Bread Sticks Graham Puffs Graham:;Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Rolled Rye Graham Grits Pudding Stewed Fruit Nuts THIRD DAY SIXl'H DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Porridge with Croutons Plum Porritlge Snowflake Toast Blueberry Toast Macaroni with Cream Sauce Rye Puffs Ti.asted Wafers Breakfast Rolls Toasted Rolls W'hole-W'heat Puffs Almomis Stewed Fruit Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Macaroni Soup Cream Pea Soup Potato Rice Stewed Cabbage Mashed- Potatoes Lettuce Egg and Macaroni Pearl Barley Farina Whole-Wheat Bread Oatmeal Crisps Currant Puffs Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Oatmeal Breatl Egg Sandwich Cottage Cheese Stewed Fruit Molded Tapioca Stewed Fruit Prune Wlii|) SABE ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Canned Green Pea Soup Rolled Wheat Prune Toast Creamed Potato Mashed Lima Beans Plain B\ins Oatmeal Bread Cream Rolls Steamed Rice Toasted Wafers Oatmeal Bread Fruit Rolls Toasted Wafers Cup Custard Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Banana Dessert ( 504) iNINKTEENTH WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURIII DAY BKEAKFAST IUilcd Potato Macaroni with Cream Sauce Fruit Rolls Raised Biscuit Toasted Wafers Browned Rice Stewed Fruit Beaten Biscuit Fruit Rolls Baked Bananas Strawberries Nuts iy-} TWENXV-EIGHTFI WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rice with Raisins Cherry Toast Molded Rice with Fresh Berries Toasted Beaten Biscuit Graham Puffs Dry Toast with Hot Cream Stewed or Fiesh Berries Graham Raised Biscuit Toasted Wafers DINNER Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Pea and Tomato Soup Baked Potatoes with Tomato Cream Sauce Mashed Potato Beet Greens Summer Squash Green Peas Stewed Dried Corn Cracked Wheat Graham Grits Graham Puffs Toasted Wafere Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Vienna Bread Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Rice and Strawberry Dessert Fruit Tapioca SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST ISREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat tiravy Toast Plunr Porridge Snowflake Toast M'hole-Wheat Puffs Toasted \\'afers Vienna Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Lettuce Lettuce Stewed Fruit Stewed or Fresh Berries DINNER DINNER Green Pea Soup Potato and Sago Soup Macaroni Baked with Graiiola Stewed Lima Beans Radishes String Beans Lettuce Boiled INIacaroni Boiled Wheat Hominy Cream Rolls Graham Bread Cream Rolls Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Berry Sandwich (prepared like Apple Sandwich). Berry Shortcake with Prepared Cream THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST ■ BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Fresh Berry Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Graliam Bread Cup Custard Stewed Fruit Fre>;h Fruit Granola Fruit Mush Tomato Toast French Rolls Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Tomato and IMacaroni Soup Lentil Soup Creamed Potato jNIashed Peas ^Nlashcd Potato String Beans Cottage Cheese Canned Kornlet Pearl Wheal Cream Rolls Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Graliam Bread Toasted Wafers Crusls Stewed Fruit Slewed Fruit Furiua Fruit JNIold Red Sago Mold SABB ATI I BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit String Bean Soup Cerealine Prune Toast JNIacaroni with Egg Sauce Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuit 'I'oasted Wafers New Beets with Lemon Dressing Rice Steamed Figs Cottage Cheese Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Plain Biuis Slewed or Fresh Berries Stewed Fruit Fruit and Nuts (5'4) XWKNT^'-NINI'H WEEK. I'IRSr DAY BREAKFAST IDrRIII DAY IIKLAKIAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fniit Snowflake Toast FJrewis Tomato Toast Rice with Lentil Gravy Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Beaten Biscuit (Jraham Raised Biscuits Breakfast Rolls Lettuce Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Fresh or Stewed Berries DINNER DINNER Potato Soup Mashed Peas Beet Greens Pearl Wheat Whulc-Wheat Bread P.uns Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Banana Dessert Cream Barley Soup Mashed Potato Scalloped Egg Plant Caulidowcr with Tomato Sauce Molded Wheat with Fruit Sauce (.:ream Rolls Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed or Fresh Berries Raspberry Manioca Pudding SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresli Fruit Cerealine Dry Toast with Hot Cream Fresh F'ruit Rolled Wheat Gravy Toast Fresh 'I'oniato Salad Graham Crisps Whole-Wheat PulK Cream Rolls Currant Puffs Toasted Wafers Radishes Slewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Steamed Potato String Beans Baked C^abbage Graham Grits Graham Crisps Whole-Wheat Bread Pop Overs Stewed Fruit DINNER String Bean Soup Scalloped Potato Baked Beets Spinach Boiled Wheat with Lemon Sauce Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Rolls Stewed Fruit Cream Rice Pudding Graham Gems Fresh Berries Prune Dessert THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Graham (Jruel with Croutons Graham Mush Strawberry Toast Fresh Berry Toast Graham Crisps Whole-Wheat Puffs Fruit Crackers Breakfast Rolls Molded Rice with Currant Sauce Graham Bread DINNKK Stewed or Fresh Berries Lentil Soup New Beets and Potato Summer Squash Green Peas Farina (ru-,!^ Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Fresh Berries Stewed Fruit Pudding DINNER (Jreen Pea Soup Creamed Potato Cabbage Salad Macaroni baked with Granola Rolled Rye Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Beaten Biscuit Kerry i'ie SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit 'I'omato and Macaroni Soup Rolled Oats Fresh Black Raspberry Toast Stewed Potato String Beans (Jraham Bread Beaten Biscuit Boiled Wheal with Raisins Toasted Wafers Fruit Rolls Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Cup Custard Fresh Berries Bananas (5«S) XHIRTIKTH WEKK:. FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Farina with Bananas Gravy Toast Whole-Wheat Bread Fruit Rolls Toasted Beaten Biscuit Stewed or Fresh Berries DINNER Baked Bean Soup Stewed Potato Green Peas Lettuce Graham Grits Graham Puffs Cream Crisps Black. Raspberries Rice Custard Shape SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Banana Toast Graham Gems Sticks Toasted Wafers Stewed or Fresh Berries DINNER Velvet Soup Baked Potato Mashed Peas Macaroni with Tomato Pearl Wheat Currant Puffs Toasted Wafers Vienna Bread Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange with Raspberry Juice THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cracked Wheat Fresh Raspberry Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Parker House Rolls Lettuce Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Browned Potatoes Chopped Cabbage Green Corn Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Gems Stewed Fruit Black Raspberry Shortcake FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cerealine Dry Toast with Hot Cream Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Crisps Cup Custard Fresh Berries DINNER Black Bean Soup Mashed Potato Mashed '1 in nip String Beans (Jraham Mush Graham Bread Cream Rolls Pop Overs Stewed Fruit Raspberry Tapioca FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Cream Toast Fresh Tomatoes Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit DINNER Celery Soup No. 2. Broiled Potato Beet Greens Scalloped Cauliflower Pearl Wheat Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Graham Fruit Bread Fresh Berries Snow Pudding SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Plum Porridge Prune Toast Cottage Cheese Cream Rolls Fruit Bread Toasted AVafers Stewed or Fresh Berries DINNER Lima Bean Soup Steamed Potato Boiled Beets Scalloped Egg Plant Cracked Wheat Fruit Bread Graham Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Pudding BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Fresh Berry Toast Beaten Biscuit Graham Puffs Cup Custard Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Green Corn Soup Mashed Peas Cold Boiled Beets, Sliced Rice with Raisins Buns Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Nuts Fresh or Stewed Fruit (,^»6; TMIRTY=KIR^^T WKKK. FIRST DAY nRI'.AKFAS r I'resh Knill liriiuiied Riie Smiwllakc Toast Mataidiii with Raisins lii.dum I'racUers Graham Puffs Buns Stewed Fin it DINNER I'ea and Tomato Soup I'ntato Riie Baked Corn Celery Ciraham Grits (in rant Puffs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed or Fresh Fruit Red Rice Mold SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Gravy Toast Roiled Macaroni with Cottage Cheese Graham Bread Rye Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Brown Soup Baked Potatoes fireen Peas Beet Greens Boiled Wheat Graham Biscuit Crusts Toasted Wafers Stewed or Fresh Berrie- Rice Custard Pudding THIRD DAY DREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Grnl am Mush with Dates Cream roast Graham Puffs Sticks Pulled Bread Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Mashed Potato String Beans Summer Squash Cracked Wheat with Whortleberries Pulled Bread Graham Gems Toasted Wafer Stewed Fruit Watermelon FOURTH DAY HREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Tomato Toast Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Stewed or Fresh Berries Cream Graham Rolls with Raspberry Jelly DINNER String Bean Soup Stewed Split Peas Beets and Potato Pearl Wheal Graham Bread Toasted Rolls Rye (Sems Stewed Fruit Whortleberry Pudding FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Celery Toast Graham Gems Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Fresh Berries DINNER Swiss Potato Soup Stewed Lima Beans Lettuce • Boiled Macaroni Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Rolls Fruit Crackers Fresh Berries Fruit Tapioca SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit c with Lemon Fresh Berry Toast ("ream Mush Rolls Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Bean and Potato Soup Green Corn Pulp Stewed Potato Chopped Turnip Graham Grits 3 Overs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Fresh Berries Cream Rice Pudding SABBATH BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cracked Wheat with Blueberries Prune i'oast Graham Crisps Raised Biscuit Stewed Fruit DINNER Green or Canned Pea Soup Creamed Potato Kornlet Celery Graham Grits Whole-Wheat Bread Fruit Roll Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruil (5«7) THITRY^SECOND WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit r,raliam Mush Fresh Black Raspljerry Toast Rolled Wheat Tomato Toast Fresh Tomatoes Oatmeal C^risps Graham Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Baked Sweet Apples Fruit Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed or Fresh Berries DINNER DINNER Lima Bean Soup Cream Rice Soup Mashed Potato Boiled Potato with Brown Sauce Scalloped Cauliflower Mashed Peas Green Corn Pulp String Beans Graham Grits Pearl Wheat with Whortleberries Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Gems Cream Crisps Whortlebeny Gems Stewed Fruit Raspberry Manioca Pudding Stewed or Fresh Fruit Molded Tapioca SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Gravy Toast 13REAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Gruel with Croutons Fresh Berry Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Lettuce . Breakfast Rolls AVhortleberry Gems Toasted Wafers Fresh or Stewed Berries DINNER Green Corn Soup Beets and Potato Scalloped Egg Plant Boiled Wheat Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Crusts Stewed or Fresh Berries Whortleberry Pie Graham Bread Breakfast Rolls Lettuce Baked Sweet Apples Fresh Berries DINNER Cream Pea Soup Cracked Potato Scalloped Turnip Beet Greens Cracked Wheat with Blackberries Graham Bread Toasted Rolls Crusts Fresh or Stewed Fruit Banana Dessert THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Dry Toast with Hot Cream Graham Mush with Blueberries Gravy Toast Fresh Tomatoes Fresh Tomatoes Graham Puffs Breakfast Rolls French Rolls Toasted Wafers Stewed or Fresh Berries Graham Puffs Raspberry Jelly Fresh or Stewed Fr\iit DINNER DINNER Tomato Cream Soup Yegetable Broth I'otato Rice Stewed Lima Beans Radishes Baked Potato Summer Squash Green Corn Pudding Boiled Beets, sliced, with Cream Sauce Graham Mush with Berries Pearl Barley Graham Gems Oatmeal Crisps Graham Bread Whortleberry Gems Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Cream Rice Pudding Fresh Berries Damsons SABI iATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Blackberry Mush Prune Toast Crusts Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Tomato and Vermicelli Soup Stewed Potato Cold Sliced Beets Green Corn Pulp Rice Baked Sweet Apples Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Beaten Biscuit Fresh Berries Stewed Fruit Blackberry Pie ISiS ' r T T T K T ^*- *r I T T !>: n w k p: k . FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Frviil Fresh Fruit Cerealine Flakes Snowllake 'lo:i-.t I'.lackberry Mush Tomato Toast Lettuit; Baked Sweet Apples I'eaten Biscuit Graham BreatI Graham Gems Toasted Wafers 'I'oasted Wafers Raised Graham Biscuit Fresh Berries Fresh Berries UIN'NER DINNER Green Pea Soup Celery Soup No. 2 Siallopod Potato Boiled Corn Boiled Potato Macaroni baked with Granola Cauliflower with Egg Sauce Succotash Graham Grits Browned Rice Grahun\ I'utfs Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Waters Sliced Peaches (jraham Puffs Stewed Fruit Nuts Blackberry Cornstarch Pudding SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatme:.l Porridge Berry Toast Rolled Rye Cream Toast Beaten Biscuit Graham Bread Whrrtleberry Gems Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Cream Rolls Baked Sweet Apples Fresh B'lackberries Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Pea and Tomato Soup Brown Soup 15aked Potato String Beans Scalloped Potato Chopped Cabbage Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Mashed Peas Farina with Banana Rice Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Graham Puffs Graham Bread Sticks Stewed Fruit Stewed or Fresh Berries Plums and Peaches Bread Custard THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rice with Peaches Blackberry Toast Granola Apple Mush Gravy Toast Fresh Tomatoes Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Whole-Wlieat Puffs Sticks Toasted Wafers Graham Fruit Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER String Bean Soup DINNER Mashed Potato Baked Gree.i Corn Cream Pea Soup Scalloped Egg Plant Boiled Potatoes Green Corn Graham Grits Sliced Tomatoes Whole-Wheat Bread (iraham Puffs Cracked Wheat with Blackberries Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Fruit Rolls Rye Gems Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit Sliced Peaches Pears SABI 5ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Green Corn Soup Rolled Oats Prune Toast Boiled Macaroni Stewed Tomatoes Rice Sliced Tomatoes Fruit Bread Cream Crisps Toasted Wafers Fruit Bread Cream Crisps Stewed or Fresh Fruit Stewed or Sliced Peaches Blackberry or Peach Pie 15'9 'rHIRTV=KOXJRXM \\ KKIv. FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit I'.lackberry Mush Ciruvy Toast (iraliam Puffs Fruit Bread Toasted ^\'afers Baked Sweet Apples FOURTH DAY P.RKAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Peach 'J'oast Macaroni with Corn Pulp Fresh Tomatoes Cream Rolls Vienna Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed F'ruit DIXXKR Tomato Cream Soup Potato Snowballs Stewed Corn Stewed Lima Beans Rolled Wheat Rye Puffs Cream Rolls Graham Bread DINNER String Bean Soup ]\Iashed Potato Scalloped Egg Plant Cabbage and Tomato Pearl Wheat Toasted Wafers Sliced Peaches Beaten Biscuit Vienna Bread Nuts Slewed Fruit " Fruit Shape SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Porridge Cream Toast Sliced Tomato Graham Crisps Graham Bread Rye Gems Stewed Fruit FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Granola Peach Mush Dry Toast with Hot Cream Celery Whole-Wheat Puffs Cream Rohs Graham Crackers DINNER Stewed Fruit Lima Bean Soup DINNER Mashed Potato Summer Squash Baked Beets with Lemon Dressing Pearl Barley Graham Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers White Celery Soup Steamed Potato Chopped Beets Mashed Peas Farina with Bananas Stewed or Fresh Berries Whole-Wheat Bread Cream Rolls Rye Puffs Peach Tapioca Sliced Peaches Baked Apple Dessert THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Tomato Toast Cottage Cheese Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Grits Berry Toast Baked Sweet Apples Fresh Tomatoes Currant Puffs Toasted Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER Oatmeal Soup DINNER Cream Pea Soup Baked Potato Stewed Celery Boiled Potato Scalloped Tomatoes Green Corn Pulp Graham Grits Cauliflower with Tomato Sauce Boiled Wheat Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Crackers French Rolls Cream Crisps Fresh Fruit Crescents Stewed F~ruit Sliced Sweet Apples and Cream Sago Fruit Pudding SABB ATH BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Steamed Rice Tomato Toast Creamed Potato Green Peas Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Breakfast Rolls Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit Pearl Wheat Fruit Bread Rolls Graham Crackers Sliced Peaches Nuts Tapioca Custard (520) rPilKTV-KlKTU W'KKK FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit (.'.raham Mush with Dates Peacli Mush Suowllake Toast Sliced Tomatoes Whrle-Wheat Puffs Sticks Hate Bread Macaroni with Egg Sauce Baked Sweet Apples Whole-Wheat Puffs Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER UINNER Black Bean Soup Baked Beau Soup Potato Snowballs Corn and Tomatoes Steamed Potato Stewed Tomato Scalloped Egg Plant Mashed Split Peas Cracked Wheat Rolled Rye Date Bread Graham Gems Graham Bread Graham Puffs i'oasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Peach Shortcake Grapes SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFA si- Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Granola Peach Mush Cream Toast Sliced Tomatoes Graham Bread Graham Crisps Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Peach Toast Whole-Wheat Bread Breakfast Rolls Stewed Fruit DINNER Graham ( lems Baked Pears Stewed Fruit Celery Soup No. 2. r.oiled Potato Shelled Beans DINNER Tomato and Macaroni Soup Cauliflower with Tomato Sauce Graham Grits Graham Bread Oatmeal Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Boiled Potato Baked Corn Celery Pearl Barley Whole-Wheat Bread Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers * Stewed Fruit Baked Sweet Apples with Whipped Cream Peach Shortcake THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Cerealine Flakes Strawberry Toast Oatmeal Tomato Toast Macaroni with Cream Sauce Macaroni Baked with Corn Pulp Sliced Tomato Whole-Wheat Bread Graham Puffs Graham Puffs Parker House Rolls Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Cream Rice Soup Potato Soup Mashed Potato Stewed Celery Baked Sweet Potato Mashed I'cas Mashed Lentils and Beans Cauliflower with Egg Sauce Rolled Wheat Graham Grits Whole-Wheat Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Granola Fruit Rolls Graham Puffs Stewed Fruit Peach Meringue Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wlieat with Blackberries and Cream Prune Toast Fruit Rolls Raised Graham Biscuit Toasted Wafers Fresh Tomatoes Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Cream Pea Soup Mashed Sweet Potato String Beans Pearl Wheat with Peaches and Cream Buns Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Nuts (521 TMIRTV=SIXTM week:. riRST PAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Tomato Toast Clraham Mush Blackberry Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Sliced Tomato Toasted Wafers Currant Puffs Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Baked Sweet Apples Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DIXXEK DIXXER Swiss Potato Soup Tomato and Rice Soup Steamed Potato Boiled Beets Baked Sweet Potato Mashed Beans Stewed Lima Beans Green Peas Rolled Wheat Graham Grits Buns Graham Puffs Oatmeal Bread Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Peach Sandwich Sliced Peaches Red Rice SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Rolled Wheat Apricot Toast Fresh Fruit Zwieback Cracked Wheat Banana Toast Graham Puffs Breakfast Rolls Baked Sweet Apples Lemon Apples Stewed Fruit Oatmeal Bread Graham Gems Toasted Wafers DIXXER Stewed Fruit Lima Bean Soup Potato Stewed with Celery Mashed Squash DINNER Scalloped Tomatoes Celery Soup Farina Mashed Potato Baked Tomato Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Rolls Baked Green Corn Graham Gems Graham Grits Sliced Peaches » Graham Bread Sticks Rye Puffs Bran Jelly with Fruit Sauce Stewed Fruit Baked Apple Dessert THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit C.ranola Apple Mush Blueberry Toast Rice Cream Toast Cream Rolls Whole-Wheat Puffs Whole-Wheat Puffs Corn Cakes Sticks Toasted Wafers Sliced Tomatoes Sliced Tomatoes Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Corn and Bean Soup Baked Potato Stewed Tomato Potato and Rice Soup Scalloped Cauliflower Macaroni Baked with Grauola Pearl Wheat Mashed Cabbage String Beans Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Rolls Pearl Wheat Corn Puffs Pop Overs Cream Crisps Graham Bread Stewed Fruit P'arina Custard Stewed Fruit Almonds SABI 3ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Green Corn Soup Tomato and Macaroni Fresh Fruit Stewed Potato Rolled Oats Tomato Toast , Rolled Wheat Toasted Wafers Fruit Rolls Raised Biscuit Fruit Bread Cream Crisps Baked Pears Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Peach Pie Grapes (522) 'T^ H I KX V- S E V E N T II \V E E Pv . FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit ("err.ili.ie Flakes 'I'uast wllh Kgg Saiue I'ruit Hread Breakfast Rolls Toasted Wafers I'.aked Sweet Apples Sliced I'eaclies DINNHR Ijreen Ueaii Sovip Mashed Potato Baked Sraham C.ems Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Scalloped Potato Beet Salad Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Rice Whole- W'htat Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Gems Stewed Fruit Molded Wheat with Grape Sauce FOURTH DA\' BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Dry Toast with Tomato Gra\y Whole-Wheat Bread Crusts Breakfast Rolls Baked Pears Stewed I''ruit DINNER White Celery Soup Baked Sweet Potato Mashed I'eas Scalloped Tomatoes Pearl Wheat Whole-Wheat Bread Beaten Biscuit Graham Crackers Stewed Fruit Cocoanut Rice Custard FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Macaroni with Api)le Sauce Sliced Tomato Whole-Wheat Puffs 'I'oasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Lentil Soup Mashed Potato Baked Squash String Beans Rolled Rye Whole-Wheat Bread Crusts Graham Crisps Stewed Fruit Peach Pudding or Fresh Fruit SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Fruit Gravy 'I'oast Whole-^\'heat Puffs Crescents Toasted Wafers I:'aked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Split Pea Soup I'.aked Potato Baked Tomato Green Corn Pulp Rice I'ruit Loaf Graham Gems Sticks Stewed Fruit Sweet Apple Pie or Fresh I'mit BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Peach Toast Sliced Tomato Baked Pears Fruit Bread P>eaten Biscint Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Green Corn Soup Steued Lima Beans Mashed Sweet Potato Rice with Peaches Beaten Biscuit Currant Buns Stewed Fruit Pears ( 523 ) X H 1 KT \'= 1^ 1 a FIX H W E K Iv . FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Peach Mush Dry Toast with Hot Cream Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Toasted Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Stewed Fruit DINNER Bean and Tapioca Soup Washed Potato Stewed Celery Baked Squash Rolled Wheat Whole-Wheat Bread Currant Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Peach Tapioca SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Lentil Toast Sliced Tomato Cream Rolls Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Lentil Soup Potato Snowballs Stewed Tomato Egg and Macaroni Browned Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Rolls Crusts Stewed Fruit Plain Fruit Pudding THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Sweet Apple Toast Cottage Cheese Whole-Wheat Puffs French Rolls Graham Crisps Stewed Fruit DINNER Plain Rice Soup Baked Potato with Celery Sauce Shelled Beans Baked Corn Farina with Fresh Fruit Graham Puffs Oatmeal Crisps Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit, or Sweet Apple Pudding FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST F'resh Fruit Rice with Peaches Tomato Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Oatmeal Crisps Breakfast Rolls Sliced Peaches DINNER Shelled Bean Soup Mashed Sweet Potato Scalloped Tomatoes Celery Pearl Wheat Toasted Rolls Buns Graham Puffs Stewed Fruit Apple Manioca FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Strawberry Toast Graham Bread Toasted Waters Rye Gems Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Oatmeal Soup Mashed Potato Mashed Squash Boiled Macaroni Browned Rice Graham Bread Beaten Biscuit Fruit Crackers Stewed Fruit Cup Custard SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cerealine Macaroni with Raisins Sliced Tomatoes Cream Rolls Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Brown Soup Boiled Potato Stewed Celery Pease Cakes with Tomato Sauce Graham Grits Raised Biscuit Graham Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Grape Tart SABBATH BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice Grape Toast Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Tomato and Vermicilli Soup Mashed Sweet Potato Stewed Corn Boiled Wheat Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuits Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange with Grape Sauce (524: THIRTY-NINTH WEEK:. I'IRbT DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graiiula Fruit Mush Gravy Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Heaii and Tomato Soup Mashed Potato Boiled Green Coin String Beans Rolled Wheat Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Bread Corn Puffs Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Pudding SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Peach Musli Suowflake Toast Graham Puffs Cream Rolls Baked Pears Stewed Fruit DINNER Green Bean Soup Potato Cakes Stewed Tomato Baked Beets Cracked Wheat Pop Overs Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Bread Custard THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Tomato Toast Graham Bread Corn Puffs Graham Crisps Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Mixed Potato Soup Baked Potato Cliopped Beets Succotash Graham Grits Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Rye Gems Stewed Fruit Cracked Wheat Pudding FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Plum Porridge Cream Tuast Cottage Cheese Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Ciraham Bread Stewed Fruit DINNER Pea and Tomato Soup Mashed Potato Stewed Celery Corn Pudding Rolled Wheat Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Buns Stewed Fruit Rice and Tapioca Pudding FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST F"resh Fruit Rolled Oats Tomato Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Raised Biscuit Toasted Wafers Baked Sour Apples Stewed Fruil DINNER Green Corn Soup Steamed Potato Mashed Squash Scalloped Turnip Rolled Wheat Crusts Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Stewed Fruit Lemon Cornstarch Pudding SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Gruel with Croutons Grape Toast Macaroni with Kornlet Creain Rolls Graham Puffs Stewed Fruit DINNER Swiss Potato Soup Creamed Potato Celery Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Cracked Wheat Graham Bread Toasted Rolls Fruit Crackers Stewed Fruit Snowball Custard SABBATH BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice with Peaches Apricot Toast Toasted Wafers Fruit Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Chopped Sweet Potato Sliced Tomato Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Fruit Rolls Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Grape Pie (525) KORXIETH WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Grape Mush Cream Toast Granola Apple Mush Grape Toast Graham Gems Toasted Rolls Cream Rolls Rye Gems Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit Whole-Wheat Bread DINNER Cup Custard Stewed Fruit Potato and Vermicelli Soup DINNER Boiled Macaroni Stewed Lima Beans Pea and Tomato Soup Boiled Corn Baked Potato Baked Squash Cracked Wheat Boiled Beets with Cream Sauce Whole-Wheat Puffs Corn Cakes Pearl Wheat Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Sticks Stewed Fruit Raised Corn Bread Cornstarch Meringue Stewed Fruit Nuts SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Celery Toast Fresh Fruit Baked Sweet Potatoes Rolled Rye Gravy Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Oatmeal Crisps Corn Bread Graham Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Tomato Salad Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Lima Bean Soup Vegetable Soup Mashed Potato Scalloped Tomatoes Mashed Potato Scalloped Egg Plant Green Corn Cakes Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Mixed Mush Rolls Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Sally Lunn Gems Graham Bread Farina Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Rice Snow Almond Cornstarch Pudding with Grape Sauce THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rice Tomato Toast Grape Mush Cream Toast Graham Crisps Raised Biscuit Fruit Bread Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Grape Apples Stewed Fruit Granola DINNER Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Brown Soup Potato Snowballs Stewed Split Peas DINNER Scalloped Cauliflower Baked Bean Soup Graham Grits Potato Rice INIashed Squash Whole-Wheat Bread Graham Crisps Boiled Green Corn Corn Puffs Graham Mush Stewed Fruit Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Puffs Farina Blancmange with Grape Sauce Stewed Fruit Apple Sandwich SABF ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Tomato and Vermicelli Soup Rice with Fig Sauce Peach Toast Mashed Sweet Potato Green Corn Pulp Sliced Tomato Boiled Wheat Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuit Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Grape Tarts (526) KORTY=KIRST WEEK. FIRST DAV FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Browned Rice (">rape Toast Toasted Beaten Biscuit Graham Puffs IfREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Dates (iravy 7 oast Rye Bread Toasted Wafers Corn Puffs Lemon Ai)ples Stewed Fruit DINNER Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Corn and Tomato Soup Scalloped Potato Chopped Turnip Sweet Potato Cakes Shelled Beans Macaroni Baked with Kornlet Macaroni Baked with Grauola Steamed Rice Farina Toasted Wafers Currant Puffs Rye Bread Graham Puffs Zwieback Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit Cornmeal Pudding SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Grauola Apple Mush Gravy Toast Rolled Rye Tomato Toast Sliced Tomato Graham Bread Breakfast Rolls Toasted Rolls Corn Dodgers Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Shelled Bean Soup Swiss Potato Soup Baked Potato with Brown Sauce Baked Beans Boiled Macaroni Chopped Cabbage Baked Tomato Boiled Wheat Pearl Barley Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Puffs Sticks Rye Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding Rice and Tapioca Pudding THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Porridge Rice with Lentil Gravy Gravy 'J'oast Dry Toast with Hot Cream Sliced Tomato Rye Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Puffs Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Baked Sour Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Corn and Bean Soup Tomato and Rice Soup Mashed Potato Scalloped Tomato Steamed Potato with Cream Sauce Stewed Celery Baked Squash Mashed Peas Cracked Wheat Graham Apple Mush Graham Bread Zwieback Crusts Rye Bread Zwieback Graham Gems Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Pudding SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit K oiled Oats Grape Toast Grah.uu Raised Biscuit Toasted Wafers Breakfast Rolls Baked Sweet Apples I'np Custard Stewed Fruit Tomato and Macaroni Soup Broiled Potato Stewed Corn Browned Rice (iraham Biscuit Beaten Biscuit Stewed Fruil Apple Pi'" (527 KORrv=SECOND WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Ceiealine Flakes Gravy ToasL Steamed Rice with Grape Sauce Caked Peas Prune Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Beaten Bircuit Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Crusts Stewed Fruit Baked Pears Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Celery Soup Swiss Lentil Soup Boiled Potato with Tomato Cream Sauce Baked Potato Baked Sciuash Baked Cauliflower Shelled Beans Chopped Cabbage Graham Grits Boiled Wheat Currant Puffs Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Tapioca Grape Jelly Rice Snowballs SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY ' BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Lentil Toast Oatmeal Tomato Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Rolls Graham Bread Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Tomato and Macaroni Soup Potato Soup Baked Sweet Potato Stewed Celery Mashed Peas Mashed Cabbage Boiled Green Corn Cracked Wheat Rolled Rye , Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Crisps Graham Bread Currant Puffs Sticks Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding Molded Wheat with Grape Sauce THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Grahanr Mush Grape Toast Fresh Fruit Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Oatmeal Gruel with Croutons Graham Gems Tomato Toast Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Graham Crisps Graham Bread Pop Overs DINNER Stewed Fruit Cream Pea Soup DINNER Steamed Potato Boiled Beets Celery Green Corn Soup Tomato and Macaroni Chopped Potato Baked Beans Rice Mashed Squash Parker House Rolls Graham Gems Farina Toasted Wafers Cream Mush Rolls Vienna Bread Stewed Fruit Slewed Fruit Cracked Wheat Pudding Stewed Fruit Pudding SABE ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Bean and Potato Soup Cracked Wheat with Raisins Stewed Corn Boiled Macaroni Prune Toast Granola Fruit Mush Vienna Bread Beaten Biscuit Toasted Rolls Buns Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Nuts Fresh Fruit ( ,S2S ) 1 'OK'TY-TIilRD WEEK. FOURTH DAY FIKST DAY UKEAKKAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Gravy Toast Granola Apple Musli Cream Rolls Whole-Wheat Breatl Dry Toast with Hot Cream Toasted Wafers Wliole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Beaten Biscuit Baked Sweet Apples Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed I'ruit UINMiK DINNER Bean and Tomato Soup Mashed Potato Chopped Beets Macaroni Baked with Granola Celery Soup Mushed Potato Scalloped Tomato Mashed Peas Graham Grits Whole-Wheat Bread Graham (lems Corn Puffs Cream Crisps Graham Gems Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit Cream Crisps Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST breakA^st Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Tomato Toast Oatmeal Blancmange with Grape Sauce Cieam Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Sweet Apple Toast Graham Gems Corn Meal Gruel with Croutons (".rape Apples Stewed Fruil Whole-Wheat Puffs Cream Crisps DINNEK French Rolls Cream Pea Soup Stewed Fruit Baked Potatoes with Brown Sauce DINNER Shelled Beans Corn and Tomato Tomato Cream Soup Graham Grits Mashed Potato Mashed Squash Baked Turnip Toasted Rolls Whole-Wheat Bread Pearl Wheat with Raisins Currant Puffs Whole-Wheat Bread Graham Crusts Stewed Fruit Toasted Wafers Baked Sweet Apples with Whipped Cream Stewed Fruit Rice Custard THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST breakfast Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Porridge with Croutons Fresh Fruit Grape Toast Rolled Rye Peach Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Sticks Fruit Crackers Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Baked Sweet Apples Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Baked Pears Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Plain Rice Soup Cream Barley Soup Baked Potatoes with Celery Sauce Scalloped Potato Succotash Mashed Beans Parsnip with Cream Sauce Scalloped Tomato Graham Grits Graham Grits Corn Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Puffs Graham Bread Sticks Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Apple Tart Plain Fruit Pudding SABE ATH BREAKFAST UINNEl' Fresh Fruit Corn Soup Granola Fruit Mush Prune Toast Canned Green Peas Tomato and Macaroni Beaten Biscuit Buns Toasted Wafers Graham Grits Baked Chestnuts Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers (.'up Custard Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Squash Pie 34 ( 529 ) KORXY-KOURTH WEEK. FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Almonds with Wafers Cerealine Steamed Eggs Baked Potato Toasted l^eaten Biscuit Graham Gems Stewed Fruit DINNER Potato Soup Macaroni with Cream Sauce INIashed Beans Baked Corn Browned Rice Graham Bread Cream Crisps Graham Gems Stewed Fruit Baked Sweet Apple Pudding SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Cream Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Cream Crisps Fruit Rolls Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Bean and Tomato Soup Potato Rice Mashed Squash Stewed Celery- Cracked Wheat Graham Puffs Fruit Rolls Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Macaroni Pudding THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Granola Peach Mush Snowflake Toast Macaroni with Kornlet Cream Mush Rolls Fruit Loaf Graham Crackers Stewed Fruit DINNER Oatmeal Soup Potato Cakes Celery Cauliflower with Tomato Sauce Hominy Fruit Loaf Toasted Rolls Graham Puffs Stewed Fruit Snow Pudding FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cracked Wheat Dry Toast with Hot Cream Hominy Gems Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Cottage Cheese Stewed Fruit DINNER Black Bean Soup Potato Snowballs Scalloped Tomato Parsnip with Egg Sauce Rolled Wheat Corn Puffs Whole-Wheat Bread Cream Crisps Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Grits Berry Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Crescents Granola Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Barley Soup Mashed Potato Carrots with Egg Sauce Scalloped Beans Rice Graham Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Prune and Tapioca Pudding SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat with Baked Apples Gravy Toast Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Cream Rolls and Crab Apple Jelly Stewed Fruit DINNER Tomato and Macaroni Soup Baked Sweet Potato . Stewed Celery Shelled Beans Pearl Barley with Raisins Graham Bread Corn Cake Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Tapioca Custard BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Blackberry Toast Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Lemon Apples Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Plain Rice Soup Warmed-over Sweet Potato Stewed Corn Boiled Wheat Graham Bread Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Nuts CS30) t^^ORXV^KIKTH WEKK'. FIRST DAY I'OURl'H \K\y BREAKFAST HKEAKFASI- Fresh Fruit I'resh Fruit Oatmeal Porridge Plum Porridge I'.erry 'I'nast . ])ry Toast with Hot Cream Graham Crackers Hoc Cake l^urn Puffs . Toasted Wafers Fruit Loaf Whole-Wheat Pufts Roasted Almonds Stewed Fruit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNKR DINiNEK 'i'omalo and Macartuii Soup Vegetable Soup Boiled Potato with Celery Sauce Steamed J'otatoes with Tomato Cream Sauce Baked Beets Stewed Lima Beans Stewed Cabbage iNIashed Squash I'^arina Pearl Wheat Raised Corn Cake Tnasted Waf<-rs Graham Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Cream Rnlls Stewed Fruit Sago Pudding Stewed Fruit Apple Tart SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Samp and Milk Gravy Toast Fresh Fruit Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Rice witli Fig Sauce Cream Tna-t Hoe Cake Currant Puffs Graham Bread I'.aked Apples Stewed Fruit Toasted Wafers DINM-.K Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Swiss Lentil Soup DIXM'.K iMa-.lied Potatoes Celery and Tomato Cream Pea Soup Turnip with Cream Sauce Browned Pntatues Succotash ( )atmeal Crisps Graham Bread Steamed Squasli Toasted Wafers Graham Grits Graham Grits Graham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit I'.aked Corn Meal Pudding Farina Custard THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Banana Toast Fresh Fruit Breakfast Rolls Toasted Wafers Oatmeal Lentil Tua-.t C.raham I'.read Granola Macaroni witli T..nuito Sauce Baked Sweet Apples Cream Rolls Rno Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit * Roasted Almonds DINNKR 1)1xm:i.: Swiss Potato Soup Potato Soup Mashed Potato Mashed Peas Potato Puff Browned Parsnips Broccoli with Egg Sauce Celery Mashed Peas Cracked Wheat with Raisins Rolled Wheat 'I'oasted Rolls Graham Puffs Rye Bread Whole-Wlieat Pulfs Stewed Fruit Graham Crisps Nuts Apple Rose Cream SABB ATH BRKAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Cream Pea Soup Rolled Wlieat Prune Toast Slewed Potato Rornlct and Tomal.. Ri.e Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuit Rye Bread Buns Toasted Wafers White Custard in Cups Stewed Fniit Stewed Fruit Apple Pie Fresli Fruit (530 KORTY^SIXTH WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Dates Gravy Toast Rolled Oats Tomato Toast Rye Bread Toasted Wafers Rice and Corn Puffs Graham Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Canned Green Pea Soup DINNER Scalloped Potatoes Baked Beans Potato Soup Macaroni with Egg Macaroni Baked with Granola Farina Succotash Baked Squash Pop Overs Toasted Wafers Rye Bread Pearl Barley Stewed Fruit Pulled Bread Oatmeal Crisps Graham Puffs Rice Cream Pudding Stewed Fruit Apple Tart SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST Graham Grits Blackberry Toast Fresh Fruit Rice with Lentil Gravy Rolled Wheat Celery Toast Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Rye Bread Baked Potato with Cream Sauce Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Corn Cakes Pulled Bread Oatmeal Crisps DINNER Stewed Fruit Bean and Hominy Soup DINNER Boiled Potatoes Stewed Celery Cream Barley Soup Creamed Parsnips Baked Sweet Potato Pearl Wheat Scalloped Tomatoes Celery Raised Corn Bread Toasted Wafers Pearl Wheat Graham Gems -Rye Gems Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Baked Apple Dessert Bread Custard THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit ' Fresh Fruit Samp and Milk Dry Toast with Hot Cream Mixed Mush Snowflake Toast Corn Puffs Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Cream Rolls Breakfast Rolls Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Tomato Cream Soup DINNER Potatoes Stewed with Celery Brown Soup Parsnips with Egg Sauce Mashed Peas Scalloped Potatoes Beet Salad Mashed Turnips Oatmeal Blancmange with Cranberry Sauce Boiled Wheat Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Hoe Cake Toasted Rolls Graham Bread Raised Corn Cake Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Cracked Wheat Pudding Nuts SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Canned Corn Soup Rice with Fig Sauce Cream Toast Canned Peas Macaroni with Egg Sauce Whole-Wheat Puffs Buns Cracked Wheat Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Cranberry Pie (53- KOK'rv^t^KVKNTH WEEK. FIRST DAY FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Corn Meal Mush and Milk Clravy 'loast Oatmeal Cream Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Fruit Bread Potato Cakes Celery Toasted Beaten Biscuit Corn Bread Graham Gems Toasted Wafers Baked Chestnuts Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Combination Soup Parsnip Soup Baked Potato with Brown Sauce Scalloped Potatoes Mashed Peas Scalloped Turnips Mashed Squash Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Graham tjrits Steamed Rice Raised Corn Cake Graham Gems Wholewheat Bread Graham Gems Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Apple Tapioca Stewed Fruit Cup Custards SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit BREAKFAST "* Graham Gruel with Toasted Wafers Fresh Fruit Blueberry Toast Oatmeal Porridge with Toasted Wafers Breakfast Rolls Corn Bread Gravy Toast Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Whole-Wheat Puffs Hoe Cake DINNER Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit Swiss Potato Soup DINNER Baked Sweet Potato Mashed Beans Cream Pea Soup Stewed Sweet Corn Baked Potato Boiled Macaroni Cracked Wheat Stewed Cabbage and Tomato Toasted Rolls Pulled Bread Graham Grits Graham Puffs Zwieback Graham Bread Corn Puffs Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding Apple Rose Cream THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Tomato Toast Rolled Wheat with Raisins Banana Toast Macaroni with Kornlet Hoe Cake Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Rye Gems Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Vegetable Oyster Soup Plain Rice Soup Bulled Potatoes with Tomato Cream Sauce Mashed Potatoes Baked Squash Mashed Parsnips Mashed Lentils Scalloped Beans Graham Grits Graham Mush Whole-Wheat Bread Bean Gems Whole-Wheat Bread Oatmeal Crisps Toasted Wafers Graham Crusts Stewed Fruit Almonds Stewed Fruit Baked Apple Loaf SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Lima Bean Soup Rolled Rye Prune Toast Mashed Sweet Potatoes Scalloped Tomato Beaten Biscuit Whole-Wheat Bread Rice C'iraliam Crackers Fruit Bread Beaten Biscuit (.irape Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange (533) KORXY^EIGHTH WEE^K. FIRST DAY IIREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Dates Blackberry Toast \\'hole-Wheat Puffs Frviit Bread Toasted Wafers Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Green Pea Soup Boiled Potato with Cream Sauce Mashed Lima Beans Stewed Vegetable Oysters Graham Grits Corn Puffs Toasted Wafers Graham Crusts Stewed Fruit Rice Custard Pudding SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Baked Chestnuts Samp and Milk Vegetable Oyster Toast Creamed Potatoes Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit DINNER Bean and Tomato Soup Mashed Potato Stewed Split Peas Macaroni with Egg Cracked Wheat Parker House Rolls Sticks Corn Puffs Stewed Fruit Prune Tapioca THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Prune Toast Graham Sticks Fruit Loaf Baked Apples Roasted Almonds Stewed Fruit DINNER Swiss Potato Soup Baked Potato Boiled Beets with Cream Sauce Macaroni with Tomato Sauce Rolled Wheat Fruit Loaf Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Baked Apples with Whipped Cream FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Steamed Rice Lentil Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Crisps Fruit Bread DINNER Vegetable Oyster Soup Mashed Potato Parsnips with Egg Sauce Succotash Boiled Wheat with Lemon Sauce Graham Crisps Beaten Biscuit Whole-Wheat Puffs Cocoanut Blancmange Cranberry Jelly FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Gruel with Croutons Tomato Toast Macaroni with Raisins Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Beaten Biscuit Stewed Fruit Baked Apples DINNER Cream Barley Soup Mashed Sweet Potato Mashed Peas Stewed Celery Hominy Cream Crisps Corn Cake Graham Bread Stewed P'ruit Apple Tart SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Apple Mush Tomato Toast Cream Crisps Graham Bread Hominy Gems Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Boiled Potato Scalloped Tomatoes Mashed Squash Cracked Wheat with Raisins Graham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Baked Apples with Cream Sauce SABBATH DINNER Tomato and Macaroni Soup Canned Sweet Corn Cold Boiled Beets, Sliced Graham Grits Beaten Biscuit Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Prune Pie BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice with Raisins Prune Toast To' sted Wafers Crescents Graham Bread Baked Apples Cup Custards Stewed Fruit (534) P"ORTV=NINT.m WEEK. FIRST DAY ■ FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST HRKAKEAST Fresh Fruit ('.r:iliain Alush with Chopped Figs Fresh Fruit (".ravy 'I'tiast Gialiam Grits Strawberry 'J'oast Cream Rolls Corn C.ems Wliole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Baked Chestiiiils Slewed Fruit Cream Rolls DINNER Baked C'hestnuts Stewed Fruit Canued Corn Soup lUNNEK Mashed Potato Chopped Reets Pea and Tomato Soup SteWL-d Parsnips with Celery Mashed Potato Stewed Pumpkin Rolled Wheat Macaroni Baked with Granola Toasted Rolls Whole-Wheat Puffs Pearl Barley (iraham Hiead Graham P.read Sally I.unn Gems Stewed Fruit 'J'oasted Rolls Fig Puddiug with Orange Sauce Stewed Fruit Molded Tapioca SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Cracker Toast (iraham Mush Tomato Toast (.Iraham Sticks Currant Puff Potato Cakes Graham Bread Graham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Cream Pea Soup Tomato and Macaroni Soup Potato Rice Chopped Cabhage Potato Snow Stewed Parsnips Scalloped Yegetahle Oysters Chopped Turnip Browned Rice Rolled Rye Graham Sticks Raised Corn Cake (jraham Bread Toasted Waters Stewed Fruit Graham Crusts Cracked Wheat Pudding Stewed Fruit Prune Dessert THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Granola Fruit Mush Cream Toast Fresh Fruit Boiled Macaroni Rolled Oats Gravy Toast Hoe Cake Whole-Wheat Bread Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Hoe Cake Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Vegetable Oyster Soup Mixed Potato Soup Steamed Potato with Cream Sauce Macaroni with Cream Sauce Stewed Corn and Tomatoes Mashed Squash Stewed Beans Scalloped Tomato Mixed Mush Pearl Wheat Pop Overs Toasted Wafers Cream Rolls Pidled Bread Corn Cakes Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Cornstarch Blancmange Farina Custard SABB ATH BREAKFAST DINNER Fresh Fruit Vegetable Oyster Soup Rolled Oats Prune Toast Macaroni with Kornlet Canned String Beans Fruit Bread Cream Rolls Toasted Wafers Steamed Rice Steamed Figs Cup Custard Graham Fruit Bread Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit Cranberry Jelly Fresh Fruit ( 535 ) F^KTIKTH WEKK. FIRST DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Cerealine Flakes Baked Potato with Cream Gravy Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Hoe Cake Baked Chestnuts Stewed Fruit DINNER Velvet Soup Broiled Potato Succotash Baked Squash Cracked Wheat Toasted Rolls Graham Bread Crusts Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Corn Meal Mush Cream Toast Cream Rolls Granola Gems Graham Bread Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Brown Soup Baked Potato Stewed Celery Mashed Peas with Tomato Sauce Graham Grits French Rolls Rye Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Apple Snow THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Wheat Grape Toast Graham Crisps Rye Bread Graham Puffs Lemon Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Mashed Potato Mashed Parsnips Macaroni with Egg Pearl Wheat with Raisins Rye Bread Toasted Wafers Currant Puffs Stewed Fruit California Grapes FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Tomato Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Sticks Corn Cakes Granola Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Parsnip Soup Potato Rice Steamed Squash Baked Beans Cracked Wheat Raised Biscuit Toasted Wafers Graham Gems Stewed Fruit Farina Blancmange with Cranberry Dressing FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Apple Mush Blackberry Toast Macaroni with Cream Sauce Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit DINNER Baked Bean Soup Potato Cakes Scalloped Tomatoes Stewed Vegetable Oysters Rice Graham Bread Oatmeal Crisps Beaten Biscuit Stewed Fruit Tapioca Jeliy SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Rye Snowflake Toast Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Corn Puffs Citron Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Vegetable Oyster Soup Baked Sweet Potato Mashed Peas Boiled Beets with Lemon Dressing Graham Grits Pulled Bread Graham Crusts Stewed Fruit Rice and Tapioca Pudding SABBATH BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rice with Fig Sauce Gravy Toast Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Cream Rolls Grape Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Kornlet Soup Mashed Sweet Potato Pease Cakes Browned Rice Buns Pulled Bread Cream Rolls Stewed Fruit Bananas (536) p- 1 FT V- K I RiST VV K K K , FIRST PAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit t'erealine Flakes Cream Toast (Iraham Puffs Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Raked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Swiss Lentil Soup J'.oiled Potatoes with Cream Sauce Scalloped Tomato Stewed Vegetable Oysters Pearl Barley Ciraham Bread Rye Gems Toasted Wafers Lemon Apples Stewed Fruit SECOND DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Oatmeal Vegetable Oyster Toast Lentil Puree Toasted Wafers Corn Puffs Graham Bread Stewed Fruit DINNER Pea and Tomato Soup iSIashed Potato Mashed Turnip Parsnip with Egg Sauce Graham Grits Raised Corn Cake Graham Sticks Stewed Fruit Ground Rice Pudding THIRD DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Graham Mush with Raisins Tomato Toast Graham Bread Toasted Wafers Whole-Wheat Puffs Stewed Fruit DINNER Parsnip Soup Baked Potato Mashed Squash Stewed Lima Beans Clacked Wheat Graham Bread Cream Crisps Pop Overs Stewed Fruit Bread Custard FOURTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Plum Porridge Dry Toast with Hot Cream Whole-Wheat Bread Cream Crisps Hoe Cake Granola Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER Vermicelli Soup Baked Potato with Pease Gravy Boiled Beets Stewed Tomatoes Graham Grits Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Beaten Biscuit Cranberry Tarts FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Gravy Toast Baked Sweet Potato Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Graham Puffs Stewed Fruit DINNER Tomato and Macaroni Soup Baked Potatoes with Brown Sauce Mashed Peas Stewed Dried Corn Rice Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Rye Gems Stewed Fruit Nuts and Oranges SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Corn Meal Mush Apricot ToaM Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Breakfast Rolls Steamed Figs Stewed Fruit DINNER Cream Pea Soup Boiled Potato Stewed Carrots Celery Mashed Chestnuts Cracked Wheat Raised Corn Cake Toasted Wafers Fruit Bread Stewed Fruit Rice Cream Pudding BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Grape Toast Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Roasted Almonds Stewed Fruit SABBATH DINNER Tomato and Vermicelli Soup Boiled Macaroni Canned String Beans Steamed Rice Beaten Biscuit Fruit Bread Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit (537) KIKTY=SECONn W^EEK. I'lRSl" DAY FOURTH DAY nRKAK'FAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fi'uit l!aked Chestnuts Plum Porridge Strawberry Toast Rolled Wheat Gravy Toast Toasted Waters Hoe Cake Graham Pulls Baked Sweet Potato with Tomato Sauce Baked Chestnuts Stewed Finit Cream Rolls Graham Puffs Granola DIXMiR Stewed Fruit Vegetable Oyster Soup DINNER Baked Potato Cabbage and Tomato Cream Pea Soup Hulled Corn or Hominy Baked Potato Stewed Tomatoes Graham Grits Scalloped Vegetable Oysters Whole-Wheat Puffs Graham Sticks Graham Grits Fruit P,read Graham Bread Toasted Waters Buns Stewed Fruit Snow Pudding Stewed Fruit Apple Tart SECOND DAY FIFTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Corn Meal ^NTush Tomato Toast Cracked Wheat Vegetable Oyster Toast WholeAA'heat Puffs Toasted Wafers ■» Graham Bread Crusts Toasted Wafers Hominy Gems Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Potato Soup Lentil Soup Baked Beans Stewed Parsnips Mashed Potato " lioiled Macaroni Pearl Wheat Canned Okra and Tomato Graham Bread Currant Puffs Corn Bread Graham Puffs Toasted Wafers Toasted Wafers Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Fresh Fruit and Nuts Rice Cream Pudding THIRD DAY SIXTH DAY BREAKFAST BREAKFAST Fresh Fruit Fresh Fruit Rolled Oats Dry Toast with Hot Cream Graham Mush with Dates Snowflake Toast Currant Puffs Rye Bread Toasted Wafers Baked Apples Stewed Fruit Graham Bread Toasted Wafers M'hole-Wheat Puffs Baked Apples Stewed Fruit DINNER DINNER Black Bean Soup Lima Bean Soup Scalloped Potato Mashed Peas Baked Squash Celery Mashed Potato Kornlet and Tomato Macaroni baked with Granola Farina Rice with Raisins Rye Bread Graham Crusts Toasted Wafers Graham Bread Crescents Cream Rolls Steived Fruit Stewed Fruit Apple Manioca Cracked Wheat Pudding SABB ATH BREAKI'-AST DINNER Fresh Fruit Canned Green Pea Soup Rolled Oats Blackberry Toast Broiled Potato Macaroni with Egg Sauce Pulled Bread Buns Beaten Biscuit Steamed Rice with Raisins Baked Chestnuts Buns Beaten Biscuit Toasted Wafers Citron Apples Stewed Fruit Stewed Fruit Farina Pie (53S C"0UXT1N(; THE COST. 539 COUNTING THE COST. The expense of tlic menus given will vary somewhat with the locality and the existing market prices. The following analysis of several similar bills of fare used in WMdely different localities will serve to show something of the average cost. The first of these were taken at random from the daily menus, during the month of January, of a Michigan family of seven- teen persons, grown persons and hearty, growing children, none younger than six years. In the estimates made of the cost of material, wherever fractions occurred, the next higher whole number was taken. No butter was used, a small pitcher of cream for each individual supplying its pliicc. The milk used for cooking was not counted, since in this case most of the cream had been removed, and its cost reckoned at the entire cost of the milk itself, or twenty cents a quart, allowing four quarts of milk at five cents a quart for one quart of cream. IJILLS OF FARE. BREAKFAST Fresh Apples Toasted Whole-Wheat Wafers Rolled Wheat with Cream Grape Toast Whole-Wheat Puffs Toasted Wafers Baked Sweet Apples Stewed Prunes Cream Hot Milk CosL- Apples (fresh and baked), one half peck, loc.; one lb. rolled wheat, 5c.; one and a half lbs. zwieback for toast, 15c.; one pint of canned grape pulp for toast, I2C. ; puffs (for which besides milk, three eggs at 25c. per doz., and one and one half lbs. whole-wheat flour at 5c. per lb. were used), 14c. ; two and one half lbs. of California prunes, 37c. ; two qts. cream, an amount quite sufficient for moistening the toast and supplying a small cream cup for each individual, 40c. ; two lbs. of toasted whole-wheat wafers, 20c. — mak- ing the entire cost of breakfast $1-53, or exactly nine cents for each person. DINNER Lima Bean Soup Baked Potato with Cream Sauce Scalloped Vegetable Oysters Graham Grits Whole-Wheat liread Whole- Wheat Wafers, Toasted Canned Cherries Citron Apples with Whipped Cream Cream Hot Milk Cos/: One and one fourth lbs. Lima beans, 9c. ; one half peck of potatoes, I2c.; one lb. Graham grits, 5c.; i loaf whole-wheat bread, lOc; 2)^ lbs. whole- wheat wafers, 23c. ; canned cherries, 25c. ; apples and citron, loc. ; 3 bunches vege- table oysters, 15c.; cream (i cup for the soup, one for the cream sauce, and one for whipped cream, besides three and one fourth pints for individual use), 50c. ; flour and sugar for cooking, loc. Total, $1.69 — a little less than ten cents each. 540 SCIENCE IN THE KITCHEN. KREAKFAST NO. 2 liananas Oatmeal (.iravy Toast Graham Corns Toasted Wafers Ajiple Sauce Cream Hot IMilk Cos/: 1)4 doz. bananas, 45c.; i_J^ lbs. oatmeal, 8c.: zwieback for toast, 15c.; cream for gravy, 5c. ; material for gems (Graham flour, milk, and a small portion of cream), 8c.; apple sauce, lOc; wafers, 20c. ; cream for individual use, 30c.; sugar, 5c. Total, $1.46, or a trifle more than S cents apiece. niNNF.R NO. 2 Tomato and Macaroni Soup r.oiled Potato with Gravy Mashed Peas Pearl Barley ^^•ith Raisins Whole-Wheat Bread Toasted Wafers Canned Berries Apple Tapioca with Cream Cream Hot Milk Cos/: For the soup was required two cans of tomatoes at loc. eacli, 2 oz. mac- aroni at 15c. per lb., and one cup of cream, — 27c.; }4 peck of potatoes, 12c.; 1^ lljs. peas, 6c.; i lb. pearl barley, 5c.; J^ lb. raisins, 5c.; yi lb. tapioca, 3c.; apples, 3c.; whole-wheat bread, loc. ; M-afers, 20c. ; cream, 50c. ; canned fruit, 25c. : flour and sugar, 4c. Total, $1.70 — ten cents apiece for each member of the household. The following bills of fare were used by an Iowa family of six persons. The prices given were those current in that locality in the month of March. BREAKFAST Apples Rolled Oats Tomato Toast Toasted Wafers Graham Gems Patent Flour Bread L)ried Ap[ile Sauce Cream Hot Milk Cos/: One sixth peck of apples, Sj^c; one third lb., rolled oats, i%c. ; three fourths lb. whole-wheat wafers, 7^c.; one half can tomatoes, $c. ; bread for table and for toast, loc; material for gems, 3^2 c; dried apples, 6c.; sugar, 2c.; cream and milk, 15c. Average cost for each person, g'i cents. DINNER Canned Corn Soup with Croutons Scalloped Tomato Parsnip with Egg Sauce (iraham Mush Buns Whole-Wheat Bread Cup Custard Cream Hot Milk Cos/: One can of corn, IOC. ; tomatoes (using the half can left over from break- fast), 5c.; bread for the table, for the scalloped tomatoes, and for croutons for the soup, IOC. ; parsnips, 5c.; buns, 5c.; four eggs, 6''/ 215 115 95 391 192 449 169 321 433 344 321 188 , 321 338 299 206 207 300 302 300 311 Apple sandwich 302 shape 314 snow 300 tapioca 309 t-'trt 317 toast 290 toast water 433 Apples, directions for serving 179 "1 jelly 314 sour, raw, digestion of 39 stewed whole 187 sweet, raw, digestion of 39 with apricots 1S9 with raisins 189 Apricots 171 Ajnicot toast 290 Arrowroot I)lancmange 437 gruel . 421 jelly 437 Artificial butter 373 feeding 446 foods, digestibility of 445 human milk 444 Art of dining, the 456 Asparagus 254 and peas 255 on toast 255 points 255 preparation and cooking of. . . . 254 recipes for cooking 255 soup 276, 415 stewed 256 toast 290 with cream sauce 255 with egg sauce 256 Assama 135 [551J 552 INDEX. Avena 91 Avenola 429 Baccate fruits or berries 168 Bacteria in gelatine. . . . , 313 Bad cookery, evils of 46 Bad cooking the ally of intemperance 46 Bain marie 232, 464 Baked apples 186, 189 apple loaf 319 apple pudding 302 apple sauce 187 apples with cream 3°° bananas 3°' barley 97 bean soup 276 beets 247 cabbage 250 corn 265 egg plant 262 fish , 410 milk 433 parsnips 244 peaches 190 pears 189 potatoes 235 quinces 187 sweet apple dessert 300 sweet potatoes 239 turnips 242 vegetables 231 Baking 49 powders 150 Banana custard 322 dessert 310 dessert with gelatine 315 pie 338 shortcake 318 toast 290 Bananas 177 directions for serving 179 in syrup 301 Barley 95 and fruit drink 434 antiquity of 95 bread no Barley, description of 95 digestibility of 96 digestion of 39 fig pudding 302 fruit pudding 302 general suggestions for cooking 96 grain, structure of , 96 gruel 422 lemonade 433 meal in the time of Charles I. .. 96 milk 434 milk for infants 443 nutritive value of 96 patent 96 pearl 96 pot 96 recipes for cooking 97 Scotch milled 96 soup 415 used for bread making 96 Batter for bread, test for lightness of 129 pudding 332 Beans 222 boiled in a bag 223 green, description of 264 green, recipes for cooking 267 Lima 267 pod, digestion of 39 preparation and cooking of . . . . 222 recipes for cooking 223 shelled 267 string 267 time required for cooking 223 time required for digestion 222 Bean and corn soup 276 and hominy soup 276 and potato soup 276 and tomato soup 277 Bean gems 160 Beaten biscuit 161 Beating 55 Beaumont's experiments 29 Beef, broiled 399 broth and oatmeal 427 comparative food value of 392 digestion of 39 INDEX. 553 Beef, economy and adaptability in selection of 398 jerked 394 juice 427 liver of 392 recipes for cooking 399 selection of 393 smothered 400 soups 41 1 stewed 400 tea 43, 426, 427 tea and egg 427 tea in bottles 427 tea, nutritive value of 426 Beet coffee 360 greens 247 hash 247 salad or chopped beets 248 sugar 26 Beets 246 baked 247 preparation and cooking of ... . 246 recipes for cooking 247 stewed 248 with potatoes 247 Berries 189 Berry shortcake 318 toast 291 Beverages 357 cold, recipes for 361 for the sick, recipes for 433 from fruit juices for the sick. . . 432 recipes for 360 Bile 36 Bills of fare for 52 weeks 487-538 Bills of fare 440 Birds baked in sweet potatoes 406 Black bean soup 277 Blackberry, the 1 76 beverage 361 cornstarch pudding 303 mush 293 syrup 210 tapioca 310 Blackberries, directions for serving. . 181 Boiled apples with svrup 1S8 Boiled beans 223 beets 248 cabbage 250 carrots 246 cauliflower 251 custard 322 custard bread pudding 322 leg of mutton 401 macaroni 106 parsnips 244 potatoes in jackets 235 potatoes without skins 235 potato yeast 141 rice 99 rice, digestion of 98 sweet potatoes 239 turnips 241 wheat 87 I'oiling 51. 395 of vegetables 231 violent, result of 51 Bottled beef tea 427 Bran stock 277 Brass utensils 58 Bray 109 Brazil nuts 213 Bread and apricot pudding 323 and fig pudding 323 and fruit custard 332 articles from which prepared ... no care after baking 136 corn 1 46 corn, digestion of 39 custard, steamed, 333 custard pudding 322 dryness of 133 early forms of 109 entire wheat 112, 138 for the sick 436 Graham 138 heavy, cause of 155 how to knead 132 keeping of 137 perfectly risen 130 to detect alum in 1 16 to delect whitins in 1 16 554 INDEX. Bread in desserts 297 fermented 118 flour, amount of required 126 made light ^ithuiir 152 making, chemistry of 116 materials, how to combine 125 milk 142 moldy 297 necessary qualities of 1 1 1 of mulberries no overfermentation of 120 pans 134 pie 338 pulled . 143 rye 144 sour 130, 297 stale 138 stale, use of 453 steamed 140 test of 137 the rising of 129 unfermented, general directions for making 152 unfermented, time required for baking 155 unleavened 117 Vienna 142 water 142 white, injurious effects of 11 1 whole-wheat 138, 143 whole-wheat, proportion of phos- phates in 112 Breads, fermented 142 Breadstuffs and bread-making 109 Breakfast dishes 287 miscellaneous 293 Breakfast, grains for 84 rolls 160 Breakfasts and dinners, a year's. . . . 481 the ideal 288 use of fruits for 288 Breaking bread no Brewis 293 Broccoli 251 recipes 251 Broiled beef 799 Itroiled birds 406 fish 410 mutton chop 401 potato 238 steak 430 I^roiling 49> 397 Brose 93 Broth panada 428 vegetable 428 Brown Betty 305 bread 146 sauce 351 soup 277 Browned cauliflower 252 flour in soups 274 mush 103 parsnips 244 rice 100 sweet potatoes 240 Budrum 93 Buns, plain 347 Butter 364, 370 absorbent properties of 376 artificial 373 digestion of , 39 emulsified 378 French 378 good, test for 372 in ancient times 373 in bread 127 keeping qualities of 375 making 374 Butterine 373 Buttermilk, composition of 370 Butternut 214 Butter-oil 373 Cabbage, description of 248 baked 250 boiled 250 digestion of 39 hash 250 preparation and cooking of 249 recipes for cooking 250 salad 250 wit.i celery 250 INDEX. 555 Calibage with tomatoes Cake, general directions for making. heat required for baking icing for made light with yeast recipes for making Calves' lirains Candies Cane sugar Canned corn soup green pea soup Canning fruit utensils . . . . , Caramel coffee custard for coloring soup brown sauce Carrots digestibility of pie pudding recipes for cooking soup Carrots boiled preparation and cooking stewed with egg sauce Casein 26, 78, 365, Cauliflower and broccoli, preparation and cooking recipes for cooking with egg sauce with tomato sauce Celery and potato hash recipes for cooking sauce soup . , to keep fresh with tomato sauce Cellar lloor need of frequent whitewashing. ventilation of walls 250 343 344 346 344 344 392 449 26 278 278 193 197 360 323 415 352 245 245 338 323 246 278 246 245 246 246 372 251 251 251 252 252 253 254 253 352 278 253 254 70 70 Cereals , 78 Charcoal 47 < heese 376 cottage 377 Chinese 218 ('hcrry, the 171 jelly .... 207 tart 318 toast 291 (iu-rries 189 directions for serving 179 to can 202 Chicken 430 broth 427 jelly 430 panada 428 China closet 67, 457 the care of 477 Chinese soup strainer 273 Chestnut, the 214 bread 1 10 soup 278 Chestnuts, boiled 215 mashed 215 Chocolate 359 Chopped beets 248 cabbage 250 turnips 242 Cinders, use of 49 Citric acid 165 Citron 1 73 apples 186 Cla'lns 409 Clear dessert 315 Clearing the table 47 1 Clear jelly, to make 205 Clotted cream 377 Coal 47 Coarse hominy 104 Cobnut 214 Cocoa 359 Cocoanut, the 213 and cornstarch blancmange. . . . 303 cornstarch pudding 323 .custard 323 custard cake 345 556 INDEX. Cocoanut flavor 298 Cocoanut pie 338 sauce 352 rice custard 324 Coffee 359 Coke 47 Colander, use of in the preparation of soups 273 Combination soup 275, 279 Compartment sink 68, 69 Compote of apples 188 Compound stock 414 Compressed yeast 122 Condiments 29 in cookery , 46 Condensed milk 369 Cooked fruit 185 Cookery 45 Cooking of grains 81 utensils 56 Copper utensils 58 Cornaro, experiences of 441 Corn loi and chicken 406 and tomatoes canned 269 bread, digestion of. 39 cake 147 cakes 265 canned 268 digestibility of loi dodgers 158, 159 dried 266 keeping qualities of 102 lob 102 mush rolls 160 pudding 265 puffs 158 roasted green 265 stewed green 266 Corn meal 102 and fig pudding 324 crust 337 cubes 103 mush 103 mush with fruit 103 pnclding 324 Corn meal, recipes for cooking 103 suggestions for cooking 102 Cornstarch blancmange 303 fruit mold 303, 304 meringue 324 pudding, plain 328 with raisins 303 with apples 303 Cottage cheese 377 Cows' milk, analysis of 364 milk, prepared for infants 443 Crab apples, to can 203 Crab apple jelly 207 Cracked potatoes 236 wheat 86, 87 . wheat pudding. 304, 324 Cranberry, the 175 drink 434 jelly 207 pie 339 Cranberries, to keep 184 and sweet apples 190 with raisins 190 Cream 364, 370 barley soup 279 cake 345 composition of 370 corn cakes 159 crisps 161 digestibility of 370 filling 337 for shortcake 319 Graham rolls 160 or white sauce 351 pea soup , . 279 pie 339 sauce 352 temperature for raising 368 toast 291 toast with poached eggs.- 291 use of in soups 274 wholesomeness of 371 Creamed parsnips 244 potatoes 237 turnips 242 Creamery 371 INDEX. 557 Creamy rice 548 Crescents 145 Crust coffee 434 Crusts 157 Croutons 453 Cucumber, description of 263 the serving of 263 Cupboards 62 Cupboard ventilation 62 Cup custard 320, 325 Currantade 434 Currant jelly 437 pwffs 157 Custard, boiled 322 in cups 320 plain 328 puddings 319 pudding, importance of slow cooking of 319 puddings, recipes for cooking.. 320 sauce 353 , snowball 331 steamed 330 tapioca 331 Cut-glass ware 476 Cymling 258 description of ... 258 preparation and cooking of. . . . 258 Date, the 172 bread 146 pudding 333 Decaying vegetables in cellar 70 Delicate cup cake 345 Description of Indian corn loi Desserts 296 fruits, recipes for 299 for the sick 437 general directions for prepara- tion of 297 made of fruit, grains, bread, etc., recipes for 302 made with gelatine, recipes for 314 molded 298 objections to 296 with crusts, recipes fur 317 Desserts with manioca 312 with sago 311, 312 with tapioca, recii)cs for 309 with tapioca 309 Devonshire cream .... 377 Dextrine 78 Diabetic biscuit 436 Diastase 86 Diet of the pyramid builders 218 for older children 447 for the young 442 simplicity in 41 Digestion deferred by the use of fried foods , . 54 hygiene of 40 in stomach 37 intestinal 38 liver 39 salivary 37 time required for 39 Digestive apparatus 35 fluids, uses of 38 I )ining, the art of 456 b)ining room, the 456 furnishing of 456 temperature of 469 ventilation of 457 Dinners, a batch of 543 holiday 543 Dinner parties, invitations for 467 suggestions concerning 466 Diseased animal food 39O Disease germs in meat 391 Dish closet, utensils for 67 Dish drainer 68 Dishing up 463 Dishes, washing the 472 Dish mop 475 towel rack 74 Double boiler. 53, 81 in the preparation of "gravies. . . 351 in the preparation of gruels. ... 421 substitute for 81 Double broth 414 Dough 117 kneading the 131 558 INDEX. iJrafts and dampers, managcnient of 49 Draining dishes 475 Drain pipes 64 Dried apple pie 339 apple pie with raisins 339 apples with other dried fruit. . . 191 apples 190 apricot pie 339 apricots and peaches 191 pears 191 Drinks and delicacies for the sick. . . 432 Dropped eggs 386 Drupaceous fruits 168 Dry granola » 293 Drying fruit 211 Drying towels 475 Dry toast with hot cream 292 Duck, digestion of 39 Eating between meals 449 hastily 40 too much ... 42 when tired 42 Effects of cooking fat 53 Egg gruel 422 lemonade 434 panada 429 plant, description of 262 sandwich 545 sauce 352, 353 Eggnog 434 Eggs and macaroni 107 composition of 380 digestion of 39 for the sick, recipes for 431 for use in desserts 297 how to choose 381 how to keep 382 in cream 386 in shell 384 in sunshine 385 micro-organisms in 381 poached 386 poached in tomatoes , . . . . 385 recipes for cooking 384 stale 297 Eggs, lest for 381 to beat , 383 use of in unfcrmented breads.. . 154 Evaporation 54 Evaporated peach sauce 191 Extension strainer 421 Fancy omelets 387 Farina 88, 89 blancmange 304 custard 325 fruit mold 304 molded 89 nutritive value of 89 pie 339 pudding 325 recipes for cooking of 89 with fig sauce 89 with fresli fruit 89 Fat, decomposed by the action of heat 54 Fats 26 effects of cooking upon 53 Fatty matter 42 Fermentation 118 the different stages of 119 temperature for 121 the process of 118 Fermentative agents 120 Fermented breads 142 recipes for 142 Fibrin 26, 78 Field corn loi Fig, the 176 layer cake 345 pudding, steamed 333 Figs, directions for serving 181 Filbert, the 214 Filters 69 Fine hominy or grits , 104 Fires, care of 48 Fish 408 as a brain food 408 baked 410 liest method for cooking 410 boiled 410 INDEX. 559 I''i.sh, liiciilcd 4U) huw U) select and pre]);irc 409 ])arasiles in 408 recipes for cookin|^ 410 Flavoring, suggestions for 298 Flaxseed tea 434 Floated egg 43 1 P'loating island 325 Floors, kitchen 61 Flour, to keep . . .' 115 absorbent quality of 126 adulteration of, how to iletect . 116 deleterious adulteration of 115 entire wheat 114 Graham, how to test 114 gruel 422 how to select 1 13 measuring of 55 Flummery 93 Foam omelets 387 Foamy sauce 353 Food, amount required 42 apologies for 469 Fqod elements 25 changes in by cooking 45 correct proportion of in wheat 79 deficiency of 43 excess of 42 nitrogenous, subject to rapid de- composition 118 ]iroportions of • 28 uses of 27 Food for infants 444 for infants, quantity of 445 for the aged and the very young 439 for the aged, requirements for. 439 for the sick 418 for the sick, to heat 420 for the sick, utensils for the prep- aration of 420 mucilaginous, excellent in gastro- enteritis 444 Foods 25 adding to boiling liquids 54 combinations of 28, 43 digestion of 35 l'"ii()(ls, etlccls of hard anil soft water upon 52 I'owl, broiled 406 to stuff 406 to truss 405 Fowls, digestion of 39 Fragments and left-over foods 452 French butler 378 •■"lis 145 Fresh fruit conijiote 301 fruit pie 336 Fried foods for breakfast 287 Frosted fruit 181 Frozen fish 410 Fruit 164 acids 165 beverage , 361 cake 346 canned, selection of 193 canned, the storing of 198 canned, to ppen 199 canned, to sterilize 193 canning, causes of failure in. ... 198 canning of 193 cans, to test 193 cause of decay 192 cellar, the 184 cooking of for jelly 204 crackers 162 custard 325 dessert 299 directions for picking and hand- ling , 182 directions for serving 179 dried, for cake 343 foam dessert 315 for the sick 432 for the table 178 general directions for cooking. . 185 how to keep fresh 182 ices. 211 jelly 204 jelly cake 345 jelly, recipes for 206 jelly, storing of 206 jelly, straining the juice for .... 204 56o INDEX. l''ruil jelly, time required for boiling juice 205 juices for the sick 432 juices, recipes for 209 loaf 142 loaf with Graham or whole-wheat flour 146 or vegetables in tin cans 199 pie .... 339 pudding 305 rolls 142, 161 sandwich 545 sauce 354 shape 315 shortcake 3^^ sugar 26 syrup 210 tapioca 3'° the storing of 183 the circulation of juice in 178 the preservation of 192 to cook for canning 194 use of spices with 185 Fruits, analysis of 166 at the beginning of a meal 168 dried 298 drying of 211 for breakfast 288 in jelly 208 kinds most easily digested 165 recipes for cooking 186 stale 167 structure of 165 their value as nutrients 165 Frumenty 87, 293 Frying 53 Fuel 47 economical use of 48 waste of 51 Galvanized iron ware 57 Game, suggestions for selection of. . 403 Garbage 479 Gasoline and gas 47 Gastric juice 3^ Geese and ducks, suggestions for se- lection of 404 Gelatine, a culture medium 313 custard 315 nutritive value of 313 preparation of for desserts 314 Gem irons 152 irons, filling of 156 Germs in stale fruits 167 in the fermentation of bread. . . 120 Glass, care of 476 utensils •. 477 Glucose Gluten 78 custard 43 1 cream 422 gruel 422 meal custard 431 meal gems 436 meal gruel 422 mush 429 Gofio 95 Gold and silver cake 346 Gooseberry 174 tart 318 Gooseberries, directions for serving 179- to can 200 Graham apple mush 90 bread 139, 144 crisps 161 flour 88, 113 gems 157 •grits 89 grits gruel 423 grits, how manufactured 88 grits, nutritive value of 89 grits pudding 325 gruel 422 mush 90 mush with dates 90 puffs 156, 157 rolls 160 salt-rising bread 147 Grain and fruit diet for the aged .... 440 Grains 78 an economical food 85 and liquids employed for cook- ing 82 composition of 78 INDEX. 561 (iraiiis, digestibility of 78 for the sick 429 for breakfast 84 importance of variety and use (jf 79 insalivation of 80 in soups 274 insufficiently cooked not easily digested 81 left over 454 nutritive value of 78 suggestions for cooking 81 use of by other nationalities. ... 79 use of condiments with 79 Granite ware 57 utensils, to clean. 474 Granola 429 thrust 337 fruit mush 91 gems 159 mush 91 peach mush 91 Granular corn meal 102 Grape apples 301 fruit, the 1 73 beverage 361 jelly 208 jelly pie 340 juice 209 sugar 26 t:^>-t 338 toast 292 ( irapes, to keep 184 directions fur serving 180 ( iravy toast 29' I Iravies and sauces 350 and sauces for vegetables, reci- pes for 351 to flavor 351 Green bean soup 280 l)eans, preparation and cooking <^f 2t)4 corn 264 corn, btjiled 265 corn preparation and rooking of, recijjes 264, 265 corn soup 280 ])ea soup 2S0 Green peas, dried 222 peas, preparation and cooking of 2()4 Ground air 70 Ground rice pudding 326 Gruel, barley 422 egg 422 flour 422 gluten meal 422 Graham 422 Indian meal 423 lemon oatmeal 423 milk oatmeal 423 oatmeal 424 of prepared flour 423 peptonized gluten 424 raisin 424 strainer 42 1 Gruels 420 recipes for 421 Gum arable water 435 Ilasty pudding 102 Hazelnut, the 214 Hickory nut, the 214 Hoe cake 159 Holiday dinners 543 feasting 543 menus 544 Home-made macaroni 106 Hominy 102, 104 gems 158 Honey 26 Hop yeast 141 Hot buttered toast 419 lemonade 435 mWk 376, 425 water 435 1 lousehold workshop .• . . 60 I^-'^(l iiiilk 357 lea 357 w^itt^r 357 Ice in refrigerator 68 Icelandic bread 1 10 Iceland moss blancmange 437 moss jelly 437 Imperial rolls '. 145 56:2 INDEX. Indian corn loi Indian meal gruel 423 Indigestion caused by bad Cooking . . 46 Infants' food - • ■ 444 Intestinal digestion 38 juice 36 Invalid food 436 Irish moss lemonade 435 potatoes 233 Iron rust 57 utensils 57 Ivory handles 477 Jam pudding 3°5 Japanned goods 477 Jellied oatmeal ; . 94 Jelly, apple 206 cherry 207 crab apple 207 cranberry 207 custard pie 340 for the sick .' 419, 437 grape 208 orange 208 pear 208 plum . . 208 producing principle 165 quince 208 with fruit 316 Julienne soup 415 Junket 425 Keeping fresh fruit 182 Kerosene oil 47 Kitchen brushes 75, 76 clock 62 conveniencies 7° drain pipes 64 floor 61 flowers in 62 furnishing 61 furniture 62 good sized one 61 location of 60 plumbing ,. 64 refuse 64 Kitchen, sanitary 61 sink, best material for 64 slate 63 table 63 utensils 66 ventilation 61 woodwork ; . ... 62 Kneading 55, 131 table 74 Kornlet and tomato soup 280 soup 280 Koumiss 425 Lamb 402 comparative nutritive value of.. 392 Layer pudding 316 Lead-adulterated tin 57 test of 58 Leaven 121 I^eft-over foods, care of 453 fragments in soup 275 Legumes 217 composition of 217 digestibility of 218 green 219 suggestions for cooking 219 value as strength producers. ... 218 Legumin 217 Lemon, the 173 Lemonade 362 Lemon apples 187 cornstarch pudding 326 drill 72 filling 338 flavor 299 jelly 316 meringue custard 340 oatmeal gruel 423 pie 340 pudding 326 pudding sauce 354 shortcake 3'^ syrup 210 Lemons and oranges, to keep 184 Lentil and parsnip soup 281 gravy with rice 226 INDEX. 56: Lentil meal 225 puree 226 soup 281 loast 292 Lentils, description of 225 mashed with beans 226 recipes for cooking 226 Lettuce 256 to clean 230 to serve 257 Lignite 47 Lima bean souj) 281 Lime, the 173 Liquid, quantity required for bread- making 126 Liquid yeast 140 Liquids best suited for cooking 51 Liver digestion 39 Loaf cake 347 Loaf, size of 133 Lobsters 409 Love apple . 260 Luncheon, cold, provision for 545 IMacaroni 105 boiled 106 description of 105 in soups 274 pudding 326 recipes for cooking . 106 soup 281, 416 to select 105 to prepare and cook 106 to keep 105 with cream sauce 106 with kornlet 294 with granola 106 with raishis 293 with tomato sauce 106 Maize loi meal 102 Mallic acid 165 -Manioca 309 with fruit 312 -Maple sugar 26 Mashed cabbage 250 Mashed beans 224 peas 221 jiarsnips 244 potatoes 236 sweet potatoes 240 Mashed turnips 242 Mastication 37 Materials, mixing of 55 Meals, drinking at 41 eating between 41 service of 464 Measures and weights, comparative table of 55 Measuring 54 dry iiiaterials 55 flour 55 liquids 55 salt 55 sugar 55 Meat broth 426 diseased 390 extracts 43 for children 448 importance of simple cooking of 392 nutritive value of 389 pies 392 preparation and cooking of. . . . 395 preservation of 394 soup, recipes for 415 soup, preparation and cooking of 412 soup 410 selection of 393 Meats for the sick, recipes for 430 left over 454 Melon, the 1 76 directions for serving 180 Menu cards 468 Metate 148 Micro-organisms in gelatine 313 Milk, absorbent properties of 367 adulteration of 365 albumenized 4^5 and contagious diseases 366 and lime water ... 425 baked 433 564 INDEX. INIilk bread 127 bread \vll\\ white flour 142 care of 367 composition of 364 condensed 369 cream and butter 364 Jiet 425 diet for the young 442 digestion of ... 39 dishes, washing of 367 diseased 365 for cooking purposes 52 hot 376, 425 left over 455 oatmeal gruel 423 panada 429 porridge 423 preparations of 425 recipes for 376, 425 sugar 26 to sterilize for immediate use. .. 368 to sterilize to keep 369 use of in soups 274 utensils for keeping 366 yeast bread 147 Minced chicken 430 steak 430 Mineral elements 26, 78 soap 477 Miss B's salt-rising bread 143 Mixed lemonade 362 fruits, to can 202 mush 94 vegetable broths 428 Mock cream 354 Molasses sauce 354 Molded farina 89 rice, or snow balls 327 tapioca with fruit 310 wheat 88 Mrs. T's caramel coffee 360 Mulberry, the 176 Mush, rye loi Mutton broth 42S chop 430 chops, stewed 402 Mutton, comparative nutritive value «f 392 digestion of . . . 39 recipes for cooking 401 rules for selection of 393 stewed 402 New potatoes 236 Nitrogenous elements, importance in dietary for children 448 Nursing bottles 447 Nuts 212 recipes for serving 215 to keep fresh 215 Oatcakes 92 Oatmeal blancmange 94 bread 147 character of 92 crisps 162 drink 362 for children 93 fruit mush 94 gems 159 griicl 424 in soups. 274 mush 94 porridge 95 preparation and cooking of ... . 93 proportion of nitrogenous ele- ment in 92 recipes for cooking of 94 soup 281 time required for the digestion of 93 with apple 95 Oat, the 91 ancient use of 91 a staple article of diet with the Scotch peasantry 91 description of 91 I^r. Johnson's definition of ... . 92 how prepared for food 92 nutritive value of 91 Oil and gas stoves 65 Oleomargarine 373 INDEX. 565 ( )livf, the 171 ( )iiiek-l, foam 387 1'1'iiii 387 soft 388 ( )inelcts, fancy 387 recipes for makiiit:; 3S7 ( )ne-crust peach pie 341 < )iiions 267 ( )rangea(Ie 3*>2, 435 ( )raiiges and apples I go cake 34(1 custard 327 dessert 316 directions for ser\int^ 180 flavor 2()() float 327 in jelly 317 jelly 208, 317 pie 341 pudding 327 rice 100 sauce 354 syrup 210 whey 437 ( )rnamental potatoes 23S liven, heat of for baking unfcr niented bread 153 proper temperature of 134 test for heating of 50, 136 thermometer 50 ( )ysters 409 digestion of 39 Paddy fields 98 Paint for kitchen walls 62 Panada, recipes for 428 Pan broiled steak. . 399 Pantry, the 67 Parched grain coffee 360 Parker House rolls 145 Parsnip beer 243 boiled 244 boiled, digestion of 39 browned 244 creamed 244 description of 243 Parsnip, mashed 244 preparation and cooking of ... . 243 recipes for cooking of 244 soup 281, 282 stewed 245 slewed with celery 345 with cream sauce 244 with egg sauce 244 with potato 245 Partridges 404, 406 to ilress 404 Passover bread 148 Pasta d'Ttalia 105 Pastry and cake 333 indigestibility of 334 Paste for pies 336 for tart shells 337 Pates 392 Patent barley 96 Pea and tomato soup 282 Peach, the 1 70 cream 301 custard pie 341 digestion of 39 jelly 208 mush 294 meringue 327 sauce 355 tapioca 311 toast 292 ^ eaches 189 and cream, directions for serving 180 and pears, directions for serving 180 to can 20I Peanut bread 1 10 the, or ground nut 214 Pear, the 1 70 Pearl barley 96 barley with lemon sauce 97 barley with raisins 97 wheat 87 Pearled wheats 86 Pears, to can 201 Peas bainock 220 cake 221 canned 269 566 INDEX. Peas, description of 220 gravy 352 green, description of 264 green, recipes for cooking of. . , 266 pudding 220 puree 221 recipes for cooking 221 sausage 221 stewed 266 the history 220 Pecan, the 214 Pectic acid 165 Pemmican 394 Peptonized gruel 424 milk for infants 426 Percolater holder 73 Perforated sheet iron pans for rolls. 152 Phosphates in wheat 86 Picnic biscuit 546 dinners 545 pudding 327 Pie, fresh fruit 336 crust, raised 319 with one crust 335 Pies, general suggestions for making. 334 paste for 336 recipes for making 336 Pigeons 406 to select 404 Pineapple, the 178 beverage 362 cake 347 directions for serving 180 lemonade 362 tapioca 310 Pineapples, to can 203 Pink dinners 468 lemonade 362 Pippins and quinces 187 Plain cornstarch pudding 328 custard 328 fruit pudding 305 omelets 387 pudding sauce 355 rice soup 282 Plaster of Paris in flour 116 Plum, the 170 jelly 208 porridge go Plums 189 to can 202 with sweet apples 202 Poached eggs with cream sauce 386 Poisonous mussels 409 substances produced in fried foods 54 Polenta I02 Pomaceous fruits 168 Pomegranate, the 174 Pop corn loi, 104 pudding 330 Popovers 159 Porcelain-lined utensils, to wash. . . . 474 ware 57 Pork, digestion of 39 Porridge, milk 423 Potato and rice soup 282 and vermicelli soup 283 bread 143 bread with whole-wheat flour. . . 144 browned 238 cake with egg 237 cake 237 chemistry of cooking 233 cooked in jackets 234 digestion of 39 frozen 233 hash 240 Irish, description of 233 paring of 234 preparation and cooking of 234 recipes for cooking of 235 snowballs 237 soup 282 sprouts, poisonous 229 stewed with celery 237 structure of 233 sweet, preparation and cooking of 238, 239 yeast in bread-making 140 Pot barley 96 roast lamb 401 INDEX. 567 Poultry and game 402 and game, recipes for cooking. . 406 less stimulating than game 402 suggestions for selecting 403 Preparation of mushes with meal or flour 83 Prepared foods for infants 444 Prune, the 1 7 1 marmalade 1 91 pie 341 pudding 305, 328 toast 292 whip 328 Prunes 191 Pulled bread 143 Pulp succotash 224 Pumice stone 477 Pumpkin 259 baked 260 canned 269 dried 260 pie 342 pie without eggs 342 recipes for cooking of 260 stewed 260 Puree with chicken 416 Putrefactive fermentation 119 Quails 406 Quantity of food for the aged 441 Quince, the -. 1 70 jelly 208 Radish 256 description of 257 Radishes, to serve 257 Raised biscuit 145 corn bread 146 pie crust 319 Raisin gruel 424 panada 429 Range ventilator 61 Raspberries, blackberries, and other small fruits 200 directions for serving 18 1 Raspberry, the 1 76 Raspberry manioca mold 312 Raw eggs 431 potato yeast 140 Recipes for canning fruit 200 for cooking rye loi for steamed pudding 332 for unfermented bread 156 for yeast 140 Red rice mold 307 sago mold 311 sauce 355 Refrigerator 68 Rice and fruit dessert 307 and strawberry dessert 308 and stewed apple dessert 307 and ta]:)ioca pudding 307 apple custard pudding 329 balls 333 best methods of cooking 99 cream pudding 306 custard pudding 329 description of 97 digestibility of 97 digestion of 39 division in food elements 98 dumpling 3°^ fruit dessert 306 flour 98 tlour mold 307 history of 97 kernel, structure of 98 meringue 305 preparation and cooking of ... . 99 pudding with raisins 306 recipes for cooking of 99 requisites for cultivation of ... . 98 snow 329 snowball 3°^ snow witli jelly 329 soup 415 time required for digestion of . . 98 to clean 99 water 424 with eggs 329 uilh fig sauce 99 with lemon 294 568 INDEX. Rice with peaches loo. \\\lh raisins loo Roast beef 399 chicken 406 mutton 401 turkey 407 Roasted potatoes 235 sweet potatoes 240 Roasting 49, 397 Rochelle salts 151 Roll, fruit 142 Rolled oats 95 rye loi wheat 86. S7 Rolls 145 Rose cream \ 355 Rough rice 98 Rust, to remove 477 Rye, appearance of -. 100 bread 144 description of 100 flour 100 meal 100 nutritive value of 100 Pwffs ,: 157 Sabbath bill of fare 549 dinners 548 Sago and fruit custard pudding 330 and potato soup 283 custard pudding 330 digestion of 39 fruit pudding 312 pudding 312 sauce 355 soup 415 Saleratus 149 Salicylic acid, in fruit 192 Saliva, the 36 Sally Lunn gems 158 Salmon, digestion of 39 Salsify, description of 263 preparation and cooking of.... 263 recipes for cooking of 264 Salted fish 409 Salted meats 394 Salt, measuring of 55 Samp 103 Sanitay customs among the Jews. . . 390 Sauce for desserts and puddings, recipes for 352 ^''^"leing 53 Scalloped beans 223 cauliflower 252 egg plant 26^ potatoes 237 turnips 242 vegetable oyster 264 Scallops 409 School lunches 546 Scientific cookery, principles of. ... 47 Scotch broth 283 milled barley 96 Scraml;)led eggs. .- 386 Scraped steak 430 Sea kale 256 Sea mos.s 309 blancmange 312 Seasonings 31 Semolina 105 Setting the sponge 124 Shaken milk 378 Sheep's kidneys 392 Shell fish 409 Sherbet 362 Shortcake, banana 318 lemon 318 strawberry 318 Silver, care of 476 to remove egg tarnish from .... 473 Simmering 53 Simple custard pie 342 stock, or broth 414 Sink in kitchen 64 Skim milk, composition of 370 Slippery elm tea 435 Small fruits 191 Smoked meats 394 Smooth apple sauce 188 Smothered beef 400 chicken 407 Snowball custard 33 1 IXDKX. 569 Snowballs 327 Snowllnke toast 2''^= 272 recipes for making 27^) selection for material for 411 to flavor 273 to thicken 274 Sour bread 130 Sowens 93 Spaghetti 105 Spice and flavorings 1S5 Spinach 252 description of 252 preparation and cooking of 252 Split pea soup 2S3 •"Sponge 127 L-ake 347 how to secure the best tenijiera- ture 127 when sufficiently light 129 S[ioons, kind to be used in measuring 55 Squash, baked 2=;9 canned 269 mashed 258 pie 342 pie without eggs 343 summer 258 winter 2t;9 Stains, removal of 477 Stale bread 138 Starch 26, 78 action of cidd water upon 53 action of hot water upon 53 Steak, pan broiled 399 Steam cooker 71, 81 cooker for grains Si Steamed apples 188 chicken 407 custard 330 i-Sgs 386, 431 P'ltatoes 235 P"i"es 545 pufi'l'ii^' 332 rice 99 rice, digestion of 98 squash 259 sweet ]iotatocs 240 turnips 242 ^t'^'Tiiiiig 53. 397 different methods of 53 vegetables 331 Steel knives, to clean 474 Stcrili/.ed milk 369 for infants 443 Stewed ai)ples 18S asparagus 256 l)eans 224 beef ... 400 beef with vegetaliles 400 beets 24S cabbage 250 carrots 246 caulillower 252 ^■<^lcry 253, 254 chicken 407 corn anil tomatoes 261 crab apples 1S9 fruit pudding 308 I.ima beans 224 mutton 402 mutton chop 402 parsnips 245 pears 188 potato 237 squash 258 raisins 190 turnips 242 Stewing 53, 396 proper temperature for 53 570 INDEX. Sticks i6o St. Martin, Alexis ; experiments on 29 Stock 410 preparation of 413 to clarify 414 to cool 413 to strain 413 Stomach digestion 37 Storeroom 68 Stoves and ranges 65 Strawberry, the 175 charlotte 330 minute pudding 308 shortcake 318 Strawberries, to can 200 String beans canned 269 Stirabout 102 Stirring 55 of grains 83 Stuffed potatoes, 236 Succotash ... 224 Sugar 78 amount of required, in canning 196 cane 26 crisps 348 excess of in fruit jelly 204 fruit 26 grape 26 in canned fruit 194 measuring of 55 milk 26 to color 299 Summer squash 258 squash, preparation and cooking of 258 squash, recipes for cooking .... 258 succotash 266 Swedish bread no Sweet apple custard pie 343 pudding 308 sauce with condensed apple juice 189 Sweet corn , 102 Sweet potato 238 pie 343 soup 283 to dry 240 Swiss lentil soup 284 Swiss potato soup. 283 Table, the 461 appointments of 462 arrangement of 463 for estimating the amount of food required for infants . . . 446 in kitchen 63 linen, care of 477 linen, colored 479 linen, washing of 478 manners 458 of nutritive values of foods, 484-486 refuse 480 setting the 462 the setting of over night 463 topics . . . .44, 59, 77, 108, 162, 216, 226, 270, 286, 295, 349, 356, 363, 379> 388, 417, 438, 450, 455' 47o> 480, 542, 550 Tamarind water 435 Tapeworm 391 Tapioca and tig pudding 311 cream soup 416 custard 331 digestion of 39 filling 338 jelly 3" pudding 331 soup 415 Tartaric acid 165 Tea 358 and coffee, adulteration of 359 and coffee, substitutes for 359 not a food 359 use of, detrimental 358 Temperature 5^ for bread-making 128 Test for bad water 69 Testimony of St. Pierre 391 Thanksgiving menus 544 Theine 358 Tin closet, list of utensils for 67 utensils 57 Tinware, action upon by acids 57 INDEX. 571 Tinware adulterated with lead 58 Tisane 3^3 Toast 139 apple 290 apricot , 290 asparagus 290 banana 290 berry 291 celery 291 cherry 291 cream 29 1 for the sick 419 grape 292 gravy 291 lentil 292 peach 292 prune 292 preparation of 289 recipes for 290 snowflake 292 tomato 293 vegetable oyster 293 water 435 Tomato and macaroni soup 284 and okra soup 284 and rice soup 282 cream gravy 352 cream soup 284 description of 260 gluten 429 gravy 261, 352 ])reparation and cooking of .... 260 pudding 262 recipes for 261 salad 261 soup '. 416 soup with vermicelli 284 toast 293 with okra 262 Tomatoes, baked 261 canned 269 scalloped 261 stewed 262 Tortillas 148 Trays for invalids, suggestions fur preparing 4^9 Trichince 391 Turkey, roast 407 suggestions for selection of .... 404 Turnips, baked 242 boiled 241 chopped 242 composition of 241 description of 240 digestion of 39 scalloped 242 in juice 242 mashed 242 ]ireparation and cooking of 241 recipes for cooking. 241 steamed 242 stewed 242 with cream sauce 243 Tyrotoxicon 37^ Ihifermented batter bread 154 bread 148 recipes for 156 w ine 209 Unleavened bread 117 Unripe fruits 165 Utensils for bread-making. 127 Variety cake 34^ Veal 402 comparative nutritive value of. . 392 rules for selection of 393 Vegetable broth 426, 428 brush • 76 casein 217 casein hardened by the use of 156 hard water 52 hash 23S marrow 258 marrow, description of 258 oyster, description of 263 oyster, preparation and cooking of 263 oysters, recipes for cooking. . . . 264 oyster soup 285 oyster toast 293 press 71 572 INDEX. Vegetable soup 2S5 Vegetables 22S canning of 268 composition of 228 decayed 229 dietetic value of 228 fresh, value of 229 keeping of 229 left over 454 overdone 23 1 preparation and cooking of .... 230 recipes for canning 268 shredded in soups 274 sprouted 229 stale 229 storing of 229 time required for cooking 231 to keep after cooking 232 to select 229 underdone 23 1 Velvet soup 285 Ventilation of china closet 67 of cupboards 62 of kitchen 61 of pantry 67 Ventilator 61 Vermicelli 105 pudding 331 in soups 274 soup 285, 286, 416 Vienna bread 142 Vitellin 381 Waiters, general suggestions for. . . . 466 Waiter, the handy 72 Walnut, the 214 Wall cabinet 73 Warmed-over potatoes 238 Washing the dishes 472 Waste barrel, the 479 Water, action of upon food elements 52 amount of for cooking vege- tables 230 boiling point at different altitudes 52 boiling point at sea level 52 boiling, temperature of 51 Water bread 126, 142 comparative value of use of hot and cold in cookery 52 rice 424 supplies 69 supplies, tests for 69 tamarind 422 to increase the Ijoiling point of . . 52 Wheat-berry flour 113 cracked 86 description of 85 Wheatena 429 Wheat, finer mill products of 88 flour, nutritive elements of ... . Ill gluten 429 meal 88 molded 88 oats, and barley coffee - 361 pearled 86 preparation and cooking of ... . 86 recipes for cooking 87 relative proportion of food ele- ments in 85 rolled 86 structure of 85 with fresh fruit 87 with raisins 87 Whipped cream sauce 355 Whirled eggs 386 White celery soup 286 custard 331, 332, 437 of egg 432 of egg and milk 432 soup 416 Whiting in flour, how to detect .... 115 Whole'-wheat bread 138, 143 puffs 156 Whortleberry pudding 309, Whortleberries and blueberries 175 directions for serving 181 Window box 62 Winter squash 259 preparation and cooking of . . . . 259 recipes for cooking of 259 Wire dishcloth 474 Wooden ware, to wash 474 INDEX. 573 Veast 121 Veasl, how lo promote the growth of 123 amount required for hread inak- litjuid 140 ing 126 raw potato 140 bitter ,, 123 recipes for 140 boiled potato 141 test for 124 cells, effect of heat upon 121 the most convenient kind 122 compressed 122 the stirring of 123 effects of freezing upon 123 ^'ellow luncheon 468 foam 122 homemade 122 Zwieback 139, 289, 436, 453 how to kee]j 122 preparation of 289 'V ^ y >i (51 ' -i O » X " <> V A^^^' "^-^- a\ * -^ A^'^' C " " '' * ,0o^ \^^^. • ^r/^%il"'.■V .~^'^' Ci. 'OO ^_ -^ ..„ , .<^ ^ ^> J^ 'h" -^^ o^' ^ * > *■ \0 ^c o, ^'-^'-''or .^^- ^^ - '>'^^^y^." ■%,^ ^^ "^..