Class. Boot ^ %rlgM]^?. h^"i- COpntiGHT PEPOSj}', \vc>S^3Gs*i»> PANAMA ATEXT BOOK ON THE CANAL, ZONE*»"> REPUBLIC FROM PANAMA^ 1*0 SAN FRANOSCO PRICE ONE DOLLAR A guide: TO THE PACIFIC COAST FROM PANAMAr-TO SAN FRANCISCO IN PICTURE AND WORD ■« -r HL itt^j^ w '■it g ii :fr'-i%. AK^f SK' Ht.' UK.-'*' "' '■"""" '^■r-^ ^^yis^ss: :^:^^:.,^^),- -sf u-,-)r , 7\r :tK i ".it | \?t^[j^" ^'v:g ~"^ '- - u — ) , ■- ,, .n i ., M^f i j | b ^ -Qv^ Oia-rle/s Wall^er Burr^iss -pq^ COPYRIGHT, 1912, — BY — CHARLES WALKER BURRISS. PUBLISHED SEPTEMBER, 1912. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT SECURED. ADDRESS ALL COMMUNICATIONS TO CHARLES WALKER BURRISS, KANSAS CIT1^ U. S. A. /^^^3//^. ^AO^ €eU227054 1V >^ WHEN I am in Rome, I fast as the Romans do. When I am at Milan, I do not fast. So liketvise you, lohatever church you come to, observe the custom of the place, if you tuoiild neither give offense to others nor take offense from them. — St. Ambrose's Advice. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PANAMA. IN THREE PARTS, WITH GENERAL, INTRODUCTION. (A) General Information pages 11 to 25 Part I — The Canal pages 25 to 57 Part II — Zone and Republic pages 57 to 97 Part III — The Pacific Coast pages 97 to 143 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS— Page Title Page — ^Frontispiece 1 "The Invasion" g Map of North, Central and South America, Showing Steamship Courses... 12 Sanitary Drinking Cup 19 Mountain Elevations and Map of Zone 24 A Street in Gatun 28 Bridge of the Panama Railroad Over the Chagres River at Gamboa 32 Gatun Spillway , 32 Suspension Bridge Across Culebra Cut, at Empire 40 Drills at Work in Culebra Cut 40 Home Life of the Construction Force 46 Ruins of Spanish Barracks at Porto Bello 58 Plaza in Colon 58 Tropical Views 68 4th of July Celebration at Cristobal 76 Triangulation Tower on Balboa Hill 78 Street in Native Village 84 Ruins at Old Panama City 84 Alligator Hunting on the Chepo River 88 View of Panama Bay 93 Map of Republic of Panama 96 Map of Pacific Coast Countries 114 Amapala, Honduras ; La Libertad, Salvador 118 Corinto, Nicaragua; Punta Arenas, Costa Rica. 118 Mazatlan. Mexico 128 Wreck of the "Sosostres" 128 Manzanillo, Mexico 128 Fort San Diego, Acapulco, Mexico 128 Map of Mexico 130 Oaxoca (Mountain Range) 136 Colima and Safa Volcanoes 139 Ocos (Mountain Range) 140 Lunar Rainbow at Sea 142 TABLE OF CONTENTS— (Cont'd) Pore-word ^ * * * * Custom Laws of the U. S 16 Color of Sea Water 22 "Don'ts" for Travelers ^'^ Hotels on the Isthmus 15 Nautical Day 22 Quick Spanish Lexicon 19 Sea Sickness 16 Sanitary Drinking- Cup 19 Steamship Routes to Panama 14 Steamship Rates 14 Tip to Souvenir Collectors. A 22 Tipping-, the Great American System of 15 PART I. Acquisition of the Canal Zone by U. S 5'^ American Purchase Valuation of Canal 27 Balboa City 43 Black Swamp, The 33 Buoys 43 Bubonic Plague 52 Canal's Lighting- System, The 43 Canal Tolls 44 Chagres River, The 33 Colon Breakwater 33 Culebra Cut 37 Facts, Panama Canal 25 French Canal, The 53 French Scrap 44 Gatun Dam 34 Gatun Lake 34 Gatun Locks 35 Gatun Spillway 36 Heated Areas in Culebra Cut 41 Hook-worm and Health 52 Lesseps, Ferdinand de 54 Medals, Service 31 Miraflores Dam, Lake, Locks and Spillway 4 2 Mosquitoes 50 Naos Breakwater 4 2 Org-anization of Canal Force 20 Panama Canal 26 Panama Railroad 45 Pedro Miguel Lock 42 Proposed Canal Routes 47 Science of Health 49 Slides in Culebra Cut 38 Smallpox 52 Steamship Dimensions 44 Suez Canal 56 Typhoid and the Fly 52 United States Army-of-Construction 30 TABLE OF CONTENTS— (Cont'd) PART II. Agriculture (Republic of Panama) 86 Ancon Hill 82 Ancon Hospital Botanical Gardens 76 Animal and Plant Life on the Isthmus 70 Ants, f 71 Approaching Colon from the Sea 62 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de 59 Balboa Hill 76 Beach at Panama, On the 93 Buccaneers of the Caribbean 59 Camacha Dam and Reservoir 79 Canal Effect on the Fish 72 Caribbean Coast Characters 59 Caution to Excursionists, A 75 Chilibrillo River Caverns 83 Chiriqui Hats 89 Cloud Formations 62 Colon 63 Cristobal 65 Cruces Trail 82 Earthquakes on the Isthmus 72 Fort Lorenzo 66 Hunting (Republic of Panama) 87 Inhabitants (Republic of Panama) 87 Kidd, William 61 Las Cascades Cocoa and Rubber Plantation 79 Miles Saved by Panama Canal 95 Military Defense of the Zone 73 Morgan, Henry 60 Mountain Elevations of the Zone 66 Monroe Doctrine, The 7'4 Mouth of the Chagres River, The 80 Old Chagres, The Town of 66 Old Panama City 90 Panama City, The Modern 91 Panama Hats 89 Porto Bello 65 Rainfall on the Isthmus 69 Republic of Panama, The 85 Royal Road to Panama, The 82 Short Excursions from Canal Zone Points 74 Speed Law of the Canal Zone 73 Table of Distances from Colon 95 Table of Distances from Panama City 95 Taboga Island 83 Temperature on the Isthmus 70 Trail of the Gold Hunters, The 80 Uncivilized Tribes 95 Vegetation (Republic of Panama) 86 Vines on the Isthmus 70 Vernon, Edward 61 Water Reservations on the Isthmus 70 Winds on the Isthmus 69 Wireless Stations of the Canal Zone 73 Weather Bureau, Unofficial 73 Zone Lands 67 TABLE OF CONTENTS— (Cont'd) PART III. Acapulco (Mexico) 137 Acajutla (Salvador) 123 Aft- Word 143 Amapala (Honduras) 121 As The Ships Pass In The Night 98 Astronomy, A Short Treatise On 106 Bay of Panama Ill Boxing the Compass 104 Brito (Nicaragua) 119 Buccaneers of the Pacific, The 109 Cape Ooriientes 137 Cayuca 116 Central America, Geographical Configuration of 110 Champerico (Guatemala) 126 Character in Sailing Vessels 100 Chubascos 116 Coast of Panama Ill Cocos Island and Its Lost Piratical Treasure 109 Colima and Safa Volcanoes 138 Corinto (Nicaragua) 119 Costa Rica 113 David City (Panama) Ill Fire Drill Aboard Ship 105 Guatemala 125 Gulf of California 141 Gulf of Fonseca 120 Gulf of Panama Ill Gulf of Tehuantepec, Crossing The 135 Honduras 120 Las Tres Marias Islands 138 La Libertad (Salvador) 11^3 La Union (Salvador) 123 Lead Line, The 103 Lighters 115 Lower California 140 Lunar Rainbow at Sea 124 Magdalena Bay 142 Manzanillo (Mexico) 139 Marine Items of Interest 104 Mazatlan (Mexico) 139 Mexico 131 Nautical Language 104 Nicaragua '. .im Ocean Routes, Panama to San Francisco 99 Ocos (Guatemala) 129 Officers, The Ship's ! . 101 Papagayos 116 Porpoise 125 Punta Arenas (Costa Rica) 115 Salina Cruz (Mexico) 135 Salvador ' " . . 121 San Benito, Mexico IZ3 San Bias (Mexico) i 13S San Clement Island .142 San Jose de Guatemala ........... .126 Scope of Vision at Sea 106 Sharks, and Other Inhabitants of Pacific Waters '...'.'.'...'.'.'.. .'.'.'.'.126 Ship's Shore Signals 108 Stars of Large Magnitude 108 Swells of the Pacific Ocean ..I2i Terms on Shipboard lOO Time as Told by the Ship's Bells . 108 Watches, The Ship's 102 Wireless Equipment Aboard Ship 105 Panama. "The Invasion"— Showing the Author and His Favorite Methods of Attack on Land and Sea. The Middle Picture Shows a Typical Central American Landscape. FORE-WORD As in ancient times "all roads led to Rome," so, in the present day, all roads lead to the Isthmus of Panama, where the success- ful result of the world's greatest engineering work is located. In issuing this Text Book, it is the purpose of the author to make it as complete in detail and general information as is pos- sible for a publication of such broad scope. All information and facts herein given will be found correct and reliable. Careful at- tention has been given to all details, and the reader may depend upon the accuracy of the facts as stated. In proof of the author's disposition to garner and to present, within the covers of this little volume, the essence of all available information properly pertaining to his subject, he presents the following prided credentials, in conclusion : "At Sea, February, 19 "To the Passengers of S. S : "Your comimittee appointed to inquire into the sanity of our fellow-passenger, Charles Walker Burriss, en route from Panama to San Francisco, beg leave to make the following report and respectfully suggest that the subject be presented with a copy of the same and that he be further assured of our unquali- fied support, should necessity arise." REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. "To the World at Large : "Be it generally known that we have had the extreme pleas- ure of meeting Col. Charles W. Burriss, U. S. A. "We have observed his maneuvers, seen his smiles, and heard his laugh; listened to his jokes, told h:-m others not half so good and heard him laugh again, and everybody else heard him, too. He enjoys a smile, admires a grin, loves a giggle, but adores a laugh, for when he smiles he laughs by wireless. "He is the closest observer we have ever seen, for he has not missed a point of interest or otherwise from the Canal Zone in Panama to the Golden Gate in California. No gulf, bay or inlet has escaped his binoculars. Every volcano, active, dead or sleep- ing, has been observed by him; all mountain chains and ranges, peaks and pinnacles have met his gaze. He has not missed a meal since he embarked nor has he been sick a minute en route. He retired the latest and arose the earliest of all the passengers aboard. "All through the voyage he has studied the history, language, customs, habits, politics and peculiarities of the people; the geography, topography, geology, fauna and flora of the country. "He has also studied navigation, astronomy, meteorology, seismology, weather readings, deep sea soundings, wave motions, 1 Panama. air currents, steamer oscillations and vibrations, deck pedestrian- ism, wigwagging and night signaling to passing vessels and revo- lutionists ashore. "His appetite has always been fine, his countenance pleasing, his appearance becoming and his behavior good. He has helped the helpless, nursed the sea-sick, cheered the charming, and chummed the cherry-colored senoritas that visited the ship. He landed at all ports, regardless of suds or surf, to pay his respects to the U. S. Consuls, barter with Chinese merchants, interrogate the Commandantes and interview the Jefe Politicos on the con- dition of the country and the prospects of the people. "He is a remarkable tropical globe trotter, a strenuous Isthmian Canal advocate, a Progressive American and a patriotic Citizen, proud of his Country, his State, Village, Home, Family, and Friends. (Signed) " (Members of the Committee.) "Adopted unanimously in committee of the whole, Febru- ary, 19 (Signed) "...- i (Chairman.) "At Sea, February, 19... "This is to certify that Mr. Chas. W. Burriss was a passenger on the S. S. ' ...' from Panama to San Francisco, and that he conducted himself in an agreeable, intelligent and gentlemanly manner by being obedient to the officials, courteous to the employes, kind to the passengers, a friend of the revolu- tionists and a sympathizer with the governments. He has been healthy during the voyage, temperate aboard, sober ashore, active en route and strenuous in port. He has eaten his share, never bothered the doctor, asked all kinds of questions, told numerous old jokes and very few new ones, and he has laughed heartily and almost painfully at everything funny, ridiculous, serious and sympathetic since he came on the ship. (Signed) , Captain." "He wanted to show me how to work sailors and paint ship. He said he was from Missouri. (Signed) , 1st Officer." "I had the pleasure of showing him how to shoot sharks. (Signed) , Chief Engineer." "He has not taken or passed any bad money that I know of. (Signed) , Purser." "He only needs his nerve extracted, his cheek amputated, and his gall cut out to make him a desirable citizen. (Signed) , Surgeon." "He told me he had been an express messenger, but he knows nothing about freight. (Signed) , Freight Clerk." "He claims he is from Missouri, but I think I saw him paint- ing a town in Kansas during Carrie Nation's absence. (Signed) , Storekeeper." "He was my star boarder. He had no favorite dishes ; he ate everything. (Signed) , Chief Steward." 12 Panama. General Information. 13 STEAMSHIP ROUTES TO PANAMA. There are choice of several Steamship lines offered the traveler to the Canal Zone and beyond. The four principal lines are: 1st. Panama Railroad Steamship Company. 2d. The United Fruit Company. 3rd. Hamburg-American Steamship Line. 4th. Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. Panama Railroad Steamship Company. The Panama Railroad Steamship Company is the United States Government line with general offices at New York City. The boats of this line make no intermediate stops in their six days' passage between New York and Colon on the Canal Zone. They pass Watlings Island — the first land discovered by Colum- bus — the east end of Cuba, skirting that island for several hours, in sight of the two western points of Haj'ti, and then sail direct- ly across the deep blue waters of the Caribbean Sea for six hun- dred miles to the Port of Colon. They are United States Gov- ernment vessels, not looking especially for passengers, yet giv- ing them good service in transportation and ship facilities. Special rates may possibly be made by this line in connection with the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, from Panama City to San Francisco. The United Fruit Company. Ships of the United Fruit Company sail from all the At- lantic and Mexican Gulf ports and also from certain European ports. They make a feature of the comfort of passengers and can be depended upon for good service, saving of time and de- livery to specified locality. The German Lines. The German vessels sail from New York City to the most interesting points in the Caribbean, including the Canal Zone. One makes the complete Caribbean cruise, returning to the port of departure in the original vessel. The surroundings are of the best. The management caters especially to the comfort and pleasure of the passengers. Lastly, ships making direct sailings from home ports to and through the Canal and on up the Pacific Coast to San Francisco. Information concerning any of these lines can be gotten at your home railroad ticket office. The sailing time from Mexican Gulf ports to Colon is four days, while ships leaving New York for Colon require twenty- four to thirty-six hours longer. 1 4 Panama. STEAMSHIP ROUTES— (Cont'd). The ocean voyage is made with fewer discomforts and with less danger from storms and other unpleasant features of the sea in the winter season than in the summer. The winter sea- son in the temperate zone corresponds with the dry season of the Canal Zone, and will be found much more comfortable for travel than the summer, or wet season. The author suggests travel arrangements that will allow from six to twelve days on the Isthmus before proceeding on the journey. The sights and scenes are so numerous, so strange, and of such magnitude that the tourist should allow himself time to grow to them, if he would fully appreciate them. Provided the time allotted is sufficient, and if your itiner- ary is from coast to coast, and dignity rather than dispatch your disposition, it is desirable to allow five or six days for the run to Colon, six to twelve days on the Isthmus, and probably four weeks for the coast portion of the trip. Select the moonlight nights for the interesting portion of your movements, thereby doubling your eyesight. In engaging passage for the local boat along the Central American coast, if possible engage your stateroom on the star- board or land side of the vessel. There will be nothing to see from the water side but expanse of water. Steamer chairs may be rented for one dollar per voyage, and are almost a necessity to comfort. Don't forget the most im- portant rule for successful travel — good nature. A pleasant face and pleasant speech will pave the way to the good will of fellow-passengers, ship's crew or the inhabitants ashore, and the combination will bring you in return much additional comfort and pleasure. STEAMSHIP RATES. The Caribbean cruise steamer fare from the Atlantic or Mexican gulf ports to the principal ports of interest on the Carib- bean, including Panama and return, ranges from $85.00 to $125.00. This includes all expenses of cabin and table service. The rate from New York to San Francisco via the Panama Railroad Steamship Company and Pacific Mail Steamship Com- pany, including the railroad transportation across the Isthmus, ialso meals on shipboard — all first class — will range around $120.00. Counting one week on the Atlantic, and four weeks on the coast voyage on the Pacific, or a total of five weeks' transporta- tion and board, this expense can not be considered excessive. General Information. HOTELS ON THE ISTHMUS. The hotels, both along the line of the Canal and in Colon and Panama City, will be found to satisfy. The traveler has the choice of two very different manners of entertainment. At all important localities along the Canal and in each Panaman city, will be found a hotel conducted by the Canal Commission. The rate will be found to be usually reasonable — fifty cents per meal as a rule. At Colon is located the New Washington Hotel and at Ancon, on the Pacific side, is the Tivoli Hotel. These two hotels are Commission hostelries and are all that can be desired. In fact, the combination of elegant rooms and cuisine, with the romantic and picturesque surroundings, combine to make a few days' location at either of these last named hotels a most pleasant reminiscence. Because of the uncertainty of traveling and to be sure of entertainment upon arrival, it will be good policy to cable to the management of the hotel at which you wish entertainment, making your reservations, as they fre- quently entertain capacity houses. The native hotels of Colon can hardly be so well spoken of, but at Panama City can be found good accommodations. The Central Hotel at Panama City is typical of tropical satisfaction, the Sunday evening dinner being the special society event of the week; reserved tables, ten to twelve courses on a French bill-of- fare, served by Spanish waiters (no English spoken) , an orches- tra in the palm room and the national band playing in the plaza, adding eclat to the rarity of the evening's enjoyment. The hotel, old cathedral, old canal headquarters and bishop's residence sur- round the plaza. The movement of the international members of the audience, as they parade to and fro in the plaza enjoying the occasion, all form a picture not to be forgotten. In cabling for reservations at the New Washington Hotel at Colon or at the Tivoli Hotel at Ancon, it would be well to specify reservation of rooms fronting on the water, as they are more pleasant and afford a magnificent view of the ocean. THE GREAT AMERICAN SYSTEM OF TIPPING. While the author does not believe in the Great American System of tipping, yet a little money judiciously placed will add materially to the traveler's comfort at sea as well as on land. Of the two extremes, as designated by over paying or refusing to pay for services rendered, it would seem best to chance erring a little in favor of the former. Good-natured, quick service in the line of little things which add to comfort should be appreciated and no well-meaning person would feel his books were closed if they failed to balance. 1 6 Panama. SEA SICKNESS. Sea sickness is nausea resulting from the pitching or roll- ing of a vessel. There seems to be no known specific for this sickness. Many recipes might be given, none of which are worth more than the mention. Sucking a lemon, chewing gum, putting cot- ton in the ears, light eating, no eating, or "eat as you please," will be among the advices given you by experienced travelers. Cotton in the ears has scientific friends, who say there is a close connection between the fluids of the inside ear and the movements of the ship and that the double effect causes the sickness. A piece of ordinary brown wrapping paper placed over or next to the abdomen has been declared to be absolutely effective in preventing the trouble. Apparently sensible people have been known, who would not travel on a railroad train with- out being protected by a piece of brown paper so placed. After all is said, the following advice would seem to be apropos, — Keep as much as possible in the open air, stay on deck and away from the close atmosphere where the sickness exis*:s. It is contagious, in-so-far as sight and smell are con- cerne \ Don't worry, get your mind occupied by some interest- ing subject or your surroundings and forget the fear. Eat light- ly for a day before going aboard ship, and continue this during the voyage. Stay on deck if possible, even if you feel the sick- ness, — as tho clean, pure air is much more pleasant and bene- ficial than that of a close cabin with possibly unpleasant sur- roundings. There can be no harm in using the cotton and the paper, also the lemon and gum if desired, but the open air and an active and interested mind are the best assets. The movements of the vessel will have less effect on you if you view the waves in their approach from the bow of the ship rather than if you watch them from the stern, as they de- part. The effect on the eyes seems to be less pronounced. Don't watch the waves in a mirror for you will get a double effect of their .action in that manner. CUSTOM LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. Each resident of the United States, coming from abroad, is allowed to brinor in, in addition to what he took away with him, one hundred dollars' worth of goods. This includes clothing, toilet articles, combs, brushes, articles of personal adornment, such as jewels, such personal effects as cameras, fishing tackle, golf st'cks, guns, photographs, parasols, smoking articles, steamer rusfs. shawls, toys, trunks, valises, etc. But these articles must be for the personal use of the individual bringing them in. General Information. 1 7 "DON'TS" FOR TRAVELERS. Don't fail, in forming your plans of travel, to arrange for the full moon at the most interesting portion of your trip. It will add 100 per cent to the pleasure of your journey. If the local Pacific coast trip is taken, it is advisable that you choose the starboard, or land, side of the ship for your cabin and the moon one-quarter to full for your leaving Panama, thereby getting three v^eeks of night views of the coast as well as your day views. The moun- tains lose none of the romance of their beauty when seen under the light of the full moon. Don't drink strange water. Don't go into the jungle alone; secure the services of a trust- worthy guide. Don't fail to carry an identification card upon your baggage, as well as upon yourself. Don't fail to make a correct declaration to the customs officer, wherever met. Don't forget to eat sparingly on shipboard; it is a great pre- ventive of sea sickness. Don't forget to have a small stock of the most necessarj^ medi- cine, also a small bottle of liquor for medicind purposes in your hand-baggage. Be careful of your diet. Do not expose yourself unnecessarily to the direct rays of the sun. Remember the country is right if you approach it right; keep your mind clear, your good nature to the front, and the troubles of the country will probably pass you by. Don't fail to remember a long voyage with no likelihood of getting your linen laundered will call for quite a supply of collars; one of the ship's stewards will probably look after your rough laundry. Don't go into the sun without protection of an umbrella. Re- member the days are hot, the nights cool; dress accord- ingly. A duck suit for the men will be found a great satisfaction. Don't forget that the post office facilities of the Central Amer- ican Republics are unreliable. Do not feel badly if many post cards sent in their care never reach their destination. Send a few extras to make sure that some you value really do arrive. Don't fail to remember that rubbing the gum side of your postage stamps over your hair will, in a measure, prevent them from sticking together — a bane to the traveler in a tropical country. 1 8 Panama. "DON'TS" FOR TRAVELERS— (Cont'd). Don't have more native money or stamps in your possession than you can use locally. To carry foreign money away with you is some loss. Don't use the services of a native before making a specific con- tract with him, thereby avoiding the possibility of an international complication. Don't fail to have kodak pictures developed on the Isthmus, if possible. Promptness in this respect may save them. They are soon ruined by the prevailing humidity. If compelled to carry a roll of films, wrap them in the cloth- ing in your grip. Do not leave them in the metal can they come in, as they will collect moisture. Don't forget that an expense of ten or twenty cents in each country rightly applied will allow you to assemble a very neat collection of native postage stamps. Don't forget your fountain pen and a small bottle of extra ink. Don't forget to take a good compass and a field glass. Don't forget fish hooks and lines, if indulgence in the piscatorial art will assist you in pleasantly passing time during an enforced idleness in port. Don't forget to deposit your valuables with the ship's purser, as soon as possible after going aboard ship, and draw your table number. Don't fail to get a steamer chair from your deck steward. The cost is a trifle compared with the comfort. Don't neglect to obtain a copy of this Text Book on Panama and the Pacific Coast. It will assist you in your plans, keep you from making unnecessary or dangerous ones and do away with the necessity of your asking questions of strangers. It will enable you to cover much added terri- tory in a limited period and will conserve your time and add to your comfort in many ways. Fresh Paint. Don't forget that there is always painting being done on board ship. While the officers and crew will try to safeguard the passenger's clothing, a little watchfulness on the part of the latter will assist in avoiding damages. Sanitary Drinking Cups. Don't fail to carry your own drinking cup. It is necessary on the Canal Zone and should be made so in all other places. If you should neglect to provide one, here is a design for a sanitary drinking cup that you can make out of any clean piece of paper in a few seconds : General Information. 19 SANITARY DRINKING CUP. V- _ _ ~ ~-7 \ s \ y ' / / !■ c. 3. \> '/ \ % -^ t \- - /* ■> 7 \ V x^ / / , / S-^ ^ J Till-. I'Al'lK — KK. 1. The C\ip— Fic. * QUICK SPANISH LEXICON. There is little probability that the traveler along the routes encompassed within the covers of this book will need an extended knowledge of the Spanish language. Unless he desires to make excursions away from the beaten paths of travel, he will at all times be surrounded by those who speak his own language. Yet at times a small vocabulary of Spanish may be of ad- vantage, and to this end the following is appended. The object of the writer is to accomplish as much in as little space as pos- sible, and it is suggested that the traveler, in his transactions, point to the English word of the object spoken of, allowing the opposite Spanish meaning to be followed by the respondent. ENGLISH. good morning good afternoon good evening come here thank you how much money? what is it? who is it? do you speak English? do you speak Spanish? what is your name? where are you going? where do you live? what time is it? SPANISH. buenos dias buenos tardes buenos noches ven aca gracias cuantos dinero que es eso quien es habla V. Ingles habla V. Espanol como se llama adonde va V. donde vive V. que hora es 20 anama. QUICK SPANISH LEXICON- -(Cont'd). ENGLISH. SPANISH. ENGLISH. SPANISH. God Dios lord don physician medico lady dona well bien sir senor sick mal madam senora good bye a' Dios all todo adieu adios also tambien hungry hambre in en thirsty sed on sobre what for porque into en I do not know no se the el cheap barato of de dear caro this este far lejos my mi near cerca old viejo more mas pretty bonita less menos because porque big grande behind dotras small menudo before enfrente good bueno below debajo bad malo beneath abajo high alto deep profundo low abajo up arriba here aqui and y there alii within dentro what que without fuera tired sansado where donde with me conmigo for por wealthy rico very muy poor pobre enter entre hurry pronto star estrella middle medio sun sol white bianco moon luna black negro sky cielo red rojo earth tierra blue azul sea mar brown castano ocean oceano green verde island isla one uno river rio two dos cloud nube three tres rain lluvia four cuartro snow nieve five cinco warm coloroso six seis cold frio -"ven siete north norte eight ocho south sur General Information. 21 QUICK SPANISH LEXICON- -(Cont'd). ENGLISH. SPANISH. ENGLISH. SPANISH. nine nueve east oriente ten diez west occidente fifteen quince grass yerba twenty veinte money dinero twenty-five veinte y' cincc • cent centavo fifty cincuenta dollar paso one hundred ciento gold oro minute minoto silver plata hour hora iron hierro day dia city cuidad night noche house cas week semana street calle month n^es hotel posada year ano room camara today hoy dia door purete morning dias chair silla afternoon tarde table mesa evening noches plate plato yesterday ayer glass vaso tomorrow manana cup taza railroad ferrocarril knife cuchillo road camino fork tenedor mile miela spoon cuchara cab coche breakfast almuerzo wagon carro dinner comida horse caballo supper cena cow vaca lunch merienda dog perro fruit fruta cat gato fire fuego pepper pimienta clock rejol kitchen cocina match mecha egg huevo key Have soap labon bed cama grape uva soup sopa wine vino bread pan fish pez meat carne chicken polluelo butter mantequillo cheese queso apple manzana milk lache coffee cafe cherry cereza " tea te man hombre water agua woman mujer salt sal boy muchacho envelope sobre para carta girl muchacha stamp sello father padre letter carta 22 Panama. QUICK SPANISH LEXICON- -(Cont'd). ENGLISH. SPANISH. ENGLISH. SPANISH. mother madre book libro brother hermano pen knife cortapluma sister hermana flag bandera office officio hand mano bird pajaro foot pes kiss beso hat sombrero home bohio coat cassaca miss senorita shirt camisa he el shoe zapato she la gloves guantes you tu umbrella paraguas me mi bath bano friend amigo flower flor servant criado pencil lapiz porter portero song canto yes si cloth pano no no beard barda head cabeza mustache bigote mouth boca sleep dormido eye ojo pen pluma ear oreja ink tinta comb peine paper n papel A TIP TO SOUVENIR COLLECTORS. Almost all stores are controlled by Chinese, but whether controlled by Chinese or natives, a good bargainer will find that two prices exist — the "entrance" and the "exit" price. The shrewd buyer can usually obtain what he desires at what he will consider a reasonable price. NAUTICAL DAY. The nautical day on shipboard begins at twelve o'clock noon. A blast is blown on the big whistle, and the mileage of the last twenty-four hours is posted in the main cabin, together with the noon latitude and longitude of the ship. COLOR OF SEA WATER. Sea water takes its color from the local component parts of the water. Microscopic sea weeds give the color to the Red Sea, the floods of the great rivers color the Yellow Sea of China. The waters of the ocean are blue, the various shades being in ratio to the proportion of their saltiness. The Canal. 23 PART I. THE CANAL. (a) The Canal and Its Construction. (b) The Panama Railroad. (c) Sanitation. (d) Historical Summary. 24 Panama — Part I. "tJ3AliJ S3^19VHO The Canal. 25 (A) The Canal and Its Construction. PANAMA CANAL. Total cost of Canal * $375,000,000 Fortifications and other expenses, including annual payment to Panama 25,000,000 Total $400,000,000 Total excavation by the French. . . 78,000,000 cubic yards Of use to Canal 30,000,000 cubic yards, or 1/7 Total excavation by Americans . . . 195,000,000 cubic yards, or 6/7 Grand total excavation 225,000,000 cubic yards Dynamite used 55,000,000 lbs., or 27,500 tons Length of Canal. Atlantic sea level to Gatun Locks 8 miles Lake and Cut, surface of water 85 feet above sea level. . .32 miles Miraflores Lake, surface of water 55 feet above sea level. 2 miles Miraflores Lake to Pacific sea level 8 miles Total length 50 miles Width of Canal (at Bottom). Atlantic entrance 500 feet Gatun Lake 1,000 feet Chagres River 500 feet Culebra Cut 300 feet Miraflores Lake 500 feet Pacific entrance 500 feet Deep water to deep water, 50 miles. Shore line to shore line, 40 miles. Dredged shipway from shore line to deep water, both en- trances to Canal, 10 miles. Time in transit, 10 to 12 hours. Angles in Canal, 22. Total curvature, 600° 51'. Total curvature to right, 281° 10'. Total curvature to left, 319° 4P. Sharpest curve, Tabernilla, 67° 10'. 26 Panama — Part I. Important Dates. United States acquired Canal Zone, February 26th, 1904. United States acquired property rights of French Canal and began work May 4th, 1904. The purchase price of forty million dollars was paid in one single check through the banking house of J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York City, on June 16th, 1904. Official date of completion, January 1st, 1915. THE PANAMA CANAL. The Panama Canal has been built over the same general route that was planned and in part executed by the French Com- pany. It leaves the Atlantic at Colon and approaches the Gatun Hills, a distance of eight miles, through swamp and low ground. After the level of the Canal is raised eighty-five feet by the three steps of the Gatun Locks, the Canal enters and crosses what was formerly the Black Swamp, but which is now Gatun Lake, for a distance of twenty-three miles to where the Chagres River enters from the northeast. Here the Canal enters the famed Culebra Cut, going up the valley of the Obispo River to the sum- mit of the range, passing between Gold Hill on the left and Con- tractors' Hill on the right, and thence by way of the valley of the Rio Grande to Pedro Miguel Lock. After a drop of thirty feet in this lock, the Canal passes for two miles through Mira- flores Lake to Miraflores Locks. The two steps of these locks lower the Canal fifty-five feet, thus bringing it to the Pacific water level ; eight miles along the valley and through the swamps to Balboa brings the Canal to deep water on the Pacific Ocean. The trend of the Canal is, in the main, northwest and south- east, the Pacific entrance being about twenty-two miles east of the Atlantic entrance. The distance from salt water to salt water at this point on the Isthmus of Panama is about thirty-five miles, but the curves and windings of the Canal make its finished length approxi- mately fifty miles. Three great engineering problems confronted the builders in the construction of the Canal ; the first and most difficult was the control of the waters of the Chagres River and its tributaries ; the second in importance was the Black Swamp ; while the third was the cut through the Continental Divide. How successf ullly these problems were handled, the public at large can now judge. The width of the bottom of the Canal from the Atlantic to the Gatun Locks and from Pedro Miguel Lock to the Pacific is 500 feet. The width through Gatun Lake is 1,000 feet, and the width through Culebra Cut is 300 feet. The depth of water thro The Canal. 27 the complete Canal is 45 feet. The surface elevation of the water in Gatun Lake and Culebra Cut is 85 feet above mean sea level, and the floor of the Canal in this section is 45 feet less (the depth of the Canal), or 40 feet above mean sea level. The mean sea level of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans is the same, although the daily tide of the Pacific Ocean ranges from 18 to 22 feet, while that of the Atlantic is only 2 feet and at times misses even that. The original elevation of the lowest point through the Conti- nental Divide on the Isthmus of Panama at Culebra Pass was 312 feet above mean sea level, or 272 feet above the bottom of the Cut. The slope of the sides of the rock cut was intended, in the original plans of the engineers, to be 3 feet in 2 feet, but the various slides have caused great variations from this plan. Coaling stations, machine shops and supply stations are located at each end of the Canal. The first two years of United States' possession were mainly devoted to organization and sanitation, ways and means for exca- vation and construction, and the assembling of the plant. American Purchase Valuation. The government of the United States acquired the rights of the Panama Canal from the French Company in 1904 for $40,- 000,000. This price was based on the following official valua- tion: French excavation useful to Canal $25,389,240 Panama Railroad stock 9,644,320 Plant and material 2,112,063 Buildings used 2,054,203 Surveys, maps, plans, records, etc 2,000,000 Land 1,000,000 Ship Channel, Panama Bay 500,000 Clearings, roads, etc 100,000 Total valuation $42,799,826 The purchase price of the Canal was $40,000,000 Subsequently, in 1904, the United States bought the Canal Zone from the new Republic of Panama for 10,000,000 Making a total purchase price of $50,000,000 (See page 55 for details of purchase.) COMPARISON WITH SUEZ CANAL. Readers who may be interested in the comparison of the work involved in the construction of the two great inter-oceanic canals (Panama and Suez) will find on page 56 a synopsis of the construction of the Suez Canal. Panama — Part I. Gatun, Showing the Distinctive Style of Architecture Introduced into the Tropics as a Result of American Occupancy. The Canal. 29 ORGANIZATION OF PANAMA CANAL FORCE. The Isthmian Canal Commission was composed of seven members : five officers from the engineering corps and one officer from the medical corps of the United States Army, and one civil- ian in charge of the civil administration of the Zone. In the execution of this work the following departments were organized : Construction and Engineering. Subsistence. Sanitation. Quartermasters. Disbursements. Civil Administration. Examination of Accounts. Canal Zone Judiciary. Purchasing Department. Law. Panama Railroad Company. The Department of Construction and Engineering was in three divisions: Central Division, from Gatun Dam through Gatun Lake and Culebra Cut to Pedro Miguel Lock. Atlantic Division, from Atlantic to and including Gatun Dam and Locks. Pacific Division, from and including Pedro Miguel Lock to Pacific Ocean. The construction of the Panama Railroad and the municipal improvements of Colon and Panama City were in charge of the Department of Construction and Engineering. The Mechanical Division had charge of all mechanical ques- tions and supervised expenditures, preparation of estimates and allotments of work. The Subsistence Department had charge of the operation of hotels, kitchens and messes. The Quartermaster's Department recruited labor, furnished quarters, distributed fuel, commissary supplies and water, received and handled all supplies, cut grass, handled garbage, and audited all property returns. The Department of Civil Administration had charge of ports, customs and revenues, police, prisons, fire protection, public works, courts, and Canal Zone funds. The Department of Sanitation had charge of the health of the Canal force. It cleared the land in the path of the actual construction work — cutting down brush, draining swamps and burning the stubble and refuse by pouring oil on the land and then firing it. It conducts hospitals at Ancon, Colon and Cule- bra, as well as a leper asylum at Palo Seco, and a sanitarium on Taboga Island. 30 Panama — Part I. ORGANIZATION OF FORCE— (Cont'd). Working Force of Construction. Following is the distribution of the working force during 1912: Total force employed 37,438 Railroad construction and operation 4,237 Canal construction 33,201 Official Report of 1912. The percentage of distribution of the working force among the various departments follows: Department of service (construction and engineering) 26,699 or 80 per cent Department of subsistence 706 or 2 per cent Quartermaster's department 3,677 or 11 per cent Department of sanitation .1,371 or 4 per cent Lesser departments 3 per cent 33,201 or 100 per cent Percentage of Distribution. This is an interesting and a remarkable table and it is worth close consideration. It demonstrates the result of system and close organization, an elimination of unnecessary friction in the Canal machine and probably greater working results with less loss of force than has ever been attained by any other great operating body. Here was a great army, set down in a strange land, a long distance from its own shores, surrounded by obstacles of unusual magnitude and working under conditions never before experi- enced by this force — yet of these thousands of men, every eighty out of each hundred were executing; that is to say, doing their part of the digging, and obtaining results. Thirteen men out of each hundred provided for their necessities, comforts and pleas- ures, and four of each hundred took care — and the best of care — of the health of the hundred. Here are results of organization of which the country may well be proud. THE UNITED STATES ARMY-OF-CONSTRUCTION. The idea the average business man entertains of the United States Army — if he stops his business long enough to entertain an idea on that subject — is a mental picture of "the man behind the gun" ; it never occurs to him that to make that man efficient there are, of necessity, other departments. That, in order to The Canal. 3J[ THE U. S. ARMY-OF-CONSTRUCTION— (Cont'd). fight, he must be healthy, as comfortable as possible, and as happy and satisfied as he can be made; that he must be fed. The same is true of an army that is engaged in a warfare against nature. "It," as is said of the other army, "advances on its stomach." In this "engagement" on the Isthmus of Panama, the man behind the gun is eliminated. That less-known department of the army — the engineering department — is in charge, with the assistance of the other departments of sanitation, subsistence, and the quartermaster's department — departments, by the way, whose importance is not usually realized. The health of the body politic is of the first importance. In the old days, men advanced as they were able, dropping by the way as sickness or camp troubles overcame them. Under modern conditions, it has become a disgrace not to be in good physical fitness — a disgrace not only to the man who is sick, but to the department that allowed him to become so. Consequently, in a location where sickness and death were the rule, the oppo- site has become a fact, and the Canal Zone has become more healthy than the temperate zone. The men are kept healthy, well fed, and satisfied, and are then expected to work. And they do work. The engineers of the army planned and executed on a larger scale, not only in the one great undertaking of building the Canal, but in each individual department, than was ever known before. Greater engineering problems were solved, larger quantities of work were done at less expense of time, men and money than ever before in the world's history; and not one single failure in the many heavy problems can be charged in the final result Service Medals. Service medals are awarded by the United States Govern- ment to its citizens who complete two years of service on the Canal or railroad, and a bar is added for each additional two years of service. Society of the Chagres. The Society of the Chagres is composed of white employes of the Canal or railroad of good character who have earned the Roosevelt Canal Medal and two bars, previous to the official opening of the Canal. The Inca Society. The Inca Society is composed of those whose term of service with the Canal Commission began during 1904. 32 Panama — Part I. (a) Bridge of the Panama Railroad over the Chagres River at Gamboa. (b) Gatun Spillway. The Water Used to Generate Power for Operating Locks Will Pass Through the Openings Shown in Picture. The Canal. 33 COLON BREAKWATER. Extends from Toro Point: 10 feet above sea level. 11,700 feet long. Cost $5,000,000. 15 feet wide at top. 3,000,000 cubic yards. THE CHAGRES RIVER. The Chagres River enters the Canal Zone from the north side at about right angles to the trend of the Canal and nearly thirty miles from the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. It formerly wound its devious way through the Black Swamp at its own sweet will, crossing the line of the Canal twenty-three times in twenty-two miles. It is variable in all its character- istics, changing in a day from a sleepy river, not fifty feet wide, to a torrent that could sweep away any obstruction set in its course. It drains a territory of 1,300 square miles, and its swift current and great volume of water, during the rainy season, made it the greatest of the big problems to be overcome in the completion of the Canal. The engineers early decided that the best method of dispos- ing of the waters of this river and its various tributaries was to build a dam across the Atlantic side of the Black Swamp. The waters thus impounded became Gatun Lake. The surface of the lake so formed continues unobstructed from the dam at Gatun over the erstwhile swamp, along the Chagres River, to and through the cut through the Continental Divide to the locks on the Pacific slope. Thus have the forces of the Chagres River been harnessed by the ingenuity of man and made to serve the interests of the commercial world. With this solution of the water supply achieved, the dispo- sition of the_ Chagres River ceased to perplex the engineers. The only point in question was whether the unruly river, thusly utilized, would, with its tributaries, furnish enough water to form the lake, fill the cut, and work the locks, making due allow- ance for evaporation, seepage and other natural losses of water. Records of the flow of the river satisfied the engineers in charge that this will be the case. THE BLACK SWAMP. The Black Swamp is no more, with its bottomless depths, its tenacious substance, dismal fastnesses, and impenetrable veg- etation. It is now covered by the waters of Gatun Lake, and where the great struggle went on between man and nature in establishing the old line of the Panama Railroad and the present line of the Canal, one may now sail with no thought of the hard- ships of the pioneers. 34 Panama — Part I. THE BLACK SWAMP— (Cont'd). A little study of the lay of the land here makes it evident that the entire area covered by the Black Swamp was in distant ages a depression, possibly a lake, that gradually filled with sedi- ment and decayed vegetation, until, by the time this section of the country was explored, it was little more than a muck swamp. What, with its thick covering of jungle, humid atmosphere, its intense heat, its lack of bottom, combined with tropical dis- eases and the absence of acclimated labor, it seems little less than miraculous that a railroad was ever successfully located through this swamp. It would appear to be rather a bridge floating on the mud and slime than an ordinary roadbed. Workmen, when repairing the track, have found three lengths of railroad iron, ninety feet, swinging in the dark mud and yet not touching bottom. But this section of the Panama Railroad has gone to its rest in a watery grave, and now the passenger floats above it in a modern ocean-going steamer, or passes around it to the east on the re-located line of the railroad. The Black Swamp with all its grewsome history has become a memory. GATUN LAKE. Gatun Lake extends along the line of the Canal from Gatun Dam for a distance of some fifteen miles and for possibly the same distance at right angles to the Canal. Its shores are irreg- ular, and it contains various islands and has an area of about 160 square miles. It covers what was formerly the Black Swamp. It is formed by the waters from the Chagres River and its various tributaries, which Gatun Dam holds in check. Through what was once called the Black Swamp, whose surface is now covered by this lake, a channel 1,000 feet wide has been dredged for the Canal and the course of ships is laid by lights and buoys. Ample warning was given settlers in the lake district before the lake was allowed to form, and residents were notified to move. The Canal buildings in this area were put on sale and the standing timber sold. The stand of timber was not heavy as the land had been occupied for three hundred and fifty years and had been cut over and burned over many times during this period. The valuable woods in this territory included cocobolo, guayacan, Panama mahogany and Spanish cedar. Some of these woods are too heavy to float on water. THE GATUN DAM. Facts. One-half mile wide at bottom. Four hundred feet wide at water-line. The Canal. 35 One hundred feet wide at top. Summit one hundred and fifteen feet above mean sea level. Thirty feet higher than surface of lake. One and one-half miles long. Twenty million cubic yards of material used in construction. Slope of sides, one foot in eight to twelve feet. Gatun Dam holds in check the waters of Gatun Lake. This dam is 115 feet high on its center line, 2,200 feet wide at its base line, 100 feet wide at its top and one and a half mUes long. The magnitude of the dam may be more generally appre- ciated if you will realize that the rise in the slope of the side of the dam is from one foot in eight feet to one foot in eleven feet. It crosses the valley from where the Chagres River broke its way from the Black Swamp in its course to the ocean, and the dam is braced against the opposite hills as well as against a small hill it crosses near the center of this valley. The dam was formed by first dumping the rocks from Culebra Cut in long side-lines, and then by pumping water from the swamps and rivers into the basin so formed, and letting the sediment settle and form the core of the dam. The sediment so deposited is impervious to water, consequently the dam is absolutely water-tight. GATUN LOCKS. Facts. Twin series, three locks ; total, six locks. Each lock 1,000 feet long. Each lock 85 feet high. Each lock 110 feet wide. Each entrance 500 feet long. Total length of locks 4,000 feet. Two million cubic yards of concrete used. Locks rest on rock foundation ; part of approaches are on piling. Cost — Excavation $ 6,000,000 Concrete 14,000,000 Gates 5,000,000 Total $25,000,000 Gatun Locks are in twin series of three locks, making a total of six locks, and form three steps of a stairs ascending, or de- scending. Each lock is 1,000 feet long, and the total length of the three, with the two entrances, is 4,000 feet. They are 85 feet hisrh and 110 feet wide. 36 ' ** Panama — Part I. GATUN LOCKS— (Cont'd). A ship in passing from the lower Canal to Gatun Lake will enter the lower lock on the water level of the Canal. The lower gates will be closed and water introduced into the chamber occu- pied by the ship from the openings in the floor of the lock until the water level of the lock is the same as the second or middle lock. Then the ship is advanced to the second or middle lock, and the gates to the lower lock are closed. Water is introduced into this lock chamber until the water level is the same as the upper or third lock, when the ship is moved into the third lock. After closing the lower doors of the third lock, the water is introduced from the bottom of the lock until the water in this lock is on a level with the lake, when the upper and last gates are opened and the ship is at liberty to proceed on her way across the lake and through the cut to the Pacific Locks. The journey from the Pacific to the Atlantic is accomplished by reversing these proceedings. Every safeguard has been provided for the ship in the way of fenders and chains. All local power is electrical and under the control of a power center that simplifies the work of raising or lowering the ship from one level to the next. Four motors stationed on tracks on the walls of the locks, two fore and two aft, regulate the movement of the ship while passing through the locks. On the lake, the ship proceeds by its own power. Intermediate gates are in each lock, if the necessity should arise to use less water, or if for any reason it would seem best to shorten the locks. GATUN SPILLWAY. Near the center of the dam is located the Spillway, a con- crete flume with gates that may be lowered or raised as the head of water in the lake makes necessary. Two hundred and twenty-five thousand cubic yards of con- crete were used in its construction. It is one-fourth mile long and three hundred feet wide and has fourteen openings and fourteen gates. Weight of gates is forty-three tons each. Electricity is here generated for the operation of Gatun Locks. Floating Islands of Gatun Lake. With the forming of Gatun Lake, floating islands appeared upon its surface. These islands are masses of decayed vegeta- tion and fallen trees held together by the roots of a dense over- growth of swamp plants. They seem to have been formed in the Black Swamp and to have been loosened by the gradual rise of the lake waters. They vary in size, some being 200 or 300 feet long, and having sufficient solidity to support a man. The Canal. 37 CULEBRA CUT. Facts. Culebra ("Snake"). Cut through solid rock through the backbone of Con- tinental Divide from Chagres River up Obispo River to and through pass between Contractor's Hill and Gold Hill, and down Rio Grande to Pedro Miguel Lock. Increase in amount of excavation, 50 per cent above orig- inal estimate. Original estimate of time required for completing the Cut, ten years; actual time required, seven years. Original estimate cost per cubic yard in Cut, 98 cents ; actual cost ranged around 58 cents. Nine miles long. Three hundred feet wide at bottom; originally planned to be 200 feet, but later increased to 300 feet by President Roose- velt's official order. Original slope on sides, three feet to two feet, later increased by slides. [See page 38.] Depth of excavation ranges from 85 feet at Chagres River to 375 feet at Contractor's Hill and 500 feet at Gold Hill. Height of Pass, 272 feet above bottom of Canal. Bottom of Cut, 40 feet above sea level. Depth of water, 45 feet. Surface of water, 85 feet above mean sea level of oceans. On each side of Cut large diversion channels were cut to provide for surface water. Rock excavated was used at Gatun Dam and for Pacific entrance Breakwater and to fill in low ground. Geology proves this rock to be sedimentary. This great cut through the hills, between the Atlantic and Pacific, extends from the Chagres River in a generally south- easterly direction for a distance of nine miles. It follows the original valley of the Obispo River to the summit of the range at Contractor and Gold Hills, thence down the valley of the Rio Grande to Pedro Miguel Lock. The bottom of the Cut is 300 feet wide and the sides vary in height from about 75 feet at the Chagres to 375 feet at Gold Hill and 500 feet at Contractor's Hill, with the variable side slope made necessary by the troublesome slides. The bottom of the Cut is 40 feet above mean tide-level of the ocean, and the top of the water in the Cut is on the same level as that of the lake — 45 feet higher — or a total height of 85 feet above sea level. Because of the length and depth of the Cut, combined with its small relative width, and the continued slides of the banks, 38 Panama — Part I. CULEBRA CUT— (Cont'd). this section of the Canal has overshadowed all of the other work. While the engineering difficulties of providing for the waters of the Chagres River and disposing of the Black Swamp were greater, the mechanical work in Culebra Cut has been the most difficult. The River, the Dam, the Lake, and all other work of the Canal could have been completed before the final date, except that there was no occasion to finish them before Culebra Cut could be finished. The rock from the Cut has been used for the shell of the big Dam at Gatun, for the Naos Breakwater at the Pacific entrance to the Canal, and for filling swamps and low ground. History contains the record of no other work of this char- acter that approximates its magnitude in any respect. And yet so well has the construction force carried out its work that while the original estimate of the quantity of earth to be re- moved has been increased more than one-third, the cost has been held within the original estimate and the final work has been finished in less than the original estimate of time — making new records in all departments of its construction that will probably stand unapproached for years to come. Acres of dirt from the slides have come into the Canal, the bottom of the Canal has been forced upward, unknown difficulties of great magnitude have appeared along the line of construction ; but this wonder- ful work steadily progressed regardless of each new impediment, with at no time an acknowledgment of discouragement on the part of the working force. Work was planned so that the center of the Cut was always kept higher in the excavation than the two ends, thereby caus- ing the natural drainage of water to take care of itself by flow- ing out of the Cut at Pedro Miguel by its own gravity, and to the temporary dam at Gamboa. This dam was placed across the mouth of the Cut to keep the waters of the Chagres River from flowing into it before it was completed. Water accumu- lating in the Cut at the dam from the natural drainage to that end of the Cut was pumped through a pipeline, over the dam and into the Chagres River. The highest place of the Cut being held at one point in the Cut during its digging also allowed all loaded trams to run down grade, whether bound toward the Pacific or toward Gatun Dam, the empty cars only having to be hauled up the grade. SLIDES IN CULEBRA CUT. The slides in Culebra Cut were unusual and so many and of such immense proportions that they brought a new and im- portant feature into the digging of the Canal. They increased The Canal. 39 SLIDES IN CULEBRA CUT— (Cont'd). the estimated cubic yardage of the Cut. They varied from small slides to slides almost fifty acres in extent. Rock that was ordinary in its formation became soft under exposure and crumbled and slid or rose up from the bottom of the Canal, and even after years of study and work the con- struction force admits the cause to be unknown. The efiect has been so far-reaching that even the end is not positively assured, at this writing. It has been thought by some that the mountain chain arched at this point over some great subterranean swamp, or something of like character, and that, when the backbone of the chain was cut and the keystone removed, as it were, the two severed ends, being unsupported by each other, slowly subsided by their own weight, thus forcing up the center of the Canal. This has been aptly illustrated by using the simile of a pan of dough. The two hands forced down into the dough would cause it to rise in the middle. Be that as it may, when all theories failed, it is a remarkable fact that the construction force never wavered. With renewed eagerness it attacked each new problem, always with the same vim, vitriol, and vitality — making assurance doubly sure. The fine result at the present day stands as a monument to that great precept of the army — "Never question, but act." Methods of Prevention. Believing the rocky walls of Culebra Cut could be protected from the action of the atmosphere and made more permanent if coated with concrete, a pneumatic concrete gun was used for spraying liquid concrete. This gun did not prove to be a success along the Cut, but was a success when used on hand-laid stone walls located along the line of the re-located railroad. The gun forced the concrete several feet into the stone wall and made the binding of the rock much more complete. A more successful plan for preventing slides in the Cut was sought and found in removing the surface from possible trouble- some locations and then planting grass, the subsequent vegeta- tion thus forming a shield against rains. Geology. Marl Shales. (Marl; Carbonate of lime, clay and silicious sand.) Clearly stratified, showing it was originally deposited in water. The shallow deposits in the water indicate a swampy con- dition which was probably at one time an arm of the sea, as fossils of marine animals were found. The time is supposed to be the early Tertiary or Oligocene period (Report of Com- mission Geologist). Panama — Part I. Cffi ^S? (a) Suspension Bridge Across Culebra Cut at Empire. (b) Drills at Work in Culebra Cut. The Canal. 41 CULEBRA CUT SLIDES. The following table will show somewhat the trouble caused the working force of the Canal from slides into Culebra Cut. This is not a complete table, but is given in the annual report of the Isthmian Canal Commission for 1911. This record begins at the Chagres River, and contmues through to the Pacific end of the Cut: Area Location Acres East side, opposite Bas Obispo 1.6 East side, opposite Haut Obispo 6 West side, Buena Vista 6 East side. Las Cascadas. . 8.3 East side, Whitehouse 4.6 East side, Whitehouse 2.9 East side. Upper Lapita 1.7 East side, Lower Lapita 3 West side, Cunette 9 West side, Culebra 46.6 West side, North Contractor's Hill 2.6 East side, Culebra 31.6 East side, Cucaracha 47.1 West side, Contractor's Hill 2.0 East side, Paraiso 5.7 Total 157.1 HEATED AREAS IN CULEBRA CUT. An interesting scientific problem that developed in the quar- rying of the Cut and that caused much anxiety and some uncer- tainty to the engineering force was the abnormal heat generated in the rock bottom of the Cut as the work progressed. At one time this was so important that a report of the conditions was made to the engineer in charge by the Commission Geologist. A small area near the Station of Culebra developed quite a cloud of white steam, and the openings from the blasting developed enough heat to char wood. After a thorough examination the Geologist reported the material through which the Cut is made to be such that local heat is developed upon exposure of the rock to the air. "The oxidation of pyrites of iron developed initial heat, assisted by the hydro-carbons of the lignitic shale — accelerated to an extent by the action of the free sulphuric acid on the calcium carbonate for the formation of gypsum. As the tem- perature rises, all chemical activity is vastly stimulated. After the most readily oxidizable substances are consumed, the heat gradually dies down to a normal temperature." 42 Panama — Part I. PEDRO MIGUEL LOCK. Pedro Miguel Lock is a pair of chambers of one elevation alone, having a single drop of thirty feet. The passage of a vessel through this lock is the same in action as through the individual locks at Gatun. Nine hundred thousand cubic yards of concrete were used in its construction. MIRAFLORES LAKE. The distance across Miraflores Lake to Miraflores Locks is two miles, and the width of the lake is about the same. This lake was formerly a marsh, and the water is held in place by a dam at Miraflores. All of the former conditions of the Black Swamp were dupli- cated here, although to a less extent, and were overcome in the same manner, i. e., by building a dam and forming a lake. MIRAFLORES DAM. Two thousand seven hundred feet long. Top of dam fifteen feet above water-line of lake. MIRAFLORES LOCKS. Twin series, two locks; total, four locks. Each lock 1,000 feet long, 110 feet wide. Combined lift fifty-four and two-thirds feet. One million five hundred thousand cubic yards of concrete used in construction. MIRAFLORES SPILLWAY. Five hundred feet long. Seventy-five thousand cubic yards of concrete used in con- struction. Eight openings. Eight gates. Weight of gates, forty-three tons each. NAOS BREAKWATER. The Naos Breakwater extends from the mainland at Balboa on the axis of the Canal to Naos Island, a distance of three miles. The ocean currents passing between this island and the mainland washed sand into the mouth of the Canal. The breakwater pro- tects the Canal from this trouble, and also forms a broad road to the fortified islands. It is seventeen thousand feet long and twenty to forty feet above mean sea level, while fifty to three thousand feet wide at the top. Eighteen million cubic yards of rock and earth brought from Culebra Cut were used in its construction. The Canal. 43 BALBOA. Balboa is the name of the town located at the Pacific en- trance of the Canal, as Cristobal is, at the Atlantic entrance. Balboa is four miles from Panama City and can be reached by electric line or by either one of two good roads — one road pass- ing to the right of Ancon Hill and the other between Ancon Hill and the ocean. Great wharves are located here, with all the facilities for expediting the handling of the cargoes of large ocean-going vessels. THE CANAL'S LIGHTING SYSTEM, Range lights are used for long tangents and side lights are placed about one mile apart to locate each side of the Canal. Acetylene gas is used on lighted buoys and lake beacons. These lights are automatic in operation, being equipped with patent swinging valves and copper cylinder, the latter expanding when daylight falls on apparatus, thereby closing a valve and shutting off the flow of gas to the burner, leaving only a pilot light burning. When the light of day is gone, the cylinder con- tracts, permitting the valve to open and acetylene gas once more passes to burner. There are no range lights in the Cut. BUOYS. Buoys are "day marks" as in opposition to lights and bea- cons, which are designated "night marks." Buoys are under the control of the lighthouse board. Similar buoys always mean the same thing, regardless of location. The channel is marked by black and red buoys. The black ones have odd numbers and are left on the port, or left hand side, by the ship, while the red buoys are designated by even numbers and are left on the star- board, or right hand side, by the ship. A buoy with red and black horizontal stripes shows an obstruction in the channel. A buoy showing white and black perpendicular stripes and lying in mid-channel indicates it must be passed close to avoid danger. At turning points in the channel the buoys are surrounded by cages, triangles, etc. The whistling buoys or bell buoys are also fog signals. They are used to show outlying obstructions. The whistling buoy is operated by the air rushing through it. The air is admitted "and compressed by the rising and falling motion of the buoy on the waves. The more violent the sea, the louder becomes the whistle. It can be heard ten or fifteen miles. The bell buoy rests on a platform and supports a bell. In- stead of the bell having a tongue and clapper, a small cannon ball is supported on the platform underneath the bell. This ball 44 Panama — Part I. ' rolls around on the platform with the motion of the sea, strik- ing the bell as it rolls. The buoy may be made of wood or iron. Iron buoys are hollow and have air-tight compartments. They are divided into three shapes, — the "nun" buoy, almost conical in shape; the "can" buoy, nearly cylindrical, and the "ice" buoy, which is long and narrow. FRENCH SCRAP. After the Canal authorities had repaired all the old French buildings and machinery that justified the expense, the remain- der of that property found to be useless was sold as scrap. On the books of the Canal Commission the totals of the scrap account are carried as follows: Used on Canal $1,000,000 Sales 208,000 Sold to highest bidder, final clean-up . . 215,000 Total $1,423,000 Eleven bids for the remaining scrap on hand were received upon advertisement of its sale. These bids ranged from $40,000 to $215,000, the bid accepted. CANAL TOLLS. Canal tolls are based on the net registered tonnage of the ship. The ship may carry double — or more — than its registered tonnage and still pay no more than if it carried its registered tonnage. Example : Ship "A" is registered at 1,000 tons, but, in fact, carries 2,000 tons. Its toll is on its regular tonnage (1,000 tons), the excess tonnage of 1,000 tons passing through the Canal free of tolls. The transportation company, as owner of the ship — and not the producer, nor yet the consumer, as might be inferred — benefits by this condition. STEAMSHIP DIMENSIONS. The dimensions of modern steamships have increased stead- ily in all measurements, and the end is not in sight. The follow- ing measurements will show the general tendency to increase their size: Name. Length. Width. Tonnage. Gigantic 1,000 . . Imperator 900 96 50,000 Aquatania 900 95 50,000 Olympic 882.6 92 45,324 Mauretania 790 88 32,000 Lusitania 790 88 32,000 The Canal. 45 (B) THE PANAMA RAILROAD. Facts. Re-located line, cost $9,000,000. Length, 47.11 miles. Has branch line to Gold Hill, about two miles long. Tunnel at Miraflores, 736 feet long. Four heavy embankments on line around Gatun Lake. Hardwood ties. Ninety-pound rails used in construction. Highest altitude 270 feet, opposite Las Cascades. Continental Divide, opposite Culebra, 240 feet elevation. Maximum grade, one and one-quarter per cent. Maximum curvature, radius of 819 feet. Time in transit. Colon to Panama, two hours and twenty- five minutes. One-half of the ties used on the old location of the railroad were in good enough state of preservation to be used on the re-location. Rails on old location used for telegraph poles on re-location. ****** The Panama Railroad when completed in 1855 ran from Colon along the same general line that since has been followed by the Canal. What with the jungle, the swamps, the grades, and the unsanitary conditions, the building of the railroad was fraught with many disasters, physical and financial. Four and one-half years were consumed in its building, and all the labor troubles that belong to all large building operations in the tropics were contended with. Its roadbed through the Black Swamp was simply placed on the mud, rebuilt when lost, until finally it became more of a suspension line than a solid road- bed. Under the ownership of the United States Government, it was rebuilt and double-tracked. It always has been worked to. its full capacity, both in freight and passenger service, and has-- been the best paying railroad per mile in service that has ever been constructed — paying in certain years as high as twenty-five per cent on the investment. The forming of Gatun Lake has covered that part of the line lying over the big swamp, and its re-location skirts the lake on the east. While the numerous difficulties which were encountered by reason of the existence of the Black Swamp have been elim- inated, many localities on the line of the re-location have been 46 Panama — Part I. Home Life of the Construction Force in the Canal Zone. The Canal. 47 THE PANAMA RAILROAD— (Cont'd). troublesome. Four large embankments have been constructed, ranging from 1,500 feet to 5,500 feet in length. These "fills" gradually sunk into the foundation as the work progressed, until the footing had to be widened, so as to establish a counter- weight. The original intent of the engineers was to carry the rail- road through Culebra Cut on a shelf left in the side of the Cut. The disintegration of the walls of the Cut caused this shelf to disappear into the Cut, and it was found necessary to establish the railroad on the other, or east, side of the Culebra hills, thus leaving the line of the Canal, where it extends through Culebra Cut, from one to three miles. A short line of the railroad runs from the main line down to Gold Hill. But, short line, or long line, the hills, marshes, jungles, vegetation and climate make the work of railroad building in the Canal Zone unusually difficult. The railroad ties are hardwood, so hard in fact that they have to be bored for the spikes. Lignum vita, polvillo, corteza and balsam woods received from Colombia were used. Ties could have been obtained on the Isthmus, but no company could furnish them in large enough quantities. Seventy-five thousand Baya- honda ties were obtained from Santa Domingo. The Continental Divide is crossed, when opposite Culebra, at an elevation of 240 feet above sea level. The passenger train service time between Colon and Panama is two hours and twenty- five minutes. All of the 70,000 shares of stock in the railroad are held by the United States Government, except those known as the Direc- tors' Qualification shares, which are held, one for each director, at the disposition of the Government. The railroad is operated under a charter granted by the United States of Colombia, which expires in 1966, and, as the railroad company owns nearly all of Colon, it is through this channel that the United States of America will become the owner of that city. The Panama Railroad crosses the Chagres River at Gamboa on a bridge 1,320 feet long — consisting of fourteen 80-foot spans and one 200-foot span. The oil pipe line from Panama City to Colon runs along the railroad right-of-way. PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC. From the earliest days of navigation along these shores, means have been sought for connecting the two oceans. The uncertain and changing conditions of local governments have been almost as much of a difficulty in this work as were the 48 Panama — Part I, PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES— (Cont'd). distances between the oceans and the mountainous character of the country to be traversed. The various routes had their champions, but it would seem to a lay mind that the United States Government was able to make use of the really best and least difficult pass of the moun- tains. Below will be found the names of the various routes, with their strongest claims for the Canal, beginning with the most southern : Darien : Two routes. Elevation, 1,100 and 1,250 feet. Costly viaduct. Tunnel, ten miles. Tuyra : Elevation, 750 feet. Out of Panama Bay opposite Pearl Islands. Tuyra River, forty miles. Cue River, eastward to source. Through height of land to Atita River in Colombia. Forty miles to Gulf of Darien. Canal, fifty-five miles long. Tunnel, two miles. Panama (the present canal route) : Thirty-five miles. Elevation, 300 feet. San Bias: Elevation, 1,140 feet. Tunnel, ten miles. Canal, sixteen miles. River, ten miles. Nicaragua : Elevation, 153 feet. Greytown on Atlantic, by way of San Juan River to Lake. Nicaragua to River Lajas, by cut through Continental Di- vide, twelve miles, into Rio Grande to Brito, ten miles north San Juan del Sur on Pacific. Length, 187 miles. Corinto: To Lake Managua. By river to Lake Nicaragua. By river to Atlantic. Not feasible. The Canal. 49 (C) Sanitation. SCIENCE OF HEALTH. The science of health has been carried to an unusual degree of perfection when it becomes a disgrace to get sick ; a disgrace to the medical profession, to the surrounding conditions that cause that result, and last, if not least, to the victim. Yet such is the condition of affairs on the Canal Zone. In a territory of daily inspection, where the doctor is over- lord and where his ideas of sanitary conditions must be satis- fied before any work can be done, where the physical condition of each individual is a matter of record, and where the wan- derers who have no visible means of support are barred — the first symptoms of ill health become a matter of immediate im- portance. The Zone was placed under the jurisdiction of the medical fraternity before any work was attempted, and no work was done at any point until those authorities gave their consent. The result has been what one would naturally expect. The health of the Zone has progressed from being the hotbed of fevers until its record is better than those of the large cities of the temperate zone. The progress of sanitary science, combined with the enthus- iasm of the sanitary ofiicers, has almost changed nature itself, and the mechanical engineers have made no greater advance in changing the geography of the earth than have the doctors in altering the health conditions of the human family. The fight on mosquitoes has practically elim^'nated yellow fever, malarial fever and their kindred. Vaccination has fin- ished smallpox. The fight on rats and fleas wiped out the bubonic plague. It would seem to the lay mind that diseases on the Canal Zone will soon become a "luxury" if the present progress toward health is continued. Sanitary Department. The Department of Sanitation had the care of the health of the Canal Zone and of the cities of Colon and Panama, and had charge of all hospitals and quarantines. It supervised cutting down brush, draining swamps and covering ground with oil. All persons living in the Zone were vaccinated, quarantine was made eff'ective; drinking water was supervised, streets paved, roads constructed and sewers estab- lished. 50 Panama — Part I. Sanitary Department — (Cont'd). A large hospital was conducted at Colon, another on the high hills of Ancon, a sanitarium was maintained on Toboga Island and a leper colony was located at Palo Seco. When the United States of North America took charge of the Panama Canal Zone — benefiting by that Government's expe- rience in Cuba, and realizing the necessity of destroying, in-so- far as possible, the pest of mosquitoes, if the healthfulness of the workmen employed in the construction of the Canal was to be preserved — the first effort of the sanitary department was to dispose of the mosquito. Under the old order, during the French occupancy, the feet of the beds in the hospitals were placed in cups holding water to protect the patients from the pest of ants. Here, as in other unusual locations, was the breeding place of the mosquito. Even the font of holy water in the cathedral con- tained "wigglers." Beginning with the old French Canal Headquarters Build- ing in Panama City, and gradually extending this work to other buildings in the cities and along the route of the Canal, a system of fumigation was inaugurated. With the screening of the houses, draining of swamps, a generous use of crude oil over damp ground, and close watchfulness over the general health conditions, good results were soon attained. After the Sanitary Department had the health conditions of the Zone well in hand, a standing reward of $50.00, to be paid in gold, was offered for information of a case of yellow fever reported by any one not connected with the health department. To show how clear of this disease the territory had become, no reward was ever claimed. The trustees of the American Medicine Gold Medal awarded the medal for 1912 to the chief of the United States medical corps in the Canal Zone, as "the American physician who had performed the most conspicuous and noteworthy service in the domain of medicine in the last year." MOSQUITOES. Means of transmission of malaria and yellow fever. Malaria fever, known also as chills and fever, fever and ague, intermittent, remittent and pernicious fever. Over fifty families of mosquitoes classified. One female lays many thousand eggs a year. Twelve generations are produced annually. Anopheles cause malaria, gtygonia cause yellow fever. The Canal. 3) MOSQUITOES— (Cont'd). The propagation of malaria is according- to the following 1st. The mosquito bites the patient suffering from malaria in nme days the mosquito becomes infected. 2d. She lays her eggs in standing water. 3d. The larvae, "wigglers," are hatched. They pass twelve days m their journey to mosquito life, all this time in water. 4th. The full grown female mosquito is then ready to con- tmue the cycle. The female mosquito is the biter. The blood sucked from human bemgs seems necessary for the development of her eggs. . The fight against malaria, as exemplified by the mosquito brigade on the Canal Zone, passes through five stages : 1st To prevent her from laying her eggs. To do this stagnant water must be eliminated, swamps drained, and low places filled up. 2d. Cover all stagnant water with oil to kill the wigglers The wigglers live m the water twelve days while on their road to maturity. They grow, they eat and breathe. To breathe they must come to the water surface once a minute. If thev breathe oil, they are ''goners." ^ f,-v.^ l^' ^^^^y^ng the fight against the grown mosquito, swat- ting her wherever found. , ^vvctu o-off.-^^^; P^^^.?^t^2^, mosquitoes, by means of screens, from getting to possible future patients. 5th. Isolating the new patient from the mosquito. fullv^fmi^^'flo^Ti!' "^«^?"^?« i« "^ore easily and more success- tully fought than the malaria mosquito, for it is a "civihzed" mosquito, hvmg near human habitation. Modern sewerage water systems, filling of low ground, etc., are the means Addendum. Two hundred million acres of land in the United States are either swamp land or subject to overflow. Two hundred and motquito"Stfs.'^^^^^ " ^'^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^- ^- -^h ^-' ^-m These acres can be added to the wealth of the country a^vt$»ae^^ The Republic of Panama. 95 TABLE OF DISTANCES FROM PANAMA CITY. City Country Miles To Punta Arenas Costa Rica 456 San Juan del Sur Nicaragua 612 Corinto Nicaragua 718 Amapala Honduras 781 La Union San Salvador 802 La Libertad San Salvador 906 Acajutla San Salvador 944 San Jose Guatemala 1,004 Champerico Guatemala 1,080 Ocos Guatemala 1,100 San Benito Mexico 1,123 Salina Cruz Mexico 1,305 Acapulo V Mexico 1,593 Manzanillo Mexico 1,744 San Bias Mexico 1,910 Mazatlan Mexico 2,035 San Francisco United States 3,480 Punta Arenas Strait of Magellan 3,750 TABLE OF DISTANCES FROM COLON. To New York United States 1,917 Punta Arenas Strait of Magellan 6,729 Panama City Via Panama Canal 55 Panama City Via Strait of Magellan 10,500 MILES SAVED BY PANAMA CANAL. From United States Atlantic sea-board to United States Pacific sea-board 8,400 Europe to United States Pacific sea-board 6,000 United States Atlantic sea-board to South American Pacific sea-board 5,000 Europe to South American Pacific sea-board 2,500 New York to Japan 3,250 New York to Australia 3,800 New York to China 1,600 New York to New Zealand 2,500 Europe to New Zealand 1,600 England to Australia 800 UNCIVILIZED TRIBES. In spite of the many surprises with which the tourist is constantly confronted in the territory surrounding the Canal Zone, one would doubtless be amazed to find a race of people living in a primitive way. 96 Panama — Part II. UNCIVILIZED TRIBES— (Cont'd). Yet that is exactly what one will encounter in the San Bias Indians who inhabit the numerous islands that dot the Atlantic Coast line, and the mainland of the eastern end of the republic of Panama. The tribe is wholly uncivilized, the natives yet hunt with bow and arrow and the poisonous dart is their principal weapon of defense. They resent and resist the approach of strangers and are skillful and courageous fighters. They live in their primitive methods unmolested, almost within the shadow of one of the centers of greatest activity in the universe. Popular report has it that unlimited game exists in these parts and that gold literally "paves the beds of the streams," but if any civilized man was ever in a position to speak with certainty in regard to the fabulous wealth attributed, by rumor, to the San Bias Indian and his country, he doubtless took the knowledge with him to his grave. Map of Republic of Panama, Showing Gulf. The Pacific Coast. 97 .^mmm^ PART III. FROM PANAMA CITY TO SAN FRANCISCO. (A Guide to the Pacific Coast.) (A) MARINE INFORMATION. (B) PACIFIC COAST COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL AND NORTH AMERICA. 98 Panama — Part III. AS THE SHIPS PASS IN THE NIGHT. Different colored lights are carried in the three principal parts of a ship to identify locations. Green and red lights are carried on the starboard and port sides respectively. Ihey are placed outside the ship at the height of the upper deck so that they will show both tore and aft. The white light is a mast- head light. The rules under which the crew of a vessel operate are summed up in the verses, printed for your convenience, below. If to my Starboard Red appear. It is my duty to keep clear. To act as judgment says is proper. To Port, or Starboard, Back, or Stop her. But when upon my Port is seen A steamer's Starboard light of Green, There's naught for me to do but see That Green to Port keeps clear of me. But in safety and in doubt, I always keep a good lookout. In danger, with no room to turn, I ease her. Stop her. Go astern. When all three lights I see ahead, I Port my helm, and show my Red. Green to Green, or Red to Red, Perfect safety — Go ahead. The Pacific Coast. 99 (A) OCEAN ROUTES FROM PANAMA TO SAN FRANCISCO. Between the ports of Panama and San Francisco, there is a choice of two routes : (1) The all-sea route, in which the ship goes to sea and makes no intermediate stops. (2) The local passenger and freight carrying steamer, making regular ports en route. The Open Sea Route. On leaving Panama the steamer traveling this route passes to the open sea, only approaching the shore at points along the route of near approach to land. This route contains all the usual elements of a sea voyage, where the passenger may enter into the daily maritime life, going to bed and getting up by the sound of the ship's bell. If saving of time enters into the passenger's consideration, this route will appeal to his desires, for the time is about one-third that of the local or coast-wise route. Ten to twelve days will be consumed in the ocean voyage, and the views of land obtained, headland and mountain ranges and volcanoes, can be located from the maps and by reading the guide for the local route. Also views of certain mountains can be had from this route that cannot be obtained from the close-to-shore route. In the latter route the low near-coast ranges hide the higher interior mountains. With the exception of an occasional sight of land or of other vessels, the ship's company travels in a world of its own. In some ways this route is preferable: to one who desires to make time ; to one to whom two weeks at sea is long enough ; to one who does not care for the varying scenery of the coast, the peculiar experience resulting from the landings, the swells or the surf. After passing the southern end of lower California, these two routes are practically the same. The Shore Route. The time by this route would be probably four weeks, with a possible delay en route of one to five days, because of poor dockage at way ports, or bad weather. The voyager who has the time to spare, and the disposition to use it, cannot do better than to take passage by the shore route. Passing out of the Canal, the vessel steams through Panama Bay, with its ancient and romantic history now crowded out by the present active life. Where the sailing vessels of the buccaneers used to tack against adverse wands, or "lay to" wait- ing for favorable ones to waft them to newer conquests, the 00 Panama— Part III. OCEAN ROUTES— (Cont'd). present steamer ''takes the bone in its teeth" and proceeds promptly on its way. This route passes along the shore line from the time of leaving Panama until arrival at San Francisco, seldom more than one or two miles distant from land ; in fact, hardly distant enough at sea to get views of the higher inland mountains. But the close view of the shore allows the passenger to distinguish the various local objects, and the kaleidoscopic changes of the landscape always provide entertainment. The varying scenery and the strange sights and experiences combine to enlarge the horizon of one's life, and the longer time consumed on this coast route would seem to be well spent. CHARACTER IN SAILING VESSELS. Ship, any large sea-going vessel, especially a vessel equipped with bowsprit and three masts and square rigged. Schooner, a sharp-built vessel with two, three or four masts, with fore and aft sails. Bark, a three-masted vessel having fore and main masts rigged as a ship and mizzen mast as a schooner. Barkentine, a three-mast vessel with foremast rigged like a ship main and mizzen like a schooner. Brig, a vessel with two masts, square rigged forward and schooner rigged aft. The Colors, Ensign, Flag, at stern. Jack, a small flag containing the union without the fly. Pennant, a long narrow piece of bunting carried at the mast head, usually contains the private sign of the company to which the ship belongs. FZa^, composed of "Union" (stars) and "Fly" (stripes). TERMS ON SHIPBOARD. Starboard ("Stabbard"), the right side of the ship. Port (formerly "larboard"), the left side of the ship. Quarterdeck, that part of a ship's deck extending from stem to mainmast. Forecastle, that part of the upper deck of vessel forward of the foremast. In merchant vessels the forward part, under deck where sailors live. Waist, that part of a ship between the quarter-deck and fore- castle. Poop, a deck raised above the after part of the spar deck, reach- ing forward to the mizzenmast. Hatchways, main and fore, openings in the deck for storing cargo. The Pacific Coast, TERMS ON SHIPBOARD— (Cont'd). Masts, (fore and aft) are foremast, mainmast and mizzenmast. Fore and Aft, from bow to stern. Binnacle, a box containing a ship's compass and a light to show it at night. Davits, arms projecting over side of ship, having tackle by which to raise or lower a small boat. Beam, the extreme width of the ship. Jacob's Ladder, rope ladder at side of ship. Lee, that point or side toward which the wind blows. Windward, that point or side from which the wind blows. Stay, a large, long rope to support a mast. Shrouds, large ropes leading to a mast. Ratlines, rounds forming the ladder between the shrouds. Bulkhead, a water-tight partition in a ship. Deadlight, a strong shutter for a cabin window to exclude water. Sextant, the sixth part of a circle ; an instrument for measuring angular distances between objects, especially for observing the altitude of celestial bodies in determining latitude and longitude at sea. Astrolabe, an instrument for taking the altitude of the sun or stars at sea. Ephemeris, an astronomical almanac. Freeboard, that portion of the side of a vessel or boat between the rail or gunwale and the water-line. Barometer, an instrument for determining the weight of the atmosphere, changes of weather or height of an ascent. Dead Ahead, directly ahead, as the direction of the wind. Dead Reckoning, method of determining a ship's position with- out celestial observation. THE SHIP'S OFFICERS. The Captain is in supreme command, representing the three departments of government — legislative, judicial and executive. The First Officer has charge of the handling of all cargo; also the cleanliness of the ship on deck, assisted by the Second and Third Officers, quartermasters, boatswains, carpenter and sailors. The Chief Engineer has charge of engine room and all machinery, assisted by First, Second and Third Engineers, oilers, water-tenders, firemen, and coal passers. The Purser has charge of the business end of the ship and is responsible for all stores, specie, correct receipt and delivery of cargo, and welfare of the passengers, assisted by freight clerk, stewards and waiters. He is also responsible for the baggage, but the direct handling is by the baggage clerk or the steerage steward. 02 Panama— Part III. THE SHIP'S OFFICERS— (Cont'd). The Chief Steward has direct charge of all cooks, waiters, etc., and of all stateroom service. The Second and Third Mates at sea are on the bridge, and in port are in the holds looking after the safe handling of the cargo. The Second Mate is the navigating officer of all ships; he has charge of all clocks and chronometers and regulates the time by setting all clocks to the standard time of the port at which they are. The Doctor answers only to the Captain and is called when- ever needed. The quartermasters' duties consist chiefly of steering. They keep the bridge and pilot house clean. In port, they stand at the gangplank and see that no undesirables board the ship and that nothing is stolen. Most ships carry four quartermasters, and there are two on watch at a time. Entering port, they set the flags and then heave the lead. The boatswain is the mate's foreman. He receives his orders from the First Officer regarding all work to be done, and he assigns it to the sailors and sees that they do it. In case of the Captain's death, the First Officer takes charge. THE SHIP'S WATCHES. In the navigation of ships at sea, the twenty-four hours of the day are divided into what are termed watches. The names of the watches and their corresponding time are as follows: Afternoon watch 12:00 Noon to 4:00 p. m. First dog watch 4:00 p. m. to 6:00 p. m. Second dog watch 6:00 p. m. to 8:00 p. m. Midnight watch 8 :00 p. m. to 12 : 00 Midnight Middle, or Graveyard, watch.l2 :00 Midnight to 4 :00 a. m. Morning watch 4:00 a. m. to 8:00 a. m. Forenoon watch 8:00 a. m. to 12:00 Noon Statistics prove that more lives are lost at sea between the hours of midnight and 4 o'clock a. m. than during any other watch ; hence the name of this watch. The dog watch is what is called a split watch, being divided into two parts. If the natural order of the watches was followed, the same officer would go on watch at noon on each day. By splitting this watch, the officers alternate their watches on suc- ceeding days. One degree of longitude is equal to four minutes of time. The Pacific Coast. 103 THE SHIP'S WATCHES— (Cont'd). Log, an apparatus for measuring a ship's progress through the water. It is composed of a small fan-shaped machine at- tached to a long line. It is placed in the water and the line played out until it drops the required distance astern. As the ship proceeds, the fan is revolved by the resistance of the water and the revolutions are numbered by the part of the instrument attached to the line and remaining on board the ship. Log book, a journal of the ship's progress, recording all matters of interest concerning the navigation of the ship and incidents of consequence aboard. THE LEAD LINE. Lead— (To Show the Way.) The lead is composed of the weight and the line attached to it. In na\igating the ship through difficult passages or over shoal localities, the lead is used for the purpose of measuring the depth of the water. There are two lead lines, the deep sea and the hand. The deep sea line is usually a small wire cable worked over a small wheel from the stern of the vessel. In shallow water the lead line is operated by hand. The quartermaster takes his place at the side of the vessel and throws the line, and his musical intona- tion, as the result is made known to the officer on the bridge, is one of the chief attractions of ship life. In the bottom of the lead is a cavity. ''Arming the lead" means placing tallow in this cavity to bring up specimens from the bottom of the water. In case of fogs or question of locality the nature of the bottom of the ocean assists the navigator to find his location. These tallow records are kept with the other records of the voyage and are carried into the home port as part of the evi- dence showing the course of the ship. The measurements on the lead line are marked off by different colored cord tied around it. The distance between the cords is one fathom (six feet) and each color of cord indicates a specific number of fathoms. Tak- ing soundings is called "heaving the lead." In the hand lead there are nine "marks" and eleven "deeps." The marks are 2-3-5-7-10-13-15-17-20 fathoms. The deeps are 1-4-6-8-9-11-12-14-16-18-19 fathoms. Seven fathoms are called "by the mark seven." Six fathoms are called "by the deep six." Five and three-quarters fathoms are called "and a quarter less six." 04 Panama — Part III. THE LEAD LINE— (Cont'd). Five and one-half fathoms are called "and a half five." Five and one-quarter fathoms are called "and a quarter five." Two fathoms are called "by the Mark Twain" — hence the name by which the lamented American humorist-author and ex-pilot is known all over the English-speaking world. NAUTICAL LANGUAGE. Forward, instead of "up front." Aft, instead of "out back." Below, instead of "down stairs." On deck, instead of "up stairs." Avast, to stop. Bearing, direction. Betiveen wind and loater, at the water's edge. Belay, to make fast, as with a rope; to stop. Cleiu, to draw up to a yard as a sail. Flow, the tidal setting in of water from ocean to shore. Ehh, to flow back to the ocean. Abeam, on the beam, at right angles to the keel. List, thrown off of center, as by the shifting of the cargo. BOXING THE COMPASS. Can you box the compass? Here are the thirty-two points. Commit them to memory so that they can be recited as fast as the tongue can travel : North, nor' by east, nor'-nor'-east, nor'-east by north, north- east, nor'-east by east, east-nor'-east, east by north, east, east by south, east-sou'-east, sou'-east by east, south-east, sou'-east by south, sou'-sou'-east, south by east, south, south by west, sou'-sou'-west, sou'-west by south, south- west, sou'-west by west, west-sou'-west, west by south, west, west by north, west nor'-west, nor'-west by west, north-west, nor'-west by north, nor'-nor'-west, north by west, north. MARINE ITEMS OF INTEREST. 5,280 feet one statute mile. 6,080 feet one nautical mile. 6,080.66 feet one statute knot, or 60 knots in one degree, and 360 degrees in a circle of the earth, or 21,600 knots in a circle of the earth, or 131,385,456 feet in the circumference of the earth. The Pacific Coast. 105 WIRELESS EQUIPMENT ABOARD SHIP. Under the United States marine law, ocean-going ships are required to carry wireless telegraphic apparatus capable of transmitting and receiving messages within a radius of at least one hundred miles. This law applies to any passenger-carrying, ocean-going steamer carrying fifty or more persons, including passengers and crew, calling at American ports. Each ship is required to carry an operator holding a cer- tificate issued by the government. This operator must be able to receive messages at a speed of at least twenty words a minute. He must pass a rigid examination. Exception is made in the case of steamers plying between ports not more than two hundred miles apart. The Weather Bureau of the United States receives daily reports concerning the weather conditions from the masters of most of the North and Central American ships. The informa- tion so accumulated is of much value in making up the forecast of weather conditions along the Atlantic and Gulf coast lines. FIRE DRILL ABOARD SHIP. The United States navigation laws compel the fire drill on shipboard while at sea at least once per week. The passengers are usually notified before the alarm, to prevent unnecessary excitement; but the crew is supposed to be caught unprepared. The ship's big bell clangs, the whistle blows and the members of the crew rush to their places. The captain is on the bridge, and the first officer is in charge of the deck. Each boat is in charge of an officer and the hosemen go to their stations. Water is turned on and the decks are quickly awash. One man climbs into the life boat hanging at the davits and passes out the life belts, which are put on by the boat crew. These small boat crews are of a very picturesque and motley composition. Stokers, sailors, stewards and roustabouts all fall into their stations in just the state of wardrobe in which the alarm finds them. When all boats signify their readiness, the first officer noti- fies the crew of the boat that is to continue the drill. The ropes of this boat are unfastened, and it is dropped to the deck level ready, if necessary, to take its load of passengers. After the captain is satisfied with the drill, a signal is blown by the big whistle; everything is made shipshape again, the indi- viduals return to their duties and the drill is over. Under a section of the United States marine laws, one minute is allowed from the time of the fire alarm for water to be thrown from the hose, and two minutes are allowed for the lifeboat to be in the water. 06 Panama — Part III. SCOPE OF VISION AT SEA. The distance at which an object at sea may be seen varies according to elevation, clearness of air, and intensity of illumi- nation, but is about as indicated in the following table: Height in feet 5. 10. 15. 25. 50. Distance Height in Distance in m.les feet in miles 2.6 75 10 3.75 100 11.5 4.5 200 16 5.75 500 26 8.5 One mile. . . . 95 Seven inches in height is allowed for the curvature of the earth in one mile. A SHORT TREATISE ON ASTRONOMY. In the lone watches of the night, whether one is at the camp fire of the plains or on the bridge of the ship at sea, the stars speak a language of their own to the one who can understand, just as they did those many hundreds of years ago when "The mornmg stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy." Ever since men began to "go down into the sea in ships," the stars have been their steadfast friends, always on watch and always in the self-same place. The navigator's first act on stepping into his watch, even before examining his compass, is to glance at the heavens, locat- ing himself with the assistance of the stars, and also possibly offering a quiet greeting to some particular constellation that he has claimed for his allegiance for lo, these many years. The quiet hours of the camp fire ashore or the great solitude of the night watch on the ship bring the stars down near the earth and they become companions and will remain so during all the succeeding years. In new and distant localities they change their apparent relation to each other, and succeeding months bring new, yet old, stars ; but one year hence the same star wUl be seen in the same place in the heavens where it is tonight — its location unchanged through ages in the past will remain unchanged in the ages to come. To a person who has been accustomed to study the stars from the north temperate zone, many interesting changes and remarkable differences will be noticed in the various constella- tions and grounings of stars when viewed from the tropics, and unless the reader has kept in touch with the nightly change that has occurred in the heavens during his progress southward, he will possibly have difficulty in recognizing old star-friends. The North Star will lie close to the northern horizon scarcely eight degrees high, as the Isthmus is between seven and eight The Pacific Coast. 107 A SHORT TREATISE ON ASTRONOMY— (Cont'd). degrees north latitude. New stars and new constellations have made their appearances in the Southern sky and old friends among the stars and constellations have changed their faces until they also seem to be strangers, and the combination of local environments will apparently have brightened them. If you have chosen that best time of the year, the winter season, for your trip, you will see the greatest and strongest star-effects. Orion, with its multitude of worlds, excels all other constellations in its beauty. Sirius, more than twice the largest star in the heavens, blazes in its glory. A new star, Canopus, second only to Sirius, has made its appearance, and when seen on the horizon has been mistaken for the light in a light-house ; a Centauri and b Centauri are prominently bright, the second star being, of all stars, the nearest to our earth. While excelling all in prominence and interest and romance and beauty is the world-famed Southern Cross, with its four stars set in a dia- mond. The lower star is of the first magnitude, the east and north stars of the second and the west star of the third magni- tude. This constellation can be first seen from the latitude of middle Florida, or the upper portion of lower California. To the west of the Southern, or "True Cross," is the "False Cross." It resembles the "True Cross" in that it is formed by four stars set in a diamond as is the first, but the diamond is one-half larger in size. When the study of stars was in its infancy, to get a footing to use as a means of comparison, the brightest star was said to be of the first magnitude and the less bright ones second, third, etc. But continued research introduced brighter stars. As the less bright stars were classed by numbers, making a second mag- nitude star less in size that the first, the larger stars were forced to continue the arithmetical progression downward, making a star larger than the first magnitude read smaller in ratio to its brightness. This makes the understanding of the magnitude of the larger stars somewhat difficult to any but the professional mind. When one reads the magnitude of Capella is 0.2, it is diflicult to under- stand it is almost double a first magnitude star in brightness, and when the reader goes on to Sirius with a magnitude of — 1.6 he has to use pencil and paper to find how bright that star really is. Appended is a list of the stars ranging above first magni- tude. + indicates the position of the star in north latitude, and — the position in south latitude; as Vega, -f38-42' means that star is over that north latitude, while Rigel, — 8 ^^8' means that star is in that location south latitude. 08 Panama — Part III. STARS OF LARGE MAGNITUDE. Name Magnitude Location Sirius — 1.6 — 16 degrees 35 min. Canopus — 0.9 — 52 degrees 38 min. Vega 0.1 +38 degrees 42 min. a Centauri 0.1 — 60 degrees 28 min. Arcturus 0.2 -|-19 degrees 38 min. Capella 0.2 4-45 degrees 54 min. Rigel 0.3 — 8 degrees 18 min. Procyon 0.5 -j- 5 degrees 27 min. Acherner 0.6 — 57 degrees 41 min. b Centauri 0.9 — 59 degrees 56 min. Altair 0.9 +8 degrees 38 min. The following stars named in the above list — ^Canopus, Acherner, a Centauri, and b Centauri — are located so far south of the equator that they are not visible from the north temper- ate zone. TIME AS TOLD BY THE SHIP'S BELLS. The nautical day begins at noon. a. m. or p. m. a. m. or p. m. a. m. or p. m. a. m. or p. m. a. m. or p. m. a. m. or p. m. a. m. or p. m. l^-0O|Midnight In the striking of the bells, there is always a pause after the sounding of every even number of strokes. 1 Bell .... . .12:30 4:30 8:30 2 Bells . . . . .. 1:00 5:00 9:00 3 Bells .. 1:30 5:30 9:30.... 4 Bells.... .. 2:00 6:00 10:00.... 5 Bells .. 2:30 6:30 10:30.... 6 Bells.... .. 3:00 7:00 11:00 7 Bells .. 3:30 7:30 11:30.... 8 Bells.... •■4:00|-- .... 8:oo|^;^;....i SHIP'S SHORE SIGNALS. One short whistle — call for small boat from shore. Two short whistles — call for lighters from shore. Three short whistles — call for cargo from shore. Four short whistles — cargo loaded. Five short whistles — call for ship's papers. Three long whistles — call for steamer's launch from shore. The Pacific Coast. 109 (B) THE BUCCANEERS OF THE PACIFIC. In the days of the exploration of the Pacific coasts of Cen- tral and South America, the ships of Spain and England ap- peared to alternate in the local conquests. In fact, one explorer seemed to no more than discover and explore and exploit to his own advantage a certain locality and pass on to new fields of conquest than the representative of another king set up his stand- ard and continued the exploration and exploitation. Then indi- vidual crews or combinations of ships took up the business, until the line of demarcation between legitimate cruising, as demon- strated by authorized explorers, and illegitimate cruising, as carried on by bandits, pirates and buccaneers, became lost. The history of the quest of these fortune hunters for treas- ure and the records of their efforts in its attainment were marked by a trail of blood and destruction extending from Magdalena Bay on the north to the islands and harbors of South America. And the result was that neither country nor town escaped these depredations, nor is there a harbor nor an island that was not used as a rendezvous by these pioneers of adven- ture and crime. Sufficient for this work is the above statement of fact, and the reader who is desirous of information relating to the exploits of these men may find much of interest while en route along these coasts. COCOS ISLAND AND ITS LOST PIRATICAL TREASURE. Cocos Island is located in 5° 33' north latitude and 87^ west longitude. Anything said or written concerning the buccaneers and their life along the Pacific shores of the Americas would be incomplete without mentioning Cocos Island and the treasure that report says is buried there. All shorewise localities, from Maine to Brazil on the Altantic and from British Columbia to Terre del Fuego on the Pacific, have their local legends as to buried treasure and midnight visits of strangers whose efforts to unearth these long-lost valuables cause much local excitement among the inhabitants. In all the treasure trove literature, no story stands out more prominently than the one of Cocos Island. The location of this island is about five hundred miles west and south of the Gulf of Panama. It belongs to the republic of Costa Rica. From the various tales handed down by legend and otherwise, the following seem to be the main facts : no Panama— Part III. COCOS ISLAND— (Cont'd). In the years bordering on 1820 or 1830, being in fear of a raid from pirates, the good people of Callio placed the mov- able wealth of their city on a ship. The crew of this ship mur- dered the guards, as per the fashion of the day, and set sail aiming to safeguard this treasure to its own advantage and profit. They sailed for Cocos Island and landed and cached the loot. The authorities pursued and captured the crew and hanged all but the captain and one man, whose lives were spared on condition that they would locate the cache for their captors But the two escaped and joined Bonito, another buccaneer. The new pirate combination looted Acapulco, and again vis- ited Cocos Island and hid this treasure. Then a British war vessel captured the pirate vessel, and that captain escaped by ottering to turn king's evidence. The special information concerning the treasure was trans- ferred from one sea-dog, or "beach-comber," to another and various efforts have been made to locate the treasure, one effort being m a way successful. In this case the men quarreled about the division of the spoils while on their way to the ship in the small boats; the boats were capsized, the treasure lost, and all but one man drowned, and he died a few months later. ' Different efforts have been made by treasure hunters, includ- ing well-fitted expeditions, to unearth these caches, and even in modern days the newspapers tell of expeditions being formed for this purpose, all of which adds to the halo of romance that crowns the shores and islands of these coasts. GEOGRAPHICAL CONFIGURATION OF CENTRAL AMERICA The geographical configuration of Central America fol- lows the general outline of North and South America. The western portion is high table land containing mountain chains whose general trend follows the line of the coast. The eastern coast is lower and contains swamps and marshes. The western coast line is bold, rocky and abrupt ; the east- ern, low, marshy and swampy. Few sections have been thor- oughly explored, and vast stretches of both mountains and low land are a blank in the history of civilization as known at the present day. The mountain chains of western Mexico contain cloud-pierc- ing peaks; Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua like- wise contain rugged mountains. Volcanoes. The Pacific coast of Central America is well populated by volcanoes which by general reports are divided into three classes —active, sleeping and dead. The Pacific Coast. 1 1 1 Volcanoes follow the line of the coast, and in Salvador and Nicaragua they practically form groups. As the chain of land connecting North and South America becomes narrower, the mountains become reduced in height, and in places natural passes occur between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Tehuantepec, Nicaragua lakes, Panama, San Bias and Darien proposed canal routes are such locations or passes. BAY OF PANAMA. World-wide travelers have said that for beauty, the view of Panama City from the bay can hardly be surpassed by that of any other city in the world. The various islands in the bay, combined with the encom- passing shore-line, form a fit setting for the scene. Leaving the entrance to the Canal, the Pearl Islands are off to the southeast, while Taboga and the lesser islands are before us and the break-water with Flamingo Island and its hidden fortifications are in the rear. COAST OF PANAMA. From Panama City to Cape Mala the course of the ship is south. After passing this cape, the ship's course veers to the west for a distance of sixty miles until Mariato Point is reached. This is the most southern point of the trip, the location being close to seven degrees north latitude. From Mariato Point to Burica Point the course is northwest. Here the coast line re- cedes, forming quite a bay, called David Bay. DAVID CITY. David City is an important Panaman city, the capital of Chiriqui Province, and is situated ten miles inland. It is located on the proposed route of the Pan-American Railroad. At one time it was hoped that the construction force of the Canal, on the completion of that work, would be transferred and used in building the railroad from David City to Panama City, but this failed to transpire. Burica Point may be seen in clear weather for a distance of thirty miles and marks the boundary between Panama and Costa Rica. GULF OF PANAMA. From Cape Mala on the west to Pinas Point on the east the distance is about 100 miles, and from a line connecting these points to the interior shore-line it is about as far. The water so enclosed constitutes the Gulf of Panama. The approach to the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal has been carefully surveyed by the authorities. A wire drag 12 Panama — Part III. GULF OF PANAMA— (Cont'd). was used in exploring the water. This drag consists of a long cable held up at intervals by buoys, from which hangs a parallel cable. This second cable was placed at a depth of forty feet below sea-level, and the drag was towed slowly through the water. When an obstruction was encountered, an examination was made and its 'character determined. This drag exploration has included all the water for a distance of 150 to 200 square miles, and all hidden dangers have been carefully charted. Immediately off the entrance of the Canal and connected by the big break-water are the islands of Naos, 170 feet high; Culebra and Perico, each 330 feet high; and Flamenco, 350 feet high. Flamenco Island, in other days, was called Dead Men's Island, as it was the burying ground of former days. The greater number of graves were of persons who died aboard ship, en route or at anchor in the bay. Many were the victims of yellow fever. These bodies have all been transferred to Ancon Cem- etery. Taboga Island and the two small islands of Urava and Tobo- guilla are ten miles south of Panama. Taboga is the largest and is two miles wide by four miles long and its highest elevation is 935 feet. It is well cultivated and has a village on its northeast side._ The sanitarium of the Canal Commission is located here, and is such a pleasant place of abode that it is said along the line of the Canal it almost reconciles a person to his illness when he is located on Taboga. Taboga is also known widely and favor- ably because of its success in the cultivation of pineapples. The Pearl Islands are located thirty-five miles southeast of Panama and some twenty miles off shore. The group comprises fifteen or twenty islands. The largest is Rey Island, seven miles across and fifteen miles long. There are about 3,000 inhabitants on these islands, who are engaged in pearl fishing. The pearl shells are also an article of commerce. The movement of sailing vessels in the Gulf of Panama is peculiarly difficult because of uncertain winds, continued calms and opposing currents, as the experience of Pizarro related in a previous chapter clearly indicates. Pizarro experienced this difficulty when, after beating around in Panama Bay for seventy days, the victim of calms, doldrums and vexatious winds, he was forced to return to port. The best way to succeed in sailing north is in first sailing south across the "Line," or equator, and getting into the south- east trade-winds, then sailing west until favorable northern winds are found. For steamers the usual route to the north is as close in shore as is safe because of a prevailing ocean current of considerable strength running to the north along the shore. The Pacific Coast. 1 1 3 COSTA RICA. Facts. Established by Spaniards in 1500. Joined Federation of Central American States in 1824. Federation dissolved in 1839. Capital, San Jose. Most industrious and law-abiding nation of Central America. No revolution in years. Atlantic coast generally low. Pacific coast high. Inland ; mountains, plateaus, and volcanoes. Climate, tropical, often fever stricken on coasts. Temperate and healthful on the plateaus. Soil, extremely fertile. Valuable woods. All tropical fruits. Rich in agricultural possibilities. Produces one-half the world's supply of bananas. Called "Banana Republic." Rich in gold and silver and other minerals. An entrance tax of two cents per pound is charged on all bag- gage brought into the country. Mountains. Rincon da la Volcan Viejo, (active) eight miles from San Jose. Orosi, two peaks, 5,200 and 6,700 feet high. Aguacate. Barba, 9,300 feet high. Poas, 8,700 feet high. Turialbe, 11,000 feet high. Irazu, 13,000 feet high ; one-third distance inland from Pacific coast; from its summit either ocean can be seen. Car- tego, a city of five thousand inhabitants, was destroyed in 1911 by this volcano, with great loss of life and property. Coast. The entrance to the Gulf of Dulce lies between Banco Point on the east and the high point of land on the west called Matapala Head, and is some eight miles wide. The gulf extends inlanrl about thirty miles, and the water is deep. Llorena Point is the high point of land at the western extrem- ity of the peninsula enclosing the Gulf of Dulce. Sal si puedes point ("sail if you can") is high and precipi- tous and is easily recognized by a natural terrace behind it. 14 Panama — Part III. Map of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Salvador and Guatemala. The Pacific Coast. 1 1 5 From Llorena Point the coast curves to the northwest for a distance of seventy-five miles to Judas Point, and from this point the course leads almost directly into the Gulf of Nicoya. Judas Point on the east and Cape Blanco (white cape) on the west mark its entrance. The Gulf of Nicoya extends inland fifty miles, and contains many islands. Punta Arenas is on the eastern shore, half way up the gulf. PUNTA ARENAS. Punta Arenas ("point of sand") is the only town of im- portance on the Pacific located in Costa Rica. It is situated on a point of sand on the eastern side of the gulf. All communica- tion with the shore is by lighters or small boats. A visit ashore will prove to be of interest. Punta Arenas is connected with the Atlantic coast by a rail- road that crosses the country to Port Limon. The forwarding of mail will be expedited by making the address read "via Port Limon and New Orleans" and posting it at this point, thereby preventing its being held for the next southbound boat and car- ried to Panama to be forwarded. Telegraph and cable service are also possible from this port. On shore may be seen what might be called the municipal bath house. This bath house is set above the water on piles driven into the sand. The piles are surrounded by netting in- tended to safeguard the bathing of the people by preventing the entrance of sharks and other undesirable visitors. Sharks, jellyfish, gars and catfish may be seen in the water, and a line of fish hooks will help to furnish amusement for the passengers. LIGHTERS. Lighters are broad flat-bottomed boats or barges and are used for the purpose of transferring heavy freight between ship and shore. They are capable of floating from eight to fifteen tons weight and are manned by a crew of seven to eleven watermen, according to the size of the boat and the surf conditions. The lighters are propelled by long oars or sweeps in the hands of the crew, the men alternating along the sides of the lighter. The crew is in charge of one of their number, who is the captain and who stands at the stern and guides the lighter, using his sweep as a rudder. The poetn' of motion is exemplified by these men in handling their sweeps while propelling the empty lighter. The stroke is begun with the man standing at the height of the gunwales and as the stroke advances he descends into the boat, the finished stroke finding him standing near the bottom of the lighter. In recovering the stroke he steps to his place at the height of the gunwales. This movement of the men is rh^i:hmical and in unison. 16 Panama — Part III. CAYUCA. A boat dug from the body of a corkwood or other light tree. It is the favorite small boat of the native. The watermen are especially expert in its manipulation, the passenger and the oarsman each standing while in transit, riding the waves with perfect equipoise. Leaving the Gulf of Nicoya, Cape Blanco marks the point to the west, whence the course is northwest past Guionos, Cape Velas, Port Culebra with its fine harbor, to Cape Elena, the latter, one of the most striking features of the coast, being a narrow, high, rocky peninsula some two miles long, extending directly into the sea. PAPAGAYOS. Prevailing and troublesome winds out of the Gulf of Papa- gayo, called "Papagayos," may be encountered. Their limit is usually confined to the coast between Cape Velas on the south and Cape Desolado on the north, a distance of one hundred miles. These winds occur during certain seasons of the year in the region opposite Lakes Nicaragua and Managua. They are caused by the opposite atmospheric conditions oi the At- lantic and Pacific coasts, combined with the low pass in the mountains (150 feet in height), and also by the two large lakes that lie between. The two coast lines are only 150 miles apart. From Cape Elena the land trends almost east, forming the Bay of Salinas. The boundary between Costa Rica and Nicar- agua enters this bay. CHUBASCOS. Chubascos are violent winds with heavy rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, occurring in and around the Gulf of Nicoya. NICARAGUA. Facts- Discovered in 1500. Declared independence from Spain in 1821. Joined Central American Federation in 1833. East coast, low and swampy. West coast, bold and rocky. Contains many volcanoes, all crowded together. Pacific shore line, 175 miles long. Largest of Central American Republics. Greatest in natural resources. Poorest in available assets, due to continued political troubles and revolutions. The Pacific Coast. I 1 7 NICARAGUA— (Cont'd). Population, mixed Spanish, Indian and Negro. Great forests of hardwood. Great mineral deposits. Principal exports, coffee, sugar and products of the mines. Money ratio, ten to one. Mountains. In Nicaragua will be found extremes of geographical con- figuration. It contains many volcanoes and a chain of large lakes. Lake Nicaragua, 40 miles wide, 100 miles long. Lake Managua, 25 miles wide, 50 miles long. VOLCANOES. Ometepe (active), 5,700 feet high, 27 miles inland in Lake Nicaragua, often hidden by dense volumes of smoke; situated directly back of San Juan del Sur; the highest mountain in Nicaragua. Viejo, 5,650 feet high, visible 50 miles at sea. Momotombo (active), 4,000 feet high, in Lake Managua, when seen from sea appears as an immense isolated mountain. Coseguina; tremendous eruption in 1835, sand falling in Jamaica, Mexico and Venezuela; visible seventy miles at sea. Santa Clara. Telica, cone of extremely regular outline. Oroto. Las Pilas. Axoco. Assoco. Madera. Momotombito in Lake Nicaragua. Rota. San Jacinto. Masaya or Popocatepec. Mombacho, 4,300 feet high, on shore of Lake Nicaragua. Coast Line. The coast line of Nicaragua extends from Salinas Bay in the Gulf of Papagayo to the Gulf of Fonseca, in a northwesterly and southeasterly direction, a distance of 175 miles. The coast from Salinas Bay to the Port of San Juan del Sur, a distance of 14 miles, is high and rocky. PORT SAN JUAN DEL SUR. (St. John of the South.) This port is practically on the open shore and all freight and passengers are transferred by means of lighters or small boats. 118 Panama — Part III. (a) Amapala, Honduras. (b) La Libertad, Salvador. (c) Corinto, Nicaragua. (d) Punta Arenas, Costa Rica. The Pacific Coast. 119 NICARAGUA— (Cont'd). BRITO. The Pacific entrance of the proposed Nicaragua Canal was at Brito, seven miles northwest of San Juan del Sur. There is no harbor at Brito, and it was intended to form one by means of jetties and excavations. Cape Desolado is 70 miles northwest of San Juan del Sur, and is a prominent headland. The coast continues in the same general direction to Corinto, a distance of 50 miles. CORINTO. Corinto becomes an important port in the mind of the pas- senger, as it is, in fact, of the republic of Nicaragua, because the ship enters the harbor and proceeds to wharf. The passenger has the opportunity to step off ship, steady his feet on terra firma and fill his lungs with shore air. The population meets the boat on its arrival, and the wharf merchant displays his wares and is ready for business. Fruits and vegetables may be bought, and native drinks from calabash cups may be sampled. These calabash cups are the general dining room and kitchen ware of the native Central American household, and are of all sizes and many have designs neatly carved on their backs. They make a pretty souvenir and are cheap. Corinto is an old town, replete with history, and will be found to be quite interesting. A railroad connects it with the interior. The small size of the engine and rolling stock is fully offset by the bustling way in which it hustles about its work. A w^alk throusrh the town and a glimpse in the stores will pass the time profitably and a meal at that noted hostelry, the Corinto Hotel, may not be amiss. The proprietor of this hotel is well worth an acquaintance, and he can give many interesting reminiscences — if he can be prevailed upon to talk. Many noted characters have stopped with him and his experiences with them have not all been to the good credit of the traveler. An army post and band are located here and the national spirit of the country can be studied at close range. Corinto has had her part in making much histoiy, in insur- rection, fevers and what not, and one interested could gather many curious scraps of history well worth his time and trouble. The harbor lies so peacefully in the evening air that the mountains and line of vegetation on the farther side are mir- rored on its surface; or, just as probably, the storms come, and all nature may be in a turmoil. Corinto being such an important port, the ship may remain a day or possibly two. Time may be had for a short trip up the railroad ; if so, it would well repay the effort. 20 Panama— Part III. The quarantine laws of the Canal Zone do not deal kindly with Corinto. Ships laying at the dock at Corinto after sun- down may not enter a United States port for eight days there- after, consequently, the north bound ship remains at wharf dur- ing the night, while the south bound ship due at Panama in less than eight days leaves the dock at sun-down and anchors in the bay, returning at sun-up of the succeeding day to complete its cargo. Many volcanic peaks may be seen from Corinto, one of which at least, Momotombo, is active. Coseguina Point is 40 miles northwest of Corinto, and Cose- guina Point marks the turn into the Gulf of Fonseca. The boundary line between Nicaragua and Honduras enters the Gulf of Fonseca a short distance after rounding Coseguina Point. Nicaragua, with its mountains containing many volcanoes, is populated with a similarly volcanic people. If the inhabit- ants could settle down to the necessities of business and make good use of the natural resources of their country, their pros- perity would be wonderful. HONDURAS. Facts. Capital, Tegucigalpa. Rich in natural wealth but undeveloped because of con- tinued warfare. Government established in 1838. Climate, semi-tropical. GULF OF FONSECA. The entrance to the Gulf of Fonseca is located between Coseguina Point on the east and Amapala Point, twenty miles away on the west. Coseguina Point is in Nicaragua and Ama- pala Point is in Salvador, and the coast line of Honduras lies inside the headlands of the gulf, and between the boundary lines of these two countries. The gulf extends inland twenty-five miles, and has a width varying from twenty-five miles at the southern portion, to almost double that at the northern end. There are many islands of varying importance in the gulf. The depth of water ranges from deep to shoal. Sudden squalls of wind, and what might be called draughts through the mountains and between the islands, com- bined with troublesome currents, make extreme caution neces- sary by navigators. To these difficulties may be added sunken rocks and wrecks of ships at the entrance. Honduras has one port of call, Amapala. The Pacific Coast. 1 2 1 AMAPALA. Amapala is beautifully located on Tigre Island, at the base of a dome-shaped mountain. The ship anchors in deep water, and here again lighters and small boats are the means of com- munication with the town. Go ashore if possible. The experience will be worth the ef- fort. Probably the Government will be represented at the wharf by soldiers, for the people of Honduras and especially Amapala are a martial people. The town is an old one, and is well built. The buildings are scattered along the shore from the barracks on the left to the fort on the hill on the right. The stores front the water, and small purchases can be made. To the right is the school. You may enter if you wish, and witness the method of training the young Honduran mind. Further to the right is a public park enclosed by an iron fence, and filled with strange plants and trees. It contains a band-stand and a large statue of one of the national heroes. The United States and Honduras have had so many mis- understandings that the former usually keeps a gunboat in the harbor. Any old-timer on shipboard or ashore can relate much history that will be of interest. This port, as well as La Union, across the bay, makes a specialty of tortoise shell ornaments and combs. By careful bargaining the passenger may be able to make a satisfactory purchase. After a few hours spent in this harbor, and with a fairly complete knowledge of the difficulties of its navigation, the quartermaster's call of the lead will have a new significance as he sings "Mark Seven. Quarter less Seven. One-half Six," with the long drawn out word and the short explosive number. SALVADOR. Facts. Became independent in 1842. Sixty miles by one hundred forty miles in extent. Most densely populated of Central America republics. Capital, San Salvador. Second city, Sonsonate. More than one-half area is volcanic mountains. Products — coffee, bananas, sugar and minerals. Mountains. The mountains of Salvador do not extend in chains, but occur in clusters of peaks or groups. 122 Panama — Part III. The Isalco group comprise the following : Isalco, (active) 6,300 feet Naranjos. high, 18 miles from Corinto, Aguila. can be seen, although higher San Juan de Dios. peaks are behind it. Apaneca. Marcelino Tamajaso. Santa Ana Lagurita. The San Miguel group comprise the following : *San Miguel, (active) 7,000 Usulatan. feet high, perfect cone. Tecape. Chinaneca. Tabureto. Buenapa. The San Salvador group comprise the following: San Salvador, (active) 5,700 San Vincente, 7,000 feet high, visible sixty feet high, truncated miles at sea. cone. Cojutepeque. The City of San Salvador was destroyed by volcanoes in 1594, 1658, 1710 and 1854. It is always in danger. Coast Line. The coast line of Salvador extends from the Gulf of Fonseca, including the town of La Union, to the La Paz River, a distance of 160 miles. The coast line is a belt of low rich land, ten to twenty miles in width, backed by a table-land containing a high range of mountains. Salvador is a country of volcanoes, dead, sleeping and active. To a person in passing, it would seem that this whole section of Central American Coast, from Mexico to Costa Rica, was in process of formation. Earthquakes are frequent; vol- canoes ever-present; storms either possible or probable, and along this section of the coast from La Union to Acapulco, a distance of several hundred miles, there is no harbor of safety. Even in a calm, the sea is in motion. Along this section of the coast are experienced the swells. These swells are not waves but a successive raising and lowering of the surface of the water, varying in magnitude according to local conditions, until in some localities life on a ship at anchor becomes a misery. (See page 124.) During the season of storms, no landings can be made and no communication with the shore can be had, and if a severe storm arises while the ship is on this coast, the only port of safety is the open sea. *Note: San Miguel is one of the most treacherous of burn- ing mountains in America. After several years' repose it may suddenly burst into fury. The Pacific Coast. 1 23 LA UNION. La Union is on the opposite side of the Gulf of Fonseca from Amapala and the short voyage is very interesting, as the ship passes between islands through narrow channels so close to land on either side that their strange vegetation is in good view. La Union is said to be the hottest town along the coast, be- cause it is located on the shore of the gulf and is enclosed from the sea breezes by mountains on all sides. The ship anchors out in the bay, because of mud-flats, and communication with the shore is by means of lighters. Here, again, tortoise shell ornaments are featured. Passing out of the gulf, going past Conchagua volcano and Amapala Point, the trend of the coast line continues northwest to the Port of La Libertad, a distance of eightj^-five miles. LA LIBERTAD. La Libertad is but an open port, exposed to the full effects of wind and water at all seasons of the year and in bad weather no shore communication can be had. It is the port of the City of San Salvador, twenty-six miles inland, with which it is con- nected by a good wagon road. It is also the sea resort for the elite of that city, whose season of gaiety is not considered com- plete without spending a "moon" in surf bathing on the beach at La Libertad. An improvement in the general conditions of water traf- fic is made by the use of a little tug that blusters back and forth. Passengers are landed over the ship's side into the lighters by means of a two-seated box, capable of carrying four persons. It is lowered and raised by the blocks and tackle of the ship. The same system is used at the wharf, making the transfer of pas- sengers interesting and sometimes exciting. Thirty miles up the coast from La Libertad is Acajutla. ACAJUTLA (pronounced Acahootla). Acajutla, connected by railroad with the interior cities of Sonsonate and San Salvador, is an important poii; of export. This port is also an open roadstead, dangerous in rough weather. It is located on one of the main arteries of commerce into the republic of Salvador and the movement of passengers and freight is important. This section of the coast has a history of earthquakes and wrecks. The old town of Acajutla was situated two miles east, before it was destroyed and the channel of the river filled up. The remains of the steamer Colon may be seen, and other wrecks have occurred on Point Remedios, to the right of the town. 124 Panama — Part III. The La Paz River marks the boundary between Salvador and Guatemala and is ten miles west of Acajutla. LUNAR RAINBOW AT SEA. Tropical storms come and go, and local conditions are so unusual that strange phenomena may be seen. A storm on the horizon with the full moon on the opposite side of the heavens may give a view of a lunar rainbow. Dur- ing the month of January, 1911, one of exceptional brilliancy was seen while the writer was sailing off the coast of Salvador. A light shower had fallen, but had passed west and the full moon was rising in the east. The bow, with colors so strongly marked that they were individualized, seemed to be set on the sea with one foot of the arch in the northwest and the other in the southwest, extending almost to the meridian without a break in its broad bands. The ship appeared to be sailing straight into its center, while the admiring passengers, loathe to leave such a beautiful sight, gathered on deck. The lightnings of an electric storm among the mountains on shore, playing through the clouds, the reflection of volcanic fires on the under-surface of the clouds, the storm at sea in the west, the clear sky overhead and the full moon on the eastern horizon made a picture that it will be difficult to efface from mind. The law of the lunar rainbow is the same as that of the sun; i. e., a line drawn from the moon, or sun, on a line with the eye of the observer, will, if extended, pass through the center of the rainbow. SWELLS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. Along this section of the coast are experienced the swells of the ocean. These swells are not waves, but rather a succes- sive raising and lowering of the surface of the water. In some localities this movement is so pronounced as to interfere with the regular life on the boat. The ship, after anchoring, swings lengthwise to the swells. As the successive swells approach the ship, it swings to meet them, passes over them to a perpendic- ular and swings down on the other side to right itself in the val- ley and prepare to swing again. The motion is so pronounced at times that one has to grasp a fixture of the ship to keep up- right. Since some anchorages are held from twelve to thirty- six hours, as made necessary by the hours of business, the effect on the internal workings of the body can be understood. The United States pilot books warn against the effect on passengers and crew, and suggest a double anchorage, bow and stern, across the line of the swells, in order to steady the ship. The Pacific Coast. 1 25 PORPOISE. The porpoise is found in all salt waters of the tropical and temperate zones. It is sociablv gregarious in its habits and is usually seen in small herds. It frequents the shore line rather than the open sea, coming into rivers and small bays. It is called the sea-hog by sailors, and grows to the normal length of a man. It may be seen gamboling along the course of a ship as if enjoying company. Coming out of Champerico during a late voyage, the pas- sengers were called to the bow of the ship to see, as the sailors said, "the porpoises scraping the barnacles off their tails with the bow of the ship." There below, plainly to be seen in the clear water, were three large porpoises swimming side by side just in front of the cut-water of the ship, as active and busy as though it was their duty to pilot the boat through the water, while on each side were other porpoises tumbling along on the surface of the water as though the whole fleet were out on a lark. The officers said that the porpoises always accompanied the ship out of this harbor in that manner. GUATEMALA. Facts. Became independent of S"Dain in 1823. Joined Central America Federation in 1824. Regained independence in 1851. Population 2,000.000, of which 1,000.000 are full-blood Indians, 800,000 are half-breeds and 200,000 are people of property. The native population is poor and in debt continually. Soldiers receive four cents per day. Laborers receive nine cents per day. Climate along the coast is tropical and that of the interior is temperate. Mountains. Guatemala with its 125 miles of coast line furnishes fifteen or twenty volcanic peaks. Fuego, (active) 13.000 feet high. Pocaya, (active) 12,000 feet high. Atitlan, (active) Ouesaltenango, 9,500 feet high. Taiunuelco. Vulcan de Agua ("water"). 13.000 feet high, in 1841 de- .stroyed old City of Guatemala by deluge of water; source of water probably a cratorial lake. Santa Maria, 12,500 feet high. 26 Panama — Part III. GUATEMALA. Coast Line. The coast line of Guatemala extends from the La Paz River to the boundary of Mexico, a distance of 120 miles. From Remedios Point near Acajutla to west of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, this coast has no harbors. It is a continuous sandy beach. In case of rough weather the only rule for a ship is to put to sea. What with a rough surf-line ashore and a continual swell afloat, life is uncertain in its comfort going or coming. The republic of Guatemala should be specially felicitated because of its national hymn, which will rank with the similar composition of any country on earth. San Jose, Champerico and Ocos, the three ports of Guate- mala, are open roadsteads off a sandy coast composed of long sand islands thrown up by the waves and backed by long nar- row lagoons. SAN JOSE DE GUATEMALA. San Jose is Guatemala's chief export city. It is connected with Guatemala City by railroad. The high mountain range contains many volcanoes. Agua and Fuego volcanoes are of special interest. The town sustains an electric light plant. CHAMPERICO. The port of Champerico is worked by surf boats, assisted by small tugs. The passengers are placed in the lighters by the "Pacific Coast Elevator," as the box is called, and pulled up on the pier in the same manner. A railroad extends a few miles into the country, and assists very materially in the importance of the port. The swells become more noticeable here, and special care is taken to insure safe anchorage by the use of two anchors or at least having the second one ready to drop in case of an emergency. SHARKS. Sharks are plentiful in all tropical waters, and they may be seen and caught along the Central American coast. Different methods are used in their capture, not the least interesting being that of shooting. As the ship rides at anchor, a piece of fat meat is fastened to a string and allowed to drop over into the water and float a short distance away. The fisher- man (or hunter) takes his place at the rail. A quick eye, and a quick finger at the trigger are necessary. The water being clear the approach of the shark may be easily seen. The shark The Pacific Coast. 1 27 SHARKS— (Cont'd). approaches the meat, probably in big sweeping circles, possibly passing swiftly out of sight to return again. If he desires the meat, he raises to it and turns on his side, his mouth being set under and back of his nose. The moment he reaches for the bait is the opportune time. A moment too soon or too late loses the game. The only objection to this sport is that in case of success, the fish is lost, as it sinks at once. Considering the continual movement of the bait and the ship, because of the heavy swells, the swift circular approach of the game, its quick turning on its side as it prepares to seize the bait, and the brief second of exposure as it reaches the sur- face of the water, the hunter may feel chagrined, but not neces- sarily humiliated, if his shot is unsuccessful. A permit for shooting should be secured from the Captain, as shooting may conflict with laws either aboard ship or ashore. '^''^ SNAKES. Snakes are seen in the waters off shore. They are probably washed down from the rivers. TORTOISE. Many large tortoise are passed at sea as they float along the surface of the waves. Combs and other ornaments are manu- factured from the shell and may be bought at the ports along the coasts of Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala. MACKEREL. Schools of mackerel abound along the coast. The mackerel is a pelagic, camiverous fish, widely distributed and extremely abundant, peopling in countless schools the tropical oceans. Mackerel have elegantly shaped, well porportioned bodies. No other fish show finer lines. PILOT FISH. The pilot fish is a pelagic fish of the horse mackerel family and gets its name from the sailors, because of its habit of keep- ing company with ships and large fish, especially sharks. It is probably a foot long. Sailors say a shark never seizes a pilot fish, depending on it to show the way to its food, the shark's eyes being so placed that it is at a disadvantage for sight. It is said the pilot fish swims under the head of the shark. Shooting along the coast from ships is allowed in all Central American countries, if the permission of the Captain of the ship is obtained. Mexico, however, has a law against the dis- charge of firearms within the three-mile limit. 128 Panama — Part III. (1) Mazatlan, Mexico. (2) Wreck of the "Sosostres" (page 129). (3) Manzanillo, Mexico. (4) Fort San Diego, Acapulco, Mexico. The Pacific Coast. 129 ocos. At Ocos the boat anchors near the buoy to which the end- less cable is attached and swings lengthwise to the swells. Ocos is a small collection of houses sitting on the beach, but is an important port of export. Much of the coffee shipped from Gautemala passes through this port. Here is the most picturesque wreck along the coast. In 1909 the German ship, "Sosostres," of Hamburg, on her first voyage, a stranger along a strange coast, arrived at this anchor- age. She was 375 feet long and fifty feet wide, full rigged and with a full complement of officers and crew. The night was calm, the moon shone brightly and the waters apparently held no danger. The ship anchored, and the crew, proceeding to take advantage of so peaceful a coast and so propitious a time, drew the fires for the purpose of cleaning the boilers. Night came and peace yet reigned. All retired except the watchman, who slept without retiring. The giant swells soon came into their own, for the continual movement caused the cable to slip its anchor. The first alarm was given by the ship itself when it drifted sidewise onto the shore and its keel began to pound on the sandy beach. Too late the crew sprang to their places. There was no power on board, nor at sea, nor ashore, to prevent the progress of the ship toward the beach. Each swell put her further in-shore, until she now rests upright 200 or 300 feet inland, a complete steamer on an even keel, sails at yards, small boats at davits and all the ship's furnishings in their proper places — an object lesson to the maritime wayfarer, point- ing to the first lesson of success in various walks of life, as well as to liberty — eternal vigilance, which is the price of safety as well as successful progress on land or on sea. The result in this case was a loss of a quarter of a million dollars' worth of ship, the cargo and crew being saved. The underwriters paid the loss, and after unsuccessful at- tempts to float the vessel, sold it as it stood to a citizen of Mexico City for $10,000.00 gold. He has it attached, as it stands in the sand, broad-side to the sea, with cables to anchors embedded off-shore, arguing that "some day" a tidal wave may come, and if it does come it might wash the ship to sea, thereby using the force that caused the vessel to run aground to also set the ship afloat. It would seem that there are dead game sports, and per- sons who are willing to take a long shot at the game, located in all parts of the world. About ten miles west of Ocos is Tacana Volcano, 14,000 feet high. The boundary line between Guatemala and Mexico passes over its summit. 30 Panama — Part III. The Pacific Coast. [31 MEXICO. Facts. Pacific coast line, 4,200 miles long. Under Spanish rule from 1521 to 1821, or for 300 years. From 1821 to 1869, internal wars. From 1869 to the present day, a republic. Western coast mountain ranges. Central portion plateau. Few volcanoes. Contains mountain peaks 17,000 feet high. Mexico was inhabited by people of advanced civilization when discovered by the Spaniards. This people had a written language, lived in large and permanent cities, m houses built of stone. Mountains. The mountains of Lower California are not high, but the country is dry and parched and barren. The Coast Range of the United States continues down this peninsula to its end. _ The Rocky Mountain Range of the United States continues down through Mexico as the Sierra Madre del Sur, and contains some of the highest ranges and peaks of the western hemi- SDhere Along the coast the ranges and high peaks are always in view usually fronted by ten or twenty miles of low coast, then by upland and then come the ranges, thirty to sixty miles away. Colima, flanked by Safa, just back of Manzanillo has late history, and the two mountains occupy a wonderfully beautiful setting along the high peaks of the range. (See page 138.) North of Acapulco, the mountains raise m the distance m successive ranges until, thirty miles from the coast, they are 12,000 feet high. The ranges drop at the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec, raising again to the high mountains of Guatemala, Hon- duras and Nicaragua; Mt. Tacana, on the line between Mexico and Guatemala, being 14,000 feet high. Coast Line. The Mexican coast line extends from the Guatemala bound- ary northwest to that of the United States, near San Diego, Cali- fornia, and is 4,200 miles long. The route of coast travel takes one along this coast to Mazatlan, from which port the steamer turns a little south of west to cross the mouth of the Gulf of California, rounding the lower end of Lower California before changing again to the northern course. Changes of climate, scenery and civilization have occurred with the boat's progress. 132 Panama— Part III. MEXICO— (Cont'd). In Mexican territory, marine laws are more strictly enforced, and the visits of the port doctor and the customs officer become more ceremonious. The voyage across the Gulf of California to the southern end of Lower California is something like fifteen hours' ride and the water is two miles deep. Cape San Lucas is the first land approached after crossing the Gulf and is a prominent point crowned by a lighthouse whose tower is fifty feet high. The light is 265 feet above water and can be seen twenty-five miles at sea. To the right of the Point, the rocks extend into the Gulf and form an archway through which the water rushes and the rocks beyond can be seen. Three or four miles bring the ship to Cape Falso, the southernmost point of Lower California. Here, as at other places along the coast, on turning an exposed point of land on the way north, the old and experienced traveler looks for a change in the weather because of the new northern exposure. If this change has not been experienced up to the time of clearing the lower end of Lower California, changes are likely to occur regularly thereafter. The low coast is almost out of sight, and the ship becomes independent of the coast line. If the captain expects fair weather, he puts to sea to make a direct route; if he expects foul weather, he hugs the shore, taking advantage of shore islands and channels. At night, changes will be observed in the celestial world, the Southern Cross and other southern stars each night becom- ing lower on the southern horizon, and by the time that the International Boundary is passed they have disappeared from view. When the coast of California, with its vivid green hills, finally appears in view, one feels that he has passed almost into another strange country instead of having just returned to his own land. From Point Sur the coast of California, with its high, rocky shore and green valleys and little villages, is seen. The days and nights are made more pleasant, it is hoped, by the retrospect of an enjoyable voyage, and the prospect of an early arrival in the home port of San Francisco. If the weather allows, the ship's course will probably be laid outside of San Clement and Catalina Islands off the lower coast of the state of California, and outside of the Santa Bar- bara channel. But if the barometer is falling and the weather conditions indicate a rough sea, the course of the ship will probably be set inside these islands and up through the Santa Barbara channel. The Pacific Coast. [33 SHIP'S COURSE IN DETAIL. San Benito, Mexico. On leaving Ocos, San Benito, twenty miles north, is the first Dort of call in Mexico. It is but a small collection of thatched bamboo houses, containing two or three Chinese stores and the warehouse of the Steamship Company. Quite an extensive ex- port trade, principally coffee, is conducted through this port. Surf boats, or lighters, are used to communicate between ship and shore, and the method is unique. There is an endless wire cable attached to a buoy anchored out in deep water and to a stationary engine ashore. The lighters are drawn up on the sand inside the line of surf, and loaded and covered with tar- paulins The waves break and wash over the sand beyond the boat. At times the boat is on the sand and at other times is waist deep in water. This, however, makes no difference to the men carrying the freight. Two men in the warehouse lift the bag of coffee, weighing probably 150 pounds, and lay it across the shoulders of a third man, who moves off to the lighter, either on dry sand or hip deep in water, as the condition of the waves makes necessar>\ iwo other men standing at the shore end of the lighter lift the bur- den from his shoulders and place it on the lighter, where it is properly located by the men aboard. The men care nothing per- sonally for the water, expending their energies to keep the cargo dry When the lighter is loaded and the cargo covered, the cable is placed in grooves over the bow and stern of the lighter and held in place by pieces of rope wrapped around the cable and held taut by members of the crew. The man in charge takes his place in the stem and they are ready for the voyage through the surf to the ship ; but more than the readiness of these men is necessary for the safe navi- gation of these waters. They must take advantage of an opening in the surf when it appears. The captain in charge holds two flags, one black to take the lighter to sea, and the other white to bring it ashore. . The waves are scanned for the opportune opening. Sud- denly the black flag is held aloft. The man in charge of the engine opens the throttle, the cable starts, and the lighter is pulled into the surf. Possibly the time is right ; as probably it is wrong ; the chances may be too great, the waves too strong ; down comes the black flag, up goes the white flag ; the engineer reverses the movement of the cable and the boat runs back to the shore— ahead of the dark green, wicked-looking waves that curl their tops sometimes double the height of the lighter and its load. But perhaps the time is right and the lighter proceeds and is soon surrounded by this maelstrom of water, swinging 134 Panama— Part III. from one side to the other, but always advancing, with the slap of the waves on its bow and sides and with the spray flying along and sometimes over the lighter. Soon the surf is passed and the boat moves on out over the smooth surface of the swells to the buoy. The black flag is dropped, the cable stopped and cast off the lighter, while the men get their long sweeps over the side and row to the ship. The trip from ship to land is not so exciting for the lighter, after picking up the cable, and the white flag is raised, follows the waves, plunging through the surf and is soon bumping on the sandy beach. The passenger going ashore is landed over the side of the ship and into the lighter by means of the "Pacific Coast Elevator" (i. e., the box) . If he follows the custom of the native, after being deposited in the lighter, he perches himself on the side of it with the green water just below; but when through the foaming waters of the surf and the end of the lighter rests on the sand, the passenger is not safely ashore. The waves come and go, and when they go the sand is bare, but when they come — well, three feet will hardly measure their depth. The answer is read in the eyes of the boatman. If you want help, choose your man, and at once if you would clear yourself of any implication of being a stranger to such a situation. Choose a broad-shouldered, tall, good- natured fellow. Signal him and he will do the rest. He will come to the bow of the boat and if you are a woman you will be carried safely to the dry sand. If you are a man he will "back up" to the bow and expect you to get on his shoulders with a foot on each side of his neck. He will walk through the water, drop on his knees upon the dry sand and you are at liberty to walk off to your explorations. The return is made in reverse action. When you are ready to return you signal your man and he comes to you. If you are a woman you will be carried safely to the lighter; if a man, he drops down on his hands and knees behind you, sticks his head between your knees and begins to rise to his feet. All you have to do is to keep the center of gravity over the base of support. This may not be as easy as it sounds, as you are compelled to get higher upon his shoulders as he gains the perpendicular. The operation is always a matter of concern to the boatmen, and if you are slow, thereby hampering the carrier in his efforts, they will all join with him in crying: "Arriba! Arriba! Senor" (Higher! Higher! Sir!), being well-meant advice intended to assist you in gaining the perpendicular in your efforts to form the central picture of the situation. After the rider becomes firmly located in his seat the carrier starts off at a swinging pace over the sand toward the lighter. The close proximity of the big green waves breaking at his feet, The Pacific Coast. [35 combined with their generally angry aspect and the unsteady seat which the rider occupies, are all a possible cause of uneasi- ness in the mind of the inexperienced. As they near the lighter, the big waves, curling higher than the nder's head, would seem to engulf horse and rider, but the waterman strides on m com- Dlete disregard of their nearness, well knowing that they will break at his feet and curl on up the beach. He approaches the Hghter from the stem, taking advantage of the comparatively quiet waters to be found there, and stops at the side of the lighter The men standing there assist the rider into the lighter and he climbs into the place at the stem away from the dashing spray, as instructed by the captain, not being quite sure m his mind that having passed through one apparent danger he has not placed himself in front of a greater one; but the captain raises his black flag, the engine starts, the cable pulls at the lighter, which, with its cargo, is off into the midst of the turmoil of waters. After the first few moments he begins to enjoy the excitement and he will possibly be sorrj- when he finds the lighter is out on comparatively quiet water and his unusual experience of passing through the surf on the Central American coast is at an end. Salina Cruz. Salina Cruz is located on the inner line of Tehuantepec Bay. It is an important town and has many improvements intended to assist the shipping of the port. While formerly very un- healthy, it now has a modem system of sewerage a-d water and an electric light plant. The port is protected by a Lreakwater and is a landing of the submarine cable. ^ ^ , ,, It has railroad communication with Coatzacoalcos on tne Atlantic coast and is located at the Pacific entrance of the at- times proposed Tehuantepec ship railroad. The Isthmus at this point is 140 miles wide. Crossing the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Whether the traveler goes into the port of Salina Cruz or crosses the gulf directly from point to point, he will probably have good reasons for recollecting the Gulf of Tehuantepec. All the way from Panama, when you are either compliment- ing the good weather or naming the bad, the old traveler will say, "Yes, but wait until we cross the Gulf of Tehuantepec. You wonder what is meant. You are now in a position to find out. The davs and nights may have been of the best, but the crew now begins to make the ship "ship-shape." Down come the awnings, all loose ends are tightened, and the ship prepares for a visitor. You will recognize its approach. If at night, by the rolling of the boat, the whistling of the wind, the beating of the waves, and the flying of the spume. If you have prepared 36 Panama — Part III. yourself by the only recipe for escaping sea-sickness, viz., a clear conscience and an empty stomach, and if you are a good sailor, you may escape a visitation from mal-de-mer, and be able to go to the table for regular meals. Anyway, the winds and waves kick up a "beastly nawsty sea" at best, and all are relieved in mind and body when the ship sails behind a headland, the winds cease and the waves lose their motion. The awnings are replaced, the ship proceeds on its way and the passengers return to the deck, and this is "cross- ing the Gulf of Tehuantepec." The cause of all this disturbance is found in the fact that the Atlantic coast line approaches to within 150 miles, the moun- tains decrease their height, and the differences between the atmospheric pressures of the two coast lines are caught in their effort to adjust themselves to a common level. In other words, the ship has passed through a draught and the passengers have suffered accordingly. Ocos Mountain Range. (From a sketch made on the scene.") From the Gulf of Tehuantepec to Acapuleo. From the Gulf of Tehuantepec to Acapuleo the mountain scenery is of unusual interest. The mountains are back twenty- five or thirty miles from the coast and are composed of successive ranges and peaks. This country is almost altogether unexplored, and travelers tell of a strange Indian tribe, whose unusually beautiful women have light-colored hair, and they recount a shipwreck of years ago, which left the sailors on this shore. The castaways re- mained and married into the Indian tribes. The Pacific Coast. 137 Acapulco. The light at the entrance to Acapulco Harbor is placed 375 feet above water and is visible twenty-five miles at sea. Acapulco is a beautiful harbor one mile wide and two and one-half miles long, surrounded by high mountams, causmg the locality to be very unhealthful. A cut has been made through the hill on the left of the town to the ocean, to let m the sea breeze, which has to some extent raised the standard of health considerably above that formerly experienced. After passing from the ocean into the harbor through the narrow entrance flanked by the high hills, the ship proceeds to the left, up the bay and anchors before the town. It will be surrounded by rowboats, the boatmen patiently waiting for the doctor and customs officer to perform their duties, after which bedlam breaks loose in the close competition for business. Acapulco is interesting historically and commercially. In the days of Spanish world-supremacy, this port was on the high- way between the Philippines and Spain. Treasure was brought here carried on mule-back to Vera Cruz on the Atlantic and thence by ship to Spain. Fort San Diego, on the right shore, was built for the protection of the harbor, and should be visited. It has an ancient moat, a drawbridge, heavy stone walls and all the paraphernalia of a fortress of the middle ages. Drawn-work is the feature of this place. It was taught originally by special teachers brought from Ireland. A visit among the shops will please the ladies, and the prices asked will not displease the men. Acapulo has suffered greatly from earthquakes, and ruins from their effects may be seen on all sides. The phosphorescence of the waters in the bay is very un- usual in brightness and the movements of fish can be traced by means of these lights, which are so strong that shadows are cast on the upper works of the ship. The waters of this bay, with all their beauties, hold hidden dangers, as is realized when it is understood that all books of authority always give the cau- tion that this bay is infested by man-eating sharks. Cape Corrientes. We now approach Cape Corrientes (Cape of the Currents). This is a shoulder of high land reaching out into the ocean. Travelers of experience along these coasts will speak of turning different northern exposures and of the general consequences as to the weather. Each prominent outpost exposes the ship to the influences of winds and currents as governed by the northern exposure. Cape Corrientes is no exception to this rule, but rather accentu- 38 Panama— Part III. ates it. The coast line trends more to the north, and the currents of water and air are more influenced by northern temperatures. A lighthouse is located on Cape Corrientes 275 feet above water, and its light may be seen twenty-four miles at sea. Leaving Cape Corrientes, the shore line swings to the East, entering Banderas Bay. Las Tres Marias Islands. Las Tres Marias Islands ("The Three Marys") lie fifty miles off shore, and about the same distance ahead, from Cape Cor- rientes. These islands are high and rocky in formation, and were formerly the headquarters of the buccaneers. The first island to the south is Cleopha, four miles in diam- eter; the second, Magdalena, eight miles long; and the third, Maria Madre, is twelve miles long. Mexico uses these islands for a penal settlement. The chief export is salt. San Bias. San Bias is located on an open shore and has little protec- tion from the storms. The government has built piers and break- waters to add to the safety of the port. It has an unhealthful location, surrounded by swamps, and during the rainy season is infested with swarms of mosquitoes. It is the port for the city of Tepic, a thriving town of several thousand inhabitants, thirty miles inland. San Bias was formerly a town of importance, but the rail- roads have reduced its trade. The ruins of the old town, a mile inland, are worth a visit. Colima and Safa Volcanoes. Important — Do not miss the opportunity to see these vol- canoes. If the ship passes them in the night time, they should be just as interesting. Colima is an active volcano, 12,300 feet high. Safa is a sleeping volcano, 14,600 feet high. They are so located, with the range of low mountains in front, that the view of their forms and peculiarities is unob- structed from base to summit. They are at first in line, and appear as one mountain, but later, as the ship advances, they separate and Colima shows itself the smaller, for all its height, being over-topped by Safa, located three miles further from the ocean. Colima volcano is twenty miles north of the city of Manza- nillo. These volcanoes will form a beautiful picture as seen from the ship and should not be missed. They each have well-rounded, symmetrical forms, and at certain points along the coast stand alone as in a frame. The Pacific Coast. 39 The thin smoke line of the active volcano gives no idea of its dangerous character, for as late as 1912 it destroyed several towns and much life and property. Safa volcano usually has snow on its summit. After leaving Apaculco and having passed the volcanoes of Colima and Safa, Manzanillo is the next port of consequence. Colima and Safa Volcanoes. (From a sketch made on the scene.) Manzanillo. Manzanillo is the port of the Mexican state of Colima and has railroad connection with the City of Mexico. The sound of the engine-whistle and bell is quite pleasant after the days of isolation, and one begins to feel the approach of civilization. The opening to the left through the hills was made for the rail- road, while the opening to the right leads to a long slough, along which is the old town of Manzanillo. If time will allow, a visit to the old town will repay. In all of these Mexican towns, tortoise shell ornaments and drawn linen lace-work are special attractions to the ladies, and if one is interested in such, she can here satisfy her desires at a ridiculously small expense, especially if her native ability in bargaining accompanies her. Mazatlan. Mazatlan is an open port and no place for a vessel in heavy weather. The ship anchors two or three miles from the city, surrounded by islands, rocks and wrecks. The trip to town should be taken because of its interest and because of the six days at sea that stand between Mazatlan and San Francisco. A modern power boat will quickly land you at the wharf after an interesting ride. 40 Panama — Part III. Mazatlan is the second seaport in importance in Mexico. It has the appearance of an Oriental city, with its sea wall, palms, and church towers. It has railroad and telegraph connection with the world ; telephone system, electric lights and a street railway. It has large business houses, a market house and a cathedral. Drawn- work and tortoise shell ornaments may be purchased. Whenever there is an earthquake or revolution in Mexico, Mazatlan is always heard from. CORDONAZOS. Los Cordonazos de San Francisco are hurricanes occurring occasionally in the Gulf of California. They are short of dura- tion and of tremendous force. Lower California. The peninsula of Lower California extends from 22° north latitude to 32° north latitude, forming the Gulf of California on its east. It contains Magdalena Bay on the west coast — a safe harbor so large that the fleets of the world could ride in safety. [See page 142.] Its geographical location gives it a value to which it would never be entitled by its resources. The peninsula commands the gulf, the adjacent shores of Mexico and the mouth of the Colorado River. It is a land of no charms, and has little arable land. It consists of bare rocks, ravines and hills. There are few streams and no rains. Its interior is nearly blank on maps and less is known of its geology and geography than any other region of equal area in North America. Oaxoca Mountain Range. (From a sketch made on the scene.) The Pacific Coast. \± Gulf of California. A near approach to this almost unknown body of water so far as the general traveler is concerned, would not be appreciated if some of its special characteristics were not i^entioned The gulf is from 100 to 200 miles wide and extends from 23 to dZ JN. latitude or through a distance of 9°. Its west shore is rocky and mountainous and the waters are deep, the depth at its mouth being about two miles. It has local hurricanes, and the two seasons— wet and dr> — but little water falls during the wet season. , The waters abound in fish of nearly every species of the world, in greater numbers and larger size than anywhere else m the world. They are of great beauty and brilliancy of colors. Swordfish of unusual size are found, and have been known to atUck boats and leave their swords in the hull. Sharks of many species abound in the bays and harbors, and some have been cap- tured that weighed to exceed 1,000 pounds. They are very ferocious. , . ., j. t4- 4o « A fish called bull's-eye is found m these waters It is a species of sun-fish, and has but one eye— the size of a bull s— set in the center of the upper part of the body. ^ , . 4. A species of ray, the Manta raya, an immense fish of great strength and ferocity, is also found here. Records tell of one being captured that was 17 feet wide, 11 feet long and 3 feet through It has a large and formidable mouth, extending almost the width of the animal, and sports a tail which is armed with a spine. The octopus (8-armed) devil-fish, or cuttle-fish, is found in these waters. It is a gigantic mollusk that hides along the rocky shores watching for its prey. Its long, prehensile arms are furnished with suckers with which it seizes and ent olds its prey. Its head contains a sharp bill with which it is able to dissect and devour its prey. Its arms are from 10 to 20 feet m length. _ On shore the rattlesnake is the chief characteristic. It is found everywhere and in great numbers. It seems to be one ot the great laws of nature to preserve the general equilibrium m life Therefore, there never is an influx of unusual conditions without nature producing its buffer ; so with the snake question. The unusual number of poisonous snakes do not appear without also the antidote for their poison being at hand. A small vine with pink and white flowers, called gollmgrma, grows everywhere. A tea made from it and taken internally, and a poultice from it applied to the wound, are said to effect a sure cure. A species of the cactus (pitahays) is also considered able to effect a cure for rattlesnake bites. It is said tarantulas and scorpions do not exist in Lower Cali- fornia. 42 Panama — Part III. Magdalena Bay. Magdalena Bay is situated on the west coast of Lower Cali- fornia, just south of Cape San Lazaro. The oblong island of Santa Margarita lies partly in front of the bay. It is a magnificent bay of vast extent. The climate is salu- brious, the water placid. Its coast is sterile and fresh water is scarce. It is sheltered from high winds by lofty mountains. It formerly was a rendezvous for smugglers. It is a harbor of safety for large fleets. The United States has used it for fleet target practice. There have been rumors of foreign nations desiring its acquisition for a coaling station. Magdalena Bay is seventeen miles long and twelve miles wide, over an area of 100 square miles that exceeds five fathoms in depth. It connects by a channel a mile wide with Almejas Bay, a large bay lying to the south, and with a series of lagoons, extending sixty miles toward the north. The entrance to Magdalena Bay is three and one-half miles wide and the chan- nel is two and a half miles wide, with no hidden dangers. San Clement Island. San Clement is an island south of Catalina Island, off the California coast, opposite Los Angeles. It is barren and without inhabitants except shepherds in charge of sheep herds. It has always been especially attractive to students of antiquity and anthropology because of the fragments of remains indicating its ancient occupancy by the human race. Lunar Rainbow at Sea. (From a sketch made on the scene.) Conclusion. 1 43 AFT-WORD Whether the reader has taken the tour outlined between the covers of this book or has used it as a text-book and not read it from the viewpoint of a tourist, if he has digested its contents carefully and understandingly, he will have a much better and more connected idea of the general conditions geo- graphically, financially, etc., of the countries lying between North and South America and of their relation to each other and to the world at large than before he opened the book. Great and important questions of government and of busi- ness will come before the proper authorities for settlement in the next decade. Knowledge of distance, relative locations, new routes of trade, the wants of new markets, the laws of demand and supply — all call for a broad-minded understanding of cause and effect. The high-grade business man will study local conditions and will try to fulfil their necessities, thereby increasing his busi- ness. He will also attempt to satisfy the buyer. Local condi- tions make peculiar shipping necessities. Traffic through the surf to the shore and then inland by mule-back or man's back has influence on the size of the package and its durability of construction. European shippers appreciate these laws of trade, and attempt to satisfy the local necessities. American shippers will benefit by a study of the same conditions. The business in tropical countries is done in a dignified man- ner — no haste and plenty of courtesy. The American shipper tries to rush the customer as has been his custom to rush through the business day at home. Here again the European business man understands trade conditions better, and has succeeded where all national advantages are in favor of the American mer- chant or manufacturer. No people have greater advantages of location, machinery, or general ability than the American ; yet they fail by seemingly not being able to sense the advantageous way of approaching the customer, or of packing their goods in a proper way for forwarding. Their prevailing sense of superiority is also strongly against their success in dealing with their Southern neighbors. Reading and travel are the great educators. If you have read this book understandingly and have traveled the route outlined in it, it is the hope of the author that your mind has developed and your ideas advanced to the mutual advantage of yourself and of your Southern neighbor. If you have read the book, but stayed at home, it is hoped you feel your time and the expense of the book have not been misspent. SEP 30 1912 144 Panama— Part III. C:^ If any proper questions concerning the Canal, the Zone and the republic of Panama, as well as the coast line leading from Panama City to San Francisco, have not been answered within the covers of this book, the author will consider it a personal favor to him if they are sent to him ; and he will agree to answer them, if competent to do so, and if not competent, he will agree to study the subject and find and forward the proper answer. He has had great pleasure in compiling the contents of this book, and if some proportion of this pleasure should descend to the reader, he will feel well repaid for his efforts. THE AUTHOR. FINIS. LEJa'13