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THE 
 
 WOKLD'S PKOGEESS 
 
 AN INDEX TO UNIVEESAL HISTORY 
 
 AND A CYCLOPEDIA OF PACTS, DATES 
 AND GENEEAL INFORMATION 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL AND ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF ALL ESSENTIAL 
 
 FACTS IN THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, FROM THE CREATION 
 
 OF THE WORLD TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 aEORGE P: PUTNAM, A.M. 
 
 EEVISED AND CONTIHXTBD TO DA.TE BT 
 
 FKEDERICK B. PERKINS and LYNDS E. JONES 
 
 YilTE CHART 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 New Yokk : 27 and 29 West 23d Street 
 
 London : 25 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden 
 
 1883 
 
COPVEIGHT, 1R83, 
 
 By G. p. PUTNAM "S SONS, 
 
 
 Gift 
 [pg. Edwin C- Dinwicidie 
 
z- 
 
 (-7 
 
 / 
 
EXPLAMTION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY- 
 
 Representing, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall of 
 the Principal Empires of the World. 
 
 OK THE PLAN OF DK. JOHN PKIESTLEY. 
 
 It is necesary to notice, that the space allotted to each, country is rather 
 according to its relative political importance than to its geographical 
 extent. 
 
 The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart represent 
 time, viz., each a century, or 100 years ; those between the horizontal lines 
 represent countries, the names of which are expressed at the end of the 
 chart. 
 
 By examining the vertical columns we ascertain the contemporary 
 state of different nations at the period we fix upon. For instance : about 
 1500 years before Christ we see states forming in Greece ; the Israelites 
 in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after) ; the Egyptian, 
 Assyrian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded 
 several centuries previous — but their history uncertain and obscure. At 
 the time of Christ we find the Roman Empire spread over a greater part 
 of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans as 
 yet unsubdued by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in 
 Turkey, and its former territories are under barbarians : the Heptarchy 
 in England; the Lombards in Italy; the Franks in Gaul; the African 
 provinces, and a large par.t of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find 
 the Eastern or Greek Empire fallen under the Turks ; the Tartars 
 powerful in Asia : many of the modern states of Europe founded ; 
 America discovered by the Europeans, &c., &c. 
 
 On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in 
 continuation by looking along the chart horizontally : the Persian empire 
 is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that of the Modes about 
 600 B. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 
 536 ; falls in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, 
 and Tartars, successively.— The Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 B. c. ; 
 in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300 ; under Kings, 1095 ; Ten 
 
 ill 
 
IV EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY. 
 
 Tribes separated, 975 ; iTiey are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the 
 Assyrians ; restored by tlie Persians, 535 ; under tbe Macedonians, 330 ; 
 restored to independence by the Maccabees, 150, conquered by the 
 Romans, 63 ; by the Saracens, A. D. 623 ; afterwards by the crusaders, 
 Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdiMeA by the Romans 
 in the first century ; relinquished by them, A. d. 410 ; subdued by the 
 Saxons, 500 ; by the Danes, 860 ; by the Normans (receiving French 
 territories), 1066 ; imited with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280 ; with 
 Scotland, 1600. — Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by 
 the Romans from 300 — 200 B. c. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostro- 
 goths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern times divided 
 into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French 
 empire about 1800, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand 
 Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the Pope, and the King of Naples.* 
 
 " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a 
 chart of history is apt to excite in the minds of persons of feeling and 
 humanity. What a number of revolutions are marked upon it ! What 
 torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and 
 in what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals 
 involved a great part of their species ! " — Priestley 
 
 * The present editor has thought best to give Dr. Priestley's summary in his o-rni 
 words. ]t is hardly necessary to explain that Italy of to-day is not so divided,— but that 
 the entire peninsula has since 1866 constituted the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS 1877-1883 ix 
 
 11. " " " 1867-1877 1 
 
 III. " " " 1851-1867 69 
 
 IV. " " " From the earliest times to 1851 201 
 
 V. LITEEART CHEONOLOGY 665- 
 
 VI. HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC 704 
 
 VII. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVEESAL HISTORY 713 
 
 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Period I.— The Antediluvian (1656 years) 715 
 
 Period II. — Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).— The Deluge to Abraham 716 
 
 Period III. — The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years). — Abraham to Moses 718 
 
 Period IV.— The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years). — Moses to Saul 720 
 
 Period V.— The Monarchical (488 years). ^Saul'to Cyrus 724 
 
 Period VI. — The Persian (323 years). — Cyrus to Alexander 730 
 
 Period VII.— The Grecian (184 years).— Alexander to the Fall of Greece 738 
 
 Period VIII. — The Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era 750 
 
 n. MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Period I.— (306 years.)- From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine 760 
 
 Period II.— (170 years.)— Constantine to Odoacer 770 
 
 Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet 776 
 
 Period IV.— (178 years.)— Mahomet to Charlemagne 780 
 
 Period V.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror 786 
 
 Period VI.— (233 years.)— William the Conqueror to Othman 1 798 
 
 Period VII.— (154 years.)— Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire 814 
 
 Period VIII.— (145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes 824 
 
 Period IX.— (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII. of Sweden. 834 
 
 Period X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon 846 
 
 Period XI— (52 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1867 858 
 
 Period XIL— (16 years.)— 1867 to 1883 904 
 
 IX.— BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DIC TIONAEY OR INDEX 927 
 
 X.— SCHOOLS OF PAINTING 1027 
 
P E E F A C E . 
 
 While revising a chronological manual, in compiling which I had 
 at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found 
 material assistance 'in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. 
 Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford 
 Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the 
 comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been 
 incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United 
 States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuationa 
 to the present year. 
 
 The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had 
 cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating 
 them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only 
 were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for 
 the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- 
 ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent 
 reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; 
 and showing also what was going on at the same time in different 
 countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, 
 many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they 
 are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. 
 
 To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- 
 rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while 
 the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and 
 
 * Chrr/nclogy — An Index to Universal History, &c. 12mo. Leavitt, New- 
 Fork, 1583. The volvmie has been long out of print. 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 others, are available to tlie historian or the merely literary man, thej 
 are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason 
 that they contain too micch for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- 
 ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. 
 
 What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- 
 tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the 
 governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely t« 
 recall to the, reader of history the full pictures of these events, and 
 to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. 
 
 The alphabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more 
 full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the 
 whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- 
 ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the 
 largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible 
 compass. 
 
 There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names 
 and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances 
 the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not 
 numerous or important. 
 
 Tho Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, 
 it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously 
 useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it 
 the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will 
 show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- 
 sons lived during the life-time of that individual, 
 
 It wfOuld be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That 
 such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be 
 Buppof^ed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all 
 reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the 
 World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as Id 
 Politics and Government G. P. P. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 July, 1877, to January, 1883. 
 
 BEING AN ALPHABETICAL EECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCUKRENCES 
 DURING THOSE YEARS. 
 
 ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquakes, Explosions, Fires, 
 Floods, Mining Disasters, Railroad Accidents, Storms, Theatres, 
 Wrecl^s, and p. 1.) June 28, 1878, part of a tunnel near Schwelni, Ger- 
 many, fell and buried 27 persons. July 4, 1878, the fall of a tree in a 
 thunder storm at Ross Grove, Penna., killed 15 persons. July 26, 
 1878, th3 capsizing of a boat on the river Blackwater, Ireland, 
 drowned 17 persons. May 24, 1881, the deck stanchions on the excur- 
 sion steamer " Victoria " at London, Ontario, gave way and 240 persons 
 were killed. December 25, 1881, panic in a church at Warsaw and 40 
 persons killed. March 6, 1882, a shaft in a mine near Toplitz, Bohemia, 
 fell and killed 40 persons. May 15, 1882, 50 Turkish soldiers drowned 
 in Bosphorus. July 12, 1882, a house struck by lightning in Texarkana, 
 Ark., fell and killed 30 persons. December 20, 1882, fall of a cage in 
 Hardenburg mine, Prussia, killed 20 persons. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. _ England. (See also pp. 2, 71, 208.) In March, 
 1878, Lord Derby resigned from the Conservative ministry on account 
 of its foreign policy and was succeeded by the Marquis of Salisbury. 
 On the dissolution of Parliament in March, 1880, a Liberal House of 
 Commons was elected, and Lord Beaconsfield accordingly resigned and 
 Mr. Gladstone became Premier (April 28, 1880), with Granville, Bright, 
 Chamberlain, Porster, Childers, etc., in the Cabinet. Mr. Forster sub- 
 sequently resigned on account of the Irish policy and Mr. Bright on 
 account of the Egyptian war, and more recently Lord Derby has entered 
 the Cabinet. Lord Salisbury was chosen leader of the Conservative 
 party on the death of Beaconsfield in 1881. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. United States. (See also pp. 2, 70, 305.) 
 
 Changes in Hates' Administration subsequent to August, 1877. 
 
 Alexander Ramsey, 
 Nathan Goff, jr. 
 Horace Maynard, 
 
 James A. Garfield, 
 Chester A. Arthur, 
 James G. Blaine, 
 William "Windom, 
 
 Minnesota, Dec. 10, 1879, Secretary of War. 
 
 West Virginia, Jan. 6,1881, Secretary of Navy. 
 Tennessee, June 2, 18S0, Postmaster-General. 
 
 Garfield's Administration. 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 New York, 
 Maine, 
 Minnesota, 
 
 March 4, 1881, 
 March 4. 1881, 
 March 5, 1881, 
 March 5, 1881, 
 
 President. 
 Vice-President, 
 Secretary of State. 
 Secretary of Treas- 
 ury. 
 
 ix 
 
THE WOELD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 Robert T. Lincoln. 
 William H. Hunt, 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood, 
 
 Thomas L. James 
 
 "Wayne MacVeagh, 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, 
 David Davis, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 March 5, 1881, 
 March 5, 1881, 
 March 5, 1881, 
 
 March 5, 1881, 
 March 5, 1881, 
 
 New York, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Aethur's Administeation. 
 
 New York, Sept. 20, 1881, 
 
 Illinois, Oct. 13,1881, 
 
 Frederick T.Frelinghuysen, New Jersey, 
 Charles J. Folger, New York, 
 
 Eobert T. Lincoln, 
 William E. Chandler, 
 Henry M. Teller, 
 
 Timothy O. Howe, 
 Benjamin H. Brewster, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Dec. 12, 1881, 
 Oct. 27, 1881, 
 
 March 5, 1881, 
 April 14, 1882, 
 April 6, 1882, 
 
 Dec. 20, 1881, 
 Dec. 19, 1881, 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 Secretary of the In- 
 terior. 
 Postmaster-General. 
 Attorn ey-General. 
 
 President. 
 
 Acting Vice-Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Secretary of Treas- 
 ury. 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
 Secretarj' of Navy. 
 
 Secretary of the In- 
 terior. 
 
 Postmaster-General. 
 
 Attorney-General . 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. (See also pp. 3, 213.) The jealousy of England in 
 regard to the approach of Russia towards her Asiatic possessions caused 
 her to send troops into Afghanistan in November, 1878, on the ground 
 that Sliere Ali, the Ameer, after receiving a Russian Embassy had 
 refused to receive an English one. In the engagements the English 
 were successf al and Shere Ali fled to Russian territory where he died, 
 February 21, 1879. He was succeeded as Ameer by his son, Yakoob 
 Khan, who shortly after concluded a treaty of peace with the British 
 at Gundamuk, May 26, 1879, providing that the foreign affairs of the 
 Ameer should be conducted under British advice, that the Ameer should 
 be supported by the British against foreign aggression and that a British 
 resident should be appointed at Cabul. In accordance with this treaty a 
 British Embassy, with Major Sir Louis Cavagnari at its head, proceeded 
 to Cabul in July, where, on September 3, it was treacherously massacred 
 with its native escort. The Ameer disclaimed all share in the massacre 
 and took refuge in the British camp, leaving Cabul in a state of anarchy. 
 The English at once proceeded to avenge the loss. The opposing 
 Afghans were routed ; Cabul was seized and held by Sir F. Roberts 
 and Candahar re-occupied by Sir D. Stewart. The abdication of Yakoob 
 Khan was accepted, October 21, and with some of his Ministers he was 
 sent to India. Shere Ali Khan was afterward recognized by the Eng- 
 lish as an independent ruler of Candahar, and later (July 22, 1880) 
 Abdul Rahman Khan was proclaimed the Ameer of Cabul, under the 
 protection of the British government. The British subsequently turned 
 over Cabul and their other possessions to the new Ameer, and, with- 
 drawing their forces, left the prosecution of the war against liis rebel- 
 lious subjects to Abdul, who during 1881 succeeded in finally subju- 
 gating them. The population of Afghanistan (or Cabul, as it is now 
 called) is about 2,500,000. 
 
 AFRICA. (See also pp. 3, 72, 213.) During the past half dozen years a 
 large number of explorers have visited Africa, and have very greatly 
 increased the knowledge about the interior, Stanley made a third tour 
 in 1879, and since then he has become the head of' a Belgian com- 
 mercial company who are seeking to develop the basin of the Congo 
 for trading purposes, for which they have already established a large 
 station at Leopoldville and constructed a costly road from there to the 
 mouth of the Congo, They have, however, a powerful competitor in 
 
1877-83. xi 
 
 a Frencli company, under tlie direction of M. de Brazza, who have 
 acquired from the native king considerable territory, and who have 
 already built a number of stations, and who expect to complete their 
 explorations and preparations within two years. The French are also 
 making great progress on the Senegal and Niger, a railroad being 
 actually in process of construction connecting the two rivers, and a 
 flotilla of armed steamers about to be placed on the Niger. The 
 project of an inland sea has been abandoned for the present, as its cost 
 would not be justified by resulting benefits. The plan of building a 
 railroad across the Sahara has also been postponed. 
 
 AGNOSTICISM. A negative school of philosophy of which the late Geo. 
 Henry Lewes was a prominent disciple, which excludes all considera- 
 tion of a future world a,s not coming within man's "knowledge." 
 
 AGEICULTURE. (See also Cereals, Cotton, Tolacco, etc., also pp. 3, 73, 
 214.) In 1880 there were 4,008,907 farms in the United States, of 
 which 822,357 were rented for a fixed money rental, 702,244 rented for 
 shares of products, and the remaining 2,984,306 were occupied by their 
 owners. 28,578 were each over 1,000 acres, and 139,241 were each 
 under 10 acres. The live-stock on them consisted of 10,357,981 horses, 
 1,812,932 mules and asses, 993,970 working oxen, 12,443,593 milk cows, 
 22,488,590 other cattle, 35,191,656 sheep, and 47,683,951 swine. 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. (See also p. 4.) In 1878-9 Congress authorized an 
 exploration of the southwestern territory of the United States, and 
 this has already resulted in the collection, at the National Museum at 
 Washington, of between 25,000 and 35,000 specimens of pottery, stone 
 implements, weapons of war, articles of husbandry, etc., taken from 
 New Mexico and Arizona. During the explorations, a number of cliff 
 villages were discovered in Arizona, a closer examination of which 
 will probably give valuable data as to the early inhabitants of that part 
 of the continent. A tribe of Zuni Indians were encountered by one of 
 the early exploring parties, and Mr. Gushing, a member of the party, 
 joined the tribe in the interests of science, and finally brought several 
 of them on a visit East. His description of their customs and history is 
 looked forward to with great interest. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See also pp. 4, 78, 229.) On July 9, 1879, 
 the " Jeannette," fitted out at the expense of James Gordon Bennett, 
 under the sanction of Congress, and officered ffom the U. S. Navy, 
 sailed from San Francisco. No news having been received from her 
 after Septenaber 2, 1879, Congress sent the " Rodgers " in search of her, 
 June 16, 1881, but unfortunately the " Rodgers" was burned while in 
 winter quarters in St. Lawrence Bay, November 30, 1881. In March, 
 1882, word came by telegraph from Siberia that a portion of the crew 
 of the " Jeannette " had safely landed on the Northern coast of that 
 country. From these survivors it has been learned that the "Jeannette" 
 became unmanageable from the surrounding ice in September, 1879, 
 and that she drifted helplessly till June, 1880, when she sank to the 
 bottom. Her crew struggled over the ice to the land, which was 
 reached by two of the parties, who, however, became separated in 
 doing so, and one of them only (that under Engineer Melville) was 
 saved. The other party which reached the land (under Captain De 
 Long) perished from cold and privation before they were found. The 
 third party (under Lieutenant Chipp) has never been heard from. An 
 
THE WOELD S PEOGKESS. 
 
 English Arctic expedition, under Mr. Leigh Smith, left Peterhead in 
 the "Eira" on June 14, 1881. In the absence of news from them the 
 British government, in 1883, despatched the "Hope "to search for 
 them, and in August, 1882, they were found in open boats in Matoch- 
 kin Strait. On July 18, 1882, a Danish party sailed from Copenhagen 
 in the "Dijmphna," under command of Lieutenant Hovgaard, and have 
 not siuce been heard from. 
 AEGENTINE REPUBLIC. (See pp. 5, 79.) Population 2,540,000 ; area 
 1,357,898 sq. miles. Presidents: Dr. Avellaneda, 1874-80 ; Gen. Roca, 
 since October 12, 1S80. In May, 1879, a revolution occurred in the prov- 
 ince of Jujuy, and in August there were several riots in the city of 
 Buenos Ayres. A more serious outbreak occurred in the province of 
 Buenos Ayres in February, 1880, vs^hich lasted until October, vs^hen it 
 was ended by mutual concessions. By the Treaty of Buenos Ayres 
 (July 23, 1881), vi^ith Chili, Patagonia and Terra del Fuego have been 
 divided between these two Republics. 
 
 ARMIES OF THE WORLD. (See also p. 6.) 
 
 War 
 
 Regtjlar 
 Army. 
 
 Mexico 24,830 
 
 Netherlands 65,113 
 
 Norway 18,750 
 
 Persia 57,600 
 
 Peru 4,670 
 
 Portugal 34,87'4 
 
 Roumania 19,812 
 
 Russia 974,771 
 
 Srrvia 50,000 
 
 Spain 90,000 
 
 Sweden 41,280 
 
 Switzerland 117,500 
 
 Turkey 350,000 
 
 United States 27.489 
 
 Uruguay 2;.357 
 
 Venezuela 2,340 
 
 War. 
 Footing. 
 
 163,198 
 241,600 
 
 40,000 
 
 78,024 
 
 200,000 
 
 2,733,305 
 
 265,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 202,783 
 
 210,495 
 
 610,200 
 
 3,105,000 
 
 22,357 
 
 185,000 
 
 Regular 
 
 Armt. Footing. 
 
 Austria-Hungary 289,190 1,125,833 
 
 Argeutine Republic... 8,227 304,000 
 
 Belgium 46,383 165,877 
 
 Bolivia 3,021 
 
 Brazil 15,304 32,000 
 
 Canada 2,000 700,152 
 
 Chili 3,573 50,000 
 
 China 300,000 1,000,000 
 
 Colombia 3,000 30,740 
 
 Denmark 35,727 49,054 
 
 Egypt 15.000 43,000 
 
 France 502,764 3,753,164 
 
 Germany 445,403 1,492,104 
 
 Great Britain 131,636 577,906 
 
 Greece 12,118 3.5,000 
 
 India, British 189,597 380,000 
 
 Italy 736,502 1,718,933 
 
 Japan 36,777 51,721 
 
 Luxembourg.. 377 
 
 ARMY of the U. S. (See also pp. 6, 79.) Expenses of War Depart, for 
 
 1877 $37,082,735.90 
 
 1878 32,154,147.85 
 
 1879 40,425,660.73 
 
 Regular army, including officers and men, now 27,489. In June, 1882, 
 a law was passed retiring all officers on reaching the age of sixty-four. 
 
 ARREARS OF RENT BILL. As the operation of the Irish Land Bill 
 showed that rents had hitherto been excessive, the British Parliament 
 in August, 1882, enacted that the Land Commission should have power 
 also to pass upon questions of arrears of rent, deciding what amount 
 should be paid the landlord. The same act also provided for furnishing 
 money to poor persons to emigrate. 
 
 ASBESTOS. A paint made of ground asbestos has lately been manufac- 
 tured for use in theatres and elsewhere to prevent fires. 
 
 ASSASSINATIONS. (See also p. 6.) August 16, 1878, Gen. Mezentzow, 
 chief of Czar's police, in St. Petersburg; September, 1878, Mehemet Ali, 
 Turkish delegate to Berlin Congress, in Albania ; March 26, 1879, Judge 
 J. M. Elliott, of Kentucky Court of Appeals, in Frankfort ; March 14, 
 
 4,657,884 20,076,446 
 
 1880 $38,116,016.22 
 
 1881 40,466,460.55 
 
1877-83. xiii 
 
 1880, Grand Shereef of Mecca, in Djedda ; September 25, 1880, Lord 
 Montmorres, Irisli landlord, in Galway ; March 13, 1881, Alexander II., 
 Czar of Russia, in St. Petersburg; July 2, 1881, James A. Garfield, 
 President of United States, in Washington ; May 6, 1882, Lord F. C. 
 Cavendish and T. H. Burke, Secretary and Under Secretary for Ire- 
 land, in Dublin. Attempts upon the lives of Emperor William of Ger- 
 many, May and June, 1878 ; King Alfonso of Spain, October, 1878, and 
 December, 1879 ; King Humbert of Italy, November, 1878 ; Lord Lyt- 
 ton, Governor-General of India, December, 1879; Count Melikoif, Dic- 
 tator of Russia, March, 1880 ; Piesideut Gonzales of Mexico, July, 
 1880 ; Premier Depretis of Italy, November, 1881 ; Queen Victoria, 
 March, 1882 ; King Milan of Servia, October, 1882. 
 
 ASSESSMENTS. (See Political Assessments.) 
 
 ASTRONOMY. (See also pp. 7, 81, 235.) Up to November 1, 1882, 230 
 asteroids had been discovered. There was a total solar eclipse July 
 29, 1878, and May 6, 1882, and transits of Mercury, May 6, 1878, and of 
 Venus, Dec. 6, 1882, all of which were observed by astronomers with 
 good results. The next solar eclipse will occur May 6, 1883. Large 
 comets appeared in 1881 and 1882, visible for a considerable length of 
 time. Time-balls are now dropped by telegraph daily at noon in New 
 York by the Naval Observatory at Washington, and in Boston by the 
 Harvard College Observatory. There are at present 118 public observa- 
 tories in the world, 84 in Europe, 27 in America, 3 in Oceanica, 2 each 
 in Asia and Africa. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. (See also pp. 7, 82, 239.) Population (by census 
 1880), 37,741,413 ; area, 240,940 square miles. The Treaty of Berlin 
 (signed July 13, 1878) charged Austria with the administration of the 
 Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which comprise an area 
 of about 27,000 square miles, with a population of 1,158,440. Consider- 
 able armed opposition was met with by Austria on taking possession of 
 the territory in 1878, and the provinces remained in a semi-insurrec- 
 tionary state until early in 1882, necessitating the maintenance of a 
 
 . large military establishment by Austria. There have been a number 
 of Socialist trials in Hungary, and in December, 1882, Overdank, an 
 Italian Socialist, was executed on the charge of plotting against the 
 Emperor's life. 
 
 BALLOONS. (See also pp. 8, 83, 343.) The recently discovered methods 
 for the storage of electricity and for the cheap production of aluminum 
 have led those interested in the solution of the aeronautic problem to 
 think that balloons may now be successfully made, as the two great 
 desiderata, storage of power, and a light and strong substance for 
 framework, have now been found. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY. (See also Failures, and pp. 8, 84, 245.) Congress repealed 
 the U. S. bankrupt law, the repeal taking effect September 1, 1878. 
 
 BANKS. (See also pp. 83, 244.) In 1881 there were 2,115 national 
 bank§, 4,016 state banks, private banking houses, etc., and 665 savings 
 banks in the U. S., whose aggregate capital amounted to |670,900,000, 
 and deposits to $2,667,800,000. In June, 1882, Congress passed a bill 
 providing for the renewal of the charters of national banks as they ex- 
 pired. 
 
 BATTLES. (See also pp. 9, 84, 248.) 
 
THE WORLD S PROGEESS. 
 
 Plevna, Turks defeat Eussians, 
 
 July 30 
 Jahnilar, " '' " Au";. 18 
 
 SMpka Pass, Russians defeat Turks, 
 
 Aug. 23 
 Kizil Tape, Turks defeat Russians, 
 
 Aug. 25, 
 Lovatz, Eussians " Turks, Sept. 3 
 Kars, " " " Nov. 18 
 
 Plevna, " " " Dec. 10 
 
 Sophia, " " " Jan. 3, 
 
 Shipka Pass, Russians defeat Turks, 
 Jan. 9 
 Isandlana, Zulus 
 
 Gingholova, British. 
 Calama, Chilians 
 Ulundi, British 
 
 ' British, 
 Jan. 19, 
 
 • Zulus, 
 April 2, 
 
 • Bolivians, 
 Apr. 3 
 
 Zulus, 
 July 4, 
 Calama captured by Bolivians and 
 
 Peruvians , Sept. 1 
 
 San Francisco (Peru), Chilians defeat 
 
 Peruvians Sept. 19, 
 
 Shutargardau, British defeat Afghans, 
 
 Oct. 2, 
 Pisagua captured by Chilians, Nov. 2, 
 Tarapaca, '• " " Nov. 8 
 Quintlagoa, Peruvians defeat Chil- 
 ians Nov. 13, 
 
 Tarapana, Peruvians defeat Chilians, 
 Nov. 25, 
 Cabul, British defeat 
 
 1877 
 1877 
 
 1877 
 
 1877 
 1877 
 1877 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 
 1870 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 1879 
 
 Ahmedkey, British defeat Afghans, 
 
 Apr. 19, 1880 
 Ghurzner, " " " Apr. 20,1S80 
 
 Charasiab, " " " Apr. 25, 1880 
 
 Arica, Chilians, " Peruvians, 
 
 June 7, 1880 
 Candahar, Afghans, " British, 
 
 July 22, 1880 
 " British " Afghans, 
 
 Sept. 1, 1880 
 Maseru (Natal)" defeat Basutos,Oct.l4,1880 
 
 Oct. 19, 1880 
 "British Dec.21,1880 
 " Egyptians, 
 
 Aug. 24, 1882 
 
 Aug. 25, 1882 
 
 Sept. 13, 1883 
 
 Mafeteng 
 Heidelberg, Boers 
 Magfar, British 
 
 Kassasin Lock, 
 
 Tel-el-Kefir, 
 
 Zagazig, 
 
 Sept. 13, 1883 
 Damietta captured by British, Sept. 23, 1882 
 
 Naval Battles. 
 Chilians defeat Peruvians off Loa, 
 
 April 11, 1879 
 " " " " Iquique, 
 
 May 21, 1879 
 " bombard Iquique, 
 
 July 16, 1879 
 Peruvians " Caldera, 
 
 July 21, 1879 
 Chilians " Iquique, 
 
 Aug. 8, 1879 
 Chilians defeat Peruvians off Mejil- 
 
 lones Oct. 8, 1879 
 
 Chilians capture the " Huascar" 
 
 Oct. 9, 1879 
 Chilians defeat Peruvians off 
 
 Iquique Nov. 24, 1879 
 
 Chilians bombard Arica, Mar. 7, 1880 
 
 Peruvians destroy the " Loa," July 4, 1880 
 British Bombard Alexandria, July 11, 1883 
 
 Afghans, 
 Dec. 14, 
 Sherpur, British defeat Afghans, 
 
 Dec. 23, 1879 
 Dacca, '' " Afghans, 
 
 Jan. 15, 1880 
 Khelat-i-Ghilzai (Afghanistan) captured 
 
 by British Jan. 21, 1880 
 
 Titicago, Peruvians defeat Chilians, 
 
 Feb. 3, 1880 
 
 BERLIN, Congress of. (See Btissia.) 
 
 BIBLE. (See Revision and pp. 9, 86, 257.) 
 
 BIOLOGY. A science whose province is the study of living organisms 
 irrespective of their exact nature and position. In its widest definition 
 it includes both zoology and botany. 
 
 BOERS. (See Transvaal.) 
 
 BOLIVIA. (See also p. 88.) Population, 3,335,000 ; area, 500,870 square 
 miles. Presidents : Dr. Thomas Frias, 1874-76 ; Gen. Hilarion Daza, 
 1876-80 ; Dr. Nicholas Campero, 1880-82 ; Senor Salinas, since 1883, 
 For an account of the Chilian war, see Chili. 
 
 BOSNIA. (See Austria and p. 10.) 
 
 BRIDGES. (See also pp. 11, 89, 274.) Two notable suspension bridges 
 have been built in the past few years, one across the Ohio River at 
 Cincinnati with a span of 520 feet, and one across the Mississippi River 
 at Minneapolis with a span of 675 feet. The New York and Brooklyn 
 Bridge is now nearly completed and will be opened, it is announced 
 during the present year (1883). 
 
 BULGARIA. Created a principality by tlie Treaty of Berlin, signed 
 
. 1877-83. XV 
 
 July 13, 1878. The assembly chosen to draw up a constitution, Feb- 
 ruary, 1879, provided for triennial parliaments and universal suffrage, 
 and elected by a unanimous vote Alexander I., son of Prince Alexan- 
 der of Hesse and brother of the Empress of Eussia, as Prince, the title 
 to be hereditary to the eldest son. Prince Alexander assumed the gov- 
 ernment June 28, 1879. The area of Bulgaria is 27,538 square miles 
 and it has a population of 2,000,000. 
 
 BURMAH. (See also pp. 90, 281.) Population, 3,500,000 ; area, 192,000 
 square miles. In 1878 Thebau, Prince, ascended the throne, and on 
 February IG, 1879, all the princes of the royal house and their relations 
 (86) weie killed by his order. In consequence of this the British gov- 
 eiment withdrew its envoy from the Burmese court and all diplomatic 
 relations with the King have ceased. In May, 1882, the political mas- 
 sacres were resumed and Thebau put to death one of his wives, two 
 half-sisters and 50 of their relations. 
 
 CABUL. (See Afghanistan.) 
 
 CANADA. (See also pp. 11, 91, 288.) The Dominion of Canada now in- 
 cludes all the British possessions in North America excepting New- 
 foundland, and has an area of 3^204,381 square miles and a poi^ulation 
 (by census of 1881) of 4,352,080. In August, 1878, the Marquis of 
 Lome, the eldest son of the Duke of Argyll and the son-in-law of 
 Queen Victoria, was appointed Governor-General of Canada. At the 
 elections in September, 1878, the protectionist party was successful, 
 and since that date Canada has had a tariff policy, Sir John Macdonald 
 being the Prime Minister. 
 
 CANALS. (See also Panama Canal, and pp. 11, 92, 288.) In 1878 a 
 contract was made for dredging a great sea canal through the lagoon 
 which separates Cronstadt from St. Petersburg; width, 280 feet ; depth, 
 20 feet ; length, 10 miles. In 1880 a bill was passed by French legisla- 
 ture for construction of a system of canals from the Atlantic to the 
 Mediterranean. In 1882 the State of New York adopted a constitu- 
 tional amendment abolishing all tolls on the canals owned by the State. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See also p. 12.) By a constitutional amend- 
 ment adopted in 1879 each Swiss canton is now allowed to decide for 
 itself whether it will restore capital punishment, which had been 
 abolished throughout the Confederation by the constitution of 1874. 
 A bill for its abolition was passed by the Italian Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1877. Further attempts to abolish it in England have failed. 
 
 CATHOLICS. (See Eoman Catholic Church.) 
 
 CENSUS. (See also Population and pp. 12, 94, 299.) United States 
 , (1880), 50,155,783 ; Great Britain and Ireland (1881), 35,246,633 ; Ger- 
 many (1880), 45,194,172 ; France (1881), 37,672,048 , Austria-Hungary 
 (1880), 37,741,413 ; Russian Empire (1882)-, 100,038,342 ; Italy (1881), 
 28,459,451 ; Spain (1879), 16,623,389. 
 
 CEREALS. Area and product in United States in 1880 : 
 
 Acreage. Bushels. 
 
 Indian Com 62,.326,953 1 ,7:2,909,846 
 
 Wheat 85,487.065 459.591,093 
 
 Oats 16,150,631 407,970,712 
 
 Barley 2,005.466 44.149,479 
 
 Bye 1,844,321 19.863,632 
 
 Buckwheat 851,304 11,851,738 
 
XVI THE WORLD S PEOGRESS. 
 
 CHARITIES. (See also pp. 12, 95, 302.) The "flower mission" was 
 started some years ago in New Yorli to receive from private donors 
 flowers for distribution in hospitals. The custom has spread to Lon- 
 don, Brooklyn, and other cities. "Hospital Saturday and Sunday" 
 originated in New York in 1879, and is the setting apart of the last 
 Saturday and Sunday of the year for collections in churches and else- 
 where for funds to aid in supporting and extending hospital work. 
 The time is not limited to these two days, hut generally now includes 
 a month. The " fresh air fund " is used each summer to send poor 
 children from New York to the country, where they are gratuitously 
 received into the families of farmers for two weeks each. Through 
 the benevolence of Mrs. J. J. Astor and others, many hundreds of chil- 
 dren have been rescued from the streets and placed in permanent homes 
 in the West. In 1882 Mr. John F. Slater, of Norwich, Conn., gave 
 $1,000,000 for the education of the colored people of the South. 
 
 CHEMICALS. (See also p. 303.) In 1880 there were 1,349 establishments 
 in the United States engaged in the manufacture of chemicals, represent- 
 ing a capital of $85,483,856, employing 29,500 hands, to whom $11,820,- 
 728 was paid in wages, consuming materials valued at $77,344,281, 
 and producing goods of the value of $117,407,054. 
 
 CHILI. (See also pp. 95, 304.) Population, 2,234,000 ; area, 182,790 
 square miles. Presidents : Anibal Pinto, 1876-81 ; Santo Maria, since 
 Sept., 18S1. In 1879 war broke out between Chili on the one side and 
 Bolivia and Peru on the other, which has been but just terminated by 
 the complete subjection of the last two countries. The primary origin 
 of the wtir was a dispute between Chili and Bolivia as to the ownership 
 of a strip of coast territory lying between latitude 23° and 25° south, and 
 originated in 1842. This strip, originally supposed to be barren and 
 valueless, was afterward found to be rich in guano deposits and more 
 recently in beds of nitrate of soda (saltpetre) and other minerals.' The 
 difiiculties between the two countries were finally settled by treaties in 
 1864 and 1874, and since then Chilian capital and industry have devel- 
 oped a valuable trade in this district. In 1878 Peru, finding that these 
 Chilian companies were becoming formidable competitors in its guano 
 and nitrate trade, incited Bolivia (it is claimed) to violate the treaty of 
 1874 by imposing new and oppressive taxes on the Chilian companies, 
 and, on their refusal to pay them, to confiscate their property. Chili 
 instantly retaliated by garrisoning the towns and blockading the coast 
 of the territory in dispute, February, 1879, and, on learning that Peru 
 had previously entered into a defensive and offensive alliance with 
 Bolivia, declared war against Peru, April 6, 1879. The war was 
 actively prosecuted on sea and land until January, 1881, the territory 
 of the three countries forming in turn the battlefield. Chili, however, 
 soon succeeded in driving the allies from her own country, and in the 
 second year the war was chiefly waged in Peru, the Chilians with their 
 superior navy managing to blockade the Peruvian ports. The sur- 
 render of Callao and Lima, January 23, 1881, gave Chili posseFsion of 
 the whole of the coast line and virtually ended the war. In Septem- 
 ber, 1880, the United States offered its eervices to mediate between the 
 three countries and the offer was accepted, but no result was reached. 
 In January, 1882, Bolivia made peace with Chili by surrendering her 
 coast territoiy and breaking her alliance with Peru. No arrangement 
 
1877-83. xvii 
 
 has yet been made (December, 1882) between Chili and Peru and the 
 former remains in military possession of the latter. By the Treaty of 
 Buenos Ayres(July 33, 1881), with the Argentine Republic, Chili gained 
 a large accession of territory, including a great part of Patagonia and 
 Terra del Fuego, about 57,000 square miles. 
 CHINA. (See also pp. 13, 95, 305.) The population of the Chinese em- 
 pire is now estimated at 434,626,000, and the area at 4,560,107 square 
 miles. In October, 1877, the government closed the railroad which 
 had been opened the previous year (the only one in the country). A 
 famine occurred in Northern China early in 1878, during which it was 
 stated that many thousands died from starvation. The latter part of 
 1880 a treaty with Russia, favorable to Chinese interests, averted the 
 war which had threatened the two countries for some years. During 
 1882 some trouble arose with Japan in consequence of a treaty between 
 Corea and Japan, and at present (December, 1S82), there is a difficulty 
 with France regarding Tonquin. 
 
 CHINESE IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. (See also p. 
 13.) 
 
 1877 10,379 1 1880 7,001 
 
 1878 8,4GS I 1881 (to September 1) 13,704 
 
 1879 9,189| 
 
 Total from 1855 to September, 1881, 232,283, of which it is estimated 
 that one-half have returned to China. The census of 1880 shows 
 105,465 Chinese in the United States. Considerable opposition to the 
 Chinese having developed on the Pacific slope, the United States gov- 
 ernment secured a modification of the treaty with China, under which 
 Congress passed a law (signed by the President May 8, 1882) suspending 
 Grinese immigration for ten years 
 
 CIVIL SEIiVICE REFORM. (See also Political Assessments and p. 13.) 
 President Hayes, shortly after his inauguration in 1877 ,issued an order 
 forbidding all office-holders taking any part in political campaigns 
 beyond voting at elections and primaries. In 1880 civil t^ervice reform 
 associations were organized in New York and Boston and subsequently 
 in a number of other places, chiefly in the Eastern States. The election 
 and assassination of President Garfield gave a powerful stimulus to 
 the movement, which was increased by the course of the Republican 
 Congressional Committee in demanding contributions from government 
 employes in the campaign of 1882. Senator Pendleton, in 1880, intro- 
 duced a bill for a reform of the service, of which the principal feature 
 was open competitive examinations, and which met with the approval 
 of the agitators on the subject, but the bill received little attention in 
 Congress until the result of the elections in 1882 showed that popular 
 feeling supported the measure. On the meeting of Congress in Dec, 
 1882, the bill parsed both Houses by remarkably large majorities and 
 on January 16, 1883, received the President's signature. 
 
 COAL. (See also pp. 14, 98,315.) The annual production of coal through- 
 out the world is now about 300,000,000 tons, of which India produces 
 4,000,000, and China 3,000,000. In 1880 England produced 14(5,818,122 
 tons (of 2,240 pounds) and the United States (for census year ending 
 June 1, 1880) 71,067,576 tons (of 2,000 pounds), of which 42,420 581 
 tons were bituminous, and 28,646,995 anthracite. The number of col- 
 lieries in 1880 was, in England, 3,880, and in the United States, 3,264 
 
XVlll THE "WOELDS PROGRESS. 
 
 S 
 The liigliest and lowest prices paid for coal per ton, in New York, were 
 $1G.00 in 1833, and $2.15 in 1879. 
 COERCION BILL. The number of agrarian crimes in Ireland increased 
 so rapidly in 1880, and the insecurity of life and property became so 
 great that a bill was introduced into Parliament giving the government 
 the power of summary arrest of " suspects " in Ireland. The Home 
 Rule members opposed its passage by every device known to parlia- 
 mentary law, and on January 24, 1881, kept the House of Commons in 
 continuous session for forty-one hours, when the Speaker arbitrarily 
 closed the debate, and the bill was put upon its passage and signed by 
 the Queen on March 2. Under its operation about BOO persons were 
 imprisoned, among them Mr. Dillon, Mr. Parnell, and other Members 
 of Parliament. It, however, accomplished but little in checking crime. 
 On the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke in Dublin, 
 on May 6, 1882, the government at once introduced a more stringent 
 bill, which aimed to secure convictions (which, under the old forms, had 
 been found impossible) by change of venue, and different methods of 
 impanelling juries. This was signed by the Queen on July 12, 1882, 
 and has already shown it effectiveness in securing death penalties for 
 murders, and in so greatly lessening the number of agrarian crimes. 
 
 COFFEE. (See also pp. 99, 317.) Value of importations into the United 
 States : 
 
 1877 $53,634,991 11880 $60,360,769 
 
 1878 51,914,605 1881 56,784,391 
 
 1879 47,356,819 | 
 
 In 18S1 the consumption of coffee in Great Britain was 31,948,000 
 pounds. 
 COINAGE. (See also pp. 14, 99, 317.) Total coinage of the United 
 States to, and including, 1881 : 
 
 Gold $1,31 1,837,186 .00 
 
 Silver 319,983,408 .25 
 
 Minor 13,688,277.00 
 
 Total in 1877 $72,690,299.00 
 
 — 1878 81, 120,499.. 50 
 
 — 1879 68,312,592.50 
 
 — 1880 84,370.144.00 
 
 Total $1,545,508,871 .25 — 1881 106,788,940.70 
 
 In 1878 Congress abolished 20-cent pieces. 
 
 COLLISIONS. September 11, 1877, steamers "Avalanche " and "Forest" 
 off Portland, Eng., 104 lives lost; May 31, 1878, ironclads "Grosser 
 Kurfiirst" and "Konig Wilhelm" in English Channel, 280 lost ; August 
 7, 1878, railroad trains at Mingo Junction, Ohio, 12 killed ; September 
 3, 1878, excursion steamer " Princess Alice " sunk near London, over 
 600 lost ; October 20, 1878, railroad trains in Wales, 12 killed ; October 
 31, 1878, steamer "Helvetia" sunk by British cruiser "Fanny" off 
 English coast, 17 lost; November 25, 1878, steamer " Pommerania" sunk 
 by "MoelEilian" in English Channel, 55 lost; December 19, 1878, 
 steamer "Byzantium" sunk in collision on way to Constantinople, 150 
 lost; June 11, 1880, steamer " Narragansett " sunk by "Stonington" 
 in Long Island Sound, about 30 lost ; October 9, 1880, railroad trains in 
 Pittsburgh, 27 killed; February 25, 1882, Russian steamer "Vesta" 
 sunk in Black Sea, all lost; March, 1882, vessels " Doaro" and " Yrurac 
 But" both sunk in collision off Cape Finisterre, over 50 lost ; July 4, 
 1883, excursion steamer "Scioto" and tugboat near Mingo Junction, 
 Ohio, 59 lost. 
 
■ 187V-83. xix 
 
 COLOMBIA. (See also pp. 14, 319.) Presidents : Aquileo Parra, 1876- 
 78 ; Julian Trujillo, 1878-1880 ; Rafael Nunez, 1880-83. On April 1, 
 1882, F. J. Zaldua was elected for the biennial term, but died on De- 
 cember 32 and was succeeded by the Vice President. In September, 
 1879, a commiiuist outbreak occurred at Ocana, in which the German 
 Consul and over 300 other persons were killed. Its population is now 
 about 3,100,000, and it has an area of 830,750 square miles. 
 COMETS. (See Astronomy and pp. 15, 100, 331.) 
 COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also p. 15.) 
 
 Exports. Imports. 
 
 1876 $655,463,969 |476,677,871 
 
 1877 689,167,390 492,097,540 
 
 1878 733,315,356 466,872,846 
 
 1879 130,251,782 466,073,775 . 
 
 1880 850,482,804 760,989,056 
 
 1881 848,142,189 753,240,125 
 
 1882 799,959,736 767,111,964 
 
 In 1881 the total imports into Great Britain were valued at £397,033,- 
 489, and the exports at £297,083,775. 
 
 COMMUNISTS. (See also p. 15.) In 1880 the French legislature passed a 
 bill amnestying all the communists who had been exiled for taking 
 part in the insurrection of 1870-1. On the arrival of the exiles in Paris 
 they were received with great enthusiasm by the populace. 
 
 COTTON. (See also p. 17.) In 1879 there were 5,737,257 bales of cotton 
 produced in the United States on 14,441,993 acres. In 1880 there were 
 employed in cotton manufactures in the United States, 330,333 looms, 
 10,931,147 spindles and 181,628 persons, using 1,586,481 bales of cotton 
 The value of the cotton goods imported into the United States in 1881 
 was $81,319,339 and of those exported, $13,571,387. The value of the 
 raw cotton exported in 1881 was $247,095,746. In 1880 England used 
 3,500,000 bales for manufacturing purposes. The number of cotton 
 manufactories has very greatly increased in the Southern States during 
 the past few years, and notably so in Georgia. In October, 1881, a very 
 successful International Cotton Exposition was held at Atlanta. 
 
 CUBA. (See also pp. 18, 106, 340.) In September, 1879, a fresh insur- 
 rection broke out in Cuba, which was not quelled until the following 
 June. In February, 1880, slavery was abolished by the Spanish gov- 
 ernment. Its present population is 1,414,508, and area 73,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 CURRENCY, UNITED STATES. (See also p. 18.) National bank 
 notes outstanding November 1, 18S1, $358,941,488 ; greenbacks, 
 $346,681,016. In 1878 Congress passed a bill forbidding further retire- 
 ment of legal tender notes (greenbacks). 
 
 CYPRUS. (See also pp. 18, 843.) Population (in 1881), 185,000 ; area, 
 4,000 square miles. In 1878 Cyprus was ceded to Great Britain by 
 Turkey in consideration of the former's undertaking to defend Turkey 
 against the Asiatic encroachments of Russia. 
 
 DEATHS. (See also p. 19.) 
 
 Abbott, Rev. Jacob, author, Oct. 31, 1879. 
 Ainsworth, William H. novelist, Jan. 3, 
 
 1S82. 
 Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, March 13, 
 
 1881. 
 Alice, Princess, daughter of Queen Victoria 
 
 and Grand Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 
 Dec. 14, 1S78. 
 Arnim, Connt H. von, Prussian diplomatist, 
 
 May 19,1881. 
 Auerbach, Berthold, German novelist, Feb. 
 
 8, 1883. 
 
XX 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 Bacon, Leonard, clergyman, Dec. 24, 1881. 
 Beaconsfield, Earl of, April 19, 1881. 
 Beecher, Catharine E., author, May 12,1878. 
 Bellows, Henry W., clergyman, Jan. 30, 
 
 188-i. 
 Beuedelv, Field Marshal von, April, 1881. 
 Blanc, Charles, art-author, Jan. 17, 188:2. 
 Blanqui, Louis A., communist, Jan. 1, 1881. 
 Bonaparte, Mme. Jerome (Elizabeth Patter- 
 sou), April 4, 1879. 
 Brougham, John, actor and author, June 7, 
 
 1880. 
 Brown, Hablot Knight ("Phiz") July 10, 
 
 1882. 
 Bryant, William Cullen, poet, June 12. 1878. 
 Bull, Ole, violinist, Aug. 18, 1880. 
 Billow, Ernst von, German statesman, Oct. 
 
 20, 1879. 
 Burnside, Gen. A. E., U. S. Senator, Sept. 
 
 13, 1881. 
 Bnrritt, Elihu, "the learned blacksmith," 
 
 March 7, lb79. 
 Carlyle, Thomas, author, Feb. 5, 1881. 
 Caroline, Queen of Denmark, March 9, 
 
 1881. 
 Child, Lydia Maria, author, Oct. 20, 1880. 
 Cockburn, Sir Alexander,Lord Chief J ustice, 
 
 Nov. 20, 1880. 
 Creasy, Sir Edward S., author, Jan. 27, 1878. 
 Cruikshank, George, caricaturist, Feb. 1, 
 
 1878. 
 Dana, Richard Henry, poet, Feb. 2, 1879. 
 Dana,Richard Henry, jr., lawyer and author, 
 
 Jan. 7, 1882. 
 Darwin, Charles Robert, scientist, April 20, 
 
 1882. 
 Davenport, E. L., actor, Sept. 1, 1877. 
 Didot, Firmin, French publisher, Aug. 7, 
 
 1880. 
 Dix, Gen. John A., soldier and statesman, 
 
 April 21, 1879. 
 Drson, William H., author, Dec. 27, 1879. 
 Doraii, John, author, Jan. 26, 1878. 
 Draper, Henry, scientist, Nov. 20, 1882. 
 Draper, John W., scientist, Jan. 4, 1882. 
 Dufaure, Jules A. S., French statesman, 
 
 June v!7, 1881. 
 Dupanloup, F. A. P., Bishop of Orleans, 
 
 Oct. 12, 1878. 
 Duyckinck, Evert A., author, Aug. 13, 
 
 1878. 
 Eliot, George, author, Dec. 22, 1880. 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, author, April 27, 
 
 1882. 
 Favre, Jules, French statesman, Jan. 20, 
 
 1880. 
 Fechter, Charles, actor, Aug. 5, 1879. 
 Fields, James T., author and ex-publisher, 
 
 April 24, 1881 . 
 Forrest, Gen. N. B., Confederate soldier, 
 
 Oct. 29, 1877. 
 Fox, George L., actor, Oct. 24, 1877. 
 Gambetta, Leon, French statesman, Dec. 
 
 31, 1882. 
 Garfield, James A., President of II. S., Sept. 
 
 19, 1881. 
 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Italian patriot, June 2, 
 
 1882. 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist, May 
 
 24. 1879. 
 
 Giflord,Sanford R., artist, Aug. 29, 1880. 
 Grant, James novelist. May 26, 1&79. 
 Gray, Henry Peters, artiet, Nov. 12, 1877. 
 Grenville-Murray, JE. C, author, Dec. 23, 
 
 1881. 
 Hall, Mrs. Anna Maria, author, Jan. 30, 
 
 1881. 
 Hayes, Dr. Isaac I., Arctic explorer, Dec. 
 
 17, lt^81. 
 Henry, Joseph, Sec. of Smithsonian Inst., 
 
 May 13, 1878. 
 Hill, Benjamin H., Confederate General and 
 
 U. S. Senator, Aug. 16, 1882. 
 Hill, Sir Rowland, author of penny postage 
 
 reform, Aug. 27, 1879. 
 Holland, Dr J. G., author, Oct. 12, 1881. 
 Hood, Gen. John B., Confederate soldier, 
 
 Aug. 31, 1879. 
 Hooker, Joseph, Maj.-Gen. U. S. A., Oct. 
 
 31, 1879. 
 Hunt, William M., artist, Sept. 7, 1879. 
 Kavanagh, Julia, novelist, Oct. 28, 1877. 
 Landseer, Charles, arti?t, July 22, 1879. 
 Law, GeorM, capitalist, Nov. 18, 1881- 
 Leverrier, U. J. J., astronomer, Sept. 23, 
 
 1877. 
 Lewes, George Henry, author, Dec. 1, 1878. 
 Littre, Emile, French statesman and lexicog- 
 rapher, June 2, 1881. 
 Longfellow, Henry W., poet, March 24, 1882. 
 Longman, William, London publisher, Aug. 
 
 15, 1877. 
 
 Maria Alesandrovna, Empress of Russia, 
 
 June 3, 1880. 
 Maria Christina, Queen Dowager of Spain, 
 
 Aug. 21, 1878. 
 Marsh, George P., diplomatist and author, 
 
 July 24, 18S2. 
 Mathews, Charles James, actor, June 24, 
 
 1878. 
 Melville, George J. W., novelist, Dec. 5, 
 
 1878. 
 Mercedes, Queen of Spain, June 26, 1878. 
 Mott, Lucrelia, Quaker preacher and re- 
 former, Nov. 11, 1880. 
 Mnsset, Paul de, French novelist. May 18, 
 
 1880. 
 Napoleon, Prince Imperial, June 1, 1879. 
 Neilson, Adelaide, actress, Aug. 15, 1880. 
 Offenbach, Jacques, composer, Oct. 5, 1880. 
 Palfrey, John G., historian, April 26, 1881. 
 Phillips, Adelaide, singer, Oct. 4, 1882. 
 Pius IX., Pope, Feb. 7, 1878. 
 Planche, James R., dramatist. May 30, 1880. 
 Pusey, Dr. Edward B., " tractarian," Sept. 
 
 16, 1882. 
 
 Rosetti, Dante Gabriel, poet and painter, 
 April 11,1882. 
 
 Rothschild, Baron Nathan de, banker, June 
 3, 1879. 
 
 Rufflni, Giovanni, Italian author, Nov. 3, 
 1881. 
 
 Russell, Earl, May 28, 1878. 
 
 Sargent, Epes, author, Dec. 30, 1880. 
 
 Sothern, Edward A., actor, Jan. 20, 1881. 
 
 Stanley, Rev. Arthur P., Dean of Westmin- 
 ster, July 18, 1881. 
 
 Tait, Dr. A. C, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 Dec. 3, 1882. 
 
 Taylor, Bayard, author, Dec. 19, 1878. 
 
1877-83. 
 
 Taylor, Gen. Richard, Confederate soldier, 
 April 12, 1879. 
 
 Taylor, Tom, actor and dramatist, July 12, 
 1880. 
 
 Thiers, Louis Adolphe, ex-President of 
 France, Sept. 3, 1S7T. 
 
 Thompson, Joseph P., author and clergy- 
 man, Sept. 20, 1879. 
 
 Trollope, Anthony, novelist, Dec. 8, 1883. 
 
 Tweed, William M., ex-Boss of N. Y., April 
 
 12, 1878. 
 Victor Emanuel,King of Italy, Jan 2,1878. 
 Viullet-le-Duc, E. K., French architect and 
 
 author, Sept. 18, 3879. 
 Weed, Thurlow, journalist and politician, 
 
 Nov. 22, 1882. 
 Young, Brigham, Mormon, Aug. 29, 1877. 
 
 DEBT. (See State Debts, National Debts.) 
 
 DISASTERS. (See Accidents, Collisions, Earthquakes, Explosions, Fires, 
 Floods, Mining Disasters, Railroad Accidents, Storms, Theatres, 
 Wrecks. ) 
 
 DIVOECE. (See also p. 351.) Since 1849 most of tlie States have 
 facilitated the obtaining of divorces by enlarging the number of 
 causes for v^hich it is granted. South Carolina is the only State that 
 refuses to grant it for any cause, and New York the only one that 
 grants it only for adultery. In the last twenty years, the number of 
 divorces in proportion to number of marriages has rapidly increased, 
 and in the New England States is now: Connecticut, 1 divorce to 10 
 marriages; Vermont, 1 to 14; Ehode Island, 1 to 13; Massachusetts, 1 
 to 21 ; while in England it is 1 to 300 ; Belgium, 1 to57G ; and in France, 1 
 to 153. In proportion to population there is in Maine, 1 divorce to 1,857 
 inhabitants; New Hampshire, 1 to 1,443; Vermont, 1 to 2,973; Connect- 
 icat. 1 to 1,553; Rhode Island, 1 to 1,411. France has recently passed 
 a divorce bill, legal separations hitherto only having been allowed. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. (See also pp. 21, 112, 358.) April, 1878, town of Cuo, 
 Venezuela, destroyed; Marcli, 1879, in Miauch, Persia, killing 922 per- 
 sons; September, 1880, town of Ilapell, Chili, destroyed; April, 1881, 
 at Chios, Asia Minor, about 5,000 persons killed, and 45 villages 
 destroyed ; December, 1881, in the district of Kan-Tcheore, China, kill- 
 ing over 250 persons. 
 
 EASTERN ROUMELIA. The province was created by the Treaty of 
 Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, which provided that it was to remain 
 under the direct political and military authority of the Sultan, under 
 conditions of administrative autonomy, with a Governor-General named 
 by the Porte (with the assent of the Powers), for a term of five years. 
 Prince Alexander Vogorides (Aleko Pasha) was installed as Governor- 
 General, May 30, 1879. The area of the province is 13,663 square miles, 
 and it has a population of 815,951. 
 
 ECLIPSES. (See Astronomy and p. 21.) 
 
 ECUADOR. (See also p. 22.) Population (by census of 1878), 1,146,000; 
 area, 248,312 square miles. Don Jose de Veintemilla elected President, 
 September 8, 1876 (to succeed President Leon) and appointed Dictator 
 for unlimited time, July 10, 1878. 
 
 EDUCATION ABROAD. (See also pp. 22, 362.) September, 1878, the 
 Bible and all religious teaching were excluded from primary schools of 
 Holland. July, 1879, members of many religious orders (notably 
 Jesuits), were disqualified from teaching in France. December, 1880, 
 compulsory secular education decreed in France. In 1881, there were 
 21,136 schools in England and Wales, with an average attendance of 
 3,848,011. 
 
XXll THE WORLD S PEOGRESS. 
 
 EDUCATION m UNITED STATES. (See also pp. 22, 113. 362.) In 1880, 
 out of 38,781,607 persons in the United States over ten yeais of age; 
 4,923,451 were unable to read, and 6,239,958 were unable to write; out 
 of a school population of 15,302,862 there were enrolled in public 
 schools 9,781,521, with an average daily attendance of 5,805,342; the 
 number of public school teachers was 282,644; their aggregate salaries 
 amounted to $55,158,389; total expended for public schools, $80,- 
 732,838. 
 
 EGYPT (See also False Prophet, and pp. 22, 113, 362.) Population, 
 17,419,980; area 1,152,948 square miles. The English and French 
 representatives appointed by their governments to superintend the fi- 
 nances of Egypt, in the interest of European bondholders, were dis- 
 missed by the Khedive Ismail, in April, 1879, at the instigation of 
 jealous natives. Franqe and England thereupon advised the abdication 
 of the Khedive in favor of his son, Tewfik Pasha, who was accordingly 
 proclaimed Khedive, June 25, 1879. Native jealousy of the European 
 control, however, continued, and early in 1882 the anny, which con- 
 sisted of 15,000 undisciplined men, compelled the Khedive to appoint 
 as Minister of War Arabi, its favorite Pasha, and a Ministry of his 
 adherents, and the Khedive was soon completely under the control of 
 the officers of the army England and France thereupon demanded 
 (May 25) the dismissal of Arabi and the Ministry, based on the neces- 
 sity of restoring Tewfik's authority, in view of the European interests 
 imperilled by domestic disorders. Pending the attempt of the Sultan 
 of Turkey to arrange matters, the Arab population of Alexandria rose 
 against the Europeans (June 11) and massacred several hundreds. The 
 fleets in the Bay of Alexandria were at once reinforced, and the British 
 Government, after failing to secure the co-operation of France, under- 
 took, unaided, to quell Arabi's rebellion. July 11, Admiral Seymour 
 bombarded Alexandria, for self-preservation against the batteries Arabi 
 was erecting ; July 12, Arabi and his followers, under cover of a flag 
 of truce, retreated from Alexandria after opening the prisons, firing 
 the city, and killing hundreds of Europeans ; August 15, General 
 Wolseley landed in Egypt ; August 20, he seized the Suez Canal ; 
 Aiigust 23, Egyptians defeated at Magfar and Kassasin Lock ; September 
 13, Arabi's army routed and Tel-el-Kebir and Zagazig captured ; Sep- 
 tember 14, British entered Cairo and Arabi was seized ; September 23, 
 Damietta surrendered ; September 25, Khedive returned to Cairo. 
 Arabi and his followers were tried by court-martial, and December 3 
 were sentenced to death. This the Khedive commuted to perpetual 
 exile for Arabi and his six principal adherents, and to lesser penalties 
 for the others. Ceylon was selected as their residence. Of the 33,000 
 British and Indian troops sent to Egypt, 12,000 were left there as a 
 temporary garrison of occupation. The future government of the 
 country has not yet been determined, but at present the Khedive is con- 
 ducting it under the advice of England. The war cost Great Britain 
 about $15,000,000. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT. The electric light has now been successfully in- 
 troduced into the British Museum and House of Commons, London, 
 into a great number of places in Paris, into some parts of Cliina, etc., 
 and is quite generally used in the United States. Three companies are 
 engaged in supplying it to buildings in New York, where some six 
 
1877-83. 
 
 xxiii 
 
 or seven thousand lamps are already furnishing light. On one rail- 
 road in France the experiment has been successfully tried of lighting 
 the carriages with it. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. (See also Storage and pp. 113,363.) On August 10, 
 1881, an International Exhibition of Electricity was opened at Paris. 
 Among the subjects which attracted attention were the improvements 
 in telegraphy and in telephony, the microphone, the photophone, the 
 various forms of electric lighting, the storage of electricity, the elec- 
 trical probe (an apparatus very sensitive to the presence near it of small 
 quantities of metal), and an electric railroad, for which the power was 
 suplied by a stationary dynamo-electric generator, and carried to the 
 electric motor on the car by a copper conductor on poles beside the 
 line. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. (See also p. 23.) The following have 
 been discovered since 1876 : 
 
 Laevoesium, 
 
 Deciphim, 
 
 Ytterbium, 
 
 Dav3nim, 
 
 Mosandrum, 
 
 Scandium, 
 
 Neptunium, 
 
 Beryllium, 
 
 Thollium, 
 
 Pliilippium, 
 
 Erbium, 
 
 Holmium. 
 
 ELEVATED RAILROADS. There are now in operation in New York 
 city four lines of elevated railroads, running fipm the Battery (the 
 most southern point of the city) to Central Park and Harlem respect- 
 ively. They were built and are owned by two companies, but are 
 leased and operated by a third, called the Manhattan Railway Co. 
 Two similar roads have been begun in Brooklyn, but work upon them 
 has been suspended for some time. 
 
 EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION. (See also G7dnese Immigration 
 and p. 23.) Immigration into the United States since 1876, by fiscal 
 years ending June 30 : 
 
 1877 141,857 
 
 1878 138,469 
 
 1879 177,826 
 
 1880 457,257 
 
 1881 669,431 
 
 During the calendar year 1882 the immigration amounted to about 
 735,000. as against 719,000 in 1881. Whole number cf immigrants into 
 the United States now aggregates about 11,500,000. 
 
 
 Emigration from 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 North American 
 Colonies. 
 
 To the 
 United States. 
 
 To Australia 
 
 and 
 New Zealand. 
 
 To 
 
 other places. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 7,720 
 10.652 
 17:952 
 20,902 
 23,912 
 
 45,481 
 54,694 
 91,806 
 166,570 
 176,104 
 
 30,138 
 36,479 
 40,959 
 24,184 
 22,682 
 
 11.856 
 11,077 
 13,557 
 15,886 
 20,304 
 
 95,195 
 112,902 
 
 164,274 
 227,542 
 243,003 
 
 ENGLAND. (See the chronological tables, p. 760, ef seq.) 
 
 ENSILAGE. (See Silos.) 
 
 EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. (See also pp. 24, 117.) Septem- 
 ber 7, 1877, at Berlin, of the leather trade; Mav 1, 1878, at Paris: 
 September 17, 1879, at Sydney, New South Wales ; April 20, 1880, at 
 Berlin, of fisheries ; May 9, 1880, at Dusseldorf ; June 1, 1880 at 
 
XXIV THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 Brussels ; October 1, 1880, at Melbourne, Australia; August, 1881, at 
 Paris, of electricity ; October 5, 1881, at Altanta, Georgia, of cotton. 
 
 EXPLOSIONS. (See also Mining Disasters and p. 25.) December 20, 
 1877, in a confectionery store in New York, 10 killed and 42 injured ; 
 May 2, 1878, in Hour mill in Minneapolis, 17 killed ; July 7, 1878, in 
 petroleum factory at Lyons, France, 30 killed ; April 17, 1880, in powder 
 mill near San Francisco, 30 killed ; April 26, 1881, Briiisli war-sloop, 
 " Doterel," in Strait of Magellan, 143 killed ; December 26, 1881, boiler 
 of steamboat at West Point, Va., 19 killed ; February 17, 1882, in fire- 
 works factory at Chester, Penna., 14 killed ; August 7, 1882, boiler of 
 steamer " Gold Dust" on Ohio River, 17 killed ; December 18, 1882, in 
 cartridge factory at Mount Valerien, France, 15 killed. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES. (See also p. 25.) It has been demonstrated that very 
 fine dust is highly inflEimmable and explosive. Thus fine coal dust is 
 now supposed to have been the cause of some mine disasters, and fine 
 flour dust a few years ago caused the destruction of valuable mills in 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. (See Commerce and pp. 118, 373.) 
 
 FAILURES. (See also pp. 25, 100.) In the United States : 
 
 Number. Whole Amount. 
 
 1877 8,872 $190,609,000 
 
 1878 10,478 234,383,133 
 
 1879 6,058 98,149,053 
 
 1S80 4,735 65,752,000 
 
 1881 5,582 81,155,982 
 
 1882 6,738 101,547,564 
 
 FALSE PROPHET. In November, 1881, Mohammed Ahmed, who calls 
 himself El Mehdi, the prophet, appeared in Soudan with 1,500 follow- 
 ers and defeated the Egyptian forces. The war has been continued to 
 the present time with no very decisive results, though the prophet has 
 attracted a great many Arabians to his standard. 
 
 FAMINE, (See also pp. 26, 375.) In 1877-8 there was a very severe 
 famine in India, in which the British government estimated that 
 1,350,000 persons died. In 1878 there was a still more serious one in 
 China. 
 
 FARMS. (See Agriculture.) 
 
 PASTS. (See also pp. 118, 375.) On July 7, 1880, Dr. Tanner success- 
 fully completed a forty days' fast in New York city. 
 
 FIRES. (See also Theatres, and pp. 26, 120, 878.) September 24, 1877, 
 in Patent Office at Washington, destroying many rejected models ; 
 February 4, 1878, in Tien-tsin, China, an asylum for women and chil- 
 dren, nearly 3,000 lives lost ; May, 1878, in Mandalay, destroying 4,700 
 houses ; March 2, 1879, business part of Reno, Nev., burned, loss, 
 $1,000,000 ; September 26, 1879, in Dead wood. Dak., loss, $2,500,000 ; 
 December, 1879, in Tokio, Japan, 15,000 houses destroyed and 100 per- 
 sons killed ; December 28, 1879, in Boston, loss $1,000,000 ; March 9, 
 1880 ; Samana, Santo Domingo, destroyed ; April 21, 1880, at Hull, Can- 
 ada, 800 houses burned; May 14, 1880, town of Milton, Penna., de- 
 stroyed ; November 15, 1880, insane asylum at St. Peter, Minn., 
 destroyed, and 26 lives lost, ; June 9, 1881, at Quebec, 800 houses 
 burned, loss $1,500,000 ; September, 1881, forest fires in Michigan, ex- 
 tending over three counties and destroying many villages and over 300 
 
1877-83. XXV 
 
 lives; February 17, 1882; business part of Haverhill, Mass.. burned, 
 loss over $2,000,000 ; July, 1882, in Smyrna, destroying 1,400 houses ; 
 November 7, 1882, in Canton, China, 800 houses and many lives de- 
 stroyed ; December 11, 1882, at Kingston, Jamaica, many buildings and 
 lives destroyed, loss estimated at $15,000,000. 
 
 FISHEEIES. The Treaty of Washington provided for the settlement by 
 arbitration of any question which might arise between the United 
 States and Great Britain regarding the fisheries of the Atlantic coast. 
 In November, 1877, the Halifax Commission, appointed under that pro- 
 vision, awarded $5,500,000 to England, which was accordingly paid by 
 the United States in November, 1878, under protest against the justice 
 of the decision. In 1881 Great Britain paid to the United States 
 $75,000 as compensation for damages done to American fishermen in 
 Fortune Bay. In 1880 an International Fishery Exhibition was held 
 at Berlin. 
 
 FLOGGING. (See also p. 27.) Flogging in the navy abolished in the 
 Netherlands, October, 1879, and in Great Britain, December, 1880. 
 
 FLOODS. (See also Storms and p. 27.) March 12, 1879, river Theiss in 
 Hungary broke its dykes, destroying much property and 300 lives ; 
 January 4, 1880, partial destruction of isle of St. Christopher, one of 
 the Leeward Islands ; December 30, 1880, river Maas in Holland broke 
 its embankment and submerged 18 villages ; December, 1881, 200 bodies 
 found in plain of Halsa, Oran ; March 29, 1882, the Ralston Gin, near 
 Lake St. John, La., destroyed by flood and 120 refugees drowned ; 
 October 7,, 1882, tidal waves in Panama drowned about 70 persons. 
 
 FRANCE. (See chronological tables, p. 760 et seq.) 
 
 FREE TRADE. (See Tan;/?' and p. 121.) 
 
 GERMANY. (See also pp. 28, 124, 390.) Area, 208,624 square miles ; 
 population (by census of 1880), 45,194,172. On February 25, 1877, 
 Prince William of Wlirtemberg was married to the Princess Marie of 
 Waldeck-Pyrmont ; June 13, 1877, Louis III., Grand Duke of Hesse, 
 died and was succeeded by Lotris IV., who had married the Princess 
 Alice of England ; May 11 and June 2, 1878, attempts to assassinate the 
 Emperor William ; July, 1878, elections for the Reichstag resulted in 
 success of Liberals ; October 19, 1878, passage of Socialist bill,its opera- 
 tion limited to two years and a half ; January 24, 1879, marriage of 
 Grand Duke Friedrich Franz of Mecklenburg-Schwerin to Grand 
 Duchess Anastasia, niece of the Czar ; April 7, 1880, Prince Bismarck 
 offered his resignation, which was not accepted ; May 4, 1880, Socialist 
 laws prolonged until September, 1884 ; July 17, 1880, Prince Giinther 
 of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen abdicated on account of blindness ; 
 August 14, 1880, completion of Cologne Cathedral, commenced in 1248 ; 
 October 27, 1881, elections for the Reichstag gave a Liberal majority ; 
 1882, diplomatic relations with the Vatican restored ; June 14, 1882, 
 government bill establishing a tobacco monopoly defeated. 
 
 GLASS. (See also p. 393.) In 1880 there were 194 establishments in the 
 United States engaged in the manufacture of glass, representing a 
 capital of $19,415,599, employing 23,822 hands, to whom $9,112,301 
 was paid in wages, consuming materials valued at $7,991,303, pro- 
 ducing goods of the value of $21,013,464. 
 
XXVI THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 GOLD. (See also pp. 28, 125, 395.) Amount of gold that has been ob- 
 tained from the earth is estimated at $15,000,000,000. The average 
 annual production throughout the world is now $140,000,000. The 
 United States produced in 1881, $36,500,000 ; and since 1793, $1,144,- 
 735,442. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. (See the chronological tables, p. 760, et seq.) 
 
 GREECE. (See also pp. 125, 398.) Population (by census of 1879), 
 1,979,775 ; area, 19,353 square miles. This area was increased in Sep- 
 tember, 1882, by the cession of about 5,000 square miles (with a popula- 
 tion of 388,000) by Turkey at the instigation of the Powers. 
 
 HAWAIIAN (or SANDWICH) ISLANDS. (See also pp. 174, 573.) A 
 chain of 13 islands situated in the North Pacific Ocean, of which eight 
 are inhabited. Their united area is 7,6"28 square miles, with a popula- 
 tion of about 73,000. Their present king, Kalakaua, ascended the 
 throne, February, 1874. 
 
 HAYTI. (See also pp. 29, 127, 406.) In 1879 a revolution broke out in 
 Hayti which resulted in the deposition of General Boisrond-Canal, and 
 the election to the Presidency of General Salomon, October 23, 1879. 
 
 HERZEGOVINA. (See Austria and p. 30.) 
 
 HOLLAND. (See also pp. 30, 410.) Population in 1880, 4,060,578 ; area, 
 12,680>square miles. January 7, 1879, King William was married to 
 the Princess Emma of Waldeck; June 11, 1879, Prince William, the 
 heir apparent, died. 
 
 HONDURAS. (See also p. 128.) Population, about 300,000 ; area, 39,600 
 square miles. Presidents : General Medina, 1870-72 ; Don Celeo Arias, 
 1872-74; Don Ponciano Leiva, 1874-76; Don Crecencio Gomez, 1876- 
 77 ; Don Marco Aurelio Soto, 1877-. 
 
 HUNGARY. (See Austria-Hungary and pp. 30, 129, 414.) 
 
 INDIA. (See also Burmah and pp. 31, 131, 421.) By the census of 1881 
 the population of British India is given as 252,660,550 and the area as 
 1,472,423 square miles. The part under direct British administration 
 covers 877,959 square miles and has a population of 198,508,793 ; the 
 remainder is ruled by native princes who acknowledge the suzerainty of 
 the English crown. Lord Lytton was appointed Viceroy in 1876 and 
 in 1880, on the formation of the Gladstone Ministry, was succeeded by 
 the Marquis of Ripon. On December 12, 1879, an unsuccessful 
 attempt was made at Calcutta to assassinate Lord Lytton. In 1881 the 
 province of Mysore, which had been administered by the British since 
 1834, was restored to its native prince on his attaining his majority. In 
 1882 native Indian troops for the first time were sent from Asia to aid 
 in the Egyptian war. 
 
 INDIANS. (See also pp. 31, 131, 422.) Number of tribal Indians in the 
 United States, in 1881, 246,417 ; of civilized Indians, 66,407 ; cost to the 
 government, $6,514,161, October, 1877, Nez Perces Indians under Chief 
 Joseph surrendered ; October, 1879, Apaches killed 40 settlers in New 
 Mexico ; September, 1879-April, 1880, war with Ute Indians ; October, 
 
 1880, Indian chief Victoria with 50 braves killed by Mexicans ; July, 
 
 1881, Sitting Bull surrendered at Fort Buford ; May, 1882, difficulties 
 with Apaches in Arizona ; July, 1882, Congress provided additional 
 industrial schools for Indian youth. 
 
ISTT-SS. xxvii 
 
 IRELAND. (See also Arrears of Rent, Coercion Bill, Land Bill, and pp. 
 32, 428.) A measure proposed the latter part of Beaconsfield's adminis- 
 tration to make the franchise in Ireland the same as in Scotland and 
 England was defeated, February 17, 1880. On the formation of the Glad- 
 stone ministry, Mr. Forster was made Secretary for Ireland and Earl 
 Cowper Lord Lieutenant, May, 1880. On November 3, 1880, criminal 
 information was lodged in Dublin against Mr. Parnell and other Home 
 Rulers for conspiracy in instigating outrages in Ireland, but the 
 trials ended in a disagreement of the jury, January 25, 1881. The re- 
 fusals to pay rent and the agrarian outrages, incited by th.e National 
 League and Home Rule leaders, increased so rapidly in 1879-80, that 
 Parliament was forced to take action in the matter, and on March 17, 
 1881, passed the Irish Arms Bill, prohibiting under severe penalties 
 the carrying or sale of arms or explosives without license. This was 
 followed by the first Coercion Bill, under which Mr. Parnell, Mr. Dillon 
 and other Irish Members of Parliament were thrown into prison the 
 latter part of 1881. These measures failing to check the crime, Mr. 
 Gladstone early in 1882 undertook to pass an Arrears of Rent Bill, and 
 to release the Parliamentary " suspects " from prison, on their under- 
 taking to support him in the House, and to aid him in quieting Ireland. 
 Mr. Forster disagreed with this policy, and accordingly left the gov- 
 ernment, and was succeeded as Secretary for Ireland by Lord Frederick 
 Cavendish, who a few days after his arrival in Dublin was assassinated 
 in Phoenix Park, with the Under Secretary, Mr. Thomas Burke, May 
 6, 1882. The indignation which this aroused gave the ministry an op- 
 portunity for passing a second Coercion Bill, much more stringent than 
 the first, which has happily already had a marked effect in increasing 
 the security of life. In 1881 an Irish Land Bill was passed, and in 
 August, 1882, the Arrears of Rent Bill was also finally adopted. The 
 Irish obstruction to legislation in the House of Commons in 1881 showed 
 the necessity of changing the rules of procedure in that body, and their 
 consideration was the principal subject of debate during 1882, resulting 
 in the adoption of the " closure " (a modification of the American " pre- 
 vious question ") in December, 1882. During the agitation large sums 
 of money were raised in America and sent to Ireland for the relief of 
 evicted tenants. 
 
 IRON. (See also pp. 32, 133, 428.) The annual production throughout 
 the world of cast or pig iron is now about 15,000,000 tons, of which in 
 1879 Great Britain produced 5,995,337 tons, and the United States 
 3,070,875. In' 1880 there were 701 furnaces in the United States, which 
 produced 4,295,414 tons. The value of the iron and steel manufactures 
 imported into the United States in 1880 was $53,714,008, and in 1881 
 $46,439,747. The value of those exported in 1880 was $12,605,576, and 
 in 1881 $14,168,250. 
 
 ITALY. (See also pp. 33, 133, 429.) In 1881 the population of Italy was 
 28,459,451, and the area 114,408 square miles. On January 2, 1878, 
 King Victor Emanuel died, and was succeeded by his son. King Hum- 
 bert. On November 17, 1878, an unsuccessful attempt was made to as- 
 sassinate the King, at a reception in Naples. In September, 1880, the 
 King amnestied all political offenders. In December, 1881, a reform 
 bill was passed by the Legislature, extending the suffrage to all who 
 could read and write, and providing for minority representation. The 
 
XXVUl THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 government is that of a constitutional monarchy, the King ruling 
 through miiiisteis, who ave responsible to an elective legislature, as in 
 Great Britain. It lias just been decided that the Italian courts have 
 jurisdiction over the Vatican, a decision which the papal powers are 
 earnestly opposing. On June 2, 1882, occurred the death of Garibaldi. 
 
 JAPAN. (See also pp. 33, 134. 432.) Area estimated at 147,629 square 
 miles, and population at 35,925,313. Its boundaries have recently been 
 extended by a treaty with Corea. Since so many of its ports have been 
 thrown open to foreign commerce its progress has beea very marked. 
 A number of Japanese youth have recently been sent to the United 
 States to study in its seminaries. 
 
 JEANNETTE. (See Arctic Explorations.) 
 
 JESUITS. (See also pp. 34, 134, 433.) June 80, 1880, expelled from their 
 houses throughout Prance, and required to close all their schools by 
 August 31. September 27, 1880, prohibited by Italian government from 
 settling in Italy. October 15,1880,expelled from their convents in France. 
 
 JETTIES. (See Mississippi Pdmr.) 
 
 JEWS. (See also pp. 34, 134, 434.) The years 1879-1882 were marked 
 by a fresh outburst of hatred against tlie Jews. Anti-Jewish riots 
 occurred in Servia and Roumauia; there were attacks upon them in 
 Southern and Western Russia; in Germany there was a spasm of anti- 
 Semitic feeling; in France, a paper called the Anti-Jew was estab- 
 lished; and even in the United States, they were made to feel that " 
 they were unpopular by exclusion from various hotels and resorts. 
 The moat serious troubles occurred in Russia, where it was stated that 
 56 were killed, 271 assaulted, 2,000 made homeless, and $80,000,000 of 
 property destroyed between April and December, 1881. These out- 
 rages were committed by ignorant peasants, who had been informed 
 that the Czar ordered it. The real motive was, undoubtedly, jealousy 
 of their wealth. A large number of Jews left Russia to settle in other 
 parts of Europe, and a considerable number came to the United States. 
 
 LABOR. (See Wages.) 
 
 LAND BILL. In August, 1881, the British Parliament passed an Irish 
 Land Bill, providing for the appointment of a Commission (with local 
 sub-commissions) to decide, on application of either tenant or landlord, 
 on the value of rentals, with power to increase or decrease them. 
 Under its operation an average of 4,600 settlements have been made a 
 month with an average reduction of 20 per cent. In 1882, the House 
 of Lords appointed a committee to investigate the work of the Act, for 
 which the House of Commons passed a vote of censure , 
 
 LIBRARIES. (See also pp. 35, 136, 451.) In 1880 there were 3,917 pub- 
 lic libraries in the United States, containing over 300 volumes each, 
 aggregating over 15,000,000 volumes. Of these 1,690 report as their 
 yearly additions 482,617 volumes; 853 report as their annual use of 
 of books, 9,700,434; 1,759 give as their permanent fund, $6,818,496 ; 
 and 972 give as their yearly income, $1,460,648. A public library has 
 recently been given to Baltimore, by Mr. Enoch Pratt ; Mr. Astor has 
 added another building to the Astor Library in New York ; the Congres- 
 sional Library at Washington has as yet failed to secure its long needed 
 building; and the British Museum has introduced the electric light and 
 has begun printing its catalogue (to consist of 200 volumes, price $1,000). 
 
1877-83. xxix 
 
 LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. (See also p. 35.) In 1882 there were 190 stations 
 on the United States coast ; 343 disasters to vessels occurred, in which 
 $4,765,742 of property was involved, of which $3,105,987 was saved 
 and $1,6"J9,755 lost ; 2,394 persons were on board these vessels, of 
 Avhom 2,382 were saved, and only 12 lost. 
 
 LIGHT. (See Electric LigU and p. 36.) 
 
 MANUFACTURES. In 1880 there were 253,840 manufacturing estab- 
 lishments in the United States, with an aggregate capital of $2,790,- 
 223,279, employing 2,738.950 hands, to whom $947,919,674 was paid in 
 wages annually, consuming materials valued at $3,394,340,029, and 
 producing goods of the value of $5,369,667,706. 
 
 MARRIAGE. (See also Divorce and pp. 140, 470.) In June, 1878, the 
 Old Catholic Synod, which met at Bonn, resolved in favor of the mar- 
 riage of the clergy. The British House of Commons has a number of 
 times attempted to legalize marriage with a deceased wife's sister, but 
 the House of Lords has always defeated the measure. In 1878 the 
 English Parliament passed the Colonial Jlarriage Act, which allows the 
 offspring of a marriage under colonial laws with a deceased wife's sis- 
 ter, to inherit property in Great Britain. In 1880 Canada and New 
 Zealand both passed laws legalizing such marriages. In 1881-2 a 
 number of "matrimonial associations" were started in the Southern 
 States which purported to " insure " people against marriage. The 
 fraudulent character of the scheme was soon exposed, but they are 
 said to have reaped a considerable harvest. 
 
 MERCURY, Transit of. (See Astronomy) 
 
 MEXICO. (See also pp. 88, 142, 479. Population, 9,650,000 ; area, 741,- 
 820 square miles. Presidents: Porfirio Diaz, May 5, 1877-December 1, 
 1880 ; Manuel Gonzales, December 1, 1880-1884. 
 
 MICROPHONE, an electrical instrument for intensification of sounds, of 
 which Edison and Hughes both claim priority of discovery. It is 
 based on the principle that, when two or more electrical conductors rest 
 lightly on each other, the variations in the force of contact caused by 
 exceedingly feeble sonorous vibrations will so vary the electrical resis- 
 tance as to take up and transmit these vibrations to the telephone with 
 great force and distinctness. 
 
 MINING DISASTERS. October 22, 1877, colliery explosion near Glas- 
 gow, Scotland, 232 killed ; June 7, 1878, colliery explosion near Wigan, 
 England, over 200 killed; September 11, 1878, exjdot^ion in Ebbw Vale 
 Colliery, Wales, 281 killed; January 13, 1879, explosion in Dinas Col- 
 liery, Wales, 60 killed; January 21, 1880, colliery explosion at New- 
 castle, England, 70 killed; July 15, 1830, colliery explosion at Riska, 
 Wales, 119 killed; September 8, 1880, colliery explosion near Durham, 
 England, 164 killed; December 10, 1880, explosion at Pen-y-grage 
 Colliery, Wales. 100 killed; December 9, 1881, 6ii killed in Cockerell 
 Colliery, Brussels; February 16, 1882, colliery explosion, Triondon 
 Grange, Durham, 60 or 70 killed; February 27, 1882, 150 killed in coal 
 mine at Leoben, Styria; May 11, 1882, fire damp explosion, Bochum, 
 Westphalia, 56 killed. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See also pp. 38, 144, 482.) Captain Eads' jetties 
 have proved as successful as was anticipated. In 1882 great distress 
 
XXX 
 
 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. 
 
 was caused by the overflow of the river and 85,000 people were made 
 destitiite. Congress has lately appropriated large sums for the con- 
 struction of levees to prevent future overflows. 
 
 MONEY. (See Coinage, Currency, Gold, Silver, and p. 484.) 
 
 MONTENEGRO. (See also p. 39.) Area 1,710 square miles; population 
 245,380; ruler (since 1841), Prince Nicolas. By the Treaty of Berlin 
 (signed July 13, 1878), the independence of Montenegro was recognized 
 by the Sultan, and certain annexations made to its territory, including 
 the town and district of Dulciguo, on the Adriatic. The actual cession 
 of the place, however, was delayed by Turkey on various pretexts 
 ujitil November 27, 1880, when the signatory Powers to the Berlin 
 agreement enforced the transferral by a " naval demonstration." 
 
 MOEMONS. (See also pp. 89,145, 485.) On the death of Brigham Young, 
 August 29, 1877, John Taylor became President of the Mormon Church. 
 In 1882 Congress made a further effort to suppress polygamy by altering 
 the Territorial government of Utah, disfranchising all polygamists and 
 placing the electionsuuderchargeof a commission appointed by the Presi- 
 dent of the United States. The Mormons have recently planted a number 
 of colonies in Idaho, and other neighboring Territories, probably with a 
 view to a possible removal from Utah. By the census of 1880 the pop- 
 ulation of Utah was set down as 143,963, of whom nearly 100,000 are 
 Mormons. 
 
 MURDERS. (See also Assassinations, and pp. 39, 487.) In 1881 there 
 were 167 murders in England and Wales. In 1882 there were 730 in 
 the United States, 101 executions and 57 lyuchings. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBTS. (See also pp. 40, 147, 490.) 
 
 Austria-Huntjary (1880) 
 
 Belgium (1880) 
 
 Brazil (1880) 
 
 Canada (1880) 
 
 China (1878) 
 
 Denmark (1880) 
 
 Egypt (1879) 
 
 France (1881) 4,700,860,700 
 
 Germany (1881) 88,38.5.022 
 
 Prussia (1881) 477,210,581 
 
 Great Britain (1881) 3,843,518,460 
 
 NAVIES. 
 
 ,582,223,008 
 351,967,293 
 407,716,027 
 199,125,323 
 64,500,000 
 46,798,190 
 411.820,700 
 
 Greeee (1880) $58,572,730 
 
 India (1879) 7.54,979,810 
 
 Italy (1880) 2,042,000,000 
 
 Japan (1880) 363,721,776 
 
 Mexico (18^0) 144,953,785 
 
 Netherlands (1881) 376,908,500 
 
 Portugal (1880) 387,659,575 
 
 Russia (1880) 2,081,417,933 
 
 Spain (1880) 3,504,571,684 
 
 Turkey (1880) ; . . 1,^89,565,000 
 
 United States (1882) about. . . . 1,650,000,000 
 
 (See also pp. 40, 148, 495.) 
 
 JSfo. of No. of No. of 
 
 Men. Vessels. Men. 
 
 6,309 Ketherlands 122 5,914 
 
 4,948 Norway 123 4,343 
 
 Portugal 44 3,569 
 
 Russia 389 30,194 
 
 Spain 139 15,179 
 
 Sweden 131 5,925 
 
 Turkey. 78 23,000 
 
 United States. 139 11,115 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Austria-Hungary 68 
 
 Brazil 41 
 
 China 56 
 
 Denmark 33 
 
 France 258 
 
 Germany 86 
 
 Great Britain 238 
 
 Italy 67 
 
 Japan 27 
 
 NECROLOGY, 
 
 1,125 
 
 48,283 
 15,815 
 58,800 
 16,140 
 5,551 
 
 (See Deaths.) 
 NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) 
 NEW TESTAMENT. (See Bemsion.) 
 NEW YORK CITY. (See also Charities and pp. 41, 150, 499.) Debt on 
 
 December 31, 1882, $96,141,948 ; reduction during 1882, $3,159,000. 
 
 Annual number of arrests now about 70,000 ; of new buildings, about 
 
1 8*7 7-83. xxxi 
 
 2,500 ; of deaths about 37,000.; of births about 27,000 ; of tnarriagea 
 about 10,000 ; of fires about 1,800. The electric light has been intro- 
 duced into the city ; four lines of elevated railroads are in operation ; 
 and steam heating is in the near future. The most notable bequest to 
 the city in recent years is that of $1,000,000 from Samuel Wood for the 
 establishment of a college of music. 
 
 NEWSPAPEES. (See also pp. 41, 149, 500.) Number in the United 
 States in 1880, 10,101, of which 962 were dailies. 
 
 NICARAGUA. (See also p. 150.) Population, about 300,000 ; area, 58,170 
 square miles. Presidents: Don Pedro Chamorro, 1875-79 ; Don Joaquin 
 Zavala, March 1, 1879-. 
 
 NIHILISTS. The name given to a secret revolutionary society in 
 Russia, as indicative of.- its purpose to destroy the existing order of 
 things without proposing anything in its place, and first used in Ivan 
 Turgenieff's novels. Nothing is known of the constitution of the 
 society excepting that its membership is very large, that it permeates 
 all classes of Russian society, and that it is not intimidated by the 
 severe punishment many of its members have received. Its existence 
 was established in 1877, when, cfter a trial lasting 18niontlis, 135 per- 
 sons (out of 183 arrested), were found guilty of belonging to such an 
 organization. General attention was first attracted to it in 1878 on the 
 acquittal of Vera Sassulitch for the attempted assassination of Gen. 
 Trepoff, and the many uprisings, arsons, and assassinations since then 
 have kept it prominent before the public. Among its victims have been 
 Alexander U., Czar of Russia (March 13, 1881) ; Gen. Mezentzow, Chief 
 of the Czar's police (August IG, 1878), and Gen. Strelnikoff, public prose- 
 cutor (May, 1882). 
 
 OATHS, Parliamentabt. In 1880 Charles Bradlaugh was elected a 
 member of the British Parliament from Northampton. On presenting 
 himself to take his seat he announced that, as an atheist, an oath would 
 not be binding upon him, and asked to be allowed to affirm instead. 
 This the House of Commons refused. He then offered to take the 
 oath, but the House refused to allow him to do so as he had previously 
 stated it would not be bindiug. On attempting to take his seat with- 
 out the authority of the House he was temporarily arrested. He ap- 
 pealed to the courts, who decided that the House had sole jurisdiction 
 in the matter. He has twice since then been re-elected from Northamp- 
 ton, but has not been allowed to take his seat. 
 
 OBELISKS. (See also p. 507.) In 1877 an Egyptian obelisk was removed 
 from Alexandria and set up on the Thames Embankment, London. In 
 1880 a companion one was brought to New York aod set up in the Cen- 
 tral Park. The two obelisks are each composed of a single stone and 
 are about 3,500 years old. 
 
 PANAMA CANAL. A company, composed chiefly of French capitalists 
 and with M. de Lesseps at its head, began the construction of a ship- 
 canal across the Isthmus of Panama in 1881, and has already made so 
 much progress that by 1884 it is expected the work will be completed. 
 The United States government has notified the European Powers that 
 it will assert its right of supervision over any such canal, on account 
 of the American interests involved. 
 
 PARAGUAY. (See also pp. 43, 155.) Population, 393,844; area. 
 
XXXU THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 56,700 square miles. Presidents : Higinio Uriarte, April 12, 1877-78 ; 
 Candido iiareiro, April li, 1878-80 ; B. Caballero, since October, 
 1880. 
 
 PASSION PLAT. (See also p. 44.) The usual decennial performance 
 was given at Oberanimetgau in May, 1880. A representation bas also 
 been given, vi^itli moderate success, at San Francisco, and two attempts 
 liave been made to present it in New York, but public opinion was 
 opposed and they were abandoned. 
 
 PATENTS. Number of patents issued in the United States in 1880, 
 13,947; from 1837 to 1880, 259,011. In May, 1877, (Germany adopted 
 a patent law, by which patents can be granted for 15 years by a board 
 'which passes upon the novelty of the invention and before which the 
 inventor can appear and bring testimony. 
 
 PAUPERS. (See also pp. 44, 535.) Number in England and Wales : 
 
 1876 749.503 
 
 1877 728.350 
 
 1878 742,703 
 
 1879 800,426 
 
 Number in Scotland (1882), 95,081 ; in Ireland, 590,627 
 
 1880 837,940 
 
 1881 803,126 
 
 1882 797,614 
 
 PENAL CODE. A codification of the criminal laws of New Tort, called 
 the Penal Code, went into effect on December 1, 1882, and the rigid 
 enforcement, for a few weeks, of its provisions regarding the observ- 
 ance of Sunday, caused some little excitement in the city of New 
 York. 
 
 PENSIONS. On December 1, 1882, there were 291,656 pensioners on 
 United States rolls, to whom $30,013,000 is annually paid. In 1879 the 
 "Arrears of Penpious" act was passed by Congress, which dates back all 
 pensions, and which will probably involve the government to the 
 amount of at least $200,000,000. There are at present nearly 300,000 
 applications pending, and since the passage of the act nearly |100,- 
 000,0013 has already been disbursed for arrears. From 18/9 to 18*81 there 
 has been paid to pensioners |597,S00,615.19. 
 
 PERU. (See also pp. 44, 157,523.) Population, 3,374,000; area, 503 380 
 square miles. Presideiits : M. I. Prado, August, 1876-December, 
 1879; Nicola Pierola, December, 1879-July, 1881; Garcia Calderon, 
 July-December, 1881; Montero, since December, 1881. For an account 
 of the Chilian war see Chili. Pending the settlement of the conditions 
 of peace with Chili, the affairs of Peru are in a very disorganized con- 
 dition, it being virtually without a government of its own. 
 
 PETEOLEUM. (See also pp. 157.) In 1880 there were 86 establish- 
 ments in the United States engaged in the manufacture of petroleum, 
 with an aggregate capital of $27,395,7^6, employing 9,869 hands, to 
 whom $4,381,572 was paid in wages, expending $34,9£9,101 for raw 
 material, and manufacturing products valued at $43,705,218. 
 
 PHONOGRAPH, invented by Edison, is an electrical instrument for re- 
 cording and reproducing (at some future time) words or other sounds. 
 The sonorous vibrations cansed by speaking into the phonograph cause 
 a disc to vibrate whereby indentations are made on a sheet of foil pre- 
 viously placed in the instrument. This sheet can then be removed, 
 carried any distance, and (after any lapse of time) on being placed in a 
 corresponding phonograph, and the clockwork attachment set in motion, 
 
1877-83. xxxiii 
 
 the sounds are reproduced as they were originally uttered, the very 
 tone of the speaker being reproduced. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. (See also p. 159.) Methods for instantaneous pho- 
 tography have recently been perfected by which moving objects can 
 be accurately pictured. In the transits of Venus in 1874 and 1883 
 
 ' the photograph was used with considerable success. 
 
 PHOTOPHONE. Anelectrical transmitter of sound, based upon the influ- 
 ence which waves of light have upon the molecular structure of the 
 elementary body selenium, and the variations which such waves pro- 
 duce in the resistance offered by selenium to an electric current. The 
 transmitter consists of a disc of silvered glass (with a mouthpiece and 
 tube attached) on which a beam of light is thrown by a mirror. The 
 disc focusses this beam on a distant receiver (a mirror) which reflects 
 and focusses it upon a selenium cell connected with a battery, and a 
 couple of ordinary telephones are connected with the circuit. By 
 speaking into the mouthpiece the disc vibrates and so causes the 
 beam of light to vary, and this variation affects the selenium cell. 
 
 POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS. (See also Civil Service Reform.) In 1876 
 Congress passed a law prohibiting the soliciting or receiving of politi- 
 cal contributions by employes of the government. During the early 
 part of Mr. Hayes' administration the law was partially obeyed, but in 
 the campaign of 1880 it was flagrantly violated. The New York Civil 
 Service Reform Association made complaint of its violation and aided in 
 the prosecution of Gen. N. M. Curtis, who was convicted in the United 
 States District Court in New York, and sentenced to pay a fine of 
 f 1,000. On an appeal to the United States Supreme Court the law 
 was declared constitutional and the sentence affirmed, December 18, 
 1883. 
 
 POPES. (See Roman Catholic Church.) 
 
 POPULATION. (See also Census and pp. 45, 161, 537.) There are 93 
 cities in Europe containing a population of more than 100,000, viz.: 
 London, 3,833,440; Paris, 2,235,910; Berlin, 1,333,500 ; Vienna, 1,103,- 
 110; St. Petersburg, 876,570 ; Constantinople, 600,000; Madrid, 367,380, 
 Buda-Pesth, 360,580; Warsaw, 339,340; Amsterdam, 317,010; Kome; 
 300,470; Lisbon, 243,340; Palermo, 344,993; Copenhagen, 234,850; 
 Munich, 230,020 ; Bucharest, 221,800 ; Dresden, 320,830 ; Stockholm. 
 168,770 ; Brussels, 161,820 , Venice. 182,830 ; Stutgardt, 117,300 ; Mos- 
 cow, 611,970 ; Naples, 493,110 ; Hamburg, 410,120 ; Lyons, 373,890 ; 
 Marseilles, 357,530 ; Milan, 321,840 ; Breslau, 373,910 ; Turiu, 352,830 ; 
 Bordeaux, 220,980 ; Barcelona, 215,960 ; Odessa, 193,510 ; Elberfeld, 
 189,48) ; Genoa, 179.510 ; Lille, 177,940 ; Florence, 169,000 ; Riga, 168,- 
 840 ; Prague, 132,520 ; Antwerp, 150,650 ; Adrianople, 150,000 ; Leipsic, 
 149,080 ; Rotterdam, 148,000 ; Cologne, 144,770 ; Magdeburg, 137,130; 
 Frankfort, 13;J,820; Toulouse, 136,630; Ghent, 137,650 ; Messina, 126,- 
 500: Hanover, 133,840; Nantes, 121,930; Liege, 115,810; The Hague, 
 113,460 ; Oporto, 105,840 ; and Rouen, 104,010. 
 
 POSTAL AFFAIRS. (See also Star Route and pp. 45, 163, 540.) In 
 March, 18S3, the franking privilege was restored to Members of Con- 
 gress under certain limitations. A bill is now before the United States 
 Senate, having passed the House, for a reduction of domestic letter 
 postage from three cents to two cents. On June 30, 1883, there were 
 
XXXIV THE WORLD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 46,231 post offices in the United States. Postal revenue for year end- 
 ing June 30, 1882, was $41,87(3,410.15; expenditures, $40,482,021.23, 
 leaving a surplus for the first time in thirty-one years. 
 
 PEOHIBITION. (See Temperance.) 
 
 PROPAGANDISTS. A secret communistic society in Russia, the mem- 
 bers binding themselves to give all their property to a common fund 
 and to devote themselves to the doctrines of the Propaganda. Unlike 
 most communistic societies it originated in the higher classes. In 1877, 
 150 were tried and convicted. 
 
 PROTECTION. (See Tariff.) 
 
 RAILROAD ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions and p. 47.) August 29, 
 1877, near Des Moines, Iowa, train wrecked by washing away of bridge, 
 17 killed ; January 15, 1878, at Tariffville, Conn., train fell through 
 bridge, 16 killed ; October 8, 1878, in Quincy, Mass. , train wrecked by 
 open switch, 21 killed ; June 23, 1881, in Mexico, 197 killed ; January 
 16, 1882, at New Albion, Iowa, 21 killed ; July 13, 1882, near Tcherny, 
 Russia, train run off the track, 178 killed ; September 23, 1882, railroad 
 bridge over River Drave fell in, drowning 30 soldiers. Total number 
 of railroad accidents in the United States, reported in 1881, was 1,481, 
 in which 435 persons were killed, and 1,691 injured. 
 
 RAILROADS. (See also Elevated Railroads and p. 47.) In October, 
 1877, an International Railway Conference was held at Rome. June 28, 
 1879, the track of the Iron Mountain Railroad in Missouri, 700 miles 
 long, was changed to standard gauge, in one day, by 3,000 men. In 
 1878-9 the Italian legislature authorized the construction of 3,741 miles 
 of road, to be completed in 15 years at a total cost of $20,000,000, and 
 in 1881 the Italian Senate authorized the purchase of the Roman rail- 
 roads by the State. September 11, 1879, Prince Milan of Servia au- 
 thorized the construction of a network of roads partly under State 
 guarantee. December 8, 1879, the Prussian Deputies passed a bill for 
 the purchase of a number of railroads by the government. September 
 9, 1880, the Czar ordered construction of a system of roads through 
 Siberia. In 1880 there were 93,670 miles of railroad in the United 
 States, representing a cost of $4,653,609,297 and a capital stock of 
 $2,553,734,177. About 12,000 miles were built in the United States 
 in 1882. 
 
 Bailroads of the world, December 31, 1880. 
 
 Africa miles, 2,57 
 
 Asia " 9,81 
 
 Australia " 4,.338 
 
 Europe miles, 100,920 
 
 North America " 101,240 
 
 South. America '' 6,488 
 
 Total " 226,442 
 
 Cent. Am. and W. Indies. " 1,060 
 RENT. (See Arrears.) 
 
 REPUBLICAN PARTY. (See also p. 48.) The Presidential vote in 
 1880 was: Garfield (Republican), 4,449,053, Hancock (Democrat), 4,442,- 
 035, Weaver (Greenback), 307,306, scattering, 12,576. Of the electoral 
 votes Garfield received 214 and Hancock 155. 
 
 RESUMPTION. (See also p. 49.) On January 2, 1879, specie payments 
 were formally resumed throughout the United States, after having 
 been suspended since 1862. No run for gold occurred, all the banks 
 paying specie when asked, and the United States legal tender notes 
 
1877-83. XXXV 
 
 (greenbacks) being redeemed at tbe "New York Sub-Treasury as pre- 
 sented. In anticipation of the resumption gold had sold at par in 
 New York since the previous December 17. The highest premium, 
 at which it bad sold bad been $3.85, on July 11, 1864. 
 EEVENUE. (See also p. 49.) Revenue and expenditure of tbe United 
 States. (The " total " includes items additional to customs and internal 
 revenue.) 
 
 Customs. Internal Reventje. Total. Expenditures. 
 
 1877. $130,956,493.07 $118,630,407,83 ^269,000,586.62 $238,660,008.9.3 
 18T8. 130,170,68020 110,581,624.74 257,763,878.70 236,964,326.80 
 
 1879. 137,250,047.70 113 561,610.58 273,827,184.46 266,947,883.53 
 
 1880. 186,522,064.60 124,009,373.92 333,526,610,96 267,642,957.78 
 
 1881. 198,159,676.02 135,264,385,51 360,782,292.57 260,712;887.59 
 
 1882. 220,410,730.25 146,497,595.45 403,525,250.28 257,981,439.57 
 
 REVISION OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. The Anglo-American Com- 
 mittee appointed to revise the English version of the Bible, after ten 
 years of labor, completed their work upon the New Testament in time 
 to issue it in England, May 17, and in America May 19, 1881. In 48 
 hours 200,000 copies were sold in the United States. 
 
 RICE. In 1880 the total production of rice in the United States was 
 110,131,373 pounds from 174,173 acres. In 1881 its consumption in 
 Great Britain was 253,563 tons. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. (See also p. 50, 171, 566.) February 7, 
 1878, Pope Pius IX. died, having occupied the papal chair since 1846. 
 On February 20, 1878, CardinalJoachim Pecci was elected his successor 
 under the title of Leo XIII. On May 13, 1879. and on December 14, 
 1880, a number of new cardinals were created by the Pope. On July 
 2, 1880, Belgium withdrew her ambassador from the Vatican and 
 diplomatic, relations ceased. The Republican leaders of France have 
 waged a ceaseless war upon the Church, have driven the Jesuits from 
 their schools and houses, have secularized education, and have recently 
 passed a divorce law. In 1882 Germany resumed diplomatic relations 
 with the Vatican and it is pemi-aulhoiitatively announced that Great 
 Britain is about to do so. The recent decision that Italian courts have 
 jurisdiction over the Vatican has tended to still further widen the dif- 
 ferences between the papacy and the Italian government. 
 
 ROUMANIA. (See also p. 51.) May 21, 1877, Roumania declared her 
 Independence of Turkey, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin, 
 signed July 1-3, 1878. March 26, 1881, Karl I., who has been reigning 
 prince since 1866, was proclaimed king. The area of Roumania is 
 49,262 square miles, and it has a population of 5,376,000. 
 
 RUSSIA. (See also pp. 51, 173, 569.) Leading events in the Russo- 
 Turkish war (declared April 21, 1877) : July 14, 1877, Russian army 
 crossed Balkan Mountains ; July 31, defeated by Turks at Plevna, and 
 compelled to retreat ; August 18, defeated by Turks at Jahnilar ; Aug- 
 ust 23, Turks repulsed in Shipka Pass ; August 25, Rufrsians defeated 
 at Kizil Tepe, Armenia ; August 28, Russians repulsed in Bulgaria ; 
 August 31, Russians assaulted Plevna ; September 3, Russians stormed 
 Lovatz in Bulgaria ; October 15, Turks defeated, with loss of 16. COO ; 
 November 18, Russia captured Kars, with 10,000 prisoners and 300 
 guns ; December 10, Russians captured Plevna ; January 3, 1878, Rus- 
 sians captured Sophia ; January 9, Turkish army of 25,000 captured in 
 Shipka Pass. Turkey then made overtures for an armistice, which was 
 
XXXyi THE WOJRLDS PKOGEESS. 
 
 granted on evacuation of Adrianople, whicli the Russians entered on 
 January 20. On March 20 a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at 
 St. Petersburg. In June-July representatives of the goveruiuents of 
 Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Turkey, Austria and Italy met 
 at Berlin, and, on July 18,drew up a definitive treaty which they signed 
 and which was ultimately accepted by Russia and Turkey, February 8, 
 1879, whereupon the Russian troops quitted Turkish territory and on 
 March20, 1879, evacuatedAdrianople. By the terms of the Treaty of Ber- 
 
 ' lin Russia was granted that portion of Bessarabia which she lost in 1856, 
 extending from the Pruth to the Kilia Valley, and was allowed to hold 
 Kai'S, Ardahan, and Batum; the frontier of Roumania was extended and its 
 independence and that of Montenegro recognized ; Bulgaria was grant- 
 ed an autonomic administration ; Sei'via became independent and her 
 territory enlarged ; and Austria was to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 On June 3, 1880, the Empress Maria, consort of Alexander II., died, 
 and in the following October he married the Princess Dolgorouki. 
 During 1880 and 1881, a number of attempts to assassinate the Czar 
 were made by the Nihilists, who demanded reforms which he would 
 not grant. The most stringent measures were adopted for the discov- 
 ery and suppression of the conspirators and hundreds of arrests were 
 made and many exiled to Siberia. The apprehensions of the govern- 
 ment became so serious that in February, 1880, the administration of 
 aiiairs was delegated to a Supreme Executive Council, with Gen. Meli- 
 koif at its head as Dictator of all Russia. This device proved useless, 
 and in August the Council was abolished. In th.e following March the 
 Czar was assapsinated in the streets of St. Petersburg by bombs. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Alexander III., who for the protection of his 
 life has been compelled to live in strict retirement and has not yet been 
 crowned. Five Nihilists were convicted and hung for complicity in the 
 death of Alexander II. The area of the Russian empire is now given 
 as 8,325,393 square miles, and its population (in 1882) as 100,038,342. 
 
 SALT. (See also p. 572.) In 1880 there were 264 establishments for the 
 production of salt in the United States, representing a capital of 
 ^8,225, 740,producing 29,800,298 bushels of salt, valued at $4,817,636. 
 
 SALVATION ARMY. A movement, begun in 1865 by the Rev. W. 
 Booth (now known as General Booth), for preaching in the streets of Lon- 
 don to the very lowest and most degraded, has nov/ spread throughout 
 Great Britain, and into the English colonies, France, the United States, 
 etc., and has made several bund red thousand converts, all distinguished 
 by having the letter S marked conspicuously on some part of the clothing. 
 The army is well organized, under the sole direction of General Booth, 
 lias acquired considerable property from contributions, and publishes 
 a weekly paper, the War Cry, which has reached a weekly sale of 
 400,000 copies. 
 
 SAN SALVADOR. (See also 52.) Population (by census of 1878), 
 554,000 ; area, 7,335 square miles. President : Don Rafael Zaldivai 
 y Lazo, since April 30, 1876. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS, {^ee Hawaiian Islands.) 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS. (See also pp. 53 176, 575.) Total deposits in sav- 
 ings banks in United States in 1880, $819,106,973; in 1881, $891,961,143. 
 Number of savings banks in 1880, 658; in 1881, 865. 
 
1877-83. xxxyii 
 
 SERVIA, (See also p. 53.) On December 13, 1877, Prince Milan issued 
 a proclamatioQ declaring war against Turkey, and asserting the inde- 
 pendence of Servia. Tliis was secured by the Treaty of Berlin, signed 
 July 13, 1878. On March 6, 1882, the Prince, at the request of the 
 Servian Parliament, assumed the title of King. On October 23, 1883, 
 thei'e was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of King Milan, at Bel- 
 grade. The population of Servia in 1879 was 1,670,000 and area 18,787 
 square miles. 
 
 SHIPPING. (See also pp. 53, 180, 524.) Of the exports and imports of 
 the United States 25 per cent, in 1875 were carried in American vessels ; 
 17 per cent, in 1880; 16 per cent, in 1881, and 15 percent, in 1883. About 
 70 per cent, of Great Britain's foreign trade is carried in British vessels. 
 In 1860 about 66 per cent, of the American trade was carried in Ameri- 
 can bottoms. In 1S81 the total number of American vessels (sailing 
 vessels, steam vessels, canal boats and barges) was 24,712, with a 
 tonnage of 4,068,034. 
 
 SILK. (See also pp. 51, 585.) In 1880 there were 383 factories in the United 
 States engaged in silk manufactures, representing a capita] of $18,899,- 
 500, employing 34,440 hands, to whom $9,107,835 was paid in wages ; 
 consuming materials valued at $:?3,371,3U0, producing goods of the 
 value of $34,410,463. The value of the silks imported into the United 
 States in 1880 was $44,313,889; in 1881, $33,058,701. In 1881 Great 
 Britain imported 1,986,000 pounds of raw silk. 
 
 SILOS. Places for storing green fodder (called ensilage) under ground, 
 where it will not decay, but can be preserved to feed cattle in its green 
 state during the winter. 
 
 SILVER. (See also Coinage, Standard Silver Dollar, and pp. 54, 181, 
 585.) In 1881 the United Stales produced $43,100,000; from 1793-1881, 
 $225,898,673. Annual average of world's production, $94,000,000;- 
 estimated total production in the world, $11,000,000,000. In 1881 an 
 International Monetary Conference was held at Paris to consider the 
 question of a "double standard" or joint use of gold and silver as 
 money, but no conclusions were reached. 
 
 SLAVERY. (See also p. 54.) August 11, 1877, convention signed by 
 Great Britain and Egypt for suppression of slave trade in countries ruled 
 over by the Khedive ; April 30, 1879, treaty signed by Great Britain and 
 Germany, embodying new measures for suppression of slave trade ; 
 February 18, 1880, official proclamation of abolition of slavery in 
 Cuba. 
 
 SOCIALISTS. The name by which communists in Germany are called. 
 In 1878 a very stringent law against them was passed, its operation 
 limited to two and ahalf years. On its expiration, in 1880, it was ex- 
 tended until 1884. In December, 1883, 50 were tried at Prngue, and 
 45 convicted, among them Overdank, who was executed on the charge 
 of plotting against the Emperor's life. 
 
 SPAIN. (See also pp. 54, 184, 591.) Population (by census of 1879), 
 16,633,389; area, 195,775 square miles. On January 33, 1878, King 
 Alfonso married the Princess Mercedes, but she died the following 
 June, and on November 39, 1879, he married the Archduchess Marie 
 Christina. On October 25, 1878, and on December 30, 1879, attempts 
 W«re made to assassinate the King, but they were both unsuccessful. 
 
2XSY111 THE WOKLD S PEOGKESS. 
 
 SPECIE PAYMENTS. (See Besumption.) 
 
 STANDARD SILVER DOLLAR. (See also p. 55.) Coinage suspended 
 1873. By act of February 28, 1878, coinage revived, and two millions 
 a month required to be coined, and issue made legal tender for all debts 
 public and private. 
 
 STAR ROUTES. In 1881 great frauds were discovered by the United 
 States authorities on the part of contractors lor carrying the mail 
 through sparsely settled parts of the country, aided by employes of the 
 government. The frauds were usually accomplished by securing a dis- 
 proiDortionate increase of compensation for an increased frequency of 
 delivery, violating the spirit of the law requiring such contracts to be 
 given to the lowest responsible bidder. A number of the smaller con- 
 tractors have been tried and convicted, but the first trial of the more 
 important offenders, an ex-United States Senator and ex- Assistant 
 Postmaster General among them, resulted in a disagreement of the 
 jury, and a secoi:d trial is now (December, 1883) in progress. These 
 postal roads are called star routes from the asterisk prefixed to them 
 in the Post office publications. 
 
 STATE DEBTS. The debts of the several States in 1881 were : 
 
 Alabama $11,062,652 
 
 Arkansas 5,046.405 
 
 California 3,396.500 
 
 Colorado 162,887 
 
 Connecticut 4,967,600 
 
 Delaware 715,000 
 
 Florida 1,315,987 
 
 Georgia 9,951.500 
 
 Indiana 4,876,608 
 
 Iowa 215,435 
 
 Kansas 1,181 ,975 
 
 Kentucky 480,394 
 
 Louisiana 16,332,493 
 
 Maine 8,405,157 
 
 Maryland 11,2.57,561 
 
 Massachusetts 32,799,464 
 
 Michigan 904.1.50 
 
 Minnesota 2,565,000 
 
 Mississippi 3,090, 155 
 
 Illinois, Vermont and West Virginia have no debts. 
 
 Missouri $16,509,000 
 
 Nebraska 449.267 
 
 Nevada 527,000 
 
 New Hampshire 3,411,248 
 
 New Jersey 1,896,300 
 
 New York 9,114,054 
 
 North Carolina 27.120,228 
 
 Ohio 5,200,090 
 
 Oregon 511,376 
 
 Pennsylvania 22,442,708 
 
 Rhode Island 2,521,500 
 
 South Carolina 6,642,322 
 
 Tennessee 26.843,850 
 
 Texas 5,086,783 
 
 Virginia 31,227,083 
 
 Wisconsin 2,252,057 
 
 Total $281,110,699 
 
 STEAM HEATING. Two companies are now engaged in laying pipes 
 under the streets of New York city to supply steam for heating pur- 
 poses and for power to houses and buildings, the steam to be generated 
 at central stations and transmitted through these pipes. 
 
 STEEL. (See also p. 55.) The production of steel throughout the world 
 in 1879 was 2,850,641 tons of ingots and 1,921,947 tons of rails. Of the 
 former Great Britain produced 834,511 tons and the United States 
 829,439. Of the latter Great Britain produced 509,786 tons and the 
 United States 610,682. 
 
 STORAGE OP ELECTRICITY. Various systems, devised by Brush, 
 Faure and Meritens, for the storage and carriage of electricity have 
 lately been put into operation. The reservoirs consist of boxes con- 
 taining cells, in each of which are lead plates chemically treated by 
 some secret process. The electrical power generated at some central 
 
ISVY-SS. xxxix 
 
 station is stored in these cells and so carried to tlie place where it is to 
 be used. 
 
 STORMS. (See also Floods and p. 55.) April 11, 1878, tornado at Canton, 
 China, (estimated) 10,000 killed ; August 30, 1878, Hungarian town of 
 Miskolez almost destroyed by storm, 600 killed ; December 6, 1879, 
 storm in Bay of Biscay, drowning hundreds of persons ; December 21, 
 1879, railroad bridge over Frith of Tay, Scotland, blown down in hur- 
 ricane, submerging train, and drowning 90 passengers ; April 18, 1880, 
 tornado at the West, destroying town of Marshfield, Mo., and killing 
 100 persons ; October 3, 1880, typhoon in Japan demolished 1,000 houses 
 in Tokio, several hundred fishermen drowned; March 4, 1881, snow 
 storm in Scotland, 200 lives lost ; October, 1881, typhoon in Western 
 Tonquin, China, destroying over 2,000 buildings ; January 18, 1882, 
 cyclone partly destroyed Grinnell, Iowa, and killed over 100 persons ; 
 May, 1883, cyclone in Indian Territory, killed and wounded 120 per- 
 sons ; October 20, 1882, tornado destroyed chief part of city of Manila, 
 making 60,000 families homeless, and drowning 100 sailors. 
 
 SUGAR. (See also pp. 188, 601.) Value of importations into the United 
 
 States : 
 
 1877 $81,215,547 
 
 1878 69,649,837 
 
 1879 67,828,757 
 
 1880 $74,717,935 
 
 1881 81,354,309 
 
 Consumption in the United States (in tons of 2,240 pounds) : 
 
 Imported. Domestic. 
 
 1877 577,194 89,000 
 
 1878 , 614,170 71,.50O 
 
 1879 631,174 112,000 
 
 1880 819,311 88,823 
 
 The consumption in Great Britain in 1881 was 989,208 tons. In 1880 
 the total production of cane sugar throughout the world was 3,302,000 
 tons ; of beet-root sugar, 1,335,000 tons. It has now been demonstrated 
 that sugar can profitably be made from sorghum. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. (See also pp. 58, 189, 606.) Population (by census of 
 1880), 2,846,102 ; area, 15,991 square miles. Presidents : J. Heer, 1877; 
 K. Schenck, 1878 ; B. Hammer, 1879 ; P. Anderwert, 1880 ; N. Droz, 
 1881 ; S. Bavier, 1882. By the Constitution of 1874 capital punishment 
 was abolished in the Confederation. In 1879 this was amended so as to 
 allow each cauton to restore it, if it desired to. 
 
 TARIFF. (See also p. 189, and Free Trade, p. 121.) In 1878 Canada 
 reversed its tariff policy and imposed protective duties on imports, which 
 have since remained in force. In 1879 Germany adopted a new tariff, 
 largely increasing duties. In the United States the policy has been 
 protective since 1861. The large surplus in the annual revenue for the 
 past few years has given the advocates of free trade an opportunity for 
 securing attention to the subject with a view to, at least, obtaining a 
 reduction of duties and an increase in the free list. In May, 1882, Con- 
 gress authorized the appointment of a Commission to consider the 
 whole subject, and its report (recommending a very slight reduction in 
 the tariff) is now under consideration by Congress. A reciprocal free 
 trade treaty has long been in force between England and France, and 
 in 1883 a similar one was made between France and Spain. 
 
Xl THE world's PKOGKESS. 
 
 TEA. (See also pp. 58, 189, 610.) Value of importations into tlie United 
 States : 
 
 1877 $16,181,467 
 
 1878 15,660,168 
 
 1879 14,577,618 
 
 1880 $19,782, 631 
 
 1881 31,004,813 
 
 The consumption of tea in Great Britain in 1881 was 160,225,000 pounds. 
 
 TELEGRAPH. (See also pp. 23, 58, 114, 634.) In 1880 there were 492,- 
 573 miles of telegraph lines, of which 107,103 were in the United 
 States, 56,170 in Russia, 41,431 in Germany, 36,970 in France, 30,403 in 
 Austria-Hungary, 26,84;jin Australia, 23,156 in Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, 18,209 in India, 17,085 in Turkey, and 15,864 in Italy. An instru- 
 ment was exhibited at the Paris Electrical Exhibition in 1881, by 
 which five messages can be sent over one wire at the same time, and 
 printed in Roman type at the receiving end. In 1879 an International 
 Telegraphic Conference was held at London. The seventh cable under 
 the Atlantic was laid in 1879, from Cape Cod to Brest. 
 
 TELEPHONE. (See also p. 58.) During the past five years the use of 
 the telephone has very generally spread, and it is now employed in 
 South America, China, Honolulu, etc. , as well as extensively in Europe 
 and America. In the United States, there are now over 150,000 tele- 
 phones in use, with an aggregate mileage of wires of about 70,000, and 
 conversation has been successfully transmitted for a distance of 150 
 miles. By the aid of a microphone placed on the stage, concerts and 
 operas have been heard at considerable distances. 
 
 TEMPERANCE. (See also pp. 189, 611.) In 1880 a constitutional 
 amendment was adopted in Kansas, forbidding the manufacture and 
 sale of all liquor excepting for medicinal, mechanical, or scientific use. 
 In 1881 a proliibitory amendment proposed by the Nonh Carolina legis- 
 lature was defeated by the people. In 1882, Iowa adopted a prohibitory 
 amendment, but Ohio defeated a more stringent excise Jaw. Efforts 
 have been luaking for some years in New York to enforce the law for- 
 bidding the sale of liquor on Sunday, but without much success. 
 
 THEATRES. On October 11, 1878, a panic in the Colosseum Theatre, 
 Liverpool, caused the loss of 37 lives ; April 21, 1880, the roof and wall 
 of Madison Square Garden, New York, fell during a hospital fair, kill- 
 ing four persons ; January 13, 1881, the Cronstadt Theatre, Russia, 
 was destroyed by fire ; November 23, 1881, the Opera House at Nice 
 was burned, and 100 persons killed ; December 8, 1881, the Ring 
 Theatre, Vienna, was burned, and 794 lives lost ; October 30, 1882, the 
 Park Theatre, New York, was burned and 2 lives lost. 
 
 TIMBER. (See also pp. 190, 615.) In 1878, Congress passed an act 
 encouraging the growth of timber by giving a quarter section of land 
 to any one growing ten acres of timber on any quarter section of public 
 land for ten years. 
 
 TOBACCO. (See also pp. 191, 616.) In 1880 there were 638,841 acres in 
 United States, which produced 472,661,159 pounds of tobacco, valued 
 at $36,642,809. The United States Internal Revenue receints from 
 tobacco in 1883 were $38,870,140, and in 1881, $42,854,991. The value 
 of the tobacco exported from the United States, in 1880, was $18,442,- 
 273, and in 1881, $20,878,884. In 1881 the consumption of tobacco in 
 Great Britain was 48,481,000 pounds. 
 
1877-83. ,xli 
 
 TRANSITS. (See Astronomy.) 
 
 TEANSVAAL. A South African republic, including all the country to 
 the north of the Vaal River as far as the Limpopo or Crocodile Eiver. 
 It has an area of 114,360 square miles, and a population of about 700,- 
 000, of which some 50,000 are whites. It was tirst settled in 1840 by a 
 number of Boers who had become dissati.*fied with the government of 
 Cape Colony (chiefly in connection with slavery and the treatment of 
 the natives) and who accordingly left Cape Colony and Natal, and, cross- 
 ing the Vaal, established a commonwealth of their own. In 1877 the 
 Cape government (English), fearing an outbreak which might lead to a 
 general rising of the natives, took possession, and annexed the terri- 
 tory. This the Boers forcibly resisted and were successful against 
 the small bodies of British they encountered. More troops were sent to. 
 the colon,y and the rising would speedily have been quelled had not the 
 British government given up the country to the Boers under certain regu- 
 lations recognizing the suzerainty of the British crown, August 3, 1881. 
 
 TUNIS. (See also pp. 192, 625.) Population about 1,500,000 ; area, 45,- 
 716 square miles. Remained tributary to Turkey until 1881, when it 
 was virtually annexed to France, a French army having i^ince remained 
 in possession. On October 28, 1882, Mohammed-el-Sadak Pasha Bey 
 (who had been on the throne since 1859) was succeeded by Sidi All 
 Pasha Bey. 
 
 TUNNELS. (See also p. 60.) Considerable opposition has developed in 
 England to the proposed Channel tunnel, and it is doubtful if the work 
 will be prosecuted for the present. The St. Gothard Tunnel was com- 
 pleted in 1879. Work has been in progress for some years on a tunnel 
 under the Hudson River to connect New York city with Jersey City. 
 
 TURKEY. (See also pp. 60, 192, 626.) An account of the Eusso-Turk- 
 isli war is given under Russia, where also will be foitnd the provisions 
 of the Treaty of Berlin, which terminated it. Since the loi^s of the ter- 
 ritory of which she was then deprived, her area has been about 800,- 
 000 square miles, and her population about 23,000,000. This has been 
 still more recei^tly (September, 1883), lessened by the cession to Greece 
 of 5,000 square miles, containing a population of about 400,000, for the 
 rectification of the Greek frontier. The Sultan's vacillating policy during 
 the recent Earyptian troubles has practically abolished even his nom- 
 inal authority over the Khedive, and Egypt will no longer be regarded 
 as a dependency of Turkey. 
 
 UNION GENERALE. A scheme of religious banking, started in France 
 a few years ago, which resulted in 1882 in the ruin of thousands 
 of its depositors, for which its president and secretary have lately been 
 sentenced to imprisonment for five years. 
 
 UNITED STATES. (See the chronological tables, p. 760, et seq.) 
 
 URUGUAY. (See also p. 193.) In 1880 its population was 450,000, and 
 its area 70,000 square miles. On March 15, 1880, Col. L. Latorre, who 
 had been President since 1876, resigned the office and Dr. Francisco 
 Antonio Vidal was elected to fi^ll the vacancy. On February 28, 1882, 
 he was succeeded by Gen. Maximo Santos. 
 
 VATICAN, (See Rojnan Catholic Church.) 
 
 VENEZUELA, (See also pp. 62, 634.) Presidents : Gen. Alcantara, 
 
xlii 
 
 THE WOELD S PROGRESS. 
 
 February, 1877-79 ; Gen. Blanco, February, 1879- By the census of 
 
 1881 its population was 2,075,245. 
 
 WOOL. (See also p. 656.) In 1880 the number of establishments en- 
 gaged in the manufactures from wool in the United States was 2,684, 
 representing a capital of $159,644,270, employing 160,998 hands, to 
 whom $47,180,618 was paid in wages, consuming 78,200,698 pounds of 
 foreign wool and 222,991,531 pounds of domestic wool, of which the 
 value was $1)7,681,604, producing goods valued at $267,699,504. The 
 value of the woolen goods imported into the United States in 1880 was 
 $39,911,093 ; in 1881, $40,860,394. In 1881 Great Britain imported for 
 her manufactures 181,684,000 pounds of wool. 
 
 VENUS, Transit of. (See Astronomy.) 
 
 VOTEES. In 1876, out of a population of 36,905,788 in France there 
 were 9,948,070 legal voters ; in Great Britain and Ireland in 1880, out of 
 a population of 34,862,477, there were 3,039,032 voters ; in the United 
 States in 1880, out of a population of 50,155,783, there were 12,830,349 
 men of voting age. 
 
 WAGES. (See also pp. 62, 196, 640.) Comparative rates of weekly wages 
 paid in Europe and in the United States in 1878 : 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 'A 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 •a 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 GREAT 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 Bakers 
 
 $4.40 
 
 554.25 
 
 $5.55 
 
 $3.50 
 
 $3.90 
 
 $6.50—6.60 
 
 $5.00—8.00 
 
 $8.00-12.00 
 
 Blacksmiths 
 
 4.40 
 
 3.90 
 
 5.45 
 
 3.55 
 
 3.94 
 
 7.04-8.12 
 
 10.00-14.00 
 
 9.00-12.00 
 
 Bookbinders . . . 
 
 
 3.72 
 
 4.85 
 
 3.82 
 
 3.90 
 
 6.50-7.83 
 
 12.00-18.00 
 
 9. 00-20.00 
 
 Bricklayers 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.45 
 
 7.58-9.03 
 
 12.00-15.00 
 
 6.00-10.50 
 
 Cabinetmakers . . 
 
 4.80 
 
 
 6.00 
 
 3.97 
 
 4.95 
 
 7.70-8.48 
 
 9.00-13.00 
 
 7.00-15.00 
 
 Carpenters 
 
 5.40 
 
 4.25 
 
 5.43 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.18 
 
 7.33-8.25 
 
 9.00-12.00 
 
 7.50-12.00 
 
 Farm Hands 
 
 
 
 3.15 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.40—4.25 
 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 3.00 
 
 
 
 2.93 
 
 2.60 
 
 4.50-5.00 
 
 6.00-9.00 
 
 5.50-9.00 
 
 Painters 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.15 
 
 4.90 
 
 3.92 
 
 4.60 
 
 7.25-8.16 
 
 10.00-16.00 
 
 6.00-13.00 
 
 Plasterers 
 
 5.40 
 
 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.35 
 
 7.68-10.13 
 
 10.00-15.00 
 
 9.00-15.00 
 
 Plumbers 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 5.50 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.90 
 
 7.13-8.46 
 
 12.00-18.00 
 
 12.00-20.00 
 
 Printers 
 
 
 4.62 
 
 4.70 
 
 4.80 
 
 3.90 
 
 7.52—7.75 
 
 8.00-18.00 
 
 12.00-18.00 
 
 Shoemakers 
 
 
 3.30 
 
 4. 75 
 
 3.12 
 
 4.33 
 
 7.35 
 
 12.00-18.00 
 
 9.00-18.00 
 
 Tailors 
 
 
 4.10 
 
 5.10 
 
 3.58 
 
 4.30 
 
 5.00—7.30 
 
 10.00-18.00 
 
 6.00-18.00 
 
 Tinsmiths 
 
 4.80 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.40 
 
 3.65 
 
 3.60 
 
 6.00-7.30 
 
 10.00-14.00 
 
 9.00-12.00 
 
 WOMAN SUFFRAGE. Women now have the right of voting equally 
 with men in Utah and Wyoming. A proposal to give it to them in 
 Colorado was defeated in 1877, and in England in 1879. They may 
 
1877-83. xliii 
 
 vote at sctool meetings in Kansas, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont and Dakota ; at school elections in Colorado and Minuesota ; and 
 for members of school committees in Massachusetts. They can vote at 
 school meetings in Michigan and New York if they are taxpayers ; in 
 Washington Territory if they are liable to taxation. Widows and un- 
 married women in Idaho may vote as to special district taxes if they hold 
 taxable property. In Oregon widows having children and taxable 
 property may vote at school meetings. In Indiana " women not married 
 nor minors, who pay taxes, and are listed as parents, guardians, or 
 heads of families, may vote at school meetings." In Kentucky any 
 white widow having a child of school age is a qualified school voter ; 
 if she has no child, but is a taxpayer, she may vote on the question of 
 taxes. Women are eligible to .school offices generally in Illinois, Iowa, 
 Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Vermont and Wyoming; to school district offices in Colorado ; 
 to any office except State Superintendent in Wisconsin. They may 
 serve on school committees in New Hampshire and Rhode Island ; as 
 school trustees in New Jersey, and as school visitors in Connecticut. 
 Some offices are open to them in Maine, and all offices in California, 
 unless specially forbidden by the constitution. 
 
 WRECKS. (See also Collisions, Explosions, and pp. 63, 198, 658.) July 
 15, 1877, steamer " Eten, " off Chilian coast, over 100 lives lost; Novem- 
 ber 24, 1877, United States sloop-of-war "Huron," o£ North Carolina 
 coast, about 100 lost; January 31, 1878, steamer " Metropolis," 
 off North Carolina Coast, about 100 lost ; March 9, 1878, " Sphinx," 
 500 lost; March 24, 1878, British training ship, " Eurydice," off Isle of 
 Wight, 300 lost; December 2, 1879, steamer " Borussia," sunk at sea, 
 200 lost; June 28, 1880, excursion steamer " Seawanhaka," in Long 
 Island Sound, 30 lost; August 30, 1881, mail steamer " Teuton" lost, 
 with 200 lives; September 14, 1882, steamer "Asia," in Lake Huron, 
 about 100 lost; October 22, 1882, " Wambe," off Vancouver's Island, 
 several hundred lost. In 1881 the number of steamships lost at sea 
 was 198, and in 1882 it was 284. The number of lives lost was, 
 respectively, 1,459 and 2,002. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER. In 1878 an epidemic of yellow fever occurred in the 
 Southern States, resulting in 7,C00 deaths and 20,0C0 cases. It re- 
 turned in 1879, but less severely, and since then the number of cases 
 has been but little above the average for earlier years. 
 
 YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. A tract of land, embracing 
 3,575 square miles, in tbe northwest corner of Wyoming Territory, set 
 aside by Congress as a public park or pleasure ground for the people 
 in 1872. It has a general elevation of about 6,000 feet, and its moun- 
 tain ranges average from 9,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level. Its largest 
 body of water is the Yellowstone Lake (330 square miles), from which 
 flows the Yellowstone River. The waterfalls, hot springs, geysers, 
 mineral deposits and other natural curiosities annually attract large 
 numbers of visitors. 
 
 ZULUS. A Kaffir tribe, inhabiting Southeastern Africa. Zululand is 
 bounded on the north by the country of the Amatongas, on the east 
 by the Indian Ocean, on the southwest by Natal and on the west by 
 Transvaal, and has an area of about 15,000 square miles, with a popu- 
 lation of 300,000. Its troubles with the British government arose 
 
xliv THE world's PROGRESS. 
 
 shortly after the accession of King Cetewayo (1873) whom the English 
 in Natal had greatly aided in peaceably ascending the throne. Once 
 in possesi-ion of power he assumed a menacing attitude towards the 
 Boers and the colonists, practised great cruelties in administering 
 affairs, and finally made many aggressions upon the territory of Natal 
 and Transvaal. Remonstrances proving unavailing the British colo- 
 nial government resorted to arms to repress him, and on January 10, 
 1879, Lord Chelmsford, with 13,000 soldiers, invaded Zuliiland. The 
 campaign was a short one. Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived in Natal to 
 talie command on June 28, but his presence was scarcely necessary, as 
 a crushing defeat of the Zulus at Ulundi, on July 1, virtually ended 
 the war, which was entirely concluded by the capture of Cetewayo, 
 on August 28. On September 1, a treaty" was signed with the native 
 chiefs, Ijy which the country was divided into 13 districts, over each 
 of which a chief was appointed, with a Governor Resident over all, 
 and a local Resident in each. Cetewayo was held a prisoner until 1883, 
 when in September, after a visit to England to plead his cause, he was 
 restored to his throne on condition of remaining friendly to the British 
 government and not reorganizing his army. An unhappy incident of 
 the war was the death of the Prince Imperial, Louis Napoleon, in a 
 chance encounter with some Zulus, June 1, 1879. 
 ZUNI INDIANS. (See Archmlogy!) 
 
STATISTICS, YEAES 1877-82. 
 
 (From Public Documents and other Official Sources,) 
 
 COIN AND BULLION exported from tlie United States, June 30, 1875,- 
 June 30, 1881 : 
 
 1876 $50,038,691 I 1S79 $17,555,035 
 
 1877 43,134,738 1880 9,347,893 
 
 1878 27,054,985 I 1S81 14,226,944 
 
 COTTON. Product and exports of the United States, 1877-1880 
 (years ending June 30) : 
 
 Production, 
 (bales of 440 ibs.) Exports, (lbs. ) 
 
 1877 4,485,423 1,445,369,130 
 
 1878 4,811,265 1,607,533,511 
 
 1879 5,073,531 1,628.372,8:^3 
 
 1880 5,757,397 1,822,061,114 
 
 SHIPPING of the United States, 1876-1881 (tonnage) : 
 
 Sail. Steam. Total. 
 
 1876 . . .3,107,086 1,172,373 4,279.4.58 
 
 1877 3,071,404 1,171,- 96 4,242.600 
 
 1878 3,04.5,087 1,167.678 4,212,765 
 
 1879 2,993,429 1,176,172 4,169,601 
 
 1880 2,N56,476 1,211,5.58 4,068,034 
 
 1881 2,734,736 1,264,976 3,999,712 
 
 TOBACCO. Product and exports of the United States, 1876-1880 
 (years ending June 30) : 
 
 Production, (lbs.) Exports, leaf, (lbs.) 
 
 1876 381 ,000,000 218.310.265 
 
 1877 440;000.000 •;82,3S6,426 
 
 1878 393,000,000 283.973,193 
 
 18'. 9 391 ,278,350 822,279,540 
 
 1880 472,681,159 215,910,187 
 
 WHEAT. Product and exports of the United States, 1875-1880 (years 
 ending June 30) : 
 
 Production, Exports. ' Flour, 
 
 (bushels). Wheat, (bushels). (barrels). 
 
 1875 299.136.000 53,047,177 3,973,128 
 
 1876 2S9.356..500 55,073,122 3,935,512 
 
 1877 365.094 800 40,325.611 3.343.665 
 
 1878 420,122,400 72,404.961 3,947,333 
 
 1873 448,756,630 122.3.53.936 5,629,714 
 
 1880 153,252,797 6,011,419 
 
 xIt 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 July, 1867, to July, 1877. 
 
 BEENG AH AIjPHABETICAL EECOED OP IMPOETANT PACTS AND OCCTJBEENCES DUEING THOSH 
 TEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN POEMEB EDITIONS. 
 
 ABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and 
 slaughter-house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must 
 be landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than £194,000. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned 
 several English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded 
 the country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king's strong- 
 hold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, £8,300,000. 
 Napier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of £2,000 
 a year. King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has, since his 
 death, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose 
 troops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much 
 slaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1876, however, John was totally defeated, 
 and treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the 
 later results of the war have been indecisive. 
 
 ACCAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to 
 two pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, 
 are supposed to have used two diiiering dialects, found in the cuneiform 
 inscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about them, but the 
 former were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Sumer were in the 
 northeast. 
 
 ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquakes, Explosions, Fires, Floods, 
 Railroad Accidents, Shipwrecks^ Storms.) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, 
 about 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large 
 proportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice 
 broke under the skaters on the lake in the Regent's Park, London, letting 
 several hundred persons into the water. Forty were drowned. July 31, 1868, 
 a false alarm of fire was raised in Lang's Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- 
 ter. England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twenty and thirty, 
 were killed. July 27, 1869, Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his 
 foothold, and fell from near the summit of the Schreckhorn, in Switzer- 
 land, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a 
 firework dealer's shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out 
 of thirteen persons then asleep in the house. August 2, 1870, on Mont 
 Blanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, 
 and were killed. August 11, 1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of 
 gun-cotton stored there killed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, 
 1 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Yuille's Traction Engine, 
 used to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five 
 persons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered 
 round it out of curiosity. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. England. (See pp. 71, 308-210.) Disraeli resigns, 
 and Gladstone becomes premier, December 3, 1868 ; Robert Lowe, John 
 Bright, G. J. Goschen, W. E. Forster, and others becoming members of 
 the Government. This ministry carried the disestablishment of the 
 Irish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1873. Mr. Gladstone, having 
 lost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, 
 and Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Earl 
 of Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. United States. ^See pp. 70, 305.) 
 
 TJlysses S. Grant, 
 Schuyler Colfax, 
 Hamilton Fish, 
 Geo. S. BoutweU, 
 
 A. E. Borie, 
 Goo. M. Robeson, 
 Gen. Schofield, 
 Gen. J. A. Rawlins, 
 Gen. W. W. Belknap, 
 James Harlan, 
 Gen. J. D. Cox, 
 Columbns Delano, 
 J. A. J. Creswell, 
 E. R. Hoar, 
 A. X. Akerman, 
 O. H. WilUams, 
 
 QbANT'S FrRST ADMrNISTBATION. 
 
 Illinois, March 4, 
 
 Indiana, March 4, 
 
 New York, March, 
 
 Massachusetts, March, 
 
 1869 
 1869 
 1869 
 1869 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 March, 
 
 June 25, 
 
 March, 
 
 March, 
 
 Sept., 
 
 March, 
 
 June, 
 March, 
 
 President, 
 Vice-President. 
 Secretary of State, 
 Secretary of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 1869) 
 
 1869 f 
 
 1869 1 
 
 1869 V Secretaries of War, 
 
 1869 I 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1870 
 
 1869 
 
 1869 
 
 1871 )■ Attorneys-General, 
 
 1871 J 
 
 Secretaries of Navy, 
 
 Secretaries of Inte- 
 rior. 
 
 Postmaster General. 
 
 TJlysses S. Grant, 
 Henry Wilson, 
 Thos, W. Ferry, 
 
 Hamilton Fish, 
 Wm. A, Richardson, 
 Benj, J, Bristow, 
 Lot M. Morrill, 
 Wm. W. Belknap, 
 J. D. Cameron, 
 Qeo. M. Robeson, 
 Columbus Delano, 
 Zach. Chandler, 
 Geo. H. Williams, 
 Edwards Pierrepoint, 
 Alphonso Taft, 
 John A. J. Creswell, 
 Marshall Jewell, 
 James N. Tyner, 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, 
 Wm. A. Wheeler, 
 Wm. M. Evarts, 
 John Sherman, 
 
 Geo. W. McOrary, 
 Richard W. Thompson, 
 Carl Schurz, 
 Chatles Devena, 
 David M. Key, 
 
 Gbant's Second Admxnistbation. 
 
 lUinois, March 4, 1873 
 
 Massachusetts, March 4, 1873 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Haies' Administbatiom. 
 
 March 4. 1869 
 
 President. 
 Vice-President. 
 President of Senate 
 
 pro tern. 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 I Secretaries of Treas 
 j ury. 
 
 > Secretaries of War. 
 
 Secretary of Navy, 
 
 f Secretaries of Inte- 
 rior. 
 
 >■ Attorneys-General. 
 \ Postmasters-General, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 New York, 
 New York, 
 Ohio, 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 MassachusetU, 
 
 TeauessM, 
 
 March 4, 1877 
 March 4, 1877 
 
 President. 
 Vice-President. 
 Secretary of State. 
 Secretary of Trea* 
 
 ury. 
 Secretary of War. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 Secretary of Interior, 
 Attorney-General. 
 Fostmaster-GeaeraL 
 
1867-77. 3 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. (See p. 213.) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King 
 of Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818 ; Dost Mohammed 
 became ruler of it, 1829 ; took Herat May 26, 1863 ; succeeded by his son, 
 Shere Ali, June 9, 1863 ; who has had much trouble and warfare with 
 divers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been 
 maintained by English aid. 
 
 AFRICA. (See pp. 72, 213.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 
 and 1858-64; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by 
 Bennett of the New York Herald, reported having met Livingstone at 
 Ujiji, November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, 
 1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873 ; his 
 remains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, 
 April 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. 
 Cameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- 
 ments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley's second 
 expedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. (See pp. 73, 214.) Farm products of the United States, 
 exclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000. A 
 "Union" of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and 
 social amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of 
 Joseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, 
 March 29, 1872, and has attained some influence. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmea 
 commander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, England, for the 
 Rebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, 
 1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. 
 She was destroyed and sunk in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. S. 
 steamer- of -war Kearsarge, Oapt. Winslow, June 19, 1864, after having 
 done immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United 
 States and English governments discussed the question of English respon- 
 sibility for this damage ; a convention was agreed upon on the subject 
 November 10, 1868, which came to nothing ; another, signed by Lord 
 Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by 
 the United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and 
 other matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing 
 a mode of settlement by arbitration ; Arbitration Commission met 
 formally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British 
 cases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole 
 attitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; 
 indirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, approved by 
 Senate May 25, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count 
 Frederic Sclopis, for Italy, President ; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- 
 land; Viscount d'ltajuba, for Brazil; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for 
 England ; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and 
 opened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- 
 ment, the final meeting was held September 14, 1873, and damages 
 awarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, 
 by four arbitrators for those by the Flcrrida, and by three for those by 
 the Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. Th« total of the United 
 States claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times 
 as much. The English arbitrator. Sir A. B. Cockburn, refused to sign 
 the j idgment, mainly on the ground that the Florida and Shenandoah 
 
4 * THE "WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 claims were improperly allowed. A large proportion of this sum remained 
 after all the awards of the Court of Claims established by the Unitec, 
 States to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, 
 1877), remains in the U. S. Treasury. 
 
 ALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of March 
 13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal 
 settlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued 
 in 1877. 
 
 ALSACE. Alsace (German, Elsass), was anciently part of Austrasia ; joined 
 to the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by France, 1648 ; 
 the rest, 1697 ; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1 ; ceded 
 by France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871 ; the law completing 
 the annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their 
 nationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property 
 before September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) 
 including Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. 
 
 ANILINE. Discovered by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo ; ob- 
 tained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; "mauve" applied in dyeing by 
 W. A. Perkin, 1856 ; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green 
 colors. 
 
 ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 76.) The establishment of societies for 
 preventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the 
 organization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in 
 New York City, incorporated AprU 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- 
 porated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. 
 
 ARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention ; but very ancient 
 arches have been found in bridges in China, and in temples and other 
 structures in Egypt and Assyria. The arching in the Cloaca Maxima at 
 Rome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B.C.; and 
 those found in the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the 
 world. 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. (See Curium; Mycenm ; Olympia ; Pre-historiG Man; 
 Troy.) 
 
 ARCHEOPTERYX. ("Primeval bird.") Fossil remains found at Sol- 
 enhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Haberlein. It had 
 some reptilian traits in its structure — teeth in its jaws, and a tail with 
 feathers radiating from it. It was described by Owen in 1863. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 78, 229.) Captain C. F. Hall's first 
 voyage of discovery was 1860-62 ; he ascertained that Frobisher's so- 
 called strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. Hjjs second 
 voyage, in the Monticello, began June 30, 1864 ; results not remarkable. 
 His third, in the Polaris^ began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82° 
 16' north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctic 
 regions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost point so 
 far, 81° 38' ; set out to return ^^nder Budington, August 12, 1872 ; in a 
 panic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, 
 and were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. The ship re- 
 mained with the other fourteen persons a second winter ; they left in 
 boats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a 
 whaler. The " first German expedition," under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of 
 eleven men only, in the Qernmnia, to the east coast of Greenland and 
 
1867-77. 5 
 
 Spitzbergen, set out September 30, 1868. The "second German expedi- 
 won," iu the Oermania and Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- 
 haven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping ; coal 
 discovered in east Greenland ; Germania wintered at Sabine Island ; 
 sledge parties reached 77° 1' N. L. Expedition reached home September 
 11, 1870. The "Austrian expedition" in the Tegetthoff^ under Wey- 
 precht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- 
 vaia Zemlia (Nova Zambia), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1873 ; dis- 
 covered Franz Josef Land, in 79° 43' N., August 30, 1873 ; reached 79° 
 58' N. ; left the Tegetthoff in the ice. May 30, 1874, and escaped in boats, 
 reaching Europe early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) 
 Nares's expedition, in the Alert and Bisaovery, left Portsmouth, May 39, 
 
 1875. September 1st, she reached 83° 84', and wintered in 83° 37' north, 
 the furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the 
 severest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73-7 below 
 zero ; a mean for seven days of 5847 ; for thirteen days of 58"9 ; and 
 for five days of 66 -39 degrees below zero. Ascertained that there is no 
 " open Polar sea." but instead, a " palseocrystic sea," or " sea of ancient 
 ice," which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties 
 explored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the 
 northernmost point yet attained by man, being 83° 30' 36", within 400 
 miles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, 
 
 1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the 
 expedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which 
 had been suffered by most of the party. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (Seep. 79.) Don Domingo F. Sarmiento was 
 elected President for six years, October 13, 1868 ; Dr. Avellaneda was in- 
 augurated for six years, October 13, 1874 ; an msurrection under Mitre at 
 Buenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 3, 1874; the Na- 
 tional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments. 
 May 16, 1876. 
 
 ARMY, English. (Seep. 833.) In 1869, it was stated in the English 
 Parliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, £33 ; in 
 France, £37; in England, £100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By 
 Order in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative 
 of governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an 
 agent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of 
 War. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions 
 in the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 30, 1871. 
 Appointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were 
 substituted. 
 The English military force in 1876 was thus constituted : 
 
 Army in United Kingdom 96,275 
 
 " in India 62,850 
 
 Militia 274,175 
 
 Yeoman cavalry 15,078 
 
 Volunteers 168,750 
 
 Enrolled pensioners and army reserve 31,000 
 
 Total men 648,128 
 
 The sum voted for military purposes for the year 1876-7, was £15,883,- 
 000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian war), £33,008,603 ; and that for 1815 (laei 
 year of war with Napoleon), £39,150,000. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 AEMY, European. Estimated total of European armies in 1863, 
 lion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies 
 were nearly as f oUows : 
 
 Wab 
 
 FOOTINO. 
 
 838,700 
 
 100,000 
 
 48.936 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 2,800.000 
 
 748,128 
 
 Peace 
 
 FOOTING. 
 
 Atistro-Hungary 278.470 
 
 Belgium 40,000 
 
 Denmark 35,657 
 
 Prance 430,703 
 
 Germany. 419,738 
 
 Great Britain 288,781 
 
 Greece (nominal).. . 14,061 
 
 Italy 199,557 
 
 Netherlands 97, 359 
 
 Portugal.... 18,195 
 
 750,000 
 
 208,359 
 
 68,450 
 
 Peace 
 
 FOOTING. 
 
 Russia 765,872 
 
 Spain 151,668 
 
 Sweden 132,775 
 
 (Norway) 12,750 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey. 170,376 
 
 Roumanm 34,647 
 
 Servia 4.000 
 
 six mil- 
 in 1876, 
 
 Wab 
 
 FOOTING. 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 201,257 
 459,360 
 
 74,000 
 
 Totals 3,094,609 11,377,190 
 
 Peace footings not carried forward 345,891 
 
 Total war armies of Europe more than 11,723,081 
 
 ARMY, U. S. (See p. 79.) Expenses of the War Department for 
 
 1872 , 935,372,157.20 
 
 1873 46,323,138.31 
 
 1874 42,313,927.22 
 
 1875 41,120,645.93 
 
 1876 38,070,888.64 
 
 1-867 $95,224,415.63 
 
 1868 123,246,648.62 
 
 1869 78,501,990.61 
 
 1870 57, 655,675.40 
 
 1871 35,799,991.82 
 
 Regular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this totJil in process of re- 
 duction. 
 
 ARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) 
 
 ASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, 
 January 21, 1824, and carried off his skuU as a trophy. Col. Purdon 
 totally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them 
 again by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. 
 Expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September 
 12, 1873 ; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, 
 the Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874 ; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- 
 fusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th ; a treaty, 
 prohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold 
 indemnity to the English, signed February 13th. The expedition cost 
 about £900,000. 
 
 ASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1887, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two 
 shots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- 
 ported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prince of Servia, was assassinated 
 at Belgrade. June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- 
 spiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. 
 in New South Wales, at a public picnic, one O'Farrell shot the Duke of 
 Edinburgh in the back, intending to kiU him. O'Farrell, who avowed 
 himself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas D'Arcy M'Gee 
 was shot dead from behind at his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in 
 consequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, 
 Marshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin 
 escaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. 
 Justice Norman, acting Chief Justice, was murdered, being stabbed by 
 a native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governor-General of India, 
 assassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Mohammedan 
 convict named Shere AIL 
 
 ASSYRIA. (See pp. 234-235.) The results of Mr. Layard's investigations 
 
1867-77. 7 
 
 at Nineveh were published in his " Nineveh and its Remains," 1848, and 
 in hifl "Discoveries," 1853. Botta's explorations at Khorsabad began 
 1843; his "Monuments de Ninive" appeared 1849-50. Mr. George 
 Smith's "Assyrian Discoveries" appeared 1875, and his "Chaldean 
 Account of Genesis" in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, 
 1876, whUe pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of 
 the language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- 
 lished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875 ; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in 
 1868 ; and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Texts, by Birch, in 
 1874-77. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. (See pp. 81, 235.) The planet Neptune was discovered 
 September 23, 1846 ; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851 ; spec- 
 trum analysis first used ia astronomy in 1861 ; Warren De la Rue's first 
 large photograph of the moon was made in 1863. The transit of Venus 
 of December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively 
 observed at the expense of several governments, with good results. From 
 April, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the 
 asteroids. 
 
 ATCHINESB WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The 
 Dutch hostihties against it took place from AprU, 1873 to 1876, ending in 
 victory by the Dutch. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED. (Seep. 236.) It is asserted in Lumby's "His- 
 tory of the Creeds" (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- 
 sius, but consists of two distinct parts ; was put into its present form 
 between A.D. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasius by any respect- 
 able authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much 
 opposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- 
 pulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY. Dalton's system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen 
 as 1 ; that of Berzelius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the 
 continent of Europe. 
 
 ATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been 
 recently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000,000,- 
 000,000,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. 
 
 AUSTRIA. (See pp. 82, 239.) Francis Joseph, October 20, 1860, issued a 
 "diploma," which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the proviu- 
 cial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrath or Council of 
 the Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. 
 By decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the ofiicial name of 
 " The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The population of Austria, Decem- 
 ber 31, 1869, was: 
 
 Cis-Leithan provinces 20,^94,980 
 
 Trans-Leithan provinces. 15,509,455 
 
 35,904,435 
 The Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned on the hither side of 
 the river Leithe), are : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two 
 Austrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, 
 Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria, Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The 
 Trans-Leithan are : Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the 
 city of Fiume. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- 
 bly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 B. 
 
 BABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843., at Shiraz, 
 by Mirza Ali Mahommed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- 
 edge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- 
 tion of the Holy Spirit. The " Babis" were tolerated by Shah Mahom- 
 med, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in 
 1848-9, the Bab himself being executed, July 15, 1849. The sect is said 
 to be now (1877) quite numerous again. 
 
 BABY FAEMINQ. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was 
 convicted of the wUful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been 
 in the baby farming business four years, and confessed to having received 
 some forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October 
 11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had 
 died. 
 
 BALLOONS. (See pp. 83, 243.) Used with a good deal of success during the 
 siege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying 
 mail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. Up to April, 
 1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles 
 Green, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent 
 from near Paris, April 15, 1875, by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, 
 and Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), 
 Croce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. 
 But the latter two men died there of sufEocation, and Tissandier only got 
 down alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862, 
 had ascended about 7 miles, but at 5f miles Glaisher became iasensible, 
 and Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening 
 the valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. 
 
 BALLOT. (Seep. 83.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), 
 1*856 ; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- 
 vember 29, 1870 ; recommended for general use in the Queen's speech, 
 February 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the 
 Lords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- 
 ber 31, 1880, became a law July 13, 1872 ; Mr. H. E. Childers was chosen 
 member of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no 
 difficulty ; the method has worked well enough since. 
 
 BAMPTON LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological 
 subjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- 
 ton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 84, 245.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent 
 to sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly 
 so providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada 
 there were failures and liabihties as follows : 
 
 FAILURES. LIABILITIES. 
 
 Yearending June 30, 1876. 8,776 $233,682,516 
 
 Year ending June 30, 1877. 9,241 182,308,435 
 
 BATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and 
 improved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W. Siemens. Jt operates by registering the 
 lessening of the earth's attraction of , gravitation on the surface of the 
 ocean from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less 
 density of water. 
 
1867-77. 
 
 9 
 
 BATHYBITJS HAECKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- 
 sea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed 
 the lowest form of animal life. Since believed to have been proved a 
 mineral. 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 (See pp. 84, 248.) 
 
 FBANCO-PEUSSIAN WAB. 
 
 Saarbruck, Prencli victorious,Aug. 2, 1S70 
 Wissembourg, Germans " Aug. 4, 1870 
 Woerfch, " " Aug. 6, 1870 
 
 Saarbruck or Porbach, Germans,Aug. 6, 1870 
 Courcelles or Pange, " Aug. 14, 1870 
 
 Strasburg, Germans victorious, Aug. 16, 1870 
 Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, Ger's, Aug. 16, 1870 
 Gravelotte, Germans victorious, Aug. 18, 1870 
 Beaumont, " " Aug. 30, 1870 
 
 Carignan, " " Aug. 31, 1870 
 
 Oroquieta, Spain, Carlists defeated, May 4, 1873 
 Elmina, British defeat Ashantees, 
 
 June 13, 1873 
 Blqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, 
 
 Aug. 5-6, 1873 
 Maueru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 
 
 Abrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 
 
 Metz, Germans victorious, Aug. 31, 1870 
 
 SBDAISr, " Aug. 31-Sep. 1, 1870 
 
 Before Paris, " victorious, Sept. 30, 1870 
 Thoury, French " Oct. 5, 1870 
 
 St. Remv, Germans " Oct. 5, 1870 
 
 Chateaudun, " " Oct 18, 1870 
 
 Coulmiers,near Orleans, French. Nov.9-10, 1870 
 Before Orleans, Ger's victorious, Dec. 4, 187 C 
 St. Quentin, " " Jan. 19, 1871 
 
 Paris (Trochu's sortie), Germans, Jan. 19. 1871 
 
 OTHER BATTLES. 
 
 Abyssinians defeat Egyptians in Nov., 1874 
 Irun, Spain, Laserna defeats Carlists, 
 
 Nov. 10, 1874 
 Scrota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents 
 
 defeated Dec. 3, 1874 
 
 Tolosa, Spain, Carlists repulse Loma, 
 
 Dec. 7-8, 1874 
 Khokand, Eussians defeat Khan of 
 
 Khiva Sep. 4-21, 1875 
 
 Assake, Russians defeat Khokand 
 
 force Jan. 30, 1876 
 
 Servian-Turkish war begins July 1, 1876 
 
 Saitschar, Servians retreat . . . July 2-3, 1876 
 Urbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, 
 
 July 28, 1876 
 
 Jan. 29, 1874 
 
 Jan. 31, 1874 
 
 Feb. 1, 1874 
 
 Feb. 2, 1874 
 
 Feb. 4, 1874 
 
 Concha 
 
 Borborassie, 
 
 Amoaful, " " 
 
 Bocquah, " " 
 
 Fommanah, " '• 
 
 Ordahsa, " " 
 
 Bilbao, Spain, several days; 
 enters May 2, 1874 
 
 Estella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- 
 cha killed June 25-27, 1874 
 
 BAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Buhnenfestspiel. The perform- 
 ance of Wagner's " Ring des Mbelungen," took place here on August 13, 
 14, 16, and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are : 1. 
 Das Rheingold ; 2. Die Walklire; 3. Siegfried; 4. G-otterdammerung. 
 Great difference of opinion as to the miisic by itself ; but the whole rep- 
 resentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the 
 King of Bavaria. 
 
 BEHISTUjST. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- 
 lated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made 
 towards interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. 
 
 BELFORT. a strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans 
 November 3, 1870 ; capitulated February 16, 1871 ; reserved to France at 
 the cession of Alsace to Germany ; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL. (See Steel.) 
 
 BIBLE. (See pp. 86, 257.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising 
 the English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible 
 Dictionaries should be mentioned McGluitock and Strong's " Biblical and 
 Theological Encyclopaedia." " The Codex Sinaiticus," a Greek MS. of the 
 Bible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- 
 chendorf at St. Catherine's monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1859, and 
 procured by him for the Cz^ of Russia, who caused it to be printed in 
 1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have 
 been made in the first or second century ; the Old Latin, early in the 
 second, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome's own version, the Viilgate, 
 1* 
 
10 THE world's progress. 
 
 completed 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about 
 1455 or 1456, without date ; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- 
 land, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one 
 printed book. 
 
 BOKHARA. Ancient Sogdiana. Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart 
 and OonoUy, by the Khan, 1843. A war with Russia began 1866, the 
 Khan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1867. There was more 
 fighting in 1868 ; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th ; and in 
 November, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara 
 and Russia was published December, 1873. 
 
 BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews 
 Peters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn., ina " History of 
 Connecticut," published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the 
 basis of the actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The 
 text-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbnll, Hartford, Conn., 1876. 
 
 BOOKS, Book Trade. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- 
 lished as follows : 
 
 ^fEW BOOKS, NEW EDITIONS. 
 
 1871 3,547 1,288 
 
 1872 3,419 1,100 
 
 1874.... 3,351 961 
 
 1875 3,573 1,331 
 
 The number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in 
 786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there 
 are 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 
 are in Austria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number 
 of books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. 
 
 BOSTON. (See pp. 88, 268.) Annexations to the city of Boston were : 
 Roxbury, September 9, 1867 ; Dorchester, June 22, 1869 ; Charlestown, 
 Brighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with 
 over 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International 
 peace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 
 instruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eighty 
 acres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, 
 10, 11, 1872 ; 959 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 
 persons killed. Boston Public Library has, ra 1877, about 320,000 vol- 
 umes ; has six branches, and two "delivery agencies," besides the central 
 collection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,300,000 volumes a 
 year ; staff, about 130 persons ; salaries, about $60,000 a year ; annual 
 cost, about $130,000, of which all but about $6,000 is paid by the city 
 of Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds 
 of about $105,000. 
 
 BOSNIA. Incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, 
 was put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- 
 ans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles ; 
 population, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. 
 
 BRAZIL. (See pp. 89, 272.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the 
 defeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, 
 March 1, 1870 ; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June 20, 1870. Dom 
 Pedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and March, 
 1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, 
 September 37-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the 
 
1867-77. 11 
 
 opening' of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards 
 travelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 
 (partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage 
 natives. Number of slaves in May, 1874, 1,016,262. 
 
 BRIGANDS. (See also Molly Maguires.) April 21, 1870, some English 
 ladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, 
 who demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- 
 ernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the 
 tourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- 
 tar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay £5,200 ransom, part of 
 which was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the] 
 Spanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder,^ 
 and brigandage got into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily 
 about 1860, and has since remained so. 
 
 BRIDGES. (See pp. 89, 274.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn 
 suspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 
 feet, at 185 feet above high-water mark. The Victoria railway bridge 
 over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular 
 bridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost 
 £1,700,000. 
 
 BURIAL. (See Cremation.) The " earth to earth " system of burial, ad- 
 vocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 at 
 London. 
 
 0. 
 
 CANADA. (See pp. 91, 288.) The act creating "the Dominion of Can- 
 ada " was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or 
 Upper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
 Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island , and provision is 
 made for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor-General 
 
 • opened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital 
 Ottawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871 : Ontario, 1,620, 
 851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285, 
 594; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia, 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island 
 94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. 
 
 CANALS, {^ee Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- 
 tion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is 
 only one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company 
 was empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done 
 in six years. 
 
 C ANDIA, THE Ancient Crete. (See pp. 289, 338.) Insurrections against 
 Turkish oppression, 1841.; again, and quieted by conciUation, 1858. 
 Christians persecuted, 1859 ; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- 
 ty and declares union with Greece, September 2, 1866 ; after obstinate 
 contests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re- 
 established March 8, 1869. 
 
 CANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- 
 dria. The " Decree of Canopus" was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy 
 Euergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and 
 to establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor, h 
 copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis> 1866. 
 
12 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, (See DeatJi, Punishment of, pp. 108, 344.) Abol- 
 ished in Saxony, April 1, 1868 ; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- 
 ary 18, 1867 ; in Eng-lish House of Commons, by 127 to 23, April 21, 
 1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869 ; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872 ; refused 
 by French Senate, June 21, 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; 
 Rhode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853 ; Iowa, 1872 ; Maine, February 18, 
 1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such 
 disuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years nest after the repeal 
 of the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30 convictions for mur- 
 der, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent, greater, 
 only 26. But in New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were 
 hanged, whUe there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there were no hang- 
 ings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when 
 in 1873. two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- 
 ner from 53 to 39. 
 
 CATHOLICS. (See Concordat; Infallibility ; Old Gatliolics; Romanism; 
 Vatican Council.) . 
 
 CENSUS. (See pp. 94, 299.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, 
 showed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, 
 and Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see 
 United States. 
 
 CENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place 
 in the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June 
 19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. The Centennial International Ex- 
 hibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, 
 and closed November 10. 
 
 Of the growth of the United States in the first century, the following 
 figures show a few illustrations : 
 
 Population 2,750,000 
 
 Area square miles . 
 Annual manufactures . 
 
 Banks 
 
 Colleges 
 
 1776. 
 
 1876. 
 
 ,750,000 
 800.000 
 
 44,675,000 
 3.603,844 
 
 ,000.000 
 
 9 
 
 $4,200,000,000 
 
 6,066 
 
 374 
 
 CHARITIES, 
 as follows : 
 
 (See pp. 95, 302.) George Peabody's public charities were 
 
 !2,500,000 for the poor of London. 
 
 12,000,000 for education in the South- 
 ern States. 
 
 ;S00,000 for museums at Yale and Har- 
 vard Colleges. 
 
 f50,000 for a free museum at Salem, 
 
 190,000 to Kenyon College. 
 
 |250,000 to the State of Marj'land. 
 
 1500,000 for a free library and educa- 
 tional institute at Danvers (afterwards 
 named Peabody), Mass. 
 
 fl,000.000 for the Peabody Institute, 
 at Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Decenaber 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed 
 by a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital 
 for the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful 
 to men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- 
 nessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the " Church of the Stran- 
 gers," in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, 
 endowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but 
 afterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. 
 Stewart left at his death, imfinished, a great hotel for working-women in 
 New York, which was completed by his widow. 
 
1867-77. 13 
 
 CHICAGO. (See p. 95.) Great Fike, October 8-11, 1871. About 250 
 persons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and tbe loss waa 
 estimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. 
 Large contributions were made in American and English cities towards 
 relieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. 
 
 CHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- 
 ture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. 
 
 CHINA. (See pp. 95, 305.) Chinese embassy, with Anson Burlingame (of 
 
 . Massachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; at 
 Paris, January 24, 1869 ; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- 
 ruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by a 
 mob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870; the leaders were executed October 26, 
 1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew 
 of Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, 
 eleven mUes long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, 
 1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850 ; and there are now 
 (1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Fraiucisco, and from 
 125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- 
 gration, and the Chinese, after coming, are chiefly controlled by the " Six 
 Companies," which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam 
 Yup, Yung Wo. Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. 
 
 CHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 310.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone's 
 bill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. 
 
 CHURCH-RATES. (See p. 97. ) Compulsory church-rates in England were 
 abolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed 
 July 31, 1868. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE, English. August 31, 1870, went into operation an 
 English Order in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service 
 excej)t the Foreign Office and posts requiiing professional knowledge, 
 should be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service 
 (treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about 
 17,000 ; cost of same yearly, estimated for 1877 at £13,309,100. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, United States. Measure to secure, in- 
 troduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, January 20, 
 1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service 
 examinations, passed March 8, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules 
 appointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, 
 June 28, 1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than 
 was expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all 
 national office-holders should resign any sitiiations they might hold as party 
 political managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being ' ' to take 
 the office-holder out of politics." This order was promptly obeyed. 
 
 CLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 97, 314, 646.) Imported into Great 
 Britain in 1870, 258,628 clocks, 372,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- 
 pany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by 
 Mr. Dennison in 1854 ; it failed 1856, and was bought by Mr. Robbius, who 
 changed the name to American Watch Company, often called the Walthara 
 Watch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at 
 Waltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day; the 
 next largest, at Elgin, lU., about 300 movements. The effect of the 
 American watch business on the importation of Swiss watches is shown 
 
14 THE world's progress. 
 
 as follows : Swiss watches imported into the United States in 1873, 
 366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. 
 
 CLUBS. (See p. 97.) Recent London clubs were formed at following 
 dates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866 ; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers), 
 Devonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 ; 
 Syron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. 
 
 COAL. (See pp. 98, 315.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- 
 vania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,083,294 
 tons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : 
 
 1830-29 tons 359,190 1850-59 ....tons 68,333,469 
 
 1830-39 " 5,210,685 1860-69 " 106,883,488 
 
 1840-49 " 18,954,678 1870-75 " 105,627,240 
 
 The anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Peimsyl- 
 vania, viz : Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, 
 Dauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first three of these. Estimates 
 of the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from 
 77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the 
 United States in 1870 and 1874 : 
 
 GEEAT BEITAnr. TTNITED STATES. 
 
 1870....... , 113,000,000 32,000,000 
 
 1874 125,000,000 50,000,000 
 
 Area of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square 
 miles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the 
 United States in 1870 and 1875 : 
 
 1870. 1875. 
 
 Anthracite, tons 13,985.960 20,654,609 
 
 Bituminous, " 15,231,668 26,031,726 
 
 COINAGE. (See pp. 99, 317.) Total coinage of United States to and 
 includmgl876: 
 
 In 1876. 
 
 Gold $945,477,023.30 $38,178,962.50 
 
 Sliver 180,322,356.40 19,126,502.50 
 
 Cents, etc 12,822,538.55 260,350.00 
 
 Total $1,138,621,917.25 $57,565,815.00 
 
 COLLEGES IN United States in 1875, 355; schools of science (and 
 collegiate departments), 75 ; theological schools (and departments), 123 ; 
 law schools (and departments), 43 ; medical, dental, etc., schools (and 
 departments), 106. 
 
 COLOMBIA. (See p. 319.) General Salgar, President, 1871 ; M. M. Toro, 
 April 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874. Population in 1864, 2,794,473 ; 
 in 1870, 2,910,329. 
 
 COLONIES. (See pp. 99, 820.) Great Britain has sixty-nine co!onies and 
 foreign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952,- 
 243, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue ir? 
 1865 was about £51,497,000, and expenditures, £59,353,000. All slaves 
 in all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the 
 English home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- 
 plying and indulgent. The earliest acquired of the present colonies was 
 Newfoundland, about a.d. 1500 ; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, 
 1874. 
 
 COLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. 
 
1867-77. 15 
 
 COMETS. (See pp. 100, 331.) 17,500,000 comets estimated. to be in the 
 solar system. More than 600 recorded as having been seen. Schiaparelli 
 of Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round the sun in 
 an orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1863-6. The 
 great comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 mUes diameter, a long, 
 bushy tail, and moved about ten million mUes a day. On June 30, 1861, 
 it was suggested that the earth was in this tail, as there was seen a 
 "phosphorescent auroral glare." 
 
 COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. 
 
 COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also Cotton, Failures, etc.) 
 
 Exports. Imports. 
 
 1869 $394,644,335 §414,256,243 
 
 1870 392.771,178 452,875,665 
 
 1871 460,a31.614 572,509,314 
 
 1872 444,177,568 626,595,077 
 
 1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 
 
 1874 633,339,368 567,406,342 
 
 1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 
 
 Of the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great 
 
 Britain, viz. : 
 
 Exports to O. B. Imports from G. B. 
 
 1874 $341.024,049 $180,042,813 
 
 1875 366;.799,869 157,047,827 
 
 Chambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- 
 tendom. Twenty-seven of the EngHsh ones met for consultation, Febru- 
 ary 81, 1865 ; the meeting became annual ; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 
 met. 
 
 COMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871 ; ended at the cap- 
 ture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. (See pp. 100, 334.) The first concordance to the Bible 
 on which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- 
 thony of Padua. Cruden's (.the best), first published in London, 1737. 
 Mrs. Fumess's Concordance to Shakespeare's poems, 1874. Todd's Verbal 
 Index to Milton, 1809, and Cleaveland's Concordance to Milton, 1867. 
 Brightwell's Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott's to Pope, 1875. 
 
 CONCORDAT. (See p. 324.) The Concordat between Rome and Austria, 
 August 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian 
 Church, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the 
 Austrian and Hungarian legislatures' practically abolished it, and it was 
 formally declared suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- 
 mation of papal infallibility. 
 
 CONFESSION, Auriculae. (See p. 325.) Introduced in England by the 
 Puseyites, Tractarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- 
 ticing it, June, 1858 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much 
 excitement, September, 1858 ; 483 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- 
 cation for its establishment. May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly 
 opposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison's letter against all who oppose it, 
 August 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with 
 shameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- 
 covered Jime, 1877, and great indignation aroused. 
 
 CONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 337.) Now reckoned as 39 northern, 45 
 southern, 13 zodiacal. 
 
16 THE world's PKOGRESS. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 102, 328.) The 
 dates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows : 1. Pro- 
 posed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, 
 Right to bear arms. 3. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, 
 Searches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- 
 tial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789, Criminal prosecutions 
 to be speedy; privileges of accused. 7. 1789, Jury trial for anything over 
 $20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- 
 ments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair 
 others. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United 
 States as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 13. Ratified 
 December 18, 1865, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil 
 rights, representative basis, rebel disfranchisement, public and rebel debt. 
 15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- 
 tions of women's persons at military and naval stations, passed in English 
 Parhament June, 1866. Great opposition has been made to it ; a royal 
 commission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been 
 proposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, 
 1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. 
 
 CONVENTS (for nuns ; "monasteries " are for monks). (See p. 328.) In 
 1832 there were 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas- 
 teries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, 
 October 3, 1875. 
 
 CONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of 
 bishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed 
 power over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute 
 of Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal 
 meetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1 854, and attempts 
 made in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, 
 convocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, 
 and this was done in March following. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members) 
 Rochdale Eqiiitable Pioneers' Society began 1844. In 1862 there were 
 332 in England; on December 31, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have 
 been held, the seventh at London, March 29, 1875. Similar organizations 
 in the United States have not been very successful. There were in 
 Massachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- 
 ship of ],650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000, and selling $500,000 
 of goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1866), Worcester 
 (1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866), Holyoke 
 (1873), Gardner (1874), Natick (1869 ?). On the continent of Europe such 
 organizations are numerous and eificient. 
 
 COPYRIGHT. (See pp. 102, 103, 330.) An international copyright bill 
 brought into Congress, February 21, 1868, but could not pass. English 
 House of Lords decided in Routledge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright 
 of a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England was founded 
 by leading London booksellers, March 19, 1872. 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868. 
 
 CORONERS. (See p. 332.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from 
 the ignorance and incompetence of coroners, they were suppressed in 
 
1867-77. 1? 
 
 Massachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and "medical exami- 
 ners" substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to 
 be "able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine." 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES : 
 
 Looms. In South. Spindles. In South. Mills 
 
 1870 153,534 .... 5,852 .... 7,114,000 .... 263,221 .... 956 
 
 1874 186,975 .... 10,9-45 .... 9,415,383 .... 487,629 847 
 
 Cotton miU first in India, built 1863 ; and the number had increased in 
 1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per vreek. Estimated 
 consumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for 1860 
 and 1876, in bales of 400 pounds : 
 
 1860. 1876. Increase. 
 
 Great Britain 2,817,000 3,187,000 370,000 
 
 Continent of Europe 1,794,000 2,362,000 568,000 
 
 United States 1,088,000 1,441,000 353,000 
 
 Bombay and rest of India 164,000 164,000 
 
 This increase is about 13 per cent, for Great Britain, and 37^ per cent, 
 for the other manufacturing countries. 
 
 COUNCILS, CHURCH. (Seep. 335; also Vatican Council.) 
 
 CREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to 
 real estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set 
 in operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1763. Companies for 
 the purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782). Prussia (1787), Belgium, 
 (1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER. (See p. 104.) The original Credit Mobilier at Paris 
 failed, and the capital was said to have "disappeared," October, 1867. 
 The Pereires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. " Credit 
 Mobilier of America," incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- 
 sumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward 
 from the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution 
 of its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was 
 charged, and an investigation by a committee of the House of Representa- 
 tives took place in 1872-73. 
 
 CREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and 
 others in England, 1873. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, 
 and Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke's wife, burned at Dresden 
 October 10, 1874; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about 
 six pounds. Baron de Palm's remains burnt in like manner in America 
 in 1876, and Dr. Winslow's m 1877. 
 
 CRETE. Now Candia, which see. 
 
 CRIME. (See pp. 105, 338; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congi-ess 
 for Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In 
 England a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the popu- 
 lation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. 
 
 CRISPINS, i&ee St. Crispin.) 
 
 CROWN. (See p. 340.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, li 
 large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants (diar 
 monds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, 
 273 pearls. 
 
 CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) 
 
18 THE world's progress. 
 
 CRYOLITE. i»fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in 
 Greenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium. 
 
 CUBA. (See pp.106, 340.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- 
 lution, September, 1868 ; checked, June, 1870 ; not suppressed, January, 
 1872 ; still in full activity, August, 1877. 
 
 CUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Act of 1867, cumulative 
 voting, to allow " minority representation," was allowed in London, Glas- 
 gow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, and in such counties as returned 
 three members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the 
 result was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the 
 government of Harvard and Yale Colleges. 
 
 CUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.) 
 
 CURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this 
 very ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a 
 temple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 
 ornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, 
 ivory, glass, etc. , etc. , which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art 
 Museum in New York. 
 
 CURRENCY. United States. National bank notes outstanding, De- 
 cember 31,1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- 
 911,000. 
 
 CYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics. In a cyclone at 
 Calcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- 
 ished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed 
 over 600 houses and other bi^ildings, dismasted many ships, and killed 
 from 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a cyclone devastated Antigua, 
 St. Kitts, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and 
 cyclone in the Backergunge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- 
 ges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. 
 
 CYPRUS. (See Curium.) 
 
 CZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there 
 is a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. 
 
 D. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Boumania.) 
 
 DARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) 
 
 DARWINISM. A " development " theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759 ; 
 and one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the '' Vestiges of Creation," 1844. 
 Origin of mammals from an eg-g, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, 
 proved by von Baer, 1827. Mr. Darwin's doctrines are contained in his 
 " Origin of Species," 1859, and " Descent of Man," 1871. His follower, 
 Haeckel, published a "History of Creation," 1873, appeared in English, 
 1875. Mr. A. R. Wallace's "Natural Selection" appeared 1870. 
 
 DEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and 
 $ixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth ; recently revived in 
 Germany. Pastor Fliedner's Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- 
 erswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, 
 
1867-77. 
 
 19 
 
 1853, and some appointed. Di:cesan Deaconess Institution at London, 
 established 1861. In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected 
 with it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. 
 DEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names : 
 
 Agassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15, 1873. 
 Alford, Rev, H., critic, poet, and divine, Jan. 
 
 12, 1871. 
 Alison, Sir A., historian, May 23, 1867. 
 Amberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. 
 Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, 
 
 Nov. 6, 1876. 
 Applegatli A., inventor of printing machinery, 
 
 counterfeit-proof bank notes, etc., Feb. 14, 
 
 1871. 
 Aspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1876. 
 Auber, D. P. B., composer, May 13, 1871. 
 Aubign6, Merle d', clergyman and historian, 
 
 Oct. 19, 1872. 
 Austin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. 8, 1867. 
 Babbage, C, mathematician, Oct. 18, 1871. 
 Baird, James, Scotch Iron master, June 21, 
 
 1876. 
 Bailev, Theodorus, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, 
 
 1877. 
 Bedford, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. 
 Bentley, E., publisher, Sept. 10, 1871. 
 Berryer, P. A., French advocate and orator, 
 
 Nov; 29, 1868. 
 Blair, F. P., senior, editor and politician, Oct. 
 
 18, 1876. 
 Blitz, Antonio, "magician," Jan. 28, 1877. 
 Bragg, B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. 
 Brewster, SirD., physicist, Feb. 10, 1868. 
 Brongniart, A. T., scientist and author, Feb. 
 
 20, 1876. 
 Brooke, Sir J., Rajah of Sarawak, June 11, 
 
 1868. 
 Brougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer, phil- 
 anthropist, May 7. 1868. 
 Broughton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author 
 
 and ofiioial, June 3, 1869. 
 Brownlow, W. G-., editor and politician, April 
 
 29, 1877. 
 Brownson, O. A., writer and i«urnalist, AprU 
 
 17, 1876. 
 Buchanan, J., ex-President, June 1, 1868. 
 Burgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. 
 Burns, Jabez, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, 
 
 1876. 
 BushnelL Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. 
 
 17, 1876. 
 Capponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1876. 
 Cardigan, Lord, of Balaklava notoriety, March 
 
 28, 1868. 
 Chambers, Robert and William, publishers and 
 
 authors, March 17 and 20, 1871. 
 Clarendon, Earl of, diplomatist and statesman, 
 
 June 27, 1870. 
 Cousin, Victor, historian and philosopher, Jan. 
 
 14, 1867. 
 Cnshman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. 
 Custer, Gen., July 2, 1876. 
 Davies, C, mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. 
 Davis, C. H., admiral U.S. Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. 
 Deak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, 
 
 1876. 
 De Morgan, A., mathematician, March 18, 
 
 1871. 
 
 Derby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23. 1869. 
 Dickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870. 
 Didot, A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. 
 Dumas, Alexandre, novelist and dramatist, 
 
 Dec. 5, 1870. 
 Durbin, J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, 
 
 1876. 
 Ellenborough, Earl of, statesman and admia- 
 
 istrator, Dec, 1871. 
 EUet, Mrs. Elizabeth P., authoress, 1877. 
 Bmerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and offlcial, 
 
 March 6, 1869. 
 Evans, Sir De Lacy, soldier, Jan. 9, 1870. 
 Exeter, Bishop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. 8, 
 
 1869. 
 Faraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. 
 Forrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12, 1872. 
 Forster, John, author, Jan. 31, 1876. 
 Preiligrath, F., poet, March 19, 1876. 
 G-alliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman,, 
 
 Nov. 24, 1876. 
 G-ough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1869. 
 G-reenfleld, Elizabeth T., the " black swan," 
 
 colored singer, March 31, 1876. 
 Q-risi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. 
 Q-rote G-., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871. 
 Guizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 13, 
 
 1873. 
 Hall, W. "W., medical! writer and editor. May 
 
 10, 1876. 
 Harper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- 
 lishers, May 29, 1877. 
 Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, 
 
 June 16, 1876. 
 Herschel, Sir J. P. W., astronomer, May 11, 
 
 1871. 
 Howe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- 
 pist, Jan. 9, 1876. 
 Hudson, George, the " Railway King," Dec. 
 
 14. 1871. 
 Johnson, Andrew, ex-President, January 10, 
 
 1876. 
 Johnson, Reverdy, lawyer and statesman, Feb. 
 
 10, 1876. 
 Johnston, Keith, geographer, July 9, 1871. 
 Jones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. 
 Juarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, 
 
 1872. 
 Kean, Charles, Jr., actor, Jan. 22, 1868. 
 Kerr, Michael C, politician, Aug. 19, 1676. 
 Kock, Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. 
 Lahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming ta 
 
 be 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. 
 Lamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states- 
 man, Feb. 28, 1869. 
 Landseer, Sir E., painter. Oct. 1, T873. 
 Lane, E. W., Arabic scholar, Aug. 10, 1876. 
 Lee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. 
 Lick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1876. 
 Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 
 Lytton, Lord, novelist, Jan. 18, 1873. 
 Lemaitre, F., actor, Jan. 27, 1876, 
 Lemon, Mark, editor. May 23, 1870. 
 Maclise, Daniel, painter, April 25, 1870. 
 
20 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 Mansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, July 
 31, 1871. 
 
 Marochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. 
 
 Martineau, Harriet, writer, June 27, 1876. 
 
 Mayo, Lord. t<ov. gen. of India, assassinated, 
 Feb. 8, 1872. 
 
 Mayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical 
 writer, Jan. 13, 1871. 
 
 Maximilian I., Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 
 1867. 
 
 Maxwell, Lady (Mrs. Caroline Norton), June 
 14, 1877. 
 
 Mazzini, G-., Italian, republican agitator and 
 conspirator, March 10, 1872. 
 
 Melvill, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1871. 
 
 Michael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated 
 June 10, 1868. 
 
 Milman, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. 
 27, 1868. 
 
 Montalembert, Count de, a,uthor and states- 
 man, March 13, 1870. 
 
 Murchison, Sir R. I., geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. 
 
 Napoleon III., ex-Emperor, Jan. 9. 1873. 
 
 Narvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, 
 1868. 
 
 Neal, John, writer, June 20. 1876. 
 
 Omar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. 
 
 Patteson, J. C, missionary. Bishop of Melan- 
 esia, Sept. 20, 1871. 
 
 Peabody, George, banker and public benefac- 
 tor, Nov. 4, 1869. 
 
 P6rier, Casimir, French statesman, July 6, 
 1876. 
 
 PoggendorfE, J. C, physicist, 1877. 
 
 Pollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23, 1870. 
 
 Provost- Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. 
 
 Prim, J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- 
 sassinated Dec. 28, 1870. 
 
 Pugh, George E., lawyer and politician, July 
 19, 1876. 
 
 Putnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1872. 
 
 Randall, H. S., agricultural and educational 
 writer, Aug. 19, 1876. 
 
 Rhett, R. B., politician, Sept. 14, 1876. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT. (See Darwinism.) 
 
 DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting- from 
 nearly 800 carats to 379 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 102|- carats. 
 The " Star of the South," brought from BrazU 1855, weighed 204^ carats, 
 of which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, 
 South Africa, in March, 1867, and one, the " Star of South Africa," 
 found in 1869, weighed 46^ carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at 
 £25,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Rivers, 
 September, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers, November, 1870. The value of 
 141 diamonds found in Africa, 1869, wag £7,405; of 5,661 in 1870, 
 £124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann ta 
 France, 1854 ; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the 
 rim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel 
 and at Hellgate mine. 
 
 DISESTABLISHMENT. {See also Cliurch of Ireland.) A conference was 
 held at Birmingham, October 1, 1872, to promote immediate action for 
 the disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. 
 
 DRAMA. January 38, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an ofB- 
 
 Robertson, T. "W.. dramatist, Feb., 1871. 
 
 Robinson, W. S., journalist, March 11, 1876. 
 
 Rosa=;, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayres, 
 March 14, 1877. 
 
 Rosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. 
 
 Rossini, G-. A., composer, Nov. 13, 1868. 
 
 Rothschild, Sir Anthony, capitalist, Jan. 4, 
 1876. 
 
 Ryves, Mrs., daughter of the self-styled " Prin- 
 cess Olive, of Cumberland," Dec. 7, 1871. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve, C. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. 
 
 Saldanha, field marshal, Portuguese, soldier 
 and statesman, Nov. 21, 1876. 
 
 Salt, Sir Titus, manufacturer, Dec. 29, 1876. 
 
 Sand, George (Mrae. Dudevant), June 8, 1876. 
 
 Santa Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and 
 ruler, June 20, 1876. 
 
 Schamyl, Circassian chief, April, 1871. 
 
 Smart, Sir Q-corge, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. 
 
 Smith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867, 
 
 Smith, F. 0. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, 
 1876. 
 
 Smith, G-eo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. 
 
 Smith, Henry B., Presbyterian clergyman, pro- 
 fessor, editor, and author, Feb. 7, 1877. 
 
 Smith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in 
 engravings, Sept. 13, 1876. 
 
 Smirke, SirR., architect, April 18, 1867. 
 
 Stanfleld, Clarkson, marine painter. May 18, 
 1867. 
 
 Stewart, A. T., merchant, April 10, 1876. 
 
 Strangford, Viscount, diplomatist, Jan, 9, 1869. 
 
 Strauss, F., theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. 
 
 Sumner, C, statesman, March 11, 1873. 
 
 Thompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1876. 
 
 Tischendorf, C, biblical scholar, Dec. 7, 1873. 
 
 Vanderbilt, C, railroad owner and capitalist, 
 Jan. 4, 1877. 
 
 ■Whittingham, C, printer, April 21, 1876. 
 
 Wilkes, Charles, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 8, 
 1877. 
 
 Wilson, Henry, vice-president, Jan. 20, 1876. 
 
 Winship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12, 1876. 
 
 Wise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. 
 
1867-77. 21 
 
 cial warning to all the London managers against ' ' the impropriety of cos- 
 tume of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.," usual on the stage. 
 Dramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- 
 bury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed 
 as beneficiaries, September 29, 1863. A somewhat similar iastitution was 
 directed to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his 
 house at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the 
 benefit of the asylum. 
 
 DUALIISr. {^QQ Explosives.) 
 
 DUELS. March 13, 1870, the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- 
 que de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, 
 and at the third shot kUled him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, 
 and sentenced to one month's banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, 
 to be paid to Don Enrique's family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in 
 France, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and 
 unsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G-. Bennett, the owner of 
 the New York Herald., and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, 
 and Bennett went ofE to Europe, where he remained a number of months. 
 
 DZOUNGARIA, or SOONGARIA. A country north of China, inhabited 
 by about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were 
 tributary to China, rebelled 1864, making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- 
 quence of their depredations Russia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan 
 surrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. 
 
 E. 
 
 EARTH. The estimated average density, 5-i% that of water ; weight, 
 6,000,000)000,000,000,000,000 tons. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 113, 358.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- 
 quakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and 
 many other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; 
 estimated loss of property, £60,000,000, including many ships along the 
 coast and at the Chincha Islands. It was believed that more than 300,000 
 persons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind 
 frontier of India, December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May 
 16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have 
 killed 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a 
 population of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in aU 110,000. 
 About 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- 
 ish Islands. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, 
 1858. FmaUy abolished June 1, 1874. 
 
 ECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- 
 ble in many parts of the East,, and very important for study, because its 
 obscuration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east 
 coast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun's great dis- 
 tance and the moon's small distance from the earth, the obscuration was 
 also very complete. Very important observations were made, especially 
 spectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun. August 7, 
 
22 THE world's progress. 
 
 1869, solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort 
 of series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 10^ 
 days. Except on August 12, 1889, no tot^l eclipse of the sun will be visi- 
 ble in England for 250 years from July, 1871. 
 
 ECUADOR. Presidents: Gen. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. 
 Moreno, January, 1861 ; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 ; resigns December, 
 1867 ; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 13, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of 
 1872 ; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; X. Leon, Vice-President, September, 
 1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. 
 
 EDUCATION IN U. S. (See pp. 113, 362.) A Department of Education 
 created by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1867 ; afterwards made 
 a Bureau in tlje Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry 
 Barnard; succeeded in 1870 by Gen. John Eaton. In 1870, in the 
 United States, were persons over 10 years old unable to read, 4,528,084 ; 
 unable to write, 5,658,144; school children, 7,209,938 ; schools, 141,629 ; 
 teachers (127,713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of 
 which public money, $61,746,039. The census of 1870 showed that the 
 wealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and 
 that poverty and illiteraoy go together. Compulsory free schools, and 
 disfranchisement of aU who cannot read and write English, by Federal 
 authority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, 
 1876. 
 
 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. (See p. 362. ) National Education Leagues 
 (for compulsory education) first met October 12 and 13, 1869 ; Metropolitan 
 School Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, Miss Garrett, M.D., 
 being chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Education Bill of . 
 Mr. W. E. Forster became law August 9, 1870 ; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; 
 Compulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 156, July 1, 
 1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Great 
 Britain in 1855. 4,8C0 ; in 1860, 7,272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; annual parlia- 
 mentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. , 
 
 EGYPT. (See pp. 118,862.) See also Suez Canal. June 6, 1867, the 
 Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London ; his visit lasted until the 
 18th. He made a second visit ia 1869, landing June 22, and remaining 
 eight days. A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, 
 1869 ; a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1873 ; 
 but he must not coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The 
 succession of the Khedives is : Mehemet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, 
 1848 ; dies August 2, 1849 ; Ibrahim, his adopted son, September, 1848 ; 
 dies November 9 or 10, 1848; Abbas, his son, succeeds; dies July 14, 
 1854 ; Said, Abbas's brother, dies January 18, 1863 ; Ismail, Said's 
 nephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave's report to English Government (April, 
 1876), calls Ismail "intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal." 
 The principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are : 
 1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictorial (and of these some are special and 
 some general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was 
 believed by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of 
 Egypt ; and there is more evidence for his existence than for that of 
 King Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 
 or 400 years after Menes. 4. Manetho's dynasties were mostly consecu- 
 tive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- 
 quered Lower Egypt anct ruled in the Delta for centuries ; they were 
 
1867-77. 
 
 23 
 
 expelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began 
 with this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its 
 kings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as 
 great. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later 
 period of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history. — {Bev. J. P. 
 Thompson.) 
 ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Louisana, and gciith 
 Carolina in the Presidential election of November, 1876, were disputed, 
 and were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by 
 Act approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices 
 Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme 
 Court ; United States Senators Edmunds,_ Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- 
 man, Bayard ; United States Representatives Payne. Hunton, Abbott, 
 Garfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February 7, 1877; 
 acted on the three- votes above named, the critical questions being mostly 
 determined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the 
 known political opinions of the members of the commission, and the 
 deciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the 
 Commission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and 
 Wheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President 
 of the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz., by 185 votes to 
 184. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. The elementary substances now known 
 are sixty-five in number, as follows; those after sulphur being in the 
 order of their discovery from antimony, 1490 down to 1877. 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Platinum, 
 
 Tungsten, 
 
 Lithium, 
 
 SiLver, 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Tellurium, 
 
 Selenium, 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 Sodium, 
 
 Uranium, 
 
 Cadmium, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Potassium, 
 
 Zirconium, 
 
 Bromine, 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Lime (calcium), 
 
 Titanium, 
 
 Thorinum, 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Siles, 
 
 Strontium, 
 
 Vanadium, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 Yttrium, 
 
 Lanthanum, 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Chromium, 
 
 iJidymium, 
 
 Sulphur, 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 Glucinum, 
 
 Erbium, 
 
 Antimony, 
 
 Fluorine, 
 
 Tantalum, 
 
 Euthenium, 
 
 Bismuth., 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 Cerium, 
 
 Niobium, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Palladimn, 
 
 Caesium, 
 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 Khodium, 
 
 Rubidium, 
 
 Borax, 
 
 Manganese, 
 
 Iridium, 
 
 Thallium, 
 
 Arsenic, 
 
 Barium, 
 
 Osmium, 
 
 Indium, 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 Molybdenum, 
 
 Iodine, 
 
 Jargonium, 
 
 
 Gallium. 
 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The electric telegraphs of the world are (in 
 1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 
 miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, 
 28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28,148; Germany, only 19,153. 
 EMIGRATION and IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States 
 since 1861 (by Government fiscal years.) : 
 
 1861 89,720 1867 293,601 
 
 1862 89,005 1868 289,145 
 
 1863 174.523 1869 385,287 
 
 1864 193,191 1870 356,303 
 
 1871 346,938 
 
 1872 437.750 
 
 1873 422,545 
 
 1874 260.814 
 
 1875 191,231 
 
 1876 237.991 
 
 1865 248,394 
 
 1866 314,840 
 
 Total in sixteen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United States 
 to end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1S20, 
 9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see China. 
 
2^ 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGEESS. 
 
 
 Emigration from 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Years. 
 
 
 To North Ameri- 
 can Colonies. 
 
 To United States. 
 
 To Australia. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1866 
 
 13,955 
 
 161,000 
 
 24,097 
 
 204,882 
 
 1867 
 
 15,503 
 
 159,275 
 
 14,466 
 
 195,953 
 
 1868 
 
 21,062 
 
 155,532 
 
 12,809 
 
 196,325 
 
 1869 
 
 33,891 
 
 203,001 
 
 14,901 
 
 258.027 
 
 1870 
 
 35,295 
 
 196,075 
 
 17,065 
 
 256,940 
 
 1871 
 
 82,671 
 
 198,843 
 
 12,227 
 
 252 435 
 
 1872 
 
 32,205 
 
 233,747 
 
 15,876 
 
 295,213 
 
 1873 
 
 87,208 
 
 233,073 
 
 26,428 
 
 310,612 
 
 1874 
 
 25.450 
 
 148,161 
 
 53,958 
 
 241,014 
 
 1875 
 
 17,378 
 
 105,046 
 
 35,525 
 
 173,809 
 
 ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered 
 real estate ia Ireland, passed July, 1849 ; proceedings under it October, 
 1849, to July. 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought £22,000,000. The 
 Irish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to 
 tenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and 
 damages for being wrongfully evicted. 
 
 EOZOON OANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- 
 real, in the Laurentian limestone iu 1858 ;_ asserted to be the earliest 
 known form of animal life. 
 
 EPHESXJS. Mr. Wood's search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began 
 1863 ; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the 
 British Museuijj in 1872. 
 
 EUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), 
 265,874,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700,- 
 000. 
 
 EVOLUTION theory ; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory 
 of the descent of man and naturaUselection. 
 
 EXECUTION. {&ee also Capital PunisJiment.) The execution of Michael 
 Barrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, 
 December 13, 1867, at Newgate, London, May 26, 1868, was the last 
 public execution in England. On September 8th following, the first 
 private execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of one 
 Mackay, for murder. 
 
 EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened 
 May 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April 
 1, closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, 
 1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The 
 Philadelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September 
 28. 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows : 
 
 Place. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Days open. 
 
 Admissions . 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 London 
 
 1851 
 1862 
 1855 
 1867 
 1873 
 1876 
 
 141 
 172 
 200 
 217 
 186 
 159 
 
 6,039,191 
 6,211,103 
 5,162,330 
 8,805,969 
 6,740,500 
 9,789,392 
 
 $2,530,500 
 
 2,042,650 
 
 640,495 
 
 
 2,103,675 
 
 
 1,032,385 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 8,813,749.75 
 
 Exhibitors at Philadelphia, 30,864, from 50 countries ; whole outlay about 
 18,830,000. 
 
1867-77. 25 
 
 EXPLOSIONS. (See Hellgate.) Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- 
 derer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- 
 sen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and 
 a native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the 
 steamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight 
 days and then explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would 
 then be well out at sea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock 
 December 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. 
 Thomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been 
 merely to obtaia a small insurance. 
 
 EXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- 
 burg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, 
 Italy, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, 
 Turkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- 
 selves, by land or sea, any explosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 
 grammes weight, viz. , about 13 oz. avoirdupois. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown 
 sugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, 
 mixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made 
 known by Carl Ditmar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- 
 starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro- cellulose ; and the dualin invented by 
 Nobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric 
 acid. Nitro-glycerine, an amber-colored fluid, discovered by Sobrero, 
 1847 ; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric 
 and two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force 
 of gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, 
 invented by Schonbein, and made known 1846 ; it is made by steeping 
 cotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is 
 a modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- 
 oxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- 
 cotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- 
 pressed gun-cotton, 
 
 EXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- 
 ated 1842 ; abrogated May 2, 1876, in consequence of England's refusing, 
 April 18, 1876, to surrender the forger Winslow, and of a disagreement 
 about trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- 
 lish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences 
 other than that for which he was delivered ; while the United States 
 claimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, 
 defining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An 
 extradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed 
 Feb. 21, 1877. 
 
 EXPORTS Airo IMPORTS. (See pp.118, 373.) See Commerce. 
 
 F. 
 
 FAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P. , p. 100,) in the United States, 
 for the ten years 1867-76, were as follows : 
 9 
 

 Averaa« 
 
 W/ioie Amount. 
 
 Indebtedness, 
 
 $86,218,000 
 
 $36,134 
 
 6a, 774, 000 
 
 24,452 
 
 75,054,000 
 
 26,814 
 
 88,242,000 
 
 24,849 
 
 85,252,000 
 
 29,245 
 
 121,05t),000 
 
 29,750 
 
 228,499,000 
 
 44,085 
 
 155,239,000 
 
 26,627 
 
 201,060,353 
 
 25,978 
 
 191,117,786 
 
 21,020 
 
 26 THE world's progress. 
 
 If^umber, 
 
 1887 2,386 
 
 1868 2,608 
 
 1869 2,799 
 
 1870 3,551 
 
 1871 2,915 
 
 1872 4,069 
 
 1873 5,183 
 
 1874 5,830 
 
 1875 7,740 
 
 1876 9,092 
 
 FAMINE. (See p. 375.) In Orissa, 750,000 persons perished of famine, 
 1885-6 ; v-ery severe in Persia, 1871-2 ; in Bengal, from drought, 1874 ; 
 in Asia Minor, 1874-5 ; in several parts of India, 1876-7. 
 
 FENIANS. October 10, 1869, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried 
 in London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession 
 of various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament 
 amnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- 
 ment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 3,000 
 strong, under O'NeUl, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but 
 remained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven 
 back by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed 
 the line at Malone, N. Y. , on the 27th, and were driven back in a similar 
 manner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both 
 sides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who had been 
 vigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was 
 assassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- 
 posed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the Fenians. 
 
 FIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1873 ; Sir A. H. Gordon 
 first Governor, 1875. 
 
 FILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of 
 Toledo, 589 ; rejected by the Eastern churches since 662. It implies that 
 the Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father " and from the Son." The 
 old Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did 
 not omit it. 
 
 FIRES. (See pp. 120, 378.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty's Theatre, Lon- 
 don, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its 
 class for hearing music in. June 5, 1870, a great fire in Pera, one of the 
 suburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of 
 property of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buUdiags, and (by 
 estimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at 
 Richmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- 
 parties, was totally burnt ; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. 
 May 24, 1870, at Quebec, a fire in the suburb of St. Roch destroyed 400 
 houses, left 8,000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of 
 property. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of 
 the Duke of Devonshire, destroyed, among many other valuable and 
 curious articles, seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best 
 masters, ancient and modem. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense 
 boiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Works in Sheffield, was found 
 to continue to ffil the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On 
 examination it was found that the boUer, which had been noticed to be 
 sinking for some time, w^as kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of 
 
1867-77. 27 
 
 shale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire must 
 have been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under 
 the street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time 
 and a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871, a fire at War- 
 wick Castle consumed the whole of the east wing and the centre, the 
 west wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and 
 historic pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 1871, a fire 
 at Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co.'s granaries, among the 
 largest in England, destroyed to the value of £150,000. November 84, 
 1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- 
 sons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, 
 Brooklyn Theatre burned ; 315 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, 
 see Boston, Chicago. 
 
 FLOGGING-. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the 
 annual rautiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that "no court-martial 
 shah have power to sentence any soldier or marine on shore to corporal 
 punishment in time of peace. " 
 
 FLOODS. (See Immdaiions, pp. 132, 426.) Great floods in France in Sep- 
 tember, 1866 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, 
 December 28 and 29, 1870 ; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, 
 in France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- 
 ties of England, July, October and November, 1875 ; in India, September 
 22-24, 1875; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill 
 River, Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May 
 16, 1874. A flood in the rivers of Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, 
 drowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass. , reservoir burst March 
 30, 1876, but having been expected, no lives were lost, though great 
 damage was done. 
 
 FLORENCE, or FIRENZE. (See p. 378.) People vote for annexation to 
 Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- 
 ence : it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- 
 cember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 13, 1865. 
 600th anniversary of Dante's birth celebrated May 14, 1865 ; first Italian 
 parliament November 18, 1865 ; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. 
 400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. 
 
 FLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place ia uranium-glass, 
 and in solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
 when the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are 
 sent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. 
 
 FRANCE. (See, for events, etc., in the Chronological Tables, following the 
 " Dictionary of Dates.") 
 
 G. 
 
 GAMING. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses 
 suppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wies- 
 baden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monaco 
 the only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-seUing forbiddej^ 
 by law in New York, 1876. 
 
 GATLING GUN. Invented in America ; patents 1861-1865 ; exhibited at 
 Paris 1 867 ; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel ; 
 
28 THE world's pkogress. 
 
 a similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used bj 
 the French in the war of 1870-1871. 
 GENEVA. (See p. 388.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August 
 18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over £764,000) to the city. 
 
 GENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, etc., in war, of delegates 
 from fourteen governments, met October 26, 1863 ; their code adopted by 
 all civilized powers except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- 
 national or "Eed Cross" Society, established in consequence, did much 
 in relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, 
 some 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. 
 
 GERMANY. (See pp. 124, 390.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding 
 Napoleon's " Confederation of the Rhine,'' was formed June 8, 1815 ; its 
 first diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816 ; announced dissolved by 
 Prussia, June 14, 1866, but continued; was, however, given up by Austria 
 at the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting 
 of the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German 
 Confederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- 
 gust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Berlin, February 24, 
 1867 ; the confederation ceased on the re-establishment of the German 
 Empire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, 
 42,726,844. 
 
 GOLD. (See pp. 125, 395.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England 
 from 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from 
 circulation; and it was computed that in 1869 31^ per cent, of the sov- 
 ereigns and 40 per cent, of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light 
 weight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about 
 12,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about |5,000,000,000. 
 
 GOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinents. The first Eng- 
 lish lodge formed at Birmingham, May, 1868 ; in 1874 said to be 3,743 
 lodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. 
 
 GOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- 
 burg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists 
 of a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- 
 ful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, 
 who must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. 
 
 GRANGERS. (See Patrons of Eusiandry.) 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Chronological 
 Tables, following the Dictionary of Dates. ) 
 
 GREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope's invita- 
 tion to an oecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- 
 pool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1870. 
 
 GRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before 
 witnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- 
 aways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however, destroyed the business, 
 by providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland 
 twenty-one days. 
 
 GUATEMALA. (See p. 126.) Recent Presidents : Vincent Cema, succeeded 
 Carrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872 ; R. Bar- 
 rios, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180,000. 
 
1867-77. 29 
 
 GYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- 
 shire, November 18, 1860. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAYTI, OR St. Domingo. (See pp. 127, 406.) Hayti and St. Domingo are 
 used as names for the whole island. Hayti is the western or French 
 part, and- San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- 
 frard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection 
 against him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865 ; Geffrard beaten and 
 banished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867 ; after one or two risings 
 are put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, Augixst, 1868, but ia 
 defeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870. General 
 Nissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870 ; lives out his term. M. 
 Domingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, 
 and Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. 
 
 HEAT. Count Rumford, about the beginnuig of this century, asserted that 
 heat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall's book 
 on the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the 
 received doctrine. 
 
 HELLGATB. The reef at Hallett's Point, which was the principal obstruc- 
 tion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven 
 years under the management of General Newton, of United States 
 Engineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of 
 4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two and 
 three-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported 
 by 178 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system 
 radiating fanwise outward from the entrance-shaft at the shore. All 
 these pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,680 
 charges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were 
 connected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous 
 discharge. This took place on September 24, 1876, with complete suc- 
 cess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by 
 the finger of General Newton's baby daijghter pressing a battery-key. A 
 smaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden 
 Gate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 i^ounds of 
 gunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. 
 
 HEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about A.D. 450-850, 
 viz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, 
 Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall) ; East 
 Saxons (Essex, Middlesex, part of Herts) ; Northumbria (Lancaster, York, 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland) ; East Angles 
 (Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely) ; and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, 
 Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
 Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Liacoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, 
 part of Herts). 
 
 HERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persiao 
 frontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1656, 
 contrary to the treaty of 1853 ; were forced to restore it by the Eoiglish 
 July 27, 1857. 
 
30 XHE world's peogress. 
 
 HERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, 
 1861 ; subdued September, 1863. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and 
 the country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1877), sympathizing 
 with its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 409; see also Egypt.) The researches of 
 ChampoUion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta 
 Stone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a 
 reasonably well understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. 
 
 HOLLAND. (See p. 410.) William III succeeded his father, William II., 
 March 17, 1849. A Roman Catholic hierarchy re-introduced, 1853. 
 Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), 
 August 6, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam 
 with the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of 
 which over 1,200,000 is tu cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. 
 The town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in any 
 other European country. 
 
 HOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- 
 lished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members ; Mr. 
 Isaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick, September 20, 
 1871 ; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much 
 result; parliamentary " filibustering," with much inconvenience to busi- 
 ness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. 
 
 HORSE. (See p. 413.) Rarey's mode of training horses shown by him 
 in England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in 
 Paris, 1866, and since. Goodenough's American niachiae-made horse- 
 shoes (patented I860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General 
 Omnibus Co., 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizootic, coming from 
 Canada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. 
 
 HUNGARY. (See pp. 129, 414.) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were 
 crowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The 
 " Act of Grace " issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped 
 all proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- 
 lowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, 
 1868. ^ 
 
 HURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane 
 struck St. Thomas (W. I.) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 
 vessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of 
 houses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, 
 1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- 
 roofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, 
 cane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. 
 
 ICE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either : 1, by rapid evapora- 
 tion, as in Carre's, Harrison's, Twining's, etc., patents; or 2, by lique- 
 faction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way of making ice-cream 
 with ice and salt ; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- 
 quence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have 
 been commercially successful. 
 
1867-77. 31 
 
 ICELAND. (See p. 417.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- 
 tion at King Christian's visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary 
 of the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby's Icelandic -Eng- 
 lish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, 
 devastated much pasture-land. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT. The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- 
 peach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- 
 ors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. 
 After trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted on one ar- 
 ticle (the 11th), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the 
 two-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted 
 on the remaining articles. 
 
 INCOSIE TAX, United States. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. 
 Receipts from it,1867, $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869, $27,353,000; 
 1870, $26,150,000. 
 
 INDIA. (See pp. 131, 421.) Order of the Star of India established June 25, 
 1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American 
 civil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen 
 religion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, 
 March 1, 1865. About 1,500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August 
 to November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much 
 like the Unitarian, appear in 1869, and open a house of worship August 
 24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, 
 and preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to 
 India, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, 
 spring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief 
 operations £6,500,000. Prince of Wales's visit; he sails from England 
 October 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8 ; grand reception of Indian 
 rulers, December 24 ; sails from Bombay to return, March 13, 1876. Queen 
 Victoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876 ; at Delhi, 
 January 1, 1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) 
 contains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) 
 about 240,000,000. 
 
 INDIANS. (See pp. 131, 422 ; also Modoos.) Gen. Custer ambushed, de- 
 feated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file 
 utterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn 
 River, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under 
 Sitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In 
 the summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence 
 hostilities in that State. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican CouncU, July 18, 
 1870. Dr. von DoUinger excommunicated for opposing it, April l8, 1871 ; 
 and chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29, 1871. The Bava- 
 rian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871 ; an 
 " Old Catholic " church opened at Munich, in September, 1871. 
 
 INSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy/.) 
 
 INSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- 
 delphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in 
 Massachusetts, 1854 : next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance 
 
32 THE world's progress. 
 
 business in United States in 1860, $32,358,000; in 1866, $44,410,000; in 
 1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1873, over $15,- 
 000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875 : 
 
 1865. 1875. 
 
 Property insured $3,428,000,000 $6,273,000,000 
 
 Premium receipts 29,529,000 64,900,000 
 
 Losses paid over, 17,265,000 31,960,000 
 
 Whole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which in. 
 sured, $39,000,000. 
 
 m^fERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See GopyrigU.) 
 
 INTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist 
 nature, first established by some German socialists in London, 1847 ; 
 definitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first 
 president. Professes to operate lor the emancipation of labor from the 
 tyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- 
 orderly, at Geneva, September, 1866 ; Lausanne, September, 1867 ; Brus- 
 sels, September, 1868 ; Basle, September, 1869 ; Barcelona, June, 1870 ; 
 Hague, September, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and 
 the political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New 
 York. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva 
 meeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has 
 claimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be afl&Uated 
 with the Fenians and other secret societies. 
 
 INTEREST. (Seepp. 132, 426.) In England was 8 per cent, by law of 
 1623; Q per cent., 1651; ^ p)er cent., 1713; and law totally repealed 1 854, 
 leaving interest a matter of agreement. 
 
 INUNDATIONS. (See Floods.) 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 133, 427.) Declare for annexation to Greece, 
 in March, 1861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes 
 place accordingly. May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. 
 Population about 200,000. 
 
 IRELAND. (Seep. 428; see also Church of Ireland; Encumbered Es- 
 tates Act ; Fenians J Home Bule.) Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- 
 gust, 1849 ; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school 
 system, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and 1863 ; 
 emigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales 
 visit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. 
 
 IRON. CSee pp.133, 428.) The iron and steel production of the United 
 States for three years, 1874^5-6, was as follows : 
 
 1874. 1875. 1876. 
 
 Pig iron, tons (of 2,000 lbs.) 2.689,413 2,266,581 2,093,236 
 
 All rolled iron, tons 1,839,560 l,8il0,379 1,921,730 
 
 Rails, all kinds, tons 729,413 792,512 879,629 
 
 Rails, Bessemer steel, tons 144,944 290,863 412,461 
 
 Cut nails and spikes (included in " rolled iron ") kess 4,912,180 4,726,891 4,157,814 
 
 Iron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. 
 
 IRON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the 
 United States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of 
 a total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron 
 vessels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. lo 
 X 876 were built 35 vessels as follows : 
 
1867-77. 33 
 
 Place. Nwmber. Total Tonnage 
 
 about. 
 
 Buffalo 2 140 
 
 Burlington, N. J 1 13 
 
 Delaware (State) 9 8,298 
 
 New Orleans 2 915 
 
 Philadelphia 11 11,981 
 
 Besides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones 
 building. 
 ITALY. (See pp. 133, 429.) September 23, 1867, Garibaldi, persisting in his 
 march upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinaluhga, 
 near Sienna, as he was about entering the Papal territory. He was im- 
 prisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and 
 watched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enteriarise, 
 and was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the 
 point of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- 
 chia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome, to prevent the pro- 
 posed revolution. November 3, G-aribaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana 
 by the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, 
 
 1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under G-en. Cadorna, and 
 on the 20th, after four hours' cannonade, entered and occupied the city. 
 October 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the 
 question of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the 
 capital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and, 1,507 negative. Decem- 
 ber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the 
 capital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into 
 Rome, December 31, 1870. 
 
 J. 
 
 JAMAICA. (See p. 431.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with 
 much bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- 
 vember, 1865. Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, 
 April 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been 
 used. Eyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages ; 
 but the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him 
 the suit. In 1878 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, 
 
 1871, 506,154. 
 
 JAPAN. (See pp. 134, 432.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places 
 opened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867 ; Osaka and Hiogo the 
 same, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes, 
 1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- 
 stantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had 
 first to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- 
 plished December, 1869. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached 
 Washington March 4, and London, August 17, 1872. First railway in 
 Japan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of 
 government somewhat like the imperial French Government, April 14, 
 1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor, Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, bom 
 1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 
 (estimated), 32,794,897. 
 
 JERUSALEM. (See p. 433.) Population estimated (in 1877) as foUows : 
 Jews, 10,600 ; Christians, 5,300 ; Mohammedans, 5,000; total, 20,900. A 
 Protestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and 
 2* 
 
34 THE world's progress. 
 
 Prussia, 1846 ; Wilson, and Warren's excavations, ascertaining many points 
 of interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. 
 
 JESUITS. (See pp. 134, 433.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia, 
 1820; Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834 
 Sardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848 ; Italy and SicUy, 1860 
 Empire -of Germany, 1872; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number 
 of Jesiiits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. 
 
 JEWS. (See pp. 134, 434.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled 
 January, 1860; Hungary emancipates, 1867; Disraeli, a Jew, English 
 premier, 1868; Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, 
 English solicitor -general, 1871 ; master of the rolls, 1873. Jews in 
 Great Britain (estimated) in. 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews 
 in the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. 
 
 JTJTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz., chonch, or cor- 
 chorus olitorius, and isbund, or C. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- 
 cloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- 
 dom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 
 cwt. 
 
 K. 
 
 KARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew 
 Scriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They 
 are found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. 
 
 KEET, Rev. Mr. (See Reverend.) 
 
 KHEDIVE. (See Egypt. ) The title is supposed to mean something more 
 than vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. 
 
 KHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished 
 in the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- 
 feating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has 
 since been pretty much made a Russian province. 
 
 KHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate 
 annexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. 
 
 KINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science 
 of motion. Professor Reuleaux's Kinematics of- machinery, an important 
 work on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- 
 tion appeared in London, 1876. 
 
 KU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose 
 the ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly 
 against Such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their 
 operations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of 
 legal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same 
 kind of activity being adopted. 
 
 LABOR, [^ee Internationalists ; Strikes; W&rkingmen.) 
 LAMBESSA. An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prison for some 
 of the victims of Napoleon III., of December 3, 1851, and for other po- 
 litical exiles. 
 
1867-77. 36 
 
 LATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of 
 
 France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. 
 LEONINE CITY. That part of Eome assigned to the Pope at the entrance 
 
 of the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of SanAngelo, 
 
 the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. 
 
 Peter's. 
 
 LIBERIA. (See pp. 136, 451.) Presidents : D. B. Warner, 1864 ; J. S. 
 Payne, 1868; E. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the 
 first President), 1872 and 1874; he died 1870. Population about 720,000, 
 of which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, 
 it was reported that 30,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go 
 to Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in 
 that State. 
 
 LIBRARIES. (See pp. 136, 451.) The great Report of the Education 
 Bureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of 
 3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not 
 including common or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). 
 In these were reported in all : 
 
 Volumes 12,276,964 
 
 In common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than 1,365,407 
 
 Total volumes 13,642,371 
 
 Add pamphlets, only part reported, up to about 1,500,000 
 
 Of these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- 
 port 8,879,869 volumes, annual use ; 1,722 report $6,105,501 permanent 
 funds ; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly mcome ; 769 report $562,407, 
 annually spent for books, and 643 report $682,166 annually spent for 
 salaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on 
 the American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about 333,000 volumes, 
 besides about 150,000 pamphlets. 
 
 LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS.- Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin, 1785 ; 
 H. G-reathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for 
 best life-boat ; also £1,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January 
 30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- 
 son's tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English 
 National Life-boat Institution, founded 1824 ; in 1876 had 2,541 life- 
 boats in operation, and lives saved, 1824-1875, inclusive, 23,789. An 
 American ' ' life-raft " of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, 
 navigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. 
 Manby's apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- 
 tress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808 ; in 20 
 years it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton's life-preserving 
 dress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe, 1874- 
 1877 ; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23^ hours, May 28 and 29, 
 1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in 11 
 districts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, 
 shot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- 
 boat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keeper 
 and six surfmen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, 
 there were on these coasts 273 wrecks ; property saved by the Life-sav- 
 ing Service, $5,254,300 ; lives saved, 3,189 ; lost, 41. Ottinger's shot* 
 line gun will carry 631 yards. 
 
36 THE world's progress. 
 
 LIGHT. Velocity nearly 200,000 miles per second. Comes from the sun 
 to the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prqg- 
 ress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- 
 cluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism 
 or chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, etc. 
 
 LOANS. (See pp. 137, 456.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000,- 
 000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855 ; on the 30th, nearly five times the 
 required amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole 
 amount in foreign subscriptions. French loan of $100,000,000, for the 
 Italian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000,- 
 000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $600,000,- 
 000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the 
 required amount was promptly subscribed within France. The success 
 of these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- 
 firmed habit of the people to hoard specie. 
 
 LONDON. (See pp. 137, 458.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or 
 eleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 3,885,641 ; in 1877, probably 
 considerably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William 
 the Conqueror, is still preserved in the city archives. It is on a slip of parch- 
 ment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in 
 English as follows: "William the King greeteth William the bishop and 
 Godfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I 
 acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in 
 King Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir 
 after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any 
 wrong. God preserve you. " 
 
 LONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) 
 
 LORKAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia ; German, Lothringen. United to 
 France, 1766 ; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- 
 nexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, 
 February 26, 1871. 
 
 LUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers. May, 
 1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, November, 1867 ; fortifica- 
 tions dismantled, August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. 
 The grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867 ; its popula- 
 tion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. 
 
 M. 
 
 MAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) 
 
 MAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the 
 British under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April 
 13, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The 
 place was burned, April 17th. 
 
 MAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808 ; 
 produced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4. It burns easily, with 
 a singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was 
 done in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. 
 
 MAN, Ai^TiQXJiTt OF. (See Pre-historio Man.) 
 
1867-77. 37 
 
 MANITOBA. Rupert's Land made a province, and named Manitoba, 1870. 
 One Kiel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of 
 Canada, in January, 1870 ; proclaimed the "Red River Republic," and 
 murdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- 
 tary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, 
 and ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G. Archibald, 
 the first Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- 
 tended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, 
 October, 1871 . The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of 
 North America. 
 
 MELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, 
 Patteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murJered by the natives at Santa 
 Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in 
 revenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. 
 
 MENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. 
 
 MERCURY. (See p. 477.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced 
 from July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From 
 one to two pounds are lost for every ton of the ore that is worked with it. 
 
 MERV. A miserable tovm in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, 
 of no importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India 
 which might be followed by the Russians. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, 
 chartered 1866. A department for this science, of the English Board of 
 Trade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 185i5 ; it has done much to- 
 wards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. 
 The United States Signal Service department sent and received in the 
 year 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents ; issued of all its publica- 
 tions 4,494,320 copies, of which 3,491,046 were " farmers' bulletins." It 
 had ia that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the 
 beginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- 
 ganized it. 
 
 METEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are : January 
 2d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- 
 ber 11th. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around 
 the sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the 
 earth's passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of 
 their motion through the earth's atmosphere inflames them. 
 
 METRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter 
 of the earth's circumference in latitude (3.2808 English feet). Unit of 
 surface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. 
 Unit of solidity is the stere, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a 
 cubic decimetre. Unit of weight, the gramme, a cubic centimetre of dis- 
 tilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to 
 either of these (except franc) (^eca- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times ; 
 kilo-, 1,000 times; to^?'M-, 10,000 time.s. Also, (Zea- for one -tenth ; centi-, 
 one-lOOth ; TOiY^j- for one -1,000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- 
 sides being the only legal system in France) by convention, May 20, 1875, 
 in the following countries : Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, 
 Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United 
 States of America, Argentine Republic, BrazU, Peru. 
 
38 THE wobld's progress. 
 
 METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OP ART, New York, chartered AprU, 1870, 
 a site in the Central Park and $500,000 for a building granted by the 
 State, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary 
 gallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected 
 by General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus, 1873-5. 
 
 MBTZ. Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by Bazaine, with 3 marshals, 66 
 generals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 
 eagles. 
 
 MEXICO. (See pp. 142,479.) French evacuated Mexico, March, 1867. 
 ■ Juarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872 ; 
 
 Lerdo de Tejada, president ; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, 
 
 November 16, 1876. 
 
 MILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since which 
 time a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in citiea 
 and put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. 
 
 MINES, MINING. (See pp, 143, 481.) Value of minerals and metals mined 
 in the United Kingdom in 1874, £67,834,313; in 1875, £67,487,688. 
 Coal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being 
 over two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths of 
 the other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $153,- 
 598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. 
 
 MINORITY REPRESENTATION. (See Cumulative Vote.) 
 
 MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp.144, 483.) Improvements to make the 
 South Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. Eads's plan 
 of jetties carried out from the natural month of the pass so as to keep the 
 main river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, 
 were begun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- 
 tained by the river itself, where there was before only eight feet of water, 
 and the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys' and Abbott's 
 elaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of the river, 
 published 1861. 
 
 MITRAILLEUSE. (See Oatling Gun.) 
 
 MOABITE STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a Phoe- 
 nician or ancient Hebrew inscrijption, said to be by order of Mesha, King 
 of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii. , and to narrate his victories over Israel. 
 Dr. Gtnsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, 
 1871. 
 
 MODOCS defeated the United States troops, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. 
 Canby and about forty more by treachery, April 11 ; after long and des- 
 perate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic ''lava-beds," the remaining 
 Modocs were captured, and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- 
 ecuted October 3, 1873. 
 
 MOLLY MAGUIRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the 
 Ancient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society 
 among the miners of Eastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- 
 tion first came into notice abou^ 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- 
 sued a career of violence and murder in Carbon, Schuylkill, and the other 
 neighboring mining counties. In December, 1862, they attacked Mr. 
 Goyne's mine in Cass township, stopped the works and beat those who 
 opposed them ; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. S. Langdon, ncaJ 
 
1867-77. 39 
 
 Audenreid, and in November, 1863, George K. Smith, in the So.me vicinity ; 
 attacked Mr. JSTorthall's house, February 11, 1867, in order to kUlhim, he, 
 however, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of 
 Tamaqua ; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, 
 at Eaven Run ; September 3, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford ; and 
 there were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature 
 of revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order 
 chose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, 
 however, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. 
 
 MONEY. (See p. 484. See also Coinage; Currency ; Gold ; Silver .) 
 
 MONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See Tunnels.) 
 
 MONTENEGRO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- 
 pendent ever siace, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite 
 of repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would 
 have overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention 
 of the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles ; population in 1871, about 
 195,600. 
 
 MOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) 
 
 MOORSOM' S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping 
 was adopted in the English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, and is the 
 method used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at 
 the Suez Canal. 
 
 MORMONS. (See pp. 145, 485.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and 
 condemned to death in 1877, for having participated in the Mountain 
 Meadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 136 emigrants, by order of the 
 Mormon leaders. 
 
 MOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the 
 highest mountain known in the world. 
 
 MURDERS in England and Wales for ten years : 
 
 1865 336 
 
 1866 373 
 
 1867 255 
 
 1868 361 
 
 MUSIC. (See pp. 146, 487.) Musical pitch fixed in Prance, 1860, the mid- 
 dle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have 
 since been adopted, and "concert pitch" is now (1877) not a settled 
 thing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about 
 1847 by Ourwen. For Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. 
 
 MYCENiE. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- 
 polis of ancient Mycenae, discovering five tombs, which he believes those 
 of Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was 
 a great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and 
 use, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and archseologically impor- 
 tant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. 
 
 N. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of United States. (See pp. 147, 490.) Dedu3ting 
 cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of 
 the debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, 
 
 1869 365 
 
 1870 333 
 
 1871 226 
 
 1873 257 
 
 1873 333 
 
 1874 32:3 
 
40 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 1876, 110,103,845.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and 
 territorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350,000,000. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 147, 490.) An estimate in the Westminster 
 Keview, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at 
 $5.00 to the pound sterling) : 
 
 Great Britain $3,875,000,000 
 
 Europe 13,865,000,000 
 
 America 3,870,000,000 
 
 Asia 655,000,000 
 
 Australasia . 
 Africa 
 
 200,000,000 
 375,000,000 
 
 Total $22,840,000,000 
 
 European national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound 
 sterling) : 
 
 Austro-Hungary (1876) 
 
 Belgium (January 1, 1876) .... 
 
 Denmark (March 31, 1875) 
 
 France (January 1, 1875) 
 
 German Empire, none, or a tri- 
 fling one. 
 
 But Prussia (January 1, 1876). . 
 Bavaria (January 1, 1874). 
 Wiirtemberg (May 10, 1874) 
 Saxony (end of 1876) 
 
 Great Britain (March 31, 1876). 
 
 11,709,634,590 
 
 33,656,000 
 
 51,620,005 
 
 4,687,921,400 
 
 229,852,375 
 
 156,688,045 
 
 73,496,020 
 
 85,222,010 
 
 3.884,852,720 
 
 Greece (partly estimated, Jan., 
 
 1, 1876) 106,800,515 
 
 Italy (end of 1875, estimate) , . . 2,000,000,000 
 
 Netherlands (beginning of 1875) 386,383,365 
 
 Portugal (June 30, 1876) 395,308,900 
 
 Russia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876)., 1,254,810,000 
 
 Spain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000,000 
 
 Sweden (January 1, 1876) 38,929,680 
 
 And Korway (end of 1875) 13,418,775 
 
 Switzerland (beginning of 1876) 5,520,000 
 Turkey (June, 1876 ; much more 
 
 since) 927,000,000 
 
 NATUEAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) 
 
 NATURALIZATION. (See pp. 147, 490.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 
 Americans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United 
 States. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the 
 latter were empowered to renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- 
 tion of Februarys, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made 
 dependent on choice, and not on birth. 
 
 NAVIES. (See pp. 148, 495.) The English navy contains in all about 240 
 vessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) 
 building, about as follows in the world : 
 
 Nation. 
 England . . 
 France . . . 
 Russia. . . . 
 
 Italy 
 
 Tnrkey.. . 
 Germany , 
 Holland . . 
 
 Ships. 
 59 
 53 
 29 
 16 
 24 
 13 
 17 
 
 Total tonnage. 
 317,000 
 184.000 
 
 89,000 
 
 89,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 61,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 Also, Austria, 14 ; Spain, 7 ; Denmark, 6 ; United States, 27 ; Sweden 
 and Norway, 8; Portugal, 1; Greece, 2; Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; Chili, 2; 
 Argentine Confederation, 2 ; Japan, 2. Whole number of iron-clad ships of 
 war, 305 ; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of 
 them, 24 inches ; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by 
 any Gl-erman ship is 10 inches ; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches ; Italy, 22 
 inches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most 
 powerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- 
 clad ships, has 70 other steamers and 25 sail- vessels. 
 
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811. In 
 October, 1860, the " dumb-bell nebula" was reported by Lassell to show 
 no signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain nebulas 
 shown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. 
 
1867-77. 41 
 
 NEPTUNE (Planet). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 33, 
 1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having calculated that the 
 irregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J. C. Adams, 
 of Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853,, and 
 since used by them as a penal colony. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 149,500.) Newspapers in Great Britain, 1876, 
 1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7,870 periodicals, of which 5,957 
 weeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, 
 8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- 
 cerns within the last few years, are: Stanley's expedition into Central 
 Africa, for the New York Herald ; Mr. G-eorge Smith's explorations in 
 Assyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very 
 powerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York "Ring," 
 in consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O'Brien. 
 Works on the English periodical press : Andrews' British Journalism, 1855, 
 and Hunt's Fourth Estate, 1850 ; on that of America, Hudson's Journalism 
 in the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- 
 mation in Buckingham's and Thomas's works. 
 
 NEW YORK CITY. (See pp. 150, 499.) Bamum's old museum burnt, July 
 13, 1865 ; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold-buying operations of 
 Fisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869 ; revelations of the '' Tweed 
 Ring" corruptions in the city government, August and September, 1871 ; 
 Fisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872 ; the Erie railway administra- 
 tion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872 ; trouble 
 from epizootic, or horse disease, October, 1872 ; great panic in business 
 throughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sep- 
 tember, 1873 ; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to 
 twelve years' imprisonment, November 19, 1873 ; escapes, December, 
 1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civil suit, March 8, 
 1876 ; an-ested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to 
 jaU. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; recognized as belonging 
 to Great Britain, 1814 ; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829 ; 
 colony and bishopric established 1841 ; towns founded : Auckland, 1840, 
 Nelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1850; native insur- 
 rection from land troubles, March, 1860 ; suppressed, after much fighting 
 and trouble, March, 1861 ; another native war, May, 1863, continued 
 more or less untU July, 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,000 
 miles long and 200 wide ; area of land, about 102,000 square miles ; white 
 population, 1851, 26,707; December 31, 1876, about 375,856, besides 
 about 45,470 natives or Maoris. 
 
 NICSICS. A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land 
 which joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- 
 portant military position. 
 
 NILE. (See p. 502.) From the time of Bruce's explorations in 1768 -70, no 
 discovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made until 
 Speke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Baket 
 discovers the Albert Nyarza, March 14, 1864. Livingston's letter from 
 
42 THE world's progress. 
 
 Ujiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are 
 about 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 NITRO-GLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30, 1869. Two cart-loads of 
 nitro-glyceriue exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry 
 there. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to 
 pieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the 
 beard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for 
 two miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in 
 the road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. 
 
 NORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 503.) After the English penal colony was 
 removed, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) 
 were in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn's Island and established here. 
 In December, 1875, the new colony was prospering. 
 
 NORWAY. (See Sweden.) 
 
 O. 
 
 OCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been 
 made by Sars, off the coast of Norway ; by Carpenter and Thompson, near 
 the Faroe Islands, 1868-9 ; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. 
 The voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 31, 
 1872, to May 25, 1876 ; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- 
 tions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, 
 3,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, 
 March 24, 1873. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three 
 miles. 
 
 OLD AGE. (See Xora^m"!^?/, pp.137,458.) Sir G. C. Lewis, Prof. Owen, 
 and W. J. Thorns (his "Human Longevity" published 1873,) have dis- 
 proved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be 
 believed in. A few recent ones are as follows : Anthony Beresford died 
 in England, aged 101, March 3, 1874 — considered authentic; Count Wal- 
 deck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875 ; Captain 
 Frederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, 
 1877, at New York. 
 
 OLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual 
 synod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000 members and adherents were 
 reported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. 
 The movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- 
 bility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. 
 
 OLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned 
 by Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Bottiger, October, 1875. The Ger- 
 man Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- 
 inals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting 
 discoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of 
 Jupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. 
 
 ORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 93, 290.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- 
 bore, 30-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round 
 shot, cast at Pittsburg, 1864 ; a stream of cold water was kept running 
 through the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the 
 inside of the gun. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guns 
 at Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing 
 
1867-77. 43 
 
 ironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) 
 of wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with 11-J 
 inches of iron. Palhser's patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron 
 moulds), dated May 27, 1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, 
 where a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American 
 guns, and a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted 
 by a model fort defended by 15-tnch iron plates. The "Woolwich In- 
 fant," 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pouiid 
 shot, with 120-pound charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- 
 pound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot jDenefcrated 50 feet of sand. 
 A charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of ' ' steel 
 bronze," used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- 
 cessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at 
 Spezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled 
 guns first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol, 1854-5. The Armstrong 
 breech- loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, 1860. The Ger- 
 man army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. 
 
 ORIGIN OF SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published 
 November, 1869. 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and 
 5 haUs, in 1871, £483,842, 16s. 6d. 
 
 OXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third of the earth, 
 nine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. 
 
 OZONE. (See p. 153.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling's suggestion 
 was correct, viz. : that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the 
 space it would naturally occupy. 
 
 PACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Francisco, 
 opened for traffic May 12, 1868. 
 
 PALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under 
 it began in 1866 ; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, 
 1871 ; a similar fund established at New York, same year. 
 
 PAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty 
 water-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- 
 tle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief 
 Asiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. 
 
 PAN-ANGLICAN Conference of seventy-five bishops, English, Colonial, 
 and American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1867, and issued an address 
 and resolutions of a pretty general and safe character. Another is pro- 
 posed for July, 1878. 
 
 PANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- 
 ruary 13 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other costly 
 articles were destroyed. 
 
 PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallibility.) 
 
 PARAGUAY. (See p. 155.) Francis S. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- 
 tator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Paraguay, December, 1864, in 
 consequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on Noveinber 11, 1864 ; de- 
 feated Lopez in several battles, and he was kiUed at Aquidaban, March 1 
 
44 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. S. Jovellanos chosen president foi 
 three years, December 13, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November 
 25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,337,439, and another return 
 in 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 231,079 souls, 
 of which men over 15 only 38,746, and women 106,254, the other 86,079 
 being children. 
 
 PASSION" PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented 
 from time time at Oberammergau, in Bavaria ; said to have been so rep- 
 resented there ever since 1633. 
 
 PASSPOET SYSTEM. Introduced in the United States August 19, 1861, 
 on account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809 ; Sweden, 1860; 
 Italy, 1862 ; Portugal, 1863 ; in France, abolished as to British subjects, 
 December 16, 1860 ; revived in the war, August 1, 1870 ; abolished again 
 April 10, 1872. 
 
 PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret 
 society in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- 
 cultural interests. Said to have been, first organized by one Saunders, 
 who established the national "grange" (or lodge) in December, 1867. 
 Subordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868 ; 39 in 1869 ; 38 
 in 1870 ; 135 in 1871 ; 1,105 in 1873 ; 8,400 in 1873 ; and for a year or 
 two after this time the order had much political influence, and did some- 
 thing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- 
 lation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the "Grangers," 
 to fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad 
 failure. 
 
 PAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 535.) Paupers and their cost in England 
 
 and Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : 
 
 Paupers. Poor-rate. 
 
 1866 916,152 £6,439,517 
 
 1867 931,546 6.959,840 
 
 1868 1,034,723 7,498,059 
 
 1869 1,039,549 7,673,100 
 
 1870 1,079,391 7,644,307 
 
 1871 1,071,926 7,886,724 
 
 1872 977,664 8.007,403 
 
 1873 890,372 7,692,169 
 
 1874 829,281 7,664,957 
 
 1875.... 815,587 
 
 PAUPERS IN United States, 1870, 116,102. 
 
 PEABODYFUND. {S,ee Gharities.) 
 
 PEABODY MEMORIAL. A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly 
 inaugurated in London, July 23, 1869. 
 
 PEACE JUBILEE. {See Boston.) 
 
 PEERAGE. In 37 years, 1832-69, an average of 2^ commoners a year were 
 created peers in England. 
 
 PERU. (See pp. 157, 523.) Presidents : Canseco succeeds Pezet, Novem- 
 ber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, 
 1867, made president ; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and 
 Gen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868 ; Col. Balta next August 
 1, 1868; Gutierrez dictator, July 22^ 1872, but killed 26th; Pardo 
 elected, August 2, and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- 
 vian railways, in establishing which the American, Henry Meiggs, has been 
 
1867-77. 45 
 
 prominent, at end of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were 
 23 lines, 2,030 mUes in length. 
 
 PESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by 
 Arthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some 
 acceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. 
 
 PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. (Seep. 528; also mrfolk Island.) 
 
 PLANCHETTE. (See Spiritualism.) 
 
 PLANETS. (See Astronomy.) 
 
 POLAND. (Seep. 532.) The separate government of Poland abolished, 
 and administrative union vp-ith Russia perfected February 29, 1868. 
 Polish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868 ; in courts of law 
 and public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- 
 tary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, 
 which had continued most of the time since 1830. 
 
 POOR. (See Paupers.) 
 
 POPULATION. (See pp. 161, 537.) Total population of the world esti- 
 mated at 1,377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at 
 Washington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. 
 
 POSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Auguste Comte (born about 
 1795, died 1852), which rejects metaijhysics and claims to deal wholly 
 with facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of 
 human belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the 
 former two being erroneous, and the last the only vahd one, at which 
 Europe is just now arriving. 
 
 POST-OFFICE; Postal Affairs. Book-post established in England, 
 1855. Money-order office established 1792 ; little used until 1840, but 
 very largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government 
 and run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued 
 October 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to 
 depositors) established 1861 ; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, 
 £23,157,469 18s. lOd. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, 
 Switzerland, January 27, 1874, and signed a convention, October 9, for a 
 universal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 2^ pence, or 5 cents 
 for each half-oimce letter rate ; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for 
 each newspaper rate, etc. In the United States Post-office Department : 
 Postage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth 
 $19,718,708.75; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, 
 worth $4,359,907.04; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723.- 
 50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, 
 17,682,665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- 
 pers, 15,690,155, worth $429,110.93. Total number'of these issues, 1,049,- 
 797,507, worth $26,953,421.72. 
 
 PRAYER-GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry 
 Thompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should 
 be chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, 
 as compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to 
 heal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on this 
 suggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. 
 
 PREHISTORIC MA.N. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned 
 20,000 years old human bones found in Florida 30, 000 years old. Recent 
 
46 THE "world's progress. 
 
 discoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Pertlies, near Abbeville, 1836, 
 and similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, 
 have led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd 
 on the earth for many ages. The prehistoric period has been divided 
 into the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock's " Prehistoric 
 Times" (1865), Dawkins's " Cave-Hunting," Evans's "Ancient Stone Im- 
 plements " (1872), etc. An International Congress of Prehistoric Archae- 
 ology meets anniTally and publishes transactions. 
 
 PRE-RAPHAELITES. A. school of painters that arose in England about 
 1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their j)eculiarity was a 
 purpose to pursue real art by representing nature as they saw it, instead 
 of following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art 
 has on the whole been good. 
 
 PRmTINa- PRESS. (See p. 164.) The Walter press, an English inven- 
 tion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 copies per hour 
 of a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50,000 
 such copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several 
 machines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some 
 of them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. A Gaston 
 •celebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth 
 centennial of establishment of his press in England, at London, July, 
 1877. 
 
 PRUSSIA. (See pp. 165, 549.) North German Confederation (see Ger- 
 many), formed August 1, 1866. King refuses to receive the French 
 minister Benedetti in consequence of imjaroper demands, July 13, 1870; 
 French declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19 ; first hostilities 
 at Niederbronn, July 26 ; first battle at Saarbriick, July 30 (for events of 
 the war see Ghronological Tables) ; capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- 
 hon's army at Sedan, September 2, 1870 ; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, 
 October 27 ; Paris capitulates, January 88, 1871 ; treaty of peace signed, 
 February 26 ; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany at Ver- 
 sailles, January 18 ; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. 
 Prussian nationality and administration remain substantially intact, while 
 it is a member of the new empire of Germany. 
 
 PURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy 
 CouncU was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the 
 ritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law " by 
 wearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; 
 by using wine mixed with water, and wafer-bread in the administration 
 of the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between 
 the communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer. " 
 He was held to pay costs. 
 
 PUSETISM. (See Bitualism ;■ also Tractarianism^ p. 191.) 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A: 
 B. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent 
 islands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. 
 Population of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, 
 Chinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area about 678,600 square miles, or 
 one-fifth as much as aU Europe. 
 
1867-77. 47 
 
 E. 
 
 RADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, 
 hung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- 
 vented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, 
 and this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical 
 action of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the 
 motion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the 
 approximate vacuum. 
 
 BAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 167.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged 
 Schools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted from rates, 
 1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- 
 cing these. 
 
 RAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over 
 the whole length of the Mount Cenis Railway, 48 miles. This road 
 crosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. 
 
 Railways in the world, end of 1876 : 
 
 Africa miles, 1,451 1 Europe miles, 88,745 
 
 Asia " 7,643 I North America " 79,519 
 
 Australia " 1,752 South America " 3,701 
 
 Central Am. and W. Indies . " 559 [ 
 
 Total 183,370 
 
 Another authority makes this total 194,836. 
 
 Of the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another 
 authority says 77,470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 377. About one- 
 fourth the railroads built in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. ' 
 Steam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in 
 the spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- 
 ment ; bill passed, 344 to 35, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway 
 built as a tram-way for horse-power, at Festiniog, in Wales, 1832 ; loco- 
 motives used on it, 1863. 
 
 RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish day mail express 
 train ran into a freight train with petroleum near Abergele, in Wales, and 
 the oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned 
 alive in the cars, having (apparently) been smothered in the smoke, as not 
 a scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21, 1870, by the 
 collision of two traius on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- 
 land, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or 
 50 more or less injured. December 29, 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on 
 the Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persons 
 burned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on 
 railroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. 
 
 RATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man's tools because he opposes 
 trades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much 
 of it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, 
 June and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 1865, the 
 Southern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political 
 affairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the 
 Union ovei President Johnson's veto, on condition that the State should 
 
48 THE world's progress. 
 
 never deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in like 
 manner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 G-eorgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite 
 in consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President 
 Johnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except 
 . those actually under indictment for treason-felony.. During President 
 Grant's administration, the Republican State governments, in Louisiana 
 and South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- 
 dent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States at once 
 passed under democratic administrations. 
 
 RED RIVER. (See Manitoba.) 
 
 RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD. Estimating the population of the world 
 at 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of 
 numbers : 1. Pagans ; 2. Christians ; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists 
 not counted ; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes 
 are estimated as follows : 
 
 I, viz. : 
 
 Buddhists 455,000,000 
 
 Others 425,600,000 880,600,000 
 
 Christiana, viz. : 
 
 Roman Catholics 201,200,000 
 
 Protestants 106,300,000 
 
 Eastern Churches 81,900,000 389,400,000 
 
 Mohammedans (some say 165 millions) 100,000,000 
 
 Jews 7,000,000 
 
 1,377,000,000 
 
 REPUBLICAN PARTY. The following table of the popular and electoral 
 votes for President will show the numerical history of the Republican 
 party, 1856-1876 : 
 
 Popular 
 Vote. 
 
 1856. Buchanan 1,838,169 
 
 Fremont 1,341,264 
 
 Fillmore 874,534 
 
 1860. Lincoln 1,866,352 
 
 Douglas 1,375,157 
 
 Breckenridge 845,763 
 
 Bell 589,581 
 
 1864. Lincoln 2,216,067 
 
 McClellan 1,808,725 
 
 1865. Grant 3,015,071 
 
 Seymour 2,709,613 
 
 Electoral 
 
 
 
 Popular 
 
 Electoral 
 
 Vote. 
 
 
 
 Vote. 
 
 Vote. 
 
 174 
 
 1872 
 
 Grant 
 
 ....3,5tl7,070 
 
 136 
 
 114 
 
 
 Greeley (died 
 
 be- 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 fore the electoral 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 vote) 
 
 ...2,834,079 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 72 
 
 Brown 
 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 1876. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 212 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 Hayes 
 
 ...4,033,295 
 
 185 
 
 214 
 
 
 Tiklen 
 
 ....4,284,265 
 
 184 
 
 71 
 
 
 Cooper 
 
 .... 81,737 
 
 
 
 
 
 Smith 
 
 9,522 
 
 
 
 By this table the successive proportions between the Republican party 
 and its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as 
 follows : 1856, 13 to 18 ; 1860, 18 to 13 ; 1864, 22 to 18 ; 1868, 80 to 27 ; 
 1872, 35 to 28 ; 1876, 40 to 43 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- 
 ular vote). 
 
 REPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, 
 recommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that 
 ' ' it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent, interest now 
 paid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- 
 pal in semi-annual instalments," In reply, the House of RepresentativeB 
 voted by 1 54 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were 
 
1867-77. 49 
 
 odious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed 
 would be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia, North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 
 ana, Texas, Arkansas and Teimessee, do not pay the interest on their 
 debts. Some of them, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less 
 of the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and Illi- 
 nois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about 
 $39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and 
 the authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the 
 debt, at three and six per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- 
 clined, but offered to accept half ; but nothing was done. The whole debt 
 of South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this 
 year a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating 
 half of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, 
 even at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on 
 account of public debt until times shaU be better, July 9, 1876. Pejm- 
 sylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only 
 pretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards 
 made in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French 
 spoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by 
 France for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the 
 claims. 
 
 RESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the 
 Government of the United States is to resume specie payment January 
 1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to not-ndthstanding vio- 
 lent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which 
 efforts are in more or less- close connection with the attempt to keep up or 
 enlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- 
 deemable. 
 
 REVENUE. Revenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years 
 1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue 
 are not specified, though included in " total.") 
 
 Customs. Intern. Rev. Total. Expenditures. 
 
 1867 . $176,417,810.88 $266,0'27,537.43 $462,846,679.93 $346,729,S24.7& 
 
 1868 164,464.599.56 191,087,589.41 376.434,453.82 370,339,133.83 
 
 1869' .. 180,048,426.63 158,856.460.86 357,188,255.64 321,190,597.75 
 
 1870 194,538,374.44 184.899,756.49 395,959.833.87 293,657,C05.70 
 
 1871 .... 206,270,408.05 143,098,153.63 374,431,104.94. 283.160,393.51 
 
 1872 216,370,286.77 130.642.177.72 364,694,229.91 270,559.695,91 
 
 1873 188,089,522.70 113,729,314.14 322,177,673.78 285,239,.325.34 
 
 1874 .... 163,103,833.69 102,409,784.90 299,941,090.84 285,738,800.21 
 
 1875 . 157,167.722,35 110,007,493.58 284,020,771.41....'... 272,693,573,84 
 
 1876 148,071,984.61 116,700,732.03 288,758,493.36 258,459,797.10 
 
 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), 
 years 1868 to 1876, ending March 31 : 
 
 Bevenue. Expenditure. Revenue. Expenditure. 
 
 1873 £76,608,770 £70.714,448 
 
 1874 77.335,657 76'466.510 
 
 1875 74,921,873 74,328.040 
 
 1876 77.131,693 76,621,773 
 
 1868. £69.600,218 £71,236,242 
 
 1869 72,591,991 74,971,816 
 
 1870 75,434.252 68,864,752 
 
 1871 69,945,220 69,548.539 
 
 1872 74,708,314 71,490,020 
 
 REVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Rev. Mr. Keet, a 
 Wesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title ' ' Reverend " on the grave- 
 stone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial 
 in the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. 
 3 
 
60 THE world's progress. 
 
 Keet ; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July 01, 1875, 
 sustained the refusal ; but on appeal again, the Privy Council. January 21, 
 1876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- 
 tory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church of 
 England. 
 
 REVIVALS. Moody and Sankey's revival meetings in England, 1874-5. 
 In March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farevs^ell meet- 
 ing, July 12, 1875. In New York city,- February 7 to April 19, 1876 ; in 
 Boston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been 
 obtained. 
 
 RIOTS. (See pp. 170, 565.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- 
 ists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871 ; at White Haven, 
 April 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at 
 Greenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867 ; in November 
 following, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions ; Oct. 30, 
 1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious 
 riotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some 
 colHers convicted of assault ; mob only dispersed by being fired on, from 
 which 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, 
 187;;, much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix 
 Park to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots 
 break out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes. Fiftrious' 
 rioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- 
 bord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at 
 law, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1875. 
 
 RITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism 
 in the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874, to go into opera- 
 tion July 1, 1875. The Ridsdale case was the first under the act, in 
 which judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. 
 Ridsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and 
 Rev. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. 
 Arthur Tooth, vicar of St. James's at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully 
 commanded to desist from processions, tolKng the bell, singing certain 
 music, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was 
 on Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise 
 oificiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. For a 
 similar case before the act, see Purclias Case. 
 
 ROMANISM. (See pp. 171, 566; see also InfalUUlity ; Old Catholics ; 
 Vatican Council.) The "emancipation" of the Romanists has steadily 
 advanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- 
 lains to gaols, by act July, 1863; Justice Shee,^of the Queen's Bench, 
 (Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- 
 mation. O'Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec, 1868), was the first 
 Romanist in that office since 1688 ; the first Romanist master of arts 
 since the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 1871 ; 
 Ecclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, 1871. Meanwhile Romanist 
 bishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- 
 tion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the 
 State, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October^ 
 1871. In Germany, the " Falk laws," to subject ecclesiastical affairs to 
 a royal tribunal, passed May 11, 1873. and an obstmate though not noisy 
 struggle between the German Empire and the Romanist hierarchy sets in^ 
 
1867-77. 51 
 
 which is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, 
 and banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various offi- 
 cials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists tc 
 obtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not 
 thus far succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Biots. 
 
 ROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867. They march out, August 21, 1870. 
 Italian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870 ; united to kingdom of Italy along 
 with Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870, and the Pope's authority restricted to 
 the Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as fol- 
 lows : Out of 167,548 votes : for union, 133,681; against, 1,507; the rest 
 did not vote. The Pope has hitherto (1877) whoUy refused the restricted 
 sovereig-nty and guaranties offered him. 
 
 ROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this 
 name in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. 
 The Rosicrucians of the seventeenth century, however, were a hoax, im- 
 agined by one Andrete or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended 
 account of them, 1615. 
 
 EOUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- 
 edged by Turkey, December, 1861 ; Alexander Couza, hospodar; he 
 abdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by 
 Prince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of HohenzoUern-Sig- 
 maringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar 
 by the Sultan, October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and 
 title of king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer 
 of 1877. 
 
 RUSSIA. (See pp. 173, 569.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July 
 
 2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three 
 million) in two years, March 3, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation 
 of Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. 
 Circassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, 
 1866. Samarcand taken, May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- 
 koff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, 
 1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- 
 mercial panic from failure of Strousberg, November, 1875. Prosecution 
 of the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- 
 ruary 29, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- 
 ber 15, 1876 ; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter 
 Roumania ; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877 ; Gen. Gourkha, with a 
 strong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- 
 lel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only 
 an advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat . by Mukhtar 
 Pasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. 
 
 S. 
 
 SADOWA, or Koniggratz, in Bohemia. Decisive battle of the " Seven 
 Weeks' War," or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July 
 
 3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged ; the Austrians lost 174 guns, 
 40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided 
 the war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the 
 North German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative 
 independence of Hungary. 
 
5'2 THE world's progress. 
 
 ST. CRISPIN, Knights of. This trade union of boot and shoe making 
 operatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread 
 into other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- 
 bers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general 
 object of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. 
 
 SAN DOMINGO. (See p. 175.) Present name of the Spanish part of the 
 island of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. 
 Dominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of 
 President Boyer. Baez was President, 1849-1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; 
 Baez again, 1856-8 ; Valverde, March, 1858-May, 1861 ; reunion with 
 Spain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection against Spain, 
 August, 1861 ; insurgents generally defeated, but Spain renounces the 
 colony. May 5, 1865 ; Cabral President, September, 1865 ; Baez, Novem- 
 ber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867 ; San Domingo City nearly destroyed 
 by a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; 
 Ganier d'Aton, October, 1873 ; Gonzalez ; Baez, December 10, 1876. 
 Population estimated at about 250,000. 
 
 SAN JUAN Arbitration 'between Great Britain and the United States, 
 for ownership of the island, which coDimands the strait between British 
 Columbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of 
 Germany, October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British 
 troops left accordingly, November 22 following. 
 
 SAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent 
 since its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. 
 Government, nominally republican; but there is most frequently some 
 revolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000 to 
 600,000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. 
 
 SARAWAK. A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 
 miles along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 
 population. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Enghshman, 
 1841-1868. 
 
 SAVINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 176, 575.) Deposits in savings-banks of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, 1872, £40,088,348. For English postal savings, see 
 Post- Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New 
 Jersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5, deposits 
 amounting to $810,096,745, of which the bankers of New York held over 
 $303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. 
 
 SCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation 
 of the river made free. 
 
 SEAMEN. On Mr. S. PlimsoU's motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- 
 gate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, 
 1873 ; reported July 2, 1874 ; a merchant shipping survey biU rejected, 
 June 24, 1874 ; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; 
 an act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy 
 ships, August 13, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15, 1876. 
 
 SECULARISM. A non-Christian, free-thinking system, " seeking morality 
 in nature, and happiness in duty," and claiming to be " not against Chris- 
 tianity, but independent of it." Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- 
 yoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number oi 
 secularists are to he found in the United States. 
 
1867-77. 53 
 
 SEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old times, on 
 the Meuse, in the north-east of France, and the seat of a little principal- 
 ity held by the Diikes of Bouillon, ■who were Priaces of Sedan. Ceded to 
 the French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- 
 vocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Here was taken, destroyed, or 
 surrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French. 
 Army of the North, 150,000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in. com- 
 mand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitraUleuses, 400 field- 
 pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 
 
 SERVIA. (See p. 178.) Alexander Karageorgevitch (i. &., son of Black 
 George), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and MUosch Obrenovitch (re- 
 elected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858 ; succeeded by his son, 
 Michael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860 ; movement begins about this 
 time for independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha 
 bombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862 ; on a conference of the powers, 
 at Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions to S%rvia, October, 1862. 
 On further demand.s by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn ; Prince Mi- 
 chael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- 
 ceeds ; war against Turkey breaks out, July, 1876 ; complete subjection 
 of Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November 
 1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by 
 census December 31, 1874, 1,352,523. 
 
 SHEFFIELD, England, An abominable practice of persecution by " rat- 
 tening," or stealing tools, and other outrages, and even, in several in- 
 stances, by murder and attempts to murder, at Sheffield and Manchester, 
 all reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- 
 nents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary coraniission, June 
 and July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- 
 tary to the Saw-Grinders' Union, who planned these proceedings and paid 
 for them. 
 
 SHIPPING. (See also Names.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britata 
 and Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875 : 
 
 Men 
 Vessels. Tonnage. employed. 
 
 SaU 17,221 4,044,504 126,240 
 
 Steam.... 2,970 1,847,188 73,427 
 
 20,191 5,891,692 199,687 
 
 On June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as foUows : 
 
 Vessels, Tonnage. 
 
 Sail 17,226 2,257,154,23 
 
 Steam 3,958 1,116,425,42 
 
 Unrigged (barges, etc) 7,803 890,858,07 
 
 Canal-boats, etc 2,936 331,445,74 
 
 31,923 4,595,883,46 
 
 June, 1876, the total tonnage was 4,853,753. 
 
 SHIPWRECKS. (See Wrecks.) 
 
 SIAMESE TWINS. (See p. 181.) . They were exhibited a second time in 
 London, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two 
 hours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there 
 was an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems 
 through the band that connected them. 
 
54 THE world's progeess. 
 
 SILKWORM. (See p. 585.) In 1856 the French silk crop, which should 
 have been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value 
 by the destruction of the silk-worms, which were killed off by a sort of 
 epizootic called pebrine, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- 
 vestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by 
 Pasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. 
 
 SILVER. (See pp. 181,585. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in 
 the United States, 1848-1873, $156,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- 
 duced $40,478,369 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. 
 In 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which 
 time the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, 
 with a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more 
 a merchandise than a currency, except for small change. 
 
 SINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1873. 
 SINAITIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bible.) 
 
 SKOPTZI, OR White Doves. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prac- 
 tice- emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. 
 
 SLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from 
 July, 1863 ; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty 
 with England, June 5, 1873 ; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several 
 chiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Gov. Strahan, December 
 17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. 
 
 SLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
 cludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, 
 and Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, 
 as follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 5,940,- 
 539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830; 
 Czechs (^•. e., Bohemians), 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162 ; total, 90,365,633. 
 A so-called "Pan-Slavist " movement has of late years been set on foot, 
 with rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at 
 Moscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study 
 within fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the 
 English Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at 
 Birmingham, October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions 
 has been published. The American Social Science Association, whose 
 headquarters are at Boston, Mass., has issued, besides a tract on emigra- 
 tion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning 
 with June, 1869. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and 
 debate is had. 
 
 SOONGARIA. (See Dzoungaria.) 
 
 SOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elainore on all ships passing the 
 Sound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no 
 longer, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation, 
 
 SPAIN. (See pp. 184, 591.) The Government, since 1867, has changed as 
 foUows: Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868; Provisional 
 Republican government established; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869; 
 Queen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870 ; crown declined by Leopold 
 of HohenzoUem-Sigmaringen, July 4 ; Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen 
 king November 16, 1870 ; abdicating, a republican government restored, 
 
1867-77. 56 
 
 1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874 ; Alfonso XII. , son of Queen Isa- 
 bella, king, 1875 ; the present constitution proclaimed June 30, 1876. 
 An attempt by Don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII. , to obtain the 
 throne ; he enters Spain, May, 1873, and maintains hostilities with more 
 or less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1876, 
 when, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to ths 
 Governor of Bayonne, February 27, 1876. Don Carlos (bom 1848), is son 
 of Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI. , 
 who was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. 
 renounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos 
 therefore claims under Carlos V. 
 
 SPECIE PAYMENT. (See Besumption.) 
 
 SPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Earchhoff and Bunsen, 
 1861 ; siace variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examiaation 
 of light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- 
 coveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the sub- 
 stances composing the sun, some nebulse, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and 
 also in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, 
 CEesium and rubidium. 
 
 SPELLING REFORM. The Spelling Reform Association was organized in 
 Philadelphia, August 17, 1876, for " the simplification of English ortho- 
 graphy." President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. ; Cor- 
 responding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Femwood, Pa. Efforts in the same 
 direction have for some years been made in England. 
 
 SPIRITUALISM, OR SPIRITISM. The so-called " spiritual manifesta- 
 tions " began at Rochester, New York, about 1848; about 1851 much 
 attention was given in England to the raps, " table -tumiag," etc. Some 
 time afterwards a little machine called "Planchefcte" was a leading 
 topic of interest. Various sorts of "test-mediums" and "manifesta- 
 tions" have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent 
 spiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. 
 The " Spiritual Magazine," London, began January, 1860; the " Spirit- 
 ualist," November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some 
 of the "manifestations," but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been 
 demonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. 
 
 STADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing 
 Stade. Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished, 1861, for a sum 
 of £3,000,000. 
 
 STANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by 
 weight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper ; standard silver, 37 of 
 silver to 3 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold 
 was 15^ of silver equal to one of gold by weight. 
 
 ?5TEF;L. Bessemer's process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in 
 Germany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad 
 rails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. 
 
 STORM SIGNALS. (See Meteorology.) 
 STORMS. (See Cyclones ; Hurricanes.) 
 
 STRASBURG, Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870 ; surrendered 
 by Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The 
 
66 THE worlt'j progress. 
 
 ancient and very valuable library was destroyed during tbe siege, and 
 the cathedral much injured. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS, Steam on. (See Railways.) 
 
 STRIKES. (See page 186 ; see also <5t Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by 
 workmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the 
 history of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history 
 of strikes, which have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great 
 Britain and the United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of 
 Buckinghamshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of 
 success. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton 
 Railway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a 
 compromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) 
 Northeastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- 
 work to some of them— in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April 
 28, the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returned 
 to work on the employers' terms after a number of months. In a trial 
 arising from this strike the practice of ' ' picketing " or watching for, fol- 
 lowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. SeiDtember, 1868, the 
 London cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so-called 
 "privileged " cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. 
 The strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- 
 der's great iron and steel Vorks, at Creuzot, in France, struck in conse- 
 quence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome 
 workman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, 
 16,000 work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could 
 restore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already 
 taken place at MarseUles, Perpignan, and other places in the south of 
 France. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, 
 Edinburgh, G-lasgow, and Belfast, and some other post-offices struck by 
 arrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certain 
 clerks for joining a " protective association." The strikers were mostly 
 reinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. 
 October 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other 
 workmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, 
 ended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- 
 maining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers 
 for nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- 
 tained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent 
 others from taking their places. At one time during this year were on 
 strike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the colliers of Northumber- 
 land, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-workers of North Staf- 
 fordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- 
 makers of the potteries. The New York strike, in 1872, for the 
 eight-hour working- day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1878, 
 60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent, reduction in wages. 
 Many strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, as wages began 
 to be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. Aprij 
 12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the 
 mill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but 
 ultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. 
 February 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railroad, be- 
 longing to a general " Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers," presided 
 over by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were 
 
1867-77. 57 
 
 not taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report 
 of the Massachiisetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- 
 ing penal statutes against such action in future, was published February 
 21, 1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar 
 cases, pretty much broke the power of the "Brotherhood." Extensive 
 series of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- 
 ning at Martinsburg, in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- 
 road, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws 
 and criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various 
 kinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and 
 the trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast 
 amounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and 
 communication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were 
 blocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the 
 United States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- 
 ment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act 
 of Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, 
 but its usefulness "was only temporary. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL. (See p, 186.) Work commenced 1858. First ship goes 
 through, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. 
 £4,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England 
 of the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- 
 nounced, November 26, 1875. 
 
 SUICIDES. (See p. 602.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in 
 ten years : 
 
 1865 1,397 
 
 1866 1,360 
 
 1S67 1,356 
 
 1868 1,546 
 
 1869 1,562 
 
 1870 1,517 
 
 1871 1,464 
 
 1872 1,455 
 
 1873 1,481 
 
 1874 1,549 
 
 SUN. (See p. 603.) Cycle of changes in number of sun's spots fixed at 
 11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun 
 during an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18, 
 1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to 
 line 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the 
 spectroscope to exist in the sun : Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, 
 cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, 
 manganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc — all fused 
 into a liquid or even vaporous state. 
 
 SUNDAY ; StWDAT Laws. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural 
 religion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, 
 and others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry 
 (case of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an 
 infraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Publin 
 Library Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- 
 position, February, 1873. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. (See pp. 189, 604.) Religious toleration to 
 some extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- 
 vailed), 1860. New constitution, December, 1864. Charles XV. dies 
 Sept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, 
 Dec. 31, 1875, 4,383,391, and Norway 1,817,237. 
 
 SWIMMING DRESS, Boyton's. (See Life- Saving.) 
 3* 
 
58 THE world's peogress. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. (See pp. 189, 606.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, 
 January 16, 1873. Revised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874! 
 Swiss National Catholic Church ("Old Catholic") established June, 1874 
 Civil marriage law adopted. May 33, 1875. Population, 1870, 3,669,147. 
 
 SYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let- 
 ter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modem 
 philosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, 
 1870. 
 
 TALMUD. (See p. 609.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, 
 and parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de 
 Sola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- 
 don, 1847. 
 
 TAXES. (See pp. 189, 610; ^\so Revenue ; National Debt ; etc.) National, 
 State, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- 
 000,000 a'year, or about $19.00 for each soul. 
 
 TEA. (See pp. 189, 610.) Importation into the United States, and value, 
 1869-1876 : 
 
 Lhs. Value. 
 
 1869 39,141,755 $13,687,750 
 
 1870 40,813,188 13,871,546 
 
 1871 46,972,787 17,254,617 
 
 1872 56,974,100 22,943,575 
 
 1873 57,870,700 24,466,170 
 
 1874 49,831,800 21,112,234 
 
 1875 64,856,899 22,673,703 
 
 1876 62,887,153 19,524,166 
 
 Imported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 lbs. ; worth £13,766,961. 
 
 TELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English 
 telegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years' proJSts for the 
 property. The companies claimed £7,035,977; on a valuation this sum 
 ' was reduced to £5,715,047, of which the profit item was £5,330,109. 
 £700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and 
 some other items carried the whole government expenditure to about 
 £6,750,000, or $33,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, 
 annual revenue expected, £673,838; expenses, £359,484; net profit, 
 £314,354; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent, interest on 
 the government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- 
 plus of £77,000 or £44,000, as the case might be. The result, however, 
 has been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at 
 9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- 
 rachee, in India, at 13.43 in the morning of the next day. 
 
 TELEPHONE. Bell's, Gray's, and Edison's telephones were brought before 
 the public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- 
 man, about 18G3. Bell's operates by means of talking and listening into 
 a "funnel" or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which 
 vibrates over an electro -magnet in an electric circuit. Gray's acts by the 
 vibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound 
 along an electric circuit. 
 
 TELESCOPE. ' (See p. 611.) Lord Rosse's great telescope, fifty-two feet 
 long, seven feet diameter, erected 1838-45, cost over £30,000. Newall'a 
 telescope, with object-glass 35 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- 
 land, 1870. 
 
1867-77. 59 
 
 TEITORE OF OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit the 
 power of President Johnson. It required the consent of tbe Senate to re- 
 move as well as to appoint officials. 
 
 THOMASSEN. (^qq Explosions.) 
 
 TICHBORNE CASE. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of 
 the Tichborne estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichbome, was asserted 
 by the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. 
 After occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, 
 spoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and 
 forgery ; trial began April 23, 1872 ; verdict of perjury, February 28, 
 1874. Longest trial known in England ; sentence fourteen years at hard 
 labor. 
 
 TICKET OP LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to 
 behave well. 3,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 
 the system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many 
 crimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude 
 Act, 1864. 
 
 TORPEDO. For submarine warfare, invented by David BushneU, of Say- 
 brook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfuUy, except that it 
 greatly frightened them, 1777 ; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedo 
 departments have, since the introduction of iron-clad war-ships, been in- 
 troduced into all navy organizations. 
 
 TRADES-UNIONS. (See Battening; Strikes.) National Federation of 
 Employers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions. Parliamen- 
 tary report on perseciitions by the Saw-Grinders' Union of Sheffield, and 
 similar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in 
 New York City in 1869 had 24,425 members ; in 1876 many of them had 
 been discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole 
 number in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which 
 eleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. The * 
 fifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at 
 Leeds, January 13, 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- 
 ties, one of which contained 140,000 members. 
 
 TREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act of 1848, to certain 
 treasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or 
 transportation. The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. 
 
 TRIALS. (See pp. 191, 623; also Tichborne Case; Ritualism, and Purchas 
 Case.) Saurin v. Starr, *' the convent case," by an ex-inmate of a Roman 
 Catholic convent at Hull, England, against the Superior and others, for 
 conspiracy, etc. , occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1889. The 
 plaintiff recovered £500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen, Wales, the 
 " Welsh Fasting Girl Case." The girl's parents, Evan and Hannah 
 Jacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived 
 for months without food ; and when some competent persons were sent 
 from Gray's Hospital to watch the chQd, the parents let her die. They 
 were convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and 
 the mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, 
 a " ritualist," incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended 
 for three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- 
 obeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and 
 prostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, 
 
60 THE world's progress. 
 
 the case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, re- 
 sulted in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt's insanity. 
 The Prince of Wales had been reported concerned in the scandal, but 
 denied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curious 
 libel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth 
 is flat and not round, had bet £500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, 
 and the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding 
 the bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sending 
 about libellous postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial 
 he made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment 
 was given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey 
 case, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining 
 and teaching various alleged infidel doctrines. The tribunal found that 
 he contradicted and impugned the thirty -nine articles in respect to original 
 sin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, 
 and other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. 
 By final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years' litigation, 
 obtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. 
 
 TRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other 
 animals ; transferred into those who eat the infected meat, and causes a 
 disease, sometimes fatal, called trichiniasis. First found in human mus- 
 cle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the 
 subject, 1865-6. 
 
 TROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-3, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- 
 mains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- 
 cient treasure, part of which he called the "treasure of Priam." He be- 
 lieved the site to be that of ancient Troy ; his book translated and pub- 
 lished in English, 1875. 
 
 TUNNEL. Mont Cenis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long ; began 
 August 31, 1857 ; boring completed, December 25, 1870 ; cost about 
 $13,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- 
 lais, proposed, August, 1869, by Bateman and Revy ; plans by Thome de 
 Gamond shown in Paris, 1807 ; a convention in favor of it signed for 
 France by M. Chevalier, January, 1875, and a thirty years' monopoly 
 granted ; French and English companies formed ; experimental borings 
 in the chalk at the sides of the channel iadicate that the rock is such as 
 to make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- 
 tain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856 ; completed, 1873 ; four and 
 three-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode 
 and other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000 ; to be 21,- 
 178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 43,088 feet. 
 
 TURKEY. (See pp. 192, 626.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, 
 extending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. The " An- 
 drassy note," suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan's 
 Government by the Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian, and Russian am- 
 bassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises 
 religious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- 
 ing them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- 
 govina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, 
 1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, 
 risings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- 
 rages. Consuls of Prance and Germany assassinated at Salonica, by Mo- 
 
1867-77. 
 
 61 
 
 hammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the " Berlin memo- 
 randum," agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- 
 ing prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the 
 Andrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was 
 dropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas 
 (students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- 
 throned by his ministers, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have 
 committed suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made 
 Sultan, May 30fch ; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by his 
 younger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12, 1876, Prince Milan of Servia 
 proclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under 
 arms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish 
 army, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of 
 War and of Foreign Aifairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- 
 fore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of 
 Servia and Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, 
 July 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the 
 public debt " until the internal affairs of the empire have become more 
 settled," July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at 
 Alexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- 
 tors. Mr. Gladstone's powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, 
 published September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia 
 granted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. 
 Conferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun 
 December 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France, 
 Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- 
 tatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 2.4, 1876, in 
 order to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. 
 
 U. 
 
 UNITED STATES. (See pp. 193, 631 ; also Centennial, etc.; Chronologieal 
 Tables, p. 205, etc.) In 1870 there were in the United States, 3,603,844 
 square miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lauds, and less than 
 one-tenth of it cultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38,558,371 ; 
 estimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000; expected at census of 1880 to be 
 fifty millions. Value of aU real and personal property (1870), $30,068- 
 518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,562; in prison, June 
 1, 1870, 32,901 ; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- 
 fices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc. , in German ones, June, 1876 : 
 
 Professors 
 
 Students. 
 611 
 
 2,925 
 401 
 
 1,203 
 431 
 153 
 677 
 823 
 984 
 
 
 and Teachers. 
 
 Students. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 197 
 
 2,143 
 
 Bonn 
 
 100 
 
 707 
 
 
 107 
 
 1,116 
 
 Brlangen . . 
 
 54 
 
 429 
 
 Freiburg. .. 
 
 k59 ... 
 
 274 
 
 Griessen .... 
 
 54 
 
 315 
 
 GWttingen . 
 
 115 
 
 986 
 
 GreLfswald . 
 
 57 
 
 444 
 
 HaUe 
 
 96 
 
 870 
 
 Heidelberg. 
 
 104 
 
 488 
 
 Jena 
 
 73 
 
 440 
 
 Kiel 
 
 61 
 
 202 
 
 Professors 
 and Teachers. 
 
 Konigsberg 83 
 
 Leipzig 156 
 
 Marburg 65 
 
 Munich, 116 
 
 Miinster 29 
 
 Rostock 39 
 
 Strassburg 90 
 
 Tubingen 84 
 
 Wurzburg 67 
 
 21 
 
 1,800 
 
 16,62S 
 
62 THE world's progress. 
 
 Add to these 3,377 unmatriculated, "permitted to attend lectures" (of 
 which 1,963 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 students; 14 universi- 
 ties are Protestant ; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- 
 burg, Munich, Miinster, and Wiirzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and 
 TiibingeTi. 
 
 VATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first (Ecumenical or General 
 Council, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868 ; met at 
 Rome, December 8, 1869; present, 803 members; there were four public 
 sessions, and from 90 to 100 " congregations." New canons issued April 
 34, 1870; the infaUibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 3, and the 
 doctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. 
 
 VEDAS. Hindoo sacred boobs, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. 
 There are three laortions of them — -the Rig- Veda, Yajur- Veda, and Atharva- 
 Veda — the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years 
 B.C. Max Miiller's edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849 ; Wilson's 
 translation, 1850. 
 
 VELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the aeronaut, about 1779 ; 
 one hj Niepce, 1818 ; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) 
 more or less employed. 
 
 VENDOME COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists. May 16, 1871; 
 restored August 31, 1874 ; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, 
 
 1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for 
 his participation in overturning it. 
 
 VENEZUELA. (See p. 684.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18,1865; Mo- 
 nagas, June to November, 1865 ; Pulgar, December, 1865 ; Blanco, July, 
 1870, and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on 
 civil marriage ; papal authority renounced by the government, September, 
 
 1876. Area about 403,361 square miles ; population (1873), 1,784,194. 
 VENUS, Transit op. (See Astronomy.) 
 
 VESUVIUS. (See pp. 194, 636.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- 
 mer, 1860; December, 1861; February, 1865 ; November 13, 1867 to 
 April, 1868 ; October 8 to November 30, 1869; April 33 to May 3, 1873. 
 
 VICTORIA, IN Australia. (See p. 194.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- 
 tion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 839,834. 
 
 VISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which 
 each letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. 
 Invented by A. M. Bell ; explained by him, and a book on it published, 
 London, 1866 ; introduced in America by him and his son, J. Gr. Bell, 
 the inventor of a telephone, about 1873. 
 
 VIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859 ; gener- 
 ally opposed by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate 
 it in Great Britain, August 15, 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGES. (See pp, 196, 640; ol^o Strikes, Trades-Unions.) In New York, 
 from 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty-eight trades fell from 10 to 30 per cent. 
 
1867-77. 63 
 
 In England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly 
 total of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866, estimated at from £250,- 
 000,000 to £418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between 
 20 and 60 years of age. 
 
 WAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; 
 arose in Arabia about 1750 ; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina ; were 
 defeated by Egyptian forces 1818 ; are at present prosperous in Arabia, 
 and there are some of them in India. Palgrave's Journey in Arabia, 1865, 
 is a good account of them. 
 
 WAR. (See pp. 196, 643 ; also Army ; Battles; Navy ; Natmtal Debt ; etc.) 
 An estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses 
 in- one quarter-century of Christian war. 
 
 Crimean war $1,700,000,000 
 
 ItaUan war (1859) 300.000,000 
 
 IT. S. rebellion (Noi-th) 4,700,000,000 
 
 IT. S. rebellion (South) a.300,000,000 
 
 ScWeswig-Holsteia war. . . . 35,000,000 
 
 And deaths (not complete). 
 
 Crimean war 475,000 
 
 Italian war 1S59 45,000 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein war 3,000 
 
 U. S. rebellion 800,000 
 
 Austro-Pnissian war (1866) 330,000,000 
 
 Franco-Prussian 2,500.000,000 
 
 Other wars, etc 200, 000, 000 
 
 Total cost $13,065,000,000 
 
 AuBtro-Prnssian war of 1866 45,000 
 
 Franco-Prussian war 215,000 
 
 Total deaths 1,183,000 
 
 These deaths are nearly all of the strongest young men, from 25 to 35 
 years old. 
 
 WATCHES. (See p. 646 ; also Gheks and Watches.) 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190° B. 
 longitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is 
 not more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31, 1870, in- 
 cluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called 
 the Swan River Settlement. 
 
 WOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under 
 the Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, 
 August 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German liae and 
 broken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. 
 
 WRECKS. (See pp. 198, 658; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- 
 ties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total 
 wrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in 
 1871, on British coast, 4,336. 
 
 YACHT. (See p. 199.) July 4, 1870, an " international " yacht race was 
 begun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria an.d 
 the American one Dauntless. The Cambria won, arriving at 4 P. M. of 
 July 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours 
 later. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- 
 national yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts 
 of the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York, 
 won four out of the first five races, deciding the match. 
 
64 THE wobld's peogkess. 
 
 ZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son of tlie Seyyid 
 (lord) of Muscat. At Majid's death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, Ms 
 brother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, 
 1873. 
 
 ZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be 
 only three out of the original twenty-one nosks-or books. It consists of 
 hymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three 
 parts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yagnas. The five Gathas or hymns 
 in the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- 
 ful, though in part unquestionably great. AnquetU Duperron's French 
 version, 1771 ; Burnouf's, 1829-43 ; Spiegel's, in German, a later one, is 
 the best ; and an English version of this by Bleeck was published at 
 Hertford, England, 18G4, 
 
BUREAU OF STATISTICS, U. 8. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 [Few the following statistics wa are indelated to the courtesy of Hon. Alexandbe Delb.mi 
 Director of the Bureau.] 
 
 CUSTOMS iDuTiES Eeceited in 1866. 
 
 * During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,59'7.83 
 
 * " " June SO, " 46,1'75,132.33 
 
 * '« " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 
 
 f '« " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.54 
 
 $181,467,531.94 
 ♦ Official. t Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867- 
 
 SHIPPING Statistics: Tonnage of the United States. 
 
 
 
 Begistered. 
 
 Enrolled and Licensed. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Steam. , 
 
 Tinnage. 
 
 1860, 
 
 2,448,941 
 
 97,296 
 
 2,030,990 
 
 770,641 
 
 5,353,868 
 
 1861, 
 
 2,540,020 
 
 102,608 
 
 2,122,589 
 
 774,596 
 
 5,539,813 
 
 1862, 
 
 2,177,253 
 
 113,998 
 
 2,224,449 
 
 596,465 
 
 5,112,165 
 
 1863, 
 
 1,892,899 
 
 133,215 
 
 2,660,212 
 
 439,755 
 
 5,126,081 
 
 1364, 
 
 1,475,376 
 
 106,519 
 
 2,550,690 
 
 853,816 
 
 4,986.401 
 
 1865, 5 old, 
 1865, 1 new, 
 
 1,031,465 
 
 60,539 
 
 1,794,372 
 
 630,411 
 
 3,516,787 
 
 , 482,110 
 
 28,469 
 
 730,695 
 
 388,720 
 
 1,579,994 
 
 1866, 5 old, 
 1866, 1 neW; 
 
 341,619 
 
 42,776 
 
 ■ 443,635 
 
 114,269 
 
 942,299 
 
 , 953,018 
 
 155,513 
 
 1,489,194 
 
 770,754 
 during the y< 
 
 3,368,479 
 
 EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York 
 
 ;ar ending 
 
 June 30, 1867 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 In Am. Vessels. 
 
 In For. Vessels 
 
 . In Am. Vesseli 
 
 r. In For. Vesseli 
 
 
 Gold Bullion,... 
 
 298,854 
 
 8,425,227 
 
 none. 
 
 none. 
 
 8,724,081 
 
 Gold Coin, . 
 
 1,500,041 
 
 15,800,152 
 
 1,183,580 
 
 1,418,853 
 
 19,902,62t 
 
 Silver Bullion,. 
 
 706,081 
 
 8,186,837 
 
 none. 
 
 18,939 
 
 8,911,857 
 
 Silver Coin, .... 
 
 248,978 
 2,753,954 
 
 1,581,753 
 33,993,969 
 
 307,181 
 
 1,521,062 
 2,958,854 
 
 3,658,974 
 
 Total, 
 
 1,490,761 
 
 41,197,538 
 
 COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consup,ption of coffee in the 
 United States during the years ending December 31, ".861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 
 1865, and 1866 : 
 
 Tear. Pounds. Tear. Pounds. 
 
 1861, 187,046,005 1864, 100,087,000 
 
 1862, 88,990,000 1«<65, 128,146,000 
 863, 79,720,000 1866, 169,915.840 
 
66 
 
 UKITED STATES TEEASURT STATISTICS, 
 
 See page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given 
 for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the 
 Ne~.i\ York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. 
 
 The quantity for 1866 is taken from the Sepplement to H. E. Morlug's Monthly 
 Coffee Circular, 1867. 
 
 COTTON Statistics. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 
 1860-61, 
 
 
 1861-62, 
 
 est. 
 
 1862-63, 
 
 est. 
 
 1863-64, 
 
 est. 
 
 1864-65, 
 
 est. 
 
 1865-66, 
 
 
 1866-67, 
 
 est. 
 
 Average Pries 
 per pound. 
 17.42 cents. 
 42.15 
 
 say 
 say 
 say 
 
 est. 
 
 71 08 
 $111.14 
 75.76 
 44. 
 32.5 
 
 Production, Exported. 
 
 Bales. Pounds 
 3,656,086 
 
 4,800,000 5,064,564 = say 
 
 1.500,000 11,384,986 — 
 
 '500,000 10,830,534 = 
 
 300,000 6,607,186 = 
 2,214,476 
 1,900,000 
 
 The figures relative to production, except for 186( 
 Noil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1^ 
 ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and 
 the totil exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & 
 Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 
 1867, as 1,809,500 bales. 
 
 The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance 
 Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 
 489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the 
 < "Sports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 3,126,622 
 
 12,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 15,000 
 1,554,744 
 1,500,000 
 
 5-67, were derived from 
 The receipts at all 
 
 .;!EA Statistics. 
 States during 
 and 1866 : 
 Tear. 
 
 Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United 
 the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 
 
 1861, 
 1862, 
 1863, 
 1864, 
 1865, 
 1866, 
 
 Oreen, Japan. Black. Total. 
 
 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 
 
 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00 ) 
 
 13,871,600 13,597,000 27,468,600 
 
 14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,365 
 
 13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 
 
 18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 
 
 29,643,187 
 
 See Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are 
 estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in 
 New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir- 
 cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 
 pounds. 
 
 The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any 
 allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one 
 pound per capita. 
 
 OBAC( 
 
 ^jO Statistics. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tear 
 
 Production. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 
 Average prict 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Leaf, pounds. 
 
 Manuf'd, lbs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 per lb., Leqf 
 
 1861, 
 
 est. 200,000,000 
 
 est. 160,000,000 
 
 14,783,363 
 
 174,783,363 
 
 9. centB. 
 
 1862, 
 
 136,736,596 
 
 est. 107,000,000 
 
 4,071,963 
 
 111,071,963 
 
 11.9 « 
 
 1863 
 
 276,850,870 
 
 est. 112,000,000 
 
 7,025,248 
 
 119,025,248 
 
 149 « 
 
 1864, 
 
 197,460,229 
 
 est. 110,000,OOC 
 
 8,586,494 
 
 118,586,494 
 
 14.85 '• 
 
 1865, 
 
 185,316,953 
 
 eat. 149,00O,a» 
 
 7,294,165 
 
 156,294,165 
 
 12.6 " 
 
 1A6R 
 
 «st 380.501,600 
 
 190,826.3« 
 
 6,515,709 
 
 197,341,957 
 
 13. " 
 
THE world's peogkess. 67 
 
 The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865 is given as found in the Re- 
 ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is 
 taken from the Tobacco Circular of lil. Eader & Son. 
 
 The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns ot 
 commerce a.nd navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The 
 quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, 
 are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. 
 
 In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and 
 the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, 
 and in 1866 all the States. 
 
 WHEAT Statistics. 
 Tears. 
 
 1861, 
 1862, 
 1883, 
 1864, 
 1865, 
 1866, 
 
 No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was 
 aaade at the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are 
 taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 
 and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 
 States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 
 and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which ia 
 believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels, i^ 
 barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. 
 
 s. 
 
 Production, 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Av. Price 
 
 per 6m 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 
 Flour, bbls. 
 
 at Kev) 
 
 TorTc 
 
 
 31,238,057 
 
 4,323,756 
 
 $1,18 to 
 
 $1.46 
 
 18fl,993,500 
 
 37,289,572 
 
 4,882,038 
 
 1.30 to 
 
 1.50 
 
 191,068,239 
 
 36,160,414 
 
 4,390,055 
 
 1.33 to 
 
 1.63 
 
 171,695,823 
 
 23,681,712 
 
 3,557,347 
 
 1.48 to 
 
 1.83 
 
 159,522,827 
 
 9,937,152 
 
 2,604,542 
 
 2.22 to 
 
 2.70 
 
 151,999,906 
 
 5,579,103 
 
 2,183,050 
 
 1.85 to 
 
 2.75 
 
 STATISTICS, TEARS 1867-77. 
 
 (From public documents and other standard sources.) 
 
 REVENUE of the Fnited States from customs for ten years (to June 30), 
 18G7-1876. 
 
 1872. $216,370,286.77 
 
 1873.. .............. 188,089,522.70 
 
 1874 163,103,833.69 
 
 1867 $176,417,810.88 
 
 1868 164,464,599.56 
 
 1869 180,048,426.63 
 
 1870 194,538,374. 44 
 
 1871. 206,270,408.05 
 
 187^ 157,167,722.35 
 
 1876. 148,071,984.61 
 
 For the first five months of the years ending June 30, 1877 and 1876, the 
 revenue from customs was as follows : 
 
 1877. 1876. Decrease. 
 
 $57,801,772.50 $68,170,576.48 $10,368,803.98 
 
 COIN AND BULLION exported from the United States for seven ye&rS| 
 1868-9 to 1874-5, ending June 30. 
 
 1868-9 $42,915,966 I 1873-3 $73,905,646 
 
 1869-^-70 43,881,861 1873-4..., 59,699,686 
 
 1870-1... 84.403,359 1874-6 83,857,129 
 
 1871-2 72,798,240 
 
68 
 
 UNITED STATES TBEASURY STATISTICS. 
 
 COTTON. Production and exports of TJnited States for nine years (ending 
 
 June 30), 1868 to 1876. 
 
 Production, hales tp,^^^„,^ai „„.. ^ 
 
 of 440 lbs Exported, pounds. 
 
 1868 2,593,993 784,763,633 
 
 1869... 2,439,039 644,327,921 
 
 1870 3,154,946 958,558,523 
 
 1871 4,352,317 1,462,928,024 
 
 1872 2,974,351 933,537,413 
 
 1873...... 3,930,608 1,200,063,530 
 
 1874.. 4,170,388 1,358,602,303 
 
 1875 3,832,991 1,260,418,903 
 
 1876 4,600,000 1,491,405,336 
 
 SHIPPING of the United States, 
 
 nine years, 1867-1875. 
 
 
 Beglstered {tons). 
 
 
 
 Total Merchant Marine (tons). 
 
 
 Enrolled 
 
 Licensed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Licensed. 
 
 20 tons. 
 
 Sail 
 
 Steam. 
 
 All. 
 
 1867 
 
 '' 1,187,714 
 
 165,622 
 
 2,563,232 
 
 41,047 
 
 2,834,535 
 
 1,122,980 
 
 3,957,515 
 
 1868 
 
 1,310,344 
 
 221,939 
 
 2,733,167 
 
 52,860 
 
 3,118,895 
 
 1,199,415 
 
 4,318,310 
 
 1869 
 
 1,353,170 
 
 213,252 
 
 2,526,093 
 
 62,126 
 
 3,041,073 
 
 1,103,568 
 
 4,144,641 
 
 1870 
 
 1,324.256 
 
 192,544 
 
 2,677,940 
 
 51,767 
 
 4,171;412 
 
 1,075,095 
 
 4,246,507 
 
 1871 
 
 1,244,228 
 
 180,914 
 
 2,805,274 
 
 62,191 
 
 3,194,970 
 
 1,087,637 
 
 4,282,607 
 
 1872 
 
 1,232,982 
 
 177,666 
 
 2,971,309 
 
 1 65,790 
 
 8,326,194 
 
 1,111,553 
 
 4,437,747 
 
 1873 
 
 1,229,865 
 
 193,423 
 
 3,215,915 
 
 66,824 
 
 6,539,584 
 
 1,156,443 
 
 4,696,027 
 
 1874 1,233,678 
 
 195,245 
 
 3,312,146 
 
 69.583 
 
 3,615,042 
 
 1,185,610 
 
 4,800,652 
 
 1875 1,362,138 
 
 191,689 
 
 3,238,390 
 
 61,515 
 
 3,685,064 
 
 1,168,668 
 
 4,853,732 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 1876. 
 
 Product and exportation of TJnited States, ten years, 1867- 
 
 I Production, lbs. 
 
 •1867............ 313,724,000 
 
 1868.... 320.982,000 
 
 1869... 273;775,000 
 
 .1870.... 250,628,600 
 
 1871 263,196,100 
 
 1872 342,304,000 
 
 1873 372,810,000 
 
 1874 178,355,000 
 
 1875 379,347,000 
 
 1876 
 
 Exported, Leaf, lbs. 
 
 181.537,630 
 185,747,181 
 215,667,604 
 234,936,893 
 213,995,176 
 318,097,804 
 223,901,713 
 218,310,265 
 
 WHEAT. Product and exportation of the United States, nine years, end 
 ing June 30, viz., 1867-1875 (in bushels). 
 
 I'roduction, 
 
 1867 212,441,400 
 
 1868 224,036,600 
 
 1869... 260,146,900 
 
 1870 -235,884,700 
 
 1871 230,722,400 
 
 1872 240,997,100 
 
 1873 280,372,700 
 
 1874 306,102,700 
 
 187'' 
 
 As Wheat. 
 6,146,411 
 16,940,899 
 17,557,836 
 36,584,115 
 34,304,906 
 26,423,080 
 39,204.285 
 71,039;928 
 63,047,175 
 
 Expoits. 
 
 As Flour. 
 6,500,530 
 10,382,115 
 12,129,365 
 57,273,926 
 18,269,205 
 12,572,675 
 12,810,430 
 20,470,470 
 19,765,430 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 
 
 1851 to 1867. 
 
 BBIS8 AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES DPEIHQ 
 THOSE TEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. 
 
 ABATTOIRS, slanghter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five 
 should be erected near Paris; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was 
 erected at Edinburgh in 1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London 
 metropolitan cattle-market, opened on June 13, 1855. In New York City 
 abattoirs were established under the direction of the Board of Health, 1866. 
 
 ABBASIDES. A Mohammedan dynasty ; held the power of the Caliphs for 400 
 years until 1258. The Caliph Haroun al Rashid was of this line. 
 
 ABECEDARIANS. A sect appearing in the sixteenth century ; held that it was 
 better not to know how to read, as the Holy Spirit would convey a direct un- 
 derstanding of the Scriptures. 
 
 ABSTINENCE, Total, from stimulating beverages: First temperance organi 
 zation in the United States is said to have been effected by Dr. B. J. Clark, of 
 Moreau, N. Y., 1808 ; " members fined fifty cents for intoxication ; " Ameri- 
 can Temperance Union formed in Boston in 1826; total abstinence from dis- 
 tilled spirits, except when prescribed as medicine, proposed at a meeting in 
 Philadelphia in 1833, but voted down. See Temperance. Tetotallers in Eng- 
 land organized in Lancashire, 1834. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. A large country in north-east Africa. Its ancient history is very 
 uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitee (from its chief town Auxume) flour- 
 ished in the first and second centuries after Christ. About 960 Judith, a 
 Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty 
 years. The young king escaped; and the royal house was restored in 1268 
 iu the person of his descendant, Icon An)lse. In the middle ages it was said 
 to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions com- 
 menced in the fifteenth century, but they, were expelled about 1632 in conse- 
 quence of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of 
 Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty gov- 
 ernments. The religion of Abyssinia is a corrupt form of Christianity intro- 
 duced in the fourth century by Trumentius. Missions were sent from Eng- 
 land in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been 
 given by Bruce, (1790,) Salt, (1805-9,) Ruppell, (1838,) and Parkyns, (1853). 
 
70 
 
 THE world's PEOGKESS. 
 
 ACADIA. Now called Nova Scotia, settled by the French ki 1604, and finally 
 ceded to the English in 1713. It was three times conquered by the English, 
 and as often restored by treaty. Expulsion of French settlers (see Longfel- 
 low's Evangeline) I'ZSS. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES were probably written by Luke, A. D. 62 to 68. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS or the United States.— (p. 205.) On the death of Pres. 
 ideut Taylor, July 9, 1850—* 
 
 Mii.Li.Ei) Fillmore, of New "York (Vice-President), became President. He appointed 
 
 soon after, the following Cabinet, viz. : 
 t.apiel Webster, Massachusetts, Secretary of State. 
 
 Thumas Corwin, Ohio, Secretary of Treasury 
 
 Ciil-rles M. Conrud, Louisiana, Secretary of War. 
 
 \^ .lliaro A. Graham, North Carolina, 8,ecretary of Navy. 
 
 A. 3. H. Stuart, Virginia, Secretary of Interior. 
 
 Nathan K. K^ll, New York, Postmaeter-GenersJ 
 
 5ohn J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attoi-ney-Genera_ 
 
 William B. King, Alabama, was elected President of the Senate, 
 
 and became Acting Vice-Pres't of U. S. 
 Howell Cobb, , Georgia, {continued in office)., | 
 
 Linn Boyd, ' Kentucky, December, 1851. J 
 
 era of H. Reps. 
 
 Fkanklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, inaugura.ed March 4, 185^^ President. 
 Vice-President — vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. E. King, April 18, 1853— 
 
 William L. Marcy, 
 James Guthrie, 
 Eobert M'Clelland, 
 James C. Dobbin, 
 Jefl'erson Davis, 
 James Campbell, 
 Caleb Cushing, 
 James L. Orr, 
 
 THE CABINET. 
 
 New York, 
 Kentucky, 
 Michigan, 
 North Carolina. 
 Mississippi, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Massachusetts, 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Secretary of Treasury. 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 Secretary of War. 
 Post Master-GeneraL 
 Attorney-Gen^■ral. 
 Speaker of H. Reps. 
 
 James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, inaugurated March 4, 1857, President. 
 John C. BrbckinjiIIDge, of Kentucky, Vice-President. 
 
 Lewis Cass, 
 
 J. S. Black, 
 
 Isaac Tonoey, 
 
 John B, Floyd, 
 
 Joseph Holt, 
 
 Howell Cobb, 
 
 Philip Thomas, 
 
 Idhn A. Dix, 
 
 Jacob Thompson, Mississippi, 
 
 Joseph Holt, Kentucky, 
 
 Horatio King, 
 
 J . S. Black, 
 
 E. M. Stanlon, 
 
 Nathl. P. Banks, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Pennsylvania, Appointed Dec. 1860. 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Virginia, 
 Kentucky, 
 Georgia, 
 Maryland, 
 New York, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Wm. Pennington, New Jersey, 
 
 Appointed Jan. 1861. 
 
 Appointed Dec. 1860. 
 Appointed Jan. 1861. 
 
 Jan. 1861. 
 
 Deo. 1860. 
 
 1856. 
 1859. 
 
 \ Secretary of State, 
 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 
 i Secretary of War. 
 
 > Secretary of Treasury. 
 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 
 > Postmaster-General. 
 
 )■ Attorjiey-GeneraL 
 i Speaker of H. Reps. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1861, President. 
 
 Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President. 
 
 Wm. H. Seward, New York, Secretary of State. 
 
 *Omisssioks on page 205 " World's Progress." 
 Jugh S. Legare, S. Carolina, May 9, died June 20, 1843, ) q * o* * 
 
 "" - -- S.Carolina, March 6,1841, to March, 1, 1845, P^"®- *** '*^^*'^' 
 
 Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of Treaa. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Feb. 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of War. 
 
 Feb. 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1844, ; „ , „ 
 
 Virginia, March 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845. \ ^®"^' °* ^^^^^ 
 
 John C. Calhoun, 
 George M. Bibb, 
 William Wilkins, 
 Thomas "W. Gilmer, 
 John Y, Mason, 
 
1851-67. 
 
 71 
 
 Salmon P. Chase, 
 Wm. P. Fessenden, 
 Hugh McCulloch, 
 Simon Cameron, 
 Ed-win M. Stanton, 
 Gideon Welles, 
 Crtleb B. Smith, 
 John P. Usher, 
 Montgomery Blair, 
 Wm. Dennison, 
 Edward Bates, 
 James Speed, 
 Galusha A. Grow, 
 Salmon P, Chase, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Maine, 
 Indiana, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Penns}ivania', Appointed Jan. 1862. 
 Connecticut, 
 Indiana, 
 Indiana, 
 Maryland, 
 Ohio, 
 Missouri, 
 Kentuckj-, 
 Pennsylvania- 
 Ohio, 
 
 Appointed Jnly, 1864. 
 Appointed March , 1865. 
 
 Appointed Jan. 1863. 
 Appointed Sept. 1864. 
 
 Appointed Sept. 18t4. 
 1861-2. 
 Appointed Dec. 1S64. 
 
 > Secretary of Treasniy. 
 
 i Secretary of War. 
 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 i Secretary of Interior. 
 
 > Poslmaster-Geniral 
 
 > Attorney-General. 
 
 Speaker H. Reps. 
 Chief- Justice. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President, 
 Akdbe-w Johnson, of Tennessee, Vice-President. 
 
 [President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by Wilkes Booth, 
 
 AprU 14, 1865.] 
 Andeew Johnson became President, April 15, 1865. 
 Lafayette S. Fosteb, of Connecticut, elected President of the Senate. 
 [Succeeded by Ben. P. Wade, of Ohio, 1867.] 
 
 Wm. H. Seward, 
 Hugh McCuUoch, 
 Edwin M. Stanton, 
 Gideon Welles, 
 John P. Usher, 
 James Harlan, 
 
 New York, (continued in office), 
 Indiana, do 
 
 Pennsylvania, do 
 
 Connecticut, do 
 
 Indiana, do 
 
 Iowa, Appointed March, 1865. 
 
 Orville H. Browning, Illinois, Appointed June, 1866. 
 
 W. Dennison, 
 Ales. W. Randall, 
 James Speed, 
 Henry Stanbery, 
 Schuyler Colfas 
 
 Ohio, (co7ili7iued in office), 
 Wisconsin, Appointed June, 1866. 
 Kentucky, (.continued in office), 
 Ohio, Appointed June, 1866. 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Secretary of Treasury, 
 Secretary of War. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 
 > Secretary of Interior. 
 
 i Postmaster-GeneraL 
 
 > Attorney-General. 
 
 lS63-'65-'67. Speaker H. of Reps. 
 
 The salary of each member of the Cabinet was raised in 1853 from $6,000 to $8,000. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of England after 1846. 
 
 Lord John Russell's Administra- 
 tion, July 6th, 1846. 
 
 [He and his colleagues resign Feb. 
 1851, hut resume office March lS5y 
 
 Earl of Derby, Disraeli, Speucer H. 
 Walpole, Duke of Northumberland, 
 &c. Feb. 1852. 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Palmer- 
 ston. Lord Russell, &o Dec. 1852. 
 
 [Russell retires, and Lord Aberdeen 
 and Ministry resign Jan. 1855. Pal- 
 inerstoii reconstructs cabinet with 
 Lord Cranworth, &c., Feb, 1S55, but 
 Gladstone, Herbert and Graham, se- 
 cede from it and Palmerston forms a 
 new ministry with Russell and Earl 
 of Clarendon, &c. Feb. 24th, 1855.] 
 
 On vote of censure they resign. 
 
 Feb. 7th, 1858. 
 
 Earl of Derby's Administration — 
 Disraeli, Walpole, Stanley, &c. 
 
 Feb. 26tli, 1858. 
 [They resign on vote of Parliament 
 expressing want of confidence in 
 them. June 1869] 
 
 Lords Palmerston and Russell, (&c. 
 June ISth, 1859. 
 [Palmerston dies, Oct. 1865.] 
 Earl Russell's Ministry — With 
 Gladstone Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer; Lord Cranworth, Lord 
 Chancellor ; Earl Granville, &c. 
 Deo. 1865. 
 Derby Administration — Earl of 
 Derby, First Lord, <ll'c.; D'Israeli, 
 Chancellor of Exchequer; Lord 
 Stanley, Sec. for Foreign Affairs, 
 &c. June 19, 1866. 
 
 ADULTERY in England, (p. 211.) By 20 Victoria, c. 85, (IBS'?,) the " action 
 for criminal conversation" was abolislied, and the "Court for Divorce and 
 Matrimonial Causes " was established, which has power to grant divorces for 
 adultery and ill usage. See Divorce. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS m Newspapees, Eng. (p. 211.) The duty on them was all 
 together abolished in the United Kingdom, August 4, 1863. For a copious 
 article on this subject see Appleton^s Cyclopadia. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS in U. S. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 6 
 to 20 cents a line ; of weekly papers, up to $2.00. A few monthly and quar 
 
72 THE woeld's pkogkess. 
 
 terly periodicals charge $2.50 per line. The price of one page for advertise- 
 ments in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the advertising receipts of the 
 N. Y, Tribune were about $359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertisements in 
 American papers are taxed 3 per cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than 
 2,000 copies circulation are exempt. The duty on advertising in England was 
 aljolished in 1853. 
 
 ADVERTISING VANS, in 1853 a great nuisance, were prohibited in England. 
 They have recently appeared in New York and other places in the U. S. . 
 
 MOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : 
 beginning about 1124 b. c. The Jilolians built several large cities both on the 
 mainland and the neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered 
 the capital. 
 
 .^OLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known 
 before. 
 
 JEQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands 
 annexed after a conflict, 4*71-302 B.C. 
 
 AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been 
 patented by Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 184*7; Tylor in 1840, 
 and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented 
 by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 
 
 ^ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful 
 (especially in art) ; a term invented by Baunngarten, a German philosopher, 
 whose work " JSsthetica" was published in 1750. 
 
 AFRICA, (p. 213.) Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and 1849, 
 (by direction of the government,) he left England to explore Central Africa, 
 accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851, 
 and Overweg September 27, 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforce- 
 ments to Dr. Barth Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. Barth returned to England, and re 
 ceived the Royal Geographical Society's medal May 16, 1856. His ti^avels 
 were jmblished in five volumes in 1858. • Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary 
 traveller, returned to England in December, 1856, after an absence of sixteen 
 years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of South Africa, 
 and walked about 11,000 miles, principally of country hitherto unexplored. His 
 book was published in November, 1857. In Febi'uary, 1858, he was appointed 
 British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left shortly after. 
 Accounts of the assassination of Dr. Vogel were received in 1857. Lieut. Bur- 
 ton's Explorations of the Eastern Coast, 185- ; his journey from Zanzibar to 
 the interior, 1858 ; and his account of it pubhshed in London and N. Y., 1860. 
 
 The publication of M. du Chaiilu's 
 
 travels in Central Africa created 
 
 mnoh controversy and esoltement in 
 
 1861. 
 Second expediton of Dr. LivingBtone, 
 
 March, 1S58 
 Captains Speke and Grant announce 
 
 the discovery of the source of the 
 
 Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, Feb. 
 
 23, 1863. 
 [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by 
 
 his own gun while alone near Bath, 
 
 Sept. 15, 1S64] 
 Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully ex- 
 plore the "White Nile, and undergo 
 
 many privations, July, 1863 — 1S64. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. In England, Sir Humphry Davy delivered 
 
 Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition 6 Aug. 
 1S63. 
 
 Dr. Livingstone returns July 23, 1364. 
 
 Death of Dr. W. B. Baitie, at Sierra Leone, 
 Nov. 30, 1864. 
 
 [He was sent as special finvoy to the Negro 
 tribes near the Niger by the Foreign Office 
 about 1854. He opened commercial rela- 
 tions with Central Africa.] 
 
 Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, sup 
 posed to be another source of the Nile, 
 ■which he named Lake Nyanza Albert, 
 March, 1864. 
 
 Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul foi 
 Inner Africa, March 24, 1S65. Bepoited ta 
 be killed by natives, Apr. 1867. 
 
1851-67. 73 
 
 lectures on this subject (afterwards published) at the instance of the Board ol 
 Agriculture, in 1812 ; but it excited but little atteution till the publication of 
 Liebig's work in 1840, which made a. powerful impression. Boussingault'a 
 "JEconomie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The 
 immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, 
 a partial reaction has taken place, and much controversy ensued. Liebig's 
 "Letters on Agriculture" appeared in 1859. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. By act of July 2, 1862, Congress made pro- 
 vision for " donating public lands to the several States and Territories which 
 may provide Colleges tor the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts." Up 
 to Sept. 1863, 15 States had taken advantage of the act, and many colleges in- 
 troduced Agriculture among the branches of their scientific course. Agricultu- 
 ral college at Amherst, Mass., in process of construction (1867). 
 
 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS or 1851 : 
 
 Gbeat Britain. France. United States. Russia, 
 Acres of Land in Cultivation 22,000,000 72,000,000 115,000,000 243.000,000 
 
 Bushels of Wheat, av. per annum, 336,000,000 576,000,000 100,000,000 1,400,000,0,00 
 Numher of Horned Cattle, 18,000,000 9,000,000 19,800,000 25,000,000 
 
 Number of Horses, 1,600,000 2,818,000 5,000,000 18,000,000 
 
 Number of Sheep and Goats, 50,000,000 32,000,000 22,000,000 50,000,000 
 
 Numberof Swine, 19,000 000 5,000,000 30,000,000 12,000,000 
 
 Population of each, country, 27,000,000 36,000,000 23,000,000 68,000,000 
 
 In 1866, the wheat crop in the U. S., was 180,000,000 bushels, (increase of 80 
 per cent, in 15 years.) Cattle, 26,935,000, (increase about 40 per cent.) ; sheep, 
 41,258,652, increase nearly 100 per cent. 
 AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the 
 United States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged 
 in agricultural pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In 
 1860 the number of acres in cultivation was 163,000,000, valued at 6,600 mil- 
 lion dollars. In the same year the value of agricultural implements was $24*7,- 
 000,000. 
 
 1860. 1862. 1865. 
 
 Bushels of Wheat l.'52,000,000 181,000.000 148,000,000 
 
 Bushels of Oats 172,000,000 171,000,000 235,000,000 
 
 Bushels of Rye 20,000,000 21,000,000 19.000,000 
 
 Tons of Hay 19.000,000 20,000,000 23,000,000 
 
 Pounds of Wcol 60,000,000 114,000,000 
 
 Bales of Cotton 4,000,000 »„ 1,000,000 
 
 Bushels of Com 800,000,000 .500,000,000 600,000,000 
 
 In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the states in rebellion are not included. In 
 1862 the shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted 
 to 29,700,000 bushels. Total exports of grain 1863 were 77,300,000 bushels. 
 The cereals of the northern states in 1865 amounted to 1,228 million bush- 
 els, valued at $1,047,000,000. The southern cotton crop for 1866-7 is esti- 
 mated at 2,000,000 bales. "Department of Agriculture " established May 15, 
 1862, at Washington, D. C. Its object, to diffuse informati"on on subjects con- 
 nected with agriculture among the people of the U. S. 
 AIR OR ATMOSPHERE. In 1858, Dr. Angus Smith made known- a chemical 
 method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The re- 
 searches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, led to the discovery 
 of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone.— • 
 See Ozone. 
 
 ALABAMA. One of the United States; Population in 1850; whites, 426,515; 
 free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765 ; slaves, 342,894. In 1855: white, 
 464,456; free colored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, in 1860: white, 
 4 
 
7i THE world's PKOGKESS. 
 
 520,444; slaves, 43 5,4'73. The slaves have increased more rapidly than the 
 whites. Ordinance passed " seceding" from the United States January 1, 1861. 
 During the war the state was untouched by the national army until March, 
 1865, when Gen. Wilson with 1*7,000 cavalry, penetrated its most productive 
 "egion. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor. 
 The state sent 120,000 men to the war, and lost 35,000. Estimated loss in 
 wealth, $500,000,000. Present debt (1865) is $3,400,000. 
 
 ALBANY, N Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,36Y; in 1865, 62,613. 
 It became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of 
 commerce is lumber; in 1863, $7,000,000 worth was received there. Its Law 
 Library, the best in the country, contains "70,000 volumes. 
 
 ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many 
 of tlie first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 
 1494 with Musseus. 
 
 ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, July 13, 1866, a tax of $1.00 is 
 levied on every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold. 
 
 ALEPPO (anciently Bercea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Scleucus Ni- 
 cator about 299 B. C. The pachahc of Aleppo is one of the five govern- 
 ments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, a. d. 638, who restored its ancient 
 name Haleb orChaleb; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its 
 depopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons were computed 
 to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the 
 cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes 
 in 1822 and 1830; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. 
 On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They 
 burnt everything in their way; three churches were destroyed, five others 
 were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of 
 property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted 
 by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the 
 foundation of Alexandria, 332 b. c. It flourished under the patronage of the 
 Ptolemies till about 100 e. c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212), 
 Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose 
 about A. n. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were 
 Ptolemy, the author of Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician 
 (200), and Pappus the geometer (350). 
 
 ALGIERS, (p. 217). An insurrection of the Kabyles was subdued by the 
 French in Oct., 1857. In 1858, the government was entrusted (for a short 
 time) to Prince Napoleon, 
 
 ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Granada in Spain, founded 
 by Mohammed I. of Granada, about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians, 
 Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by 
 Owen Jones, and Jules Gowry, published 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a 
 court of this name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, near London, 
 
 ALIENS, (p. 318.) The rigor of the Alien laws in England was much mitigated 
 by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, 1844. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In 
 1863, 233,408 arrived. Of these 106,000 came from Germany ; 68,000 from Ire- 
 land ; 36,000 from England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress, 
 July, 1666.) See Emigration. 
 
 ALIWAL, Battle cf, India, between the Sikh army (24,000), and the British 
 under Sir E. Smith (12,000). Sikhs defeated with loss of 6,000, Jan. 28, 1846 
 
1851-67. 75 
 
 t 
 
 ALLIANCE, Treaties of, (p. 218) between the high European iiowers i 
 
 Alliance of Sweden with the western 
 
 Alliance of England, France, and 
 Turkey (signed at Constantino 
 pie) March 12, 1854 
 
 Alliance of England and France, 
 ratified April 3, 1854 
 
 Alliance of Sardinia with the west- 
 ern powers (signed at Turin), 
 
 Jan. 26, 1855 
 
 powers Dec. 19; 185i 
 
 Alliance of Prussia and Austria against 
 
 Denmark 1864 
 
 AlUance of Prussia and Italy against 
 
 Austria 186fi 
 
 ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2). A festival of the Roman Catholic church to com- 
 memorate the souls that are in purgatory, instituted it is said, at Cluny about 
 993 or 1000. 
 
 ALMA. A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 
 1854. See Russo-Turkish TFar and Crimea. The English, French, and Turk- 
 ish army (about 57,000) and the Russians under Menschilvoff (46,000). Latter 
 defeated, with loss of 5,000. Allied loss 3,000, killed, wounded, and 
 missing. 
 
 ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King street, St. James's, London, at first very 
 exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12, 
 1765. 
 
 ALMANACS, American. A comprehensive and valuable " National Almanac," 
 was issued by G. W. Childs of Phila., in 1863-4, but was not continued. Sixty 
 eight different almanacs are registered among the list of American publications 
 1861-6. French. First French Almanac published in Paris (1442), in a 
 Bibliotheque. "Almanac Royal" of Paris (1679),- noticed fairs, markets, 
 genealogy of kings, &c. "Almanac of Napoleon," and "Almanac of Litera- 
 ture and Fine Arts," are widely circulated. The " Connaissance de Tems " is 
 astronomical. There are many inferior ones devoted to burlesque and wit. 
 German. Almanacs appeared in Germany in 1475. The first one was pub- 
 lished in a series in a periodical, and contained only the eclipses and position 
 of the planets. The author was the German Regiomontanus. His series sold 
 for ten crowns. " Almanac de Gotha" is 104 years old, and of very high 
 reputation. Also the " Astronomisches Jahrbuche " conducted by Bode and 
 then by Encke. 
 
 Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac," 
 
 (Phil. 1732), was the first of any note 
 
 in the U. S. 
 "The American Kautical Almanac" 
 
 was established in 1849, and superin- 
 . tended by Capt. Davis, U. S. N. It 
 
 has few equals in scientific accuracy. 
 The " Am.ericau Almanac" of Boston, 
 
 was discontinued in 1857 (p), after 
 
 being published 29 years. 
 
 The " National Almanac" (valuable and 
 comprehensive), published by Childs of 
 Phila., appeared only 1863 and 1864. 
 
 At the present time (1867), no general alma- 
 nac of any special value is published in the 
 U.S. 
 
 The " Family Christian Almanac" of the 
 Tract Society has a wide circulation. 
 
 ALPACA (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft 
 hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It 
 was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca 
 factory, &c., (covering ll acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York- 
 shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. The U. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass- 
 ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary 
 {Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil, 
 China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To 
 the smaller states, " Ministers resident " are sent, 22 in all. Number of con- 
 suls from U. S. to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known 
 
76 THE WOKLD'S PKOGEESS. 
 
 as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 ia France. The highest 
 salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $'7,500 each. Num 
 ber of foreign consuls in U. S. in 1863, 356. 
 
 AMERICA, Ceniral, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, 
 Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 
 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The 
 states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 184V. There haa 
 been among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by 
 the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In 
 Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) 
 and San Salvador, (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were de- 
 feated at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the 
 president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the dictator of Guate- 
 mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about 
 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. 
 
 AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c. 
 
 AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1*776 the colors used by the American army 
 exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with 
 white. On the 14th June, 17*77, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the 
 thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the 
 union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing ' a new con- 
 stellation.' " 
 
 AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R. 
 Bartlett ; first published in Boston, in 1848. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history oi 
 Herodotus, about 1687 B.C. It is considered as ending with the destruction 
 of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Ma- 
 homet (a.d. 622), or Charlemagne (768). 
 
 ANESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of 
 N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed the 3,000 cases he had up 
 to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cycloptedia, 1864.) 
 
 ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in England. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, 
 zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, 
 which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. Laws on the 
 subject were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were for- 
 bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char- 
 tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. 
 Henry Bergh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent 
 cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws prohibiting 
 cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- 
 vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 
 1758, and continued to the present time) was commenced in London by R. & 
 J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire 
 de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 1850. An American Annual 
 Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton's 
 Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comprehensive. 
 
 ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, published annually, con- 
 taining poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en- 
 gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations ol 
 
1851-67. 77 
 
 similar books in Germany. The duration of the chief of these publications ia 
 here given — 
 
 Forget-me-Dot (Ackerman's).... 1823-48 Amulet 1827-34 
 
 Friendship's Ollermg 1824-i4 Keepsake ] 828-56 
 
 Literary Souvenir (first as The Hood's Comic Annual 1830-38 
 
 Graces) 1824-34 
 
 The earliest American " Annuals " were the Talisman, published by E. Bliss, 
 in New York, about 1830, 3 vols. (Brvant, Sands, and others contributors) ; 
 the Token, S. G. Goodrich (Peter Parle'y), in Boston, 1837 (?) to (?), about 
 8 vols. ; and the Gift, Carey & Hart, Philadelphia, 1840 (?), about 5 vols. 
 
 ANONYMOUS LETTERS. In England, the sending of threatening or libellous 
 anonymous letters was made felony by several acts, 1*722, 182*7, 1847. 
 Punishment — transportation, imprisonment, and whipping. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of 
 people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Plood, reached to the 
 enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the vvoiid 1482. 
 
 ANTIGUA. A West India island, discovered by Colunjbus in'1493 ; settled by 
 the Enghsh in 1632. 
 
 ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U, S. Here was fought a 
 terrible battle on Sept. IV, 1862, between the Union army under Gen. Mc- 
 Clellan and the rebels under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull Run or 
 Manassas, Aug, 30, having invaded Maryland, was immediately followed by 
 McClellan. On the loth L«e was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next 
 morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the con- 
 flict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The battle was indecisive ; 
 but eventually the Rebels retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 and 
 19. The Union loss was estimated at 12,469 ; the rebels lost 14,000. 
 
 APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all co,urts can hear appeals from those next 
 inferior. The highest courts of the states are courts of appeal only. The 
 Supreme Court of the U. S. sits on appeal from Circuit and Territorial Courts, 
 and also from the highest state courts, whenever the question turns upon the 
 validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. (Statute of 1789.) 
 
 APPENZELL. A Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of 
 St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
 Swiss confederation in 1513. 
 
 APPIAN WAY. An ancient Roman road,made by Appius Claudius Csecus, while 
 censor, 312 B.C. 
 
 APPLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apples, according to Pliny. Ray 
 reckons 78 kinds in his day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties 
 exist. Apple-trees of finest quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200 
 years. Throughout the U. S. the following appear to be the favorites: For 
 summer apples, the Early Harvest, Sweet Bongh and Red Astrachan ; for au- 
 tumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Oravenstein ; for winter, the Baldwin and 
 Rhode Island Greening. The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of 
 the supply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In 
 1860, the yield of orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of 
 which was derived from the apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the 
 State of New York yielded 16,275,605 bushels of apples, 
 
 APPRENTICES. In the U. S, apprenticeship is not so common as in En' 
 gland. The American apprentice rarely pays a fee to the master. In some 
 eastern statei farmers take them to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, whes 
 
78 
 
 THE world's PROGKESS. 
 
 they leave present them with a sum of money. Whole number in the U. 
 S. in 1860 was about 55,000. There is a Library in Mechanics Hall, N. Y. 
 City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful apprentices. For laws respect- 
 ing them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. T. State in 
 1865, 1,361. 
 
 A.QTJARIUM, OR Aqttavivarium. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh) 
 in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other; 
 snails beiug introduced as scavengers. In 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded 
 in growing sea-weeds inartificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. R. Warington dem- 
 onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in 
 jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's 
 Park, were set up under the direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1850 Mr. 
 Gosse published, " The Aquarium. " Mr. 0, E. Hammett, jr., of Newport, R. I., 
 published in 1859 his observations and experiments with Aquaria, which were 
 very remarkable. Aquaria have been introduced into several public museums 
 in the U. S., and they are also largely cultivated in private houses. 
 
 AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any times is the Croton 
 aqueduct, which supplies the City of New York with water from Croton lake, 
 40 miles distant. It was commenced 1837 ; its completion was publicly cele- 
 brated in 1842; its cost was $10,3*75,000. It is carried across the Harlem 
 river on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer John B. Jervis ; contractor 
 for the bridge, Geo. Law. The aqueduct which supplies Boston from lake 
 Cochituate, 23| miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct. 
 25, 1848 ; cost $5,370,818. That which supplies the city of Brooklyn, L. L, 
 was finished 1858 ; engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cost $640,828. Jersey City, N. J., is 
 supj3lied by an aqueduct 8 miles long from the Passaic river at Belleville ; W. S. 
 Whitwell, chief engineer. It was completed in 1856 and cost $640,000. 
 Washington, D. C. is furnished with water from the Potomac by an aqueduct 
 15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. The water 
 was first admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the cost amounted to 
 $2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct dis- 
 charges 67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Cro- 
 ton aqueduct. 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated 
 into French by Galland, and published in 1704 ; but their authenticity was 
 not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from 
 the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, pubhshed in 1839, with valuable notes 
 and beautiful illustrations. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, (p. 329.) Dates of notable buildings : 
 
 Egyptian Pyramids, B.C. 1500 I Coliseum a. d. 70 
 
 Solomon's Temple begun ....b. c.lOOO Basilicas at Rome a. d. 330-900 
 
 Temple of Jupiter, R.ome,...B. c. (il6 | St. Sophia's, Constantinople begun. a. d. 532 
 
 Babylon built ..b. c. 600 I Canterbury Cathedral a. r>. 602 
 
 Parthenon finished b. c. 438 Mosque of Omar a. d. 637 
 
 Pantheon at Rome a. d. 18 1 York Minster begun a. d. 741 
 
 A.RCTIC EXPEDITIONS. 
 iions. 
 
 See North-West Passage, and Frankliii's Expedi- 
 
 Lt. Hartstein with the Arctic and 
 release leaves Brooklyn, May 31, 
 1855, and finds Dr. Kane at Lieve- 
 ley, Greenland, Sept. 13, 1855; 
 and returns to N. Y. with him 
 
 Oct.ll, 1856 
 
 Steamer Fox, Capt. McCIintock, sails 
 from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Frank 
 lln) in search of remains of Franklin's 
 expedition July 1ft 185 
 
1861-67. 
 
 79 
 
 Capt. McCntntock returns, bringing 
 relics and remains of Franklin's 
 expedition, and ascertaining Ms 
 fate 1859 
 
 Mr. C. F. Hall sailed from New- 
 London, Conn., in ship George 
 Henry May 29, 1860 
 
 Returned Sept. 13, 1862 
 
 He went again with strong liopes 
 of findius soine of Franklin's 
 men. Discovered the fate of four 
 who died from cold and starva- 
 tion, June 1864 
 
 Dr. Hayes sailed from BosLon in 
 
 schooner United States, and returned 
 in fifteen months. Valuable surveys 
 and experiments made by him 
 
 July 10, I860 
 Capt. Parker Snow sailed from Eng- 
 !and in schooner Intrepid, in search of 
 
 Franklin's companions, June, 1861 
 
 Expedition from Sweden blockaded by 
 I ice and unable to accomplish its ob- 
 jects, May 9,1361 
 
 AKGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFEDERATION. Originally fourteen, now 
 thirteen, provinces — Buenos Ayres having seceded in 1853. This country 
 was discovered by the Spaniards in 151*7 ; settled by them in 1553, and form- 
 ed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 17 78, when it became that of Rio 
 de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 
 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of 
 Uruguay, which became independent at Montevideo. It was at war with 
 France from 1838-40. Urquiza was chosen President for six years in 1854. 
 See Buenos Ayres. 
 
 ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a territory of 30,000 square miles, 
 purchased from Mexico by the U. S. for $10,000,000, in 1855. It had in 1856 
 about 5,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Feb. 24, 
 1863, the territory was organized and part of New Mexico added to it, the 
 whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital is Prescott. The first 
 Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 1866, 
 white, about 8,000. 
 
 ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
 It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 
 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves. 
 Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 111,115 were slaves. The state "se- 
 ceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided during the war by the 
 Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. At the 
 close of the rebellion I. Murphy was appointed provisional governor (1865.) 
 Many of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and land can be bought 
 at $1 to $5,000 per acre (1866). 
 
 ARMY OF THE U. S. Including Volunteers. The following list is official : 
 
 Date. Regulars. 
 
 July, 1861 14,108 , 
 
 Jan. 1,1862 19.871 . 
 
 Jan. 1,1863 19,169 . 
 
 Jan. 1,1864 17,237 . 
 
 Jan. 1, 1865 14,661 ' 
 
 May 1,1865 . 
 
 Volunteers. Present for Duty. Aggregate. 
 
 169,480 .... 183,588 .... 286,751 
 
 507,333 .... 527,204 .... 175,917 
 
 679,633 .... 698,802 .... 918,191 
 
 594,013 621,250 860,737 
 
 606,263 620,924 959,460 
 
 797,807 ....1,034,064 
 
 From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of 
 service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act 
 of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army comprities45 regiments of infantry, 
 10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantry are col- 
 ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 54,300. The 
 higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10 
 Brigadier-Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,' 
 239,000 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the 
 war was 280,751, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or died 
 of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 182,329 men died of disease. See En'ist 
 
80 THE woeld's progress. 
 
 ment. The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished the 
 army during 1861-65 : 
 
 Cannon — numtier 7,892 
 
 Artillery carri ages — number ' 11,787 
 
 Artillery projectiles (shot and shell)— number 6,335.595 
 
 Grape and canister shot — pounds 6,539,999 
 
 Field artillery ammunition— rounds 2,862,177 
 
 Small arms, mnskets, rifles, carbines, and pistols 3,477,655 
 
 Swords, sabres, and lances 544,475 
 
 Infantry accoutrements — complete sets 2,146,175 
 
 Cavalry accoutrements — complete sets.. 216,371 
 
 Horse equipments— sets 539,544 
 
 Two-horse artillery harness — sets 28,164 
 
 Horse blankets — number 732,526 
 
 Cartridges for small arms— number 1,022,176.474 
 
 Percussion caps for small arms — number 1,220,555,435 
 
 Cannoii-primers 10,281,305 
 
 Fuses for shell 4,226,377 
 
 Gunpowder— pounds. 26,440,054 
 
 Nitre— pounds 6,395,152 
 
 Lead in pigs and bullets— pounds....... 90,416,296 
 
 This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by 
 the navy. 
 ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently 
 occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing 
 water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the 
 boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar Square in London are 
 supplied by two of these wells. The great well at Paris was completed in 
 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about 
 £12,000. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., 
 in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various 
 parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are said to have existed in 
 China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated 
 making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to California. 
 
 ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con- 
 tributed to it by members, which sold for $7,500. The object of this society 
 is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859, 
 
 ARTS, Fine. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the U. S. 
 since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build- 
 ing, the first in the United States wholly designed for such a purpose, was 
 completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the U. S. 
 for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. In 1864, 30 collec- 
 tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in 
 Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures 
 and sculptures. A handsome building lor the Yale School of Fine Arts was 
 completed at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition 
 was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 
 sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com- 
 mittee ; See Paintings ; TuckermarCs Book of the Artists. 
 
 ART UNION. For distributing works of art by lot. The first was in Germany 
 founded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berhn (1828), Dresden, 
 Leipzic, Bremen, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. "Roman Catholic Art- 
 Unions " were started in 1851. London Art Union founded 1837; its receipts 
 increa&ed in nineteen years from $5,000, to $90,000 per annum. The first in 
 the U, S., the American Art Union (originally the Apollo Association) was 
 founded at N. Y., in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distrib* 
 
1851-67. 81 
 
 oting works to the amount of $453,853. It was closed in 1851 as being 
 forbidden by the state laws against lotteries, 
 ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the 
 Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after hia 
 resurrection from the dead. May 14, a. d. S3 ; first commemorated, a. d. 68. 
 Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part 
 of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was visible 
 in his time. 
 
 ASSAY OFFICE, IT. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854 assayed 
 more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1806. The follow- 
 ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department^ shows 
 the collections on bullion and the amount of bullion assayed in each state and 
 territory of the Umted States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1866 : 
 States and Territories. Collections on Bullion. Bullion Assayed. 
 
 California $294,121 $49,020,250 
 
 Colorado 1,219 219 860 
 
 Idaho 3,210 535,105 
 
 Missouri 4 815 
 
 Nevada 91,635 15,272,246 
 
 New Jersej' 82 13,688 
 
 New York 43,774 7,295,803 
 
 Oregon 28,711 4,785,221 
 
 Pennsylvania 24,265 4,044,218 
 
 Ehode Island 13 2,211 
 
 Utah 361 60,278 
 
 Washington 837 139,533 
 
 Total $488,377 *.'.'.'.'.'. *.'/.'.'/. $81,389,541 
 
 The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States 
 Mint at San Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior lo 1843. 
 At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, pubhc interest in tlie science 
 was awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis, 
 U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomi.s, of 
 Yale, Prof. 0. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell, of Nantucket, 
 have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seen from 
 Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The 
 La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awarded by the French Acad- 
 emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see 
 Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. E. 
 Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S. 
 has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, 0. M. 
 Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College, 
 Poughkeepsie. * 
 
 ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph. 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood 
 Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1865. See Pneti- 
 matic Railwaym 
 
 AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. 
 Augustine, who died a. d. 430. These monks really first appeared in the 12th 
 century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. Its 
 rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an 
 Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were the 
 rivals of the Dominicans. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris\ of 
 4* 
 
82 
 
 THB WOELD's PEOGEESS. 
 
 tlie priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been for- 
 bid(3en in the fourth century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople. 
 It was first enjoined by the Council of Lateran in 1215. It was one of Six 
 Articles of Faith enacted by Henry VIII. in 1539, and by the (Council of Trent ; 
 but was abolished in England at the Reformation. Its revival in England 
 was attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians, but with- 
 out success. 
 A.URORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights. The most remarkable exhibitions 
 of this phenomenon on record are those of ■ 1560 in London, in the form of 
 burning spears ; 1574 (described by Stow), and the close of the 18th cen- 
 tury ; again in 1835, 1836, and 183*7. In Northern Europe, this phenomenon, 
 now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60, 
 the Aurora was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United 
 States, and the telegraph wires were sensibly affected by the electricity. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. The smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one- 
 sixth the size of North and South America, and ten times larger than Borneo, 
 its area being about 3,000,000 square miles. Its colonization by convicts was 
 ■first proposed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now 
 divided into four provinces : New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, 
 (or Port Philip), and Western Australia (or Swan River). , 
 
 Capt Cook landed at Botany Bay. 1770 I First Oh. of Eng. Bishop (Brough ton). .1836 
 
 Sydney founded 1788 Melbourne founded Nov.1837 
 
 Gov. Bligh for his tyranny de- | Transportation suspended 1839 
 
 posed by an insurrection^ 1808 1 Transportation ceased 1853 
 
 AUSTRIA See p. 239. 
 
 Trial by jury abolished 18o2 
 
 Marriage of the emperor to Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of Maximilian, 
 duke of Bavaria Apr. 24, 1S54 
 
 Alliance witli England and 
 France on the Eastern Ques- 
 tion Dec. 2, 1854 
 
 Degrading Concordat with 
 Rome Aug. 18, 1855 
 
 Diplomatic relations with Sar- 
 dinia broken oil' on ace. of at- 
 tacks of Sardinian press March, 1857 
 
 Excitement on the address of 
 Napoleon III. to Austrian 
 minister, Hubner.... ...Jan. 1, 1859 
 
 Preparations for war. Banks of 
 the Ticiuo fortified 
 
 Feb. and March, 1859 
 
 Austria demands that Sardinia 
 disarm. Eefused Apr. 26, 1859 
 
 Austrians cross the Ticino Apr. 26, 1859 
 
 French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 1859 
 
 French emperor declares war. . . .May 3, 1859 
 Austrians defeated at Moutebello, 
 
 May 20, 1S59 
 
 do do Palestro, May 30-1. 1859 
 
 do do Magenta, June 4, 18o9 
 
 do do Marignano, June 8, 1859 
 
 Death of Prince Metternich, set. 86, 
 
 June 11, 1859 
 Austrians def. at Solferino, June 24, 1859 
 
 Armistice agreed upon )n]y 6, 1859 
 
 Emperors of France and Austria meet 
 
 July 11, 1859 
 Preliminaries of peace at Villa Fran- 
 ca, Lombardy to belong to 
 
 Sardinia July 12, 1859 
 
 Fruitless conference of envoys at 
 
 Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859 
 
 For war against Denmark, and against 
 Prussia and Italy, see Prussia. 
 
 B 
 
 BAALBEC, OR HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An 
 ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood 
 (in 1Y57) and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. 
 Antoninus Pius is stated to have built a magnificent Temple of Jupiter here. 
 The city was sacked by the Moslems, a. d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. 
 
 BADEN, (p. 242.) 1852, Frederic (born September 9, 1826), regent to Sept. 5, 
 1856, when he was declared grand duke, and still remains so (1867). Heir, 
 bis *>n, Frederic William, born July 9, 1867. 
 
1851-67. 83 
 
 BALAKLAVA (small sea-port in the Crimea), Battle of. Russians aboutl2,00(). 
 commanded by Gen. Liprandi, British by Lord Raglan. In this battle Lord 
 Cardigan's cavalry made the famous " charge of the light brigade ;" only 1^8 
 out of 607 returning from the charge, Oct. 26, 1854. Another engagement 
 here, Russians defeated, losing 2,000, Alhes losing 600, March 22, 1855. Elec« 
 trie telegraph between this place and London completed April, 1855. 
 
 BALLOON, (p. 243.) An Itahan aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Den- 
 mark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subsequently found on the sea-shore in a 
 ' contiguous island, dashed to pieces. On June 23, 1859, Mr. Wise and three 
 others ascended from St .Louis in a balloon. After travelling 1,150 miles they 
 descended in Jefferson county. New York, very narrowly escaping with 
 their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the professed 
 intention of an air-voyage to Europe, was inflated and exhibited at New York, 
 May 1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated 
 the project. Equestrian ascents were made by Green in London in 1850, and 
 stopped by law, 1852. In France ascents on horses in balloons have been fre- 
 quently made since 1850. Balloons were used for reconnoitering, during 
 the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Army of the Potomac 
 1861-5. Ascents for scientific observations made in England by Jas. Glai- 
 sher, one ascent reaching V miles, 1862-5 
 
 BALLOT, Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled 
 " The Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, 
 was published in England in the " State Tracts," 1698. The ballot-box was 
 used in a political club which met in 1659 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster. 
 The ballot has been an open question in British Whig governments since 1835. 
 On June 30, 185V, the House of Commons rejected the ballot, 257 being 
 against, and 189 for it. It became part of the electoral law of Victoria, Aus- 
 tralia, in 1856. Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in France 
 from 1840 to 1845, and was employed also after the coup d'etat in 1851. In 
 the United States the ballot is used in all pubhc elections. 
 
 BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side. 
 On October 21, 1861, by direction of Gen. C. P. Stone the heroic Col. E. 
 D. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the rebel 
 camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss, the force of the rebels 
 having been misrepresented. Treachery was evident somewhere, and Gen. 
 Stone himself was arrested, but released without trial. 
 
 BALTIMORE, (p. 243.) Population in 1860, 214,037, including 2,213 slaves. 
 On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S, troops passing through the city to the de- 
 fence of Washington were fired upon and two men killed. Mihtary occupa- 
 tion of the place by Gen. Butler, May, 1861. President Lincoln, who passe i 
 through Baltimore (1861) in disguise, to his first inauguration, was nomina- 
 ted with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there assem- 
 bled (1864). • 
 
 BANKING SYSTEM, U, S. Before the outbreak of the rebellion, paper currenc,.' 
 issued from incorporated independent banks. In 1860, there were in the U. 
 S. 1,562 banks, having an aggregate capital of $421,880,000, and a circulatioi 
 of 1207,104^400. In 1861, the banks generally were compelled to suspend 
 specie payments. The govc rnment established by act of Congress Feb. 25, 
 1863, a uniform national banking system. An additional act was passed June 
 8, 1864. In Jan. 1866, there were 1,579 National Banks. Capital, $403,'.50, 
 000. Circulation, $213,000,000. These banks deposit bonds with the U. S. 
 Treasury to the extent of one-third of their capital. "" There ara 14 citier coa- 
 
84' THE world's PK0GRE8S. 
 
 taming 218 banks, which are selected as points of redemption. Jan, 1867, the 
 national bank-note circulation was $291,093,294 ; total currency of the United 
 States (circulation and deposits), $1,496,672,065. 
 
 BANKRUPTS in England, (p. 245.) The number in 1850, was 1,298 ; in 185T, 
 it was 1,488; in 1858, there were 1,346; in 1859, there were 959; and in 1860, 
 no less than 8,470. In Scotland, there were 453 in 185'7, and 445 in 1860. In 
 Ireland, '73 in 1857, and 113 in 1860. 
 
 BANKRUPT LAWS in the U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con- 
 gress, April 4, 1800, and repealed 1803. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841, 
 and repealed 1843. An act " establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy in 
 the U. S.," passed Congress, March, 1867, and is now in operation (July, 1867), 
 the " Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union having been appointed 
 by Chief-Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law. In England, a Court of 
 bankruptcy was first established 1831. An important act relating to the sub- 
 ject was passed 1849, amended 1854, and further discussed for amendment 
 1859. See Commercial Failures. 
 
 BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was estab- 
 lished in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative 
 of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 vol- 
 umes were issued. 
 
 BANNERS were common to all nationa. The Jewish tribes had standards or 
 banners — Num. ii. (1491 b. c.) The standard of Coustantine bore the inscrip- 
 tion, in hoc signo vinces — " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure 
 of the cross. See Cross. The magical banner of the Danes, (said to be a 
 black raven on a red ground), was taken by Alfred when ho defeated Hubba, 
 8Y8. i; t. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, or oriflam- 
 me, were the standards of France about 1100. See Auriflamma, Standards, 
 &c. 
 
 BAPTISTS, U. S. A. (p. 246). In 1858, they had 12,000 churches with about 
 1,000,000 members. In 1762, they had 56 churches only; 1792, 1,000; 1812, 
 2,432 ; in 1832, 5,322 ; 1852, 9,500 : 1866 {Baptist Almanac), they had 59S4 
 associations, 12,702 churches, '7,867 ordained ministers, and 1,040,300 
 members. 
 
 BATTLES, (p. 248.) 
 In the British and French (allies) war with Russia : 
 
 Tcliernaya Aug. 16,1855 
 
 Malakofl" taken by the French, 
 
 Sept. 8, 1855 
 
 Ir.^our, (E.USS. and Turks) Nov. 6, 1855 
 
 Baidar, (Buss, and French) Dec. 8, 1855 
 
 Bill stria....- June 13-15, 1854 
 
 Alma Sept. 20, 1854 
 
 Balaklava.. Oct. 25,1854 
 
 Inkerman.... Nov. 5, 1854 
 
 Eupatoria, (Turks and R.) Feb. 17, 1855 
 Sebastopol March 22-4, 1855 
 
 In British war against mutineers in India : 
 
 Conflicts before Delhi, May 30 I Cawnpore, victory of Campbell, 
 
 to July 23, 1857 Dec. 6, 185T 
 
 Havelock's victories before Cawn- | Lncknow taken March 14-19, 1858 
 
 pore, &c July 12 to Aug. 16, 1857 | Gwailor (Rose victorious) Junel ,1858 
 
 Assault and capture of Delhi, Begum of Oude defeated Feb. 10, 185!> 
 
 September 16-20, 1857 | 
 
 Allied {French and Sardinians) against Austrians in Italy : 
 
 Austrians cross the Ticino, I Magenta, (Allies vict.) June 4, 1859 
 
 April 27. 1859 I Malignano, do June 8, 1859 
 
 Montebello (Alliea vict.) May 20, 1859 I Solferino, do June 24, 1859 
 
 Pfclestro do May 30, 1859 | See Sardinia, Naples, &o. 
 
1851-67, 
 
 Naval conflict in China : 
 
 Mouth of the Peiho June 25, 1859 I 
 
 French and English attack on 
 Pekin Oct. 6, 1360 
 
 BATTLES, Austrians against Prussians and Italians, war of 1866 
 
 Battle of Custozza, between Ital- 
 ians and Austrians, [Italians 
 defeated] June 24, 1866 
 
 Battle of Skalitz in Bohemia, 
 between Austrians and Prus- 
 sians, [Austrians retreat]. 
 
 July 27, 1866 
 
 Great battle of Sadowa, between 
 Austrians and Prussians. 
 
 [Nearly 500,000 men engaged. 
 Prussians completely victo- 
 rious] July 3, 1869 
 
 Austrians defeated at Olmutz, 
 
 July 15, 1869 
 
 Naval fight off Lissa, between 
 Italians and Austrians. [Ital- 
 ians lose two war ships]. July 20, 1869 
 
 BATTLES, U. S. In the War for the Union, 
 Fort Sumter, Charleston, S. C, 
 bombarded by the Rebels. 
 
 April 12. 1861 
 Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Na- 
 tionals retreat and Gen. Lyon 
 
 killed.) Aug. 10, 1861 
 
 Carthage, Mo. (Nat. victory) 
 
 July 10, 1861 
 Rich Mountain, Va., (Nat. vic- 
 tory) July 11, 1861 
 
 Btdl Run, Va., (Nat. defeated) 
 
 July 21, 1861 
 Lexington, Mo. (Nat. surren- 
 der) Sept. 20, 1861 
 
 Balls Blutf, Va., (Nat. defeated. 
 
 Gen. Baker killed) Oct, 21, 1861 
 
 Mill Spring, Ky. (Nat. victo- 
 rious) Jan. 19, 1862 
 
 Roanoke Island, N. C. (Nat. 
 captru'e 46 guns, 2,500 prison- 
 ers) Feb. 7-8, 1862 
 
 Fort Donelson, Tenn., ^Nat. cap- 
 ture 13,300 prisoners, 55 guns.) 
 
 Feb. 16, 1862 
 Pea Ridge, Ark., (Nat. victo- 
 rious) ..March 6, 7, 8, 1862 
 
 Bhiloh, Tenn., (Rebels retreat 
 after desperate lighting). 
 
 April 6-7, 1862 
 Island No. 10, Miss. River, sur- 
 renders to U. S. forces, with 125 
 guns, 6,000 prisoners. April 7, 1862 
 William8l3urg,Va.,(Rebs. retreat) 
 
 May 5, 1862 
 Winchester, Va., (Nat. retreat) 
 
 May 25, 1862 
 Fair Oaks, Va., (Nat. defeated) 
 
 May 31, 1862 
 Seven Pines, Va., (Nat. victo- 
 rious) June 1, 1862 
 
 Seven Days' Battles near Rich- 
 mond (Nat. repulsed). 
 
 June 26-July 1, 1862 
 BuU Run, Va., (Is at. defeated). 
 
 Aug. 30, 1862 
 Antietam, Md. (Rebs. defeated) 
 
 Sept. 17, 1862 
 Fredericksburg, Va., (Nat. de- 
 feated) Deo. 13, 1862 
 
 Siurfreesboro', Tenn., " Stone 
 River " (indecisive ; Rebs. re- 
 treat. Nat. loss very heavy). 
 
 Dec. 31, 1862 to Jan. 8, 1863 
 
 1861-5. 
 
 Grierson's raid through Missis- 
 sippi April 17 to May 2, 1863 
 
 Chancellorsville, Va. (Nat. re- 
 pulsed) May 2-4,1863 
 
 Champion Hills, Mississippi, 
 (Nat. victorious. Siege of 
 Vicksburg begins) May 16, 1863 
 
 Gettysburg, Peun., (Eebs. de- 
 feated) July 1-4, 1863 
 
 Chickamauga, Ga., (Rebs. de- 
 feated) Sept. 19-20, 1863 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss. (30,000 prison- 
 ers and 220 guns surrendered 
 to U. S. forces under Gen. 
 Grant) July 4, 1863 
 
 Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison- 
 ers surrender to U. S. forces). 
 
 July 8, 1863 
 
 Chattanooga, Ga., (Nat. victo- 
 rious) Nov. 23-26, 1863 
 
 National " Red liiver Expedi- 
 tion" under Gen. Banks, (de- 
 feated) April 8, 1864 
 
 Wilderness, Va. (indecisive^; 
 loss heavy on both sides). 
 
 May 5-6, 1864 
 
 8pottsylvania,Va., (Heavy fight- 
 ing, but Rebels retire). 
 
 May 10-12, 1864 
 
 Eesaca, Georgia, (Rebs. retreat) 
 
 May 15, 1864 
 
 Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. re- 
 pulsed) June 1-3, 1864 
 
 Battles about Petersburg, Va., 
 (indecisive) June 15-19, 1864 
 
 Sherman fails in an attack on 
 Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. 
 
 June 27, 1864 
 
 Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de- 
 feated) July 30, 1864 
 
 Terrible fighting about Atlanta, 
 
 Ga., (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1864 
 
 Atlanta, Ga., taken by Sherman. 
 
 Sept. 2, 1864 
 
 Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan 
 defeats Early, Rebel).. Sept. 19, 1864 
 
 Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again 
 defeated) .Sept. 22, 1864 
 
 Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally 
 defeated after gaining some 
 success) Oct. 19, 1864 
 
 Sherman starts on his march 
 across Georgia Nov. 14, 1884 
 
86 THE world's peogeess. 
 
 Franklin, Tenn., (Rebe. de- 
 fefited) Nov. 30, 1864 
 
 Nashville, Tenn., (Rebs. com- 
 pletely routed, losing 60 guns). 
 
 Dec. 15-19, 1864 
 
 Slierman enters Savannah, Ga. 
 
 Dec. 21, 1864 
 
 Fort Fisher, N. C, taken by as- 
 Bult of U. B. forces..., Jan. 15, 1865 
 
 Kingston, N. C, (Eebs. re- 
 pulsed) March 10, 1865 
 
 Grant defeats Lee at Five 
 Forks, and continues fighting 
 until the latter surrendered at 
 Appomatox Court House, Va. 
 
 April 1-9, 186* 
 
 Gen. Johnston (Rebel) surren- 
 ders to Sherman near Raleigh, 
 N. C April 26, 186S 
 
 The last rebel army under Kir- 
 by Smitb surrenders west of 
 the Mississippi.,, May 26, 1865 
 
 For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, 
 1865. See Naval Battles, Atlanta, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg^ Nashville, 
 Corinth. 
 
 BAVARIA. Louis II. (b. 1845), became king on death of his father Maximilian, 
 March 10, 1864. Population of Bavaria 1861, 4,689,83'7. 
 
 BEDOUINS. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. 
 They profess a form of Mahommedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They 
 are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect- 
 ing him, B. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and 
 Egypt. 
 
 BENEVOLENCE, British. During 1859, there were contributed to about thirty 
 of the principal religious societies of Great Britain, $4,262,435, an average of 
 $82,000 a week, over $11,000 a day, and nearly $500 an hour. And yet this 
 is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be- 
 nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was 
 $'7'74,580 ; of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, $645,380; of the Church Mis- 
 sionary Society, $610,440; of the Rehgious Tract Society, $489,490; of the 
 London Missionary Society $366,440. 
 
 BENEVOLENT Societies, (p. 255). The receipts of some of the principal be- 
 nevolent societies of Nctv York for the year ending April 30 were : 
 
 1857 
 
 Amer. Tract Society... ....". 
 
 « Bible .441.805 
 
 " B. C. Foreign Missions, 388,932 
 
 " Home Missionary See 178,060 
 
 " Sunday School ¥nion 
 
 Charities, Missions., etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re- 
 ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total 
 receipts of 28 leading societies in 1866, $4,766,698,81. These are national 
 organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 
 15 per cent. 
 
 BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's "Dictionary of 
 the Bible," 1722-8 ; Kitto's " Cyclopaedia of BibHcal Literature," (3 vols.) 
 1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) 1860. See 
 Concordances. 
 
 BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus- 
 trating Scripture history, with texts, carved in wood, a " block book," printed 
 early in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the 
 Franciscans, about 1260. A. facsimile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 
 1859. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some Ro- 
 man Catholic prelates, in France, in 17*74. Chambers's Ed. CI. The British 
 and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jan, 
 
 i858 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 1348,049 
 
 1866 
 
 390,759 
 
 415,011 
 
 429,799 
 
 642;625 
 
 334,000 
 
 550,815 
 
 435,956 
 
 
 175,970 
 
 188,189 
 
 185.216 
 
 
 (sales), 
 
 202,426 
 
 234,436 
 
 
1851-67. 8^ 
 
 I, 1861, more than twenty-three millions of copies in one hundred and ^orti 
 different languages. The American Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1866 
 expended $10,434,953. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY, the science of books. The following works on this subjecl 
 are highly esteemed: Peignot, Jfanwe^, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the 
 Study of Bibhography, 1814; Sckiptukal — Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824: 
 Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, 1854-8 ; Classical — the works of Fabri- 
 cius, Clarke, and Dibdin ; English — Watts' Bibhotheca Britannica, 1824; 
 Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); French — Querard, 
 1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunet's Manuel du Lihrain^ 
 1842, is exceedingly valuable. The most important work on English and 
 American bibliography is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R. 8vo., 
 1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Bartlett published the bibliography of the 
 American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and pamphlets relating 
 to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. 
 
 BIRDS. Divided by Linnseus into six orders (1735) ; by Blumenbach into eight 
 (1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The most remarkable works aver 
 published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John 
 Gould in England ; the latter will consist of thirty-one folio volumes of color- 
 ed plates, &c. Each set, bound, will cost about £500. Audubon's great work 
 on Birds of America was engraved and published by him in Edinburgh, in 
 four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro- 
 duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60, 
 at New York. 
 
 BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the 
 United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two. 
 Lieut.-Gen. Polk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal Bishop, was killed near 
 Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops 
 numbered forty-five. 
 
 BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi- 
 fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Natural History being 
 then printed in the new characters. 
 
 BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low- 
 landers to the Highlanders, for the protection of their cattle; existed till within 
 a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural 
 improvement almost impossible. 
 
 BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine 
 Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791; in 
 Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing 
 in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris 
 by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman 
 characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowledge 
 ih which bhnd persons have not obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, bcrn 
 in 1829, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by 
 Dr. Howe, of Boston, U. S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb 
 persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,48*7 blind 
 persons, 11,2*73 males; 10,214 females: about one bhnd in 975. Asylums for 
 THE BLIND. The numbcr in the U. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was the "Per- 
 kins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, by 
 Dr. Howe and Col Perkins New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil- 
 
88 THE world's peogeess, 
 
 adelphia Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigh, F. 
 C, 1848. Number of blind persons in the U. S. in 1860, 11,125. Estimated 
 at about the same number in 1866. 
 BOLIVIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru; was declared indepen- 
 dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar', Aug. 
 11, 1825. The insurrection of the ilf-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, 
 took place in 1780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre govern- 
 ed ably from 1826-8; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834; after which 
 many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cor- 
 dova president, 1855-'7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen, 
 Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Acha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126. 
 
 BOLOGNA, (p. 264.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw off the 
 temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On 
 Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts 
 should be headed " under the reign of Victor Emmanuel." 
 
 BOOK-TRADE, United States, (p. 266.) The number of new books recorded as 
 published during one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261. No accurate 
 statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new 
 works and new editions recorded as then first published in the U. S. was about 
 2,400. There were in the U. 6. (1860) about 3,000 booksellers and 400 pub- 
 lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate publications; in 1865, 1,802, of 
 which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The increased cost of 
 paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since 
 the rebellion began. 
 
 BOOK-TRADE of Great Britain, (p. 265.) Number of new publications in 
 1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 6, 50*7 different works entered for copyright, 
 and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of '700 per cent, 
 on the returns of 1828 : about 400 pet- cent, on those of 1836, and about 50 
 per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864 the number of pubhcations was 3,553. 
 
 BOOK-TRADE, France, (p. 266.) The value of books imported in 1855, was 
 1,829,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,855 francs; increased of exports 
 since 1851, 30 per cent. 
 
 BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Ars- 
 traUa, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 
 1604, established factories in 1'7'76, and still remain on the island. The Brit- 
 ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1S43, and in 1846 they took 
 possession of a part of the island, Sir James Brooke being appointed "Rajah 
 cf Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 
 1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 185Y ; subdued by Brooke, 
 and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawak, 
 Nov. 1858, but declined. 
 
 BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 268.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1855, 160,508 
 in 1860, 1'7'7,902.' Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 1858, 
 Population in 186*7, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by 
 the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor: 
 During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers, $3,668,000 ; for school- 
 houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, $1,357,000— a total of $6, 629,358, which is 
 claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city 
 in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the sev. 
 eral high schools is $4,000. 
 
 BOUNDARY QUESTIONS between the U. S. and England. The " Nor th-East 
 
1851-67. 89 
 
 Boundary " between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the 
 Webster-Ashburton Treaty at Washington, 1842. The Oregon Boundary, 
 adjusted by treaty at London, June 18, 1856. 
 
 BRAZIL, (p. 273.) First steamship line to Europe, 1850 ; Slave trade sup- 
 pressed, 1852 ; Railways commenced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro lighted with gas, 
 1854. War with Uruguay. Brazillians march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865. 
 Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez, 
 pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New Yorli to 
 Brazil, established through the agency of Rev. J. C. Fletcher, 186-. Kidder 
 and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes- 
 sive editions 1859-186'7. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil, 
 1866. Prehminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, ISe^. 
 The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. 
 
 BREWERIES, U. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, waa 
 969. In that year 3,235,345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured. 
 Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num- 
 ber of breweries than any other city. 
 
 BRIBERY IN THE U. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been 
 held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare 
 in this country. 
 
 BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS IN ENGLAND, (p. 211.) Borough of St. Albans disfran- 
 chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void 
 by bribery in 1853, and at other places 185*7-9. 
 
 BRICKS. In the U. S. very fiile bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and 
 Milwaukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in 1860, 13,700. The time for 
 burning bricks is 8 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 
 bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. 
 Sawyer, of Baltimore. A bi'ick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago, 
 1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac- 
 tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value of products, $10,253,734. 
 
 BRIDGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is 
 100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama, 
 120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co., 
 remarkable for their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is 
 High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high, 
 and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia, 
 has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the U. S. was 
 built by Mr. Finley about 1800. The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a 
 span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. 
 suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. Roebling ; completed in 
 1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the 
 cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. 
 Height of pier, 80 feet ; width, 45 feet ; size of cable, 12 inches ; cost 
 $1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace is 
 8,273 feet long; completed in 1865, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men. 
 It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river. 
 Cost, ,$1,500,000. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, Earl of Bridgewater, died 
 in April, 1829, leaving by will, £8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed 
 by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the 
 power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. Th« 
 
90 THE world's PBOGEESS. 
 
 essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, 
 William Prout, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Whewell and Willianj 
 Kirby) were published in 1834-3'7. 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement op Science. It holds annual 
 meetings, the first of which was held at York in 1831. One of its main ob 
 jects is to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science. A volume 
 containing reports of the proceedings is published annually. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. United by act of Parliament under the name of Domin- 
 ion of Canada, 1867. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 275). In 1846 the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville 
 bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy- 
 rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. Layard between 
 1847-50, Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately 
 been made by the munificence of Parhament, independently of a large annual 
 grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was 
 opened to the public, May 11, 1857. The room contains about 80,000 vols., 
 and will accommodate 300 readers. The library contains about 562,000 vols., 
 exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alphabetical catalogue was completed 
 from A to H in May, 1858 in above 1,000 foHo vols. 
 
 BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in 
 1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants ; in 1830 it had 15,292 ; in 1855 (then con- 
 solidated with Williamsburg) it had 205,250. In 1860, it had 273,425 ; in 
 1865, 296,378. See Additions. 
 
 FUDDHISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia 
 beyond the Ganges and Japan, from which Brahminism is derived. Buddha, 
 or the Wise, flourished about 1,000 or 1,100 b. c. The Buddhists believe 
 that thfi soul is an emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous, it 
 will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India 
 about A. D. 596. 
 
 BUENOS-AYRES, S. America, (p. 278.) The independence of the province 
 was declared July 19,1816, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form- 
 ing part of the Argentine Confederation ; but for some years the country was 
 a prey to civil war under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, 
 and Rosas. The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to 
 whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at 
 Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10, 
 
 1852, invested the city, Dec. 28. He defeated his opponent's squadron, 
 April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July IS, and the civil war ended. In 
 
 1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been 
 generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was 
 elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor 
 for three years, May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,000. 
 
 BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who 
 would build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at 
 Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in New York m 
 1848-49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained. 
 
 BURMESE OR BiRMAN Empire. For the events of war with England, and oi 
 the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu 
 annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end^^ June 20, 
 1863. 
 
1851-67. 91 
 
 CABINET, U. S., See Administrations. 
 
 CABRIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets {mlgo, cabs) were introduced in Londoa 
 as public CDDveyances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 1830 
 they had increased to 165. In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of 
 which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost 
 extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and 
 other Amer. cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not 
 being a desirable shape they were not popular, and soon disappeared. An 
 improved pattern — the coupe, was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some 
 extent. 
 
 CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The Nones of March, 
 May, July, and October, fell on the 7th ; and their Ides on the 15th. The 
 other months had the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the 
 Greeks had no Calends, ad Ghrcecas Cakndas, " on the Greek Calends," meant 
 never. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, (p. 286.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 
 23,000. By the census of 1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it 
 was 264,435, of whom only 22,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula 
 tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans; 
 10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans; 2,000 English; and 15,000 various (white) 
 nationalities ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive, 
 75,301 Chinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the 
 same time. Population in 1860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 500,000. In 1865 
 there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals. 
 From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000 
 has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000. 
 Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines 
 were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. 
 
 CALORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 
 1833, and then considered a success, but not made practically available till 
 1852. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it propelled 
 from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough 
 weather, February, 1853. This achievement created great excitement in the 
 scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient. 
 Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a 
 moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used 
 in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro- 
 
 . pean States. It is inexplosive, entirely free from danger, consumes but little 
 fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and 
 patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one 
 (other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and commerce 
 is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. 
 It establishes an epoch in the history of motive power. 
 
 CA-NADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A 
 regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and 
 lower provinces united and designated Canada East and Canada West. Sir 
 Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Railway 850 miles long, from 
 Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856. 
 Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremonj 
 by ^he Prince of Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 952,004; 
 
92 THE woeld's peogeess. 
 
 Lower Canada, 890,261. In 185'r it was estimated thus: Upper Canada, 
 1,305,923 ; Lower, 1,220,614. Tlie value of exports in IBS'? was £0,751,656. 
 Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,506, '755. Producta 
 of the U. S. imported iuto Canada under the " Reciprocity Treaty," in 1862, 
 $14,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,21'7. Exports, $33,31'7,873. Total 
 militia force, (1863) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 1864, 
 a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by some confederates, 
 created great excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, U. S. A., ordered that 
 U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender- 
 ed. The government revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can- 
 ada," consisting of the United Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, &c., established by the Queen's consent, 1867. 
 
 CANALS, (p. 288.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000; 
 completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 31 miles, cost $235,934 per 
 
 mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 
 1858, 388 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,- 
 436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro- 
 duce from the west were brought to tide-water. 
 
 CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was 
 founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. 
 Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York 
 (1866-7). 
 
 CANNON, (p. 290.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was 
 a 24-pounder; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs. 
 A vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S. 
 Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Pairott in- 
 vented, at West Point, a rifled gun of great efficiency. The lO-pounder has 
 a range of 5,000 yards. The 300-pounder can throw a shot of 250 lbs. 5J 
 miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth 
 chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts- 
 burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, 1,000 lbs.; charge, 100 
 lbs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. 
 Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch bores are unequalled for powerful ef- 
 fect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe, 
 carrying shot of 525 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment (IJ. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for the army and navy. Steel cannon 
 were first manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June, 
 1861. In England, since 1850, great improvements in cannon have been 
 made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the U. S. 
 navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An 
 American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860. 
 
 CANTON, (p. 291.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts 
 guarding the city were captured, and Canton was bombarded, Oct. 29, 1856, 
 by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was afterwards censured by a vote of the 
 House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and French, Dec. 29, 1857,- 
 and Yeh, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner. 
 
 CAPITOL OF THE United States. The corner-stone of the original edifice waa 
 laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the British 1814; re- 
 stored 1818. Corner-stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July, 
 1851. The present structure is 751 feet long, and covers 8^ acres. The co* 
 lossal statue of Freedom, by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec, 
 
1851-67. 93 
 
 2, 1863. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar- 
 ble and the setting of the same was $2,402,000. 
 
 CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (H. B.), (John 
 Doyle I°=HB), R. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known 
 "Punch " was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction 
 (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con- 
 tributed to this amusing periodical. " Vanity Fair," commenced in New 
 York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but 
 was short-lived. See Satire. 
 
 CARNIVAL. (Carni vale, Italian, i e., Flesh, farewelW) A well-known festival time 
 in the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about 
 Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and indulgence, 
 and numbers visit Italy during its continuance. 
 
 CAROLINA.— See N. and S. Carolina. 
 
 CARPET MANUFACTURE.— The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in 
 1855 was $1,362,000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 1857, valued at $2- 
 181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but of 
 these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting req^.l^ed, 
 in the best houses. 
 
 CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed, are :?aid 
 to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The Duke of Pa^ma 
 had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon .ol- 
 lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States. 
 
 CASUALTIES for 1865. During the year 1865, there were 354 fires in the 
 United States where the amount of loss was $20,000 or upwards, at which 
 property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses 
 by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were $214,588,000. During the year 
 there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons were killed and 1,427 
 wounded ; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265 
 wounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, 
 by which 2,204 were killed, and 8,356 wounded ; and 324 steamboat accidents, 
 by which 5,372 were killed, and 1,579 wounded. 
 
 CAUCASUS, (p. 297.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been 
 the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of 
 Schamyl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by the czar. 
 
 CAV/NPORE. A town in India ; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by 
 native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by 
 Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers 
 of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have- 
 lock, July 17, 1857. 
 
 CAYENNE, (p. 298.) Many political prisoners have been sent here by the 
 French emperor since 1852. 
 
 CEMETERIES, National. For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died 
 in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,- 
 528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves, 
 
 . The " Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,000 graves, half of them marked 
 "unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1867 for substantial headstones 
 and improvements. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication 
 of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev« 
 eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn, 
 Calvary, The Evergreens, &c. 
 
94 THE world's PKOGRESS, 
 
 CENSUS OP THE United States, has been taken at eight different periods, viz; 
 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860. ^ee Population. The 
 Census is taken by the general government every ten years ; that of New 
 York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially at 
 intermediate periods, thus giving returns every five years. Other states hava 
 diflPerent periods for a census. In 1865, it was taken in the states of Illinois, 
 Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa. 
 The number of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of 1860 was 4,481 ; 
 expense to the Government, $1,045,206. 
 
 CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1*700, the entire population of the Anglo-Ameri- 
 can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In 
 1790, the population of tiie United States alone was 8,929,827 ; and in 1860, 
 31,443,821, Anticipated population in 1900, 107,000,000. The unimproved 
 lands of the United States, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres ; improved 
 lands, 163,110,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at ^6,645,045,007. 
 Estimated product of our manufactures in 1860, $4,000,0'00,0(i0. Com- 
 mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing $1,432,649, 
 OCO. City railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals 
 and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property 
 estimated at $19,089,156,289. Educational institutions reported, 113,006"; 
 tepchers, 148,742 ; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445 ; students, 
 54,969. Churches, 54,000. Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,00u,000 
 copies. Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. In 
 1812, regulars, 32,360; volunteers, 6,000; militia, 30,000; navy, 8 frigates, 
 and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865, 
 we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre ; 
 and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,000. 
 If the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of 
 4,000,000 of men at arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country 
 or age of the world. — Christian Almanac. 
 
 CHALDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. 
 W. portion of it. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. 
 See Dan. 2, &c. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD, England, (p. 245) 
 
 Sir Thomas Wilde, created Lord Sir Fred. Thesigrer, created Lord 
 
 Truro 1850 Chelmsford 1858 
 
 Sir Edw. Sutrden, created Lord Jolin, Lord Campbell 1859 
 
 St. Leo ards 1852 Eichard Bethel, Lord Westburj', 
 
 Robert Mousey Rolfe, created June 26, 1861 
 
 Lord Cranworth 1852 Thomas, Lord Cranworth, again 
 
 July 6, 1865 
 
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr. 
 Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 
 1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker, and the rebels 
 under General Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army crossed the Rappahannock ; 
 on May 2, General " Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the 
 right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis- 
 take. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 
 and 4, with great loss to both parties. Hooker was compelled to retreat acrosa 
 the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont 
 during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. 
 
 CHANCERY. In the U. S, federal courts equity and law are both administered, 
 and this system was adopted by the state of N. Y. in her Constitution of 184ft 
 
1851-67. 95 
 
 CHAEITIES OF THE WAR in the TJ. S. A careful statement made or the 
 amount contributed by the people of the loyal states for philanthroDic pur- 
 poses connected with the war, not including the donations for religious or 
 educational objects, gives the following noble record : The total contributions 
 from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, cimounted 
 to $187,209,608.62 ; the contributions of associations and individuals for th-- 
 care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865.96 ; for sufferers abroad, $38'- - 
 040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freedmen and white refugees, 
 $639,633.13: making a grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the govern- 
 ment, of $212,274,248.45. See Sanitary Commission, &c. 
 
 CHARLESTON, S. C. Population in 1860, 40,578. A severe firo des.:-oyec 
 the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861; 17 old hulks W3re sunk 
 by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, 1861. The c<*y surrep 
 dered to National troops, February 18, 1865. 
 
 CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self ,, 
 relatives ; and British laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of he- 
 chastity ; and a husband or father in taking the life of him who attempts t.- 
 violate his wife or daughter. In 1,000 years from the time of Numa, "?.0 b. c, 
 to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. ». 394, only eighteen Roman vestals 
 had been condemned for incontinence. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA, Battle op, U. S. Fought on Nov,, 23, 1863, between th3 
 Union armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. The 
 Confederates were driven from every position. Or. tne right, Hooker stormed 
 Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carried the rifle-pits ; Sherman forced 
 the left after hard fighting. On the 25th the whole of Missionary Ridge was 
 in the hands of the Union army, and the enemy completely routed. This has 
 been regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. Union 
 loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoners and 42 guns were captured. 
 
 CHICAGO, Illinois. Population in 1860, 109,260 ; in 1865, estimated at i80,- 
 000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 1,000,000 
 hogs are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 
 1866, $2,457,673. 
 
 CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a 
 severe battle between the Union and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. 
 The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. 
 Thomas withstood the fierce assaults of the enemy, and saved the army from 
 a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reinforced by Longstreet from 
 Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acted entirely oa 
 the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their 
 papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. 
 
 CHILI, S. America, (p. 304.) The present president (1859), Don Manuel Moutt, 
 was elected Oct. 18, 1856. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was 
 going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,558,458. Exports in 1857 
 amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pres. 1861. Rupture between 
 Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. in. 1857, 
 1,558,319. 
 
 CHINA, (p. 305.) 
 
 Death of TaonKwang... Feb. 25, 1850 Rebels take Fankin, March 19, 
 
 Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si, Amoy, May 19, Bhanghae, 
 
 Aug. 1850 Sept. 7, 1863 
 
 Rebel emperor or pretender Rebels besiege Canton unsuo- 
 
 Tlenteh appears.. March 1851 ceesfully Nov. 1854 
 
96 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS. 
 
 vantoii forts taken ty the Brit- 
 isli(see Canton) Oct. 8,1856 
 
 Americans capture 3 forts, Nov. 21, 1856 
 
 Chinese bum European fac- 
 tories, and murder English 
 sailors Dec. 1856 
 
 Lord Elgin sent out as British 
 envoy March, 1857 
 
 Briiish destroy the Chinese fleet, 
 
 June 1, 1857 
 
 British blockade Canton. . . . .Aug. 1S57 
 
 Canton taken by English and 
 French Dec. 28-9, 1857 
 
 "jTeh, gov. of Canton, who is said 
 to have beheaded 100,000 
 rebels, sent to Calcutta Jaq< 1858 
 
 Forts at mouih of Peiho captured 
 by the English and French. 
 
 May 20, 1858 
 
 Treaty of peace signed by Key- 
 ing, Lord Elgin, and Bar. Gros. 
 
 June 28, 1858 
 
 {Principal articles: Ambassa- 
 dors to be at both courts ; free- 
 dom of trade ; Christianity to 
 be tolerated ; expenses of war 
 paid by China ; tariff to be 
 
 revised ; Chinese epithet of 
 " barbarian" no longer to be 
 applied to foreigners.] 
 
 Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop- 
 ped at the mouth of the Peibo. 
 Admiral Hope attempting to 
 force the passage defeated, 
 losing 81 killed, 300 vs^ounded. 
 
 June 25, 1851 
 
 Pekin taken by the French and 
 English forces, and the em- 
 peror's palace sacked 1860 
 
 Pekin given up by allies. »• Nov. 5, 1860 
 
 English and French embassies 
 established there 1861 
 
 Mr. Burlingame appointed IJ. S. 
 Minister \o China 1861 
 
 Emperor Hien-fung dies, and is 
 succeeded by Ki-tsiang. Aug. 24, 1861 
 
 Canton restored to Chinese. 
 
 Oct. 21, 1861 
 
 English and French aid the gov- 
 ernment against the rebels...... 1862 
 
 English Capt. Grordon defeats 
 rebels and takes Nankin, and 
 rebel emperor Tienwang kills 
 himself July 18, 1864 
 
 CHINA TRADE. A large trade is developed with China through the city of San 
 Francisco. "Flour, wheat, lumber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and 
 vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value 
 of exports from the U. S. to Ohina in 1862, was $4,328,500. In 1866, 2,530,- 
 000 lbs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one 
 shipment reached New York, via California and Panama, in 60 days. In 1867, 
 a regular line of steamers was estabUshed between Cliina, Japan, and Califor- 
 nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Burlin- 
 game appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861. 
 
 CHLOROFORM. See Ancesthetics. 
 
 CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most 
 severe at the west, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. From 
 July to Sept., 1866, there were 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 
 583 in N. Y. city. 
 
 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, London, founded by Edward VL, 1552. 
 
 CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, 
 CHRONOLOGY, (p. 309.) 
 
 See Printing in colors. 
 
 The following works are much esteemed : Play- 
 fair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by Sir H. 
 Ellis in 1844, and by Mr. Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 
 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful. 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 309.) The number of churches in England for 
 Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Publication of " Essays and Re- 
 views," and numerous Replies, 1861-2. The Church divided into High, Low, 
 (orEvangehcal) and Broad church — the latter including those who hold the 
 opinions of Dr. Arnold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Publication of a work on 
 the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation, 
 1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 1864. This pro- 
 ceeding declared by the Privy Council to be null and void, Oct. 21, 1865. 
 " Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen, 
 and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864. 
 
1851-67. 97 
 
 CnrJECH RATES in England in 1854 amounted to £318,200, Bill to aboJish 
 them passed by the House of Commons but defeated by the H. of J-ords, 1858. 
 
 CIDER. In the State of New York (1865), 591,379 barrels of cider were manu- 
 factured. 
 
 CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the AUeghanies in the 
 United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and 
 N^w Jersey. Population in 1795,500; in- 1800, 750; in 1810,2,540; in 
 1820,9,642; in 1830,24,831; in 1840, 46,388; in 1850,115,486; in I860, 
 lfil,044. ' 
 
 CINQUE PORTS, England, (S. E. coast.) They were originally five: Dover, 
 Hastings, Hy the, Rommey, and Sandwich ; Winchelsea and Rye were after- 
 wards added. They are governed by a particular policy and are under a 
 lord warden. The Duke of Wellington filled that office from 1828 to hia 
 death, 1852. 
 
 CIRCASSIA. (p. 311.) By the treaty of Adrianople, in 1880, Circassia was 
 surrendered to Russia by Turkey. But the Circassians, particularly under a 
 native chief named Schamyl, have ever since carried on a war of indepen- 
 dence with varying success against the whole power of Russia. In June, 
 November, and December, 1857, the Circassians were defeated by the Rus- 
 sian govei-nor, Prince Orbelliani, who also in April, 1858, conquered a large 
 tract of country, and expelled the inhabitants. On Sept. 7, 1859, Schamyl 
 was captured by the Russians, and treated with great respect. The Circas- 
 sians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 
 
 CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circum- 
 ference, has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archi- 
 medes, about B. c. 221, gave it as 7 to 22. Abraham Sharp (1717), as 1 (and 
 72 decimals) to 3 ; and Layny (1719), as 1 (and 122 decimals) to 3. 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The largest circulating library in the U. S. is the 
 Mercantile of N. Y. city. It contains 86,000 volumes, and has 10,000 mem- 
 bers ; 12,000 volumes were added in 1866, costing $15,000; 200 copies of 
 the "Cou.j of Joseph II." were bought to supply the demand, and liberal 
 numbers of all new books of general interest. 
 
 CLERMONT (France), Council of. The celebrated council in which the crusade 
 against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed 
 to Command it, in the pontificate of Urban IL, 1095. In this council the 
 iiame of pope was first given to the head of the Roman Catholic church, 
 exclusively of the bishops, who used until this time to assume that title. 
 1 hilip I. of Prance was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly. 
 Henault. 
 
 CLOACA MAXIMA. The chief of the celebrated sewers in Rome, the construc- 
 tion of which is attributed to King Tarquinius Priscus (b. c. 588), and his 
 successors. 
 
 CLOCK (p. 258). The great "Westminster (London) clock set up. May 80, 1859. 
 The London watchmakers established the Horological Institute in 1858, which 
 publishes a j( uraal. In 1857, 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches were im- 
 ported into the United Kingdom. Clockmaking of a cheap kind, on a large 
 scale, was commenced in Connecticut in 18 — . The American watch compa- 
 nies, founded 1850, at Waltham, Roxbury, &c., make large quantities of supe- 
 rior watches. Number of clock manufactories in the U. S. in 1860, 23 ; value 
 of products annually, $1,181,500. 
 
 CLUBS IN THE UNITED STATES. In NewYobk: The most important areth* 
 5 
 
98 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 Athencmm, founded 1859, in 6th avenue, afterwards in Union square, noTV 
 (ISC'?) in Madison square ; Century, founded in Broadway in 1 48, now '.n 
 15th street; Eclectic, founded 186- ; Jockey, founded 186- ; New York, 18-; 
 Travellers' , 1S6-; Union, 5th avenue and 21st street; Union League, founded 
 Feb. 6, 1863, incorporated Feb. 16, 1865; University, founded 186-. The 
 Century and the Athenceum were originated as " associations for the advance- 
 in^ it of literature and art." The Union League was started on the basis of 
 '' unconditional loyalty" to the government, and to aid in the suppression of 
 treason and rebellion. It was said to have made loyalty " fashionable in the 
 best circles." It raised three regiments of colored troops for the U. S. vc'lun- 
 teer forces, and otherwise rendered important services. In Philadelphia, 
 the Union League Club, founded Dec. 27, 1862, was the foremost of its kind 
 in the U. S. It raised ten regiments for the government. It numbers 2,000 
 members, and has a magnificent club-house. One of the oldest clubs in Phila- 
 delphia was the Wistar. In Boston, the Union League Club was founded in 
 1863. Clubs originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred 
 tastes and pursuits, who met together at stated times for social intercourse. 
 The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the sixteenth 
 century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakespeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a 
 club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at But- 
 ton's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present London clubs, 
 some comprising 300, others about 1,500 members, possess luxuriously fur- 
 nished edifices, several of great architectural pretensions,'in or near Fall •Mall. 
 The members obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges. 
 Many of the clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly the Athenceum 
 {which see). The annual payment varies from £6 to £11 Us.; the entrance 
 fee from £9 9s. to £31 lis. The following are the principal clubs : 
 
 Kit-Cat ..1703 
 
 Beef-Steak 1735 
 
 White's {Tory) establislied.. .1736 
 
 Boodle's 1762 
 
 Literary Club (ic/dch see), 
 termed also " The Club," 
 
 and Johnson's Club 1763 
 
 United Service 1815 
 
 Travellers' 1819 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge 1829 
 
 Carlton (Conservative) 1802 
 
 Reform (Liberal) 1 836 
 
 Army and Navy 1837 
 
 "Whittiiigton (founded by Douglas 
 Jerrold and others). .......... .1843 
 
 French. The first of these arose about 1*7 82. They were essentially politi- 
 cal, and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
 the celebrated Chib des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among 
 its members Danton and Camille Desmoulins. From these two clubs r,aaie 
 the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists, 1*793, and fell in its turn 
 in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were re- 
 vived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former 
 eminence. 
 
 COAL IN THE U. S. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined 
 ard used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, 
 Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. The "Statistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, pub- 
 lished in Philadelphia in 1854, give a full and reliable account of coal pro- 
 ducts in all parts of the world. The anthracite coal of Pennsylvania was first 
 used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous coal first 
 mined in the U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in 1860, 6,218,080 tons. 
 Amount of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the 
 states. The upper seam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain 
 53,516 tons. A single lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the 
 Paris Exposition of 1867. The area of coal in the U. S. is 2C6,939 square 
 
1851-67. 99 
 
 miles; 470 miles is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product in 1865 was 
 22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. The consumption of coal 
 in France, in 1750 only 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. The 
 United States produced between 8 and 9 millions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000,- 
 000 ; and France, 4,500,000, in 1855 
 
 COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its color from feed- 
 ing on the cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
 Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523. It was not 
 known in Italy, in 1548, although the art of dyeing then ilourished there. See 
 Dyeing. In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in the Teneriflfe, the vines 
 having failed through disease. The import into England in 1850, 2,360,000 
 lbs. In the United States the importation in 1858 amounted to $221,332. 
 
 CODE NAPOLEON. The Civil Code of France, promulgated from 1803 to 1810. 
 This was considered by the emperor as his most enduring monument. It was 
 prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 
 systems previously existing. 
 
 COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at diffsrent perioda 
 is reported by the Secretary of the Treasury thus : 
 
 1821 Tea, 4,586,223 lbs Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 
 
 1830 " 6,873,091 lbs.... " 38,363.687 lbs. 
 
 1835 " 12.331,638 lbs " 91 753,002 lbs. 
 
 1842 " 13,482,645 lbs « 107,387.567 lbs. 
 
 1846 " 16,891,020 lbs « 124.336,054 lbs. 
 
 1856 " 240,676,227 lbs. 
 
 In 1867 a company was being organized to introduce the cultivation of 
 coffee in South Florida. The duty on imports of coffee, by tariff of July, 
 1862, is five cents per pound. 
 
 03D-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by 
 Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's 
 treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin in 1844; in English in 1849. 
 
 COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The gold coin- 
 age consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half-eagles, quarter eagles, and dol- 
 lars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first deposit of Cahfornia gold 
 for coining was made-by Mr. David Cai'ter, 1,804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. 
 
 COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1793 to 1866^ inclusive. 
 
 Gold. Total. 
 
 1793 to 1850, 57i years 117,569,825 196,054,03'? 
 
 1851 to 1860, 9^ years 470,838,180 520,175,556 
 
 1861 to 1866, 6years. 257,128,586 271,194,433 
 
 Total, „o......... $846,536,590 $987,424,026 
 
 COLONIES. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the world 
 was estimated, in 1852, at 182,983,672, of yhich 176,028,672 belong to the 
 East Indies. 
 COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U. S. organized March, 1861. Area, 
 104,000 square miles. Capital, Denver City. In 1862, $12,000,000 in gold was 
 produced from its mines. Population in 1860, 34,230, and about 6,000 
 Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a state passed Congress, but was 
 vetoed, May, 1866. 
 
 COLUMBIA, DiSTEiCT of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by 
 Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
 seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and 
 Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was receded to Virgina. Population in 
 
100 THE WOELD's PEOGEESS 
 
 1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43, 7] 2, including 8,361 free colored persons, aiid 
 4,694 slaves. In 1850, 61,687, including 3,687 slaves ; in 1860, 61,403 ; 
 in 1864, 75,000, including 31,500 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools were 
 in Operation in the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867, 
 118,800, of whom there were several thousand more women than men. Im- 
 partial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admitting colored voters in the dis- 
 trict, 1867 ; put in force at the municipal election of 1867, when colored votes 
 sere cast for city officers. 
 
 COMBAT, SINGLE, in England. It commenced with the Lombards, a. d. 659. 
 Introduces into England, and allowed in accusations of treason, when no other 
 evidence was produced, 1096. The last combat proposed was prevented by 
 the king in 1631. 
 
 COMETS. (P.264.) Donati's comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
 served byDr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, being then calculated to be 
 228 millions of miles from our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the 
 end of September and October following, when the tail was said to be 40 
 mlilions of miles long. On the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ; 
 on the 18th it was near coming into collision with Venus. Two new comets 
 were discovered in 1862 ; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, another at Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., July 18th. Besides these, the regular return of Encke's comet 
 took place in the beginning of the year. In 1863, five new comets were 
 found, none of them in the U. S. ; only one was visible to the naked eye with 
 any certainty. 
 
 commanders-in-Chief, U. S. army. 
 
 Jacob Brown ^ . . .1821 Geo. B. McOlellan 1861 
 
 Alexander Macomb 1835 Henry W. Halleck 1862 
 
 Winfield Scott... 1841 UlyBses S. Grant 1864 
 
 British Army. 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1674 Hon. George Conway 1782 
 
 Duke of Marlborough .1690 Duke of York 1795 
 
 Duke of Scbomberer 1691 Sir David Dundas 1809 
 
 Duke of Ormond..". 1711 Dukeof York again 1811 
 
 Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Wellington 1827 
 
 Fieldmarsfcal Wade ..1745 Lord Hill 1828 
 
 Lord Ligonier , ..1757 Duke of "Wellington again 1842 
 
 MarquesB of Granby 1766 Lord Hardinge 1852 
 
 Lord Amherst , 1778 Dukeof Cambridge.. 1856 
 
 COMMERCE, See Exports and Imports, Navigation and Shipping, &c. 
 COMMERCIAL FAILURES. The circular of Dun, Boyd, & Co., of N. York 
 gives the following statistics of failures in the U. States ; 
 
 1857 1858 1859 1860 
 
 Failures 4,937 4,225 3,913 3,676 
 
 Amount...... $291,750,000 $95,750,000 $64,294,000 $79,807,000 
 
 Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts 
 amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of 
 failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $17,625,000. 
 
 CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Virgin. On the 8th of September, 1854, 
 the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this 
 dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should 
 doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, 
 established in 1488. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. (P. 334.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, 
 a remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, wa£ 
 completed in 1844, after ten years' labor. 
 
1851-67. 101 
 
 •CONFEDERATE STATES of AMERICA." The efforts of the Southern 
 States for the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern States for 
 its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great seces- 
 sion of 1860-1. See United States^ also Chronological tables. On Nov. 4, 
 
 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected 
 president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the 
 South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the 
 Union ; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia 
 (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded 
 early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern 
 Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. 
 
 CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Athanasian, and Mcem 
 creeds. Augsburgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed 
 to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1833. 
 
 CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862, • 
 under the census of 1860, increased the number of Representatives to 242, 
 There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, who deliberate but have no 
 vote. The Senators in 1862 were 62 in number. Each Senator and Repre- 
 sentative is allowed |10,00D compensation for each Congress (two years) de- 
 ducting for absence (1866). In the 39th Congress there were 52 Senators 
 and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In 
 the 40th Congress, (1867), the same number, with the addition of Senators 
 and Representatives from Tennessee. 
 
 CONGRESS, " CoKFEnEKATE." Delegates from seven Southern states met at 
 Montgom.ery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, 
 chairman. On the 8th, a constitution was adopted similar to that of the U. S. 
 On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the " Confederacy ;" 
 Jeff. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May 7, 
 
 1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. 
 The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the 
 approach of the National 'army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled 
 again. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850, 370,792 ; 1860, 460,670. This state 
 sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5. 
 
 CONSCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the 
 French and other armies. On Sept. 6, 1798, a military conscription was or- 
 dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of 
 age: from these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified 
 in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department, 
 — for all the country, 80,000 men^ — which may be increased. The duration 
 of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. A con- 
 scription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian 
 campaign, and in Dec. of same year another for 300,000, after the battle of 
 Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union, 1861-6, " drafts" were 
 ordered and enforced at two different times. The first draft was the (nominal) 
 cause of riots in New York, July, 1863. 
 
 CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American politics, to denote the 
 opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 
 1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the " Conservative party," 
 in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavery 
 party of the south. 
 
102 THE world's peogkess. 
 
 CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term " Consols,") was formed 
 of the other funds in 1186. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. 
 
 CONSTITUTION of the U. S. The great amendment to the constitution, 
 abolishing slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths ol 
 the states, 27 in number, ratified it and it became the law of the land, Dec. 
 18, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring 
 all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives shall be apportioned 
 according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no person who 
 shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold any office under the U. S. 
 government ; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques- 
 tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (ise*/) 
 "been ratified by three-fourths of the states. 
 
 CONSULS. See Ambassadors. 
 
 CONTRABAND of war. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty 
 of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle 
 between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships 
 of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance 
 of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; 
 and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. 
 
 CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of 
 Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their 
 owners on the ground that they wei'e "contraband of war." Since then the 
 term has been used for " blacks or slaves." 
 
 CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in the British 
 Parliament, 1782. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS, in aid op the Government of the U. S., (1861-65.) See 
 Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid 
 and relief of Union soldiers, amounted to |18Y,209,608. The contributions of 
 associations and individuals for the care and comfort of soldiers were 
 $24,044,865 ; for sufferers abroad, $380,040 ; for sufferers by the riots of 
 July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu- 
 tions of the people of the loyal states, $212,274,248, The famous Sanitary 
 and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered their services for 
 the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during 
 the war. See Sanitary^ &c. 
 
 CONVENTION, in the U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished 
 men from the states met at Washington, D. C, as a Peace Confei-ence, to pro- 
 pose compromise measures between the north and south. Their propositions 
 were referred to Congress, which rejected them. " Phila. Convention " of 
 delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy of Pres. Johnson in 
 regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention, 
 Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.) 
 
 COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo- 
 cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on 
 any terms. 
 
 COPYRIGHT OF DESIGNS, for manufactures in England, first granted 1787, 
 for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14 
 years, 1814. Copyright on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or- 
 namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 8 years, by act 
 of 1842, and still further in 1850. 
 
1851-67. 103 
 
 COPYRIGHT IN THE U. S. The law modified so that the copy of the book ig 
 
 to be sent to the library of Congress, instead of Smithsonian Inst. 1865. (?) 
 The law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 years, 
 and a right of renewal to himself, his wife and children for 14 years more, mak- 
 ing 42 years in all. No foreigner can secure a copyright imless residing in 
 the U. S. So far (ISC'?), the American government has refused or failed to re- 
 spond to the British offer of reciprocity in Uterary copyright. A treaty for 
 this purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon. 
 
 COPYRIGHT OP BOOKS, Produce of. The most profitable copyrights in 
 the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have yielded 
 large sums to the authors. Of literary and historical works the most profita- 
 ble have been the works of Prescott, Bancroft, Irving, Longfellow, Kane, Mrs. 
 Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (1865-7). 
 
 COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled 
 with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived 
 from the Eutychians, a sect of the fifth century. 
 
 CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi; important during the w£,r as 
 a military position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Gen. Beauregard, 
 (Confed.) entrenched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces 
 under- Gen. Halleck. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place was 
 evacuated by the rebels. May 29, 1862. 
 
 CORN, Indian, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture 
 for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total 
 result is 880,000,000 bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said 
 to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn in 1866 amounted 
 to $12,299,879. 
 
 COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been 
 much disturbed by filibustera from the U. S. See Nicaragua and Central 
 America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, 
 and Dr. Jos^ Montealegre made president. 
 
 COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume, known 
 as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with 
 very limited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline^ 
 ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birth of 
 the heir to the French throne (about 1854). The latter was the prevaiUng 
 fashion until 18"66-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very 
 small expansion. 
 
 COTTON, U. S. (p. 334.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced 
 '^stated in millions of pounds weight) : 
 
 1859 1386 mills., average price 11 cts. 
 
 1860 1767 " «' " 11 " 
 
 1861 S07 " «* •' 11^" 
 
 1862 5 " " " 23i" 
 
 1863 11 " « " 66 " 
 
 1864 lOf « » " 83 " 
 
 1865 6i « « « 88 " 
 
 1866 650 *' « ♦' 43 " 
 
 Total value of cotton exported in 89 years, 2,383 millions of dollars. Valua 
 in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 
 5 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 78-^ per cent. ; India, 10+ ; Brazil, 
 7 : Egypt, 8^ ; West Indies, <fec., -^ per cent. In England a cotton supply 
 association to obtain from Africa, India, &c., was formed at Manchester abou/ 
 
 1821 
 
 124 mills. 
 
 average 
 
 price 16 cts. 
 
 1S30 
 
 298 " 
 
 « 
 
 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 1840 
 
 743 » 
 
 (1 
 
 (! 
 
 14 " 
 
 1849 
 
 1026 " 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 6 " 
 
 1850 
 
 635 » 
 
 u 
 
 (( 
 
 11 " 
 
 1855 
 
 1098 «' 
 
 <( 
 
 « 
 
 8 « 
 
 1856 
 
 1351 " 
 
 <c 
 
 (( 
 
 9 " 
 
 1857 
 
 1048 " 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 
 12 " 
 
 1858 
 
 1118 « 
 
 It 
 
 <( 
 
 11 " 
 
104 THE world's progress. 
 
 ;• SS*?. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, states that 
 cotton grows there in great profusion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth ig 
 manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product 
 of 1,750,000 bales of 400 pounds each in 1866. The estimates are made up 
 as follows : North Carolina, 91,000 bales ; South Carolina, 152,000 , Georgia, 
 205,000 ; Florida, 36,000 ; Alabama, 220,000 ; Mississippi, 270,000 ; Loui- 
 siana, 100,000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,000 ; Tennessee, 148,000 ; 
 other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077 
 balas. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866, 
 $18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports 
 of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,300. 
 
 C0TT:)N gin. This invention, in 1793, by EU Whitney of New Haven, gave 
 an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and 
 prepares 300 lbs. per day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could 
 be cleansed. 
 
 COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain. 
 
 Official Value, i (Mcial Value. 
 
 1697 .... i;5,9]5 1860 .... ;e52,012,430 
 
 1701 23,253 1861 46,872,489 
 
 1780 .... 355,000 ! 1862 .... 36,750,971 
 
 1790 1,(^62,369 ] 1863 47,587,188 
 
 1800 .... 5,406,501 1 1864 .... 54,856,289 
 
 1820 20,509,926 ! 
 
 In 1860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported of which 9,963,309 cwt. 
 came from the United States, and 1,822,698 cwt from India. 
 
 COTTON RAW Imported into Great Britain. 
 
 lis. 
 
 1697 .... 1,976,359 
 
 1730 .... 1,545,472 
 
 1764 .... 3,870,392 
 
 1,790 .... 31.500,000 
 
 1800 .... 56,000,000 
 
 1810 .... 132,500,000 
 
 1820 .... 151,500,000 
 
 1830 .... 264.000,000 
 
 1840 .... 5:12,5(10,000 
 
 1860 .... 1,390,938,752 
 
 1861 .... 1,256,984,736 
 
 1862 . . . . 523,973,296 
 
 1863 . . . . 669,583,264' 
 
 1864 .... 893,304,720 
 
 COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following 
 was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operation ; Great Britain, 
 17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000-, Russia, 700,000, 
 Switzerland, 650,000 ; Belgium, 420,000 ; Spain, 300,000 ; Italy, 300,000 ; 
 Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in 1860, the number of spindles employed in 
 the five New England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states,, 236,480. 
 Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices oi 
 cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent., or 81 per cent, in gold be- 
 tween 1860 and 1866. 
 
 COURT, SUPREME, of the U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy 
 in this Court is to be filled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice, 
 and six Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices. 
 The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts. 
 
 COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, ofScers comand- 
 ing distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene courts-martial. There 
 are several limitations to the act. The number forming a court is from five to 
 13. Great numbers of these courts were in session during the late war. In 
 1866, 8,188 records of courts-martial and military commissions were received 
 and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D C. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-stock company with this name wab established a1 
 
1851-67. 105 
 
 Paris, "Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It takes up oi 
 originates trading enterprises of all Icinds, applying to them the principle ol 
 commandite, or limited liabilities, and is authorized to supersede or buy in any 
 other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to 
 carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by 
 a paid-up capital of 2| miUions sterling, the issue of obhgations at not less 
 than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac- 
 count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless considered 
 by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1*716, and likely 
 to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed ; and in May, 
 1858, no dividend was paid. 
 CRIME, New York City. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent 
 pubhcation states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one 
 months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of 
 whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 Germau, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons 
 admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners ; 15,948 were 
 Irish. 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 
 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inmates of 
 tne lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city 
 prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members of the 
 church of Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. 
 11,222 were convicted iu the court of Special Sessions. During the war, 
 there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See 
 Prisons. In England. The number of convictions by trial in England and 
 Waks was, in 
 
 Persons. Capital Offenees. 
 
 1849.,, 21,001 66 
 
 1855 19,9T1 50 
 
 1858 13,246 53 
 
 1864..,. , U,726 32 
 
 Since 1848 there had been no commitments for political ofiences, such as treason 
 or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. In 1856 
 there were 2,666 persons liberated on " tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi- 
 nal prosecutions in 1856 were £194,912. 
 
 CRIMEA, OR Crim Tartaet. War having been declared by England and 
 France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to 
 the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c., sailed for Varna, 
 where they disembarked May 29. The expedition against the Crimea having 
 been determined on, the alhed British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting 
 to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. 
 Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, 
 without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas- 
 topol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong 
 (under Prince Menschikoif), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to 
 be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See 
 Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the 
 allies quitted the Crimea in July following. 
 
 BRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of mw, hair) is the modern 
 name of the " fardingale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats 
 made of whalebone, &c., revived in France, England and the United States, 
 since 1855, They have frequently occasioned loss of Hfe, by coming in con- 
 tact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published Jan. 5, 
 1^10, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat thea in fashion. See Costume 
 5* 
 
106 THE world's peogkess. 
 
 CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to 
 have been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, with two others, by St, 
 helena. May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by 
 a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, 
 king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the 
 emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has 
 aince been commemorated as " the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," es- 
 tablished in 642. It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two 
 miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Gonstantine, and that it led him 
 TO adopt it on his standards, with the inscription "/« hoc dgno vinces,^^ "in 
 this sign thou shalt conquer." With these he advanced to Rome, where he 
 vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 2*7,312. Lenglet. 
 
 Signing with the cross was first 
 practised by Christians to dis- 
 tinguish .themselves from the 
 Pagans, about 110 ; and in the 
 time of Tertulian, 260, it was 
 (teenied efficacious against 
 
 Crosses in churches and chambers 
 were introduced about 431 ; and 
 set up on steples about 
 
 Crosses and idolatrous pictures 
 were removed from churches, 
 and crosses in the streets demol- 
 
 poisoD, witcncraft, &c. | ished by order of parliament. 1641 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE in I'fBW York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a 
 cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the 
 public (Pres. Pierce being pi'esent), August, 1852. The building destroyed by 
 fire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sep. iS59. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the Exhibition of the 
 World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad- 
 ditional projection. Entire area, 7*72, 784 square feet, or about 19 acres. 
 Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and opened May 1, 1851. 
 Closed to the public Oct. 11, same year. It cost £176,030. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE at Sydenham, near London, built chiefly of the materials 
 used in the foregoing, was commenced August 5, 1852. Capital of the com- 
 pany £1,000,000, in shares of £5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its 
 erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen, 
 June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859, In 1857 
 the receipts were £115,627 ; expenditui-es, £87,872. 
 
 CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, in connection with Col. Crittenden, of 
 Kentucky, Aug. 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana, 
 Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners 
 sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con- 
 ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the 
 U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell,' 
 in U. S. Senate, 1859. See Submarine Telegraph. 
 
 CUSTOM DUTIES in the U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000- 
 000; 1855, $53,000,000; 1863, $69,000,000; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to 
 1861, $1,575,152,579.92. Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863, 
 
 $3,238,936 00. 
 
 CYMRI, OR KiMRi (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British 
 who belonged to the great Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied 
 the greater part of Europe, about 1500 b. c. About a. d. 640,Dyvnwal Moel- 
 mud reigned " King of the Cymri." See Wales. 
 
 CYNICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 b. c, Diog,^ 
 Laert., Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all science^ 
 
1851-67. 107 
 
 except morality; were very free in reprehending vice; lived in public, and 
 practised great obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died 
 S23 B. c) 
 
 DAOIA. A Eoman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it was 
 subdued by Trajan, a, d. 106, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was slain in 
 battle. 
 
 DAGUEREEOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in 
 this business in the U. S. In 186*7, the number must be nearer 30,000. The 
 art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former use 
 of metal plates. See Photography. 
 
 DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con- 
 quered by the Romans, 34 b. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at 
 Spalatro, and retired there a. d. 305. Dalmatia was held in tui-n by the Goths, 
 Hungarians, and Turks, till its session to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
 Campo Formio, in 1797, it was given to Austria. In 1805, it was incorporated 
 into the kingdom of Italy, and ga^s the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In 
 1814, it reverted to Austria. 
 
 DAMASCUS, (p. 343). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest 
 and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, which was con- 
 quered by Trajan about a. d. 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. 
 For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians 
 and Greek emperors ; and afterwards of the Hungarians. The provinces 
 having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely 
 treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, they were 
 placed under the protection of Russia. The Russians quitted these provinces in 
 Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a convention between 
 the Sultan and Austria), and remained there till March, 1857, The govern- 
 ment of the principalities settled at the Paris conference, Aug. 19, 1858. 
 
 DARDANELLES, Passage of the. (p. 343.) The allied English and French 
 fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan's request, Oct. 1853. 
 
 DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which 
 gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated 
 that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from 
 it, the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of 
 Valois. Henaidt. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, was 
 not called the dauphin. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 
 1840, there were 6,616 Wind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population ; 7,659 
 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There 
 were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. 
 In the United States in 1860, there were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The 
 institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the " in- 
 struction of deaf-mutes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in 
 the world" {Natio7ial Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec, 1863, 16, oi 
 whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded 
 in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1,300. In 1862, there were 22 institu- 
 tions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2,000 pupils. 
 Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated 
 
108 THE world's PKOGKESS. 
 
 by the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful 
 of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment 
 of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Araariah Brigham, Dr. But- 
 ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston. 
 
 DEATH, Punishment of, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and 
 arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment abolished in the state of Wis- 
 consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consoHdation acts of 1861, the 
 death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary 
 commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in 1834. Capital 
 punishment was restricted in Italy in Api-iJ, 1865. 
 
 DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c., was established in France in 1790, 
 and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the 
 English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal cur- 
 rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal Association 
 formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use 
 of the Metric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for 
 our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of 
 Congress, July 2T, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state 
 with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system. 
 
 DECLARATION" OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In- 
 dependence (North Carohna), was passed in May, I'lVS, two months before 
 that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia. 
 
 DEDICATION, The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Msece- 
 nas, 1*7 B. c, and the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to 
 soHcit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel- 
 lor of Augustus Caesar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and 
 learning, that it has been customary to style any one imitating his example, 
 the Mgecenas of his age or country. The Scriptures speak of the dedication of 
 the Tabernacle, b. c. 1490, and of the Temple, b. c. 1004. The Christians 
 under Constantino built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem- 
 nity, in A. D. 331 et seq. 
 
 DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on 
 students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of 
 pontifical origin. Bouvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of 
 Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master 
 of Arts, A. M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conferred on students 
 on their graduation from medical schools. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and 
 of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished 
 persons. 
 
 DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. S. except Rhode Island. First settled 
 in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by 
 the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English 
 in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. 
 Penn in W82, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1'7'75. 
 This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the 
 struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous vote ia 
 Convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population— 1790, 59,094 ; 1840, 78,085, includ- 
 ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves; in 1860, 
 110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a mile 
 long cost the Government $2,000,000. 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors, originally made for 
 
1851-67. 109 
 
 the use of the Dauphin (in usum Delphini), son of Louis XIV , edited ;>y 
 Huet, bishop of Avranches, Madame Dacier, and others. Eacii author ij 
 illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in thj 
 work. The number of volumes published was sixty, printed between 1647 
 and 1691, except Ansonius, in 1750. A new edition with additional notes, 
 published by Mr. Valpy of London early in the present century. 
 
 DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by tte people themselves (demos, pec 
 pie, and kratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C 
 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The 
 name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America (the 
 southern states), and the abolitionists were called Republicans. Into these 
 two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential 
 election in 1856. In 1860, the Republicans formed "Wide-awake" clubs for 
 electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham 
 Linccln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See United States, 1860, 
 
 DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared (1850) 
 
 Votes 
 Ko. to 
 
 Country. Pop. Votes. Pop. 
 
 England ....17,000,000 630,721 * 1 in 26 
 
 Wales 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 
 
 Scotland.... 8,t00,000 72,720 1 in 38 
 Ireland 8,000,000 98,006 linSl 
 
 Votes 
 Fo. to 
 
 Country Pop. Votes. Pop. 
 
 ^Ind Snd \ 28.650,000 839,371 1 in 42 
 
 France 34,000,000 250.000 1 in 137 
 
 United States.. 20,000,000 2,750,000 1 in 7 
 
 DENMARK. Frederick VII., son of Christian VIII., succeeded to the throne 
 1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedrichstadt 
 bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9, 1850. Treaty of European 
 powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown. May 8, 1852. New 
 constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct. 1, 1855. Sound dues abolished 
 for a compensation, March 14, 1857. Death of Frederick VII. and accession 
 of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 1863. Danes retire from Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863, 
 German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21, 1864. Prussians tak<e Schleswig, 
 Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle ofl Heligoland, May 9, 
 1864. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationalists or inde 
 pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1727 as an association, with the 
 privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. — Haydn. 
 
 DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God''^). Formerly in England, anything 
 (such as a horse, carriage, &c.), which had caused the death of a human 
 being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the manor, and was to be 
 sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abohshed (1846), 
 
 D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun- 
 tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed 
 to be a, female, at atrial at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover 
 wages as to his sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death it 
 was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. 
 
 DEPUTIES, Chamber of. The title given to the French legislative assembly, 
 from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took the 
 name of Corps Legislatif, 
 
 DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, of N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in 
 the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, 
 
 * The Reform Bill of 1867, largely incressed this number. 
 
110 THE world's progress. 
 
 000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to Julv 
 
 See Arts, Paintings. 
 
 DETEOIT, Michigan, TJ. S. Established as a military post by the French, 167{'. 
 Came into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1783 surrendered to the 
 United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same 
 year. In 1805, the town was completely destroyed by fire. It was the capii&l 
 of the State until 1850. Population in 1865,'about 60,000. 
 
 DIAMONDS. The Eohinoor, or " Mountain of Light, " found at Golconda in 
 1550, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England 
 and presented to the Queen, 1850. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced 
 by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small 
 hen's egg; value about two nullions sterling. 
 
 DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 B. 0. 
 The game of TaH and Tersera among the Romans was played witli dice. 
 
 DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English 
 language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. 
 It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The 
 revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by 
 its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriam), in 1844-5. A new and enlarged 
 edition appeared in 1864 ; it contains 114,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations. 
 Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, 
 and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, *he latter 
 at Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 DILETTANTI, Society of. Estabhshed in 17S4 by several noblemen, desirous 
 of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing 
 Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and other works. 
 
 DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphihera, a membrane). A disease developing a 
 false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bro- 
 tonneau of Tours, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of 
 the TJ. S., particularly among children, 1859-60. The number of deaths by 
 this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June 1''865, was 2,942. 
 
 DI?LOMACY OF THE United States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great 
 
 BritaiE and France. (See p. . ) 
 
 GEEAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1852 James Buchanan, Pa. min. plen. 
 
 1853 James R. Iiigei-soll do. do. 
 1856 George M. Dallas, do. do. 
 IBGl CliB. I'rancis Adams, Mass. do. 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 1853 James T. Mason, Va. min. plen. 
 1S57 Charles J. Faulkner, Va. do. 
 1861 Wm. L. Da\ton, K. J. do. 
 
 1865 John Bigelow, N. Y. do. 
 
 1S66 John A. Dix, do. do. 
 
 By Act of Congress 1856, the salary of ministers plenipotentiary was raised 
 as follows: Min. Plen. to England, $17,500; to France, $17,500; to Russia, 
 Spain, Prussia, Mexico, Brazil, Chili and Peru, each $12,000. The " outfits" 
 were abolished at the same time. Ministers resident to 19 other countrie" 
 are paid $7,500. 
 DIRECTORY, New YoekCitt. The earliest published was in 1786: a small 
 volume of eighty two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The 
 names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty -three 
 pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city. United 
 States Government, Post Olfice regulations, &c. In his address, the editor 
 states it was the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The New 
 York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its first publica- 
 tion. The Directory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,861 
 
1851-67. Ill 
 
 oxer 1865-6. The volume for 1867-8 contains IV^jSlY names — a further ia 
 crease of 806 only. 
 
 DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III. 
 in 1200. These exemptions from the disciphne of the church, with indulgen- 
 ces, absolutions, &c., led eventually to the Keformation in Germany in 1517, 
 and in England in 1534, et seq. 
 
 DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began 
 in London with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Close, in 1110. It relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861. iow's 
 Charitzes. 
 
 DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York city. The oldest wag 
 founded in 1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of 
 charge. 
 
 DISTILLATION, U. S. The number of distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 wa3 
 1,138, employing a capital of $24,253,000. Number in New York state in 
 1865, 67. The consumption of distilled spirits in U. S. in 1865 was about 
 40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that year that for every three gallons 
 that paid the revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The revenue amounted 
 to $29,198,000. 
 
 DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollara 
 were issued from the mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The 
 dollar is the principal silver coin in the United States. 
 
 DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547; died 16] 6). 
 The first part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It 
 is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before 
 the second could be made ready for the press. Watts. 
 
 DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, 
 " because, mounted on horseback, with lighted match, he seemeth like a fiery 
 dragon." Meyrick. The draconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons 
 for ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it is be- 
 lieved, in 1681. 
 
 DRUSES. A warlike people dwelHng among the mountains of Lebanon ; derive 
 their origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, 
 and fled to Palestine, to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of 
 the religion of their ancestors ; they do not practise circumcision, pray or fast, 
 but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 1860, in consequence of dis- 
 putes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the Druses attacked 
 their neighbors the Maronites {which see), whom they massacred, it was said, 
 without regard to age or sex. 
 
 DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS. The absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns 
 to tiie obedience of their subjects, was defended in England by many persons 
 of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g. by Hobbes, the free-thinker, in 1642, and 
 by Sir Robert Eilraer, in his jPatriarcha, in 1860, and by the High Church 
 generally. 
 
 DIVORCE. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the States. 
 In Massachusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and 
 in some other States, desertion for two and three years, and some other causes, 
 are ground for divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in 
 Vermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. In Connecticut, cruel treatment is a 
 ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Gospel in that State have 
 called the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce laws. 
 
112 THE world's PEOGEBSS. 
 
 DOGS, Laws about, U. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled 
 during June, iTuly, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every 
 dog brought to the pound unmuzzled. Unless redeemed in 24 hours they are 
 drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drowned in New York City, at am expense 
 of $3,000. 
 
 DUBLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. Opened by the lord Ueut. May 12, 
 1853 ; closed Nov. 1, same year. 
 
 DUELLING, (p. 356.) Duel between the duke of Wellington and the earl of 
 Winchelsea, March 21, 1829 ; fifteen noted duels have since occurred in Eng- 
 land. The most noted American affairs of the kind were these : two during the 
 revolution, viz., Gen. Chas. Lee and Col. Jno. Laurens ; and Gen, Cadwallader 
 and Conway (1778) ; Gen. Greene was challenged by a Capt. Gunn, of Ga., but 
 refused to fight, and his refusal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamil- 
 ton killed by Aaron Burr, July 11, 1804. Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron, 
 Mar. 22, 1820. Henry Clay encountered John Randolph, April 8, 1826. Gen. 
 Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton killed a Mr. 
 Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky 
 (both mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John 
 Swartwout, 1802. See Milliugen's Hist, of Duelling^ and Sabine's Notes on 
 Duels, 1855. 
 
 E 
 
 EAGLE, (p. 357.) An ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and cur- 
 rent in the first years of Edward I., about a. d, 12V2. The American gold 
 coinage of eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an 
 eagle is of the value of ten dollars. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. (Brit.) Chartered originally by queen Elizabeth, in 
 1660, with a capital of £30,000, was rechartered and extended its operations 
 until in 1856 it maintained a military force at an annual expense of more 
 than £10,000,000. By the act of Parliament, " for the better government of 
 India," Aug. 2, 1858, the Company's jurisdiction of India was surrendered to 
 the queen. See India. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, (p. 358.) An elaborate catalogue of earthquakes, with com- 
 mentaries on the phenomena, by R. P. W. Mallet, was published by Brit, 
 Association, 1858-9. 
 
 Earthquake at Cape Haytien, St. Do- I 
 
 miugo, 5,000 lives lost, May 7, 1842. 
 At Rhodes, and Maoii, mountains 
 
 crushina; a village, 600 lives lost, 
 
 March, 1851. 
 At Valparaiso, 400 houses destroyed, 
 
 April 2, 1851. 
 In South Italv, Melfi destroyed, 14,000 
 
 lives lost, Au?. 14, 1851 
 At Philippine isles, Manilla nearly de- 
 stroyed, Sept.— Oct., 1852. 
 N. "W. of England, slight., Nov. 9, 1852. 
 Thebes in Greece, nearly dest. Sept. 
 
 1853, 
 St. Salvador, 8. America, destroyed. 
 
 April 16, 1854. 
 Onasaca, in Japan ; Simoda, in Niphon, 
 
 nearly destoyed, Dec. 23, 1854. 
 Jeddo nearly destroyed, Nov. 11, 1855. 
 Island of Sanger (Moluccas), 3,000 lives lost, 
 
 March 12, 1856. 
 In Calabria, several towns destroyed, 
 
 22,000 lives lost, Dec. 16, 1856. 
 Corinth, nearly destroyed, Feb. 21, 1858. 
 Quito ; much injured, and 5.000 lives lost^ 
 
 March 29, 1859. 
 Mendoza, S. America, 7,000 lives lost, March 
 
 'M, 1861. 
 Manilla, Philippine Isles, 10,000 persona 
 perish, June 3, 1863. 
 
 EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, first built, 1696 ; 
 destroyed by tempest, 1708 ; rebuilt 1706 ; burnt, 1755 ; rebuilt by Smea.f.on 
 and finished, Oct, 9, 1759, and his structure still stands, 1861. 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Founded by James VL (I, of Eng.> 1582 
 
1851-67. 113 
 
 New buildings erected 1789. Lord Brougham's discourse as Chancv^llor o< 
 the Univ., 1860. 
 
 EGYPT. Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened Nov, 1, 1861. Said, V:ceroy, 
 July 14, 1854, dies Jan. 18, 1863. Ishmael, Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863; visits 
 France and England, July, 186*7. 
 
 EL DORADO (the " Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico 
 and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of 
 a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust, 
 (which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they 
 organized various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were 
 accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's expeditions in 
 search of gold in 1596 and 1617, led to his fall. 
 
 EDUCATION. Some of the most noted educational theorists were Fenelon and 
 Rousseau, in France, 18th century ; Basedon, Walke, and Pestalozzi (Swiss), 
 Fellenburg, Jacotot, and others, in Germany; Joseph Lancaster (d. 1839), iu 
 England. In Prussia, all children from 7 to 14 are compelled by law, and un- 
 der penalty, to attend school ; but this governmental system does not appear 
 greatly to advance practical civilization and progress among the people. In 
 France, a national system was adopted by Guizot, in 1838, from repoi-ts of the 
 Prussian system by Cousin. In England (p. 306). See Oxford, Cambridge, and 
 Eton. In the reign of Queen Anne numerous " Charity" schools were founded, 
 and many others by "Society" effort, in 1641 etseq. Jos. Lancaster started his 
 " Monitorial" system, 1186, and originated the Brit, and For. School Soc, 1808. 
 The Gov. grant of £20,000, in 1834, for pubhc education, was increased to 
 £15(),000 in 1852, and £450,000 in 1856. In 1851, there were 2,466,481 day 
 scholars. Educational Conference, June 22, 1857, Prince Albert presiding. 
 Industrial School Act passed 1857. In the U. S. Has been largely promoted 
 and systematized since 1835, by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, 
 Henry Barnard, D. P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am, 
 Inst, of Instruction, organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annua) 
 meetings since. During the last two yeai-s of the war, 1864-5, the very large 
 sum of $848,000 was donated to New England colleges. The New England 
 seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the 
 noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000), to 
 promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees, 
 Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867 ; and Barnas Sears, President 
 of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges 
 and Schools. 
 
 ELECTRIC CLOCK and Ball. Alexander Bain, of London, is said to have first 
 conceived the idea of working clocks by electricity in 1837 ; his clocks, as well 
 as those of Mr. Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
 clock with four dials, illuminated at night, was set up in front of the office of 
 the Electric Telegraph Company, in the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time 
 ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. A time ball connected 
 with the observatory at Albany, placed on the Custom House, New York, 
 1860. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, (p. 363.) Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, 1820. Far- 
 raday (Lond.) discovered magnetic-electricity in 1831, and pubhshed "Re- 
 searches," in 3 vols., 1833-55, Sir Wm. Snow Harris received £5,000 for his 
 invention of lightning conductors for ships. Important contributions to the 
 knowledge of electricity and its uses, have been made by Prof. Jos. Henry, 
 and Prof. Page, of Washington, Prof. Draper, of New York, &c. 
 
114 THE WOELD's PKOGEESS. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The electro-magnetic force was applied by M. Bre- 
 guet of Paris, in the manufacture of theodolites and the finer kind of mathe- 
 matical instruments, in 1855. 
 
 ELECTRO-PLATING. Carried to great perfection by Elkington & Mason, oi 
 Birmingham, England, and the process has been introduced successfully into 
 New York, 1858-9. 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, (p. 364.) Prof. Morse's services to the world as the 
 originator of the practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, 
 were acknowledged by the French government in 1859, by the voluntary pre- 
 sentation to him of $80,000 (?) ; and by pu-blic honors and rewards from other 
 governments of Europe in 1860. House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain's 
 electro-chemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system, 1865; the American com- 
 bination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2,000 words an hour, 
 adopted by the American Telegraph Company, Jan., 1859. Wheatstone'a 
 automatic printing telegraph patented, 1860. 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. In 1860, in America, 45,000 miles ; in Eng- 
 land, 10,000; in France, 8,000; in Germany and Austria 10,000; in Prussia, 
 * 4,000 ; in Russia, 5,000 ; in the rest of Europe, 7,650 ; in India, 5,000 ; in 
 Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total iul858, 96,350. Over all the hnes 
 in the United States the number of messages per year is estimated at 4,000,- 
 000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for less 
 than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Submarine Telegraph. In the 
 United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed 
 Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Mon- 
 roe in 1861. Ninety-five lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers. 
 
 ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer of Newgate street, London, has patented an in- 
 vention by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved 
 plates, but the engraving itself actually produced by electrical agency. There 
 are several processes by which this is accomplished, one of which, also pro 
 tected by a patent, Mr, Palmer called Glyphography (about 1842). 
 
 ELZEVIRS. A celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is basei 
 on fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. • 
 
 EMIGRATION from Great Britain, (p. 365.) increased from 129,851, in 1846, 
 to 335,000 in 1851, and 368,000 in 1852 ; and then fell off as follows:— in 1853, 
 329,000; in 1855, 176,000; in 1857, 212,000. About three-fifths of this 
 emigration is to the United States; one-eighth to Brit. America; remainder 
 to Australia. To the United States. The total number of alien emigrants 
 who arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,624. From 1784 to 
 1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000 ; in all, say 5,000,000 ar- 
 rived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,000 came 
 from Great Britain and Ireland ; 1,600,000 from Germany ; 200,000 from 
 France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway ; 40,000 from Switze,rland, and 
 18,000 from Holland. {Applefon's Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emi- 
 grants at Castle Garden, N. Y. city, was established in 1847. From that time 
 to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. The number in 1865 was 
 237,397. See Aliens. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA. The Iconographic Cyclopcedia, 6 vols., based on a German 
 work, published at New York, 1853-4. The English Cyelopcedia (Charles 
 Knigiit), based on the Penny Cyclopaedia, 1855-60. The 8th edition o^ Ency- 
 clop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopaedia 1857-62, 16 vols. 
 (N. York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopaedia," begins with the year 1861, and 
 
1851-67. 115 
 
 is a complete review of the great events in the world, of each year. The 
 volumes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war 
 ENGLAND. For succession of events, see Chronological Tables^ p. 160 to 190. 
 ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the various " calls -' for troops 
 by the Government during the war : — 
 Date of Call. Number of Men. 
 
 April 15, 1862 75.000 
 
 May to June 25, 1862 530,000 
 
 July 2, 1862 300,000 
 
 Aug. 4, 1862 300,000 
 
 Oct. 17, 1863 300,000 
 
 Feb. 1,1864 200,000 
 
 Marcli 14,1864 200,000 
 
 July 18, 1864 ,.500,000 
 
 Deo. 19, 1864 300,000 
 
 There were other calls for 30 and 100 days' men. The whole number called 
 for was 2,759,049 ; total obtained, 2,656,553. By Act of March 3, 1863, called 
 the " Conscription Act," the President was authorized to draft troops. The 
 act provided for an enrollment, a draft, the reception of substitutes, and arrest 
 of deserters. About 3,000,000 men between the ages of 20 and 45 were tu- 
 rolled. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were orders for drafts. But probably 
 not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes 
 were obtained. "The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of 
 money paid in as a release from service, and which was used as a " Bounty 
 Fund" for volunteers, amounted to $25,902,029. See Army of U. 8. 
 EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song). Narratives in verse. Some of the most 
 famous are : 
 
 TermoJ Service 
 
 
 Number o6to-',cjd 
 
 3 mouths 
 
 
 93,326 
 
 3 years 
 
 
 714,213 
 
 3 years 
 
 
 431,9£3 
 
 9 months 
 
 
 87,000 
 
 3 years 
 
 3 years 
 
 (•• 
 
 .... 374,807 
 
 ...... 3 years 
 
 ..... o 1-2-3 years 
 
 
 .... 284,021 
 
 
 384,882 
 
 1-2-3 years 
 
 
 204,568 
 
 Homer's " Iliad " and " Odys- 
 sey " (Grek), between 8th and 
 9th ceauiry, before Christ. 
 
 Virgil's ".^neid ' (Latin), about 
 
 B. 0. 19 
 
 Ovid's, "Metamorphoses" (La- 
 tin) about A. D. 1 
 
 Dante, (died 1321) " Divina Corn- 
 media " (Italian) a. d. 1472 
 
 Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " 
 
 (Ita!.) A. D. 156 
 
 Oamoens, " Lusiad " (Portuguese) 1569 
 Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered" 
 
 (Ital.) 1581 
 
 Milton, "Paradise Lost" 1667 
 
 Voltau-e "Henriade " (French)... 1728 
 Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last 
 Minstrdl ' ' 1805 
 
 The chief American epic which has hitherto been recognized as at all worthy 
 of a national fame is Barlow's "Columbiad." 
 
 EPIPHANY. The feast of Epiphany (Jan. 6), called Twelfth Day, celebrates the 
 arrival of the wise men of the East, and the manifestation to the world of the 
 Savior, by the appearance of a blazing star, which conducted the Magi to the 
 place where he was to be found. Instituted a. d. 813. Wlieatley. Pardon 
 says, " The heathens used this word to signify the appearance of their gods 
 upon the earth, and from the heathens the Christians borrowed it." 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH in the United States. Episcopacy established 
 in New York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first 
 bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White 
 of Pennsylvania and Provost of New York, consecrated in London, 1787. 
 First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky 
 and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov, 2, 1832. 
 
 EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, and others. 
 Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published, in England, a collection called Chroniiles 
 of the Tombs, in 1857. 
 
 EQUATOR (or Ecuador). A South American republic, founded in 1831, when the 
 Colombian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela, 
 and New Granada. The populat on of Equator is about 1,040,400, of wbicb 
 
116 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 76,000 are in Quito, the capital. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; 
 defeated in battle by General Mores, Aug. 1869. President (elected in 1861)j 
 G. G. Moreno. 
 
 EQUITY COURTS or U. S. In New England, New York, and several other 
 StateSjthe same Judge may try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are 
 no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between ac- 
 ■;ions at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, 
 Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice 
 rs still preserved (ISBV). 
 
 ERASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized 
 Erastus), a German physician (] 523-84) who taught that the Church had no 
 right to exclude any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex- 
 communication. 
 
 EEASUEES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in 
 1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth 
 received in the Court of Chancery, The errors must be corrected with the pen. 
 
 ESQUIRE, TITLE or, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of almost 
 every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to 
 it by law, and, therefore^ it confers no distinction in law. — JBouvier. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the 
 inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is 
 now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North- 
 ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the 
 civilized part of ancient Ethiopia. 
 
 Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by 
 Aia B. c. 941 
 
 A dynasty of Ethiopian Kings 
 reigntd over Egypt from b. c. 765-715 
 
 Terhakah, King of Ethiopia, 
 mafches against Seuimoherib 
 
 B. o. 710 
 
 Ethiopia invaded by the Cam- 
 byses without success between 
 
 B. c. 322-326 
 
 Can dace, Queen of Meroe, ad- 
 vancing against the Roman 
 settlements at Elephantine, de- 
 feated and subdued by Petro- 
 nius A. D. 22-23 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind 
 to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- 
 lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work. Researches on the Physical His- 
 tory of Mankind, 1841-1. The London Ethnological Society, estabhshed in 
 1843,' publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- 
 ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The Anaerican Ethnological 
 Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- 
 dent. It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School- 
 craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief 
 in the original unity of ihehuman race has been opposed in the works of Nott 
 and Gliddon {Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. 
 George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a 
 museum and Professorship of Archaeology and Ethnology, also a like amount 
 for the same purpose to Harvard College. 
 
 ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions 
 are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1*734, 4'7'7, 425, b. c. Eruptions 
 also A. D. 40, 264, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. 
 
 ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of 
 Italy, whence the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and 
 superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colonv 
 of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted 
 
1851-67. 
 
 117 
 
 to reinstate the Tarquins, 606. b. c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
 cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained. 
 See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- 
 ed mm. 
 
 EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith 
 and others in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations 
 of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1857 at Berlin; in 1858 
 at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil 
 service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said 
 that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a 
 similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. 
 
 EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New Yoek. The present building, on the site of 
 the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- 
 ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was 
 purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of 
 Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 
 
 EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were 
 first issued in 169*7, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. About £20,000, 
 000 of these are often in circulation. 
 
 EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 
 1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000. 
 
 EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. 
 
 EXHIBITION OF 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- 
 nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by 
 a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed 
 by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, 
 May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 
 6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- 
 bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits 
 £150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
 be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, 
 &c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- 
 gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. 
 
 The exhibition -was opened by 
 the duke of Cambridge and a 
 distinguished company on 
 
 May I, 
 
 The Exhibition waa closed on 
 Nov. 1. when the total number 
 of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
 ants) had been 6,i 17,450. 
 
 ■862 
 
 The success of the Exhibition 
 was much impared by the de- 
 cease of the prince consort, 
 Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking 
 out of the civil war in the 
 United States of America. 
 The foreign exhibitors in 1851, 
 were 6566; in 1862, 36,456. 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; 
 Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Rehef, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller 
 vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 
 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the 
 Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on 
 the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to 
 New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain 
 Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. Svo. and quarto, wag 
 published in 1845. The scientific reports *^ the expedition form about 2C 
 quarto and folio volumes. 
 
118 
 
 THB WOBLd's PBOGEESS. 
 
 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the IT. S. (Stated in roand millions.) 
 
 Exports of Produce, 
 
 1849 
 
 $131 
 
 1850 
 
 134 
 
 1860 
 
 316 
 
 J861 
 
 204 
 
 1862 
 
 182 
 
 186:i 
 
 249 
 
 1864 
 
 217 
 
 1865 
 
 254 
 
 1866 
 
 466 
 
 of Manufactures. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $131 millions 16 millions 147 millions 147 milliona. 
 
 .15 
 .48 
 .43 
 .33 
 .50 
 .45 
 .64 
 .64 
 
 149 
 364 
 247 
 215 
 299 
 •262 
 318 
 530 
 
 .178 
 .362 
 .286 
 .275 
 .252 
 .329 
 .234 
 .437 
 
 EXPORTS OF Great Britain, (p. 318.) Total exports in 1850, £1Y5,126,'706. lu 
 1851, £190,397,810. Exports of British and Irish produce, in 1856 £115,826,- 
 948. In 1857, £122,155,257 ; 1861, £125,115,133 ; 1863, £146,489,768 ; ISeS^ 
 £218,865 
 
 EXTENSION OF TERRITORY of U. S. Since the formation of the government 
 in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired : 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 C California, by tieaty 
 
 ■with Mexico 1848 
 
 Sqaare Miles. 
 
 599,599, Louisiana, <fcc., by 
 purchase of 
 France, for $150,- 
 000,000 1803 
 
 66,900, Florida, by treaty 
 with Spain cost 
 $6,489,000 1820 
 
 318,000, Texas, by annexa- 
 tion, tendered by 
 its people 1845 
 
 308,052, Oregon, settled by 
 the treaty with 
 Great Britain.... 1846 
 
 650,445, 
 
 I Mesillia Valley (Ari- 
 I zona), by purch;ise 
 I of Mexico for $10,- 
 
 l. 000,000 158 
 
 Russian America by 
 purchase fi-om Rus- 
 sia, negotiated by 
 Mr. Seward, Sec. of 
 Btate 1867 
 
 • F 
 
 JAIRO AKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli- 
 sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of 
 the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to 
 Great Britain. Seen by Americus Vespucius ; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken 
 possession of by France, 1763 ; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771 
 Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ay res set- 
 tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the 
 British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided 
 there. 
 
 FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver 
 were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 
 1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined 
 in copper by Charles II., 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large 
 coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of 
 Victoria, 1843. 
 
 FASTS, (p. 375.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in times 
 of war and pestilence. The British gov, appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for 
 the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan 
 appointed a public fast on account of tlireatened secession of slave states, which 
 was observed Jan. 4, 1861. National Fasts appointed by Pres. Lincoln at dif 
 ferent times during the war. Fast on account of his assassination, May 1865. 
 
 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are the principal : 
 
1851-67. 
 
 119 
 
 Athanasius, . d. 
 
 
 ST8 
 
 Ephrem Syrus, d. about 
 
 • 
 
 . 378 
 
 Basil . . d. , 
 
 
 379 
 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, d. , 
 
 , 
 
 . 386 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen, d. 
 
 
 389 
 
 Gregory Nyssen, d. about . 
 
 • 
 
 . 394 
 
 Epiphaiiius . d. . 
 
 
 402 
 
 Cbrisostom . d. , . 
 
 , 
 
 . 407 
 
 Cyril of Alexandria, d. 
 
 
 444 
 
 Latin. 
 
 
 
 Amobins , Ji. . . 
 
 • 
 
 . 303 
 
 Lactantius • d. about 
 
 , 
 
 330 
 
 Ambrose , d. , 
 
 • 
 
 . 897 
 
 Jerome . . d. , . 
 
 • 
 
 . 420 
 
 Augustine . d. 
 
 . 
 
 430 
 
 81 c ONI) CENTUKT. Greek. 
 Justin Martyr, d. about . • 166 
 Irenaeus . . d, about . « 200 
 Atbenagoras. 
 
 THIED CENTURT. Greek, 
 Clements . . d. about . . 217 
 Origen . • d. about . . 253 
 
 Latin. 
 
 TertQllian . d. about . . 220 
 
 Minutius Felix,^ about . , 230 
 
 Cyprian . . d. about • . 258 
 
 rPURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. Greek. 
 Eusebjus . . d. about • . 340 
 
 FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowed in cheap-books, flourished about the 
 end of the 15th century. Goethe's poem, " Faust," appeared in 1'790. 
 
 FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited 
 islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,00 inhabitants. 
 
 FENIANS. A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, pledged to 
 work for the liberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First attracted 
 notice in the XJ. S. in 1863. In that year, Nov., a Fenian Congress met 
 in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the 
 order numbered 80,000. " Head Centre " Stephens figured conspicuously 
 as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were heJd all over the country. In 
 the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, 
 Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a, 
 body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. 
 They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were 
 arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. In 1867, 
 the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to 
 create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were 
 arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted 
 to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and 
 carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and wasnoi an Amer- 
 ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. SO*?. 
 
 FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts 
 of America in the lYth century. See Buccaneers. It was applied to Walker 
 and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years 
 endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba. 
 
 FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle 
 of the 1 2th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con- 
 quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1748); 
 but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. 
 
 FIRE ANNIHILATORS. An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-» 
 but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this 
 country. During the war, great improvements were made in this bi'anch of 
 ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in I860, carries seven cart- 
 ridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading; patented 1861. 
 120 shots have been fired from it in 5^ minutes, including the time for reloading. 
 The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle^ 
 muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsena*' 
 (1866-7). 
 
Steamers. Men, Cost. 
 
 Chicago, 13 110 $245,50!. 
 
 Cincinnati, 12 140 141,000 
 
 New York, 34 564 869,957 
 
 120 THE world's PEOGBESS. 
 
 riRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In ISGT, tli« 
 following cities had introduced the new system as follows: — 
 
 Steamers, Men. Cost 
 
 Baltimore, 7 114 $73,000 
 
 Boston, 11 281 162,098 
 
 Buffalo, 7 189 46,470 
 
 Cleveland, 6 66 39,000 
 
 FIRE-ESCAPES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from 
 Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843, 
 when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in 
 March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57 
 persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for 
 effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the 
 loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1859-60. Two or three different fire- 
 escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1860. 
 
 FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were 
 $214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of 
 $20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,419,000. The 
 largest fire of late years was at Portland, Maine, July 4, 1866. 1,600 build- 
 ings were burned ; loss, $9,000,000 ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash- 
 ville, Tenn., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,000,000. Coh's Armory, Hartford, burned, 
 Feb. 8, 1864 ; Loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical 
 College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1866. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, 
 March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned 
 Jan. 24, 1865 ; the Meteorological department suffered heavily. 
 
 ■FLAG. See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth 
 century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is 
 said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the 
 ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term 
 flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs. 
 The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early 
 date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in a. d. 1673, at which period 
 they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obUged the Spaniards 
 to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Henault. After an engagement of 
 three hours between Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter 
 yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688. 
 
 FLORIDA, (p. 378.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan. 
 11, 1861, and seized the U. S. Na,vy Yard at Pcnsacola. Population, 1850, 
 87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 186fi, 77,747 white ; 
 62.677 colored ; total 140,424. Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor, 
 July 13, 1865. 
 
 FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries 
 in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the 
 Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec. 23, 
 1854. The endeavor to enlist for the legion, in 1854, in the United States, 
 gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis- 
 missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative. 
 
 FRANCE, (p. 382.) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological 
 Tables., page 65 ci seq. 
 
1851-67. 
 
 12j 
 
 GOTSBNMENT. 
 
 The Emperor proclaimed. .Deo. 2, 1859 
 
 Empress : Marie Ecgenif, (a Spa- 
 niard), boru May 6, 1826, married 
 
 Jan. 29, 1863 
 
 Seir : NApoLEON-EuGENiE-Louis- 
 Jean-Joseph, boru. ... March 16j 1856 
 
 Heir presumptive, in default ot 
 Louis Napoleon's issue : Prince 
 Jerome Napoleon, and his heirs 
 male 
 
 New Eepublio proclaimed ; provi 
 Bional government established, 
 
 Lamartine at the head 1848 
 
 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte declar- 
 ed Pres. by the Nat. Assembly, 
 
 Dec. 19, 1848 
 Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the 
 French. Votes for the empire, 
 7,839,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; null, 
 
 63,609 Nov. 21, 1852 
 
 FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. (p. 383.) The restricted diet of the Germauic 
 Confederation was constituted at Franlifort, Aug. 10, 1850. The plenipoten- 
 tiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Meclilenburg, 
 assembled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic 
 Diet, Sept. 1, 1850. Prussia refused to recognize it. Franlifort annexed to 
 Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866. 
 FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widowa of 
 Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to 
 Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb.lO, 1866. 
 FRANKLIN, Sir John. His last Arctic expedition in command of H.M. Ships 
 Erebus and Terror sailed from Greenhithe, May 24, 1845. His last despatches 
 home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the 
 British gov. in 1850 offered £20,000 reward to any who might discover or 
 assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them 
 from England and the U. S., viz. : 
 
 1. H. M. Ship Plover. Capt. Moore, 
 
 Jan. 1, 1848 
 
 2. Land Expedition under Sir J. 
 Richardson and Dr. Rae, Mch.25, 1848 
 
 8. Sir Jas. Ross, in the Enterprise 
 and InveMigator June 12, 1848 
 
 4. Oapt. Collinson and Com. Mc- 
 Clure Bailed in same vessels 
 
 June 20, 1850 
 
 ^ Capt. Austin, in the Resolute, 
 &c Apr. 25, 1850 
 
 6. Capts. Penny and Steward, in the 
 Laiiy Franklin, &c Apr. 13, 1850 
 
 7. The Grinnell (Amer.) expedi- 
 tion, under De Haven (Dr. Kane, 
 Burgeon), in the Advance and 
 Rescue May 25, 1850 
 
 8. Sir John Ross in the Feli^; 
 
 May 22, 1850 
 
 9. Sir Ewd. Belcher's expedition 
 (5 vessels), Assistance^ &c. 
 
 Apr. 15, 1862 
 Lady Franklin fitted out the 
 four next (private) expeditions, 
 viz. : 
 
 10. The Prince Al7>ert....Jme 5, 1850 
 
 11. The same vessel June 4, 1851 
 
 12. The Isabel, Com. Inglefield, 
 
 Nov. 1852 
 
 13. The same vessel 1853 
 
 14. H. M. S. Rattlesnake Aug. 1853 
 
 15. Second American exped. (Dr. 
 Kane, in the Advuiice).. .June 1853 
 
 16. The Phcenix and others under 
 Capt. Inglefield May, 1854 
 
 17. 3d American exped. (in search 
 of Dr. Kane), Lieut. Hartstene, 
 in the Release and steamer 
 Arctic May 31,1855 
 
 19. The 18th British exp. equipped 
 by Lady Franklin and friends, 
 in the Fox, Capt. McClintook 
 (found remains of the Franklin 
 Expedition), sailed July 1, 1857 
 
 20. 4th. American exped. (in search 
 of Polar sea), under Dr. Hayes 
 (surgeon to Kane exped.), sailed 
 from Boston July. 1S60 
 
 Returned 1863 
 
 FREE TRADE, Principles advocated by Adam Smith in his " Wealth of 
 Nations" (1776), triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 
 1846, and the commercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Mr. Richard 
 Cobden, who was very instrumental in passing these measures, has been 
 termed " The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the British exports have 
 been tripled. In New York the advocates of Free Trade established a 
 *' League " in 1866 ^?) Wm. Cullen Bryant, President; and a monthly periodical 
 called the League was first issued May 1867. 
 
 FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones 
 6 
 
122 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 exist in Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parlia 
 ment, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others 
 at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed in the IStb century, are 
 justly celebrated. 
 
 FRONDE, CiTiL WARS of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), 
 during the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Maza- 
 rin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament 
 and the citizens. The latter were called FrondewB (slingers), it is said, from 
 an incident in a street quarrel. 
 
 FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U, S. Senate by Mr. Mason of Va., 
 and passed, Sept., 1850. It imposes a fine of |1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment 
 on any person harboring fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was de- 
 clared by the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855. 
 This law was repealed by Congress, June 23, 1864. 
 
 G 
 
 GALAPAGOS. Islands on the coast of Ecuador (N. Pacific), ceded to the United 
 States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, French, and other powers pro- 
 testing against it. 
 
 GALATIA. An ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 8d century 
 B. c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Helles- 
 pont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked by Attalus in a 
 battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogree- 
 cia and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire 
 B. c. 25, on the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians 
 was probably written a. d. 58. 
 
 GAME LAWS (p. 386), have been enacted in several states for the protection of 
 game during certain seasons, to prevent its entire destruction. 
 
 GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed 
 do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si), for which the seven first letters of the alphabet are 
 now employed, is ascribed to Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 
 
 GAS (p. 388). Introduced in Boston, 1822 (?); New York, 1823 (K Y. Gas 
 Light Co.) ; now used in nearly every large town of the United States. Used 
 in 43 towns of N, Y. State, 1860. Price in 1860 ranged from $1 50 per cu- 
 bic foot iu Pittsburg, Pa., to $7 in Belfast, Me., and other places. 
 
 GAUL, Gallia. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives were 
 termed by the Greeks, Galatse, by the Romans, Galli or Celtas. They came 
 originally from Asia, and invading eastern Europe, were driven westward 
 and settled in Spain (in GaUicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and 
 Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British Isles (the lands of the Cymrior 
 Gaeli). They gave great trouble to the rising Roman republic by their fre- 
 quent invasions, 528 to 591 B. c. The Gauls under Brennus defeated the 
 Romans and sacked Rome, but were expelled by Camillus, b. c. 390 They 
 overran Northern Greece, b. c. 280. Gaul invaded by Julius Caesar and 
 subdued in eight campaigns, b. c. 58-50. Christianity introduced in Gaul, 
 A. D. 160. Franks and other invaders defeated by Aurelian, a. d. 241. Ju- 
 lian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360. Invasion and settlement of Burgun- 
 dians, Franks, Visigoths, &c., 406^450. Huns under Attila defeated near 
 Chalons, 461. Paris taken by Childerick, the Frank, 464. Frank kingdom, 
 eetabhshed, 4*76. Histoi-y of Gaul by Parke Godwin, pub. New York, 1860. 
 
 GAUNTLET. An iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhafs 
 
1851-67. 12S 
 
 about 1226. It was a part of the full suit of armor, being the armor for the 
 hand. It was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an adversary. 
 
 GAUZE. This fabric was much prized by the Roman people, about the begin- 
 ning of the 1st century. "Brocades and damasks, and damasks and gauzes, 
 have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). — Dean Swift, in 1698. The 
 manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric, at Paisley, in Scotland, 
 where they maintain great repute, was commenced about 1759. 
 
 GENEALOGY (from the Greek, genea, birth, descent). The art of tracing pedi- 
 grees, &c. The earliest pedigrees are those contained in the 5th, 10th, and 
 11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many geneal- 
 ogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many 
 books on the subject have been published in all European countries: one at 
 Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598; Anderson, 
 Eoyal Genealogies, London, 1*732 ; Sims's Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 
 1856, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.\ Ed- 
 mondson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825), on the British peerage universally 
 esteemed. The Genealogical Society, London, was established in 1853. The 
 I^ew England Hist, and Genealogical Soc., founded 184-, publishes a quarterly 
 magazine on those subjects. A volume called American Genealogies, publish- 
 ed in Albany, 1855, and numerous private publications of family genealogies, 
 have been printed in New England. Savage's Genealogical Hist, of iV. Eng- 
 land. 4 vols. 8vo., Bost. 1860-1. 
 
 GENOA (N. Italy), (p. 389.) April, 1849, the city was seized by insurgents, 
 who, after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed a 
 republic, but soon after surrendered to General Marmora. Genoa warmly 
 supported its sovereign, Victor Emanuel, in the struggle with Austria (1859), 
 and furnished many volunteers for Garibaldi's demonstration on Naples, 1860. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, U. S. The Am. Geographical and Statistical Society was incor- 
 porated April 3, 1852, at N. Y. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly of 
 original papers. 
 
 GEOLOGY WoEKS on, U. S. " Geology of the Globe " by Prof. E. Hitchcock, 
 1853. Prof St. John's Elements of Geology, 1855. "Text-book of Geology," 
 Prof Dana, 1863. Besides these text-books there are many treatises and 
 reports on Geology which are to be found in most of the large libraries in the 
 country, such as Prof Hall's Geology of New York; Owen's, of Indiana; Per- 
 cival's, of Wisconsin ; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts ; each in quarto volumes. 
 
 GEORGIA. Population in 1860 (including 462,198 slaves), 1,057,286. Act of 
 •'secession" passed Jan. 19, 1861. The state was occupied i)y Sherman's 
 army in his great march, and Savannah surrendered to him Dec, 1864. Debt 
 of the state in Oct., 1866, $5,706,500. Georgia, the ancient Iberia, now a 
 province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alexander, 323 b. c, 
 but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome by 
 Pompey, 65 b. c, but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was intro- 
 duced into it in the 3d century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, 
 Georgia was subdued by the Arab caliphs; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 
 1068; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, 
 Georgia was successively held by the Persian and Turkish monarchs. In 1740, 
 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of which the last 
 ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1*799; and in 1802 
 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. 
 
 GERMANY, (p. 390.) 
 
124 
 
 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 German National Assembly 
 elected the King of Prussia 
 emperor of G-eimany, (but de- 
 clined) March 28, 1849 
 
 Treaty between Austria and 
 Prussia Sept. 30, 1849 
 
 Treaty of Munich betw. Bavaria, 
 Sasony, and Wurtemburar. 
 
 Feb. 27, 1850 
 
 German Confederation Assem- 
 bly, at Frankfort Sept. 2, 1850 
 
 Austrian and Bavarian demon- 
 stration against Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 Nov. 1,1850 
 
 See Austria, Prussia, Hanover, &c. 
 
 Conference at Dresden, for set- 
 tling German affairs. 
 
 Dec. 1850 to May, 18b1 
 
 Great excitement throughout 
 Germany in regard to French 
 successes in Lombardy ; appre- 
 hension of French designs on 
 German territory... May-June, 1859 
 
 Meeting of new Li beral Party at 
 Eisenach, in Saxe-Weimar, 
 proposing a strong central 
 gov't., (no practical results). 
 
 Aug. 14, 1859 
 
 GETTYSBURG, Battle of, U. S. Fought July, 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Penn. 
 near the Maryland line. Union forces 60,000 and 200 guns ; Confederate 
 about 80,000. On the first day the 1st and 11th corps, (U. S. forces) were at- 
 tacked and beaten by the superior numbers of the enemy : Maj.-Gen. Reynolda 
 (U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th 3d and 2d corps came up, and 
 the whole under command of General Meade formed line on Cemetery Ridge. 
 No fighting until 4 P. M., when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the 
 rebels, and fierce assaults made on the left and then on the right of 
 the Union army. The contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when 
 the enemy retired. On the third day the same furious charging and stubborn 
 resistance was continued. The Union army bravely held its ground, and at 
 night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, 13,'709 wounded, 6,643 
 missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, the rebels lost 
 3 guns, 41 standards, 13,621 prisoners, besides an enormous number of killed 
 and wounded. Over 6,000 men, loyal and rebel, were buried on the field. 
 The Union victory was of immense importance to the country at that critical 
 period. 
 
 GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method 
 at the British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scien- 
 tific ghosts in March, 1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the 
 Royal Polytechnic institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 
 
 GIRONDISTS. The name of a party, which played an important part in the 
 French Revolution, and was principally composed of deputies from the depart- 
 ment of the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the 
 cruelty of Aug. and Sept., 1792, they labored strenuously to restrain the cru- 
 elties of the Mountain party, to whom they succumbed. Tiieir leaders, Brissot, 
 Vergmand, and many others were guillotined, Oct. 13, 1*793, at the instigation 
 of Robespierre. Lamartine's eloquent " Histoire des Girondins," published in 
 184*7, tended to hasten the revolution of 1848. 
 
 GLASGOW, Scotland, (p. 393.) Erected into a burgh, a. d. 1180. Its pros- 
 perity dates from the union of the kingdoms in 170*7, and was much increased 
 by American trade. Population in 1707, about 12,000; in 1861, 394,857. 
 
 GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the 
 " sweet principle of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the " father 
 of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat 
 with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed in medicine 
 and the arts. 
 
 GNOSTICS (from the Greek, gnosis, knowledge). " Heretics," who appeared 
 from the first rise of Christianity, and who endeavored to combine the simple 
 principles of the Gospel with the Platonic and the other philosophies Thej 
 
1851-67. 125 
 
 were so called because they pretended to extraordinary illuminations and 
 knowledge. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves as a heretic, in 384, 
 for endeavoring to revive Gnosticism, 
 GOLDMINES, (p 339.) On April 28, 1858, a nugget from Australia, said to 
 weigh 146 pounds, was shown to Queen Victoria. In 1858, gold was discov- 
 ered in what is now termed New Columbia, British America. Said to have 
 been found in Vermont, 1859. Australia produced as follows : 
 1S51. 1852. 1856. 1857. 
 
 £907,000 £9,735,000 £12,740,000 £11,764,000 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER, (p. 395.) Chevalier estimated the total amount of gold 
 and silver existing in various forms in 1848, at 8,500 millions of dollars, of 
 which one-third was supposed to be gold. The annual gold product from 
 1800 to 1850, was 16 millions of dollars. The U. S. Mint received 41 millions 
 in 1858, all but $400,000 being from California. The exports of gold from 
 the U. S. in recent years were as follows (stated in millions of dollars). 
 
 1850. 1851. 1S52. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1S57. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 
 7*. -JOi. 4'2k. 2'ii. 41. 5S. 45. 69. 53. 64. 66^. 28. 36. 63. 69. 54. 86. 
 
 GORGET. The ancient breastplate, or gorget, was very large, and extended to 
 the body and limbs of the warrior or Unight, as armor ; but its size and weight 
 varied at different periods. The present modern diminutive breastplate was 
 in use at the period of the Restoration, 1660, or shortly after. 
 
 GORILLA. A large ape of West Africa, in anatomical structure the nearest ap- 
 proach to man of any known animal. It is a match for the lion, and attacks 
 the elephant with a club. It is considered to be identical with the hairy peo- 
 ple called Gorullai, by the navigator Hanno, in his Periplus, about b. c. 400 or 
 500. Preserved specimens have been recently brought to Europe, and a living 
 one died on its voyage to France. In 1859, Prof. Owen discoursed on Goril- 
 las. The Gorilla was not known to Cuvier. Du Chaillu in his African adven- 
 tures, 1860-1, killed 21 of them, and exhibited some of their skulls in London 
 and the U. S. 
 
 GRANADA. A renowned city of Spain ; was subdued by the Moors in the 10th 
 century, and formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. 1236, Mohammed- 
 al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly 
 prosperous till its subjugation by the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 
 1492. In 1609-10, the useful and industrious Moors were expelled from 
 Spain by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country. Granada 
 was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812. 
 
 GREECE, (p. 398.) 
 
 Harbor of Pirasus blockaded by 
 British fleet under Admiral 
 Paiker, to enforce eome mer- 
 cantile claims Jan. 18, 1850 
 
 The dispute settled AprillO, 1850 
 
 Bupture between Greece and 
 Turkey March 18,1854 
 
 Olympic games proposed to be 
 revived Oct. 1858 
 
 The national assembly elects M. 
 Balbis president, Jan. 29; and 
 declares Prince Alfred of Eng- 
 land elected King of Greece, 
 by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes. 
 
 Feb. 3, 1863 
 
 "GREEK BACKS," TJ. S. A term given to legal-tender notes issued by the U. 
 S. Treasury, in 1862. So called on account of the green print on their backs. 
 All national bank notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint 
 
 Military revolt of Lieut. Canaris ' 
 against Bulgaris and others, 
 who resign, Peb. 20 ; the as- 
 sembly appoint a new ministry 
 under Balbis... Peb. 23,1863 
 
 The assembly decides to offer the 
 crown to Prince 'William of 
 Sehleswig-Holstein, M.irch 18, 
 and proclaim him as King 
 George 1 March 30, 1863 
 
 Military revolt at Athens, sup- 
 pressed Jul e 30, Jnly 9, 1863 
 
 The King arrives at Athens, Oct. 
 30 ; takes the oath to the con- 
 stitution Oct. 31, 1863 
 
126 THE woeld's progress, 
 
 is that it cannot be photograplied or in any way counterfeited. It was first dis- 
 covered by a Canadian. The " American Bank Note Company" priat the notes. 
 
 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, near London, built in reign of Charles U. 
 The "Astronomers Royal," who have superintended astronomical observations 
 here, were Flamsteed, 1675; Halley, 1719; Bradley, 1742; Maskelyne, 1764; 
 John Pond, 1811 ; Geo. B. Airy (the present A. R.), 1835. 
 
 GUANO, OR HUANO. (The Peruvian term for manure.) The excrement of sea- 
 birds that nestle in prodigious swarms along the Peruvian shores. This sub- 
 stance is found chiefly on certain small islands, called the Lobos, lying off the 
 coasts of Peru and Bolivia. Humboldt was one of the first by whom it was 
 carried to Europe, on ascertaining its value in agriculture. — McGulloch. It 
 is also found on Jarvis's, Baker's, and Howland's islands, on the Pacific coast, 
 from which it is brought by the American Guano Co., of New York, who im- 
 ported in 1858, 15,000 tons, and exported in 1860, no less than 100,000 tons. In 
 1857, the U. S. imported 213,000 tons, and Great Britain, 205,000 tono. 
 In 1864, 4,131,358 tons. 
 
 GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America; declared independent 1821 
 President (1859), General Carrera, elected 1851. It is the most populous of 
 five states of Cent. Amer., having 971,450 in 1851. 
 
 GUIx\NA (N. E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the 1 6th, 
 century ; explored by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French set- 
 tlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; and the Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara 
 and Essequibo were ceded to Great Britain in 1814. 
 
 GUN-COTTON, A highly inflammable and explosive substance, discovered by 
 Pi'ofessor Sehonbein., of Basil, and made known by him in 1846. It is, to all ap- 
 pearance, common cotton wool, and is purified cotton steeped in a mixture 
 composed of equal parts of nitric and suphuric acid and afterwards dried. Dr. 
 Boettenger and others also lay claim to the discovery. 
 
 GUNTER'S SCALE. Invented by Edmund Gunter, an English mathematician, 
 who died 1626. 
 
 GUTTA PERCHA, is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a large 
 forest tree, growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it. 
 Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European 
 commerce. In that year two cwt. were shipped experimentally from Singa- 
 pore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 
 piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.) ; in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and in 
 the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years 
 of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped 
 at Singapore, the whole of which was sent to England, with the exception of 
 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United 
 States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, 
 &c., to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thou- 
 sands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the 
 gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of 
 their most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brook- 
 lyn, N. Y., first apphed it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of 
 Newark, N. J., claims to have applied it thus at the same time or before. 
 Charles Goodyear used it, in connection with caoutchouc, for various articles 
 of common use ; a large boat made of gutta percha was exhibited in New York, 
 1858. 
 
 GYROSCOPE. (From gyrare, to revolve.) The name of a new, popular, rotatoi^ 
 
1851-67. x27 
 
 apparatus, invented by Fessel, of Cologne (1853), since improved by Professor 
 Wheatstone, and Mr. Foucault, of Paris. It is similiar in appearance to the 
 rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger, of Tiibingen (born 1765, died 1831). The 
 gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the centrifugal and centripetal 
 forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either. It thus illustratea 
 the great law of gravitatiou. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAARLEM. An ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland ; was 
 taken by the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He 
 violated the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was 
 drained in 1849-51. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the IT. S. provides that this law (adopt- 
 ed from that of England)" shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebel- 
 lion or invasion the public safety may i-equire it," 1787. President Lincoln 
 authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the privilege if it became necessary, April 
 27, 1861. Ill Sept. 1862, it was not allowed to relieve persons arrested by 
 military authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized by express 
 Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas 
 corpus^ to "continue throughout the duration of the rebelUon," Sept. 15, 1863. 
 C. L. Vallandigham, ex-member of Congress, being arrested for disloyal ut- 
 terances, was refused the privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines, 
 May, 1863. Great excitement among his friends and sympathizers in the 
 country. 
 
 HANOVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the 
 Lutheran church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900 
 men. 3,618 vessels of all kinds composed the merchant navy. This state, 
 was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against its will. 
 
 HARPER'S FERRY, Va. A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shen- 
 andoah. Population in 1860, about 5,000. The scene of "John Brown's raid." 
 On Oct. 17, 1859, he with 16 white and five colored men seized the U. S. 
 arsenal at this point, took 60 citizens prisioners, and gave out as his object 
 "to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome on the morning of the 
 18th. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. This af- 
 fair created intense excitement throughout the country. At the breaking out 
 of the rebellion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, April 18, 1861. 
 Sept. 16, 1862, Col. Miles and 11,000 U.S. troops surrender to " Stonewall 
 Jackson," at Harper's Ferry, In 1867 it was decided not to re-estabhsh the 
 arsenal there. 
 
 HARVARD COLLEGE, TJ. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, Mass. Denom- 
 ination, Unitarian. In 1863, it had 44 instructors; 814 students in all depart- 
 ments ; 7,440 alumni, of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and 
 endowments, over $2,000,000. Annual expenses of the University, $130,000. 
 Its commencement occurs the third Wednesday of July. President : Rev. 
 Thomas Hill, D. D. 
 
 HAYTI. (p. 406.) Faustin I, deposed Dec. 25, 1858, and Gen. Geffrard made 
 President of the Republic of Hayti. 
 
 HEALTH, Board of, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Feb. 
 26, 1866, establishing a " Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preser- 
 vation of life and health, and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organ- 
 ized March 5, 1866; Dr. E. B. Dalton, Superintendent. The district includes 
 the counties of New York, Kings, Westchester, Richmond, and part'of Queens. 
 
128 THE world's peogeess. 
 
 First annual report Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders recjuiring nuisances 
 to be removed. Death rate in New York city, 1 in 33.33 ; in London, 1 in 45. 
 HELLENES. The Greek race which supplanted the Pelasgians from the 15th to 
 11th cent. B.C., derived their name from Hellen, king of Piilhiotis, about b.c 
 1600. From them came the Dorians, ^olians, lonians, and AchaBans. 
 
 HELVETn. A Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Swit- 
 zerland. The " Helvetian Republic " was established in Switzerland, in I'ZQS. 
 
 HERCULANEUM. (p. 408.) The Antichita di Ercolano. 8 vols, folio, publish 
 ed by Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 
 
 HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced in this country by 
 the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the 
 forage of their horses. 
 
 HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river horse). A native of Africa, known to, but 
 incorrectly described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at 
 Rome by Gommodus, and others, about A. D. 138. The first in England, 
 in 1850, is now in the Zoological Gardens, London; another (a female, 
 four month.s old) was placed there in 1854. Two young ones, born ab 
 Paris, in May, 1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 
 
 HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized 
 Dec. 10, 1804, and incorporated Feb. 10, 1809. It now numbers nearly 
 2,000 members. After occupying rooms many years in the New York Uni- 
 versity Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a new fire-proof building on 2d 
 avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated, Nov. 17, of that year. 
 The society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes, particularly rich* in 
 historical works and manuscripts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection 
 of antiquities, coins, medals and charts. Among its collections are a series of 
 large tablets of Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. The 
 Massachusetts Historical Society, founded 1791, is hmited to fifty members. 
 This society has a valuable library, including a very choice collection of books 
 in English literature, bequeathed to it by tlie late Thomas Dowse, of Cam- 
 bridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind in 
 the country. The Massachusetts Historical Society has published about 30 
 vols, of transactions and historical collections. There are historical societies 
 also in nearly every state in the Union, several of which have valuable col- 
 lections, and have published transactions. 
 
 HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists in 
 the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would 
 produce a similar but not precisely the same disease, its fundamental prin- 
 ciple being similia similibus curanlur — was introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, 
 a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, died at Paris, 1843). The 
 first periodical organ of the system was established 1822. Although violently 
 attacked and ridiculed by " allopathic " practitioners the system was practised 
 in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Europe, and 2,500 in the United States. 
 It has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and about 30 societies in the U. S., 
 and all these are numerous in England, France, and Germany. (1861.) An 
 attempt to establish a State Homoeopathic Hospital, in Connecticut, was stren- 
 uously opposed' (1866). The matter was compromised, the Legislature allow- 
 ing the HomcBopathists certain rights in the hospitals. 
 
 HONDURAS. One of the republics of Central America (whichsee). Great Britain 
 ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, 
 general J. M. Medina, was elected for four years, Feb. 1, 1864. Population, 
 
1851-67. 129 
 
 about 350,000 (1860). British Honduras, Central America, was settled bj 
 English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 1667. They were 
 often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 1*783. Balize 
 or Belize, the capital is the great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the 
 population was 25,635, and the revenue £35,'75Y. 
 
 HONG-KONG. An island off the coast of China. The British under Capt. 
 EUiott took possession of it in 1839 ; founded the chief town, Victoria, in 
 1842; made it a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring was governor from 
 1854 to 1859. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY of London. Founded 1804, Publishes annual 
 volumes of transactions ; has had annual exhibitions since 1831. 
 
 HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the 
 names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000,000, are 
 as follows : 
 
 Abyssinian 3,000,000 
 
 Papuan 3000,000 
 
 Negi'illo 3,000,000 
 
 Australian 500,000 
 
 Hottentot 500,000 
 
 Bern dies at Aleppo, ....Dec. 10, 1850 
 
 The country renaains in an un- 
 settled state , many executioiisl853-5 
 
 Crown of St. Stex^lien and royal 
 insignia discovered and sent to 
 Vienna Sept. 8, 1853 
 
 Amnesty for political oft'enders 
 of 1S48-9 July 12, 1856 
 
 The Emperor of Austria crowned 
 king of Hungary, with great 
 pomp June, 1867 
 
 Kossuth elected to Hungarian 
 Parliament July,1867 
 
 White 850,000,000 
 
 Mongolian 300 000,000 
 
 Malayan 120,00i i,000 
 
 Telingan 60,000,000 
 
 Negro 55,000,000 
 
 Ethiopian 5,000,000 
 
 HUNGARY. (See p. 414.) 
 
 Kossuth, Bem, &c., escape to the 
 
 Turkish frontiers, and are 
 
 placed under the protection of 
 
 Turkey, at New Orsova, (See 
 
 , Turkey), Aug. 21, 1849 
 
 Komorn surrenders to the Aus- 
 
 trians ; close of the war.. Sep 27 1849 
 Batthyani tried at Pesth, and 
 
 shot ; many other insurgent 
 
 chiefs put to death Oct. 6, 1849 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Hun- 
 garian insurgents, who return 
 
 home Oct. 16, 1849 
 
 HYDROGEN (from hydor, water), under the name of combustible air was ob- 
 tained by Paracelsus in the 16th century. In 1Y66, Cavendish described its 
 properties ; and, in 1781, he and Watt tirst showed that in the combination 
 of this gas with oxygen, which takes place when it is burnt, water is produced ; 
 subsequently Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements. One volume of 
 oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. Hydrogen 
 is never found in the free state. Ghnelin. 
 
 HYDROPATHY. A term applied to a treatment of diseases by water, commonly 
 called the cold water cure. The system was suggested in 1828 by Vinceiiz 
 Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia; and though he is considered 
 as its founder, the rational part of the doctrine was understood and maintained 
 by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851. 
 Brande. Hydropathic Society formed in London, 1842. First Hydro, estab- 
 lishment in U. S., at 63 Barclay St., N. Y., 1844. Those at New Lebanon, 
 N. T., and Brattleboro, Vt., opened 1845. 
 
 ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of 
 
 Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 
 
 Calcutta, in 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
 
 capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 1854, Boston shipped 156,540 tona 
 
 6* 
 
130 THE world's pkogeess. 
 
 In New York in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up. The exports of Ice from 
 1860 to 1866, averaged about 48,000 tons. During the four years ending June 
 30, 1861, $712,000 worth was exported from the U. S. In 1856, $8,000,000 
 were invested in the ice trade, giving employment to 8,000 or 10,000 men. 
 Ice is not subject to duty in the U. S. 600,000 tons were provided for the 
 consumption of N. Y. city in 1867. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY. The science of fish. Eminent writers are Willoughby, Ray, 
 Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's "British Fishes" (1836- 
 59), is a classical work. 
 
 ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which 
 had been introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300), was 
 begun about 726, and occasioned many insurrections in the Eastern Em- 
 pire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing images in churches 
 in that year, and enforced them witli great rigor in 736. The defenders of 
 images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantine forbade his 
 subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 
 780. This schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. The- 
 ophilus banished all the painters and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. 
 The Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated in 869. This controversy led to 
 the separation of the Greek and Latin churches. In the contests between the 
 Iconoclasts and their opponents, thousands perished. Many images in churches 
 were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Reformation and the 
 civil war, 1641-8. 
 
 IDAHO, U. S. Organized as a territory March 3, 1863. Area, 326,373 square 
 miles. Population in 1864 about 24,000. This territory has been settled 
 rapidly by adventurers and gold seekers, within the past few years (1867). 
 Boise City is the capital. Estimated product of gold and silver in 1865, 
 $7,000,000. 
 
 IDES. In the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in 
 March, May, July, and October, in which it was the fifteenth day ; in these 
 four, it was six days before the nones, and in the other months, four days. 
 The Ide of March was the day on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the 
 senate house by Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and other conspirators, 44 b. c. 
 
 IDIOTS, Education of. The first efforts for the education of idiots in America, 
 were in 1839. In that year, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in New 
 York received a mute boy, who was instructed for three years, by Professor 
 Morris, with favorable results. The same year. Dr. Howe of Boston treated 
 and greatly improved a blind idiotic child, and afterwards two others. Two 
 or three children were also under instruction at the American Asylum at Hart- 
 ford before 1848. 
 
 ILLINOIS, U. S. Population in 1850, 851,470; in 1860, 1,691,233. Increase 
 1840-50, 80 per cent. ; 1850-60, 99 per cent. Population in 1865, 2,151,007 ; 
 gain since 1860 of 459,774. Assessed valuation of property in 1865, $391, 
 683,284. From April 1861 to Jan. 1863, the State placed in the field 119,400 
 men. Amount expended for school purposes in 1861, $2,007,000. Number 
 of schools 9,811. There are in the State, 1 institution for deaf mutes, 1 for 
 the insane, 1 for the blind. 
 
 IMPORTS, U. S. The value of imports during the war greatly decreased. In 
 I860 they amounted to $362,000,000; in 1862 $205,000,000; in 1865 $234, 
 000,000 ; in 1866, $437,000,000. See Exports. Into Great Britain, from aU 
 parts of the world : 
 
1851-67. 
 
 131 
 
 Id 1710 £4,753,777 In 1850 £95,252,084 
 
 1800 30,570.605 1857 187,844,441 
 
 1810 ..41,136,135 1859 179,182,355 
 
 1820 36,514,564 1861 217,485,024 
 
 1840 62,004,000 1864 274.863,924 
 
 1865 271,134,969 
 
 INCOME TAX, British (p 420), was doubled during the Crimean war (1854). 
 It produced in 1855, £13,718.185. In 1856, £15,71'7,lo5. In 1858, £1 1,396^ 
 435; in 1861, £10,923,186; in 1865, £7,958,000. United States. Levied 
 by act of Congress July 1, 1862. Tax on incomes from $600, to $10,000, 3 
 per cent. ; over $10,000, 5 per cent. Keceipts from this source in 1863, 
 $455,741; in 1864, $14,919,280; in- 1865, the rate being 10 per cent, over 
 $5,000, $20,740,451 ; in 1866, $61,071,932. In 1866 a single merchant of 
 New York paid the sum of $407,125 as a Tax on his income for 1865, the in- 
 come being stated by himself, as amounting to $4,071,250 ; probably the largest 
 personal tax of the kind ever paid. The law of 1866 taxed all income over 
 $1,000, 5 per cent. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS, (p. 430.) In 1851, they had 8,244 chapels in England and 
 Wales. 
 
 INDIA, (p. 366.) Mutiny and war against the British, 1857. 
 
 Begun at Barrackpore.... March, 1857 
 Mutiny at Meerut near Delhi. 
 
 May 10, 1857 
 
 Martial law proclaimed May, 1857 
 
 Mutiny at Luclinow May 30,1857 
 
 Cawnpore eurrenders to Nana 
 Sahib, who kills the garrison, 
 &c., June 28 ; he is defeated by 
 General Havelock, July 16, 
 who recaptures Cawnpore. 
 
 July IT, 1857 
 Assault of Delhi begins, Sept. 14 ; 
 the city taken, Sept. 20 ; the 
 king captured Sept. 21 ; and his 
 son and grandson slain by Col- 
 onel Hudson Sept. 22, 1857 
 
 Havelock marches to Lucknow 
 and relieves the besieged resi- 
 dency ; retires and leaves Out- 
 ram in command ; Neill killed. 
 
 Sept. 25, 26, 1867 
 Sir Colin Campbell (since Lord 
 Clyde), appointed commander- 
 in-chief, July 11 ; arrives at 
 Cawnpore Nov. 3, 1857 
 
 Havelock dies of dysentery at* 
 Alum bagh Nov. 25, 1857 
 
 Ti'ialof king of Delhi; sentenced 
 to transportation. 
 
 Jan. 27 to March 9, 1858 
 
 SirC Campbell marches to Luck- 
 now, Eeb. 11 ; the siege com- 
 mences March 8, taken by 
 successive assaults ; the enemy 
 retreat; Hudson killed. 
 
 March 14-19, 1858 
 
 The government of the East In- 
 dia Compan}' ceases Sept. 1, 1858 
 
 The ex-king of Delhi sails for the 
 Cape of Good Hope, Dec. 4-11 ; 
 the colonists refuse to receive 
 him ; he is sent to Rangoon 1858 
 
 Defeat of the Begum of Oude and 
 Nana Sahib by General Hors- 
 ford Feb. 10, 1859 
 
 Thanksgiving in England for 
 pacification of India May 1, 1859 
 
 INDIANA, (p. 422.) One of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes 
 by the French; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement 
 made by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suf- 
 fered much during the war of 1812. Population in 1860, 1,350,428. Number 
 of public schools 6,098 in 1862. Common school fund $4,991,202. The State 
 sent 195,147 men to the war. In 1865, the Legislature voted that negroes 
 could be competent witnesses in courts. The "fiUibuster" General Morgan 
 invaded the State, July 9, 1868. In 24 hours 60,000 men offered their ser- 
 vices to drive him out. He effected no damage and retreated rapidly. 
 
 INDIANS, U. S. According to the best data in the possession of the Indian De- 
 partment, at Washington, there are now (1867), between 820,000 and 350,000 
 Indians within the limits of the U. S., comprised in about seventy-five tribes, 
 and occupying about one hundred localities. 
 
 INDIAN WARS, U. S. In the war of the rebellion, the Choctaws, ChickasBws 
 
132 THE world's pkogeess. 
 
 and Cherokees, took sides with the Confederates. They furnished three 
 regiments. The war upon the plains commenced in April, 1864, in Colorado. 
 It was inaugurated by apparently too hasty action of the U. S. troops towards 
 the Cheyennes. An Indian village was soon destroyed and 40 warriors killed. 
 Fearful massacre of Indians near Fort Lyon, Nov. 28., 1864, by forces under 
 command of Col. Chiviugton. After this several Indian tribes formed an alli- 
 ance, and committed murders and depredations on the lines of travel. On 
 Dec. 21, 1865, the Sioux massacred a company of soldiers at Fort Kearny. A 
 general Indian War fairly begun in May, 186Y. Gen. Sherman takes the man- 
 agement of it into his hands. Gen. Meagher declares war against the Indiana 
 of Montana Territory, April 24, 1867. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER, (p. 422.) See Caoutchouc. 
 
 INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Ma- 
 cartney stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually 
 decreasing in India. On Nov. 12, 1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs 
 to agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting in the Punjab was held 
 for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 
 
 INKERMANN, Battle of, Crimean war, Nov. 5, 1854. See Battles. 
 
 INQUISITION, (p. 425.) Restored by Ferdinand VII., July 21, 1814; Finally 
 abolished by the Cortes, 1820. (Llorente states that in 236 years the total 
 number in Spain of persons put to death by the Inquisition, was about 82,000; 
 291,000 were subjected to other punishments. The last person burnt was at 
 Seville, Nov. 1, 1781, being a woman accused of making a contract with the 
 devil.) 
 
 INSOLVENCY in the U. S. In May, 1837, a "commercial crisis" was at its 
 height. The heavy failures in two months, in New York alone, amounted to 
 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount 
 of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 
 12, 1837. New York city banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837. 
 The New England banks generally, immediately after. See Bankruptcy. 
 
 INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. In 1793, the Academies of Inscriptions and Belles 
 Lettres and of the Sciences, were combined in one body under the above 
 title. 
 
 INSURANCE. The marine risks assumed by the Insurance companies of New 
 York alone, in 1860, amounted to $80,379,892 ; in 1866, they were $378,880,- 
 003. The fire risks in 1860, were $1,049,551,594; in 1866, $2,753,793,107. 
 The losses paid in 1866, were $15,312,750. 
 
 INSURRECTIONS in the United States. Shays's Insurrection in Massachusetts, 
 (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in 
 Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794 See the accounts of Conspi- 
 racies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 
 
 INTEREST OF MONEY in the United States. The rates vary in different States, 
 viz. : In La., five per cent., in Maine^ N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., 
 Del., Md., Va., N. C, Tenn., Ky., Ind., III., Mo., Ark., and the United States gov- 
 ernment claims, the rate is six per cent. InN. Y., S. C, Mich., and Wis., seven 
 per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss., and Fla., eight joer cent. Laws against usury, viith 
 penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. 
 Forfeit of the usury and double, or treble the usury in 14 other States. Usurious 
 contracts void in Md., N. C, Ga., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 
 
 INUNDATIONS, (p. 426.) Disastrous one in the centre and south-west ol 
 France, on the Loire, &c., damage over £4,000,000 sterling, Oct., 1846. In 
 
1851-6Y. 
 
 133 
 
 south of France vrith immense damage, May and June, 1856. At Ham- 
 burg, the city half flooded, Jan. 1, 1855. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). The Republic of the Seven Islands, 
 Corfu, Cephalonia, Zaiite, Ithaca, St. Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo, which were 
 colonized by the lones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek people ; 
 were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 14th to Venice, which 
 ceded them to France, in 1Y9Y, by the treaty of Campo-Formio. They were 
 seized by the Russians and Turks in 1800; and formed into a Republic. 
 They were restored to the French in 1807, but retaken by the EngUsh in 
 1809. A new and very liberal constitution was granted in 1845. They are 
 now among the free states of Europe ; Corfu is the seat of government. 
 Populationin 1856, 49,663. 
 
 IOWA. One of the U. S. (territory 1838), admitted into the Union as a state, 
 Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881 ; in 1856, 519,- 
 148, and 211 colored ; in 1860, 682,000. In 1863 she had 800 miles of rail- 
 road completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in 1862, $8,200,- 
 000. Popuhition in 1865, 754,782, of whom 3,607 were black. The State 
 furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,- 
 216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the 
 insane and t^ind in the State. 
 
 IRON. The value of the annual product of the U. S. in 1860, was about 
 $7,000,000, or about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in 
 the U. S. in 1866, was 939,956 tons. 839,764 tons were manufactured into 
 new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds 
 weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000 
 tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 veara. 
 
 ITALY (p. 429). 
 
 " Napoleon III. et I'ltalie," published 
 
 Feb., 1859 
 
 The Austrian ultimatum rejected by 
 Sardinia April 26, 1859 
 
 The Austrians cross the Tioino, April 
 27 ; and the French enter Genoa, 
 
 May 3, 1859 
 
 Peaceful revolutions at Florence, 
 April 27 ; Parma, May 3 ; Modena, 
 
 June 15, 1859 
 
 The Austrians defeated at Montebel- 
 lo, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30-31 ; 
 Maprenta, June 4 ; Marignano, June 
 8; Solferino June 24, 1859 
 
 Provisional governments established • 
 at Florence, April 27 ; Parma, May ; 
 and Modena. (The sovereigns re- 
 tire.) June 15, 1859 
 
 Insurrections in the Papal States : Bo- 
 logna, Ferrara, &c June 13-15, 1859 
 
 Massacre of the insui'gents at Peru- 
 gia by the Swiss troops June 20, 1859 
 
 Ariniftice between Austria and 
 France July 6, 1859 
 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Vil- 
 lafranca ; LomlDardy surrendered to 
 Sardinia July 12, 1859 
 
 Italy dismayed at first at the peace ; 
 great agitation at Milan, Florence, 
 Modena, Parma, &c Julj', 1859 
 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany abdicates 
 about July 28, 1859 
 
 The Pope appeals to Europe against 
 the King of Sardinia July 12, 1859 
 
 Garibaldi becomes commander of the 
 Italian army, and exhorts the Ital- 
 ians to arm July 19, 1859 
 
 Constitutional assemblies meet at 
 Florence, Aug. 11, and at Modena, 
 
 Aug. 16, 1859 
 
 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the 
 Romagna declare for annexation to 
 Piedmont Sept. 3-7, 1859 
 
 Gaiibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; 
 subsorijitionsin Italy and elsewhere 
 to supply arms for the Italians,. Oct., 1859 
 
 Garibaldi, with a force of about 1,200 
 men, in two small steamers, em- 
 barks from near Genoa for Sicily, 
 
 May 6, 1860 
 
 Garibaldi lands at Marsala, May 10 ; 
 and after several victories takes 
 possession of Palermo, May 27 ; and 
 establishes a provisional govern- 
 ment for Sicily, which is entirely 
 evacuated by Neapolitan troops, 
 
 June 8, 1860 
 
 Garibaldi victorious at Melazzo, 
 
 July 20-1, 1860 
 
 Garibaldi lands in Calabria, Aug. 8; 
 enters Salerno, Aug. ; enters Na- 
 ples Aug., 
 
 Francis II., King of Naples, retires 
 to Gaeta, Aug.; siege of Gaeta 
 commenced by Victor Emanuel, 
 
 Oct., 186J 
 
 Gaeta capitulates Feb, 14, 186] 
 
 ,1860 
 
134 THB WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 lEVINGITES, or the followers of the Rev. Edward Irving, in England, who now 
 call themselves the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgj 
 (framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1863), and have church officers named apos- 
 tles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852, lights on the magnificent altar and 
 burning of incense during prayers were prescribed. Their Gothic church or 
 cathedial Ie Gordon square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It is said that 
 all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and exten- 
 sion. They had SO chapels in England in 1851. 
 
 JAPAN. TJ. S. exped, under Com. Perry C? ships of war), entered the Bay of 
 Yeddo, Feb., 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships 
 wrecked on the coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce, which was agreed 
 upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki, 
 Sept., 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed; and the Dutch 
 made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for 
 the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 185*7, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, 
 and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in 
 Yeddo in 1858, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening sev- 
 eral ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August, 
 1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, 70 persons), reaches 
 San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9; 
 New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; 
 embarked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, jTuly 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. 10, 
 1860. A troup of Japanese jugglers arrived in the U. S. in 1866. In the 
 . spring of 1867, their performances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their 
 proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commission- 
 ers from Japan again visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of 
 large, quantities of school books for public schools in Yeddo, and also bought 
 from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,000. 
 Ministers of the U. S., England, France, &c., notified May, 1867, that Yeddo 
 and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868. 
 
 JEDDO, or Yeddo (p. 432). Severe earthquakes, Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 
 1855 ; during the latter 67 temples, 100,000 houses, and 30,000 persons were 
 said to have been destroyed. 
 
 JESUITS (p. 433). In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechismo Filoso- 
 fico^'' or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for 
 kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in bieakiug promises 
 made to their people. 
 
 JEWS (p. 434). Alderman Salomons, first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, 1855 
 Seizure of Mortara, a Jewish child, by the Cath. Archbp. of Bologna, June 24 
 1868. Baron Rothschild takes his seat as M. P, for London (first Hebrew in 
 Brit. Parliament), July 24, 1858. 
 
 JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. City in the summer of 
 1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the 
 breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course 
 have been laid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr Jerome. 
 The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentuc- 
 ky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT (p. 436). The state allowance to the temple was suspended by 
 the Indian government in June, 1851. 
 
1851-67. 135 
 
 K 
 
 KAFFRARIA. An extensive country in South Africa extending from the north 
 
 of Cape Colony to the south of Guinea. The Kaffirs or Caffres first invaded 
 the British colony at the Cape in 1831, and continued a warfare up to Dec. 
 20, 1852, when they were defeated and sued for peace. 
 
 KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory, May, 
 1851:, and by the same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared 
 " inoperative and void " in both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companies 
 from Mass. began to arrive in July and founded the town of Lawrence. An 
 association formed in Missouri, July 29, to "remove all emigrants" coming 
 " under the auspices of northern emigrant aid societies ; " another formed 
 Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., a pp. governor, arrived 
 Oct. 6. Election for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29; the polls mobbed by armed 
 bands from Missouri; another election March 20, 1855, similarly controlled; 
 Reeder superseded July 26 by Wilson Shannon of Ohio ; Topeka (" free State") 
 Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11; coUisions, with bloodshed, 
 between the "free state" and "pro-slavery" people commenced at this time, 
 and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by 
 the people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15, 
 1856. Armed men from Ga., Alabama, &c., arrived in the territory April, 
 1856. Report of H. Repres. of U. S. on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and 
 violence of pro-slavery invaders. Robinson arrested for treason, May 5, and 
 imprisoned four months for taking ofiice under Topeka Constitution. Raid of 
 pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Fight at Potawataaiie May 
 26, and several other collisions for several months. Free State legislature at 
 Topeka dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. Shannon re- 
 moved, and John W. Geary of Pa. appointed in his stead Aug. A party led 
 by Ex-Senator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an attack on Osawatoraie Aug. 29. 
 Free state men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth, Sept. 1. Robinson 
 and otliers released on hail Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to free 
 state men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 1857; 
 the Speaker and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-%laverv legislature at 
 Lecompton provides for a jonve ition. '} sary ' esigr ^d in co; ? jquen -e of il!' - 
 gal acts of Lecompte, U. S. judge, 1857. Robert J. Walker appointed gov- 
 ernor, and F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. Parrott elected del- 
 egate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution promulgated, and caused great ex- 
 citement Dec, 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because 
 the Const, is approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Cal. app. governor 
 Dec, 1857. Lecompton Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by 
 10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery, 
 July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 majority), Oct. 4. Under it 
 Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. Kansas admitted into the Union 
 under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 69,950; 
 in 1860, 143,645. Act estabhshing an "Agricultural College" passed Jan., 
 1863. The state furnished 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the 
 internal condition of the state are being made by the legislature every year. 
 Asylums for the deaf, blind, and insane, have been organized. 
 
 KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, defended 5 raos. by the Brit, under Gen. Wil- 
 liams against a Russian siege, June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. 
 
 KENTUCKY. Population in 1850, 771,424 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707, 
 and 225j902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. oi 
 
136 THE world's peogress. 
 
 slaves 1 per cent. There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by 
 the war, in 1865. The state sent 63,995 white and 20,400 colored soldiera 
 (Union) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,155,668. 
 
 KINDER-GARTEN (children's garden). A system of education devised by Froe 
 bel, but practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, iii 1849, 
 and in England in 1851. The system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
 livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in Ronge's " Kinder-Garten," 
 published in 1858. 
 
 KNOW-NOTHINGS, or the " American party." A political organization in the 
 U. S., 1853, to insist that the Americans shall rule America. 
 
 LACE. (p. 444) This manufacture has been so advanced by improvements, 
 that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost £1*7, may now be had for Vs. Ure. 
 
 LANGUAGE. Eon. George P. Marsh, in a recent lecture, stated that there 
 were nearly 100,000 English words found in use by good writers, but that no 
 single writer employed more than a very small proportion of the whole. Few 
 scholars used as many as 10,000 English words, and ordinary/ people not 
 more than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, and in 
 all Milton but 8,000. There were but 800 of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 LAW. (p. 447.) The numbe.^ of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, 
 was 21,9*79, or about one to uvery fifteen hundred inhabitants. Monthly Law 
 Magazine. Estimating their average receipts a $1,000 per annum, their ag- 
 gregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty two millions of dollars. 
 In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in JPennsylvania, 1,848; in 
 Ohio, 2,081; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066; and in Georgia, 
 908. Livingstones Law Register, 
 
 LEGACY DUTY, Internal Revenue, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62- 
 63, Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5, is 
 imposed on " every hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such prop- 
 erty." In 1863, the revenue from legacies to parent, child, &c., was $25,869, 
 to nephew, niece, tScc, $11,333, to uncle, &c., $921, to corporations, stransrers 
 &c., $18,470. Total Revenue from- legacies and successions in 1864, $310, 
 836; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979. 
 
 LIBEL, Law of, U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a 
 newspaper edited by another, though the pubhcation was made without the 
 knowledge of such proprietor. 
 
 LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860, was about 10,000; na- 
 tives under jurisdiction of the republic about 250,000. In 1 856 the sugar cane 
 was introduced, and in May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm 
 oil reported in 1859, $500,000. A college, several schools, 2 newspapers, and 
 several churches have been established (1859). Population in 1863, 422,000, 
 of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued from slave-ships. 
 The government is republican. Capital Monrovia. Revenue of the Republic 
 in 1861, $149,550 
 
 LIBRARIES. The Astor Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who left, by 
 will, $400,000 " for the establishment of a pubhc library in New York," 
 " which should be open at all reasonable hours, free of expense, to persons re- 
 sorting thereto." The original building opened to the public Jan. 9, 1854. 
 Another building of similar style and extent was added by W. B. Astor, 1860. 
 
1851-67. 137 
 
 The whole contained in 1860 about 120,000 volumes, including the most val- 
 uable, rare, and costly works purchasable. The free Public Library in 
 Boston, opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind found- 
 ed at a similar expense by several munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the 
 public, and about 80,000 volumes are provided, which may be taken from the 
 library by any resident of Boston. It is a remarkable fact that these 30,000 
 volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or damage to 
 the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S. 
 of over 100,000 volumes, distributed among 23 of the states and containing 2,- 
 404,000 books, or about ^ the total number in all the pubhc hbraries of the 
 country. The Church and Sunday-School libraries were estimated to contain 
 from 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work entitled " Private Libraries of 
 New York" (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections of 4,000 and 
 12 with 10,000 yolumes (1864). In 1859 the following statistics were com- 
 piled : Number of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, es- 
 timated, 1,593 ; hbraries of common schools, 18,000; Sunday-Schools, 30,000; 
 total, 50,890 libraries, number of volumes, 12,720,686. 
 LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Total receipts 
 from this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1864, $7, 146,389 ; in 1865, $12,613,- 
 478 ; in 1866, $18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was received from 
 wholesale dealers, $5,428,345. Eetail dealers in liquors paid $2,807,225. Ke- 
 ceipts from bowling alleys were the smallest, $19,749. 
 
 lilGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the 
 U. S., including the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to govt, being $932,- 
 000. The No. of buoys and beacons was about 5,000. A large number of the 
 lighthouses from Cape Tlenry to the Eio Grande, were destroyed by the Con- 
 federates in the late war. 
 
 LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in 
 support of the war against the Rebellion. 
 
 Name of Loan. Length of Loan. Amount Issued^ 
 
 Loan of Feb 8, 1861 20 years $18,415,000 
 
 7.30DOtes 3 " 139,999,750 
 
 Five-Twenties 5 or 20 years 514,780,000 
 
 Ten-Forties 10or40 ■" 172,770,100 
 
 Five-Twenties 5 or 20 " 91,789,000 
 
 Treasury Notes 3 years 178,756,000 
 
 7.30 Notes " " 234,400,000 
 
 "" " " " 437,210,400 
 
 See Appletori's Annual Cyclopcedia, 1865. Finances- 
 LONDON, (p. 458.) The population of London in 1861 was 2,803,034. 
 LONGEVITY, in the U. S. In 1860 there were 2,960 persons over 100 years 
 
 of age. In the State of N. Y. (1865) there were 108. 
 LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be 
 " public nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pro- 
 nounced illegal, as a lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez 
 for building a Presbyterian church. At other times colleges, roads, ferries, 
 hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They were still tolerated in 
 Maryland, Georgia, and perhaps other States (1861). The "Crosby Opera 
 House" Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the "opera house" at 
 Chicago, was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent 
 to their amount immediately on payment. The proprietors made large 
 profits, as subscriptions came in from all parts of the country. 
 LOUISIANA, (p. 460.) Population in 1850, 51 7, 762. In 1855, by state census, 
 
138 THE world's PEOGRESS. 
 
 &81,114:, including 244,000 slaves. In 1860, 666,413, including 312,186 slaves 
 Ordinance of secession tVom the U. S. passed by Convention, Jan. 26, 1861 
 Motion to submit tlie question to the people was defeated by a large ma^ 
 jority. The principal portion of the state came under the authority of the 
 Government before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the 
 Union army, mostly blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, $13,358,Oi)0. 
 
 LOUVRE, (p. 460.) The magnificent buildings of the New Louvre begun by 
 Napoleon I., and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the latter 
 in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 
 
 LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the 
 legal authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who ex- 
 ercised it upon tlie fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the " dismal 
 swamp," North Carolina, when they committed outrages upon persons and 
 property which the colonial law could not promptly redress. This mode of ad- 
 ministering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and has prevailed 
 more or less in recent years in the western border of southern states. 
 Lynch Law, "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob, 
 inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of 
 some offence. In England this is called Lidford Law." — Bouvier. 
 
 M 
 
 MACADAMIZING. The inventor of this system of repairing roads (Mr. Joha 
 Macadam), received a grant from ParUament in 1825 as a reward. 
 
 MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during 
 the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, b. c. 167, when Mattathias, a priest, 
 resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son Judas Maccabeus defeated the 
 Syrians in three battles, b. c. 166, 165 ; but fell in an ambush, b. c. 161. 
 His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, 
 and after an able administration, was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by 
 Tryphon, b.-c. 143. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
 B. c. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called 
 also Aristobulus, took the title of king, b. c. 10*7. The history of the Macca- 
 bees is contained in five books of that name, two of which are included in 
 our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, 
 but not by Protestant communions. 
 
 MADAGASCAR, (p. 464.) The French were defeated in an attack on this 
 island, Oct. 19, 1855. The native Christians have suffered much persecution, 
 although the prince, the son of the reigning queen, embraced Christianity in 
 1846. The Rev. W. Ellis in 1858 published an interesting account of his 
 three visits to the island, on behalf of the London Missionary Society in 
 1854-5-6. 
 
 MADEIRA, (p. 464.) Since 1852, the vintages here have been totally ruined 
 by the vine-disease. 
 
 MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French 
 and Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis 
 Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest 
 of the fight. It is said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Aus- 
 trians were engaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4,000 killed and 
 wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7,000 prisoners ; these numbers 
 are still doubtful. The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
 The emperor and king entered Milan on June 8 following. MacMahon and 
 
1851-67. 139 
 
 Eegnault d'Angely were created marshals of France for gallantry in the 
 action. 
 
 MAGNETISM. In 1831 electricity was produced from a magnet by Professoi 
 Faraday, who has since published his researches on the action of the magnet 
 on Hght, on the magnetic properties of flame, air, and gases (1845), on dia- 
 magnetism (1845), on magiie-crystalhc action (1848), on atmospheric magnet- 
 ism (1850), and on the uiagneiic force (1851-52). In the present century 
 our knowledge of the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly increased 
 by the labors of Arago, Ampere, Hausteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorff, 
 Sabine, Lament, Tyndall, Du Moncel, &c. 
 
 MAINE, (p. 466.) Population in 1850, 583,169; increase in 10 years, 16 per 
 cent. Population in 1860, 619,958 ; increase in 10 years 6^ per cent. No. 
 men furnished to the army and navy 1861-5, 71,558. 
 
 MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which 
 the Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French 
 and English attacked it on June 1*7 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48 
 hours were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed 
 and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French 3,338 killed and wounded. On Sept, 
 8, the French again attacked the Malakhoff; at 8 o'clock the first mine was 
 sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt lu 
 the Malakhoff and Redan were found 3,000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, 
 and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 
 
 MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, an important military position, where the 
 Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. 
 It was held by the rebels under Beauregard in 1861, when they were attacked 
 by General McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and 
 gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the 
 first battle of Bull Run. McDowell had the advantage till about three o'clock, 
 p. M., when the rebel Gen. Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first 
 were taken for Union troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized 
 with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in dis- 
 graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. 
 The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing. 
 The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. In March, 1862, 
 when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir- 
 ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at 
 Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle 
 between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall " 
 Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun- 
 tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed 
 his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th General R. E. Lee (who had defeated 
 McClellan before Richmond, June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his 
 army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con- 
 flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com- 
 pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were 
 once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the 
 lines of Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan 
 resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed 
 the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States. 
 
 MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the 
 ' authority of the pope. They live near Mt. Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damas- 
 
140 THE world's PEOGEESa. 
 
 c as. and other places. They suffered severely in the massacre by the Biusea 
 in 1860, and some accounts make the Maronites the original aggressors. 
 
 MAROONS. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island 
 was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by 
 their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
 colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu- 
 lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1780. In 
 1*795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and transported to 
 Nova Scotia. Brande. They were also sent to Sierra Leone ; and many of 
 them are among the Dutch of Surinam. 
 
 MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, 
 who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They 
 were visited by Cook in 17*74, and were taken possession of by the French 
 admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842. 
 
 MARRIAGE, (p. 470.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in 
 
 1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96,883 1850 was 152,744 
 
 1800 " 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207 
 
 Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrars' returns, that 
 4'7,5'70 men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the 
 marriage register with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been 
 attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceased wife's sister, without success. 
 A bill for this purpose passed the Commons, July 2, 1858, but was rejected 
 by the Lords, July 23 following. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to 
 Rouget de Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of 
 Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army 
 then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its name from the cii'cumstance of 
 some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when 
 it was little known there, in 1792. Brande. 
 
 MARYLAND, (p. 471.) Population in 1850, 583,034, including 74,723 free 
 colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the 
 population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 
 years, 11 per cent.; decrease of slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at- 
 tem-pts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the " Con- 
 federacy" and to betray the National cause — but they were defeated by the 
 predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis- 
 fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops 
 furnished for the war . Disbursements for Union troops, $4,212,479. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per 
 cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. 
 These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in population, In 1860 the 
 population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial 
 production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- 
 roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war 
 in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 
 1,267,329. 
 
 MATCHES, U, S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun 
 dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about $1,000,000. 
 
 • In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 248,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As 
 respects Paris, tlie statistics of tliat city, wlilcli are very minute and curious, furnish the 
 following classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : — Bachelors and maids, 6,456 ; bachelors 
 aad widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; "widowers and widows, 222. 
 
1851-67. 141 
 
 MEDICAL COLLEGES, tJ. S. There were 54 medical schools and colleges in the 
 U. S. in 1862. The oldest is the University of Penn. at Phila., 1*765. 
 
 MEDICI FAMILY. Illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in 
 Italy ,' were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which 
 year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was re- 
 called, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence 
 from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo. 
 Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of 
 Tuscany. 
 
 MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypt, (" of which the very ruins are stupendous ;") 
 is said to have been built by Menes, 3890 b. c. ; or by Misraim, 2188 b. c. It 
 was erected by Alexander, 332 b. c. ; and restored by Septimus Severus, a. d. 
 202. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 b. c, began, and the founding of Alex- 
 andria, 332, completed the ruin of Memphis. 
 
 MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in 
 the 13th century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe 
 and embraced many communities ; but at length by a general council, held by 
 Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders — Dominicans, 
 Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched 
 off. 
 
 MENU, Institutes of. The very ancient code of India. Sir W. Jones, who trans- 
 lated them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between 
 Homer (about 962 b. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 b. c). 
 Haughton's translation appeared in 1825. 
 
 MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, 418-762. 
 
 MESMERISM. So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, 
 of Mersburg. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766 ; con- 
 tending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused 
 through the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- 
 mated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous pro- 
 selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 
 livres. The government at length appointed a committee of physicians and 
 members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among 
 these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared 
 in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility of animal 
 magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesmer. 
 Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau 
 and others announced their belief in it.* 
 
 METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi- 
 nese as early as 644 b. c. ; by Greeks and Romans (a few only) ; by Kepler 
 (1623), Halley, Humboldt, Cavallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 17i9, 1783, 
 1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delaware, &c., July 20, I860. 
 Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov. 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till 
 1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These were described by Prof. Olmstead 
 of New Haven. 
 
 METHODISTS, (p. 478.) The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at 
 Baltimore, 1784, Wesley sanctioning it as the "Meth. Episcopal Church of 
 America." Introduced in S. Carolina and Georgia, ] 785. Secession of Anti- 
 
 • In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary iesued its tenth annual report, Archbishop Whately 
 being president, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes among the vice 
 pieaidents. 
 
142 THE world's pbogeess. 
 
 Episcopal branch, 1830. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the 
 "Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1844. The northern branch had in 
 
 1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences," 
 24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. Tlie "M. E. Church 
 South" in 1845, had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124, 
 811 colored members, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership waa 
 721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 28 colleges and 27 high schools for females ; 
 and a pubhshing house at Nashville which issued 600 million pages in 5 years. 
 The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,000 ministers. 
 No. of Methodists in U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000 ; number of churches, 11,638 ; 
 ministers, 10,911. 
 
 MEXICO, (p. 479.) Herrera, president, 1848; succeeded by Geti. Arista, Jan. 15, 
 1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna waa 
 recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez, 
 Jan. 1854 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27 
 days. Alvarez made president by a Junta, but after a few weeks resigned in 
 favor of Comonfort, who confiscated Church property, Marcii, 1856. New 
 constitution promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and 
 a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zuloaga to 
 the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to Vera 
 Cruz, May 4, 1860, assuming there to be the "Constitutional president." Zu- 
 loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church 
 party leads a war against Juarez, which ends in the triumph of Juarez, Jan. 
 
 1861. In July, 1863, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared 
 Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke 
 of Austria, who accepted it; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864; defeated 
 the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops 
 who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by 
 whose assistance Maximihan had established himself in Mexico, were with- 
 drawn. The hberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximihan 
 in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared 
 him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place, 
 against the protest of all foreign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and 
 Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of anarchy has existed 
 in Mexico for years, and Maixmilian's object was to reduce the country to order 
 under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and cruelty. 
 City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. 
 
 MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman 
 Cathohc Ciiurch, under the title of " St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael 
 is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This 
 feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord- 
 ing to Butler, was a. d, 487. 
 
 MICHIGAN, (p. 479.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 
 1840-50, 87 per cent.; 1850-60, 89 per cent.; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864, 
 600,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to 
 the army in 1861-5, 90,119. 
 
 MILITIA, (p. 480.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri. 
 mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. U. S. The mili- 
 tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained from 
 official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non- 
 commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates; a total of 2,090,109 
 men. Since the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into 
 
1851-67. 143 
 
 A more efficient system than formerly. Volunteers in the war are exempt from 
 duty for a certain period ; in Conn, for 3 years. 
 
 MINCIO. A river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French 
 under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800 ; and by Eugene Beauhaniais, Feb. 8J 1814. The 
 provinces of Verona and Mantua are watered by the Mincio. 
 
 MINES, (p. 481.) The deepest coal pit in England was opened about 1860, after 
 nearly 12 years' labor. The shaft is 686^ yards deep, and its sinking cost 
 some $500,000. The seam of coal is 4 ft. 8^ in. thick, and is calculated to 
 yield 500 tons a day for 80 years. The shaft is 12-J- feet in diameter, and near 
 the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. U. 
 S. The famous Hayward gold mine, in Amadon county, Cahfornia, extends 
 1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In thirteen years, $7,000,000 have 
 been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock 
 lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different 
 companies. The length of mining shafts in the West varies from 500 to 1,000 
 feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly 
 $150,000,000. 
 
 MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 
 1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d' 
 escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac- 
 curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and 
 with various modifications by the British army in 1852. 
 
 MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
 1857.- Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860,176,535; 1865,248,848. A terrible 
 Indian massacre occurred m this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a 
 body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur- 
 dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destroyed. Their depre- 
 dations extended over an area of 20,000 square miles in the western part of 
 the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners 
 were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000 
 fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. 
 
 MINT. (p. 482.) In England, first regulated by Athelstan, about a. d. 928. See 
 Coin age. 
 
 MIRRORS, (p. 482.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering 
 glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercury. 
 
 MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world 
 in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as fohows : North America, 125 ; 
 South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218 ; Northern Afiica, 6 ; 
 West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon, 
 419 ; Burmah and Siam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above 
 must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,737 native helpers (1860). 
 Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a 
 written language. 20 dialects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 500,000 
 persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. Roman Catholic. 
 The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the 
 Propagation of the Faith, for 1857, from all parts of the globe, amounted to 
 $838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia, 
 $284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas, 
 $73,000. The whole amount contributed on this continent was about $32,- 
 000. It is stated that Protestants in the U. S. alone, give more for 
 forvjign missions than the one hundred and fifty millions of Cathohcs in all parts 
 of ine world. 
 
144 THE WORLDS PEOGEESS. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, (p. 482.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?) 
 Population 1850, 606,326 ; 1860, 836,658 ; increase from 1840 to 1850, 61 
 per cent. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River ; the 
 Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it 
 ^^Missoissippy y" Hennepin " Meschasipi.^^ Sape is river, running water; the 
 prefix means '■'■ great,'''' '■'■big.'''' "Ordinance of Secession " from the U. S. 
 passed Jan. 9, 1861. Wm, D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, 
 June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for the 
 pardon of Jefferson Davis, Aug., 1865. 
 
 MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 87,422 slaves. In 1856 
 911,001, including 101,606 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830 
 to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. 1860, 1,201,214, including 115,619 slaves. 
 Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession^ but 
 they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicts 
 and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United 
 States and Battles. War debt, |7, 546,575 ; Common School fund in 1866, 
 $678,660. 
 
 MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring 
 the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were 
 offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. 
 Northouck. 
 
 MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival 
 of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to 
 John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and 
 have held them ever since — except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub- 
 ject to the English. 
 
 MONACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). CathoHc writers refer to the 
 prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex- 
 amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish 
 sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. 
 About the time of Constantino (a. d. 306-322) numbers of these ascetics 
 withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ; of 
 whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the 
 founder of the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died a. d. 456. He is said to have 
 lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism, 
 published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, aboat a. d. 
 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are so many varieties of Bene- 
 dictines. 
 
 MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James 
 Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European 
 power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South 
 America. Upon this doctrine the U. S. protested against the establishment of 
 French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. They were finally withdrawn in 1867. 
 
 MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians 
 June 9, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May 
 20, 1859), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the 
 Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The 
 French lost about 700, including general Beuret. 
 
 MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was cou' 
 qucred by Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and establish 
 
1851-67. 145 
 
 ed an hereditary hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegoach, 
 endured, but not recognized by the Porte. * 
 
 MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict 
 with the Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. 
 
 MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, 
 were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 
 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which 
 was permitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete were not established in 
 France till 1777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 
 1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Fawnbroker, p. 464. 
 
 MONUMENT of LONDON, begun in a. d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The 
 pedestal is forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the 
 distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com- 
 menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost 
 about £14,500. 
 
 MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Hungary was completely de- 
 feated by the Swiss, June 20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones 
 of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, who erectecj a stone 
 column in its place. 
 
 MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 
 5,760 members. 
 
 MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was 
 made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The U.S. chief justice being repu- 
 diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned. Col. Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap- 
 pointed governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the 
 U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred 
 Cummings appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S. 
 troops, Oct. 5. His trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but 
 in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army 
 withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath- 
 ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially 
 among the Waldenses ; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to 
 have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, 
 about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co., 
 Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who 
 copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormons 
 has been estimated as high as 100,000; and some are reported in Asia, Africa, 
 and Polynesia. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and 
 composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them- 
 selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints." Their church organ- 
 ization is composed of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres- 
 idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, 
 and Daniel H. Wells ; next the Twelve Apostles ; then the quorums of Seven- 
 ties, of which there are said to be 62 organized in the territories, each having 
 seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders, 
 Priests, Teachers, and Deacons. A somewhat anomalous office is that of pa- 
 triarch, which has been conferred on John Smith (son of Hyrum and nephew of 
 their first prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each 
 settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each 
 ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. {National Almanac'.^ 
 Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867. 
 
 MORTALITY IN WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compUed a com 
 
146 THE ■world's peogeess. 
 
 plete list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg- 
 iment from all the Nofthern States during the war. This record shows that 
 280, '751 ofiflcers and men lost their lives in the service; of whom 5,221 com- 
 missioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed in action or died of 
 wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,829 men died of disease, 
 
 MOSQUITO COAST (in Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast 
 have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a 
 group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States 
 has long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove- 
 nanted not to " occupy or iortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any do- 
 minion over any part of Central America." 
 
 MOUNT VEENOM". The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased 
 for the nation for the sum of $200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi- 
 nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the 
 war of secession this place was carefully protected by the government. 
 
 MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Germany, 
 was founded, 'it is said, a. d. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of 
 Sweden, in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the 
 Prench, under Moreau, July 2, ISOO. Munich abounds in schools, institu- 
 tions and manufactories. The University was founded bv king Louis in 
 1826. 
 
 MUEFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between 
 the U. S. troops under Eosencrans and the Eebels under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, 
 and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated. 
 
 MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the 
 theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washington's ad- 
 ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe 
 appeared in New York, under Signer Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran, 
 his daughter, met with great success as an opera singer. Other Italian troupes 
 followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New 
 Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer- 
 ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success 
 has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in 
 all large towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged. 
 The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent players 
 are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15,000,000 worth of Pianos are man- 
 ufactured yearly. See Pianos. 
 
 NAPLES (p. 489). 
 
 Amartial anarchy prevails Dec, 1849 
 
 The chiefs of the Liberal Party arrest- 
 ed in 1849 
 
 Bettembrini, Pot-rio, Carafa, and 
 others, after a mock trial, are con- 
 demned, and consi^ed to horrible 
 dungeons for life Jurie, 1850 
 
 After remonstrances with the king on 
 hia tyrannical government (May), 
 the English and French ambassa- 
 iars are" with drawn Oct 28, 1856 
 
 Attempted assassination of the king 
 by Milans Dec, 1S56 
 
 The Cagliari seized..., June, 1857 
 
 Italian refugees, under Count Pisac- 
 cane, landing in Calabria, are defeat- 
 ed, and their leader killed, June 27- 
 
 July 2, 1857 
 
 Death of Ferdinand II., afier dreadful, 
 suflerings May 22, 1859 
 
 Accession of Francis II 
 
 The city 'of Naples surrenders to Gari- 
 baldi without a struggle, and the 
 king retires to Gaeta.T Sept., 1860 
 
 Gaeta surrenders to the Sardinians, 
 and the kiua takes refuge in a French 
 
 vessel .\ Feb. 13, 1861 
 
 See Italy and Sicily. 
 
 NASHVILLE, U. S, The capital of Tenn., occupied by the Union forces, Feb. 
 23, 1862. Great battle fought here Dec. 15, 1864, between the forces of 
 
1851-67. 
 
 147 
 
 6en. Thomas (Union) and Hood (Confederate). The former had been be* 
 sieged for several days when he marched out and attacked Hood, taking 16 
 guns. On the 16th he completely routed him, taking 20 guns. This was the 
 last campaign of the Southern army of the West. 
 
 NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the Emperor Frederic I., 
 about 1180, for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 
 are descended the royal house of Orange now i-eigning in Holland and the 
 present Duke of Nassau. Population of the duchy in 1857, 434,064. Wies- 
 baden was made the capital in 1839. In 1866, after the war, this duchy was 
 annexed to Prussia. 
 
 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF Design (at New York), founded 1826. The first 
 President was Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Durand in 
 1845, and he by D. Huntington in 1862. Corner stone of new Academy 
 building laid Oct. 21, 1863. Building opened and inaugurated April IV, 1865. 
 See Design, Paintings. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of England. The annual interest in 1850 was £23,862,257; 
 and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to £27,699,740. On 
 Jan. 1, 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 
 £769,272,562 ; the charge on which for interest and management was 
 £27,620,449. On Jan. 1, 1852, it was £765,126,582; the charge, £27,501,783. 
 Mr. Gladstone's Estimate : 
 
 England $-3,995,(iOO,000, or $125 per head. 
 
 United States 3,000,000,000, or 100 " 
 
 France 2,400,000,000, or 53 " 
 
 Austria 1,580,000,000, or 45 « 
 
 Russia 1,395,000,000, or 43 •« 
 
 Italy 760,000,000, or 34 " 
 
 Great Bribiin's revenue has never exceeded £70,000,000 per year; but the 
 United States Government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. United 
 States. At different times: See Zoaws. 
 
 In 1830 the debt was $48,565,406 
 
 InlS35 " " 37,733 
 
 InlS45 « " 16,801,647 
 
 In 1848 " " ...65,804,450 
 
 Aug. 31, 1865 it was 2,757.689,571 
 
 (It reached its highest figure at this date.) 
 
 Jan. 1, 1866 it was 2,716,581,536 
 
 Nov. 1,1866 " 2,551,310,005 
 
 May 1,1867 " 2,520,786,096 
 
 Sept. 1867 " 2.500.000,000 
 
 Spain $725,000,000, or $46perhead. 
 
 Holland 425,000,000, or 121 " 
 
 Turkey 255,000,000, or 115 •♦ 
 
 Prnssi;i 215,000,000, or 12 »• 
 
 Portugal 175,000,000, or 40 •« 
 
 In 1791 the debt was $75,463,476 
 
 In 1800 " " 82,976,294 
 
 In 1810 '« » 53,173,217 
 
 In 1816 «' " 127,334,934 
 
 In 1820 " " 91,015,566 
 
 Jan. 1, 1865, it was 66,243,721 
 
 Dec. 1, 1S61 " 267,654,153 
 
 Jan. ], 1863 « 764,535,854 
 
 Dec. 1, 1863 « 1,293,243,544 
 
 Feb. 13, 1865 " 2,279,5*2,484 
 
 NATURALIZATION Laws, U. S. By the Constitution, Congress has power to 
 establish " one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts 
 have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re- 
 sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the 
 city of New York between 1850 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu- 
 ralized. 
 
 NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as 
 plants, mosses, feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it 
 were, to engrave themselves ; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for 
 printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and 
 in the same year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to 
 #the impressions. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressiona 
 of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process in England 
 was in " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley. 
 
148 
 
 THE WOELD's PROGEESS. 
 
 NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded during the Presidencj 
 of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the 
 Navy. During the war it was removed to Newport, R. I. It has since been 
 re-established at Annapolis. 
 
 Secession : 
 
 Fort Sumter, S. C, five dlsaWed, 
 the fort receiving no great injury. 
 
 April 7, 1863 
 
 The Confed. ram Albemarle at- 
 tacks U. S. gunboats at Plymouth, 
 N. C, sinks one, and disperses 
 thereat April 19, 1864 
 
 Brilliant engagement off Cher- 
 bourg, France, between U. S. 
 gunboat "Kearsarge," and Con- 
 fed, privateer "Alabama." The 
 latter sunk in two hours... ..June 19, 1864 
 
 Admiral Farragut, with 32 vessels 
 and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay, 
 silencing the forts, and capturing 
 two heavy ironclads. One U. 8. 
 Monitor sunk by a torpedo. . . .Aug. 5, 1864 
 
 Gunboat light near Memphis, 
 Tenn. The Union fleet com- 
 pletely routed the enemy's, cap- 
 turing 3 and disabling 4 of their 
 vessels June 6, 1864 
 
 Formidable fleet of ironclads and 
 frigates with 300 guns, under 
 Admiral Porter, attack Fort 
 Fisher, N. C. Under cover of 
 the terrible flre, land forces 
 storm and capture the fort. ...Jan. 15, 1865 
 
 For list of minor engagements, see 
 Greeley's "jlmen Confiiot," VoL IL 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. in the war of 
 
 The Confederate forts at Hatteras 
 Inlet, N. C, bombarded by fleet • 
 of Com. Stringham, and taken by 
 land forces of Gen. Butler.Aug. 28, 29, 1861 
 
 Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Cora. 
 Foote Feb. 6, 1862 
 
 Great naval action in Hampton 
 Koads,Va., March 8,9, 1862. The 
 Confed. ram Merrimac from Nor- 
 folk, attacks the U. S. frigates 
 "Cu*berland" and " Congress," 
 and sinks them. On the follow- 
 ing day the U. S. " Monitor " 
 (battery of 2 guns), arrived in 
 time to save the frigate Minneso- 
 ta, and finally forced the Merri- 
 mac to withdraw in a disabled 
 condition. 
 
 Com. Farragut, with a fleet of 50 
 vessels and 286 guns, passes forts 
 Jackson and Philips, destroys the 
 enemy's rams, and takes New Or- 
 leans April 18, 28, 1862 
 
 Grand military and naval expedi- 
 tion, under Dupont, captures 
 forts at Hilton Head, 8. C Nov. 7, 1861 
 
 Fierce action at Port Hudson, Miss. 
 Admiral Farragut, in attempting 
 to pass the batteries, loses his 
 flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863 
 
 Combined attack of ironclads upon 
 
 NAVY OP ENGLAND (p. 496). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 saihng ves- 
 sels, carrying 9,594 guns; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns; also 
 155 gunboats, and 111 vessels on harbor service. 
 
 NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 496) has been greatly increased by the present empe- 
 ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 37 
 steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449. 
 
 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p. 495). In I860 consisted of 10 ships of 
 the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw 
 do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeshipa, 6 re- 
 ceiving ships — total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there 
 were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted 
 of but 12 ships, with 18*7 guns. In 1862 there. were 427 vessels and 3,268 
 guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At 
 the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total 
 number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels 
 were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing 
 $18,366,681. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to 
 June 30, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by 
 Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the 
 navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029 
 guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866, 
 13,600. 
 
 Nebraska, U. S. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area, 
 
1851-67. 
 
 149 
 
 about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indiina. 
 Admitted into the Union, March 1st, ISGY. 
 
 NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Oarsou 
 City. Area, about 80,000 square miles. Population, I860, 50,568, of whom 
 16,260 were Indians on reservations, and 7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted as 
 a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. 
 
 NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1536 conquer- 
 ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new republic of Bo* 
 gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic 
 of Colombia in 1819. After several reunions and dissolutions, tFie republic of 
 New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which 
 includes Bolivar, Antioguia, Panama, and other small States. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 497). Population in 1850, 317,976; increase in ten 
 years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,072; increase, 3 per cent. Number of 
 ti-oops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427. 
 
 NEW JERSEY (p. 498). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored 
 persons. In 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 years, 35 per cent. Number of 
 troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population, 
 1865, 773,700. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS (p. 500). Some of the chief dailies : 
 
 N. Y. Herald founded 1835 1 Times 1850 | Evenina: Post 1801 
 
 Tribune 1841 | Sun 1833 | Commercial AdvertiBer.lT97 
 
 "Washington Intelligencer... ...1801 
 
 In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were 
 in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219 
 in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in 
 Germany, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in 
 U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State 
 of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. Great Britain (p. 445). In 
 1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes. 
 In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-office. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OP THE PEESENT PEINCIPAL lONDON NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Daily. 
 
 PuVilic Ledger 1759 I Times 1788 I Standavd 1827 
 
 Morning Chronicle 1770 Sun 1792 Daily News 1846 
 
 Morning Post 1772 | Morning Advertiser.. 1803 | Daily Tele-^raph 1855 
 
 Morning Herald 1781 | Globe ....1803 | Morning Star 1S56 
 
 Observer 1792 
 
 Bell's Messenger 1796 
 
 Weekly Dispatch 1801 
 
 Examiner 1 808 
 
 Literary Gazette 1817 
 
 John Bull 1820 
 
 Weekly. 
 
 Bell's Lif.' in London. 1820 
 Sunday Times... .....1822 
 
 Atlas 1826 
 
 Athei seum .■ . . .1828 
 
 Spectator 1828 
 
 lUustr'd London Newsl812 
 
 NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 1848. 
 
 Lloyd's Weekly Paper. 1812 
 
 News of the World 1843 
 
 Economist 1843 
 
 Leader 1850 
 
 Press 1853 
 
 Saturday Review 185- 
 
 Organized as a territory, 
 
 1850. Capital, Santa F^. Population in 1860, 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal 
 Indians. 
 KEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 500.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the 
 " Crescent City " on account of the circular bend of the river on which it 
 stands. Founded by the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1803. 
 Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom 13,. 
 800 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered to tha 
 
150 THE world's peogeess. 
 
 U. S. forces, — the naval commanded by Admiral Farragut, and the land forces 
 commanded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations aa 
 to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by 
 Haydn (p. 513), and believed in England, have been long since exploded. 
 Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the 
 Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canby appointed to the post, 1864. 
 Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the " Radical Conven- 
 tion," July, 1866. 
 
 NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. 
 In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. In 
 1865 it was re-established at Annapolis. 
 
 NEW YORK, State of. Population in 1860, 3,851,563 ; increase in ten years, 
 24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,- 
 533. Volumes in school libraries, 1,360,507 (1860). Population in 1865, 
 3,831,7'77 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom 
 583,611 were natives. The number of widows in the State — principally a re- 
 sult of the war — was 137,980. It sent 473,443 troops to the war. Number 
 of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,873. City of. Population in 1850, 
 514,547 ; in 1860, 805,651 ; in 2865, 726,386. The density of the popula- 
 tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of 
 parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $51,000,000. Value of real^ and 
 personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads 
 in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 
 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the 
 previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same 
 period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625. 
 
 NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili- 
 buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united efibrts of the con- 
 federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. 
 
 NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung 
 from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a 
 vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to 
 keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to marry 
 any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main- 
 tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things 
 in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng- 
 land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they 
 rendered invaluable services to the army in the Crimean war: a fund was raised 
 in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the 
 training of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 
 £44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 
 
 NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see Assyria), founded by 
 Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 b. o. Ninus reigned in Assyria, 
 a;id called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 b. c. Abbe Lenglet. 
 Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b. c.), which was taken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b. c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the 
 neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, 
 have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries hai 
 not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had 
 long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, 
 religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand 
 
1851-67. 151 
 
 before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the 
 sculptures brought to England and now with Br. Museum is the bas-relief of 
 the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation of the Assy- 
 rian god Nisroch (from iVm*, an eagle or hawk), whom Sennacherib was in the 
 act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about TIO b. c. 
 2 Kings xix. 87. In 1848 Mr. Layard published his " Nineveh and its Remains," 
 and in 1853 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. A collection of bas- 
 reliefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr. Jas. Lenox, of New York, and 
 presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?) 
 
 NITROGEN OR Azote (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirable ele- 
 mentary gas. Before 17'7'7 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the 
 nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the 
 atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro- 
 gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off by decomposing 
 animal and vegetable bodies. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites, 
 679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of "secession" passed 
 May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, $250,000,000. Gen. Sherman 
 marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was 
 appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces- 
 sion " null and void " Oct. 7, 1865. 
 
 NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 504.) The honor of actually effecting the north- 
 west passage was achieved by Capt. McClure, in the British ship Investigator, 
 which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. CoUinson, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty 
 chart showing the discovery published 1853. 
 
 NOVARA (Sardinia), Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal 
 Radetzky totally defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. 
 The contest began at 10 a. m. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians 
 lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded ; the Sardinians lost between 
 8,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia 
 soon after abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king 
 (1867). 
 
 NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which 
 began 111 b. c, and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last 
 king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b. c, 
 when Numidia became a Roman province. 
 
 NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the 
 study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton 
 (1789), pubhshed works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on 
 British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was 
 founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr. 
 Yonge Akermau's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introduction to the 
 science. Other foreign works are numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on 
 the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with later editions. Works by Bushnell, 
 Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snovrden at Philad. 
 
 O 
 
 OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834 
 at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three 
 and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was 
 placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab- 
 lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof. E. Loomis. In 1810, 
 
152 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 one at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at "West Point, foi 
 the U. S. Military Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory paS" 
 sed Congress, Aug., 1842. In 1844, under the superintendence of Lieut. Gilliss, 
 U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished 
 with European instruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. 
 Capt. Gilliss appointed in 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro- 
 nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley 
 Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at 
 Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845. 
 Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest 
 telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret 
 for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private 
 individuals ; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Mis3 
 Mitchel. 
 
 OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. 
 April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered 
 Ohio.' Population in 1860, 2,3'7'7,917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. 
 Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5,317,133. In 1866 there were 
 erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,889,900, 4,860 houses, 1,158 barns, 18 mills, 
 811 factories. 
 
 OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titusville, 
 Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There 
 were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per 
 day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by 
 the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley 
 of Oil Creek, Pa. ; 3000 barrels were obtained from a single well in one day. 
 Wells were discovered later in Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia. 
 From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000. 
 In 1862, $60,000,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. 
 The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,111 
 barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number- 
 less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan. 1862, the price 
 of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10 ; 
 in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1866-7 the petroleum fever had greatly 
 diminished. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 508). In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave 
 funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece. 
 
 OMNIBUSES (p. 508). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni- 
 buses with 2u4 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 
 down the city. 
 
 OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs. of opium 
 were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that 
 not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and 
 physicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending 
 every year. The duty on opium is $2.50 per lb. ; on opium prepared for smok- 
 ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5). 
 
 OREGON (p. 511). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in 
 1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000. 
 
 ORGANS (p. 511). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, 
 England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru- 
 mental performers. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall al 
 
1851-67. 153 
 
 BostOD, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beecher'a clmrch at 
 
 Brooklyn, 1866. 
 
 OSTEOGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (West- 
 ern Goths) about a. d. 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c., their 
 great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 
 498 to 558. 
 
 OUDE, a large and rich province in North India', formerly a vice-royalty held by 
 the vizier of the Great Mogul. On the dismemberment of his empire about 
 1760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal 
 family. 
 
 YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez, hear ye ! The term used by a pubUc 
 crier in law courts, &c., to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the 
 date not known. 
 
 OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The oyster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 
 was valued at $20,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 worth was 
 distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conn., 
 is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters. 
 
 OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein 
 of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis- 
 charge. It is considered, to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur- 
 ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action 
 of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by 
 Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Schonbein has since discovered 
 another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone. 
 
 PAINTING, IN THE U, S. (p. 513.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New 
 York, historical painters. More recently, Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in land- 
 scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elliot in portrait. In landscape paint- 
 ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made ; and the 
 works of Church, Bierstadt, Giiford, and others have won fame and honor 
 beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index, 
 also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Bioff. Hist, of Fine Arts, etc. 
 
 PAL JSONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of 
 the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of Geol- 
 ogy. Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of 
 the present century, may be reckoned as the fathers of this science. The 
 Palaeontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British 
 organic remains, was founded in 184'7. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the 
 author of an elaborate work on the Palaeontology of New York. A Professor^ 
 ship of Paleontology estabhshed at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by 
 Geo. Peabody, Esq. 
 
 PALESTINE. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- 
 taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the 
 wars of the Crusades, and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman 
 empire by Sehm I. in 1516. 
 
 PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. A new State, 
 named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres- 
 ident (1860) is Jose de Osbaldin. The Panama Railroad opened 1855. 
 
 PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers in the United Statej 
 
154 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 has been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, 
 especially in Conn., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the 
 best in England. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima- 
 ted at $20,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated, 
 but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great Britain. 
 Mass. manufactures more paper than any other State. Number of mills in 
 1865, 11; value of stock $5,381, 6*71 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for 
 making paper in the U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn-out bagging, 
 cable-rope, straw, hay. hemlock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canes 
 and reeds. In 1865 there were in the U. S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro- 
 ducing 280,000,000 lbs., which at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,000,000. 
 The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000 
 lbs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in- 
 terested in the manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United 
 States, for the year 186o-'66 gives the following results: Total income of 
 ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora- 
 tion reported an income of $178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of 
 $314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro- 
 duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. 
 
 PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other 
 banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188,385,000; France, $121,070,000; 
 United States, $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the 
 U. S, was $238,677,218. 
 
 PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive 
 and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has 
 rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as 
 great in 18^6 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated : 
 (from 179v) to 1850 the whole No. was 16,296): 
 
 fears. 
 1843... 
 
 Applied for. 
 819 
 
 Granted. 
 
 531 
 
 995 
 
 .. . 20'24 
 
 Years. 
 1857 
 
 Applied for. 
 4771 
 
 Granted. 
 2710 
 
 3850... 
 
 2193 
 
 185S 
 
 6364 
 
 3710 
 
 3865. . 
 
 4435 
 
 1859 
 
 6225 
 
 4538 
 
 1856... 
 
 4960 
 
 2910 
 
 
 
 
 The receipts of the office increased from $85,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 1859. 
 Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 
 being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign 
 apphcants. No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,3*78. 
 Expenditure $189,803. 
 
 PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug- 
 gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings- 
 land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by 
 the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as- 
 sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city, 
 Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 59th to 106th St. : in 1859 it was 
 extended to 110th St., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2^ miles long, 
 "I mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 
 was assessed on adjoining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever 
 before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice 
 the size of Hyde Park in London ; but of its area 14.2 acres is occupied by the 
 two Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (1856) were follow 
 ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1868, and the ap- 
 pointment of Mr. F. L. Olmstead as Superintendent and " Architect-in-chief." 
 Work on, this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3500 
 
1851-67. • 155 
 
 persons have been employed to this time (ISGY) under the general diret;tion 
 of commissioners appointed by the Legislature. A park of about equal extent 
 to the " Central Park," is projected but not yet (1867) completed for the City 
 of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1860. The " Common " at 
 Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en- 
 closures in the world. 
 
 PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of paper pulp combined with gum and 
 sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German 
 snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1*740. 
 In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon 
 spread over that district. Papier mache is now largely employed in ornament- 
 ing the interior of buildings, &c. 
 
 PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ; 
 in 12 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of £10, and his 
 widow £8 more as full payment for the copyright. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 
 1526; and conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, 
 who established an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion 
 in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. 
 Prancia was elected dictator, succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 
 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The present 
 (1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized 
 as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great 
 Britain in 1853, by the TJ. States in 185-. 
 
 PARSEES, the followers ofZerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle 
 of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- 
 hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, 
 but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, where 
 they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naorpji, a Parsee merchant, 
 has been several years professor of Gujerati at University college, London. 
 
 PARIS, (p. 516.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napoleon, 
 1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by 
 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855, the first visit of an English 
 sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 1422. The great Ex- 
 position of 18G7, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of 
 the world — and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of 
 Prussia, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c. 
 
 PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono- 
 riiis, archbishop of Canterbury, A. D. 636. The parishes of England and Wales 
 DOW amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced a, d. 1538 
 
 PARLIAMENT, (p. 517.) 
 
 bled in their new house 
 
 Nov. 4, 1852 
 
 Bai'on L. Rothschild, the tirst 
 Jew admitted July 26, 1858 
 
 The Peers took possession of their 
 house, that portion of the palace 
 being ready April 15, 1847 
 
 The members of the Commons^ 
 House of Parliament assem- 
 
 PARMA. (p. 518.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose, 
 and established a provisional government. May 3 ; the duchess-regent retired 
 to Switzerland. On Sept. 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted. 
 
 PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another 
 without the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was some- 
 what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 
 
156 THE world's pbogeess. 
 
 5s. to 6d. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859 ; in Sweden in 1860 _ 
 and (with regard to British subjects) in France, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Italy, June 
 26, 1862 ; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863 ; and are falling into disuse in other 
 countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United Statea 
 dnring part of the war of 1861-4. 
 
 P.A.SSAU, Treaty of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es- 
 tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles V. and 
 the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12, 1552. By this pacification the 
 Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault, In 1662 
 the cathedral and greatest part of the town were consumed by fire. 
 
 PAWNBROKERS, (p. 520.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of 
 pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to 
 publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres- 
 ent street of bankers in London. They have been humorously described as 
 meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would 
 never be redeemed. 
 
 PEABODY PUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American 
 merchant, gTive £150,000 to ameh orate the condition of the London poor. A 
 large pile of buildings, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as 
 homes for working classes. In U. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S. 
 donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund 
 for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus- 
 tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. 
 Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of 
 Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr. 
 Peabody deUvered over bonds, covering the amount of his gift, March 4, ISe*?. 
 
 PEACE SOCIETY, American. The first peace society in the world was found- 
 ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A similar society was founded at Paris in 1821. 
 Peace Society in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni- 
 versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of 
 the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at 
 Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years, Bright, 
 Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part. 
 
 PELASGI. The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the 
 Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 b. c. and in Italy 
 about 1600 B. c. They have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, 
 &c. Prom the Pelasgi come the Dorians, J]]olians, and lonians ; all three 
 being Hellenes or Greeks, 
 
 PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279; and by 
 Yong-lo, 1471 ; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793 ; surrendered to the allied 
 EngHsh and French armies, Oct. 12, 1860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 
 following, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very 
 desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000. 
 
 PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the rolls 
 in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their 
 payment, $1,18^^,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in 1860, 
 In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, 
 $300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro- 
 duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866, 
 was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, 
 $13,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1866). 
 
1851-67. 
 
 15^ 
 
 PEKN'STLVANIA. Population in 1860, 2,906,115. Number of common schoola 
 in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 862,284 soldiers for the war. 
 It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having 
 been made by the legislature to support such. 
 
 PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con 
 version of 2^ tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the 
 first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for £*? 43 ; now the commonest 
 pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are 
 now made to a large extent in the U. S. 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. 
 
 PERSEFOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been 
 falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 b. c. The fire is said 
 to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 Marshal San Eamon president, 
 
 Oct. 24, 1862 
 
 General J. A. Pezet president, 
 
 April 3, 1863 
 
 The Spanish admiral Pizon took 
 possession of the Chlncha isles 
 (valuable for guano), beloneing 
 to Peru, stating that he would 
 occupy them till the claim of 
 his government on tli at of Peru 
 was" satisfied April 24, 1864 
 
 Congress at Lima : plenipoten- ' 
 
 tiaries from Chili and other states 
 meet to concert measures for de- 
 fence agdlinst European powers. .Nov. 1864 
 
 Negotiations followed by peace with 
 Spain, Jan. 28 ; Ohincha islands re- 
 stored Feb. 3, 1865 
 
 Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 
 2S ; several provinces soon lost.. May 1865 
 
 The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet 
 flies, and Canseco becomes president 
 
 Nov. 1865 
 
 PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera- 
 tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the 
 Romans, 309 and 295 b. c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe- 
 rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo 
 X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in- 
 Burrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, 
 Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal 
 soldiers was afterwards indemnified. 
 
 PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of 
 grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions 
 are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitions be- 
 gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable numbers. In 
 1837, there were presented to parliament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 
 persons; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 persons. This right defended 
 by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented 
 a petition for dissolution of the Union. 
 
 PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many 
 parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springs 
 were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now 
 termed " Petrolia," and others have been since discovered in Onio and other 
 states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells havo 
 been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. 
 In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this country, 
 and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at lr>ff 
 temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum " was passed in July, 
 1862. 
 
 PETROPAULOVSKI. A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtsehat 
 
158 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repu'sed, Aug. 30, 1854 
 It was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destroyed. 
 
 PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation: 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reading-pew with 
 a date, is one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. 
 
 PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of drugs 
 and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon- 
 don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in 
 New York founded in 184-. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, City of. Population in 1860, 585,529, During the war foi 
 
 the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot 
 
 ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably 
 
 entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made 
 
 ' for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Cluhs. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, (p. 535). 
 
 MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHT. 
 
 Ancient Schools. — Pythago- 
 rean, about B. c. 500 ; Platonic, 
 (the Academy), by Plato, 374; 
 Peripatetic (the Lyceum), by 
 Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by 
 Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic, by Diog- 
 enes, 330; Epicurean, by Epi- 
 curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno, 
 290 : Middle Academy, by Ar- 
 cesilaiis, 278 ; New Academy, 
 by Carneades, 160. 
 
 MoDEKN Ststei'S, — Rational, Ba- 
 con, ab't A. D. 1624 ; Cartesian, 
 Descartes, about 1650; Reflec- 
 tive ox Perceptive,'Lioak.Q, 1690; ■ 
 Idealislic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elec- 
 tive, Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common 
 Sense, Re id, 17,50-70; Tran- 
 scendental, Kant, 1770-1860 ; 
 Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; Ab- 
 solute Identity, Schelling, 1800- 
 20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 
 1810-30; UHlilarian, Benthara, 
 1790-1880 ; Positive, Comto, 
 1830. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHT. 
 
 Greek and Latin. — Thales, about 
 B. c. 600; Pythagoras, 590; 
 Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Eu- 
 clid, 300; Archimedes, 287; 
 
 PHCENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent 
 navigators and traders of antiquity ; their cities being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, 
 Tripoli, Byblos, and Ptolemais of Acre. From the nineteenth to the thir- 
 teenth centuries before Christ, they established colonies on the shores or isles 
 of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus ; and are 
 said to have visited the British isles. Phoenicia was conquered by Cyrus, 53*? 
 B. c. ; by Alexander, 334 ; by the Romans, 47 ; and was added to tiie Otto- 
 man empire, a. d. 1392. 
 
 SONOGRAPHY (from the Greek, phone, sound). The English Phonetic So- 
 ciety, whose object is to reform our mode of writing and printing by rendering 
 it more consonant to sound, was established March 1, 1843 ; Isaac Pitman, 
 pecretary, he being the inventor of the system which was known in 1837 
 
 Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 
 100 ; Julius CsBsar, 50 ; Ptolemy, 
 A. D. 150. 
 Middle Ages. — Arabians ; Ben Musa, 
 800; Alhazen ; &c., 1100. Gerbert, 
 Decimals, 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus 
 Majus, 1265. 
 
 INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHT. 
 
 Copernious'B system published 1543 
 
 Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 
 
 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 
 
 Bacon's Novum Organum 1020 
 
 Galileo's Dialogues 1632 
 
 Royal Society hegm^(ivhich see) 1G45 
 
 Otto Guericke— Air-pump. 1654 
 
 Huyghens on Pendulums 1658 
 
 Newton — Fluxions, 1655 ; Analysis of 
 
 Light, 1699; Theory of Gravitation, 
 
 1684 : Principia published 1687 ; 
 
 Death 1727 
 
 Bradley discovers ab'^rratiou 1727 
 
 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets.. ..1748 
 
 Black on Heat 1762 
 
 Laplace mi Tides 1775 
 
 Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique 1788 
 
 Galvani's and Volta's researches 1791 
 
 Laplace, Mechanique Celeste 1799 
 
 (See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
 
 Electricity, (£c. 
 
1851-67. . 159 
 
 Among other works published by the promoters of this system was the ' Pho> 
 netic News." 
 
 PHOSPHORUS, (p. 4*70.) The consumption of phosphorus has immensely in- 
 creased since the manufacture of lucifer matches. In 1805, Schrotter of 
 Vienna, made the important discovery of what is termed allotropic or amor' 
 phous phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary pl^oS' 
 phorus. 
 
 PHOTO-GALVANOGRAPHT. The art of producing engravings by the action 
 of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nlcephore 
 Niepce, and presented by him, in 1827, to the great botanist, Robert Brown, 
 in Eng. Great advances have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de 
 St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, 
 H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, Paul Pretsch patented in England a process which 
 he called " Photo-galvanography," and a company was formed to apply it to the 
 benefit of the public. 
 
 PHOTOGLYPHIG ENGRAVING (a process by which the light actually etches a 
 picture on a plate that may be and has been printed from), was invented'by 
 Mr. Fox Talbot, in Eng. in 1859. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of hght on chloride of silver was known as early 
 as the sixteenth century. The phenomena were studied by Scheele (1777), 
 Senebier (1790), Ritter and Wollaston (1801). From the results of these in- 
 vestigations, experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry 
 Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first 
 photographer. His paper was entitled "An Account of a method of copying 
 paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate 
 of silver." Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and Sir J. 
 Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824; and in 
 1826 joined Niepce, and worked with him till the death of the latter in 1833. 
 The production of the Daguerreotype plates was announced in Jan., 1839; 
 and the French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to 
 Isidore Niepce (the son). In 1889, also, Henry Fox Talbot first published his 
 mode of multiplying photographic impressions, by producing a negative pho- 
 tograph (^. e. with the lights and shades reversed), from which any number of 
 positive copies may be obtained. His patent for producing the Talbotype or 
 Calotype (on paper), is dated Feb. 1841. From this time improvements have 
 been made with great rapidity. In 1851, Collodion was applied to photography 
 by Mr. F. Archer. Photographic Society of London, established Jan. 1853. 
 It publishes a journal. Celestial Photography began with Professor Bond, the 
 astronomer of Cambridge, U. S., who exhibited a photograph of the moon in 
 1851. In the U. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photog- 
 raphy in the U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in the 
 course of a lecture at the Broadway Tabernacle, early in that year. Pro- 
 fessors Morse, Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, before the end of the 
 year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 applied it to portraiture. 
 Ambrotypes were introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851, 
 although very little was done in the business way until 1854. Early in 1855, 
 Mr. C. D. Fredricks made the first successful life-sized photographs, with an 
 apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. Snelling. Professor IBond, of Cambridge, 
 Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. Photographs of 
 rapidly-moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a second. Ingenious 
 counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography. 
 
 PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs. 
 
160 _ THE world's peogeess. 
 
 McKaye & Co. ; among the earliest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farra 
 gut, Greeley, and others. 
 
 PIAN"0-FORTES. Those made by Steinway of New York, and Chickering of 
 Boston, received the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of 
 1867, July 1. This manufacture has advanced very largely in the last 15 
 years, and is one of the most important branches of American industry. 
 There are in New York city alone 113 piano-makers (ISBY). 
 
 PIEDMONT {Fedemontium, Latin, foot of the mountains). A region in North 
 Italy, seat of government of the modern kingdom of Sardinia, which see. 
 
 PINS. (p. 528.) Pins were first manufactured by machinery in England, in 
 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wight, of the U. S. — Haydn. 
 
 PISTOLS, (p. 528.) Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylin- 
 drical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, 
 and bringing them in succession into a line with the barrel for firing. The 
 earliest model for this kind of arm is to be found in the United Service 
 Museum, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. The manufac- 
 ture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into England from the 
 United States, in 1853, by Col. Colt, the inventor of the celebrated Colt pis- 
 tol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to Eng- 
 land. The perfection and economy of this system of manufacture induced the 
 British Government to establish the Enfield Armory in the year 1855. — Haydn. 
 In 1835 Colt patented his revolving chambered breech ; and in 1852, founded 
 his manufactory at Hartford, Conn., where the Colt Arms Co. make revolving 
 pistols of several sizes, costing from $10 to $25 each, at the rate of 300 and 
 sometimes even 500 each day. This revolver has 14 parts, besides screws, 
 and these pass through (in all) 460 separate processes before the pistol is 
 completed. Various other revolving pistols have been invented, but none so 
 successful. The Derringer pistol is single-barrelled, throwing a small ball. 
 
 PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862 
 a great battle was fought between the U. S. troops under Grant and Prentiss, 
 and the rebels under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter 
 began the attack and were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. 
 Grant was reinforced the next day and renewed the attack ; the rebels main- 
 tained their ground ; but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
 
 PLANETS. See Astronomy. Asteroids have been discovered as follows : 
 
 Hygeia, \iy A. de Gasparis. April 19, 1849 
 Parthenope, by the same.... May 11, 1850 
 Victoria, by J. R. Hind.... Sept. 13, 1850 
 Egeria, by A. de Gasparis.. .Nov. 2, 1850 
 
 Irene, by J. B. Hind.. May 19,1851 
 
 Eunoinia, by A. de Gasparis.July 29, 1851 
 
 Psyche, by the same March 17, 1862 
 
 Thetis, by R. Luther April 17, 18.52 
 
 Melpomene, by J. R. Hind... June 24, 1852 
 Fortuna, by the sain e Aug. 22, 1852 
 
 I^XEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY (England) conveys letters and parcels 
 through tubes by means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
 pany's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid down in Threadneedle 
 street on Sept. 12, 1860 ; and on Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiinents were 
 performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the Euston rail- 
 way stafeiob to the N. W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863, 
 the conveyance of the mail bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid 
 down between Euston railway and Holborn ; and on Nov. Y, several persona 
 travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. 
 
 Massilia, by A. de Gasparis 
 
 Sept. 19, 1852 
 TMtetia, by H. Goldsmith. Nov. 15, 1852 
 Calliope, by J. R. Hind.... Nov. 16, do 
 
 Thalia, by the same Dec. 15, do. 
 
 4 in 1853 ; 6 in 1854 , 4 in 1855 ; 5 in 
 1856 ; 9 in 1857 ; 5 in 1858 ; 1 in 1859; 
 5 in 1860 ; 9 in 1861 ; 5 in 1862 ; 2 in 
 1863 ; 3 in 1864 ; and 3 in 1865, 
 
1851-67. 161 
 
 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A body of Christians calling themselves " the 
 Brethren," which first appeared at Plymouth, England, about 1830. In 1851 
 they had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. They object tc 
 national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters as too sectariaji. 
 They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy Ghost 
 as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant 
 churches, but they recognize no order of ministers. 
 
 POET-LAUREATE— England. Alfred Tennyson, appointed 1850. 
 
 POLICE. The " Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and sub- 
 urbs, passed 185Y, resisted by the mayor (Wood), and a serious collision re- 
 sults between the old and new police force, June 16, 1857. The new law 
 pronounced to be constitutional by the Court of Appeals, July 2, and the old 
 force is disbanded next day. The present police force of New York (1867), 
 is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever been 
 organized on this continent. In 1866, the police force consisted of 26 cap- 
 tains, 105 sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 door- 
 men. There are 26 Police districts. Expense to the city for supporting this 
 force in 1866, $1,836,120. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, (p. 534.) In the U. States, the most elaborate works on 
 this subject, are those of Mr. Hinry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as 
 a protectionist), several volumes which are highly esteemed also in Europe. 
 Works favoring free trade, have also been issued here by Opdyke, and others. 
 
 POLYNESIA. A name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 
 
 PONTIFFS (Latin, Pontifices). The highest Roman sacerdotal order, established 
 by Numa. The college first consisted of 4 Patricians ; to these 4 plebeians 
 were afterwards added. Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 
 minores). The chief was called the Pontifex Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a 
 plebeian, obtained this ofiice, 254 b. c. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE Globe, (p. 537.) Professor C. F. W. Dietrich, of the 
 University of Berlin, has furnished the Academy of Sciences in that city with 
 the most recent and reliable tables on this subject, giving the following results, 
 with his grounds for them. 
 
 Population of Europe 272,000,000 
 
 " " Asia... 755,000,000 
 
 " " America 200,000,000 
 
 " " Africa 59,000,000 
 
 Population of Australia, etc 2,000,000 
 
 Total 1,288,000,000 
 
 or more than twelve hundred millions. Reckoning the average death as 
 about one in every forty inhabitants, 32,000,000 die in a year ; 87,671 in a 
 day ; 3,653 in an hour ; and 61 in a minute. Thus one human being dies on 
 an average everv second, and more than one is born. Of the U. S. In 1850, 
 23,191,000 ; in 'i860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the following cities had over 100,- 
 000 -.—New York, 805,651 ; Philadelphia, 585,529 ; Brooklyn, 266,661 ; 
 Baltimore, 212,418 ; Boston, 177,812 ; New Orleans, 168,675 ; Cincinnati, 
 161,044 ; St. Louis, 160,773 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofficial hut reliable 
 estimate taken by an officer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total popula- 
 tion of the U. S. was found to be 34,505,882. 
 
 PORTLAND, Maine, Population in 1860, 26,342. See Fires. 
 
 PORT ROYALISTS. The name popularly given to the learned members of the 
 celebrated convent o^ the Port Royal des Champs (founded about 1204 ; anu 
 refounded in 1626), who occupied their time therein religious exercises, and in 
 instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were expelled by 
 
162 THE world's peogeess. 
 
 Louis XrV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among tbe distinguished names con- 
 nected with the Port Royal are those of Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de 
 Sacy, and Tillemont. The school books which were published for the use of 
 that institution were greatly esteemed. 
 PORTUGAL, (p. 538.) 
 
 An American squadron arrives 
 in the Taaus to enforce claims 
 against the Portuguese govern- 
 meiit Jam- 22, 1850 
 
 Deatti of tlje queen Maria II. 
 
 Nov. 15, 1853 
 
 King-consort recognized as re- 
 gent Deo. 19, 1853 
 
 The youDg king visits England 
 
 June, 1854 
 
 And Fran ce May, 1855 
 
 All the slaves on the Royal do- 
 mains declared free.,.. Dec. 30, 1854 
 
 Inauguration of the king.Sept. 16, 1S55 
 
 Resignation of the Saldanha 
 ministry Jutie 5, 1856 
 
 First Portuguese railway (from Lie- 
 hon to Santarem) opened Oct. 26, 1858 
 
 The French emigrant ship for negroes 
 Charles-et-Georges, seized Nov. 29, 1851 
 
 Anger of the French government ; its 
 ultimatum sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships 
 of war to the Tagus ; the vessel re- 
 stored Oct. 2.% 1858 
 
 1853. Peter V. (Don Pedro), born 
 Sept. 16, 1837 ; the present (lt59) king 
 of Portugal. Married to the princess 
 Stephania, of Hohenzollern Sigmar- 
 Ingen, May 18, 1858 : who died 
 
 July 17, 1869 
 
 [Heir, Prince Louis-Philip, the king's 
 brother, bom Oct 31, 1838.] 
 
 2J 
 
 do 
 
 3 
 
 do 
 
 .3* 
 
 do 
 
 ^ 
 
 do 
 
 1r 
 
 do 
 
 51 
 
 do 
 
 POST OFFICE, U. S. (p. 540.) For the year ending June 30, 1859 : number 
 of post-offices, 28,539 ; increase during the year, 562 ; mail routes, 8,2*73 ; 
 aggregate length, 260,052 miles ; annual transportation, 82,308,402 miles, of 
 which by railroads, 26,010 miles, total, 27,268,384 miles, at 11.9 cents per 
 mile ; by steamboats, 19,209 miles, total, 4,569,962, at 25.3 cents per mile ; 
 by coaches, 63,041 miles, total, 23,448,498 miles, at 13.3 cents per mile ; by 
 inferior modes, 151,792 miles ; total, 27,021,658, at 7.1 cents per mile. Ex- 
 penditnres of the department for 1859, $14,964,493; revenue, $7,968,484 ; 
 deficiency, $6,996, 0C9. See Tab.'e in Appendix. Nearly 2,000,000 " dead 
 letters" annually fail to reach the persons addressed. The Post Office re- 
 ceipts were in 
 
 1854 7 millions loss U millions. 
 
 1855 7i do 
 
 1856 74 do 
 
 1857 -i do 
 
 1858 8 do 
 
 1859 Sf^ do 
 
 1860 8| do 
 
 Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, 
 $11,163,000 ; expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of 
 postage stamps were sold; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes; $23,315 
 worth of stamped wrappers. 467,500,000 letters were conveyed in the mails, 
 of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4,368,000. 
 There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,122. The 
 revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the 
 states previous to the rebellion by $6,038,090. The most money that can be 
 sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867, 
 180,900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30, 
 1865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase 
 being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre- 
 vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also 
 $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It 
 is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of 
 which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was 
 4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,- 
 122. The average annual increase of the revenue for the last four years over 
 tbe preceding four years was $3,533,845. The Postmaster-General thinki 
 
1851-67. 163 
 
 that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted by 
 Great Britain. 
 I POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 300 new money-order offices 
 were added, making 700 such post offices. The largest amount that can be 
 sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed — the 
 charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to |20 ; and 25 cents on 
 any order over $20. 
 POST OFFICE, British. The net revenue was in 1853, £1,104,000 ; in ISS^, 
 £1,293,971. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 1837, and 
 adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of the old system 
 was, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 millions ; in 1858, it was 523 
 millions. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post, 
 at the rate of Id. for 4 oz. The number of letters annually passing through 
 the Post offices of Great Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system, 
 is four times as great as in the United States, as by the following table : 
 
 No. of Letters per Postal Postal 
 
 Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues. 
 
 United States 25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792 
 
 Great Britain 30,000,000 410,817,489 13,693 14,884,800 9,245,000 
 
 France 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900 
 
 Spain 14,000,000 30,775,686 2,209 1,095,398 1,281,761 
 
 Bela-ium 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648 
 
 Holland 3,200,000 13,349,553 4,357 156,785 288,162 
 
 Switzerland 2,300,000 19,773,671 8,299 341,028 447,752 
 
 PR^TORIAN GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (b.c. 13), 
 and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first 
 supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, 
 actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in a.d 193 when it was 
 bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and 
 were finally disbanded by Constantino, in 312. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS, (p. 543.) The Presbyterian church in the United States 
 was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850, 
 the aggregate No. of churches was 4,584, accommodating 2,040,000 persons. 
 The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization, 
 Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu- 
 tions "that to support the President and the Government of the U. S. is relig- 
 iously the duty of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old 
 School" Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers, 
 2,301; churches, 2,629. "New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers, 
 1,694; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 1862, 200,000. 
 Contributions of " Old School'' in 1865, $2,400,000 ; "New School," $2,200,000. 
 
 PRESS, FRKEDOM OF THE, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1861 
 for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. " Journal of Commerce," 
 " News," " Day Book," " Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand 
 Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara- 
 tions ; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails, 
 Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of 
 military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the 
 " Chicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed 
 for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers 
 passed resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten- 
 dency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did not express trea- 
 son or give information to the enemy. 
 
 PRINTING, (p. 545.) In the United States this important art has made great ad« 
 
164 THE wokld's pkogeess. 
 
 varices during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam 
 brige, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens, 
 nearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence haa 
 been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy and cheapness 
 have been more studied in England. 
 
 PRINTING TYPES first electrofaced with copper, about 1850. 
 
 PRINTING IN COLORS was first commenced by the employment of several 
 blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of 
 Eaust, A.D 1457, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro 
 soon followed (" Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 
 1519. in Germany ; others, by Ugo da Carpi in Italy, 1518). In 1819-22, Mr. 
 William Savage pubhshed in England " Hints on Color Printing," illustrated 
 by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly 
 admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter 
 produced beautiful specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, 
 which expired in 1855. Since then great improvements have been made in 
 the art. It has been appUed to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In 
 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by 
 means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851, he 
 commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ; 
 and also electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as 
 well as durability. — Haydn. This art is also practised considerably in the U. 
 S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print- 
 ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Pbila., about 1848, has been 
 carried to great perfection. 
 
 PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 544.) The largest presses more recently constructed by 
 Hoe & Co., of New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These 
 are the "ten-cyUnder type-revolving printing machines." Two of these have 
 been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four 
 daily newspapers in New York. The cost of each press is about $30,000. Of 
 the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great 
 Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia ! The Adams printing presses are now 
 manufactured by Hoe & Co. 
 
 PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States in 1865, 25. 
 No two are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners 
 in them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in 
 pratice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly 
 promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850. 
 
 PRISONERS. During the " Rebellion," TJ. S., at the close of the war, 1*74,223 
 ■were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government 
 also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1863, there was a general ex- 
 change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for 110,800 Union 
 soldiers. During 1868 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. From 
 1861 to 1864, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Rich- 
 mond. 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed- 
 erate) tried at Washington, D. C, for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at 
 the latter place, and executed Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoners) placed 
 under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C, in retaliation for bombarding 
 the city, 1864. 
 
 PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing 
 with a hcense from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships 
 of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war between 
 
1851-67. 
 
 165 
 
 Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was 
 very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
 great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 80, 1856 ; but the U. S. govern- 
 ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250 
 privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from 
 New York, 40 from Salem, and 81 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British 
 vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers. 
 About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See 
 OoggeshaWs Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863) 
 passed a Letter of Marque Bill euabUng the President to cover every sea with 
 Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently 
 eflPective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. 
 Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American 
 merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many millions. The fleetest of 
 these Privateers were of- French and British build, and some of them manned 
 by seamen from those nations. 
 
 PiXIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 
 Eebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis- 
 tribution among seamen $20,501,927. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk 
 the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece. 
 
 PROPERTY IN THE U. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the U. S 
 was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11, 31*7,611, 6*72 (more 
 than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,- 
 726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiar prop- 
 erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions. 
 
 PRUSSIA, (p. 549.) 
 
 The king takes the oath requii-ed 
 by the new constitution. Feb. 6, 1850 
 
 Treaty of peace between Prus- 
 sia and Denmark July 2, 1850 
 
 Decree, calling out the whole 
 Prussian army, 223,000 infan- 
 ti-y, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 
 artLllery,with 1,080 tield-pieces. 
 
 Nov. 7, 1850 
 
 The Prussian troops commence 
 their retreatfrom Hesse-Cassel 
 
 Dec. 5, 1850 
 
 The king celebrates by a grand 
 banquet the 150th anniversary 
 of the Prussian monarchy, 
 
 Jan. 18, 1851 
 
 The king revives the council of 
 state as it existed before the 
 revolution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852 
 
 A Prussian Industrial exhibition 
 opened at Berlin May 28, 1852 
 
 Prussia repudiates a customs 
 union with Austria.... June 17, 1852 
 
 But agrees to a commercial 
 treaty Feb. 19, 1853 
 
 Continues neutral in the war.... 
 
 Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 1854 
 
 Excluded from the conferences 
 at Vienna Feb. 1855 
 
 Alarming illness of the king, the 
 prince of Prussia appointed 
 regent for three months Oct. 23, 1857 
 
 Prince Frederick William of 
 Prussia, married to the prin- 
 cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1868 
 
 Prince of Prussia made permanent 
 regent Oct. 7, J858 
 
 Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
 arms to protect Germ'y. May & June, 1859 
 
 Death of the king and the accession of 
 the Prince of Prussia, as William I. 
 
 Jan. 2, 1861 
 
 War was declared by Prussia and Italy 
 against Austria; Bavaria, Saxony, 
 and Hanover sided with Austria; 
 The Prussian army occupied Hano- 
 ver and Saxony. (See Battles, Austrian 
 and Prussian) June 17, and 18, 1866 
 
 Negotiations for an armistice com- 
 menced July 12, 1866. Prussian ad- 
 vance in sight of Vienna, JuTy 22. 
 Treaty of Peace signed Aug. 30; 
 Prussia acquired Hanover, Schles- 
 wig-Holetein, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, 
 Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and 
 Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa- 
 tions her population became 23,583,- 
 000 ; the strength of Austria remain- 
 ed united, but she paid Prussia $28.- 
 000,000 ; Venetian Province cedei 
 to Italy ; a vote on the question of 
 annexation of Venetia to Italy was 
 held in that province, resulting in 
 641,758 affirmative, 68 negative. 
 
 Oct. 19, 186« 
 
 The King of Italy entered Venice, 
 amid great demonstrations of joy 
 
 Nov. 7, 1861 
 
166 TEE WOIiLI/'s PROGEBSS. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a. d 
 140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that 
 the sun, moon, and stars moved around once in twenty-four hours. This 
 system (still the official doctrine of the Church of Rome), was universally 
 taught till that of Pythagoras (600 B. c.) was revived by Copernicus (a. d. 
 1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (1687). 
 
 PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public hinds reached 
 122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the 
 amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,487,495 acres: the 
 quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold 
 for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than 
 any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct 
 at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek, 
 in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span than any stone arch 
 in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension 
 bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in 
 the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di- 
 mensions, nor surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and 
 doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of 
 our points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced 
 about 1485; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) 
 about 1750. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well 
 as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis (). 
 
 Q 
 
 QUADRANGLE, or Quadrilateral. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian 
 fortresses in North Italy : — (1) Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio, near the 
 lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and 
 Russians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It 
 was taken by the Sardinians in 1848 ; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The 
 Sardinians were about to invest it in 1859, when peace was made: (2) Mantua, 
 on the Mincio ; (3) Verona : and (4) Legnano; both on the Adige. 
 
 QUAKERS, (p. 553.) In 1682, Wm. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized 
 Philadelphia, where on Jan. 1, 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In 
 England, on Jan. 23, 1833, Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parlia- 
 ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in 
 1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed 
 to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the 
 peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. 
 
 QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal 
 ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at 
 Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an " orderly mob " of 
 (iitizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858. 
 
 QUININE OR QuiNiA. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 
 by Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona 
 barks, especially of the yellow bark. 
 
 R 
 
 RACES, (p. 557.) The most eminent races in England are those at Newmarke^ 
 established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by Mr. Park- 
 
1851-67. 167 
 
 hurst (they have been annual since 1'730) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of 
 Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Doncaster, in 1'7'76, and at Goodwood, 
 begun by the Duke of Kichmond (who died in 1806). The English Jockey 
 Club began in the time of George II. The New York Jockey Club and the 
 race course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flying Childers, bred in 
 1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the 
 fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred in the world ; 
 he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 86^ 
 miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1*741, aged 26 
 years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $30,000 for Dexter, 
 a fast trotter, Aug. 1867. 
 
 RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up 
 in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but 
 did not receive their name till that year, when the "Ragged School Union" 
 was formed. In 1856, there were 160 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges, 
 where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 600 
 boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. In New York and other large 
 cities of the U. S., " Ragged Schools " have been established by benevolent in- 
 dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute children, who would 
 otherwise have received no instruction. " Mission Schools " also have gathered 
 in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only 
 with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The "Eourth Ward" 
 and " Five Points " Missions are of this character. 
 
 RAILROADS of the World, 
 
 , Area sq. mile. , , Population < 
 
 Miles of To mile To mile 
 
 railroad. of RR. of RE. 
 
 N. America 39,414.1 7,600,000 192.8 52,000,000 1,309.3 
 
 West Indies 41U.3 100,000 243.7 3,500,000 8.529.8 
 
 B.America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,814.4 22,500,000 21,.i95.1 
 
 Tot. Amer..,. 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6 
 
 Europe 50,117.5 3.600,000 71.8 285,000,000 5,686.6 
 
 Asia 3,660.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3 
 
 Africa 375.4 11,700,000 81.166.7 200,000,000 532,765.1 
 
 Australasia 607.7 3,200,000 5,265.7 1,600,000 2,632.8 
 
 Total of 
 
 world 95,727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,903.8 
 
 See table in detail, in Com. db Financial Chronicle, N. Y. 
 
 RAILWAYS, (p. 558.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings 
 has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is was 69 millions ; the 
 railway mania and panic year was 1846, when 270 railway acts passed. Up to 
 1858, the sum of £308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S. 
 In June, 1859, the length of railways in operation in the United States was 
 stated to be 27,857 miles; cost $961,047,364. Increase since 1847, 24,(i57 
 miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,935 miles; cost 
 $1,432,649,000; cost per mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles ; Ohio, 
 3,393; Illinois, 3,206; New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in 
 which 335 persons were killed. In Cities. On the eleven street railroads in 
 the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 
 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the 
 previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same 
 period were $4,623,583, and the expense |2,821,625, 
 
168 
 
 THE world's PEOGEBSS. 
 
 RAILWAY TRAVELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this mode 
 of travelling is much safer than the old modes. Thus in the French post sys- 
 tem there were nearly seven times as many deathsi^as in an equal number of 
 miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial 
 ly in the United States. The summary of several years shows 
 
 Passei^gers. 
 
 In Prussia, killed or wounded 1 in 1,294,075 j In England killed or wounded 1 in 31 1 ,340 
 In Belgium, " " " 1,611,237 In United States, " " 1k8,459 
 
 In France, " " " 375,092 | 
 
 The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia, 
 probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro- 
 portion. Disasters. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R., 42 killed, Oct. 2*7, 
 1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k. and w., Nov. 1, 1854; Camden 
 andAmboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855; Pacific R. R., 
 near St. Louis, 25 k., 50 w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R. R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6, 
 1856 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 78 w., July 11, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can- 
 ada, 70 k., March 12, 1857; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ; 
 Michigan Southern, near South Bend, 38 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci- 
 dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per- 
 sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 7 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed, 
 3,611 injured. 
 
 RAPE, Punishment op, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten 
 years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du- 
 ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted 
 of rape. 
 
 REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present 
 century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine 
 was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1816, and received a gold medal 
 from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also 
 American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's 
 received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867. 
 
 REBELLIONS in U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, 1786. 
 The " Whiskey RebelHon" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode 
 Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West, 
 having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, Jan. 
 9th, 1861. See Secession, Treason. In British History. The most im- 
 portant were : 
 
 Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compro- 
 mised by the grant of Magna Oharta, 
 June 15 following. See Magna 
 Chat'ta. 
 
 Of Wiilter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul- 
 garly called Wat Tyler, occasioned 
 by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col- 
 lector to his daughter. Having 
 killed the collector iu his rage, he 
 raised aparty to oppose the tax itself, 
 which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. 
 
 Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of 
 York, against Henry VI., 1450. 
 
 Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which 
 ended in the execution of Warbeck. 
 
 Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; 
 it ended in his death. 
 
 Of the Scots in favor of the Old Pre- 
 tender 1716 ; quelled in 1716. 
 
 Of the Scots, under the Young Pre- 
 tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1746, 
 when lords Lovat, Balroerino, and 
 Kilmarnock were beheaded. 
 
 Of the Americans, on acoonnt of tax- 
 ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a 
 disastrous war, to the loss of the 
 chief North American colonies and 
 to the independence of tie United 
 States, 1782. 
 
 Canadian Insurrection, Dt-oember, 
 1837 to Nov. 1838. 
 
 Of Chartists, Nov. 3, 1839. 
 
 Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion ; termi- 
 nated in his defeat, Tipperary, July 
 29, 1848. 
 
 Fenian outbreak in Canada, 1866. In 
 Ireland 1867. 
 
1851-67. 
 
 169 
 
 RECIPROCITY Treaty with Canada, ratified at "Washington, June 5, 1854. It 
 allowed certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw 
 from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized 
 to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 17, 1866. It was argued against 
 the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be against 
 the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have 
 the same rights as the EngUsh, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the 
 British Provinces. 
 
 EEPUBLICAlSr PARTY, U. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1854. 
 The whig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas 
 Nebraska bill, and the repudiation of the Missouri Compromise. All who op 
 posed the bill were called "anti-Nebraska," and afterwards "Republicans." 
 In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. {G7-eelei/^s History.) 
 Their first presidential convention was held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Fre 
 mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, RepublicaD 
 Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was 
 elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 
 1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Repubhcan." 
 
 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES, (p. 561.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced 
 in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853 ; sold to new pub- 
 lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. 185*7, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston), 
 commenced 1857 (Dec). Russell's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858, 
 ceased 1860. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey 
 Magazine 1867. British, (p. 561.) 
 
 Tail's Mag., founded 1833 
 
 Dublin UniTersity 1833 
 
 North British Rev 1844 
 
 New Quarterly Rev... 1852 
 Household Words (Dic- 
 kens) 1852 
 
 Ijon. Quarterly ....1853 
 
 National Rev 1855 
 
 All the Year Round 
 
 (Dickens) 1?58 
 
 Ouce a Week 1859 
 
 MacMillan's 1859 
 
 Cornhill Mag. (Thacke- 
 ray) 1860 
 
 Temple Bar Mag. (Salu) 1860 
 
 St. James Mag 1860 
 
 Good Words 1861 
 
 Popular Science Rev..... 1861 
 
 London Society 1862 
 
 Victoria 1863 
 
 Union Rev ..1863 
 
 Fortnightly Rev 1865 
 
 Argosy .1865 
 
 " BeJ.gr a via " Mag 1866 
 
 Broadway 1867 
 
 Tinsley's 1867 
 
 .$43,000,000 I 1860 $56,054,599 
 
 ..65,000.000 1861 41,476,299 
 
 ..53,000,000 I 1862 51,935,720 
 
 REVIVALS OF Religion. Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub- 
 jects in the United States in 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to 
 Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 REVENUE OF THE United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus- 
 toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 
 
 1850 
 
 1855 
 
 1859 
 
 Revenue of the U. S. for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans) : 
 
 Year. Infernal. Customs. Total. Expenditures. 
 
 18G3 $37,640,787 $69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,796,630 
 
 1864 109,741,134. 102,316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,056 
 
 1865 209,464,215 84,928,260 333,714,605 1,897,674,224 
 
 1866 309,226,813 179,046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,666 
 
 Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, was 
 $1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on 
 the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861- 
 2-3, Congress passed laws for increased revenue to maintain the war. The 
 Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles. 
 The revenue from this source in 1862 to 1866 is stated in above table. 
 
 REVIEW Militaet, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at th« 
 
170 THE woeld's peogeess. 
 
 close of the war, at Washington, D. C, May, 1865, The army af the weal 
 under Sherman, and of the east under Meade, reviewed by the President, Cab- 
 inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched b.y the White House, 
 occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country 
 were present to witness the sight. 
 
 REFORM IN Parliament (England), (p. 560.) A new Reform bill, introduced 
 by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected 
 March 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords 
 July 16 1867. 
 
 REGENT'S PARK, London. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging 
 to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced 
 under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most 
 beautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres, 
 laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by 
 roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev- 
 eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of 
 architecture. 
 
 RENTS IN England, were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, a. d. 
 1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the 
 relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England, 
 the duke of Sutherland received Lis rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland 
 in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of England, including, land, 
 houses, and mines, was sis millions about the year 1600, and twelve years' 
 purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen mil- 
 lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Reve- 
 nues. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in 
 parliament at 12*7 millions. See Land, &c. 
 
 flHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860, 174,621 ; in 
 1865, 184,695, of whom 112,107 were born in the state. It sent 25,455 sol- 
 diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000. 
 
 EIOTS IN THE U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the 
 enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three days. 
 The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000. 
 They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated 
 at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes 
 County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Bread riots 
 in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 18, 
 and at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven- 
 tion broken up by ex-rebels and policemen ; 30 negroes and a few whites 
 killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. 
 Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866. 
 
 RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 
 1779. Population in 1800, 5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 
 1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many 
 years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the 
 secession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital of the " Southern Cc n- 
 federacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at 
 by the " Union army of the Potomac." The place was fortified with great 
 skill. It fell April 2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by 
 the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The 
 notorious " Libby Prison " was situated in Richmond. 
 
 BOADS AND PAVEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eng- 
 
1851-67. 171 
 
 land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 181& 
 Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London , 
 at Whitehall in 1839, and iu other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon 
 after. In New York and some other American cities the best pavementa 
 have beea those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu- 
 larly that known as the Russ pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in- 
 troduced which has proved satisfactory. 
 
 ROBBERS. First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which 
 directed that the oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was 
 pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in 
 England, a, d. 1189, and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an his- 
 torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. 1670. In later 
 times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. 
 
 EOCHELLE (W. France). A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng- 
 lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, 
 in 1372. It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France ; and was 
 vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re- 
 markable siege of thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke 
 of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to reheve the besieged ; but 
 they, from distrust, declined to admit him. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS m the United States, in 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from 
 the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859 : 
 
 1839 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859 
 
 Provinces 1 3 7 1 Priests 478 1000 2108 
 
 Dioceses 16 30 48 Churches 418 966 2334 
 
 Bishops 18 26 45 | 
 
 The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the U. S., in 1863, was 3,177,000. 
 ROME. (p. 567.) 
 
 The pope issues the bull estab- 
 lishing a Roman Catholic hier- 
 archy in England (see Papal 
 Aggression) Sept. 24,1850 
 
 Important concordat with Aus- 
 tria ., Aag., 1855 
 
 The pope visits different parts of 
 his dominions June, 1857 
 
 Insurrection in the Eomagna, at Bo- 
 logna and Ferrara June, 1850 
 
 They declare for adhesion to Pied- 
 mont Sept. 1859 
 
 Accept Buoncompagui as Governor- 
 General .....Nov. 1859 
 
 RONCESVALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised 
 and defeated by the Gascons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando, 
 slain, A D. 778. 
 
 ROSETTA STOXE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum. 
 In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in- 
 scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 2| feet 
 wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified 
 hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy 
 Epiphanes (about 194 b. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T. 
 Young and ChampoUion. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, 
 Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a 
 money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he 
 placed the sign of the Red Shield (iu German, Roth Schild). Having had deal- 
 ings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince entrusted him with his treasure 
 (said to have been £250,000), in 1806, when the French held his country. 
 With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and re- 
 stored the £250,000 to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons con- 
 
172 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 tinued the business as partners. His son, Natlian began at Manchester in 
 1798, removed to London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, July 28, 1836. 
 
 ROTTERDAM. The second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the thir- 
 teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. 
 It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations 
 in lYVS and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. 
 
 ROUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the capital of Normandy in 
 the tenth century. It was held by the EngUsh king till 1204 ; and was re- 
 taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was 
 burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of 
 France in 1449. 
 
 RUSSIA, (p. 569.) 
 
 May 27 ; political offenders, &o. 
 
 Sept. 7, 185S 
 
 Alexander II. crowned at Mosrow, 
 
 Sept. 2, 1858 
 
 The czar meets the emperor Napoleon 
 at Stutgardt, Sept. 25 ; and the Em- 
 peror of Austria at Weimar. . .Oct 1, 1857 
 
 Emancipation of the serfs decreed, 
 
 July 2, 1856 
 
 A Russian naval station established at 
 Villa Franca, on the Mediterranean, 
 creates some political excitement 
 
 Aug 1858 
 
 New Commercial treaty with Great 
 Britain Jan. 12, 1859 
 
 KuBsia reproves the warlike move- 
 ments of the Grerman confederation 
 during the Italian war May 27, 1859 
 
 Alexander II., son of Nicholas, born 
 April 29, 1818 ; succeeded at his 
 father's death, March 2, 1855 ; mar- 
 ried April 28, 18il, Mary, Princess of 
 Hesse ; the present emperor of 
 Russia I860 
 
 Heir '. his son Nicholas, born Sept. 20, 1843 
 
 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR with France and England. The Russian and French 
 governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and 
 Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy Places in Palestine, 
 the Porte advised the forination of a mixed commission, which decided in 
 favor of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, March 9, 
 1853 ; to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. The Russians 
 now made further claims. Menschikoff's ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted 
 Constantinople, May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hattischeriif confirm- 
 ing all the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his 
 alHes. On June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besika bay. 
 On June 26, the czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Pruth 
 and entered Moldavia, July 2. The sultan, with the advice and consent of a 
 grand national council, after demanding the evacuation of the principalities, 
 Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The Russian declaration follow- 
 ed, Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against Russia, March 27 
 and 28, 1854. Hostilities ceased, Feb. 29, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in 
 April following. 
 
 Russia demands an expulsion of 
 the Hungarian and Polish refu- 
 gees from Turkey (see Turkey') 
 
 Nov. 6, 1849 
 
 They are sent to Koniah, in Asia 
 
 Minor Tan. 1850 
 
 Harbor of Sebastopol completed, 
 
 Feb. 1850 
 
 The czar concentrates his forces 
 on the frontiers of Turkey 
 
 Feb. 1853 
 
 Orign of the Russo-TurKish war, 
 (which see). March, 1853 
 
 The czar issues a manifesto to 
 his subjects ; he will only com- 
 bat for the faith and Christian- 
 ity, April 23, 1854 
 
 Death of the Czar Nicholiis ; no 
 change of policy March 2, 1855 
 
 Most extensive levy ordered by 
 the czar (at Nicolaietf)..Nov. 3, 1855 
 
 He visits his army at Sebastopol, 
 
 Nov. 10, 1855 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Poles, 
 
 The Sultan declares war against 
 Russia Oct. 5, 1853 
 
 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bay- 
 andur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, 
 
 Nov. 14, 18, 26, 1853 
 
 Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope, 
 
 Nov. 30, 1853 
 At the request of the Porte (Dec. 
 6.) the alUed fleets enter the 
 BlackSea Jan. 4, 1854 
 
1851-67. 
 
 173 
 
 Miss Nightingale and nui'ses arrive 
 afc S u t ari Nov, 6, 1854 
 
 Sardinia joins England and France, 
 
 Jan. 26, 1855 
 
 Death of Emperor Nicholas and acces- 
 sion of Alexander II. (no change of 
 war policy) March 2, 1855 
 
 Sortie frt)m the Malalthoff tower (15,000 
 men) repulsed March 22, 1855 
 
 Resignation of Gen. Canrobert, suc- 
 ceeded by Gen. Pelissier May 16, 1856 
 
 Death of Lord Eaglan ; succeeded by 
 Gen. Simpson June 28, 1855 J 
 
 Russians invest Kars in Armenia, de- ^ 
 
 fended by Gen.Williams July 15, 1855 
 
 The French take the Malakhotf (ivhich 
 see) by assault ; the English assault 
 the Bedan without success ; the Rus- 
 sians retire from Sebastopol to the 
 North Forts, and the allies" enter the 
 city ; the Russians destroy or sink the 
 remainder of their fleet.. .Sept. e, &c. 1853 
 
 Explosion of 100,000 lbs of powder in the 
 French siege-train at Inkerman, wilh 
 great loss of life Nov. 15, 1855 
 
 Capitulation of Kars to Gen. Moura- 
 vieti; after a gallant defence bv Gen. 
 Williams Nov. 26, 1855 
 
 Council of war at Paris Jan. 11, 1856 
 
 Destruction of Sebastopol docks com- 
 pleted Feb. 1, 1856 
 
 Peace conferences open -at Paris, an 
 armistice till March 31, agreed on 
 
 Feb. 25, 1856 
 
 Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 
 April 2; in London r.. April 29, 1856 
 
 The Crimea evacuated July 9, 1856 
 
 RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercial relations: In 1861, 
 exports from Russia to U. S. were $1,290,000 ; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons 
 of shipping from Russia entered U. S. ports ; 9,300 tons cleared for Russia. 
 Diplomatic relations between the two countries have been most cordial. July, 
 1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to the American Government his 
 sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Resolutions passed 
 Congress May, 18&1, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi- 
 nation. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY, England, (p. 568.) Presidents. 
 
 Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C. 
 
 Napier March 11, 1854 
 
 Treaty between England. France, 
 
 and Turkey March 1 2, 1854 
 
 France and England declare war 
 
 against Russia..,. March 27, 28, 1854 
 Gen. Canrobert and French troops 
 
 arj-ive at GalUpoli, soon after 
 
 followed by the English 
 
 March 31, 1854 
 Russians defeated by the Turks 
 
 at Karakai May 30, 1854 
 
 Bombardment of Odetsa by allied 
 
 ' fleet April 22, 1854 
 
 Bombardment and surrender of 
 
 Bomarsund Aug. 16, 1854 
 
 The Russians defeated by Scha- 
 
 myl in Georgia. .about Aug. 28, 1854 
 They begin to evacuate the prin- 
 cipalities Aug. and Sept. 1854 
 
 Battle of the Alma Sept. iiO, 1854 
 
 Russians sink part of their fleet at 
 
 Sebastopol Sept. 23, 1854 
 
 Death of Marshal St. Arnaud, 
 
 Sept. 29, 1854 
 General Canrobert appointed his 
 
 successor Nov, 24, 1854 
 
 Siege of Sebastopol commenced — 
 
 grand attack (without success) 
 
 Oct. 17, 1854 
 Battle of Balaklava — gallant 
 
 charge of the light cavah-y un- 
 der Loid Cardigan, wilh severe 
 
 loss Oct. 25, 1854 
 
 Battle of Inkerman ; defeat of the 
 
 Russians Nov. 5, 1854 
 
 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 
 1850. Sir Charles Eastlako. 
 1866. Sir Francis Grant. 
 
 1768, Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 1792. Benjamin West. 
 IS^iO. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY, (p. 568.) Presidents. 
 
 1660-3. Sir Robert Moray. 
 
 1663-77. Lord Brouncker (the first under the 
 
 the charter). 
 1680-2. Sir C. Wren. 
 16S4-6. Samuel Pepys. 
 1698 -1703. John Lord Somers. 
 1703-27. Sir 1. Newton. 
 1727-41. Sir Hans Sloane. 
 1778-1820. Sir Joseph Banks. 
 
 SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig 
 Hacker between the years 1740 and 1*747 at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa., 
 among tlie German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used aa 
 an hospital after the battle of Brandywine, fought in 1777. This event occa- 
 Bioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sunday 
 
 1820. Dr. "W. H. Wollaston. 
 
 1820. Sir H. Davy. 
 
 1827. Davies Gilbert. 
 
 1830, Duke of Sussex. 
 
 1838. Marquis of Northamplon. 
 
 1848. EarlofRosse. 
 
 1854. Lord Wrottesley. 
 
 1858. Sir Benjamin 0. Brodle. 
 
[74 THE world's progress. 
 
 school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, abou« 
 
 1V82. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 573.) Kamehameha IV. (or Tamehameha) when 
 20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. 
 
 SANITARY COMMISSION, U. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre 
 tary of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., Prest., Fred. Law 
 Olmstead, Secretary. [The Women's Central Relief Association had been 
 previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n 
 estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May 1, 
 1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed $229,328, and Cahfornia, 
 $1,233,97'7. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184,487; that at Phila- 
 delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission, 
 8vo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis- 
 bursed for teachers at the South, in 1865, $318,670 ; for supplies, $490,756. 
 Total, $809,425. 
 
 SANITARY REFORM, IT. S. The ventilation of buildings has been greatly 
 improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses, 1833, 
 and Barnard's School Architecture, 18.j8. This reform was specially 
 needed in printing offices, bookbinderies, and manufactories generally. 
 
 SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
 attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
 health, about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Heahh " having excited much atten- 
 tion. Since 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been 
 much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary 
 of the Treasury to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, 
 passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws. 
 Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sanitary Commission. 
 
 SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol- 
 omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a 
 translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera- 
 ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history 
 and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts -and translations of many 
 works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental 
 Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Ox- 
 ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, ap- 
 pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
 the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams 
 (elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851. Professor 
 Max Miiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited 
 part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti- 
 mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla- 
 vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. 
 
 SARDINIA, (p. 574.) See Italy. 
 
 Bill for suppression of convents 
 passed March 2, 1855 
 
 Convention with England and 
 France signed, a contingent of 
 15,000 troops to be supplied 
 against Russia April 10, 1855 
 
 10,000 troops under General La 
 Marmora arrive in the Crimea, 
 
 May 8, 1855 
 
 Who distinguiBh themselves in the 
 battle of the Tohernaya,Aug. 16, 1856 
 
 The kiDg visits London, &c. Nov. 
 
 30, &c. 1865 
 
 Important note on Italy from Connt 
 Cavour to England April 16, 1S56 
 
 Count Cavour declares in favor of free- 
 trad e June, 1857 
 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
 Franca; Count Cavour resigns, 
 
 Jily, 1859 
 
 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich, Nov. 1859; 
 
 Sardinian troops besiege the King of 
 Naples at Gaeta Sept. 1860 
 
 Gaeta capitulates to Victor Emanuel, 
 
 Feb. 13, 1861 
 
1851-67. 175 
 
 ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Republic of St. Domingo was established 
 in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly 
 by Faustin I., dethroned in 1858. 
 
 ST. GEORGE. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio- 
 cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ; 
 but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and 
 arguing in their defence, he was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. 
 
 ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantic Ocean), was discovered by the 
 Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 
 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they 
 were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here 
 in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, 
 until le'ZS, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once 
 more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815 ; 
 and it became the scene of his death. May 5, 1821. 
 
 ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1350. Taken by the 
 British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the 
 French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada, 
 Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British. St. Lucia 
 was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again seized by England 
 the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
 
 ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1592. The 
 old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086). 
 
 ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice was 
 laid June 21, 16*75. The whole edifice was completed in 1710. The total cost 
 (including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was £1,511,202. The length of St. 
 Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet ; the breadth, from 
 the north to the south portico, 282 feet ; the exterior diameter of the dome, 
 145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet. 
 Architect, Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
 this city in May 27, 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some 
 wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house 
 ot brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda- 
 tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the 
 imperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels 
 had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this 
 place. The winter palace was burned to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The rail- 
 way to Moscow was finished in 1851. 
 
 ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, a. d. 306. 
 About the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V. commenced a 
 new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by Bramante ; the 
 first stone was laid by Pope Julius II. in 1506, In 1514, Leo X. employed 
 Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed 
 the work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of 
 which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 
 1626, the building having occupied i76 years. The front is 400 feet broad, 
 rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre 
 of the church to a height of 824 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, 
 forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the 
 exterior ia 669 feet ; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet ; and the entire 
 
176 THE WORLDS PEOGEESS, 
 
 height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman 
 Catholic church in the world. 
 
 SARATOGA, Buegoyne's Sureendek at. Here General Burgoyne, commander 
 of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war 
 of Independence (Oct. '7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American 
 General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 1*7, Hll, 
 
 SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications 
 are the Biglow Papers and Fable for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel 
 of Peace^ castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent 
 war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemtis Ward, " Petroleum V. Nasby, 
 and others ; and the very clever pictorial satires of Thos. Nast. 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England 
 states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of 
 deposits, $'70,000,000. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state, 
 the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,785,400. There are comparatively few 
 savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the 
 number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 5*74, besides above 
 twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors 
 (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but un- 
 known number of persons : the amount of deposits was £32,893,511. 
 
 SAVOY, (p. 575.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April 
 22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860. 
 
 SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop- 
 ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, 
 younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest 
 II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexrandrina, duchess of Baden, 
 May 3, 1842; no issue). Heir (presumptive); Prince Alfred of England, born 
 Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 
 19, 1863). 
 
 SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe-Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes 
 have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the 
 Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112. 
 
 SAXONY, (p. 576) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 1,2, 1801), the present 
 (1861) king. Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828, 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den- 
 mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor- 
 mandy (about A. D. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also 
 called Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is 
 thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century. 
 
 SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti- 
 mated at 180,000 : namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 25,000 Swedes, and 5,000 
 Danes (1860). 
 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, m England. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connec- 
 tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland. 
 They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 
 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic 
 schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 
 91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 
 scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education 
 were : for Great Britain, £150,000, for Ireland, £134,660. United States. 
 Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established by the 
 
1851-67. 177 
 
 »first settlers of New England on thtir arrival ; were soon made obligatory 
 by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and 
 worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commenced 
 about 1800. Its important dates are: Connecticut school fund, established 
 1795 ; first state school sup't., New York, 1812 ; first state school system, 
 Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com 
 menced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report or 
 Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edn 
 cation in Mass., 1837; Stowe's report on European schools, 1837 ; first nor- 
 mal school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved 
 principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac- 
 tice. The following totals for the United States are approximate for 1858 : 
 children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 97,621 ; school funds, $49,- 
 824,384; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. See Education, 
 Colleges, &c. 
 
 SCIENCE IN THE U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American 
 Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci- 
 ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. 
 S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History 
 established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by 
 . Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the 
 U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Reports, to 
 be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Bounda- 
 ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in 
 about 20 quartos, the great work of Agassiz on Natural History, pub. by sub- 
 scription, etc, etc. See Astronomy, Observatories chr., 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes of a 
 wind-mill, set on axis, rurming parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
 beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi- 
 ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by 
 Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. 
 Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application of 
 the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the 
 Archimedes and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was 
 tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely 
 employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely 
 propelled by the screw. 
 
 SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W. point 
 of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine II., memorable for its eleven 
 months' Siege, by the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment 
 commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters 
 by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on 
 Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff" tower and the Redans, the most important 
 fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing 
 and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Redan 
 and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
 were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle, with great loss of life. 
 
 " SECESSION," U. States. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican " candidate 
 
 for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several 
 
 southern states for another Union ; the resignation of Federal officers in those 
 
 states, and of members of the cabinet at Washington, and of several officers of 
 
 8* 
 
l; 
 
 THE world's PEOGKESS. 
 
 the army and navy; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, an J arsenalst 
 The chief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the 
 following : 
 
 Alabama secession passed ...... .Jan. 11, 1861 
 
 Florida secession passed, and U. S. 
 forts at Pensacola seized Jan. 1-J, 1861 
 
 Georgi;i secession passed Jan. 19, 1861 
 
 Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida 
 senators of the U. States resigned 
 
 Jan. 21, 1861 
 
 Louisiana secession passed Jan. 28, 1861 
 
 Texas secession passed Feb. 1, 1861 
 
 " Peace Conference " at "Washington, 
 
 Feb. 4, 1861 
 
 Louisiana delegation excepting Mr. 
 Bouligny withdraws from Congress 
 
 Feb. 5, 1861 
 
 Congress of seceding states at Mont- 
 gomery, Ala., Feb. 6 ; elects Jeffer- 
 son Davis of Miss. Pres., and Alex- 
 H. Stephens of Ga. Vice-pres..Feb. 9, 1861 
 
 Tennessee votes against secession, 
 
 Feb. 9, 1861 
 
 Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer- 
 ence with slavery in any state ])assed 
 unanimously in H. of Reps.. Feb. 11, 1861 
 
 Jefterson Davis inaugurated Pres. of 
 Southern Confederacy Feb. 18, 1861 
 
 The " Peace Conerence" at Washing- 
 ton agrees on proposition for " com- 
 promise," and adjourns March 1, 1861 
 
 Gen. Twiggs, having surrendered the 
 U. States forces and property in Texas 
 is dismissed from the U. S. army as a 
 traitor Miirch 1 , 1 J61 
 
 Missouri votes against secession, in 
 convention March 1, 1861 
 
 Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of United 
 
 States Miirch 4, 1861 
 
 See Battles, U. S., War, <fcj. Also 
 Tables, p. 190, &c. 
 
 Resignation of S. C. senators of 
 the U. States Nov. 9-11, 1860 
 
 U. S. H. of Rep. appoints a com. 
 of 33 on the state of the Union, 
 
 Dec. 6, 1860 
 
 Resignation of Howell Cobb, Sec. 
 of Treas., U. S Dec. 10, 1860 
 
 U. t*. stocks (5 per cent) sold for 
 89, Dec. 10, 1860 
 
 Resignation of Mi\ Cass, Sec. of 
 State Dec. 14, 1860 
 
 South Carolina Ordinance of Se- 
 cessicm passed Dec. 20, 1860 
 
 Maj. Anderson transfers the U. 
 States garrison at Fort Moultrie 
 to Fort Sumter, in Charleston 
 harbor Dec. 26, 1860 
 
 S. Carolina auihorities seize Fort 
 Moultrie and other U. States 
 property Dec. 28, 1860 
 
 J. B. Floyd, U. S, Sec. of War re- 
 signs Dec. 29, 1860 
 
 Ports Pulaski and -Jackson, in 
 hai'bor of Savannah, seized by 
 Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 1861 
 
 8. C. commissioners' demands 
 refused by the President 
 
 Jan. 3, 1861 
 
 Fast-day observed in the U. S. 
 
 Jan. 4, 1861 
 
 Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by 
 the state Jan. 4, 1861 
 
 Steamer Star of the West with U. 
 S. troops for Fort Sumter, 
 tired into by the rebels.. Jan. 9, 1861 
 
 Mississippi secession passed, 
 Jan. 9: and U. S. forts and 
 
 property seized there.. .Jan. 10, 1861 
 
 SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhi, Hindostanee for a soldier). The term applied 
 to the native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in 
 establishing British rule in India. For their mutinies, see India, ISoY. 
 
 SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS in England commenced 1716. Parliaments 
 had been triennial from 1688 to that date. 
 
 SERVIA. A principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The 
 Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about a. d. 640, 
 The Emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150 ; but they recovered their in- 
 dependence in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, 
 till their country was finally subdued by the Sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. 
 Population in 1854, 985,000. 
 
 SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the Apostle 
 John was commanded to write the epistle contained in the 2d and 3d chapters 
 of his Revelation, viz. : Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phila- 
 delphia, and Laodicea, a. d. 96. 
 
 I. Ephesus. Paul founded the church 
 here, a. d. 57, and in a. d. 59, was 
 in great danger from a tumult creat- 
 ed by Demetrius. Ephesus was in 
 a ruinous state even in the time of 
 Justinian (a. d. 527), and still re- 
 mains eo. 
 
 S. Smyrna. Now an important com- 
 mercial city and seaport of Ionia. 
 Polycarp, its first bishop, suffered 
 martyrdom, a. d. 175. 
 
 3. Pergamos. Capital of the kiogdora 
 of the same name, founded by Phil- 
 etaeruB, b. o. 283, and part of Bitliy 
 
1851-67. 
 
 179 
 
 6. Philadelphia. Was built by Attains Phlla* 
 delphus, king of PergamoB (about b. o. 
 159, 138) ; was taken by Bajazet I. a. d. 
 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, " The 
 city of God, " and is a miserable town of 
 3000 houi^es. 
 
 7. Laodicea. In Phrygia near Lydia. has 
 suflfered much from earthquakes. It is 
 now a deserted place called Eskehissar. 
 " The old Castle." 
 
 nla. It was renowned for its libra- 
 ry.- Attalus III., the last king, be- 
 queathed his kingdom to the Roman 
 people, B. c. 133. It is still an im- 
 portant place called Bergamo. Parch- 
 ment is said to have been invented here. 
 
 4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 
 houses, called Akhissar, " "White Castle." 
 
 6. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, 
 the kingdom of Croesus (b. c. 560), is now 
 a miserable village, named Sart. 
 
 SEWING-MACHINE. The practical sewing-machiDe was the invention of Elias 
 Howe, an American mechanic. These machines are all of American origin. 
 Haydn. To America unquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the 
 world the first practical sewing-machine. Here also, it has received its fullest 
 development. Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very little advance 
 was made for the next six vears. Since that period the sales of reliable ma- 
 chines have been as follows : 1853, 2,509 ; 1854, 4,469 ; 1855, 3,515 ; 1856, 
 7,225; 1857, 12,715; 1858, 17,589; 1859,46,245. The machine has been 
 improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution- 
 ized, and developed every department of needlework ; introduced new 
 branches of industry ; rendered healthful, pleasant, and profitable an employ- 
 ment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, and proved itself the most beneficial 
 invention of the age. In the domestic world it ranks as do railroads and 
 telegraphs in the commercial. The importance of this invention to the 
 manufacturing interests of the U. States was estimated in 1860 at $342,000,- 
 000 annually. The following table exhibits the economy of the sewing ma- 
 chine in stitching the various parts of the following garments. 
 
 BY MACHINE. 
 
 Hours. Minutes. 
 
 Gentlemen's shirts 1 16 .. 
 
 Prock coats 2 38 .. 
 
 Satin vests 1 14 ., 
 
 Silk dress 1 13 .. 
 
 Merino dress 1 4 ., 
 
 noii,rs. Minutes. 
 14 26 
 
 35 
 19 
 
 2V 
 27 
 
 SHAKESPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick. Shake- 
 speare was born at Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died on his natal day, 1616. 
 Shakespeare festival was held at Stratford, April 23, .1836. In 1847, a number 
 of persons of distinction interested themselves for the preservation of the 
 house in which Shakespeare was born, then actually set up for sale. In the 
 end Shakespeare's house was sold at the auction mart in the city of London, 
 where it was " knocked down " to the United Committee of London and 
 Stratford for the large sum of £3,000, Sept. 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned 
 oriental scholar, John Shakespeare, no relation to the poet, gave £2,500 to 
 purchase the adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in order to ensure 
 the poet's house from the risk of fire. 
 
 SHEEP, UF. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather than 
 wool. Of late, however, much attention has been paid to breeding them for 
 their value in producing wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the U. S. was 
 21,723,000; in 1860,22,471,000. Ohio, New York, and Indiana, produced 
 the most. California, in I860, had 1,075,000 sheep ; in 1867, 3,000,000. The 
 ravages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 1866 about 500,000, worth 
 $2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Ver- 
 mont, took the first two premiums at the Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg, 
 in 1863, against all the best breeds of England, France, Saxony, Prussia, and 
 
180 THE world's peogeess. 
 
 Silesia. They were sold for $5,000 to a Count of Silesia. This result, ssr 
 prising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sheep-raising in the U. S. 
 
 SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jephthah tested theii 
 opponents, the Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 b. c. Judges^ 
 ch. xii. The term is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. 
 
 SHIPPING OF THE U. S. (p. 524.) Tonnage at different periods. 
 
 Tears. Tonnage. 
 
 1861 5,539,813 
 
 1862 5,112,16& 
 
 1863 5,126,081 
 
 1864 4,986,081 
 
 Tears. Tonnage. 
 
 1865 (old).. 3,516,787 
 
 " (new) 1,579,994 
 
 1866 (old) 942,299 
 
 " (new)..... 3,368,479 
 
 The above table shows the loss of American shipping, or its transfer to for- 
 eign flags during the rebellion. The total tonnage of the United States, 
 June 30, 1858, was 5,049,808 tons ; of which registered for foreign trade, 
 2,499,741 ; enrolled and licensed, 2,502,086 ; steam navigation, 729,390. In- 
 crease for the year, 108,965 tons. In 1860, the tonnage of the U. S. was 
 5,353,868 tons. In the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of 
 licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,256,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American 
 ship-building has greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one 
 vessel in the course of construction in New York City, and but two in Boston. 
 This is due to the great cost of material and labor in seaboard cities. Ships 
 which cost $100 per ton in N. Y., cost only $60 in the same currency m the 
 British Provinces, (1867). In 1860, two-thirds of American imports were 
 carried in American ships ; in 1866 nearly three-fourths in foreign vessels. 
 Number of ship-carpenters in the U. S. in 1860, 13,392. Before the 
 war the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. Not 
 only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under 
 any other, but American ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and 
 care of cargo, which gave them the lead in every port and on every ocean. 
 The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 1861 was 4,806,826 tons; and that of 
 the United States, 5,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country we kept the 
 lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the five 
 years ending with 1861, the carrying trade of New York amounted tc 
 $1,644,000,000, of which over $1,000,000,000 was done under the American 
 flag, leaving but little more than half that amount for the flags of all other 
 nations on the globe. With the advent of war there came a disastrous 
 change. The few privateers fitted out in Enghsh ports, chiefly through the 
 assistance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the 
 entire fleet of American vessels was forced to engage in the government 
 service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer their ownership to a foreign flag. 
 Thus in the four years which followed, out of $1,700,000,000 of foreign trade 
 for the city of New York, less than $400,000,000 were done under the Stars 
 and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 were carried under foreign flags. In 
 1865 the entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,229, of which 
 $345,750,622 was in foreign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American ships. 
 This is a humiliating and exasperating record ; yet in the recent Fenian 
 movements our government and people refused to retahate. — Chr. Almanac. 
 
 SIAM. A kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was re- 
 discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the 
 Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a 
 Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign minister of Siam, 
 and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 
 1865 with a view of converting the king, without effect. Sir John Bowring 
 
1851-67. 181 
 
 succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England 
 and Slam, which was signed April 30, 1855, and one with France in August 
 following. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in England Oct., 1857, and 
 had an audience with the queen to deliver magnificent presents on Nov. IC 
 A treaty with the United States negotiated by Townsend Harris, 1859. 
 
 SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, bora 
 about 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by sepa- 
 rate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilagi- 
 nous band at the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and 
 were first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr. 
 Eobert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were 
 exhibited. No connexion exists between them but this band, and their prox- 
 imity seems in no way to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight 
 and well made, and walk with a gait like other people, being perfect in all 
 their parts, and having all their functions distinct. After having been exhib- 
 ited for several years in England and the United States, the Siamese Twins 
 went to Georgia, where they settled on a farm, married sisters, and now 
 (1860) have several children. 
 
 Sicily! See itdy. 
 
 SICYON. An ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded it is said 
 about 2080 b. c. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Ach^an league 
 formed by Aratus. It was the country of Polycletes (436) and Lysippus 
 (238), the sculptors. 
 
 SIDON (Syria). A city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by 
 Cyrus about 53*7 ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332. See Phmnic-ia. The 
 town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
 his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Stop- 
 ford and Commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 2*7, 1840. 
 
 SIEGES, (p. 583.) of Rome, 1849; of Sebastopol, 1854-5 ; ofKars, 1855; Delhi, 
 1857 ; Gaeta, Oct. 1860 to Feb. 13, 1861. 
 
 SIKHS. See Punjab and India. 
 
 SILISTRIA. A strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken 
 by the Russians, Sept. 26, 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years 
 by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was 
 eventually returned. In 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 
 strong, under Prince Paskiewich, and many assaults were made. Russians 
 commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near. 
 
 SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the U. S. Mint, for one year, end- 
 ing June 30, 1859, was $7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859, inclusive, it amount- 
 ed to $122,694,836. In England, in the first ten years of Victoria, the 
 amount of silver coined was $2,440,614. It is supposed that the silver coin- 
 age of the world amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. The largest 
 amount coined in any one year in the U. S. was $9,077,571 in 1853. In the 
 year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 pieces. 
 Of this $1,040,638 came from the mint at San Francisco, Cal., and the rest 
 from Philadelphia and New York. The coinage in 1866, including two and 
 three-cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of 3 cents per oz. was levied on 
 silver ware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this 
 source to the government in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. This tax re- 
 moved, 1866. 
 
 SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed 
 
182 THB WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 by Napoleon in 1801-'7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by 
 galleries through solid rSck, It has eight principal bridges. The number of 
 workmen employed at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand. 
 
 SINKING FUND, in England. First projected by Sir Robert Walpole, whose 
 act was passed in 1*716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt 
 was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of £900,000 in the 
 revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of one million, 
 which was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the national debt. In 
 July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus of revenue. 
 
 SINOPE (Sinoub), See Busso-Turhish War. 
 
 SKATING. Invented probably by the Scandinavians who used the sharp-edged 
 shank hones of sheep or deer, or strips of fir wood, though Olaus Magnus 
 (d. 1555) mentions the use of iron. At first the skater pushed himself about 
 by an iron-shod pole. Wooden skates with iron blades were invented in 
 Holland. From 1855 to 1861 various means were contrived to improve 
 skates, by attaching a shoe to the wood, making it wholly of steel, jointing 
 the wood, setting it on springs, &c. A skate for floors has been invented, 
 running on small wheels of India rubber. 
 
 SLAVERY, (p. 586.) There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b. c. In Rome 
 slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admit- 
 tance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. 
 Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their 
 houses, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed. 
 C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave liira the slightest offence into his fish 
 ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b. c. Cagcihus Isodorus left to his heir 4,116 
 slaves, 12 B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. — Serfdom^ 
 a modified form of slavery, was abolished by Frederic I. of Prussia, in 1702 ; 
 by Christian VII. of Denmark, in 176p, by the Emperor Joseph II. in his 
 hereditary states in 1781 ; and by Nicholas I. of Russia on the imperial do- 
 mains, in 1842 : whose successor, Alexander II., effected its total abolition 
 throughout his empire, amid much opposition (1860-1). In thk United 
 States (p. 532) before the war of independence all the states contained 
 slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All 
 men are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at 
 Boston to bar slave-holding in that state. Before 1790 the further intro- 
 duction of slaves had been prohibited in five other states. On July 13, 
 1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the govern 
 ment of the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an " unalter- 
 able " article forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory. 
 After 1800, several of the states prayed without effect to be relieved of this 
 prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana w^s purchased, which act was considered by 
 many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Com- 
 promise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted 
 in that state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 86° 30' 
 N. Lat. In 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their 
 opponents at the annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom 
 could obtain was a similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 29, 1845. In 1850 
 another compromise was effected: California was admitted as a free state; but 
 the Fugitive Slave Act was passed {which see). In 1854 the Missouri compromise 
 was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding 
 states ; in the latter of which civil war ensued. See Kansas ; United States. 
 An attempt to create a slave rebellion took place in Virginia, headed by Johu 
 
1851-67. 183 
 
 Brown, and failed, in Oct. 1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,313 ; ic 
 1860, 3,999,283. Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr. A. H. Steph- 
 ens, of Georgia, declared that " slavery " was the corner stone of their confeder- 
 acy (1861). During the war, slaves were held to be "contraband of war" by 
 the U. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 1862, slavery was 
 forever excluded from the territories. Jan. 1863, the great " Emancipation 
 Proclamation" of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in the 
 rebellious states /ree, on the ground that it was a "fit and necessary war meas- 
 ure for suppressing such rebellion." Slavery was finally abolished from the 
 United States by act of Congress, January, 1865. See Constitution. 
 
 SLAVE TKADE, U. S. Since 1855 the proposition to reopen the slave trade 
 has been discussed in several conventions and public assemblies in the 
 southern states. This infamous traf&c is denounced in the " Republican plat- 
 form" (Chicago, June, 1860), and is repudiated also by the congress of the 
 " Southern Confederacy" (Feb., 1861), but the latter abolished the death 
 penalty affixed to its prohibition by the laws of the U. S. In defiance of these 
 laws a large number of slavers have been fitted out, chiefly in N. Y. and other 
 northern ports, during the years 1858, '59, '60 ; several have been seized be- 
 fore sailing and many others captured with slaves. Treaty with Great Britain 
 for further measures against trade in slaves, 186- 
 
 SNUPE-TAKING. (p. 589.) In England, in 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and 
 cigars were imported. See Tobacco. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE. Tie British National Asseciation for the Promotion of So- 
 cial Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 185*7. Its ob- 
 ject is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in 
 public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes 
 its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birmingham. 
 
 30CIETIES AND Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. See 
 Academies (p. 202). 
 
 American Ethnological Society at N. T. American Institute (for Agriculture and 
 
 American Oriental Society at New Haven. 
 American Geographical and Statistical So- 
 ciety, N. T. 
 
 Useful Arts), If. T. 
 National Academy of Sciences 1865. 
 
 In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to 
 the collection and preservation of historical records, printed end in MS. ; several 
 of them have published transactions and collections. That cf the Mass. Hist. 
 Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. Y. Hist. Soc. has published 6 or 7 vols. 
 Great Britain. All in the list below are in London, except othherwise stated. 
 An act was passed Aug. 11, 1854, " to afford facilities for the establishment 
 of Institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of laud, 
 &c., and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are exempt- 
 ed from the operation of the act. 
 
 SOCIETrES, INSTITtrnONS, &c. 
 
 Eoyal Society Charter 1662 Medico-Chirurgical Society. 
 
 Society of Antiquaries 
 
 (Charter 1751) 1717 
 
 Society of Dilettanti 1734 
 
 Eoyal Society of E'linburgh 
 
 (Charter 1783) 1739 
 
 Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 1753 
 
 Boyal Irish Academy ....Charter 1783 
 Linnean Society.. .(Charter 1802) 1788 
 Hoiticultuial Society 
 
 (Charter 1809) 1804 
 
 (Charter 1834) 1805 
 
 London Institution 1 805 
 
 Geological Society. .(Charter 1826) 1807 
 Royal Society of Literature 
 
 (Charter 1826) 182C 
 Eoyal Asiatic Society.. ..Charter 1823 
 Mechanics' Institution, London. .. 1823 
 
 Zoological Society , 1826 
 
 British Association .831 
 
 EntoTOologioal Society 183? 
 
184 
 
 THE WOBLD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 Statistical Society 1834 
 
 Boyal Institute of British. Archi- 
 tects (Charter 1837) 1835 
 
 Botanical. Society 1836 
 
 Numismatic Society 1836 
 
 Electrical Society 1837 
 
 Ornithological Society 1837 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society 1838 
 
 Camden Society 1838 
 
 Royal Botanical Society 1839 
 
 Microscopical Society 1839 
 
 Ecclesiological Society 1839 
 
 Parker Soci ety 1840 
 
 Percy Society 1840 
 
 London Library .....1840 
 
 Shakespeare Society 1840 
 
 Chemical Society 1841 
 
 Pharmaceutical Society .184.1 
 
 Philological Society 1842 
 
 Dublin Philosophical Society 1842 
 
 Arch seological Associatio 1 1 1843 
 
 Archaeological Institute ..1843 
 
 Sydenham Society 1843 
 
 E'thnological Society 1.S43 
 
 Syro-Egyptian Society 1 844 
 
 Kay Soci ety 1844 
 
 Cavendish Society 1846 
 
 Hakluyt Society 1846 
 
 Institute of Actuaries 1848 
 
 Arundel Society 1849 
 
 Meteorological Society 1851 
 
 Photographic Society 1853 
 
 Horological Institute 1858 
 
 SOLFERINO (in Loinbardy), celebrated as the site of the chief struggle on the 
 great battle of June 24, 18o9, between the allied French and Sardinian army 
 commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under General 
 Hess ; the emperor being present. The Austrians after their defeat at 
 Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up a position in the 
 celebrated quadrilateral, and was expected there to await the attack. But 
 the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tus- 
 cans on the other, induced them to recross the Slincio and take the offensive, 
 which they did on June 23. The conflict began early the next morming, and 
 lasted fifteen hours. The French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery 
 of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and Niel ; the Austrians to the 
 destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. The 
 Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martioo, it is 
 said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 
 19,311 soldiers ; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers 
 killed and wounded. This battle closed the war ; preliminaries of peace be- 
 ing signed at Villa Franca, July 12. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, (p. 591.) Population 1850, whites, 274,463 ; free colored, 
 8,960 ; slaves, 884,984 ; 1860, whites, 303,186 ; slaves, 407,185. Ordinance 
 delaring " Secession " from the United States, passed Dec. 20, 1860. The 
 " Star of the West " with U. S. troops for Fort Sumter, fired on and repulsed 
 from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen Sherman marched unopposed through the 
 state early in 1865. B. Perry appointed Provisional Governor June 30, 1865. 
 Act of Secession repealed Sept. 15, 1865, by the State Legislature. Debt of 
 the State in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due coupons and military debt, 
 $4,426,440. South Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by 
 act of Congress 1867, and Gen. Sickles appointed Governor. In Sept. 1867, 
 he was removed by the President, and succeeded by Gen. Canby. 
 
 SPAIN, (p. 591.) 
 
 Narvaez exiled to Vienna... Jan. 1863 
 General O'Donnell, Concha, and 
 
 others, banished Jan. 18, 1854 
 
 Peace restored ; the degraded 
 generals reinstated, &c. ; Eepar- 
 tero forms an administration, 
 
 July 31, 1854 
 The queen mother impeached ; 
 
 she quits Spain Aug. 28, 1854 
 
 Don Carlos dies MarchlO, 1855 
 
 Resignation of Espartero ; new 
 cabinet formed beaded by Mar- 
 shal O'Donnell ; insurrection 
 in Madrid, July 14 ; O'Donnell 
 
 and the government troops subdue 
 the insurgents ; the national guard 
 suppressed July 15, 16, 1856 
 
 O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Nar- 
 vaez becomes minister Oct. 12, 1864 
 
 Joint French and Spanish expedition 
 against Cochin China announced 
 
 Dec. 1, 1858 
 
 War with Morocco..,.,. Nov. and Dec. 1859 
 
 O'Donnell commands the army in Afri- 
 ca ; indecisive conflicts reported ; 
 battle at Castillijos : a Spanish " B»- 
 laklava" charge; Jan. 1 ; the Spa- 
 niards near Tetuan Jan. 1860 
 
1851-67. , 185 
 
 "PEAKEES, House of Representatives. See Administrations. Of thh 
 House of Commons, British. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at the 
 battle of Evesham, was the first Speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260. 
 
 Et. Hon. James AlDeroromby (after - 
 wards Baron Dunfermline).. .Feb. 19, 183i 
 
 Et. Hon. Charles Shaw Lefevre 
 (afterwards Viscount Eversley) 
 
 March 27, 1839 
 
 Et. Hon. John Everlyn Denison 
 (PKESENT Speaker, 1867) April 30, 1857 
 
 Rt. Hon. Henry Addington (after- 
 ward Vi set. Sidmouth..Jan. 22, 1801 
 
 Sir John Mitford (afterwards Ba- 
 ron Eedesdale) Feb. 11, 1801 
 
 Et. Hon. Charles Abbot (after- 
 wards Lord Colchester. Feb. 10, 1802 
 
 Rt. Hon. Charles Manners Sutton 
 (afterwards Viscount Canter- 
 bury) June 2, 1817 
 
 SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on March 1, IVII ; 
 the last Aug. 2, 1715. The papers by Addison have one of the letters clio 
 at the end. The most of the other papers are by Sir Richard Steele ; a few 
 by Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others. 
 
 STAGE-COACH. Stage-coaches were quite general in England about 1660, suc- 
 ceeding a kind of wagon, which had been introduced about 1564. They 
 often travelled only 30 miles a day. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES, England, (p. 596.) In June, 1865, the stamp-duty on news- 
 papers as such was totally abolished; the stamp on them being thenceforth 
 used for postal purposes only. In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 news- 
 paper stamps were issued; in the same months, 1855, only 6,870,000. 
 
 STARS, (p. 597.) Maps of the Stars were published in London by the Soc. for 
 the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1839 ; and those by the Royal Prussian 
 Academy were completed in 1859. 
 
 STEAM-BOAT EXPLOSIONS. See Wrecks. Steamer Pennsylvania, on the 
 Mississippi, boilers burst, 10 lives lost, June 3, 1858. Steamer Princess for 
 Few Orleans, boilers burst, 25 k. 35 w., Feb. 21, 1859. By 21 inlana steam- 
 boat accidents during 1860, 242 lives were lost, and 146 persons injured. To- 
 tal in 7 years, 213 accidents, 2,304 killed, 956 injured. It thus appears that 
 while the accidents and injuries by railroads are about four times as numerous 
 as those by steam-boat, the deaths are but half as many. 
 
 STEAM-BOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, 
 gives the following aggregate of the number of steam-boats built in the 
 United States since 1824 — thirty years — in periods of five years each : 
 
 From 1824 to 1829 194 
 
 " 1829 to 1834 304 
 
 " 1834 to 1839 504 
 
 " 1839 to 1644 522 
 
 From 1844 to 1849 960 
 
 " 1849 to 1854 1203 
 
 Total 3687 
 
 Since 1860, st»^Jimship building has fallen off very materially (except for 
 inland navigation). In 1860, the whole registered "steam tonnage" built in 
 the U. S., was the small amount of 97,296 tons ; in 1865 it decreased to 69,500 
 tons. See Shipping. 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION, (p. 598.) The Collins line of steamers from_ New 
 York to Liverpool, commenced running April, 1850. The Pacific of this line 
 crossed the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours. May, 1851. The Adriatic, the larg- 
 est of the line, first left N, Y. Nov. 23, 1857. The City of Glasgow, first of 
 a line between Philadelphia and Liverpool, arrived Jan. 1, 1851. In 1865, 
 there were 12 steamship companies employed in the trwusit between Europe 
 and the U. S., none of which were American ! The difiSculty is that steam- 
 ships cannot be constructed in America to the same advantage as in England. 
 See Shipping. 
 
 STEEL PENS came into use in England about 1 820, when the first gross of 
 
186 THE -world's progress. 
 
 three-split pens was sold wholesale for £Y 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and 
 in 1863, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross ; the cheapest sort at 
 2d. ; Birmingham produces about 1,000 million pens per annum. "Women auH 
 children are principidly employed in the manufacture. In the U. S. the 
 manufacture of this article has been successfully introduced since 1850, and 
 brought to considerable degree of perfection. Gold pens are also made here 
 extensively, and fully equal to any imported. 
 
 STEREOCHROMY. A mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solu- 
 tion of flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the color and 
 the substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fnchs, who died at Munich 
 on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in 
 the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 
 
 STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and shopein, to see). An optical instrument, 
 for representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by uniting into one 
 image two plane representations of these objects as seen by each eye sepa- 
 rately. The first was constructed and exhibited by Prof. Charles Wheatstone 
 in 1838. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved, and are now 
 exceedingly cheap. In the U. S. the production both of stereoscopic pictures 
 and instruments has increased enormously (1859-67), and these articles form 
 an important and popular article of trade. 
 
 STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennee, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a 
 kind of cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other to 
 his own ear, perceived the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner 
 than by the immediate apphcation of the ear. This led to his inventing the 
 stethoscope, or " breast-explorer ;" the principle of which, now termed 
 " auscultation," was known by Hippocrates. 
 
 STORMS. In Gulf of Mexico, 173 persons lost on Last Island (a summer re- 
 sort), Aug. 10, 1856. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS, in England, previously established by G. F. Train in New 
 York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, 1860, and at 
 Bayswater, London, March 23, 1861. A street railway bill was rejected by the 
 House of Commons in April, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a 
 time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were all taken up in 1862. 
 
 STRIKES. The tailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 1834. 
 The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1853. A general 
 strike among the shoe-makers of New England, continued for several months, 
 1859-60. 
 
 STRYCHNIA. A poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier 
 and Caventou in the seeds of the strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also 
 in the upas poison. It is so virulently poisonous that half a grain blown into 
 the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four minutes ; its operation iB accom- 
 panied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, during 
 the trial of Palmer for the murder of Cook. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the 
 Bay of Pelusium was brought forward by M. De Lesseps in 1857. The 
 Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments are in favor 
 of the scheme, which is at present opposed by the British. The cost is esti- 
 mated at £8,000,000. 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. Originated with Prof. Morse, who first tested it 
 
1851-67. 187 
 
 In New York harbor, 1842. The first suggestion of Atlantic telegraph ia 
 said to have been made by him in 1843. Professor Charles Wheatstone in 
 1840 drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
 Calais. In 1847 Mr. J. W. Brett submitted a similar plan to Louis Philippe 
 without success; but in 1850 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
 make a trial. This took place on Aug. 28, 1850, but failed. New arrange 
 ments were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and the tele 
 graph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On that day, the opening and closing 
 prices of the funds in Paris were known on the London Stock Exchange with- 
 in business hours. Guns were fired at Dover by means of electric sparks 
 communicated from Calais. In 1860 there were in operation 1,954 miles of 
 submarine telegraph, exclusive of the Atlantic. Atlantic. A plan to unite 
 Europe and America by the electric telegraph was attempted to be carried 
 out By a company in 1857 and 1858, chiefly promoted by Cyrus W. Field, of 
 Few York ; with the concurrence of the British and American governments. 
 2,500 miles of wire were manufactured and tested in March, 1857. The lay- 
 ing it down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels em- 
 ployed were the Niagara and Susquehanna (American vessels), and the Leop- 
 ard and Agameinnon (British vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable 
 snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on Aug. 11, after 300 miles of wire 
 bad been paid out it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Plymouth. Id 
 1858 a second attempt to lay the cable failed, through a violent storm on 
 June 20-21 ; but the third voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the junction 
 between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,050 miles 
 of wire from Valentia in Ireland to Newfoundland. • The first two messages, 
 on Aug. 5, were from the Queen of England to the President of the United 
 States, and his reply. The event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
 but unfortunately the insulation of the wire became gradually more faulty, 
 and on Sept. 4 the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased. The 
 grand celebration in New York of the (supposed) completion of this enter- 
 prise, Sept. 1, 1858. In 1865, another attempt to lay a cable was made. A 
 new one was manufactured 2,300 nautical miles long, and 2iV times strongei 
 than the old one. Diameter, a little more than an inch. It was coiled in the 
 mammoth ship Great Eastern. The expedition started July 23, 1865 from 
 Valentia Bay. 1,200 miles were successfully laid when suddenly the cable 
 parted, in water 2\ miles deep. 4 attempts to grapple it were made, but the 
 cable could not be raised to the surface without much stronger wire ropes. 
 The ships returned to England, but the enterprise was not given up. A new 
 company was formed at once, called the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com- 
 pany" : capital, £600,000. A more perfect cable was constructed, and the 
 Great Eastern started again with it, July 13, 1866, On the 27th she reached 
 Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with the cable in perfect order. The news 
 was received with great enthusiasm in both countries, and ovations tendered 
 to Cyrus W. Field, the American, to whose energy the success was in great 
 part due. The Great Eastern returned to the spot where the cable of 1865 
 parted, and after many attempts it was discovered Sept. 2, 1866, and con- 
 tinued to the American side : making two cables across the Atlantic ; one of 
 the cables was injured near the Newfoundland shore in May, 1867, but was 
 soon repaired, and both cables have now been in constant use for 13 months. 
 (Aug. 1867.) The cable from Key West to Cuba successfully laid 
 August, 1867, by a New York Company. More than sixty submarine 
 cables have been completed to this date. The most important are these ; 
 
188 
 
 THB world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 Time 
 
 Laying. 
 
 1S51 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 185S 
 
 1860 
 
 It 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 Length 
 
 OeograpMcal Position. in 
 Miles. 
 
 .Dover to Calais 27 
 
 .Dover to Ostend 80^ 
 
 • Sweden to Denmark 12 
 
 .Italy to Corsica 110 
 
 . Italy to Sicily 5 
 
 .Newfoundland to Capo Breton 85 
 
 •Across Norway Fjords 49 
 
 .Ceylon to Hiiidostan 30 
 
 . England to Holland 140 
 
 .England to Hanover 280 
 
 .South Australia to King's Island 140 
 
 .Ceylon to Hindostan 30 
 
 .England to Denmark. 368 
 
 .Folkstone to Boulogne 24 
 
 .Malta to Sicily 60 
 
 .Liverpool to Holyhead 25 
 
 .Across Bass's Strait 240 
 
 .Dacca to Pegu 116? 
 
 .Barcelona to Port Mahon 180 
 
 . Cape San Antonio to Iviza 76 
 
 .Toulon to Corsica 195 
 
 .Holyhead to Howlh (near Dublin) 64 
 
 .Malta to Alexandria 1,535 
 
 .New Haven (England) to Dieppe 80 
 
 . Fortress Monroe to Cape Charles 23 
 
 .England to Holland 180 
 
 .Sardinia to Sicily 211, 
 
 •Persian G-ulf to Kurrachee (Hindostan). 1,450 
 
 .Sweden to Prussia 55 
 
 . Corsica to Leghorn 66 
 
 .Across Puget Sound 32 
 
 .Valeiitia to Newfoundland 1,864 
 
 .Valentia to Newfoundland (completed 
 
 from 1S65, about) 1,864 
 
 .Newfoundland to Cape Breton 85 
 
 .Key West to Havana 191 
 
 Nc.of 
 
 Con- 
 
 ductora. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Time in Opera 
 lion, to July, 
 186. about. 
 16 years. 
 14 « 
 14 " 
 13 " 
 12 " 
 11 « 
 10 " 
 10 «' 
 
 9 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 8 " 
 
 IS monthB. 
 14 " 
 11 " 
 
 10 " 
 10 '« 
 
 SUGAR. The following is the official statement of the amount of sugar im 
 ported into this country from 1851 to 1860: 
 
 Value of Sua;ar. Duty paid. 
 
 1851 $13,478^700 $4,043,600 
 
 1852 13,977,300 4,183,200 
 
 1853 14,168,300 4,250,500 
 
 1854 11,6-04,600 3,481,300 
 
 1855 13,284,6()0 3.989,400 
 
 1856 21,255,100 6,388,500 
 
 Value of Sugar. 
 
 1857 $41,596,200 
 
 1868 18.9i6,600 
 
 1859 28,345 300 
 
 1860 28,931,100 
 
 Duty paid- 
 
 $12,478,800 
 4,557,200 
 6,802,800 
 6,943,400 
 
 Total Ten years.. $205, 557,800 $57,118,700 
 The sugar crop of Louisiana last year was valued at $24,988,000. The 
 average for five years has been $1'7,000,000 (1861). Id New York state in 
 1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar were produced. Pennsylvania pro- 
 duces 2,500,000 pounds a year. The sorghum-sugar plant has lately been in- 
 troduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities. 
 Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 10,000 pounds were 
 manufactured in Livingston county, Illinois, in 186'7. 
 SUNDAY LAWS. (p. 603.) In the state of New York, the laws against selling 
 liquors, and against certain theatrical performances on Sundays, have caused 
 much discussion, and some resistance, chiefly on the part of the German and 
 Irish population, but are still enforced (1867). 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. See Education and Sabbath Schools. 
 SURNAMES. See Sirnames. (p. 566.) 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES, (p. 604.) See Bridges. 
 
1851-67. 1S9 
 
 SWEDEN, (p. 604.) 
 
 Death of Bemadotte, whose son 
 Oscar, ascends *^he throne, 
 March 8, 1844 
 
 Treaty of alhance with England 
 and France Nov. 21, 1855 
 
 BaniBhmeut decreed against 
 Catholic converts from Luther- 
 anism Oct. 1857 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Declaration of neutrality in the 
 coming Italian war. March 14, 1850 
 
 Mutiny and punishment of the 
 Swiss mercenary troops at 
 
 Demonstration in favor of 
 Italian Independence.. Dec. 17 *j6S 
 
 Charles XV. (born May 3, 1826), 
 the PRESENT (1861) king of 
 Sweden and Norway... July 8, 195fl 
 
 Beiress : Princess Louisa, born 
 
 Oct. 21 1851 
 
 Naples ; the confederation for- 
 bid foreign enlisltnent. ' 
 July and Aug. 1851 
 
 T 
 
 TARIFF. A schedule of duties charged by government on goods imported. The 
 British tariffin 1840 comprised 1,042 articles ; the number was reduced (by 
 sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the 
 number was greatly reduced in 1860. See Customs Duties. 
 
 TAXATION. U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general Govern- 
 ment was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequently, to 
 support the war, direct taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865, 
 amounted to $211,129,529. See Revenue, Debt, &c. 
 
 TEA, in England, (p. 610.) 
 
 Imported in 1850 50,112,384 lbs. I Imported in 1857 69,116,000 lbs, 
 
 « "1856 86,200,414" | " "1858 74,222,000" 
 
 The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850, amounted to £5,471,641, 
 and the amount in 1852 was £5,902,433. The duty upon tea had been grad- 
 ually reduced from 2s. 2\d. to one shilling only per pound, in 1858. Id 
 United States. Value imported in the years ending June 30, 
 
 1855. 1856. 1857. • 1858. 1859. 
 
 $6,930,986 $6,893 891 $5,757,860 $6,7X7,295 |7,306,916 
 
 Amount consumed in U. S., 
 
 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 
 25,520,000 lbs. 27,463,600 lbs. 26,906,365 lbs. 23,137,546 lbs. 29,953,433 lbs. 29,643,187 lbs 
 
 TELEGRAPH. See Electric Tel. and Submarine Tel. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, (p. 611.) Legislation against intemperance in the 
 U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law " passed chiefly 
 through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connec- 
 ticut (1856), New York (1856) and Massachusetts (1856). It was strongly 
 enforced in the latter State, although vigorously opposed by many, 1866-7. 
 It was repealed in Maine, 1856. 
 
 TENNESSEE, (p. 613.) Population in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves ; in 
 1860, 859,528, and 287,112 slaves. Ordinance of " Separation " passed May 
 6, 1861. The eastern part of the State was noted for its loyalty to the Union 
 during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. At the State election , Aug. 
 1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the "Union "or Radical ticket, was re-elected 
 by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in 
 this State for the first time. 
 
 TEXAS, (p. 613.) Population in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. Ordinance 
 of Secession from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt in 1865, $8,192- 
 000. After the war, Gen. A. J. Hamilton was appointed Provisional 
 
190 THE world's peogeess. 
 
 Governor, by Pres. Lincoln : but at the first election after the restoration, 
 (1866) a Secessionist, (Throckmorton), was elected. Texas included in 6tb 
 Military District under Sheridan, March, 1867. 
 
 THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God). The science which treats of the 
 nature and attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in 
 which they may be discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. 1. 
 Inspired (including the Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c.) ; 2. Natural ; 
 which latter Lord Bacon calls the first part of philosophy. Butler's Analogy 
 of Religion (1736), and Paley's Natural Theology (1802), are eminent bookf 
 on the latter subject. The " Summa Totius Theologise " by Thomas Aquinas 
 (born about 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with com- 
 mentaries, &c., in 1596. 
 
 THESSALONICA. A city in Macedonia (now Salonica). Here Paul preached a. 
 n. 53 ; and to the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence 
 of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took place iu 890, by order 
 of the emperor Theodosius Thessalonica partook of the changes of the 
 Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the emperor Andronicus in 
 1425; taken by the Turks in 1430; burnt July 11, 1856. 
 
 TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys 
 are of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; and on the death of a pope, his arms are 
 presented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a 
 high round cap. Pope Damascus II. first caused himself to be crowned with 
 a tiara, a. d. 1053. John XIX. was the first who encompassed the tiara with 
 a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295; and Benedict XII. 
 formed the tiara about 1334. 
 
 TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by M. T. Blan- 
 chard, of Boston (U. S.), for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhi- 
 bition of 1855. A company was formed for its application in England in 
 1856. 
 
 TIMES NEWSPAPER, London. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published 
 the first number of the Daily Universal Register, price 2,\d. In 1788, the 
 name of the paper was changed to the Times. Dr. Stodart editor in 1812. Dr. 
 Barnes was the next editor. On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed 
 by steam power. The powerful articles contributed by Edward Sterling gained 
 the paper the name of the Thunderer. In 1841 the Times was instrumental 
 in detecting and exposing a scheme organized by a company, to defraud by 
 forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This brought on the proprietors 
 an action for libel. The jury found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of 
 one farfMng damages, but the judge refused costs. Subscriptions were set on 
 foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse the proprietors for their immense out- 
 lay in defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and the money was 
 
 ' expended in establishing Times Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at 
 Clirist's Hospital, and other schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the 
 event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in other places. These were the 
 greatest honors ever conceded to a newspaper. In Oct., 1845, the Times ex- 
 press was for the first time conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut. 
 Waghorn. Of the number of the Times for Nov. 19, 1852, containing the life 
 of the Duke of Wellington, 69,000 were sold — the ordinary number being then 
 86,000 ; the present circulation is stated to vary from 47,000 to 56,000. In 
 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their special correspondent to 
 the seat of war in the Crimea, and in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the United 
 States. . 
 
1851-67. 191 
 
 IfTHES (p. 616). Abolished in England, 1860. 
 
 1 OBACCO. In a recent lecture in England, the Dean of Carlisle stated that in 
 1865, 33,000,000 pounds of tobacco were consumed in that country, ut an ex- 
 pense of $40,000,000, over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the govern- 
 ment In 18'2l the average annual consumption was llf ounces to each 
 person ; in 1853 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France much more is consumed 
 in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing $20,000.,000 annually by 
 the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consumption averages 10 
 ounces to each person, in Belgium, '73 ounces, and in America, the average is 
 vastly higher. It is calculated that 2,000,000 tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds 
 of tobacco are annually used in the world, at a cost sufficient to pay for all the 
 bread corn used in Great Britain. It is boasted that 100,000,000 of the human 
 race are smokers. In New York city it was stated that there were in 1860, 
 about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars daily, making, at an average of 
 four cents each, the sum of $16,000 daily, or $5,840,000 a year, wasted in 
 smoking in this city alone. The cost in 186*7 would be at least double. There 
 were, in 1860, about 900,000,000 cigars manufactured in N. Y., amounting, at 
 the same price, to $36,000,000. The total exports of tobacco from the United 
 States in 39 years (1821-59), amounted to $339,274,520. The production of 
 tobacco in the northern states has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 1850, 
 N. Y. State produced 83,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 5,765,000 lbs. ; Conn, produced 
 in 1850, 1,267,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 6,000,000 lbs. The exports of tobacco from 
 the U. S. in 1862, amounted to $12,325,356, being almost entirely from the 
 north. See Treasury /Statistics in appendix. 
 
 TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters 
 propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub- 
 lished, in England, 1833-41. The principal writers were the Revs. Dr. E. 
 Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA. An Austrian province ; was part of the ancient Dacia. In 
 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
 by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled with much difi&culty till 1699, 
 when the Emperor Leopold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus- 
 trian dominions. * 
 
 TRAVELLING IN England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter 
 nearly two days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the 
 journey was accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Rail- 
 way express (63 miles) it is done in 1-J hour. 
 
 TREATIES, (p. 621.) 
 
 Paris, treaty of (and Eussian war) 
 
 April, 1856 
 
 Paris (settlement of NeufcLatel 
 
 affair) May 26, 1857 
 
 Zuricli (Austria, Fr.auce, and Sardi- 
 nia) Nov. 10, 1859 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of May 8, 1854 
 
 Wasliington, Reciprocity treaty be- 
 tween Great Britain and the U. S., 
 respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
 commerce, &c July 2, 1854 
 
 Of the U. S. (p. 633.) 
 
 Treaty with China signed at Tien 
 Tsin ..June 13, 1858 
 
 Treaty with Japan, negotiated by 
 Com. Perry, signed March 31, 1854 
 
 Another treaty with Japan, by Town- 
 send Harris, signed June 17, 1857 
 
 TRIALS, U. S. Noted trial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against 
 the U. S. in preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May, 
 
 Treaty with Mexico, negotiated by Mr. 
 
 McLane, but rejected by the U. S. 
 
 Senate I860 
 
 Treaty with Russia for purchase of 
 
 Sitka, ratified June 1867 
 
192 
 
 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 180'7. Burr acquitted. Trial of John Brown for treason against Virginia 
 (See Harper's Ferry). The assassins of Lincoln tried at Washington, 1865. 
 Trial of Oapt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union Prisoners at Andersonville, 1865 : 
 he was convicted and executed shortly after. Jeff Davis, President of the 
 Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sum of $100,000, by U. S. Dis 
 trict Judge Underwood, Richmond Ya., May, 1867, to appear before him on 
 the charge of treason at the succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John 
 H. Surratt, for complicity in the murder of Pres. Lincoln, lasting about thirty 
 days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury. 
 
 TRIESTE. An Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It 
 was held by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the estabhshment of 
 the overland mail to India, it has risen to great commercial importance 
 
 TROWSERS. Distinguished by looseness fronj " pantaloons," which were orig- 
 inally cut to sit tight to the leg from thigh to ankle. Pantaloons began to 
 supersede small clothes during the French revolution ; the loose trowser began 
 to be worn after 1815 ; and have become as decidedly a normal form of gar- 
 ment, as were the " breeches" of the last century. 
 
 TRUCE OF GOD {Treuga Dei). A terra given to a cessation of the private feuds 
 and conflicts so general, during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy 
 strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussilon, a. 
 D. 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday even- 
 ing (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regula- 
 tions were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being 
 chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of 
 the Church, especially the Lateran Council, in 1179. 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the 
 most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about 
 a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge in Wales. The Con- 
 way Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and there- 
 fore requires no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Ste- 
 phenson and Mr. Fairbairn. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world 
 is that over the St Lawrence, Canada (see Bridges). 
 
 TUNIS. In July 1856, the Bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. 
 The Bey died Sept. 22, 1859 ; and no disturbance ensued on the accession of 
 his successor. 
 
 TURKEY, (p. 626.) 
 
 Chiistians admitted to office in Tur- 
 key June, 1849 
 
 The Turkish government refuses to 
 Mirreuder the Hungarian and Po- 
 lish refugees on the joint demand 
 ofPwUBsia and Austria Sept. 16,1849 
 
 Russia suspends intercourse with 
 tbe Porte Nov. 12, 1849 
 
 Treaty with France respecting the 
 Holy Places {which see) Feb. 13, 1852 
 
 Eussian manifesto against Turkey 
 
 June 26,1853 
 
 War declared against Eussia (see 
 Busso-Turkieh War) Oct. 5, 1863 
 
 Lord Sti-atford de Redoliffe, many 
 years English ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople, returned to England, 
 Jan.; he is succeeded by Sir. H. 
 Lytt,*on Bnlwer ; accredited July 12, 1858 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Jedda 
 
 July 25, 1858 
 
 Turkish financial reforms begun, Aug. 1858 
 
 The first Turkish railway opened 
 (from Aden to Smj;rna)...Sept. 19, 1858 
 
 Base coinage called in ; a fictitious 
 Turkish coinage begnn at Birming- 
 ham, and is suupressed Oct. 186S 
 
 Great agitation for financial reform 
 
 Oct. 18K 
 
1851-67. 193 
 
 TUSCANY, (p. 628.) 
 
 The Tuscan army demand alliance 
 with the Sardinians : the grand- 
 duke refuses, and departs to Bo- 
 logna ; the King of Sardinia is pro- 
 claimed dictator, and a provl- 
 Bional government formed, April 
 27 5 the king assumes the com- 
 mand of the army, but declines 
 the dictatorship April 30, 1859 
 
 Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, 
 addresses the Tuscans, and erects 
 his standard May 23, 1869 
 
 The Tuscan constituent assembly 
 meets Aug. 11, 1869 
 
 It declares against recalling the 
 house of Lorraine, and votes for 
 annexation to Sardinia Sept. 1859 
 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, 
 elected governor-general of Cen- 
 tral Italy ; he declines, but recom- 
 mends Buoncompagni, Nov., who 
 is accepted by the Tuscans, Dec. 8, 1859 
 
 The Grand-Duke Leopold II. abdi- 
 cates in favor of his son Ferdinand 
 
 July 21, 1859 
 
 TYROL. The eastern part of ancient Rhetia, nowa province, of the Austrian 
 empire (to the north of Bavaria). It was ceded to the house of Hapsburg in 
 1859, by Margaret, the heiress of the last Count Tyrol. The province became 
 an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, which 
 branch came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II. in 1618. The 
 French conquered the Tyrol in 1808 and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an 
 insurrection broke out, headed by the courageous Andrew Hofer, an inn-keeper. 
 He drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, but laid down his arms at the treaty 
 of Vienna. He was subsequently accuaed of treason and shot by the French 
 at Mantua, Jan. 28, 1810. His family was ennobled by Austria, and a statue 
 to him was erected at Innspruck in 1834. 
 
 U 
 
 UNITARIANS, U. S. Number of churches in the U. S. in 1863, 339 ; minis- 
 ters, 263 ; members estimated at 30,000, 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, (p. 631.) See America ; and the separate 
 states, Maine, &c. See also Chronological Tables, p. 156, &c. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 1776 2,616,300 1 1810 7,239,903 1 1851 23,347,884 
 
 1800 5,300,000 I 1831 12,856,171 ,1860 31,649,869 
 
 UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. One of the six points of the charter in England 
 (see Chartists), was adopted by the French in the election of their president 
 in 1851, and of their emperor in 1852. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES in thk U. S. See Colleges. Those of Harvard, at Cambridge, 
 Mass. ; Yale, at New Haven ; Brown, at Providence, and Michigan, at Ann 
 Arbor, Mich., and Virginia, at Charlottesville, are the chief institutions called 
 Universities, but they diifer little from the other colleges. 
 
 URUGUAY. A repubhc in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 
 1825, recognized, Oct. 4, 1828. The President, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 
 1856, was succeeded in 1860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in consG- 
 
 , quence of the invasion of the ex-President, General Flores, June 26, 1863. 
 In Feb. 1865, Flores became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 
 350,000. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the coast of Ore- 
 gon. Settlements were made here by the English in 1781 ; which were seized 
 by the Spaniards in 1*789 ; but restored. By a treaty between the British 
 government and that of the United States in 1846 this island was secured to 
 the former. Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857. 
 
 VEHMIO TRIBUNAL {Vehmgerichte). Secret tribunals established in West- 
 9 
 
194 THE woeld's peogebss. 
 
 ohalia to maintain religion and the public peace. Their proceedings were 
 enveloped in a profound mystery. They had their origin in the time of 
 Charlemagne ; and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became 
 subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. These courts became very troublesome, 
 persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. The 
 emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16tb 
 century. SirW. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein." 
 
 VENEREAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea, Morbus Gallicm. This disease is said 
 to have broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494, 
 whence the French term it mal de Naples. In the Netherlands and in Eng- 
 land it obtained the appellation of mal de France ; though in the latter coun- 
 try it was known so early as the twelfth century. About the same period, too, 
 at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Most writers suppose, that 
 the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with them from the new to 
 the old world, 1493 ; others maintain that it prevailed among the Jews, 
 Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of 
 Amei'ica. , 
 
 VERMONT, (p. 635.) Population in 1860, 315,827. War expenses, $8,811,600. 
 The state sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1861-5. 
 
 VESUVIUS, Mt. (p. 636.) Eruptions in May 1855, May and June 1858, and 
 June 1859, caused great destruction. 
 
 VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous 
 during the war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river and its 
 batteries were impregnable from the water side. After various attempts, Gen. 
 Grant moved to the south of it, crossed the river from the west side and 
 marched towards the rear of the town, May 1, 1863. He defeats the enemy 
 at "Port Gibson, " " Champion Hills," and " Big Black River Bridge," and 
 on the 18th reaches the fortifications. He at once invested the place. After 
 many assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4, 
 1863. Number of prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 220 ; small arms, 70,000. Union 
 loss during the siege, 545 killed. 3,682 wounded, and 303 missing. 
 
 VICTORIA, formerly Port Philipp (Australia), situated between New South 
 Wales and South Australia, the most successful British colony in that region. 
 Firsc colony 1804. In 1839, the colony was named Victoria, and its prosperity 
 brought great numbers to it, and induced much speculation and consequent 
 embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2. In 1851, the province was declared 
 independent of New South Wales. In the same year a reward of £200 was 
 offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found near 
 Melbourne. 
 
 VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Law- 
 rence, Montreal, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, 
 and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and opened Nov. 24, 1869. 
 It is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and forms part of the Grand 
 Trunk Railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
 America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and 
 about V-^ times longer than Waterloo bridge ; the height sixty feet between 
 the summer level of the river, and the under surface of the central tube. The 
 cost £1,400,000. On Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was carried away by floating 
 ice, but the stonework remained firm. 
 VILLA FRANCA (in Lombardy). Here the emperors of France and Austria met 
 on July 11, 1859 (after the great battle of Solferino); on the next day they 
 signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich (which see). 
 
1851-67. 195 
 
 VINE DISEASE. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The 
 spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The 
 disease soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850, many lost all their 
 produce. In 1862, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante 
 and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of the 
 usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased 
 for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
 the disease, but without much effect. It has much abated in France, but not 
 in Portugal. 
 
 flOLIN. (p. 639.) The violin is the most expressive instrument, though sur- 
 passed by many in sweetness, richness, and volume. The best were made at 
 Cremona about a. d. 1600, by Amiti and Straduarius ; those of the former 
 excel in sweetness, of the latter in power. They now command enormous 
 prices. 
 
 VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 
 1850, was $530,000,000, viz: — Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves, 
 $147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show 
 that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read noi 
 write ! The new constitution of this state, adopted in 1851, in the 111th arti- 
 cle has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who 
 is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of 
 
 - th$ United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. 
 la 1860, 1,593,199, including 495,826 slaves. State " seceded," May, 1861. 
 Soon after the western counties formed a new and loyal State. See West Vir- 
 ginia. Virginia was the theatre of the most active military operations of the 
 war of secession, and the state suffered the most from that fearful struggle. 
 Franchise extended to the colored people 1867, and the state included in the 
 1st military district under Gen. Schofield. Debt of the old state in 1865, $41,- 
 061,300. 
 
 VISGOTHS. Separated from the Ostrogoths about a. d. 330. The Emperor 
 Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condi- 
 tion of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the 
 Great permitted them to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers ; 
 In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They began 
 their kingdom of Toulouse, 414; and conquered the Alains, and extended 
 their rule into Spain, 414, and expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally were 
 themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muga, in 1711, when their last 
 king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an obstinate engagement. Their rule 
 in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507. 
 
 VIVARIUM. See Aquarium. 
 
 VOLTAIC PILE, OR Battery. An apparatus which was constructed in conse- 
 quence of the discoveries of Galvani (see Galvanism). The principle was 
 discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, and announced by him to the Royal 
 Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
 was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was 
 otherwise greatly honored. While young he invented the electrophorus, elec- 
 tric pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the 
 Voltaic battery has been greatly improved by the researches of modern 
 philosophers. The nitric acid battery of Mr. W. R. Grove was devised in 
 1839 ; the carbon battery of Mr. Robert Bunsen in 1842. The former la very 
 
196 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 much used in England ; that of Bunsen in other parts of Europe. See M^c^ 
 tricity. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS, MILITARY, in England. This species of force was formed in 
 England, in consequence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 
 1794. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 
 on Jan. 1, 1804. In May 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear 
 of a French invasion, the formation of Volunteer Corps of riflemen commenced 
 under the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thou- 
 sands were enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. Volunteers, U. S. See Army. 
 
 VULGATE (from Vulgatus, published). A term applied to the Latin version of 
 the Scriptures, which is authorized by the Council of Trent, and which is attri- 
 buted to St. Jerome, about a. d. 1834. The older version, called the Italic, is 
 said to have been made in the beginning of the second centiu'y. Critical 
 editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and 
 of Pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was suppressed as imper- 
 fect). The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460. 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGER OF BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereof 
 the defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof 
 thereby whether he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against bim 
 Repealed by statute 59 George III., 1819. 
 
 WAGES IN England (p. 640). Harvest men, 185*7, 5s. In United States. In 
 1866, laws were enacted in some of the states making eight hours a legal day's 
 labor, unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what a 
 laborer would have received for ten hour's work, he can claim for eight hour's 
 labor. 
 
 WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory). A temple near Ratisbon, erected in 1842, bj 
 Louis, King of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great me& 
 of Germany. The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of Scandi 
 navian heroes after death. 
 
 WALKING, &c.. Feats in. In England, Capt. Barclay for a wager (on which 
 many thousands of pounds depended), walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 succes- 
 sive hours ; in forty-two days and nights (less eight hours). His task was 
 accomplished on July 10, 1809. In May, 1758, a young lady at Newmarket 
 won a wager, having undertaken to ride 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours, which 
 feat she performed in little more than two-thirds of the time. Richard Manks, 
 a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of Capt. Barclay) to walk 
 ■ 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours ; the place chosen was the Barrack tavern cricket- 
 ground in Sheffield; he commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and com- 
 pleted the 1,000 miles July 29, following, winning a considerable sum. 
 
 WALTZ. The popular German national dance was introduced into England by 
 Baron Neuman and others in 1813. Raikes. 
 
 WAR — Cost op that in the Crimea. The cost to England, for two years, 
 was $200,000,000. The whole cost is estimated at 1,000 milHons of dollars. 
 Wars of Great Britain (p. 588). War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace 
 of Paris, March 31, 1856. For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see 
 those countries respectively. War in the United States. The war of the 
 rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of South Carolina forces on 
 Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, 
 adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conffict. Until tho 
 
1851-67. '■ 197 
 
 summer of 1863 the Confederates maintained their ground successfully. But 
 after the fall of Vicksburg, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army 
 was almost uniformly victorious until the final surrender of the rebels. See 
 
 /i y?W,?y .Battles w'OltCTtt€€VS ijCC- 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc- 
 tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York for $2,300, Peb. 12, 1850. 
 
 WATER COLOR PAINTING in England has been raised from the hard dry 
 style of the last century to its present brilhancy by the efforts of Nicholson, 
 Copley, Pielding, Varley, and the great Turner ; by Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, 
 &c., within the present century. The exhibition was founded in 1805. 
 
 WATERWORKS. The Roman aqueducts were only artificial streams led at a 
 regular slope from an elevated source, and were enormously expensive. Louis 
 XIV. erected enormous machines merely to supply ornamental fountains at 
 Versailles. London is said to have had water-pipes laid in it as early as a. d. 
 1236, and is now supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day, by 
 seven companies, one bringing water from a distance of forty miles. Phila- 
 delphia was first supplied by works commenced in 1799, and succeeded by 
 those at Pairmount in 1819 ; New York by the Croton Aqueduct, finished in 
 1844; Boston, first from Jamaica Pond by a company organized in 1795, and 
 afterwards from Cocliituate Pond by works begun in 1846, and opened for 
 use in 1848. See Public Works^ Aqueduct. 
 
 WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley ; 
 or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with ''Tales of my Land- 
 lord," four vols., in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter 
 Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 25, 1827. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted 
 to separate themselves from the old state and form a new state called West 
 Virginia; admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863; capital, Wheeling; area, 
 23,000 square miles. Population by census of 1860, 393,200. The new state 
 sent 31,880 men to the Union army. 
 
 WHALEj FISHERY. In recent years, by the introduction of petroleum and 
 other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced to 
 much smaller dimensions. Vessels employed in 1858, 500 ships and barks, 
 19 brigs, 45 schooners, total 195,115 tons; 8,033 tons less than last year, 
 owing to the increasing scarcity of whales, Imports, 81,941 barrels sperm 
 oil, 182,223 barrels whale oil, 1,540,600 lbs. bone. Exports, 33,336 barrels 
 sperm, 19,503 barrels whale, 1,049,466 lbs. bone. 
 
 WHIGS. See Tory. In England numerous authors trace the origin of these 
 designations to various occasions and various epochs. Referring to what is 
 stated under the head Tory^ it may be here added, that we are told the name 
 Whig was a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists 
 for resembling the principles of the whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scot- 
 land ; and the other was given by the country party to that of the court, 
 comparing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This 
 distinction of parties arose out of the discovery of the Meal-Tub plot in 1678. 
 Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot before parliament, two parties were 
 formed : the one being those who called the truth of the whole plot in ques- 
 tion, and this party styled those who believed in the plot Whigs. The other 
 party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, Tories. 
 
 WINE, U. S, In 1866, Cahfornia produced 1,252,700 gallons of wine ; Ken 
 tucky, 180,000; Indiana, 88,000; New York, 61,000; N. Carohna, 54,000; 
 Illinois. 47,000 ; Connecticut, 46,000 ; Virginia, 40,000 ; Pennsylvania, 38,000 
 
198 THE "WOELD's peogeess. 
 
 During the year ending June 30, 1866, 9,4*76,814 gallons were imported into 
 the U. S. 
 
 WISCONSIN, (p. 653.) Population in 1850, 805,391 ; increase in 10 years 900 
 per cent. 1860, 768,485, increase in 10 years, 152 per cent. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country districts 
 of England. On Sept. 4, 1863, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died in con- 
 sequence of having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex. 
 
 WIVES. See Marriage. In England, by the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
 Act, passed in 1857, the condition of married women has been much bene- 
 fited. When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation; and 
 even while in the latter state any property they may acquire is secured to 
 them personally, as if unmarried. By another act, passed in the same year, 
 they are enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or 
 estates. 
 
 WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Seven. 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The 
 mausoleuLi or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 
 8. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of 
 the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called 
 the Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or 
 watch tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 
 
 WOOLSACK. The seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of 
 lords is so called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or 
 arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England 
 in the reign of Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. 
 
 WORKINGMEN'S COLLEGES, m England. The first was established in 
 Sheffield, by workingmen. The second in London, by the Rev. Professor 
 Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854; a third in Cambridge, and in 
 1855, a fourth in Oxford; all wholly for the working classes, and undertaking 
 to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is in want of. The colleges 
 engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class; 
 and also to have lectures given. They are highly successful, 
 
 WRECKS, (p. 658.) Arctic, U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the 
 Ve^ta, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27, 
 1854. City of Philadelphia^ Liverpool to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S. 
 sloop of war Albany, from Aspinwall, Sept. 28, 1854, never heard from. 
 City of Glasgow, steamer, with 480 persons on board, disappeared in 1854 
 Pacific, Collins steamer, from Liverpool to New York, Jan. 23, 1856, dis- 
 appeared and never heard of. John Putledge, from Liverpool to New York, 
 ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost, Feb. 20, 1856. Lyon- 
 nais, French steamer, New York to Havre, collision with bark Adriatic, 
 184 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Austria, steamship, Hamburg to New York, 
 burnt in the middle of the Atlantic; of 538 persons on board, only sixty-seven 
 were saved, Sept. 13, 185-. Royal Charter, screw steamer, on the Anglesea 
 coast ; 459 lives lost ; the vessel contained gold amounting in value to £700,- 
 000, Oct. 26, 1859. Steamer Niagara, burned on lake Michigan ; 60 lives 
 lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer, Lieut. Herndon, Aspinwall 
 to New York, founders, 427 hves lost, and $2,000,000 in gold, Sept. 8, 1857 
 Russian line of battle ship in the Baltic, founders, all on board, (826) lost, 
 Sept. 1857. The total number of American sea-going vessels reported during 
 1859, as lost or missing was 402, valued at $5,599,000, being an increase over 
 the previous year of 114 vessels, and $1,128,000 in value. Of the whole niun 
 ber, 8 were steamers, 84 ships, 48 barks, 64 brigs, and 198 schooners. 
 
1851-67. 199 
 
 FACHT, The ancient thalamegus or navis lusorice was a vessel for pleasure, 
 like the modern yacht. The English are very found of yachting. Their 
 yachts are commonly cutter-rigged, and with one mast. Yachting has come 
 into vogue in the United States only since about 1830. The American yachts 
 are sloops or schooners. The yacht America modelled and built by the re- 
 markable genius George Steers, of New York (d. 1856, aged 35), beat all the 
 English yachts in a regatta at Cowes, Aug. 22, 1851. She was a schooner, 
 with her greatest breadth abaft the beam, and with " hollow lines " forward. 
 A yacht race from New York to Cowes, Isle of Wight, Dec, 1865, between 
 three New York yachts, Henrietta, Vesta, and Fleetwing ; Henrietta winner by 
 seven (?) hours. 
 
 YANKEE. The derivation of the word is generally accredited to the Indian 
 pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. In New York 
 it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all Northerners ; and in 
 Europe to all Anglo-Americans. In a curious book on the Round Towers of 
 Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term Yankee Doodle, waa 
 said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki douniah, or " Inhabi- 
 tants of the New World." Layard in his " Nineveh," also mentions Yankhi- 
 dunia as the Persian name of America. 
 
 YORKTOWN. This place was fortified by the rebels, and withstood the siege of 
 Gen. McClellan, from April 4 to May 5, 1862, when it was evacuated ; 1\ spiked 
 guns were found in the works. 
 
 YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. U. S. First one under this 
 name founded in Boston, Jan. 10, 1852 ; in N. Y. city, June 30, 1852. They 
 are now (1867) established in many of the principal cities. At a general con- 
 vention of Young Men's Christian Associations, at Montreal, in June, 1867, 
 215 associations in the United States and Canada were represented. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN. (Customs^ Union.) The name given to the German commercial 
 union, of which Prussia is the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually 
 joined by nearly all the German states, except Austria. On Feb. 19, 1853, an 
 important treaty of commerce and navigation, between Austria and Prussia to 
 last from Jan. 1864 till Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the other states of the 
 Zollverein gave in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. 
 
 ZOUAVES AND Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at 
 Algiers, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and 
 selected Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful 
 courage. In time numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic French- 
 men, joined the regiments, adopting the costume, &c., and eventually the 
 Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no more were added, they having 
 been frequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves formed an important 
 part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5. 
 
 ZURICH, (p. 664.) Conference of the representatives of Austria, France and 
 Sardinia, held at Zurich (after the truce of YiUa Franca), August 8, 1859, and 
 continued several months. 
 
 ZUTPHEN, IN Holland. At a battle here in 1568, between the Spaniards and 
 the Dutch, the amiable Sir Philip Sidney, author of the " Arcadia." was kil.ed. 
 He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Lei- 
 cester. 
 
DICTIOMM OP DATES. 
 
 ABBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, neai 
 the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. 
 An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaini, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305. 
 The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was 
 in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elphin, Doxon. The first in Scotland was 
 in the sixth century : see Mes. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see 
 Bangar. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet 
 in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands 
 of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in 
 England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. The revenues of 
 193 abbeys Which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,658,000, 
 These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 81 Henry 
 Vin. 1539. See Monasteries. 
 
 ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in 
 later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, 
 and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — 
 
 Of Henry IV. of Germany, 
 
 Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumamed 
 
 Thunder, 1114 
 
 Of Albert of Saxony, .... 1142 
 OfLestusV. of Poland, . . . . 1200 
 OfUladislaus III. of Poland, . . 1206 
 Of Baliol of Scotland, .... 1306 
 OfOtho of Hungary, . . . . 1309 
 Of EricIX. of Denmark . . 1439 
 
 OfEric XIII. of Sweden, . . . 1441 
 Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . 1556 
 Of Christina of Sweden, . . . 1654 
 Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 1669 
 Of James II. of England, . . . 1688 
 Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, . 1704 
 OfPhilipV. of Spain, .... 1724 
 OfVictor of Sardinia, . . . . 1730 
 Of Charles of Naples, .... 1759 
 OfStanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795 
 Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 
 Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes 
 
 emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 
 Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his 
 
 son, .... March 19, 1808 
 
 ABELARD AND HELOISE 
 
 He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- 
 naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808 
 Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to 
 
 take the crown of Spam, . June I, 1808 
 Of the same (by flying before the British 
 
 horn Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 
 Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810 
 Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 
 Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 
 Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, I82I 
 OfPedroof Portusal, . . May 2, 1826 
 Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 
 Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 
 
 Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving 
 
 the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834 
 OfWilliam I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1840 
 Of Chnstma of Spain, queen dowager 
 
 and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840 
 Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, I»48 
 Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22; 1848 
 Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, 
 
 Dec. 2, 1848 
 Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 
 
 Aug. 1849 
 
 Their amour^ so celebrated for its passion and 
 misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118, when Helolse (a canon's daugh- 
 ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- 
 jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of 
 grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helolse begged his body, and had 
 9* 
 
202 ' THE world's progress. [ ACi 
 
 it buried in the Paraclete, of which sire was abbess, with the view of reposin? 
 in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, 
 and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French 
 Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up, 
 they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. 
 
 ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation 
 conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- 
 ionj. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; 
 and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being 
 absque origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. Tb^i 
 word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally 
 applied to any original inhabitants. 
 
 ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- 
 dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the 
 British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 
 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- 
 gust 1, 1798. See Nile. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Era of. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To 
 reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, 
 and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. 
 St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- 
 gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of 
 age. — Spottisivood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without 
 meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days 
 by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor- 
 mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petnts de Albano. Gilbert Jackson, 
 of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 
 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on 
 the sixteenth, 1789. — Phillips. A coimtry girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four 
 years from all food and drink, 1799. — Ht/eland^s Practical Journal. Ann 
 Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Stanordshire, supposed to have been 
 an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808, 
 At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived 
 two years without meat or diink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards 
 discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See 
 instances in Halter's ElementcB Physiologice ; Cornaro ; Pricher's Surgical 
 Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. 
 
 ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine 
 flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. 
 They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- 
 rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — 
 Bossuet. 
 4 BYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, 
 which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old 
 style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. 
 To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 6492 years and 
 125 days. 
 
 ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and 
 the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls 
 of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato 
 first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 
 B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemj^ Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
 andria, about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Iharlemagne are also 
 
ICfl J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 203 
 
 named as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckius 
 mentions 550. of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical 
 academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies 
 were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society 
 of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal 
 academies : — 
 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
 
 1780. 
 
 American Philosophical Society, 1769. 
 
 Ancona, ofthe Caglinosi. 1624. 
 
 Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 
 1703; Architechire, 1799. 
 
 Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics, 
 1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
 
 Brescia, ofthe Erranti, 1626. 
 
 Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 
 Brussels, Belles-Lettres, mz. 
 
 Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. 
 
 Copenhagen, Polite Arte, 1742. 
 
 Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 
 
 Dublin, Arts, 1749 ; Science and Literature, 
 17S6; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. 
 
 Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
 
 Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 
 
 Florence, Belles-Lettres, 1272; Delia Cms- 
 ca, 1582 ; Antiquities, 1807. 
 
 Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
 
 Genoa, Painting, &c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
 
 Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Historv, 
 1652; Military, 1752. 
 
 Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 
 
 Lisbon, Histoiy, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 
 
 London : its various Acadeimes are de- 
 scribed through the volume. 
 
 Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma- 
 thematics added, 1758. 
 
 Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 
 1730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. 
 
 Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. 
 
 Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
 
 A.CCENTS. 
 
 Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 1726. 
 
 Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 
 
 Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 
 
 Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560; 
 
 Sciences, 1695; Hemilaneuvi, 1755. 
 NeviT York, Literature and Philosophy,1814. ' 
 Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
 Padua, for Poetry, 1610 ; Sciences, 1792. 
 Palermo, Medical, 1645. 
 Paris, Sorbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu« 
 sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; 
 Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- 
 tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. 
 Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 
 Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ■ Filirgiti, 1574. 
 Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 j 
 
 the School of Arts, 1764. 
 Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 
 Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici, 1625; 
 hifecondi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 
 1690 ; English. 1752. 
 Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. 
 Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles- Lettrea 
 
 1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. 
 Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
 Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
 Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
 Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. 
 Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
 Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; SuT- 
 
 gei7, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. 
 Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
 
 Woolwich, Military, 1741. 
 The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and 
 
 without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century 
 that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after 
 Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in 
 Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by 
 other grammarians in the various languages. 
 ilCHAIA. This countrj' was governed by a race of kings, but even their namea 
 are all forgotten. The capital. Achaia, was founded by Achseus, the son of 
 Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the 
 iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achaei were descendants of Achseus, 
 and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- 
 clidEe drove them thence, they retired among the lonians. expelled the na- 
 tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, jEgira, Mgeuva., Bura, Tri- 
 tasa, Leontium, Rhypa3, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dymse, and Pharaa. 
 
 The Achasan league, . . b. c. 281 
 
 Fortress of Athenaeum built, . . 228 
 
 Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans, 
 
 and Lysiades killed, . . 226 
 
 Battle of Sallacia, . . .222 
 
 The Social war begun, . . 220 
 
 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the M.io- 
 
 lians, .... 219 
 
 Aratus poisoned at jEgium. . . 215 
 
 Battle of Mantinea ; Philopcemen defeats 
 
 the Spartan tyrant Mecnanidas, . 206 
 
 * Now extinct. 
 
 Alliance with the Romans, . b. c. 2(t 
 
 Philopoemen defeated by Nabis, in a na- 
 val battle, .... 
 
 Sparta joined to the league. 
 
 The Achaeans overrun Messenia with 
 fire and sword. 
 
 The Romans enter Achaia, 
 
 Metellus enters Greece, 
 
 The Achasan league dissolved, 
 
 Greece subjected to Rome, and namo 1 
 the province of Achaia, . , 146 
 
204 THE world's progress. [ ADA 
 
 The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that 
 of the Achaean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance 
 to it in their confederacy. 
 ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and 
 the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, 
 was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by 
 Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
 Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about 
 A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. 
 Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook 
 Taylor, in 1714 ; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and 
 La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. 
 
 ACRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192. after a 
 siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 
 barons, and 300.000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 ^Jhris- 
 tians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the murder 
 of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. 
 Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- 
 ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable 
 siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by 
 the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relin- 
 quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to 
 the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. 
 It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet 
 under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, 
 the Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000 
 prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840. 
 See Syria and Turkey. 
 
 ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and 
 accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Paus. in 
 Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2,000 years, was destroyed 
 in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycense was 
 marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high 
 towers, each au the distance of fifty feet.— Euripides. 
 
 ACTIUM. Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Csesar on the one side, 
 and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate 
 of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar ; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c. 
 This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate 
 upon Caesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman 
 empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con- 
 queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. 
 
 ACTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- 
 cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to 
 have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- 
 land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- 
 atre at court. — Theat. Biog. 
 
 ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John. 1215. See Pai- 
 liament. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been 
 annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between 
 the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 
 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. 
 Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
 large and 225 to Ireland solely. 
 
 ADAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d 
 
asm] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 205 
 
 130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, assorting that 
 if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chiel 
 was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it 
 was not necessary to confess Christ. — Eusebius. This sect, with an addition 
 of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply," 
 was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named 
 Tandeme, who, being followed by 3 000 soldiers, violated females of every 
 age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, 
 again i-evived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they 
 spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon. 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States^ <ihm 
 the formation of the government: — 
 
 First 
 Giorge Washington, 
 Jnhn Adams, 
 
 Thomas Jefferson. 
 Edmund Randolph, 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 Alexander Hamilton, 
 Oliver Wolcott, 
 Henry Knox, 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 James M'Henry, 
 Samuel Osgood, 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 Joseph Habersham, 
 Edmund Randolph, 
 William Bradford, 
 Charles Lee, 
 
 Administration ; — 1789 
 Virginiaj 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 do. 
 Pennsylvania, 
 New York, 
 Connecticut, 
 Massachusetts, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Maryland, 
 Massachusetts, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Georgia, 
 Virginia, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Virginia, 
 
 to 1797 ;— S years. 
 April 30, 1789 
 do. 1789 
 
 Appointed. 
 Sept. 26, 1789 
 Jan. 
 Dec. 
 Sept 
 Feb 
 Sept. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 
 President. 
 Vice President. 
 
 Secretaries of Stat« 
 
 ] Secretaries of the 
 ( Treasury. 
 
 Secretaries of War. 
 Post Masters Gen. 
 Attorneys General 
 
 Speakers nfthe House of Representatives. 
 
 Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. 
 
 Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. 
 
 Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvaniai, 3d do. 1793. 
 
 Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. 
 
 Second Administration; — 1797 to 1801 ; — 4 years. 
 
 John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President. 
 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 John Marshall, 
 Oliver Wolcott, 
 Samuel Dexter, 
 James M'Henry, 
 Samuel Dexter, 
 Roger Griswold, 
 George Cabot," 
 Benjamin Stoddart, 
 Joseph Habersham, 
 Charles Lee, 
 
 Secretaries of Stat* 
 
 Jonathan Dayton, 
 Theodore Sedgwick, 
 
 Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) 
 
 Virginia, May 13, 180O i 
 
 Connecticut, (continued in office.) > Secretaries of the 
 
 Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury. 
 
 Maryland, (continued in office.) \ 
 
 Massachusetts, May 13, 1800} Secretaries of War 
 
 Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 > 
 
 Massachusetts, May 3, 179S / Secre':ajies of the 
 
 Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. 
 
 Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen. 
 
 Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General. 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 New Jersey, 5th Congress, . 797, 
 
 Massachusetts, 6th do. 179? 
 
 Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. 
 
 President. 
 Vice President*. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 
 
 Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 , 
 
 George Clinton, New York, do. 1805 < 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 James Madison, Virginia, March 5,1801 Secretary of Slate, 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Mass. (continued in office.) ) Secretaries of thi 
 
 Albert G iHatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury. 
 
 ' Mr. Cahoi reclined the appointment. The Navy Department was established k 17'9& 
 
206 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ iVV 
 
 Henry Dearborn, 
 Benjamin Stoddart, 
 Robert Smith,* 
 Joseph Habersham, 
 Gideon Granger, 
 Levi Lincoln, 
 John Breckenridge, 
 Caesar A. Rodney, 
 
 Nathaniel Macon, 
 Joseph B, Varnum, 
 Nathaniel Macon, 
 Joseph B. Varnum, 
 
 James Madison, 
 George Clinton, 
 Elbridge Gerry, 
 
 Robert Smith, 
 James Monroe, 
 James Monroe,t 
 Albert Gallatin, 
 George W. Campbell, 
 Alexander J. Dallas, 
 William Eustis, 
 John Armstrong, 
 James Monroe, 
 William H. Crawford, 
 Paul Hamilton, 
 William Jones, 
 Beoj. W. Crowninshield, 
 Gideon Granger, 
 Return J. Meigs, 
 Caesar A. Rodney, 
 William Pinkney, 
 Richard Rush, 
 
 Massachusetts, March 5,1801 Secretary of War. 
 
 Md. ^continued vn office.) I Secretaries of the 
 
 Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 i Navy. 
 
 Georgia, (continued in office.) I Post Masters Ge- 
 
 Cormecticut Jan. 26, 1892 S neral. 
 
 Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i 
 
 Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 \ Attorneys Geofral 
 
 Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S 
 
 Specueers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. 
 
 Massachusetts, 8th do. , 1803. 
 
 North Carolina, 9th do. 180.5. 
 
 Massachusetts, 10th do 180/. 
 
 Fourth Administration;— 1809 to 1817 ;— 8 yeiirs. 
 
 Virginia, March 4, 1809 President. 
 
 New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) > ^- p„_,,,,„., 
 Mass. 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) \ ^'°^ "eai^^j 
 
 Appointed. 
 Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) 
 
 Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 > Secretanes of State 
 
 Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 ) 
 
 Pennsylvania, (continued^ in oj 
 Tennessee, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Feb. - 9!i814 Secretaries of the 
 
 Oct. 6, 1814 S Aieasuiy. 
 
 March 7, 1809 , 
 
 Jan. 13, 1813 ( 
 
 Sept. 27, 1814 ( 
 
 March 2, 1815 ) 
 
 March 7, 1809^ Secretaries c. the 
 
 ■ Secretaries of War 
 
 Jan. 12, 1813 }' ^.^ , 
 
 Dec. 19,1814^ ^avy. 
 
 Connecticut, (continued in office.) ) Post Masters Ge- 
 
 Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ neral. 
 
 Delaware, (continued in office.) } 
 
 Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 } Attorneys General 
 
 Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. 
 
 Henry Clay, Kentucky, 12th do. 1811. 
 
 Henry Clay, Kentucky, ; ,o,h j_ \ 1812. 
 
 Langdon Cheves, South Carolina, \ ^'''" "°- / 1814. 
 
 Heniy Clay, Kentucky, 14th do. 1815. 
 
 Fifth Administration 
 
 James Monroe, 
 Danic D. Tompkins, 
 
 John Q. Adams, 
 William H. Crawford, 
 Isaac Shelby,! 
 John C. Calhoun, 
 Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
 Smith Thompson, 
 Samuel L. Southard, 
 Return J. Meigs, 
 John McLean, 
 Richard Rush, 
 William Wirt, 
 
 1817 to 1825 ; -8 years. 
 
 March 4, 1817 President, 
 do. 1817 Vice President. 
 
 Appointed. 
 March 5, 1817 Secretary of Sta'.e. 
 March 5, 1817 Secretary of Treae 
 March 5, 1817 ( o , • c -nr ^ 
 Dec. 16,' 1817 1 Secretaries of Wal 
 
 Massachusetts, (continued in office.) i Op-,.p,„rip, nf fh« 
 New York, Nov. 30, 1818 ^ *'^"®S"^^ °' '"* 
 
 New Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823 S ^'^^y- 
 
 Ohio, (continued in office.) \ Pos/ Masters Ge- 
 
 do. Dec. 9, 1823 \ neral. 
 
 Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) I a .fnrnpv! RpruTi 
 Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 \ Attorneys Geneti 
 
 Virginia, 
 New York, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 Georgia, 
 Kentucky, 
 South Carolina, 
 
 * Robert Smith was appoiited Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield, of Massachusetts. 
 Secrstary of the Navy, on ttie 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these app nntments ; and 
 Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's a/imv 
 oistration. 
 
 t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War. 
 
 t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. 
 
4DM 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 207 
 
 M)MIXISTRATIONS (United States) contmued. 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives 
 Henry Clay, Kentucky, 
 
 Henry Clay, 
 John W. Taylor, 
 Philip P. Barbour, 
 Henry Clay, 
 
 John Q,. Adams, 
 John C Calhoun, 
 
 Henry Clay, 
 Richard Rush, 
 James Barbour, 
 Peter B. Porter, 
 Samuel L. Southard, 
 John McLean, 
 William Wirt, 
 
 15th Congress, 
 
 1817. 
 
 16th do. ' 
 
 \ 1819. 
 1820. 
 
 l~th do. 
 
 1821. 
 
 18th do. 
 
 1823. 
 
 John W. Taylor, 
 Andrew Stephenson, 
 
 Kentucky, > 
 New York, \ 
 Virginia, 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Sixth Administration ; — 1825 to 1829 ; — 4 years. 
 
 Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. 
 
 South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. 
 
 Appointed. 
 Kentucky, March 8, 1825 Secretary of Stali 
 
 Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'yoflheTreas • 
 
 Virginia, do. 1825 ^ j, , : ^ yV's 
 
 New York, May 26, 1828 \ isecietaiies ol W a . 
 
 New Jersey, {continued in office.) Sec'y of the Navy. 
 
 Ohio, {continued in office.) ' Post Master Gen 
 
 Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney General. 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 New York, 19th Congress, 1827. 
 
 Virginia, 20th do. 1828. 
 
 Seventh Administration; — 1829 to 1837; — 8 years. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, 
 John C. Calhoun, 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 Edward Livingston, 
 Louis McLane, 
 John Forsyth, 
 Samuel D. Ligham, 
 Louis McLane, 
 William J. Duane, 
 Roger B. Taney, 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 John H. Eaton, 
 Lewis Cass, 
 John Branch, 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 Mahlon Dickerson, 
 William T. Barry, 
 Amos Kendall, 
 John McP. Berrien, 
 Roger B. Taney, 
 Benjamin F. Butler, 
 
 Andrew Stevenson, 
 Andrew Stevenson, 
 John BeU, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 South Carolina, 
 New York, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 New York, 
 
 March 4, 1829 
 do. 1829 ( 
 
 1833 i 
 Appointed. 
 
 March 6,1829 
 1831 
 18a3 
 1833 
 
 March 6, 1829 
 18:31 
 1833 
 1833 
 1&34 
 
 March 9, 1829 
 183M 
 
 March 9, 1829 ) 
 183n 
 
 1834 S 
 March 9, 1829 I 
 
 1835 (, 
 March 9, 1829 ; 
 
 1831 > 
 1834) 
 
 President. 
 Vice Presidents. 
 
 Secretaries of State 
 
 Secretaries of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 Secretaries of War 
 
 Secretaries of the 
 Navy. 
 
 Post Masters Ge- 
 neral. 
 
 Attorneys General 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 Vh-ginia, 21st Congress, 1829. 
 
 Virginia, 22d do. 1831. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 1835 
 
 Eighth 
 M.vrtin Van Buren, 
 Richard M. Johnso i, 
 
 John Forsyth, 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 Joel R. 1 oinsett, 
 Mahlon Dickerson, 
 James K. Paulding, 
 Amos Kendall, 
 John M. Niles, 
 Benjamin F. Butler, 
 Felix Grunuy, 
 Henry D. Gilpin, 
 
 Administration; — 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. 
 New York, 1S37 President. 
 
 Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. 
 
 Appointed. 
 Georgia, {continued in office.) Secretary of State. 
 
 New Hampshire, {continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasury. 
 South Carolina, 1837 J 
 
 New Jersey, {continued in office.) > Secretaries of Wa 
 
 New York, 1838 S 
 
 Ke.mvic\y, {continued in office.) P Post Masters Ge- 
 
 Connecticut, 1840 ^ • neral. 
 
 New York, {continued in office.) j 
 
 Pennsylvania, > Attorneys General. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 1839 ) 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 jMnee K. Polk, Tennessee, 1837. 
 
 Robert M. T. Hunter, Virginia, 1839. 
 
208 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 [ ADl, 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 
 
 Ninth Administration ;— 1841 to 1845 , -4 years. 
 
 William H. Harrison, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 Preside 'It. 
 
 Died one month aftp 
 
 inauguration, and 
 
 
 
 
 John Tyler, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 $ Vice PresHent, 
 
 I became ac.ing Pres. 
 
 Samuel L. Southard, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 ? Acting V. Pres. and 
 
 Willie P. Mangum, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 \ Pres. Senate. 
 
 Daniel Webster, 
 Abel P. Upshur, ' 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 Virginia, 
 
 A.'p'poxntajjt 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 > Secretaries of Stat®, 
 
 Thomas Ewing, 
 Walter Forward, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 1 Secretaries of ths 
 J Tieasuiy. 
 
 Jolui C. Spencer, 
 
 New York, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 John Bell, 
 John C. Spencer, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 New York, 
 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 f Secretaries of Wai 
 
 George E. Badger, 
 Abel P. Upshur, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 1 Secretaries of the 
 
 ] Navy. 
 
 David Henshaw, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 Francis Granser, 
 
 New York, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 ) Post Masters Gea 
 
 Charles A. Wickliffe, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 \ eral. 
 
 John J. Crittenden, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 1 
 
 Hugh S. Legare, 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 1841 
 
 > Attorneys Genera!. 
 
 John Nelson, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 
 1^1 
 
 J 
 
 Speakers of the Rouse of Reepresentatives 
 
 
 
 John White, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 
 
 1841 
 
 John W. Jones, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 Tenth Administration ;— 1845 to 1849 ;— 4 years. 
 
 
 James K. Polk, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 President. 
 
 George M. Dallas, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 Vice President. 
 
 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 
 James Buchanan, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Robert J. Walker, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 Secretary of Treas, 
 
 William L. Marcy, 
 
 New York, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
 George Bancroft, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 I Secretaries of the 
 
 John Y. Mason, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 1817 
 
 \ Navy. 
 
 Cave Johnson, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 Post Master Gen. 
 
 John Y. Mason, 
 Isaac Toucey, 
 
 Virginia, 
 Connecticut, 
 
 
 1845 
 1847 
 
 > Attorneys General. 
 
 Speak 
 
 ers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 
 
 John W. Davis, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 Robert C. Winthrop, 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 Eleventh Administration; 
 
 -1849 to 1853 ;-4 years. 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 President. 
 
 Millard Fillmore, 
 
 New York, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Vice President, 
 
 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 
 John M. Clayton, 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 William E Meredith, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Sec'y of Treasury. 
 
 William B Preston, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Sec'y of the Navy, 
 
 George W. Crawford, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
 Thomas Ewing, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Sec'y of Interior.' 
 
 Jacob CoUamer, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Post Master Gen. 
 
 Reverdy Johnson, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Attorney General 
 
 
 Speaker of the House 
 
 of Representatives. 
 
 
 Howell Cobb, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from tie 
 accession of Henry VIII. The following were tlie prime ministers, or favor- 
 itesf or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. ; — 
 
 kins henry viii. I Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . )529 
 
 BishoD Fisher and Earl of Surrey .1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop 
 Cardual Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 ! Cranmer .... :.5aS 
 
 * A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. 
 Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- 
 irations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, 
 were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senatts 
 »f the United States." Am. Almanac, &c. 
 
aim! 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 209 
 
 Am! iwd Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 1531 
 Duke of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and 
 
 bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 
 
 Lord VVriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 
 
 KTNG EDWARD VI. 
 
 The earl of Hertford, continued 
 
 John; duke of Northumberland . 1552 
 
 atJEEN MARY. 
 
 Biehop Gardiner , . 1553 
 
 aUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 
 
 Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord 
 Burleigh; chief minister during al- 
 most the whole of this long reign 
 Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1564 
 
 Earl of Essex . . . .1538 
 
 Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 
 
 KING JAMES. I. 
 
 Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) 
 
 Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North- 
 ampton. .... 1608 
 
 Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches- 
 ter, a^'erwards earl of Somerset . 1612 
 
 Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar- 
 nuess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615 
 
 KING CHARLES 1. 
 
 Duke of Buckingham continued 
 
 Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 
 
 Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford, 
 
 lord Cottington . . . 1640 
 
 Earl of Essex .... 1640 
 Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 
 
 [The civil war commenced, and all 
 
 went into confusion.] 
 
 KING CHARLES II. 
 
 Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660 
 
 Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667 
 Lord Ashley, Lord Arlington, Sir T. 
 
 Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 1667 
 Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created 
 earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas 
 Osborne .... 1673 
 
 Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674 
 
 Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl 
 afterwards marquess of Halifax, sir 
 William Temple . . . 1677 
 
 Duke of York, and his friends . 1682 
 
 KING JAMES 11. 
 
 Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, 
 sir George afterwards lord Jeffries 1685 
 
 Lord .leffriee, earl of Tyrconnel, lord 
 BeUasis, lord Arundel, carl of Mid- 
 dleton, visct. Preston . . 1087 
 
 KING WILLIAM III. AND fttJEEN MARY II. 
 
 Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord 
 Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- 
 wards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 1688 
 The earl of Sunderland, &c. . .1695 
 Charles Msntagu, aftericards earl of 
 Halifax, sari of Pembroke, viscount 
 Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 
 
 aUEEN ANNE. 
 
 lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord 
 Pembroke, duke of Buckingham 
 
 Duke of Marlborough, &c. . 171 >i. 
 
 Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, diikcs 
 of Marlborough and Newcastle . 1707 
 
 R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171 1' 
 
 Earl of Rochester, ord Dartmouth, 
 and Henry St. John, esq. afterwards 
 visct. Bolmgbroke ; lord Harcoiirt . 171( 
 
 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 171« 
 
 KING GEORGE I. 
 
 Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, 
 marquess of Wharton, earl oi Or- 
 ford, duke of Marlooroueh. visct. 
 Townshend, &c. . ' . . »7l4 
 
 Robert Wal pole, esq. . . . 17 If 
 
 James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 171/ 
 Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . Jli 
 Robert Walpole, esq. afterwards sir 
 Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?1 
 
 KING GEORGE II. 
 
 Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingti.i, lord 
 Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1742 
 
 Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl 
 of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 1743 
 
 Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke 
 of Bedford, &c. . . . 1746 
 
 Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- 
 inson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 17S4 
 
 Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, 
 earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 
 
 [Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in 
 June, same year.] 
 
 William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, 
 duke of Newcastle, ifec , . 175? 
 
 KING GEORGE III. 
 
 Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke 
 of Bedford .... 176) 
 
 Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville, 
 sir Francis Dashwood, <fec. . '. 1762 
 
 Right hon. George Grenville, earl of 
 Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of 
 Bedford, &c. . . . . 1763 
 
 Marquess of Rockingham, duke of 
 Grafton, earl of Shelburne, &c. July 1765 
 
 Duke of Grafton, hon. Chas. Towns- 
 hend, earl of i;hatham, &n. Aug. 1766 
 
 Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick, 
 lord North, &c. . . Dec. 1767 
 
 Lord North, lord Halifax, &c. . . 1770 
 
 Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor 
 mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St 
 Germain, &c. .... 17/J 
 
 Marquess of Rockingham,right hon'ble 
 Charles James Fox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782 
 
 Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord 
 Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782 
 
 Duke of Portland, lord North, Mr. Fox, 
 &c. (The Coalition Ministrv. See 
 ^'■Coalition.") . April 5, 1783 
 
 Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower, 
 lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thur- 
 low, right hon. W. W. Grenville, 
 Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke 
 of Richmond, <fec. . Dec. 27, 1785 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf- 
 ford, lord Hawkesbury, &c. . . 178»i 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds, 
 lord Camden, &c. . . . f79ll 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chat- 
 ham, lord Loughborough, &c. . 17* 
 
210 
 
 THE WORLD'S PIIOGK.ESS. 
 
 ( ADfc 
 
 Henry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. HuskiB- 
 son, vise Palmerston, Mr. Grant, earl 
 of Dudley, &c. retiring) May 30, 1828 
 
 KING WILLIAM IV. 
 
 Duke of Wellington and his cabinet, 
 
 continued. 
 
 Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Mel- 
 bourne, Goderich, and PalmerstOQ, 
 marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol- 
 land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra- 
 ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, JS3C 
 
 [Earl Grey resigns May 9, but resumes 
 office May 18, 1832.] 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, viscount Althorp, 
 lord .John Russel, viscts. Palmerston 
 and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, 
 lord Howick. Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou- 
 lett Thomson, &c. . July 14, 1834 
 
 Viscount Melboumt's admmistration 
 d-- ;t3u: tne duke of Wellington 
 .ii,Kes the helm of state provisionally, 
 waiting the retufn of sir Robeit Peel 
 from Italy . . Nov. 14, 1834 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellir.gton, 
 lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, 
 lord EUenborough, lord Rosslyn, 
 lord Whamcliffe, sir George M urray, 
 Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Herries, Mr. 
 Goulburn, &c. . Dec. 15, 1831 
 
 Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues 
 return to office .' April 18, 1835 
 
 aUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi- 
 net, continued. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 
 
 Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's 
 commands to form a new admmis- 
 tration, May 8. 
 
 This command is withdrawn, and lord 
 Melbourne and his friends are rein- 
 stated . . . May 10, 183^ 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
 earl of Aberdeen, earl of Hadding- 
 ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr. 
 Goulburn, &c. . Aug. 7, 1841 
 
 Lord Jolm Russell's administration 
 
 July 6, 1346 
 
 ADIMIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed 
 by Henry III. 1223. Alfred. Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had 
 been j)reviously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed 
 in rr.mce, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of 
 great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward I. 
 in 1297. — Spelman; Rymer. 
 
 ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank wag 
 created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high 
 admirals oi districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy, 
 
 ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court 
 for the trial of causes relating to maritime afiairs. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, Battle of, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 
 3, A.D. 323. Adris.nople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360; 
 and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire tiU the capture of 
 Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the 
 Bultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was born here in 14S0.— 
 
 Mr. Pitt, duke of Portland, lord Gren- 
 ville, Mr. Dundas, &c. . . 1795 
 
 Mr. Pitt, earl of Westmorland, earl 
 of Chatham, lord Grenville, &c. . 1798 
 
 Right hon. Henry Addington, duke of 
 Portland, lord Hawkesbury, lord Ho- 
 bart, lord Eldon, &c. . Mar. 17, 1801 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Melvilb, rt. hon. George - 
 Canning, lord Harrowby, lord West- 
 morland, duke of Psrtland, Mr. Dun- 
 das, &c. . . May 12, 1804 
 
 Lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl 
 Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind- 
 ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. 
 Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. 
 (See ''All the Talents.") Feb. 5, 1806 
 
 Duke of Portland, Mr. Canning, lord 
 Hawkesbury, earl Camden, right 
 hon. Spencer Perceval, &c. Mar. 25, 1807 
 
 Duke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord 
 vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville 
 Gower, <fec 1808 
 
 Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, mar- 
 quess Welleslev, viscount Palmers- 
 ton, Mr. Ryder," &c. . . Oct. 1809 
 
 BEGENCY OP 6EDR0E, PRINCE OP WALES. 
 
 Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, 
 
 &c. continued. 
 Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. 
 
 Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. 
 
 Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. 
 
 Nich. Vansittart, &c. June 8, 1812 
 
 KING GEORGE IV. 
 
 Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth, 
 Mr. Vansittart. &c. continued. 
 
 Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount 
 Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- 
 ges Bourne, &c. . April 10, 1827 
 
 Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland, 
 right hon. William Huskisson, Mr. 
 Herries, &c. . . August 11, 1827 
 
 Duke of Wellington, right hon. Robert 
 Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- 
 ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul- 
 burn, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. 
 
 January 25, 1828 
 
 Duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen, 
 sir George Murray, lord Lowther, sir 
 
iOVj m JTIONARY OF DATES. 211 
 
 Priestky. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but waa 
 restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 
 
 /ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea 
 was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married 
 the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state 
 barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, 
 and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted; for 
 the first time for centuries, in 1797. 
 
 ADULTERY, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with 
 the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx, 10. This law 
 was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, 
 because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal 
 of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged 
 to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calmet. Lycurgus 
 punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans 
 tore out the offenders' ej'^es. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; 
 the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, 
 and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own ch\\- 
 dvQXi.—Lengkt. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery 
 were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England 
 the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil 
 action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. 
 
 ADULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, 
 and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — 
 Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished 
 by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping 
 her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without 
 distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stowc. 
 The ears and nose wer6 cut oflT under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished 
 capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is 
 no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
 whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man 
 were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present 
 this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress 
 o'f her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they 
 usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe. 
 
 ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of 
 the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest 
 Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was 
 instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. 
 
 ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of 
 merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension 
 of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. 
 This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign 
 of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corpoi'ation 
 in 1564. — Anderson. 
 
 iDVERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they 
 were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
 of 50Z. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to 
 be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. 
 — Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the 
 number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 3s. %d., and in Ireland 
 at 2s. &d. each adi ertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England 
 to l5. Qd., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833 
 
212 THE world's PRtGRESS. [ AFF 
 
 ^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There were three degrees 
 of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices 
 of the peace. The plebeian sediles presided over the more minute affairs of 
 the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured aU 
 the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. 
 
 ENIGMA. The origin of the senigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews 
 borrowed their aenigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The 
 philosophy of the Druids was altogether aenigmatical. In Nero's time the 
 Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing 
 truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond ia 
 an elegant specimen of the ienigma : — 
 
 Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; 
 
 Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 
 
 .^EOLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Eircher. It553 ; 
 but Richardson proves it to have been knovni at an earlier period than his 
 time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story 
 of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, 
 was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. 
 
 AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has 
 been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The 
 ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as weU 
 as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that 
 hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The 
 true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- 
 golfier, 1782. — See Balloon. 
 
 ^SOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor 
 of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b.c. iEsop's 
 Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits 
 both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch. 
 
 JITOLIA. This country was named after ^Etolus of Elis, who, having acci- 
 dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, 
 and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of 
 Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a con- 
 sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achseans, to whom 
 they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. 
 They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. 
 
 The .Etolians begin to ravage the Pelo- i Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other 
 
 ponnesus . . . B.C. 282 cities, and destroy with fire all the 
 
 They dispute the passage of the Mace- | country they invade _ ^^^ B.C. -^01 
 
 donians at Thermopylae . .223 "' .;.■._ .i- i;- _ -i-i.i j. 
 
 Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price 
 
 of peace .... 218 
 
 Battle of Lamia; the .^tolians, com- 
 manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by 
 Philip of Ma cedon . . .214 
 
 With the assistance of allies, they seize 
 
 Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212 
 They put to the sword the people of 
 
 AFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was 
 prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age. 
 Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti- 
 cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain 
 near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages 
 •were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 
 1603. All marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are 
 declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. Iv. 1885. 
 
 They next invite the kings of Macedon, 
 Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with 
 them against the Romans . . 195 
 
 They^ seize Calchis, Sparta, and Dems- 
 
 trias in Thessaly . . .194 
 
 Their defeat near Thermopylae . . 193 
 
 They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192 
 
 Made a province of Rome . . 146 
 
4C«J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 
 
 AFFIRMATION op the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath 
 in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered 
 and modified December 1721. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in 
 India, January 5, 1842. — See India. 
 
 AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient 
 world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It 
 was conquered by Belisarius in a.d. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about 
 637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend- 
 ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great part of the present popu- 
 lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among 
 the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men- 
 tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made 
 his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50, 
 1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died 
 of shot-wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at 
 Fernando Po, Jan. 81, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament 
 voted 61,000^., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, 
 sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the 
 Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
 crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having 
 ascended the river to Egga, 320 mile" from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi- 
 tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard- 
 ships, Oct. 17. 
 
 AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ- 
 ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A 
 charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was 
 created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let- 
 ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre- 
 sent company, 23 Geo. H. 1749. See Slave Trade. 
 
 AGE : Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was 
 the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as 
 generation. The interval since the first formation of man has been divided 
 into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but 
 a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the 
 ■ order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance, 
 would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age. 
 Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : 
 by some the space of time commencing from Constantine, and ending with 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called 
 the middle age ; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of 
 the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of 
 nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to 
 Christ ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year. 
 
 AGINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by 
 Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken 
 prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the 
 dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, 
 and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain 
 were the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one 
 marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415, 
 — Goldsmith. 
 
 AGRA, Fortress op, termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war 
 with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once th? 
 
J,\i TUP world's progress. | ALJ 
 
 most sp endid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent 
 ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his 
 palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con- 
 tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Maii- 
 soleums. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among iho Ro- 
 man people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the 
 acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain 
 the favor of the citizens, 486 e.g. It was enacted under the tribune litjc- 
 rms Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom ol 
 Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Livy ; Vossius. 
 
 h I ; RICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im- 
 mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, 
 perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri- 
 culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it 
 was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, 
 and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor. 
 Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27. 
 
 AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade 
 the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority 
 upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now 
 flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public 
 there since 1814. 
 
 AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the 
 first cause of every thing created, 530 e.g. The pressure of air was discov- 
 ered by Torricelli, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pas- 
 • cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have 
 illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi- 
 ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others, 
 the air-gun by Guter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by 
 Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle 
 in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, 
 about 1756. See Balloon. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Peace of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa'^ 
 between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt^, but 
 retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or 
 celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, 
 Spain, and Genoa. By this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 
 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, 
 of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 
 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the 
 part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 
 7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha- 
 nelle, and a convention signed, October 9, 1818. The sum then due from 
 France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs. 
 
 ALABAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included ic 
 tlie original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi ter- 
 ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population im 
 1810 was less than 10 000 ; in 1816. 29 683; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830, 
 308,997 ; in 1840, 590,756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in 
 1840 amounted to $12 854,694 ; imports, to $574,651 
 
 ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 e.g., and called Longa, because the city 
 fixtended along tb ) hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and wai 
 
AiP 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 21b 
 
 governed by a race of kings, tlie descendants of ^neas. When A.mulius 
 dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a 
 life or celibacy, "jy obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, 
 therety to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, 
 ft-ustrated ; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of 
 twins, foi- which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to 
 be th:.own into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants 
 were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and M'as brought ashore by 
 Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and 
 called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamcd 
 Lupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled 
 by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romiilus avenged the wrongs oi 
 Ilia and Numitor, 754 e.g., and the next year founded Rome. — Varro. 
 
 ALBAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once 
 the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Caesar was 
 the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, 
 wlio was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- 
 fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled 
 the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- 
 cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was 
 erected here to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's 
 was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. 
 
 ALBAN'S, ST.. Battles of. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- 
 caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., 
 of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered 
 no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists 
 under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen 
 Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated army 
 perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461. 
 
 ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 
 1623, and by them named Beaverwyck; capitulated to the English in 1664, 
 and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and 
 Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : 
 in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 33,721. 
 
 ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- 
 guedoc, and at Toulouse ; they opposed the disciples of the Church of 
 Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon 
 de Montfort commanded against them, and at Beziferes he and the pope's 
 legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba. he burnt 150 of the 
 Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded 
 the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
 women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 
 men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. 
 
 ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called b> 
 Julius Cfesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion 
 of the country, 54 e.g. The Romans conquered it. and held possession about 
 400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, 
 Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- 
 try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the 
 Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a 
 mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See 
 Britain. — New" Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir 
 Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver iii 
 1792. 
 
 ALBUERA, Battle of, between the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 
 
216 THE world's PROGRESa. [ ALU 
 
 and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord 
 Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, 
 the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant 
 achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 900U men 
 previously to their retreat. 
 ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the 
 transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a 
 universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may ba 
 had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yel 
 few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years afiei 
 Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the 
 first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it 
 off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had 
 this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians 
 are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by 
 Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else 
 but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, 
 about A. D. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all 
 kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rymer's 
 Fczd. Doctor Price, of Guildford, pubhshed an account of his experiments 
 in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to 
 the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- 
 der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain 
 of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; 
 but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. 
 
 ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : 
 it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans 
 believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. 
 It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, 
 a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing 
 this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- 
 torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God 
 sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. 
 — See Koran, Mahometism, Mecca, &c. 
 
 ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and 
 among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as 
 distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given 
 them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- 
 vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes 
 A^ere settled in England, the title was changed to that of ea?i, and the Nor- 
 mans introduced that of cou7it, which though different in its original signifi- 
 cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given 
 its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the 
 United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. 
 
 AIjE and WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- 
 mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke'i 
 Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as- 
 cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife 
 of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- 
 paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — 
 Tacitus. Akhouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- 
 sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws w( re passed for 
 their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale 
 and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles 
 n., 1660. See Beer, Wine. 
 
»i.Gj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217 
 
 ALEMANNI, or All Men, {i.e. men of all nations,, a body of Suevi, defeated 
 by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of this warlike people art 
 said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at tha 
 head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and 
 Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- 
 ber 12, 328 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation 
 was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- 
 quence, the year 1 a.d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to 
 the year 284 a. d., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a. d.), 
 which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be- 
 came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, i^hick see. The date is 
 reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 6786, and 
 after that time by subtracting 5492. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by 
 Alexander the Great. 332 b. g. ; taken by Cfesar, 47 b. c, and the library oi 
 the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered 
 by the Saracens, whtn the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was 
 totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for 
 six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph 
 Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures 
 of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- 
 sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable 
 battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by 
 the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by 
 them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, Battle of, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- 
 tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 
 15,000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The 
 British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. 
 
 ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by 
 Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him. Alexandrines, about a. d. 
 1164. — Nouv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well- 
 known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified : — 
 
 " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
 Tha' like a wound-ed snake, di-ags its slow length a-long." 
 
 ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely 
 known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said 
 to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and 
 into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- 
 ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- 
 bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into 
 general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
 doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
 
 ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 
 44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the 
 Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and hs 
 seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur- 
 key. — Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most 
 powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet 
 and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541': Algiers was 
 reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures 
 with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- 
 ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1776 
 10 
 
4 
 
 218 THE world's progress. ^alm 
 
 1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, inder lord Exmouth, 
 Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- 
 ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and 
 Duperr^, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, 
 and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry 
 announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. 
 Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which 
 the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. 
 General Damremont attacked Constantina {which see), Oct. 13, 1837;" since 
 when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have 
 taken place.' Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec . 22j 
 1847. See Morocco. 
 
 A.LI, Sect or. Founded by a faniv.os Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- 
 homet, (having married his daughter Fatima,) about a. d. 632. Ali was 
 called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians 
 follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- 
 metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, 
 that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and 
 Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, 
 and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the '• cut- 
 ting sword« of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- 
 tor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. 
 Ali was assassinated in 660. 
 
 ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When 
 they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to bo half foreigners, if 
 they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
 handicraft by retail, 1483. 
 
 ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All HaUows, 
 in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints 
 and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. 
 The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the 
 year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very 
 remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a 
 great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were 
 connected with popular feeling or tradition. 
 
 ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest 
 instances, of which Blair gives Psahn Ixxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen- 
 ser's Faerie Qucene is an allegory throughout ; Addison, in his Spectator, 
 abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- 
 fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich ;'n allegory. 
 ALLIANCES, Treaties op, between the high European Powers . See Coalition, 
 Treaties, &c. 
 
 Alliance .of Lei psic . . April 9, 1631 Alliance of Versailles • . May 1, 1756 
 
 Alliance of Vienna . May 27, 1657 Germanic Alliance . July 23, 1785 
 
 Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 1793 
 
 Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 
 
 Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 
 
 Alliance, the Hague Jan. 4. 1717 
 
 Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1T18 
 
 Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 
 
 ALMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- 
 dars were anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- 
 tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. 
 Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the 
 style of Merliii, lb6Q.—Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were . 
 
 Alliance of Petersburg April 8, 1805 
 
 Austrian Alliance . March 14, 1812 
 
 Alliance of Sweden . March 24 1812 
 
 Alliance of Toplitz . . Sept, 9; 1813 
 
 Alliance, the Holy . Sept, 26, 1815 
 
4LUj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 219 
 
 Poor Robin's Almancc 
 
 . 1052 
 
 Lady's Diary 
 
 . . 1705 
 
 Moore's Almanac 
 
 . 1713 
 
 Season on the Seasons 
 
 . . 1735 
 
 Gentleman's Diary 
 
 . 1741 
 
 Nautical Almanac . 
 
 . . 1767 
 
 Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's, 
 Philadelphia) .... 1733 
 
 A-LZVIANACS, continued. 
 
 Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- 
 ford 13S0 
 
 Ono in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460 
 
 First printed one, published at Jiuda . 1472 
 
 First print&i in England, by Richard 
 Pynson .... 1497 
 
 Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 
 
 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . '&44 
 
 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. 
 The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 
 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this 
 c(jmpany, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs wais 
 abolished in England, 1834. 
 
 AJ4MEIDA, Battle op, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- 
 manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was 
 defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- 
 sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route 
 of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. 
 
 ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and 
 wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus 
 affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though 
 this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettej of the 
 Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks aipha, and 
 abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived 
 from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought 
 the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 A, B, r. A, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, 2, T, T. 
 These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- 
 acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
 Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented 
 the double characters, 0, X, *, E, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simonides added Z, 
 "V, H, £1, about 489 b. c. — Arimdelian Marbles. When the E was introduced 
 is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters 
 till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small 
 letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets 
 of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — 
 
 English . 
 French 
 Italian 
 Spanish 
 
 ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com- 
 mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, sumamed the 
 Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 
 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, 
 wi'itten by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. 
 
 ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- 
 tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeka 
 the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- 
 dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 136; 
 and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar 
 in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed 
 churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- 
 ported their use. 
 
 ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300; 
 it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, is 
 
 26 
 
 German . 
 
 . 26 
 
 Greek 
 
 . 24 
 
 Turkish . 
 
 . 33 
 
 23 
 
 Sclavonic 
 
 . 27 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 . . 22 
 
 Sanscrit 
 
 . 50 
 
 20 
 
 Russian . 
 
 . 41 
 
 Arabic 
 
 . 28 
 
 and 
 
 
 27 
 
 Latin . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Persian 
 
 . . 32 
 
 Chinese 
 
 . 214 
 
220 THE WOELL S PROGKESS. [ AMB 
 
 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 17t)0. Alum 
 is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and 
 to whiten bread. It inay be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulj hu- 
 ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but it is usually obtained 
 by means of ore called alum slate. 
 
 AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, 
 Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- 
 panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and 
 gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called 
 Maranon. 
 
 AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- 
 ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having 
 made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their 
 enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- 
 went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female 
 state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- 
 mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, ;.hey, at stated 
 times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumtus CurtiuL. 
 They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- 
 stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more 
 force, their right breasts were burned off' whence their name from the 
 Greek, no7i and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the 
 Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with 
 him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three himdred 
 females were in her train. — Herodotus. 
 
 AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to 
 another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- 
 tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among otherSj 
 they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- 
 sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a 
 lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their 
 protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- 
 sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- 
 dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
 to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780. — PhiUips. 
 
 AMBER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a 
 medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. 
 Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
 the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails 
 among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- 
 ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king 
 dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in 
 favor of each opinion. 
 
 AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means 
 true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- 
 plies, so be it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally 
 used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer 
 
 AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first 
 an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the 
 offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped 
 off", a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into 
 court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death 
 or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used foi 
 making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. 
 
ammJ dictionary of dates. 221 
 
 AMERICA: See United Stat-es. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- 
 ese, better Isnown as Christoi^her Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo« 
 ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands, 
 This grea-' navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- 
 ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; 
 and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. 
 
 Newlbundland, the first British colony 
 in this quarter of the world, discover- 
 ed by Cabot, and by him called 
 Prima Vista. .... 1497 
 
 Virginia, the first English settlement 
 on the main land . . . 1607 
 
 New England, the second, by the Ply- 
 mouth company . . . 162( 
 New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16H 
 [For other occurrences, see Tabular 
 Views — United States. See also 
 separate states, Maine, &c. 
 
 AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast 
 portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When 
 they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called 
 Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but the7 were soon 
 subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The 
 cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be 
 a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted 
 its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence 
 in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
 people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending 
 chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke 
 of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United 
 States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, etseq. ; 
 and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &c. 
 
 'AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 
 776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This 
 did not include authors of mere pamphlets, which would have swelled the 
 number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very 
 moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- 
 logy, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography, 80 ; Politics 
 and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are 
 repeated.] 
 
 AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known ; it was the ninth 
 in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name 
 Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according 
 to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. 
 One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- 
 mond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum, 
 Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Burns. 
 
 AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the 
 prehminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and 
 M. 0(to, on the part of England and France. Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive 
 treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for 
 England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpen- 
 ninck for Holland. 
 
 A-JIMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot ; they invaded tlie 
 land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated 
 
 ' Las Casas, in describing the barbaritjr of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, records 
 m.iny instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In .Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unre- 
 sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles ! and he has beheld them 
 throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food ! " I have heard them," says Las Casas, " borrow 
 the limb of a human beins to f°ed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter oj 
 another victim t j the lender !" 
 
222 THE world's PROGEESS. [ XNA 
 
 by Jephthah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, 
 with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but 
 Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- 
 quished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed 
 all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. 
 
 AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by 
 Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- 
 sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : 
 having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with 
 two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. 
 
 AJ^PHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for 
 the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
 which wa^ composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities 
 of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process 
 of time sent also some of their citizens to the coUncil of the Amphictyons, 
 and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. 
 — Suidas. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar 
 and Curio : the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in 
 full senate " Omnmm mulierum viriim, et omnium virorum mulierem." In the 
 Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people 
 assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- 
 bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one 
 of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built 
 A. D. 79 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- 
 theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 
 
 AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its 
 building, as a city, wai commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was 
 built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world 
 in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that 
 time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structui-e is, 
 for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel 
 in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince 
 invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were 
 admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was 
 restored in November, 1813. See Holland. 
 
 AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The 
 Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. 
 Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the 
 passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny. 
 Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood 
 of the true cross, about a. d. 828. They have been sanctioned by religion 
 and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences — 
 witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and 
 sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England 
 before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- 
 asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- 
 tists of Munster (who are, of course, properly distinguished from the existing 
 mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- 
 ance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in 
 spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster 
 they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the 
 king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and 
 
AUaj DICTIOIVARY OF DATES. 223 
 
 they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was 
 taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The 
 anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than th« 
 not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the 
 representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. 
 
 ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, 
 named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 610 b. c. The 
 odes of Anacreon are much prized ; tlieir author lived in a constant round 
 of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his 
 eighty-fifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. 
 
 ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, 
 the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our 
 Saviour, " Quid est Veritas?" we have this admirable anagram, ''Est vir qui 
 adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in 
 the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — Henault, 
 
 ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana- 
 thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We 
 have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (see JosJma vi. 17). 
 Anathemas Avere used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. t>uch ecclesias- 
 tical denunciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- 
 beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- 
 tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic 
 countries to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- 
 phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of 
 medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- 
 philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy : they were the first 
 to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to 
 brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living- 
 criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied 
 with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodiss 
 of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical 
 plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of 
 Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. 
 — FVeind's History of Physic. 
 
 ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many 
 of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- 
 terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- 
 ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- 
 able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- 
 nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. 
 
 ANCHORS FOR SinPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the 
 Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the 
 Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The 
 anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will 
 weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost .£450. — Phillips. 
 
 ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- 
 vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind 
 to be 98 miles per hour. See article Winds. 
 
 tNGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a.d. 456. The 
 Angclici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 
 1191. The Anseliccp, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa 
 Torclli, A. D 1534. 
 
224 THE world's progress. [ ANT 
 
 ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Somfl 
 will hare it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before 
 all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave'. 
 Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have ro- 
 cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. 
 
 ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing 
 four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and 
 at IO5. in the reign of Elizabetl^ 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold 
 coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands 
 of the English, in the reign of Henry VL, 1431. — Wood. 
 
 ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made 
 to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, 
 as Amos. It came into general repute in Englajid about the period of the 
 Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of FyssMnge, the first book 
 printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed ir 
 1653. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at 
 Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had 
 its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. 
 It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- 
 thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the 
 patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features 
 of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose 
 eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- 
 tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- 
 tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- 
 lage near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose population joined the first Saxon 
 freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a 
 kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
 Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See 
 Britain. 
 
 ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, 
 Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first 
 notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. 
 Burnet. 
 
 ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and 
 abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of 
 our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ;' first adopted in the year 525. See 
 Era. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the 
 year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. 
 
 ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north 
 or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 
 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French 
 and American Exploring Expeditions, under D'Urville and Wilkes, respec- 
 tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as 
 the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was 
 coasted by captain WiJkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, 
 fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the 
 year 1830. 
 INTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of 
 people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, 
 reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world 
 1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the 
 
ANT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 
 
 end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing 
 them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would 
 rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth 'vas caj5ab,le 
 of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and 
 then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- 
 ries that preceded the Flood : — 
 
 I. 
 
 10 
 
 V. 
 
 . 2,560 
 
 IX. . 
 
 . 655,360 
 
 xni. . 
 
 . 167,142,160 
 
 II. 
 
 . 40 
 
 VI. . 
 
 . 10,240 
 
 X. 
 
 . 2,621,440 
 
 XIV. 
 
 . 67I,0&5,640 
 
 ra. . 
 
 . 160 
 
 vn. . 
 
 40,960 1 
 
 XI. . 
 
 10,485.760 
 
 XV. . 
 
 2,6»1,354,4C0 
 
 IV. 
 
 &10 
 
 VIII. 
 
 163,840 
 
 XII. 
 
 . 41,943,040 
 
 XVI. 
 
 . 10,737,418,2« 
 
 This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, 
 by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest 
 estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. 
 
 AJVTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiei-s, and St. Ambrose, were 
 the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. — 
 Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. — Baker. 
 Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose 
 into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churchea 
 in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 
 
 ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the 
 world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by 
 Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. 
 Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of 
 other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea 
 Islands, &c. 
 
 ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients 
 to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- 
 men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in 
 eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes 
 types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to 
 its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is sufii- 
 cii-nt to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. 
 We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- 
 cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. 
 
 ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. 
 The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold 
 that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good 
 woi'ks are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for 
 sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. 
 
 ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In one 
 da}^, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once 
 the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer wore first called Chris- 
 tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers 
 attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 
 6492 years b. c. 
 
 ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- 
 podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate ol 
 pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintahi- 
 ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-ea.st 
 of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes 
 Island. — Brookes. 
 
 ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- 
 tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption 
 of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to hava 
 existed in Ireland 700 years b. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 
 10* 
 
226 THE world's PROGK ess. [ APO 
 
 credit. A soc^Iety was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and 
 others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application .was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for 
 a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from 
 favoring the design. In 1717 tliis society was revived, and in 1751 it re- 
 ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish. itH 
 discoveries, &c., under the title of ArchcEologia, in 1770. The Society o! 
 Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. 
 
 AI^TI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, 
 an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer ' 
 estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. 
 See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them 
 from prison, Jan. 27, 1847. 
 
 AI^l I- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been 
 the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 
 second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it 
 
 ■ was adopted by Lielius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Avians, Socini- 
 ans, and Unitarians. 
 
 ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built 
 in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, 
 in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars 
 caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The 
 remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, 
 was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which 
 he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war 
 between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- 
 tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the 
 Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
 cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, 
 Oct. 27, 1830. General Chass^ surrendered the citadel to the French after 
 a desti'uctive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. 
 
 APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about 
 A. D. 95. — Irenaus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, 
 and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many 
 churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the 
 sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
 councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by 
 Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from 
 the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in 
 A. D. 139. 
 
 APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are 
 neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history 
 of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, 
 but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged 
 by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. — Ashe. 
 
 APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who 
 taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his 
 flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent 
 down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel ; 
 that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. 
 Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. 
 
 APOLLO, Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, 
 poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost 
 every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid 
 temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b. c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnao, 
 
aua] dictionary of dates. 227 
 
 built 434 B. c, during a period in which pestilence raged, Avas burn*: in a. d 
 362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet. 
 
 APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the 
 Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while 
 after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship 
 was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the 
 Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of 
 England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. 
 
 APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the 
 second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d, 
 300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled 
 hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- 
 ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of 
 Rome, and predicting its downfall. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they 
 raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the 
 East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the 
 Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and 
 humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. 
 This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begim at Rome by Augus- 
 tus, in favor of Julius Csesar, b. c. 13. — Tllkmont. 
 
 APPEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of 
 murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt 
 or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have 
 been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed 
 his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant 
 (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, 
 April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from ofl" the 
 statute book, 59 George III., 1819. 
 
 APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early 
 business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they 
 valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at 
 the price appraised. 1282. 
 
 APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, 
 but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having 
 introduced Januarms and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peachavi. 
 
 AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by 
 Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the 
 sacrament, and used nothing but water. 
 
 AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, 
 which was therefore called the Appian-vmy, about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of 
 every kind were among the wonders of Rome, — Livij. There are now some 
 remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and 
 beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles 
 long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- 
 dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 
 126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. 
 
 AQUITAJNE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of 
 England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a 
 principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
 of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this 
 duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 
 
 AJIABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians 
 made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara- 
 
228 THE world's progress. [aro 
 
 cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro 
 phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. 
 
 \RBELA, Battle of. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the 
 Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b.c. 
 The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse ; the 
 Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arrian. 
 The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, 
 which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- 
 ]ing ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed 
 to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. 
 
 ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- 
 selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in theit 
 manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, 
 surrounded with mountains^. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, aa 
 being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery 
 they honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose 
 liistory is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory, 
 although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of 
 other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by CEno- 
 trus into Italy, 1710 b.c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards 
 called Magna Gracia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Ideon. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- 
 nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly 
 coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into 
 England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-TTsk ; but 
 soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- 
 terbury, A. D. 596. 
 
 ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, 
 and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- 
 con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council 
 of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, 
 though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to 
 A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity : an 
 appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. 
 
 ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- 
 dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was 
 oSended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- 
 nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the 
 earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded 
 by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on whicb 
 was written " Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and 
 Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town, 
 Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 
 
 ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha- 
 rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bowj 
 of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066; that which killed 
 the king pierCed him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England 
 in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, 
 Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range ol 
 the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, if. 
 is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the 
 houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- 
 ard II. 1397. — SLowe. The citizens of London were formed into companiei 
 of archers ia the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporat* 
 
4aGJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 229 
 
 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538 
 — Northouk's History of London. 
 ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by tha 
 best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature 
 ift their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantine 
 were magnificent. 
 ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 e.g. Their 
 King, Hiram, supphed Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials 
 for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. c. The art 
 passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came 
 into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged 
 during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the 
 ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches 
 and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from 
 the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not 
 fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. 
 ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- 
 ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- 
 tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this 
 dignity, 1070 b. c. 
 ARCOLA, Battle of, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the 
 Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of 
 this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the 
 loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. 
 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and 
 some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first 
 Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576, 
 Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a 
 number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted 
 to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent 
 and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, 
 Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., see North- West Passage. 
 AREOPAGIT^. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- 
 cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. 
 — Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areos pagos, the 
 HUl of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried ti>ere for the mur- 
 der ot Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever 
 causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine 
 speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- 
 ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. 
 
 ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in 
 Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated 
 by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a, d. 378, 
 — Dufresnoy. 
 
 ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of 
 Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship 
 in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the 
 figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
 was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition 
 on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first 
 heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its 
 builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 A.RGOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years bfr 
 
230 THE world's progress. [ ARg 
 
 fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder were 
 called Inachida, of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to 
 the country. When the HeraclidiB took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 
 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a 
 repuhlic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. — Euripides. 
 
 Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- 
 band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- 
 crificed theirs. {Sea Fl:imheaux)v.C 142E 
 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose Jife 
 had been preserved by his wife, de- 
 throne? Danaus .... 1425 
 Reign of Abas . . . 1381 
 
 Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- 
 
 sius 1361 
 
 Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- 
 sion ior hiin of Sthenobcea . . 136i 
 Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 
 Perseus leaves Argos, and foimds My- 
 cenae (which see.) .... 1313 
 
 Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856 
 
 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . ISO'' 
 
 Apis reigns thnty-five years . . 1747 
 
 Tlie city of Argos built by Argus, son 
 ofNiobe 1711 
 
 Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his 
 father, and reigns .... 1641 
 
 Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes 
 part of the kingdom, and calls it af- 
 ter his wife, Messenia . , 15.52 
 
 Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 
 
 Slhenelus reigns .... 1485 
 
 tJelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 
 
 Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of 
 
 Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It waa 
 lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826, 
 Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present 
 and first king. January 25, 1833. See Greece. 
 
 AEIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny iLe 
 divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned 
 by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the 
 reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried 
 into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the 
 Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence 
 arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- 
 tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I'Heresie. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. 
 It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The 
 oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his 
 Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
 A. u. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of 
 Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine 
 digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — 
 introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng- 
 land, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, 
 is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in 
 England on arithmetic {de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur- 
 ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier 
 in his Rabdologia, in 1617. 
 
 ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a behef of its being 
 the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. 
 But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck 
 th(!re with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this 
 place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in 
 breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about 
 a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, 
 three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for 
 birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the 
 figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a 
 door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. 
 
 AJIKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
 It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Unioa 
 ID 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slave* 
 
UIM] DICTIor'ARY OF DATES. 231 
 
 /IRMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called coiv 
 sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000 
 volunteers, under the duke of Sledina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, 
 July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten 
 fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put 
 to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and 
 Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral 
 Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging 
 the sliattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis- 
 persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the Nortb 
 Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, 
 and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, 
 and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The 
 Englisli lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hwme. 
 
 A^RMAGH, See op, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by 
 St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. 
 
 AHMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, 
 against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but 
 its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, aiirt a treaty 
 ratified in order to cause their fiags to be respected by the belligerent pow- 
 ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral 
 bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British 
 cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- 
 mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was 
 obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to 
 the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. 
 
 ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 
 B. c. After being subject successivelj' to the three great monai-chies, Ar- 
 menia fell to tlie kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor 
 shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to VeniLS Ana'dis.. to whoso 
 priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, 
 prior to marriage. — Martinis Memoires sur L'Armhiie. 
 
 City of Artaxarta built . .B.C. 186 
 
 Tig'ranes the Great reigns . . 93 
 
 He is called to the throne of Syria, as- 
 sumes the fastidious title of" King of 
 Kings," and is served by tributary 
 princes . . . . .83 
 
 Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 
 
 He is restored to his throne, and dies. — 
 
 Blair . . . , .1 
 
 Reign of Venones . . a. D. 16 
 
 Zenon reigns . , . .IS 
 
 Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36 
 
 Tigranes defeated by Lucullus . 69 ' He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 
 
 Again defeated, and lays his crown at 
 the feet of Pompey . . 66 
 
 His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 
 
 Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- 
 lius Caesar . . . .48 
 
 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against 
 Marc Antony ... 36 
 
 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded 
 with silver chains to Egypt, to grace 
 his triumph . . . .34 
 
 The Armenian soldiers crown his son, 
 Artaxias .... 33 
 
 Tiridates dethroned, and Roman f)OweF 
 
 paramount in Armenia . 62 
 
 Armenia reduced to a Persian province 
 
 under Sapor . . , 365 
 
 Subdued by the Saracens . , 687 
 
 Irruption of the Turks . . 755 
 
 Agam made a Persian province, under 
 
 Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472 
 
 Subdued by Selim IT. . . 1022 
 
 Overrun by the Russians . . 1828 
 
 Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1829 
 
 (See Syria.) 
 
 ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a, d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical 
 year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years 
 and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 
 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- 
 spondence with Europeans. 
 
 ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 
 mamier that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in theil 
 
£32 THE world's progress. [ Aim 
 
 natural position and motion, the wliole being comprised in a frame It it 
 said to iiave been invented by Eratostlienes, about 255 b. c. 
 ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, 
 and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially 
 asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powers. 
 They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in 
 securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines ol 
 the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland 
 and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. 
 Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt. 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of Iho 
 twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- 
 ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order 
 at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote 
 colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- 
 biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. 
 ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other le fence 'ban 
 the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron 
 armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons 
 was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the 
 well- tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- 
 Saxon ei-a. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy 
 cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen 
 had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid 
 about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, 
 not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry 
 VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. 
 Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of 
 Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- 
 orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick. 
 ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, 
 battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles 
 were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
 Phoenicians. See the va?'ious weapons through the volume. 
 ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of 
 fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing 
 army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing 
 armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The 
 first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in 
 France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by 
 Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 
 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
 armies: Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain, 310.000; Prussia, 350,000; Tur- 
 key, 450,000 ; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560 000 ; and France, 680,000. 
 ARM Y, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- 
 dom at the decennial periods respectivel}' mentioned, and of the sums voted 
 for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official 
 records : 
 
 17C0, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men . . Bum voted £7,847,000 
 1800, War . . . . . ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973.0«) 
 
 i810, War ; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26.748.000 
 1815, Last year of the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39J50;00O 
 1820, Time of peace; war incumbrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253^000 
 
 1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 
 
 In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted 
 was £4,487.753. See Militia and Volunteers. 
 
ASS I DICTIONARY C!F DATES. 232 
 
 ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- 
 man cordelier, soon after the invention of gimpowder, in 1330. Artillery 
 ■was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 
 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 
 1846, when Edward IIL had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the 
 battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first 
 emploj'ed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in 
 England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 
 1543. — Ri/itiL-^s Fwdera. JVlade of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 
 1728. See Inn. 
 
 AJITS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was 
 composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
 arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society 
 of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of 
 Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, 
 was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and 
 of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the 
 artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this 
 society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the 
 Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- 
 ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
 19,1824. — ^QQ British Museum ; British Institution; National Gallery, <^'C. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from 
 1582 to 355 B. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 
 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wore found in the Isle of 
 Pares, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord 
 Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. 'i"he characters are 
 Greek, of which there are two translations: by Selden. 1628; by Prideaux, 
 1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Parson's Treatise, 1789. 
 
 ASCALON, Battle of ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- 
 tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other 
 infidels. No less than 40 000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of 
 battle ; and the \'ictorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent 
 until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, 
 first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the 
 number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- 
 ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of 
 Dies Ci7ierum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was 
 abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 
 
 ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus 
 and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
 peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the 
 greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of 
 the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. 
 
 ASPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, 
 and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809, and two following days. In 
 this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 
 men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat 
 of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he 
 had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat 
 endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial eflfect on 
 the subsequent prosecution of the war. 
 
 ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- 
 bury and others to assassinate king WiUiam IIL, near Richmond. Surrey, at 
 
234 THE world's progress. [ ASS 
 
 he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was to have been con- 
 summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. 
 — Hist. England. 
 
 (ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among- the Mahometans, 
 settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land 
 among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
 ferrat in 1192; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213; the khan of 
 Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 
 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the 
 title of "AnciejU of the Mountains." 
 
 ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- 
 nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, — Burke. It 
 began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the 
 treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furu.ish 
 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to 
 Spain at the peace in 1748. See Gtdnea. 
 
 ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the 
 revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At 
 one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
 of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
 dencies. — Alison. 
 
 ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the 
 Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her 
 corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to 
 have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted 
 in 813. 
 
 ASSURANCE, ^ee Insurance. The practice Is of great antiquity. Suetonius 
 ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Caesar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu- 
 rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- 
 ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in 
 Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a 
 precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the 
 first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 
 1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria. 
 
 ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus 
 wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the 
 Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the 
 union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter 
 founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- 
 named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, 
 with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all 
 perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- 
 rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet. 
 
 The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her 
 
 6; xi. l.—Blair - - B. c. 2247 - ■ • - ■ 
 
 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 
 
 Astronomical observations begun by 
 the Chaldeans - - - 2234 
 
 Belus reigns 5.5 years. — Usher - 2124 
 
 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, 
 and names his capital after himself - 2069 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having 
 subdued the Armenians, Persians, 
 Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- 
 lishes what is properly the Assyrian 
 monarchy, of which Nineveh was the 
 seat of empire. — Blair - ■ 2059 
 
 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes 
 
 dominion. — Lenglet • b. c. 2U17 
 
 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, 
 
 and India. — Lengjet • • - 1975 
 
 The Arabs seize Nineveh • - - 1937 
 Belochus, the last king of the rate of 
 
 Ninus.— B/a;r • " - - -1448 
 
 He makes liis daughter, Artossa, sur- 
 
 named Semiramis 11., his associate 
 
 on the throne - - • - 1433 
 
 Belatores reigns .... 1421 
 
 The prophet Jonah appears m ihe 
 
 streets of Nineveh — Blair • • 840 
 
 Nineveh taken by Arbacea - . 820 
 
AST] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 235 
 
 ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, 
 the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b. c, and 
 the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Saraanapalus II., being 
 besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, 
 and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- 
 napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, 
 and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by 
 the Turks in 1637 a. d. — Priestley. 
 
 PV.ul raised to the throne, about the 
 year. — Blair - • b. c. 
 
 Ue invades Israel, but departs without 
 drawing a sword. — Blair ; 2 Kings 
 XV. 19, 20 - - - - 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser invades Syria, takes 
 Damascus, and makes great con- 
 quests .... 
 
 Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports 
 the people, whom he replaces by a 
 colony of Cutheans and others, and 
 thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. 
 — Blair . - - - - 
 
 He retires from before Tyre, after a 
 siege of five years. — Blair 
 
 777 
 
 770 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, acd his ge- 
 neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- 
 lem, when the angel of the Lord in one 
 night destroys 180,000 of his army. — 
 Isaiah xxxvii. - b. 0. 7l§ 
 
 [Commentators suppose that this mes- 
 senger of death was the fatal blast 
 known in eastern countries by the 
 name of Samiel.] 
 Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes 
 
 Babylon.— Blair - - - 600 
 
 He invades Judea — Blair - - - 677 
 
 Holofernes is slain by Juditli - - 677 
 
 Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher - - 6G7 
 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 
 
 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence 
 was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
 vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The 
 early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted 
 to it, 700; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated 
 the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the 
 humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the 
 Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made 
 ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this 
 period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. I'especting 
 his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those ol 
 Babylon, about 2234 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- 
 vanced in Chaldsea under Nabonassur; it was known to the Chinese about 
 1100 E. c. ; some say many centiu-ies before. Lunar eclipses were observed 
 at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, 
 and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further 
 discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and 
 believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Uipparchus began 
 his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 
 143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of 
 the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- 
 ered, by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during 
 which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800; 
 and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
 but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 
 
 The Alphonsine tables {which see) were 
 composed - • - a. d. 1284 
 
 Clocks first used in astronomy, about - 1500 
 
 True doctrine of the motions of the pla- 
 netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1030 
 
 The science greatly advanced by Tycho 
 Brahe, about - - - - 1582 
 
 True laws of the planetary motions, by 
 Kepler 1619 
 
 Telescopes and other instruments used 
 in astronomy, about - - - 1627 
 
 The discoveries of Gahleo were made 
 abQut 1631 
 
 The transit of Venus over the sun's disk 
 
 first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a.d. 1633 
 Cassini draws his meridian line, after 
 
 Dante. — See Bologna - - - 105S 
 
 The aberration of the light of the fixed 
 
 stars discovered by Horrebow - IG5£ 
 
 Discoveries of Picart - - - 166£ 
 
 Map of the moon constructed bv Ileve- 
 
 lius 1G7C 
 
 Motion of the sun round its own axh 
 
 proved by Halley - - - 1670 
 
 Discoveries of Huygens - - -1684 
 
 Newton's Principia published, and th« 
 
236 THE world's PROGRESa [ ATB 
 
 ASTRONOMY continued. 
 
 system as now taught incontrovertibly 
 established ■ - - a. d. 1687 
 
 Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- 
 stead 1688 
 
 Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by 
 Cassini . - - - - 1701 
 
 Aberration of the stars clearly explained 
 by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 
 
 Celestial inequalities found by La 
 Grange 1780 
 
 Uranus and satellites discoverad by 
 
 Ilersche], March 13. — See Georgium 
 Sidtis - - - -178! 
 
 Mecanique Celeste, published by La 
 
 Place 1796 
 
 1801 
 
 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 
 Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, March 28 
 Juno, by Harding, Sept. 1 - - • 1804 
 
 Vesta, by Olbers - • - 1807 
 
 Neptune, by Le Verrier • - - 1846 
 
 United States astronomical expedition 
 
 to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. 
 
 Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 
 
 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from 
 us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; 
 so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one ol 
 them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course 
 thither. As Hght takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from 
 the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but 
 the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that 
 their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- 
 ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four 
 hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. 
 
 ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for 
 those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them 
 obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jcavs to build certain cities for 
 this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, 
 to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus 
 built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the 
 coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, 
 that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- 
 lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would; of which very 
 ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were 
 secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- 
 bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, 
 the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This 
 security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed 
 until the reign of George L — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- 
 ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. 
 Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution 
 at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for 
 them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by 
 most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed 
 by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- 
 tury. — Du Pin. 
 
 ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- 
 nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini 
 publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- 
 louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and 
 had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1*374 ; he travelled 
 to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciares, because 
 they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men 
 of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England 
 we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small 
 draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught wiU 
 certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. " Si 
 
kVt] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 
 
 Dieu n'eristait pas H faudraU Vinventer :" If a God did not exist, it would 
 be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. 
 
 ATHEN^A. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of 
 Minerva. One of them was called Panathensea, and the other Chalcea ; 
 they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus 
 afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people 
 of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 ATHENiEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and 
 philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated 
 Athentea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons: that of Rome was of great 
 beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — 
 Tillenwnt's Life of Adrian. 
 
 ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent 
 ruins yel attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. 
 The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned 
 in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge 
 took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or 
 Noah's flood") that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two 
 hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by 
 whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first 
 state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 j^ears, 
 but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second 
 state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 816 years ; in 
 its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, 
 and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. 
 Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized 
 themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and 
 perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short 
 space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to 
 distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes 
 of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204, 
 and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- 
 vince of European Turkey; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, 
 and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 
 1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from 
 B. c. 1556 to B. c. 21. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, 
 stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 
 B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; 
 its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by 
 Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was 
 ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish , 
 and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
 
 ATTAINDER, Acts op, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses 
 ja cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, 
 unless the itarty accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 WiJliam III. 
 1694-5. — Blackstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in 
 Liucoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. 
 The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king 
 James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were 
 reversed iu subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least 
 interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wl 9 
 was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. 
 
 ATTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God,'' and thus distinguished for his con- 
 quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro 
 
238 THE world's progress. [ Ave 
 
 man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the yrovincei. 
 He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named IldicOj 
 about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters 
 patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute foi 
 the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims 
 concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring biU^ 
 against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William, di 
 Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Beatson. 
 
 ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 
 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the 
 practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
 restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- 
 land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and 
 practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 ''practis- 
 ing lawyeis" in the United States is given in the Lawyer^s Directory, 1850. 
 
 ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite 
 which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was 
 described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 
 the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; 
 a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. 
 
 AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was 
 about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of 
 the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. 
 
 AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French 
 and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, 
 and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on 
 every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- 
 soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French 
 emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his 
 memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. 
 
 AUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith 
 drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to 
 the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first 
 consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed 
 to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- 
 ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, 
 which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- 
 burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. 
 
 AUGSBURG, League op. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland 
 aud other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- 
 ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 16^86. — See Munster and Ni- 
 meguen. 
 
 AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, 
 long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals 
 and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com- 
 munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and 
 other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is 
 named, was the inventor of augury by birds. — Vossius. The augurs of 
 Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and 
 flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. 
 
 AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of 
 Augustus Cfesar, from whom it was named in the year 8 b. c, because in 
 this month he was born, was created consul, or chief magistrate, thrico 
 
4ITb I 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 239 
 
 Uiumplied in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made at 
 end of tli3 civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
 March. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by 
 the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- 
 sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded 
 exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 
 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- 
 tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, 
 same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, 
 New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Of 
 a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed 
 to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have 
 been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- 
 vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act 
 to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. 
 New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- 
 nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. 
 
 AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- 
 gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d, 
 1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, 
 Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in 
 the German language implies. 
 
 Rodolpli, count of Hapsburg, seizes 
 Austria from Bohemia, and makes 
 himself archduke - - - 1273 
 
 Revolt of Switzerland from the house 
 
 of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307 
 Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to 
 three crowns — the imperial, and 
 those of Hungary and Bohemia ; liis 
 family still possess the empire, - 1438 
 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the 
 marriage of Maximilian with the 
 heiress of that province . - 1477 
 
 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip 
 I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- 
 gon and Castile - - - 1496 
 
 Charles V., reigning over Germany, 
 Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, 
 the Netherlands, and their dependen- 
 cies, abdicates, and retires from the 
 world, leaving his German dominions 
 to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain 
 and the Netherlands to his son, Philip 
 II. — See Spain - - - 1557 
 
 The Protestant princes of Germany, 
 being oppressed by the house ov Aus- 
 tria, call in the aid of GustavusAdol- 
 phus of Sweden, and this leads to the 
 treaty of Westphalia • - - 1648 
 
 Leopold I reigns. — See Germany - 1658 
 Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, 
 who marries the celebrated queen of 
 Hungary, Maria Therssa, daughter of 
 the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745 
 Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 
 
 Religious toleration granted - - 1776 
 
 The emperor controls the pope - 1782 
 
 R«ign of Leopold IL - - - 1790 
 
 Reign of Francis II. ... 1792 
 
 Austria becomes a distinct empire, and 
 Francis II. of Germany takes the title 
 of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 
 
 The emperor issues hia declaration 
 against France - - Aug. 5, 1805 
 
 NajSoleon, after many victories, enters 
 Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805 
 
 Vienna evacuated by the French, 
 
 Jan. 12, 1806 
 
 They again capture it - May 13, 1809 
 
 But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 
 
 Napoleon marries the archduchess 
 Maria Louisa, the daughter of the 
 emperor - . April 1, 1810 
 
 Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 
 
 Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 
 
 Death of Francis I., and accession of 
 Ferdinand - - Rlarch 2, 1835 
 
 New treaty of commerce with England 
 
 July 3, 1833 
 
 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- 
 dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 
 
 Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- 
 forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ; 
 freedom of the press and national 
 guard granted by the emperor 
 
 March 13. li^ 
 
 The emperor publisheSj at Milan, abo- 
 lition of the censorship and conven- 
 tion of the states ; the people demand 
 more, and are refused March 18, '■* 
 
 Milan revolts, and contends successfully 
 with the soldiery - March 23, " 
 
 Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- 
 tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia 
 
 March 23, < 
 
 Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion 
 
 March ' 
 
 The emperor retires to Innsbruck 
 
 May 18, » 
 
 Austrian army under Radetsky holds in 
 check Charles Albert of Sardinia, m 
 Lombardy - - May — '* 
 
 Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, " 
 
240 THE world's progress. [ AZe 
 
 A.USTRIA, continued. 
 
 Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his orolher, 
 
 summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; 
 May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis .losepii 
 
 Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 19l8 
 
 blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution 
 
 Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 18tf 
 
 detsky ... June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great 
 
 Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " i slaughter, and sacks it March 30. " 
 
 The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days 
 
 Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, '• 
 
 minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus- 
 
 the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June—, ** 
 
 measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment 
 
 new ministry; the emperor flies June 11, '■ 
 
 Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " 
 
 The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- 
 
 six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " 
 
 Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. 
 
 mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- | See Germany, Vienna, &c. 
 
 sieges Vienna, 17tli; bombards the 
 
 city and masters it Nov. 2, '• I 
 
 Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- 
 cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of 
 Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic 
 Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head 
 of that body. 
 
 AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. 
 
 AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of 
 a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; 
 and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand 
 victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman 
 Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this 
 kind was at Goa, where, for the glorj'^ of the Christian religion (!) and in 
 vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 
 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. 
 
 AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat 
 was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several 
 times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was 
 restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to 
 France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of 
 that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. 
 
 AXE, WEDGE; WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- 
 ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to 
 have been invented by Dsedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
 ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. 
 
 AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- 
 lantis: they were discovered by Vandenburg, a.d. 1439; and were settled 
 by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with 
 boech-trees, and he called it therefore Payal ; another abounding in sweet 
 flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of hawks, and he 
 therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took 
 place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. 
 Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed 
 the town of Ursnlina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. 
 Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
 called Sabrina gradually disappeared Dec. 1812. 
 
BAC ] DIG nONARY OF DATES. 241 
 
 B. 
 BABEL, THE Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. Tht temple of 
 Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the 
 world ; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one 
 cf them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb nf 
 the founder, Belus (the Nirarod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified 
 after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither 
 the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there 
 honored with the company of the god. — Blair. 
 RABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, 
 for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bat- 
 ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his 
 own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the 
 queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to 
 this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would 
 accept of him as a husband. 1586. 
 BABYLON, Empire op, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy 
 writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c. — Lenglet. Ninus of 
 Assyiia seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy- 
 rian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 e.g. According to 
 Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; 
 according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has 
 adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by 
 Ninus, B. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- 
 throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- 
 lonian, and Median kingdoms. 820 b. c. — See Assyria. 
 The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 
 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 
 
 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called 
 
 Nineveh - - -2245 
 
 The astronomical observations are be- 
 gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — 
 Blair ; Lenglet ■ • -2234 
 
 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- 
 pire over the neighboring states, de- 
 feats the Babylonians, and makes 
 them tributary.— J/s/ier - -2124 
 
 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, i Taken by Darius. — Usher • - 511 
 
 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and 
 in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its 
 greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it 
 was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is 
 scarcely known to travellers. — Rollin's Ancient Hist. 
 
 BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in 
 Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called 
 Dionysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under 
 the name of Bacchanalia. 
 
 BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried 
 men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at 
 certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars. 
 and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace.— Vossius. After 
 twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 122. 10s. 
 for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 WilHam III. 1695, 
 Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants. 
 in 1785, 
 
 BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game 
 (decidedly vne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 b. c. It is 
 11 
 
 and names his capital after himself, 
 Nineveh. — Lenglet - - b. c. 2069 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus - - - 2059 
 
 The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 
 
 Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 
 
 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 
 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 
 
 He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet • ■ 587 
 He is driven from among men • - 569 
 
 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- 
 sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 
 
242 THE world's progress. [bei 
 
 stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the 
 Conquest. — Henry. 
 
 BADAJOS, Siege op. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the 
 French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- 
 lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. 
 This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it 
 obliged the Fropch, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, 
 to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. 
 
 BADEN, Hduse of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- 
 ringen, who died a. d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches 
 of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- 
 Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in 
 the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. 
 
 BADEN, Treaty op, between France and the emperor, when Landau was 
 ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate; it 
 was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation, 
 in lfii06. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- 
 ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his 
 people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right 
 of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- 
 rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection 
 subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. 
 BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The 
 nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions 
 of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
 ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West 
 Passage. 
 BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 
 762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It 
 has sinoe been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the 
 Turks. — Blair. 
 BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and 
 Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece ol 
 Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a 
 bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played 
 upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51. 
 BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. 
 San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- 
 ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized 
 for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- 
 rendered to Captain Rogers. 
 BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies 
 were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward 
 I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, M'as taken 
 away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and I\Iary 
 and in later reigns. 
 BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- 
 reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
 counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the 
 name of bailitts, in 1308 ; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There 
 are still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high 
 bailiff of Westminster. The term Bum-bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, 
 every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good b^ 
 havior. — Blackstoiie. 
 
BALJ DICTIONARY OF DATtS. 243 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and 
 control ambition ; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian poli- 
 ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France — 
 Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power 
 was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. 
 
 BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons. — 
 Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- 
 duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might 
 sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Malrnsbury. Canute com- 
 posed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; 
 but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, 
 vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. 
 
 BALLADS, NATIONAL. " Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may 
 make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesman has said, "Give 
 me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- 
 mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule 
 public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all 
 your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." 
 The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those 
 of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; 
 Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. 
 
 BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One 
 performed at the interview between Hen. VIII. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, 
 in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — G-uicciardini. In the next century, 
 they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts 
 of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore 
 a part in one, 1664. 
 
 BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave 
 the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by 
 MM. Montgolfler, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended 
 at Paris. Pila.tre Desrozier and M. Remain perished in an attempted voyage 
 from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At 
 the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the 
 enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. 
 Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by 
 a parachute, Sept. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 
 23,000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, 
 and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- 
 cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. 
 
 BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, 
 and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants 
 of London in repeated Ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that 
 place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, 
 after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the 
 duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. 
 
 BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United 
 States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the 
 Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city 
 in 1797. Population in 1790, 13.503 ; in 1810, 35,583 ; in 1830, 80,625 ; in 
 1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city 
 commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British undef 
 general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. 
 
 BALTIMORE, Battle op, between the British army under general Ross and 
 the Americans ; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuo 
 
/ 
 
 244 THE world's progress. [ Baa 
 
 cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss; 
 the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. 
 
 BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, o! 
 whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
 reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected 
 in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of 
 London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles T. 
 laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640, 
 The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, 
 which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to 
 the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths 
 in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own vahi- 
 able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — 
 
 Bank of Venice formed - - - 1157 i Bank of Hamburgh • -1619 
 
 Ba!:\k of Geneva - • ■ 1345 Bank of Rotterdam • • 1635 
 
 Bank of Barcelona - - - 1401 Bank of Stockholm • - - 168S 
 
 Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 Bank of England - • - -'694 
 
 Bank of Amsterdam - - ■ 1607 I Bank of the United States - 1791 and 19ie 
 
 BANK OP ENGLAND, (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer 
 chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- 
 sideration of 1,200,000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- 
 ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up 
 to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same 
 authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, 
 and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were 
 at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank 
 bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; 
 small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 
 1797, when notes of one and two pounds were put into circulation. Silver 
 tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the 
 head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. 
 Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction 
 had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- 
 sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- 
 voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- 
 culation is as follows : — 
 
 In 1815 .... X26,803,520 
 1820 . . . . 27,174,000 
 1830 . - . . 20,620,000 
 1835 .... 18,215,220 
 1840 - . - . 17,231,000 
 
 In 1718 (earliest account) - jEl, 829,930 
 1778 .... 7,030,680 
 1790 • . . - 10,217,000 
 1800 .... 15,450,000 
 1810 .... 23,901,000 
 
 The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in 
 the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. 
 are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, 
 " that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 
 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many ot 
 the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- 
 ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c.j 
 all formed since 1828. See Funds. 
 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. 
 —A new one with cap. of $35,000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar- 
 tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of 
 the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- 
 dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J, 
 Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sept. 28, 1833. 
 Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- 
 sibility assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Jlr 
 
BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245. 
 
 Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28. 1834. Senate refused to enter on 
 their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834. 
 Noted resolution of the Senate " expunging " from their journals their reso- 
 lution of 1884, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed 
 Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by 
 Pennsylvania, March 29, 1886 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill foi 
 establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the TJ. S." passed the House of Representa- 
 tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a 
 "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, foUowed by a resignation of all 
 the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. 
 
 BANKJIUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- 
 land and New- York, May 10 — 16, 1887 ; — legalized for one year by legisla- 
 ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same 
 month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. 
 
 BANKHTJPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VHI, 
 1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; 
 and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt 
 may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before 
 the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused 
 a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in 
 gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons 
 becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their 
 seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, 
 passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large. 
 
 NUMBBB. OP BANKRUPTS IN GKEAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 1700 
 1725 - 
 
 1750 
 1775- . 
 
 According to a return to parliament ma^e at the close of February 1826, 
 there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, 
 comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
 declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy 
 to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. 
 This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented 
 commercial embarrassment and ruin. 
 BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and 
 Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and 
 that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
 English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which 
 he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The 
 rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were 
 killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1814. — Barbour. 
 
 BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, 
 and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. 
 The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- 
 ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the 
 church of England to this day. 
 
 B.^PTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised by 
 all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner 
 of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that piiblicly 
 baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ cam.e from Gealilee to Jordan, 
 and was baptized by John. a. d. 80. Originally the people were baptized in 
 rivers ; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built 
 chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was 
 
 38 1 1800 
 
 - 1339 
 
 1830 
 
 - 1467 
 
 416 1 1810 - 
 
 - - 2000 
 
 1835 . 
 
 - - 954 
 
 432 1820 . 
 
 - 135S 
 
 1840 
 
 - 1308 
 
 520 1825 - 
 
 - - 2863 
 
 1844 - 
 
 - ■ 1064 
 
246 THE world's progress. I^ba* 
 
 by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they 
 use sprinkling; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; 
 our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. 
 
 BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by theii 
 opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much 
 earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in 
 the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 
 1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led 
 the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. 
 
 fi ARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother 
 plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, 
 with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- 
 borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental 
 visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- 
 ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroy&d, 
 by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every 
 thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two 
 great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- 
 sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. 
 The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- 
 corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. 
 
 BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In 
 England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, ov pole, at their doors ; and the 
 barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the 
 former sign. 
 
 BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that 
 of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company waa 
 formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 
 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute 
 of Henry VIII 
 
 BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, 
 and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the 
 Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
 among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the 
 English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. 
 They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost 
 down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century. Merlin in 
 the fiftJi The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish 
 sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See 
 Ballads. 
 
 BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- 
 ward IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- 
 wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. 
 
 BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principlo 
 of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's 
 abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and 
 made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. 
 Wheel barometers were contrived in 1 668 ; pendant barometers in 1695 j 
 marine in 1700. 
 
 BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in 
 England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and 
 by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- 
 tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned 
 to parliament J but such is the deficiency of public records, that the firsl 
 
IAT] . DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 
 
 precept to be fbund i^ of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. Th« 
 first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beaucharap 
 created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum 
 moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, acd com- 
 pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the 
 forests, at Runnymcde, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a 
 coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete 
 armor in the reign of Henry HI. — Beatsoji. 
 
 B ARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
 ditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created 
 in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. 
 
 BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. 
 about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- 
 land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- 
 geants, &c. 
 
 BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- 
 ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered 
 on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55" 
 below zero of Fahrenheit. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com- 
 menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 
 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were 
 murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at 
 the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. 
 The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even 
 as regarded the female and the infant. 
 
 BASTILE OF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 
 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. 
 It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- 
 came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It 
 was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
 vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France 
 between the years 1587 and 1594 ; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated 
 populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. 
 On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other 
 officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had 
 their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having 
 fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. 
 "The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, 
 died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. 
 
 BaTAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East 
 Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred 
 here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by 
 the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison 
 surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. 
 
 B .ATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. The 
 therm* of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The 
 marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules 
 in those of Caracalla. — Strabo. 
 
 BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of 
 England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was takt n of William's 
 chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roU ; and among these chiefs 
 the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis- 
 tributed, 1066. 
 
248 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 Lbai 
 
 BATTIiE, Wager op. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws 
 where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, 
 and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal oi 
 murder, Ashford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, 
 the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of 
 battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had 
 first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer 
 was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this 
 mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large. 
 
 BATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some 
 of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 b. c. These 
 ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost eflects of our 
 batterlTig c&nuon.—Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- 
 ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- 
 building the new edifice in 1675. 
 
 B A.TTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- 
 lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- 
 dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are 
 the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in general history, and 
 are those also that are most commonly referred to : 
 
 A.ctium (the empire of Rome is con- 
 famed to Augustus) ■ 
 Aibela (Fall of Persia) 
 
 Aboukir ( Turks) 
 
 Acre {Siege coinmenced) 
 
 (_Sir Sydney Smith) 
 
 (storming of) 
 
 Adrianople ( Constantine) 
 
 Albuera 
 
 AXioxA (Covenanters) - 
 
 Alexandria (Abercrombie) 
 
 ■ • (Abercrombie) 
 
 Algiers (Exmouth) • 
 
 (French) 
 
 Alderton Moor 
 
 Agincourt 
 
 Aliwal (India) 
 
 Almanza,, in Spain 
 
 Amoy (City taken) - 
 
 Almeida 
 
 Anjou, or Breagne - 
 
 Antoign - 
 
 Areola 
 
 Ascalon (Richard I.) - 
 
 Assaye ( Wellesley) - 
 
 Auerstadt 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 Austerlitz 
 
 Badajos 
 
 Balkan, passage of the - 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Bannockbum 
 
 Barnot (Edward IV.) 
 
 Barrosa - 
 
 Bautzen 
 
 Bayorme • 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 July 26, 
 Mar. is: 
 May 27, 
 Nov. 3, 
 
 May 16, 
 .July 2. 
 Mar. 21 
 May 17: 
 Aug. 27, 
 July 4: 
 
 Oct. 25, 
 Jan. 20, 
 April 4, 
 Aug. 27, 
 Aug. 5, 
 
 Aug. 13 
 
 Nov. 19, 
 Sept. 3, 
 
 Sept. 23. 
 Oct. 14: 
 
 Aug. 24, 
 
 Dec. 2, 
 
 Mar. 11 
 
 July 26 
 
 Sept. 12. 
 
 June 25, 
 
 April 14: 
 Mar. 
 May 20: 
 Mar. 19: 
 
 Bennington (Amer ^- Brit.) ■ Aug. 
 Bergen - • - Aprfl 13, 
 
 Sept. 19 and Oct. 2, 
 
 3ergen-op-Zoora (taken) 
 
 . . Mar. 6. 
 
 Berdsina - • - Sept. 7, 
 
 31 
 ■ 331 
 
 A. D. 
 
 , 1799 
 ;, 1799 
 , ibid 
 , 1840 
 323 
 , 1811 
 , 1645 
 , 1801 
 ', 1799 
 , 1816 
 :, 1830 
 1643 
 i, 1415 
 I, 1846 
 , 1707 
 , 1841 
 , 1811 
 1421 
 , 1792 
 , 1796 
 , 1191 
 , 1803 
 , 1806 
 , 1796 
 :, 1805 
 , 1811 
 , 1829 
 ;, 1814 
 ., 1314 
 , 1471 
 ', 1811 
 ■, 1813 
 ', 1794 
 1456 
 1717 
 I777 
 1759 
 1799 
 1747 
 1814 
 1812 
 
 Berwick - - - - 1378 
 
 Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 24, 1836 
 
 Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 
 Blackrock (Amer. 4- Brit.) ■ Dec. 3, 1813 
 Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 
 
 Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704 
 
 Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 
 
 Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485 
 
 Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679 
 
 Bqyne, Ireland - - July 1, 11)90 
 
 Bovines (French and Germans) - - 1214 
 Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 
 
 Brandywine - . - Sept. 11, 1777 
 
 Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452 
 
 Brenau (Azistrians and Bavarians) - 1743 
 Breslau - - - Nov. 22. 1757 
 
 Briar's Creek . - - - 1779 
 
 Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 
 
 Bridge water (Americans and British) 
 
 July 25, 1814 
 Buena Vista (Amer. and Mexicans) 
 
 Feb. 22, 1847 
 Buenos Ayres (Popham) • ' ~' " 
 
 ( Whitelock) 
 
 Bunker's Hill 
 Busaco - 
 Brownstown (Canada) 
 
 June 21, 1806 
 
 July 6, 1807 
 
 June 17, 1775 
 
 Sept. 27, 1810 
 
 Aug. 8, 1812 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Cannae ( Victory of Hanniba}) 
 Carthage (taken by Publiiis Scipio) 
 Choeronea { Tolmidas) - 
 
 (Philip) • 
 
 (Sylla) 
 
 Cnidos (Lysander killed) - 
 Cranon, in Thessaly 
 Cyzicum . . . 
 
 Calais taken 
 Calcutta (India) 
 Camden (Amer. S^ Brit.) 
 
 (Amer. S{ Brit.) • 
 
 Campo Santo 
 
 Canton (Bogueforts taken) 
 
 Castel Nuovo 
 
 Castella 
 
 216 
 146 
 447 
 338 
 . 86 
 . - 394 
 
 - »22 
 . . 406 
 
 A. 5. 
 
 -Jan. 7, 15^ 
 
 June 1756 
 
 - Aug. 16, 1780 
 
 April 25, 1781 
 
 - 1743 
 Feb. 26, 184i 
 
 Sept. 29, 1806 
 Apiil 13. 18] 3 
 
DICriONART OF DATES, 
 
 249 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Cassano (Prince Eugene') • ■ 1705 
 
 Castli'>>ar (.French) ■ ■ Aug. 28, 1798 
 
 Casti^.:rne - - July 2, 1796 
 
 Castillon, in Guienne - • - 1453 
 
 Charleroi .... 1690 
 
 Charleroi Fleurus - - June 17, 1794 
 
 Charleston (taken by the British) 
 
 May 12, 1780 
 Chepu\tepec(Am.4;Mex.)Sepi. 12-14, 1848 
 Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 
 
 . - Oct. 1814 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 
 
 — (stormed) - Jan. 19, 1812 
 
 Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039 
 
 Constantina (Algiers) ■ Oct. 13, 1837 
 Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) • 1848 
 Corunna, (Moore) - - Jan. 16, 1809 
 
 Cowpens (Avier. <5* Brit.) - • 1781 
 
 Craney island (Americans and Brit.) 
 
 June 21, 1813 
 Cressy (Ich Dien) • • Aug. 25, 13^6 
 
 Culloden (Pretender) - April 16, 1746 
 Cunnersdorf- - • Aug, 12, 1759 
 
 Detroit (surrendered) - Aug. 16, 1812 
 
 Dcttingen (George //.) - - - 1743 
 
 Dresden ■ - - Aug. 26, 1813 
 
 Dreux. in France - - - - 1562 
 
 Drogheda (taken by storm) • - 1649 
 
 Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) ■ Nov. 12, 1715 
 Dunbar - - - Sept. 3, 1650 
 
 — — (King of Scots taken) - - 1296 
 
 , Siege of, - - - 1337 
 
 Dungan Hill - - - July 10, 1647 
 
 Dunkirk - • • Sept. 7, 1793 
 
 Dunsinane - - - - 1054 
 
 Durham, Nevil'a Cross - • 1346 
 
 Eastport (Americans and British) 
 
 July 1814 
 Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642 
 
 Erie, Fort - • - Aug. 15, 1814 
 
 'ETzeroum (Turks and Priissians) -1745 
 Eutaw Springs - - - - 1781 
 
 Evesham - - Aug. 4, 1265 
 
 Eylau - - - Feb. 8, 1807 
 
 Fairfield (Amer. ^ Brit.) - - 1779 
 
 Falkirk, (PTo/toce) • - July 22, 1298 
 
 Flatbush, L. I. (Am. ^ Brit.) Aug. 27, 1776 
 Flodden - - - Sept. 9, 1513 
 
 Fontainebleau - - Feb. 17, 1814 
 
 Fontenoy - • - April 30, 1745 
 
 Fort du Quesne - - July 9, 1755 
 
 French Town, Canada • Jan. 22, 1813 
 Friedburg - - June 4, 1745 
 
 Friedland • - • June 14, 1807 
 
 B. c. 
 Granicus ..... 334 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Germantown • • - Oct. 4, 1777 
 
 Gisors (Dieu et man droit) - 1198 
 
 Guilford - - - Mar. 16, 1781 
 
 Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 
 
 Halle (Bernadotte) - • Oct. 17, 1806 
 
 Hanau ( Wrede) • 0?t. 29, 1813 
 
 Hastings (Conquest) • Oct. 14, 1066 
 
 Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, J164 
 Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, '.758 
 
 Hohenlinden - - Nov. 3, 1800 
 
 B. c. 
 Ipsus (Antigonus slain) • • - 301 
 IsBUs (nO,Qm Persians slain) - 333 
 
 11* 
 
 Jamac - • 
 
 Jemappe 
 
 Jena ... 
 
 Ket and Warwick 
 
 Killiecrankie, Scotland 
 
 Kowno . 
 
 Krasnoi - • 
 
 Leuctra - 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Mar. a, 156S 
 
 Not. &., 1792 
 
 Oct. 14, 1805 
 
 - 1549 
 July 27, 1639 
 Dec. 14, 1812 
 Nov 16, 1812 
 
 B. C. 
 
 - 370 
 
 A. P. 
 
 Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) ■ • 1747 
 Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) 1745 
 
 . — (Austrians) - April 21, 1809 
 
 Langside - . May 13, 1568 
 
 Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, 1813 
 
 Lepanto (GreeAs) - - May 9, 1829 
 
 Lewes - - - May 14, 1264 
 
 Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19, 1775 
 Ligny - - - June 16, 1 815 
 
 Lincoln - . . Feb. 2, 1141 
 
 May 19, 1217 
 
 - 1708 
 Dec. .5, 1796 
 
 May 10, 1757 
 
 Aug. 27, 1776 
 
 May 2, 1813 
 
 - - 1632 
 
 B. c. 
 Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) - 363 
 Munda, in Spain - - - • 45 
 
 A.D. 
 
 McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) 
 
 Oct. 13, 1814 
 Malplaquet (Marlborough) - ■ 1709 
 
 Manheim - . - May 30, 1793 
 
 - - July 12, 1794 
 
 — - . • Sept. 23, 1795 
 
 Mantua . . . May 29, 1796 
 
 — . - • Jan. 31, 1797 
 
 June 14, 1800 
 
 • Sept. 15, 1515 
 
 July 3, 1644 
 
 Sept. 12-14, 1843 
 
 April 27, 1799 
 
 Aug. 1, 1759 
 
 1705 
 
 Lisle (taken by the Allies) 
 
 Lissa .... 
 
 Lodi 
 
 Long Island - 
 
 Lutzen ... 
 
 Lutzingen (Gustavus slain) 
 
 Marengo • 
 
 Marignan, Italy 
 
 Marston Moor 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Milan 
 
 Minden 
 
 Mittau (Swedes and Russians) 
 
 Mockem 
 
 Mohartz, Hungary - 
 
 Molwitz - 
 
 Monmouth (Amer. S; Brit.)- June 28^ 177S 
 
 April 1, 1813 
 
 Oct. 14, 1813 
 
 - - 1687 
 
 April 10, 1741 
 
 Monterey (Mexico) • Sept. 24, 1846 
 Montmorenci • . Aug. 10, 1*59 
 
 Moodkee, India - Dec. 18, 1S45 
 
 Morea ( Castle surrenders) Oct. 28, 1828 
 Moscow (burnt) • Sept. 4, 1812 
 
 Moskwa - - - Sept. 7, 1812 
 
 Moscow (retaken) - Oct. 22, 1812 
 
 Narva (Charles XII. of Sweden) - 1700 
 Naseby - - - June 14, 1645 
 
 Newark - - - • - 1644 
 
 Newbury ..... 1643 
 
 — (second battle) ■ Oct. 20, 1644 
 
 New London (burnt by the British) - 1731 
 New Orleans - - Jan 8, 1815 
 
 Niagara, Fort • - - Nov. 1813 
 
 Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402 
 
 Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779 
 Northallerton, (or the battle of the 
 Standard) . » - US' 
 
250 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 I BJ)-" 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 A. p. 
 
 Norwalk {burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 1779 
 Novi {Suwarrow) - Aug. 16, 1799 
 
 ... Jan. 8, 1800 
 
 Ogdensburg (British and Americans) 
 
 Feb. 2-2, 1813 
 Oporto - . - May 11, 1809 
 
 Otterburn (Chevy Chase) ■ ■ ■ 1308 
 
 Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, 1708 
 
 B. 0. 
 Pharsalia - - - -48 
 Philippi (Roman Republic ends) - 42 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Palo Alto (\st ofAmer. Sr Mex.) May 8, 1846 
 Parma (Austrians and French) - 1734 
 
 (Suwarrow)- ■ July 12, 1799 
 
 Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) 1429 
 Pavia (French and Austrians) Feb. 24, 1525 
 Pensacola (taken by general Jackson) 
 
 Nov. 20, 1814 
 Peterwarden - - Aug. 5, 1717 
 
 Pfaffendorf - - - Aug. 15, 1760 
 
 Pinkey - - • Sept. 10, 1547 
 
 Plattsburg (Americans and British) 
 
 Sept. 11. 
 Poitiers • • 
 
 Prague • 
 
 Sept. 19. 
 
 Nov. 9. 
 
 May6: 
 
 Jan. 2: 
 
 July 8, 
 
 Dec. 26 
 
 July 28, 
 
 June 16, 
 
 Princeton (Amer. 4" Brit.) 
 Pultowa (Charles XII.) 
 Pultusk . 
 Pyrenees 
 Uuatre Bras 
 ftuebec (or the plains of Abraham) 
 Sept. 13- 
 
 (death qfMontgomery)Dec. 21 
 
 - - ■ April 28. 
 
 ftueenstown (Amer. Sf Brit.) Oct. 13, 
 Ramilies (Marlborough) - May 23; 
 Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9 
 Rosbach - - - Nov. 17, 
 
 Nov. 5, 
 
 1814 
 1356 
 1620 
 1757 
 1777 
 1709 
 1806 
 1813 
 1815 
 
 1759 
 
 1775 
 1760 
 1812 
 1706 
 1846 
 1382 
 1787 
 
 Sobraon (India) - Feb. IC, 1»J€ 
 
 Solway Moss • - Nov. 25, 1542 
 
 St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) ■ 1455 
 
 (second) - • • • 1461 
 
 St. Denis (Montmorenci) - • 1 567 
 
 St Dizier, France - • Jan, 27, '814 
 
 St. Sebastian - - May £, 1836 
 
 Stamford - - - Mar. 13, 1470 
 
 Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 
 
 Stratton (poet Waller) • May 16, 1643 
 
 Talavera de la Reyna • July 27, 1809 
 
 Tarragona - - • Jan. SI, '. 812 
 
 Tewkesbury - - May 4, 1471 
 
 Thames (Americans and Brit.) Sept. 1313 
 
 Thermopylce (Greeks) ■ July 13, 1822 
 
 Tirlernont (French and Allies) • 1705 
 
 Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 
 
 - ■ Aug. 30, 1813 
 
 Tournay - - - May 8, 1793 
 
 Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 
 
 Toulouse - - - April 10, 1814 
 
 Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 
 
 Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) ■ Dec. 26, 7, 1776 
 
 Turin (French and Germans) • 1706 
 
 Ulm .... June 21, 1800 
 
 (surrendered) • Oct. 29, 1805 
 
 Valenciennes - • May 23, 1793 
 
 Varna (surrenders) • Oct. 11, 1C25 
 
 Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) 
 
 March 27, 1847 
 Villa Franca 
 Vimiera ( Wellington) • 
 Vitioria, Spain 
 
 Wagram 
 
 Wakefield 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Sackett's Harbor (Americans 
 
 British) .... 1813 
 
 Salamanca - - - July 22, 1812 
 
 ian Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, 1813 
 
 Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) I 
 
 Oct. 17, 1777 
 Savannah (taken by the British) I 
 
 Dec. 29, 1778 j 
 
 Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, 1762 , 
 
 Sedgemoor - - • July 5, 1685 , 
 
 Seidlitz (Poles) ■ • Mar. 31, 1831 
 
 Sempach - - - July 9, 1386 i 
 
 Seringapatam .... 1791 
 
 — (Tippoo reduced) ■ ■ 1791 
 
 ■ — -■ ( Tippoo killed) May 4, 1799 
 
 Shrewsbury - - July 21, 1403 
 
 Skenesborough • - July 7, 1777 
 
 Smolensko - - - Aug. 27, 1812 
 
 April 10, 1812 
 Oct. 21, 1808 
 - - 1702 
 June 21, 1813 
 July 5, 180« 
 Dec. 31, 1460 
 Oct. 10, 1794 
 Nov. 8, ibid 
 Sept. 8, 1831 
 
 (taken) 
 
 Washington (bwrnt by the British) 
 
 Aug. 1814 
 Waterloo - - June 18, 1815 
 
 White Plains (Amer. 4- Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 
 
 - Nov. 30, ibid 
 
 Wilna (Poles) - - June 12, 1831 
 
 Worcester - - Sept. 13, 1642 
 
 (Charles II.)* • - -1651 
 
 Wyoming massacre . • July 1778 
 
 York (Canada) captured by Ameri- 
 cana - - - April 27, 1813 
 York Town (surrender of Cornwallis) 
 
 Oct. 19, 1781 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) 
 Zela (Ccbsar: veni, vidi, vici) 
 
 Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) 
 Zurich . . . • 
 
 202 
 
 - 47 
 A. D 
 
 - 1697 
 . 1799 
 
 BAVARIA, House of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century; thit 
 house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- 
 phian family ; Henry Guelph was made duke Jf Bavaria by Conrad H.. em- 
 peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, was 
 made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was 
 
 * This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England. 
 N. B. — Many of the above battles are deseribeJ more fully under tar.h name. 
 
BiUj DICTIONARY OF DATES 251 
 
 erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1806 ; and obtained by 
 the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and 
 German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This 
 kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- 
 ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct. 
 17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, 
 Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of 
 his son, Maximillianll., March 22, 1848. 
 
 KINGS OF BAVARIA. < 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicatcdi 
 
 1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1&18. 
 
 tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian II. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wiought by 
 Matilda, the queen of William L, and represents the facts of the Conquest, 
 from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of 
 William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered 
 by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- 
 ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to 
 the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei *ed 
 in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. 
 
 BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This 
 weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. 
 According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 
 1603, "with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter 
 with so formidable a novelty." 
 
 BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar 
 of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has 
 several times held 80,000 men in order of battle. 
 
 BE i\.DS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by 
 Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in 
 Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased 
 persons for the repose of whose souls a certain numj)er of prayers were re- 
 cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler. 
 
 BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. 
 The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with 
 the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their 
 beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the 
 time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the 
 beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn 
 by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. 
 In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until 
 the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The 
 Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few 
 years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, 
 was oi)liged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. 
 
 BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the 
 battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard 
 measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy 
 beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The 
 great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. 
 In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by 
 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women 
 under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- 
 guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 
 1472. In memory of thek noble exploits during the siege, the females of 
 
252 THE world's progress. [ BEP 
 
 Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of fhoir delivarance 
 
 — Henault. 
 
 BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
 the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a moment 
 of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me 
 one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon 
 Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral 
 of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when 
 he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any 
 other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- 
 actions." The confederates then strove to di-ag him from the church ; but 
 not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed 
 him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a 
 groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 
 1220 ; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Henry "VTH. 1539.— 
 Stowe. 
 
 BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the 
 skins of beasts. — Whittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and 
 Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- 
 wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used 
 in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. 
 
 BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in 
 his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the 
 thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty 
 paid on " ale called here" one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a 
 penny. Subjected to excise in 1660, In England the number of retailers in 
 1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. 
 
 BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyipe, and abun- 
 dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, 
 in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was 
 admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on 
 bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in 
 England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : 
 they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since 
 spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardie't 
 America. 
 
 BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff first produced 
 sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent 
 sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- 
 naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of 
 sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 
 
 BEGTJTNES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, ir 
 1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern 
 times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they 
 could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- 
 cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a 
 branch of the order in 1311. 
 
 BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- 
 mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by 
 William the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- 
 ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Ckron, 
 English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, partica-' 
 
bel] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 253 
 
 larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, -when even -women of the noblest 
 blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* 
 
 BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- 
 sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents 
 of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about 
 thirty-nine miles, 1728. 
 
 BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
 and anciently the territory of the Belgse, who were conquered by Julius 
 Caesar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; fonn€«J 
 into a kingdom in 1831. 
 
 Became an acquisition of the house of 
 
 Austria .... 1477 
 Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to 
 
 the crown of Spain - - - 1556 
 
 Seven provinces, under William, prince 
 
 of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny 
 
 of Philip II. ; freed- - - 1579 
 
 The ten remaining provinces are given 
 
 to the archduke - - - 1598 
 
 These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 
 
 Seven again ceded to Germany . 1714 
 
 And three to France - . - 1748 
 
 Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- 
 wards restored - - - - 1789 
 The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 
 United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 
 Placed under the sovereignty of the 
 
 house of Orange - - - 1814 
 
 The revolution commences at Brussels 
 
 Aug. 2.5, 1830 
 The Provisional Government declares 
 
 Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 
 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the 
 
 Dutch are driven to the citadel, from 
 
 whence they cannonade the town, 
 
 Oct. 27, 1830 
 Belgian independence acknowledged 
 
 This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian 
 question; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was 
 maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, 
 offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- 
 admissible. 
 
 BELGRADE, Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which 
 the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade 
 was taken by Solyman. 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from 
 whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 
 1717 (see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. 
 It was again taken in 1789. and restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 
 1790. 
 
 BELGRADE, Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei 
 taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the 
 Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, 
 in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered, 
 Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. 
 
 by the Allied Powers, announced by 
 Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1835 
 
 Duke de Nemours elected kmg; but 
 his father, the king of France, refuses 
 his consent . - Feb. 3, 1831 
 
 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 
 of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 
 
 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected 
 kmg - . . July 12, 1831 
 
 He enters Brussels . - July 19, 1831 
 
 The king of the Netherlands recom- 
 mences the war • Aug. 3, 1831 
 
 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist 
 Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] 
 
 A conference of the ministers of the five 
 great powers is held in London, which 
 terminates in the acceptance of the 
 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 
 
 Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter 
 ot Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 
 
 The French army returns to France 
 
 Dec. 27, 1832 
 
 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels') ; much 
 mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834 
 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
 signed in London - April 19, 1839 
 
 ' Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, 
 beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury— the latter remarkable for hel 
 resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused ta 
 do it ; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- 
 sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, aftei 
 manglmg the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying matmer. She was daughta 
 •f George, duke of Clarence, and la.st of the royal line of Plantagenet. May 27, \bi\.—Hume. 
 
254 THE world's progress. [BEM 
 
 BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Roraisb 
 
 church, used in excommunication, which see. 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles- 
 lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto, Latini, 
 and other learned men in different countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. 
 Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Foii- 
 tana. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about 
 this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- 
 beth, and flourished in that of Anne. 
 
 BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o 
 them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, tha 
 potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- 
 ces of the Romans. 
 
 BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The 
 responses of the Dodonsean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. 
 The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted 
 by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Pauhnus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna, 
 about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., 
 king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the 
 bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert 
 commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. 
 Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, by ring- 
 ing them, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England 
 by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- 
 proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at 
 Croyland abbey, 960. — Stowe. 
 
 Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 
 
 Great Tom of Lincoln - - 9,894 
 
 Great Tom of Oxford - • - 17,000 
 
 Bell of the Palazzo, Florence - 17,000 
 
 The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal 
 alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at i;66,565 sterling. In its fusion 
 great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the 
 people. 
 
 BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. — 
 Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were 
 baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, 
 &c., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- 
 tized by the name of Duke of Angoulfime, in 1816. On the Continent, in 
 the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious 
 solemnity. — Ashe. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the 
 first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in 
 the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- 
 able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread 
 over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it 
 possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- 
 dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on 
 the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. 
 William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, in 
 Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- 
 nated Benedictine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there 
 have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 
 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings 41 queens, and 8600 sainta 
 Their foimder was canonized. — Baronius 
 
 St. Peter's, at Rome - - lbs. 18,607 
 
 Great Bell at Erfurth - - 28,224 
 
 St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127,836 
 
 Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 
 
ben] dictionary of dates. 255 
 
 BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century ; till then 
 the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should 
 become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VII. 
 to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in 
 England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10,533, and the number ol 
 glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries 
 prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- 
 ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapela 
 about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there 
 are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no 
 glebe-houses. — See Church of England. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but 
 afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par- 
 ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a liatin 
 book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and 
 if the ordinary said " Legit ut clcricus" the offender was only burnt in the 
 hand, otherwise he suffered death, 8 Edward L, 1274. This privilege was 
 abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the 
 claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Stoioe. Benefit of clergy was 
 ■yvholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. 
 
 BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., in the Uniteu 
 States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, 
 during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American 
 Almanac, 1846) as follows : 
 
 For theological education and other 
 
 religious objects - - $1,054,966 
 
 For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594 
 
 For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 
 
 For miscellaneous objects (such as 
 monuments, &c.) - • • 438,321 
 
 Total - $4,751,293 
 
 [Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula- 
 tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000, Few 
 cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- 
 habitants.] 
 
 BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. 
 
 Formed. Income. 
 
 Formed. Income, 
 Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. 
 
 Missions - - - 1810 - $260,897 
 
 Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 
 " Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 
 " Tract Society - - 1814 • 308,428 
 " Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 
 
 1849. 
 
 Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 
 
 " Colonization Society 1819 17,414 
 
 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 
 
 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 
 
 Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 
 
 United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be 
 given to the distitute Irish March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from 
 New York on same errand, July 8, 1847. 
 
 Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, i847. 
 
 BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no 
 record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 
 1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the 
 Mogul empire. — See India. 
 
 The English were first permitted to 
 
 trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1534 
 
 Factories of the French and Danes • 1664 
 First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 
 
 The settlements first placed in a state 
 
 of defence .... 1694 
 Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 
 It6 garrison consisted of only 129 sol- 
 4ieFg, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 
 
 Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla : and 
 the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 1758 
 
 Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 
 
 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of 
 Bengal in the Company, by which 
 the virtual sovereignty of the country 
 was obtained • - Au^. 12, 1764 
 
 Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal m toe the 
 chief presidency - - J me 16, 1773 
 
 See India. 
 
256 THE world's progress. [bbi 
 
 BERESINA, Batti E of. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- 
 sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of 
 it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle, 
 and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. 
 
 BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and aUies, the latter defeated, April 
 14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19 
 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; 
 and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 6,000 men. 
 On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he 
 exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the 
 French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was 
 made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it 
 was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a 
 dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, 
 March 8, 1814. 
 
 BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its 
 five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- 
 quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of 
 Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in 
 a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the 
 French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous 
 Berlin decree. — See next article. 
 
 BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. 
 It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English- 
 men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as 
 prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- 
 nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the 
 Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided 
 the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.— See Jena. 
 
 BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, 
 in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers 
 was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 
 1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another, 
 by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven 
 ashore, July 20, 1813. 
 
 BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian 
 army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte 
 led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, 
 fought June 14, 1800. 
 
 BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- 
 leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a 
 large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers 
 gratis for three days. — Brooke. 
 
 BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the 
 English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- 
 doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because U 
 stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 
 1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and 
 after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- 
 land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell iu 1648, and afterwards 
 to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- 
 fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, wht 
 
BIB I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 
 
 had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once dislmguished 
 city. It now contains a chm-ch, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the 
 form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where 
 they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called 
 the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is 
 much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe. 
 
 BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an 
 earthquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
 Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into 
 the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- 
 pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- 
 tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- 
 tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
 and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. 
 
 BIARCHY". When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, 
 Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence 
 should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established 
 the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately 
 for 800 years. — Herodotus. 
 
 BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by 
 seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence 
 called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at 
 Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephus. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet, In 
 283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
 members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of 
 Josephus. — Heiolett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and 
 each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent comparison, it was 
 found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin 
 Martyr. 
 
 BIBLE, Ancient copies op the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- 
 tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ- 
 ten in the fourtJi or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age 
 is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek 
 patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same 
 time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, 
 about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 
 1100. 
 
 BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and 
 Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop 
 Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park- 
 hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts; and 
 archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. 
 
 BIBLE, Division op the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the 
 Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the 
 Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made 
 by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and 
 a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228; and this 
 division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. 
 
 BIBLE, Editions of the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- 
 rome, A. D. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be 
 authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See 
 Books.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from 
 the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct, 4, 1535. A revision of thLs 
 edition was made, 1 538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churclies, 
 
Spanish 
 
 1478 
 
 Russian 
 
 German • 
 
 1522 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 English 
 
 1534 
 
 Polish 
 
 French - 
 
 1535 
 
 Modem Greek 
 
 Swedish 
 
 1541 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Danish - 
 
 1550 
 
 Irish 
 
 Dutch 
 
 1560 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 Manks • 
 
 -1771 
 
 Italian 
 
 - -1776 
 
 Bengalee 
 
 -1801 
 
 Tartar 
 
 - - 1813 
 
 Persian 
 
 - 1813 
 
 African 
 
 . - 1816 
 
 Chinese 
 
 -1820 
 
 258 THE world's pro&ress. [ bh 
 
 1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new 
 translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now 
 generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first 
 books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1Q|^3. The Bible was first 
 printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be trans- 
 lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed 
 in 
 
 -1581 
 
 - ■ 1589 
 
 - 1596 
 
 - - 1638 
 
 - 1666 
 
 - - 1685 
 -1748 
 
 Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, api)eared \n several in- 
 stances at earlier dates, particulai'ly in European languages. The Polyglot 
 Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew. Syriac, Chaldee, 
 Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — ■ 
 Wood's Fasti. Oxon. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have 
 made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, 
 are the following : — -The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was 
 formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; 
 Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French 
 Bible Society, 1792; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801; Hibernian 
 Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American 
 Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- 
 can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A 
 bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 
 
 BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: 
 with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act 
 respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Declared to 
 be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the 
 same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794. — Statutes 
 at large. 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, 
 was obtaimd from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the 
 legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all 
 manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass 
 it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, 
 passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only loritten law 
 ..respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viner's 
 Statutes. 
 
 BILLS OP EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their 
 property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson. 
 Bills were used in England, 1307- — -The only legal mode of sending money 
 from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 
 — duty advanced, 1797 — again, June 1801; and since. It was made capital 
 to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
 speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions ol 
 pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. 
 The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many 
 statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geoi^e IV. 
 1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. 
 
 BILLS OP MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about 
 A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the 
 
B!lS J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. , 259 
 
 great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet 
 afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- 
 plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- 
 ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : — 
 
 In the year 1780, Christenings 
 
 - 16,634 
 
 In the year 1780, Burials 
 
 • 20,507 
 
 1790, Christenings 
 
 - 18,980 
 
 1790, Burials - 
 
 18,038 
 
 1800, Christenings 
 
 - 19,176 
 
 1800, Burials 
 
 - 23,068 
 
 1810, Christenings 
 
 - 19,930 
 
 1810, Burials - 
 
 19,t!9a 
 
 1820, Christenings 
 
 - 26,158 
 
 1820, Burials 
 
 19,34;3 
 
 1830, Christenings 
 
 - 27,028 
 
 1830, Burials - 
 
 33,531 
 
 1840, Christenings 
 
 - 30,387 
 
 1840, Burials 
 
 - 26,774 
 
 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, 
 and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — 
 Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an 
 artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were 
 introduced in England in 1827. 
 
 BIRDS. Divided by Linnteus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and 
 by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the 
 bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or 
 on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon 
 the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the 
 young." — Duteronomy, xxii. 6. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; 
 but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- 
 liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. 
 The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- 
 thew Boulton, in 1764. 
 
 BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti- 
 tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- 
 dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30^. — of a common 
 person, 25.-7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of 
 four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery 
 recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five 
 children at a birth, September 3, 1783. — PkilUps. The wife of a man named 
 Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at 
 a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. 
 
 BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
 spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but 
 now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in 
 a certa'.n district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. 
 Petei, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of 
 Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by 
 all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should 
 belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. 
 
 BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York, 
 London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d' Elire of the king 
 to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the 
 clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Congi d' Elire, 26 Henry VIII, 
 1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- 
 tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded 
 from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. 
 Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality 
 of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 
 1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for nol 
 reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring 
 the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit 
 
260 THE world's progress. [ BLA 
 
 ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbui-j (Dr. Sancroft) and 
 five bishops were suspended for refusing: to take the oaths to William and 
 Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — Warrier's Ecclcs. Hist. The sees ol 
 Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An 
 order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asa] ih to 
 be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be 
 created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded 
 in 1846. — See Manchester. 
 
 BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this 
 country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first 
 planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of 
 St. Patrick. 
 
 BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Ths 
 see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, 
 according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of 
 Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrse, about a, d. 370. The bishops were deprived 
 of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- 
 lution, 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishopa 
 belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- 
 burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. 
 
 BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be Kcxt to 
 viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of 
 Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
 York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of 
 London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the 
 others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in 
 Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- 
 cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. 
 The others rank according to consecration. 
 
 BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- 
 bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at 
 Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- 
 sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, 
 Feb. 4, 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop 
 of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. 
 
 BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every 
 fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. 
 It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before 
 the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, 
 and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added 
 day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen^ 
 dar and Leap Year. 
 
 BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 
 « 332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed 
 it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, 
 except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, t-oofe 
 Prusa, its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possess^ad 
 Constantinople. 
 
 BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the 
 scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the 
 in*'.pection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and 
 hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the 
 black book." 
 
 BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law oi 
 
81,0 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 
 
 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the 
 tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William 
 ill., 1696-7.— Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, 
 on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
 was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- 
 testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the 
 same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, 
 and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among 
 other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as 
 late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous 
 writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen'a 
 Bench. 
 BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and oecame heredi- 
 tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the 
 knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish 
 them in the crusades. — Dugdale. 
 
 BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. KnoAvn 
 in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system 
 was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
 1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly 
 in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the 
 vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was 
 introduced in 1795. — Blanchtment des Toiles. 
 
 BLENHEIM, Battle of ; between the English and confederates, commanded 
 by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal 
 Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated ■ 
 with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 18,000 prisoners, Tallard being among 
 the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. 
 The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor ot 
 Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest 
 seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. 
 Fought Aug. 2, llOi.— Hume. 
 
 BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- 
 ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- 
 dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of 
 sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a 
 whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. 
 See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from 
 their heads. See article Eastern Empire. 
 
 BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. — Freind. Blisters 
 are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretteus, % 
 physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD, CiRCOLATioN OF THE, through the lungs, first made public by Michael 
 Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of 
 the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved 
 afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Fatler 
 Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves 
 which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of 
 the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by 
 whom it was fully confirmed, 1628. — Freind' s Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- 
 tem by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, 
 drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 
 
262 THE world's progress. [ BaE4 
 
 strength, 1438. — Renault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. , 
 and to tlie Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at 
 the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. 
 
 BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that 
 the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans* 
 fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the 
 infirm and aged. It was coimtenanced in France by the physicians, and 
 prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera- 
 tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving 
 mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- 
 tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in England 
 (but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jouth " One English physi- 
 cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way; he died in 1691." — 
 FreincVs Hist, of Physic. * 
 
 BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's 
 household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, 
 and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued 
 by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the 
 regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these 
 and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of £500 
 per anmim settled on him by Charles II. 1673. 
 
 BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally 
 conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most 
 active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished 
 naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- 
 ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Ancc. of 
 Bo7vyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have 
 worn blue stockings at the co7iversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- 
 liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. 
 
 BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, 
 established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- 
 merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and 
 plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- 
 spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade 
 was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 
 
 BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot 
 be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- 
 land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again 
 brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat waa 
 first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, tha 
 inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. ' 
 
 BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or 
 novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, 
 as is said by Petrarch, " possessing many charms." A copy of the first 
 edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- 
 burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for £12m, June 17, 1812. This 
 identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, 
 June 5, 1819. 
 
 BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally 
 celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes 
 of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, 
 Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- 
 dar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished 
 and beautiful Corinna. 
 
BOl] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 263 
 
 BCEOTIA continued. 
 
 Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- 
 
 Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216 
 
 Thersander reigns in Thebes - • 1215 
 
 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages 
 of obscurity follow • - - 112S 
 
 Battle of Chaeronea, in which the The- 
 bans defeat the Athenians 
 
 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- 
 nians at Leuctra, restores his country 
 to independence, and puts it in a con- 
 dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 
 
 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- 
 bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea - 
 
 447 
 
 371 
 338 
 
 mea - - - b. c. 1493 
 
 Reign of Polydore - - - 1459 
 
 Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 
 
 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, 
 and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 
 
 CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, 
 kills him 111 an ati'ray, conlirming the 
 oracle as to his death by the hands of 
 his son ----- 1276 
 
 CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- 
 solves her enigmas - - 1266 
 
 War of the Seven Captains • - 1225 
 
 Hei'e the greatness of this country ends. Alexander destroyed Thebes, the 
 capital, 335 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all 
 the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo. 
 
 BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose 
 soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated 
 water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830 
 The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 8,000,000 acres ; that of Scot^ 
 land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of aci^s, 
 
 BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation 
 of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. 
 
 BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes: the title of king 
 was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their 
 territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off" the yoke : the crown 
 was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
 ditary. — See Germany. 
 
 The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are 
 ruled by dukes - - a.d. 550 
 
 City of Prague founded - - - 795 
 
 Introduction of Christianity - - 894 
 
 Bohemia conquered by the emperor 
 Henry III., who spreads devastation 
 through the country - - - 1011 
 
 The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, 
 the first king .... 1061 
 
 The regal title is farther coniirmed to 
 Ottoacre I. 1199 
 
 Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his 
 arms into Prussia - - - 1258 
 
 Ottoa ;re, refusing to do homage to the 
 emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- 
 quished, and deprived of Austria, 
 Styria, and Carniola - . - 1282 
 
 In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of 
 silver are first discovered, and agri- « 
 culture is encouraged and improved 
 (et sen.) - ' . - - 1284 
 
 Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his 
 vices, is assassinated - - . 1305 
 
 John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen 
 
 to succeed .... 1310 
 Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 
 King John slain at the battle of Crecj 
 fought with the English - - 346 
 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two 
 of the first Reformers, are burnt for 
 heresy, which occasions an insurrec- 
 tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed 
 them, is deposed, and the Imperialists 
 are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the 
 daughter of the late emperor and 
 king, and receives the crowns of Bo- 
 hemia and Hungary - - . 14?7 
 
 The succession infringed by Ladislas, 
 son of the king of Poland, and George 
 Podiebrad, a protestanl chief 1440 to 1458 
 
 Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected 
 kins of Bohemia, on the death of Po- 
 diebrad 1471 
 
 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries 
 Amis, sister of Louis the late king, 
 and obtains the crown - . 1527 
 
 The elector palatine Frederick is driven 
 from Boliemia . . - . 1618 
 
 The crown is secured to the Austrian 
 family by the treaty of - - 1649 
 
 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia • 1742 
 
 Prague taken by the Prussians ■ - 1744 
 
 The memorable siege of Prague - 1757 
 
 Revolt of the peasantry • - - 1775 
 
 The French occupy Prague • - 1806 
 See Germany. 
 
 BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry 
 VUI., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been 
 poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of 
 poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished by boil- 
 ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in th« 
 same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 
 
2C4 THE world's progress. [ BOG 
 
 BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens ol 
 architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- 
 dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made 
 his tHumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting 
 (as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 
 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for it? 
 pavement; Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth 
 century. Taken by the French, : 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by tha 
 French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ; 
 Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848. 
 
 BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- 
 erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by Wil- 
 liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the 
 three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were 
 lost. Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. 
 
 BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a 
 centurj'^ after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously 
 used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in 
 ' France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, 
 and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- 
 inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 
 
 BONDAGE, OR VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in 
 ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this 
 species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See 
 Villain. 
 
 BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have 
 been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- 
 perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at 
 Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science 
 — Freind's Hist of Physic. 
 
 BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and 
 bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- 
 ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that 
 country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attalus, king 
 of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. 
 The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled an'd charred, and matted 
 together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
 inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of 
 Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world; and in 
 profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still 
 more ancient are preserved. * 
 
 BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy 
 of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, 
 by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30^.,- 
 and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and 
 they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at 
 prices varying from 10^. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value 
 of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by 
 Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more 
 superb copy is at present insured in a London ofl3ce for 3,000Z. — Times. II 
 Decamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- 
 burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260Z.. June 17, 1812.— Phillips. 
 A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever 
 printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in LondoB 
 
BOO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 
 
 in April 1846 for 50*^;. This copy, thj only one known to exist except 19 
 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. 
 
 BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psaiters, and 
 being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The 
 first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schacfter, hia 
 son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; 
 but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed 
 works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity 
 on Faust ; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 
 1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustus. The second printed was Cia^/o dt 
 Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was Tke Game and 
 Play of the Ckesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, 
 in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Cor?i. Nepotis Vttes, 
 in 176^. Ijucian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America 
 (at Philadelphia), 1789. *Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- 
 stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — 
 Stowe's Chronicles. 
 
 The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigrew, (Biblio. Sussex.) 
 the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by 
 John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; 
 and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- 
 work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions 
 for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, 
 as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies 
 are now known to exist— all but one being in public libraries in Europe. 
 [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved 
 wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pawpernvi, 
 done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of 
 New York. 
 
 BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is 
 supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards 
 was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the 
 book on which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation 
 oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet 
 was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum 
 was introduced eaj-ly in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- 
 mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth 
 binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, 
 or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- 
 keeping, was taken from the course of algebra whicli was published by 
 Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial stale, in the fifteenth century. 
 It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- 
 kecjring in 1569. — Anderson. 
 
 BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new 
 works published in successive years is thus stated : 
 
 Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 
 
 \&m • 842 - — - 5,6&4 
 
 1830 - 1,142 - — - 5,926 
 
 1834 . 1,220 - — - 6,074 
 
 yhe number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under 
 the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 
 55,474, or 1681 each year. 
 
 England. — The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, 
 from 166G to 1680, was 3,550 ; equal to 253 yearly ;— but deducting the 
 12 
 
 Gt. Brit. France. Germany 
 1836 - 1.332 - — . 7,891 
 
 1849 - — . _ , _ 
 
 1850 - — - 7,208 - — 
 
266 THE world's progress. [ BOO 
 
 reprints, i)amphlets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new 
 books may be compute-d at much' less than 100. 
 The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts," 
 issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of ModerD 
 Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 
 6,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. 
 The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued 
 during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 
 each year. 
 The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- 
 cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was, 
 accordhig to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, 
 we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. 
 Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publical ions pro- 
 duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and 
 periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500; and the average 
 impression of each volume at 750 copies ;— annual total, 1,125 000 volumes: 
 — value at 9s. a volume, £506,250. " The number of reprinted volumes, 
 particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the 
 reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- 
 papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new 
 copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about 
 je750,000." 
 
 France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased 
 since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive 
 work {Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the 
 number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French 
 press in 1816 at 66,852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe 
 that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any 
 thing inferior. 
 The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly 
 review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other 
 languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. 
 
 Germany. — The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- 
 fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by the 
 booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the'neighboring countries, 
 as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; 
 the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but 
 the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 
 5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. 
 
 " An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) 
 " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed 
 in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names oi 
 more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now 
 living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books The 
 total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated 
 from 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." 
 
 Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were 
 published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. 
 
 Sweden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- 
 holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several otler 
 places. 
 BOOK-TRADE of the UNITED STATES. The number of new works wh-cb 
 appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formmg 
 
BOK J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 
 
 1,300 volumes and tlie cost of which may be estimated at SI 220,v)00. In 
 1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books 
 published in that year cannot be computed at less than S 1,500,000. Boston, 
 New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. 
 Another statement for the years 1883, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : —originals 
 1,030. reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; — number of volumes printed (1,000 foi 
 each edition), 1,884,000. 
 
 In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and mora 
 frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted 
 English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishera 
 of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a 
 book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four 
 editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of 
 
 The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled 
 during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments 
 amounted in 1836, to '$ 1,350,000. 
 
 The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- 
 ported literary productions in 1834 : 
 
 C 
 Education 
 Divinity • 
 Novels and Tales 
 History and Biography 
 Jurisprudence 
 
 Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful 
 predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from 
 foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the 
 United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may 
 be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- 
 pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300,000 copies have been sold in ten 
 years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent 
 income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, 
 the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly 
 doubled. 
 
 [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in tae Booksellers' Advertiser, edited by 
 G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of pubh 
 cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register 
 mihe Literary Wo7id.] 
 
 American Publications — January to June, 1849. 
 
 'ginal 
 
 Reprint. 
 
 
 .Jiigmai. 
 
 Reprint 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 Poetry - • - 
 
 . i 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 Travels 
 
 ■ 8 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 95 
 
 Fine Arts - 
 
 ■ 8 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 Miscellaneous works 
 
 59 
 
 - 43 
 
 -20 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Original. 
 
 Reprint. 
 
 Original. Reprint, 
 
 Education 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 Travels - - - 21 - 7 
 
 Divinity - 
 
 - 25 
 
 25 
 
 Metaphysics - - . 3 - 8 
 
 Novels and Tales 
 
 18 
 
 ■ 28 
 
 Miscellaneous - - 25 • 10 
 
 History 
 
 . 20 
 
 12 
 
 Law ) 
 
 Biography 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Juvenile > not ascertained. 
 
 Political Economy 
 
 • 3 
 
 
 
 Periodical ) 
 
 Medicine 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Science 
 
 . 11 
 
 9 
 
 For six months - 200 - 128 
 
 Poetry 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Total, 328. 
 
 The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- 
 sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. 
 
 BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were 
 made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their 
 invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 
 907 B. c. 
 
 BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary in tha 
 records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians; 
 commanded on the one side by Fapoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff 
 
268 THE world's progress [boi 
 
 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the 
 loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, 
 for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The 
 road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little 
 opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved 
 the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the 
 French military power over Europe. See Moscow. 
 
 BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term 
 has been applied <to such towns as send members to parliament, since the 
 election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first 
 admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the 
 Irish, 1365. 
 
 BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son 
 inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to 
 have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride, 
 and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- 
 sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is 
 mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished 
 by Malcolm III. in l()m.— Haydn. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved 
 in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
 from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Arcliean- 
 actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by 
 order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- 
 oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- 
 vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the 
 Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- 
 miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. 
 
 BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- 
 menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. 
 The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- 
 liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- 
 ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more 
 actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was 
 born here, Jan. 17, 1706.^ John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was a* Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. 
 Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18.038; in 1810, 33.250; in 1820, 43,298; 
 in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. 
 
 BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of 
 Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. 
 The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the 
 battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had 
 the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- 
 tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- 
 dom were entirely extinguished," and no less than 100,000 human beings lost 
 their lives. 
 
 BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. 
 The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors 
 on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of 
 the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study 
 ■was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and others, between 
 1535 and IQOO. —Melckior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, 
 the fiist botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sys- 
 
BOU] 
 
 DICTIONAUY OF DATES. 269 
 
 tem, in 1758. At the time of Linnseus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of 
 plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of 
 species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. 
 
 BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. 
 The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived 
 at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- 
 tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of 
 herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, 
 about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and 
 Transportation. 
 
 BOTTI.es, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The 
 art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans 
 at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found 
 in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was 
 blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-S. 
 
 BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France 
 upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, 
 and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here 
 with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. 
 
 BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited 
 much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration v;as made in 
 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses, 
 and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17. 000 sailors to invade England. The 
 coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of 
 defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into 
 volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely 
 for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- 
 sion. 
 
 BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the 
 Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, 
 Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of 
 Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, 
 suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New 
 Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. 
 army, March 21, 1839. This bormdary settled by the Treaty of Washing- 
 ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern 
 boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, 
 June 1846. 
 
 BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- 
 ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
 The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in 
 England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been 
 granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. 
 
 BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, 
 armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put 
 their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, 
 one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of 
 Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voj-age of nearly 
 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti 
 neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three 
 were executed. See Pitcairn^s Island. 
 
 BOURBON, House of. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of 
 Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage 
 with the heiress of the estate Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justlj 
 
270 THE world's progress. [ BOT 
 
 styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. Tha 
 crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- 
 teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compacl 
 took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were 
 restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch 
 was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, 
 a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that 
 year. — See France. 
 
 BOURBON, Isle or, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French 
 first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered 
 to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are 
 styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 
 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the 
 Island. See Maioritius. 
 
 BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. oi 
 England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black 
 Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the 
 battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, 
 Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1862. The fine equestrian 
 statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the 
 victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. 
 
 BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, 
 who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, 
 Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and 
 some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity 
 does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- 
 ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the 
 World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her 
 pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. 
 She died in 1680. 
 
 BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth 
 century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. 
 played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at 
 Tunbridge. — Memoires de Grammont. 
 
 BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to 
 Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was 
 again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- 
 aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- 
 bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and 
 the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and 
 were discharged by a trigger. 
 
 BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatus of the Romans, and a favorite 
 sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an 
 advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- 
 ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and 
 a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — B rough ton's amphitheatre, 
 behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened" in England to teach 
 boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," 
 selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., 
 the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing 
 have declined. 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi 
 Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his 
 genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures 
 in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- 
 
BRA ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 271 
 
 Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and 
 September to November — endowed 1691. 
 
 BOYNE, Battle op, between king William III. and his father-in-law, James 11., 
 fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 
 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. Jansea 
 immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to 
 France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. 
 
 BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- 
 bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip 11. of 
 Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 
 seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, 
 and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the 
 great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 
 — again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom 
 of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. 
 
 BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read 
 of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillcz were usually 
 distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. 
 Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are 
 female ornaments to the present day. 
 
 BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to roj^alty to a remarkable and 
 bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, Avhen the nation, throwing oflP 
 the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of 
 Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbs 
 Vertot. 
 
 BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- 
 thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- 
 sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
 India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive 
 their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to 
 their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. 
 They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- 
 ments. — SLrabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- 
 positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. 
 
 BR ANDEN BURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say 
 it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which 
 signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnaraed the Fowler, fortified 
 Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- 
 stowed the gov<!rnment on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of 
 Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. 
 The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- 
 berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. 
 
 BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- 
 cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell 
 to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. 
 
 BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the 
 seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the 
 early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted 
 with its use. — Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the 
 ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- 
 gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, 
 formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- 
 ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists 
 had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 
 
272 THE world's progress. [ BRB 
 
 and silver with copper; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that 
 Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles 
 made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and iusig 
 nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 BRAZIL. It Avas discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who waa 
 driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the 
 Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Bra2il on account of its red 
 wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The 
 goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- 
 ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French haying seized on Portugal in 1807, 
 the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution 
 took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don 
 Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the 
 throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his inftint 
 son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil 
 war ensued.— See Portugal. 
 
 BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the 
 first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
 of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 
 Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. 
 Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 e. c. During the siege of 
 Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which 
 had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made 
 from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — 
 Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of 
 barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; 
 and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been 
 eaten as bread in some parts of the M'orld : near Moscow is a portion of 
 land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- 
 isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat 
 a white imctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. 
 
 BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work 
 was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the 
 great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, 
 and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the 
 bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of 
 granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a 
 million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of 
 the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. 
 
 BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 987 b. c. The 
 breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in 
 the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. 
 
 BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the 
 Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided 
 here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was 
 taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The 
 French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of 
 France ceased here. 
 
 BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It waa 
 worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, 
 it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Ho* 
 norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from 
 Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other coon- 
 tries and at length it became general. 
 
Bill J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 
 
 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of 
 Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven 
 out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen 
 was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- 
 dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. 
 
 BRESLAU, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under 
 prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody oc' 
 both sides, Nov 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the 
 same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- 
 rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. 
 
 BREST. It was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English. 
 A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and ft 
 British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. 
 The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 
 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
 magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot 
 of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
 during the late war. 
 
 BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting 
 formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- 
 try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of 
 England, 1066. 
 
 BRETIGNY, Peace op, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- 
 land retained Gascony and Guieune, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, 
 Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- 
 sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to 
 receive 3,000,000 crowns and to release king John, who had been long 
 prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. 
 
 BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church 
 of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and 
 both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among 
 the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils 
 of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The 
 quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the 
 type called brevier at the present day. 
 
 BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo 
 Saxon ancestors. — Tlndal. " One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, 
 of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Stawe. There 
 are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 .';a 
 Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which 
 there are in England about 1400; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c., 
 who brew their ovsti ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, 
 many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and 
 the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. 
 
 BRIBERY. In England an indictable oflfence to bribe persons in the adminis- 
 tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the 
 land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- 
 liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery 
 in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000Z. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. 
 Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord 
 Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- 
 citing a bribe, January 1784. 
 
 BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable 
 oflPence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 
 12* 
 
2T4 THE world's progress. [BRj 
 
 an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; 
 and several similar instances have occurred since. 
 
 B RICKS, for building, were used in .the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, 
 Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made 
 under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chron. The 
 size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of 
 bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the 
 number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. 
 See Building. 
 
 BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 
 Ihe ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her 
 spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the 
 Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on 
 her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her 
 parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. 
 
 BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king John, near 
 Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was 
 given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this 
 name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality 
 near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- 
 lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. 
 
 BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so 
 various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient 
 bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abj'dos 
 is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. 
 Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was 
 built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its 
 frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could 
 scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were 
 invented to account for it. At ShafFhausen an extraordinary bridge was 
 built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the 
 middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a 
 man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons 
 heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by 
 the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 
 29, 1848. 
 
 BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and 
 were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built 
 at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest 
 erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in 
 China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are 
 Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 
 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, 
 in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the 
 Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was 
 begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in 
 that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- 
 mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is 
 an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the 
 navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. 
 
 BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain 
 date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on 
 public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are 
 without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are 
 
BKI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 
 
 distinguished ftom bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten on 
 parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St 
 Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces 
 and dispensations, as well as business. 
 BRIENNE, Battle op, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and 
 the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The 
 allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which 
 the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 BRI!?I'OL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, 
 a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a 
 distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- 
 ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 
 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. 
 Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into 
 the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. 
 He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- 
 sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate 
 until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some 
 of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, 
 and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four 
 were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during 
 his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. 
 BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- 
 scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the 
 Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- 
 tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, 
 the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to 
 only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Csesar, 
 65 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- 
 erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty 
 pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- 
 pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. 
 First invasion of Britain by the Romans, 
 
 under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 
 
 Cymbeline, king of Britain - '? 4 
 
 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 
 London founded by the Romans - 49 
 
 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 
 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 
 
 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 
 
 A vast army of Britons is defeated by 
 
 Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 
 Reigr. of Lucius, the first Christian king 
 
 ol Britain, and in the world - - 179 
 
 Severus keeps his court at York, then 
 
 called Eboracum - - - 207 
 
 He dies at York - - - - 211 
 
 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne 
 
 ofBritam - - - -286 
 
 He is killed by Alectus, who continues 
 
 the usurpation - - - - 293 
 
 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- 
 feat of Alectus .... 296 
 
 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at 
 York - . . . A. D. 306 
 
 The Roman forces are finally with- 
 drawn from Britain . 420 to 426 
 
 The Saxons and Angles are called in to 
 
 . aid the natives against their northerp 
 neighbors the Picts and Scots . 449 
 
 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- 
 ons attack the natives themselves, 
 driving them into Wales - . 455 
 
 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, 
 since called Brittany - - - 457 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided 
 into seven kingdoms - . ■ 45, 
 
 Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 
 
 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and 
 establishment of Christianity . . 596 
 
 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, 
 began his reign ... 678 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy enils - . 828 
 
 See England, and also Tabular Views, p. 
 75, &c. 
 
 That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- 
 lar cliflTs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- 
 stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, 
 a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. 
 Phillips's Annals. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the 
 
276 ■ THE world's progress. [bri 
 
 grant by parliament of 20,000Z. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- 
 ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature 
 and art, which had cost him 50,000Z. The library contained 50,000 volumes 
 and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertii were enumerated in the cat- 
 alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same 
 year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- 
 tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased 
 to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of 
 curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its 
 rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, 
 &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- 
 ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. 
 
 BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first afiixed to patents and other grants of the 
 crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron. 
 
 BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- 
 riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- 
 nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. 
 — Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, 
 in 1757. 
 
 BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which 
 are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of 
 Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The 
 cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- 
 land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. 
 
 BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were knovm early in Eng- 
 land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was 
 enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 
 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 
 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George 11. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- 
 brokers. 
 
 BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various 
 other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian 
 statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 
 
 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight 
 of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added 
 one fifteenth of lead and silver. 
 
 BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, 
 under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- 
 side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- 
 ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest 
 penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 
 
 11. ll&l.— Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope 
 Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, 
 which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471.— /to^. Chron. 
 
 BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert 
 Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- 
 tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all othei 
 communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a 
 benefice in the church of England. — Collins'' s Eccles. Hist. 
 
 BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The 
 illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- 
 ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the 
 desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia 
 FeliXj and after various detentiona, reached Gondar, the capital of Abys- 
 
BtJC. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 
 
 sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained the great object of his 
 wishes — a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England iu 
 1773, and died in 1794. 
 BRUNSWICK, HouisE of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of 
 Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, hf his wife Cunegonde (the heiress ol 
 Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- 
 father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. 
 of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Br^uns- 
 wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of 
 any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
 Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- 
 sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. 
 The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family 
 of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
 house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he 
 retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg 
 were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several 
 branches. The present duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the 
 eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this 
 last sprang the royal family of England. A revohition took place at Bruns- 
 wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to 
 retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. 
 
 BiRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The 
 memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches 
 and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. 
 Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 
 25.— See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and 
 tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur- 
 ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 
 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly 
 furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- 
 play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. 
 
 BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising 
 money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- 
 trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such 
 projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and 
 Law''s Bubble. 
 
 BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and 
 Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon 
 after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. 
 The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, 
 Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The 
 expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont. 
 in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. 
 
 BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, 
 who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the 
 end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when 
 her followers dispersed. 
 
 BUCHAREST, Treaty op. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place 
 between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be 
 the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent 
 war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 
 
 BOCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was 
 pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site- and aftei 
 
278 THE world's progress. |_BUii 
 
 expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- 
 pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. 
 
 BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri' 
 sius, of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- 
 nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and sih er, 308 
 B c. See article Armor. 
 
 BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles 11. j 
 but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb 
 wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were 
 however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. 
 
 BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman. II. al 
 the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, 
 and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
 sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- 
 gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- 
 ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See 
 Hungary. 
 
 BUENA VISTA, Battle op, between the American force, of about 5,000 men, un- 
 der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under 
 Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. 
 American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- 
 cahs the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It 
 was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was 
 retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12, the same year. The British 
 suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced; 
 July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 ; 
 the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- 
 nos Ayres and Monte Video, Englai»d and France blockaded the port of Bue- 
 nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, 
 defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. 
 
 BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The 
 shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- 
 ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described 
 as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they 
 were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- 
 verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; 
 Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. 
 
 BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, 
 and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone 
 was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every 
 nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be 
 referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d. 670. The first 
 bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick 
 was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it 
 in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl ol 
 Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase 
 of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by 
 Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. 
 
 BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687 ; and are subdued by the 
 emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 
 16,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving on« 
 eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymei 
 
BVO] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF. DATES. 279 
 
 home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued bj 
 Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. 
 
 BULL, OR EDICT of the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient 
 use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, 
 deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and 
 wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the 
 name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden 
 bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal ; 
 and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet ci 
 Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denoimcing queen Elizabeth and her abet- 
 tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 
 1588. 
 
 BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of 
 Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights 
 of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- 
 ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a 
 sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter 
 fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and 
 huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the 
 Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
 bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish 
 bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence 
 of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- 
 tom, May 21, 1802. — Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- 
 elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- 
 ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was 
 a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- 
 tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. 
 
 BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514 ; and iron ones are first 
 mentioned in the Fmdera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close 
 of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for 
 musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, 
 instead of iron. — Ashe. 
 
 BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, 
 and the Americans mder Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 
 1054 killed and woinided ; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for 
 want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, haa 
 always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and 
 is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which 
 the corner-stone was laid by general La Faj^ette, in 1825. It was finished 
 July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary 
 contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- 
 cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 50,000 
 people present, June 17? 1843. 
 
 BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most 
 extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most 
 of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. 
 See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads 
 throughout the volume : — 
 
 Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy, 
 
 Aug. 15, 1769 
 He first distinguishes himself in the 
 
 command of the artillery at Toulon - 1793 
 He embarks for Egypt • May 10, 1798 
 Is repulsed before Acre • May 27, 1799 
 He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 
 
 Deposes the French directory, and be- 
 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 
 
 Sends overtures of peace to the king of 
 England - - - Jan. 1 180C 
 
 His life attempted by an " infernal ma- 
 chine" ■ . Dec. 2\. 18« 
 
280 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS, 
 
 [bub 
 
 BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, continued. 
 
 Is defeated at Waterloo 
 
 Elected president of the Italian, late 
 
 Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 
 
 Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 
 Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802 
 Accepts 'he title of emperor from the 
 
 senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 
 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 
 Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 
 Divorced from the empress Josephine 
 
 Dec. 16, 1809 
 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 
 A son, the fruit of this marriage, bom, 
 
 and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 
 His overtures of peace to England re- 
 jected - ■ - April 14, 1812 
 [The reverses of Bonaparte now follow 
 
 in quick succession.] 
 He renounces the thrones of France 
 and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of 
 Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 
 Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 
 Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 
 
 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba 
 
 and lands at Cannes • March 1, 1815 
 Enters Lyons - • March 10, 1815 
 
 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 
 Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 
 The alUes sign a treaty for his exter- 
 mination - - - March 25. 1815 
 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 
 
 June 18, ISia 
 Returns to Paris ■ June 20, 1815 
 
 And abdicates in favor of his infant 
 
 son - - - June 22, 1815 
 
 Intending to embark for America, he 
 
 arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 
 
 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the 
 
 Bellerophon ■ ■ July 15, 1815 
 
 Transferred at Torbay to the NoTthum- 
 
 berland,and sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1616 
 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- 
 creed by the allied sovereigns he shall 
 remain for life) - Oct. 15, IBU 
 
 The family of Bonaparte excluded for 
 ever from France by the law of am- 
 nesty - - - Jan. '2, 1816 
 Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 
 His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 
 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832 
 The French chambers decree, with the 
 consent of England, that the ashes of 
 Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- 
 na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 
 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 
 The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives 
 at Cherbourg with the ~«mains of 
 Napoleon, in the care of ^he prince 
 de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1840 
 They are interred with great solemnity 
 in the Hotel des Invalides -. Dec. 15, 1840 
 
 Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815 
 
 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with 
 its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ; 
 in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident 
 in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 
 1418. — Vhier's Statutes. See Borough. 
 
 BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- 
 ished with death. 
 
 BURGOS, Siege op. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, 
 which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British 
 and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but 
 the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- 
 tions were blo^Ti up by the French in June 1813. 
 
 BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger 
 many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- 
 nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed 
 the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- 
 gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip n. 
 of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the 
 Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to 
 France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. 
 
 BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth. 
 The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- 
 ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See 
 Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — 
 Eusebui-s. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in 
 cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were 
 erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- 
 land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and woollen 
 shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries. 
 BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, aud of births and marriages, were in 
 
bur] dictionary of dates. 281 
 
 stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stmue. A tas 
 wag exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, jBSO, and for 
 that of a common person 4s., under William HI., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783, — 
 Statutes. See Bills of Mortality. 
 
 BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It 
 was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- 
 trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by 
 pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
 marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose 
 of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The 
 crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. 
 The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- 
 cuted with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian 
 boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as 
 being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar 
 murders), December 5, same year. 
 
 BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- 
 pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, 
 and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest 
 in the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burn- 
 ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- 
 ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio anima, to bum 
 the soul. — See Suttees. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see precedirig article) burn- 
 ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished 
 heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This 
 punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered 
 in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- 
 count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, 
 parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the 
 reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop 
 of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others 
 suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* 
 
 BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- 
 ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- 
 mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was 
 very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the 
 dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead 
 is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. 
 
 . BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown 
 to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful 
 by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen, 1680; of Buffon, 
 1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- 
 ments of the fu-sion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning 
 mirror : 
 
 • It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violencet 
 »ftd barbavilies were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake ; besides those who 
 were punislied by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were 
 i bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 
 56 women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar- 
 diner and Bonner. The latter especially was a "man of brutal character, who seemed to denve f 
 •avage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 
 
282 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ BYZ 
 
 BUENING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued. 
 
 Substances/used. Weight. Time. Substances fused. 
 
 Pure gold - • 20 grains 4 seconds. A topaz - 
 
 Silver - • - 20 grains 3 seconds. An emerald 
 
 Copper - - • 33 grains 20 seconds. 
 
 Platina - • - 10 grains 3 seconds. 
 
 Cast iron - • 10 grains 3 seconds. 
 
 Steel • • - 10 grains 12 seconds. 
 
 Green wood takes fire instantaneously 
 
 Weight. Timt. 
 3 grains 45 seconds. 
 • 2 grains 25 seconds 
 7 grains 6 seconds. 
 
 - 10 gx-ains 30 seconds. 
 10 grains 75 seconds. 
 
 - 10 grains 24 seconds, 
 
 water boils immediately ; bones are 
 
 A crystal pebble 
 Flint - 
 Cornelian 
 Pumice stone - 
 
 calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. 
 
 BLUYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, where Creon ordered 
 Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman 
 vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress 
 or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia 
 was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia 
 was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives 
 instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- 
 mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- 
 dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls 
 built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this 
 species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greeu. 
 
 BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is 
 the same with the hermce of the Greeks." Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
 inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts 
 from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about 
 
 A. D. 1466. — Vasari. 
 
 BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro- 
 vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The 
 butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, 
 although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — 
 Annals of London. 
 
 BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the 
 early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- 
 tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- 
 tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow 
 dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable 
 butter is made f\-om the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, 
 than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park. 
 
 BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were 
 prohibited bj'^ a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- 
 tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement 
 from any quarter of late year.s, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- 
 proved. — Phillips. 
 
 BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round 
 the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- 
 covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- 
 gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune 
 at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul-weather Jack." — 
 Bellchanibers. 
 
 BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 716 
 
 B. c.—Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins 
 by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and aftei 
 him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople 
 
CAD J riCTIONARY OF DATES. 283 
 
 CABAL. A Hetrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalista, 
 and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- 
 tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, 
 supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation 
 of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord 
 Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- 
 dale, 22 Charles IL \&1().—Hume. 
 
 '>ABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so eaily as the reign 
 of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; Offa, king of the Mercians, 768, 
 and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret 
 deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the 
 great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now 
 styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. 
 Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- 
 structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :* 
 
 Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 
 
 President of the board of contjol. 
 
 President of the boari of trade. 
 
 Lord president. 
 
 Lord chancellor. 
 
 Lord privy seal. 
 
 First lord of the treasuiy. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Master of the mint. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty. 
 
 In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods 
 and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of 
 Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of 
 the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of Englana. 
 
 CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making 
 the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented 
 in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making 
 cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British 
 navy in 1812. 
 
 CADDEE, OR League or God's House. The celebrated league of independence 
 in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tjTanny, a. d. 1400 
 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Griae or Graj 
 league, 1424. , 
 
 CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- 
 try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 
 20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a 
 redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time 
 bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer. Lord Saye, and 
 several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing 
 ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- 
 serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- 
 sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
 Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. 
 
 CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 580 b. c. — Priestley. 
 One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, 
 
 • The term cabinet ccuncil is of comparatively modem date, and originated thus: the affair* 
 of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the 
 earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottinsrton; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- 
 nament; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer; the two secretaries, Vaae and 
 NVindebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, 
 meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee cl 
 state, reproachfully called the junto, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet counciL—LoRB Cla 
 
 BHII30M. 
 
284 THE world's progress. [CAl. 
 
 against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587 
 Cadiz was taken by tlie English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, 
 September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he 
 failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, 
 under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by 
 the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. 
 Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca 
 in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. 
 Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829, 
 CjESARS, era of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 
 38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It waa 
 much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held 
 in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona, 
 Pedro IV.; of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John 
 of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal tiU 
 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- 
 dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the 
 year ; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. 
 CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- 
 mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, 
 broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of 
 the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by 
 the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming 
 flood, A. D. 1642. 
 CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for 
 the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in 
 what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 
 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- 
 saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their 
 empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 
 1754, when 40,000 persons perished. Set on Are by a lady of the beglerbeg, 
 Dec, 1755. Taken by the French iinder Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. 
 Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 
 1801. 
 CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held 
 by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, 
 and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it 
 occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- 
 barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long 
 exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. 
 CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It 
 was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta 
 was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, 
 in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed 
 into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence 
 twenty- three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- 
 taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme 
 court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See 
 Bengal and India. 
 CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived 
 from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, 
 who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation oi 
 Caledonia; but the etj'mology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- 
 able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded 
 by a tribe from Ireland, and caUed Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appeal 
 
OAVJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 
 
 to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, wbo passed 
 over ft'om the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
 centurj of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- 
 rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven 
 the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to 
 the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, 
 customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders 
 and the inhabitants of the southern borders 
 
 Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 
 founded by Fergus 1., about - b. c. 330 
 
 The Picts irom the north of England 
 settle in the southern borders - - 140 
 
 Agricola carries the Roman arms into 
 Caledonia, with little success, in the 
 reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- 
 bredll. - - - A. D. 79 
 
 He is signally defeated by the forces of 
 Corbred 80 
 
 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia 
 in the reign of Donald I. - - 201 
 
 The country is invaded by the Scuyths, 
 or Scots, and the government is over- 
 thrown, about - - A. D. 30£ 
 
 The Caledonian monarchy is revived by 
 Fergus II. 404 
 
 After many sanguinary wars between 
 the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- 
 neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, 
 unites the whcLe country under one 
 monarchy, and gives it the name of 
 Scotland - - - 838 to 843 
 
 See Scotland. 
 
 The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- 
 tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm HI., surnamed 
 Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- 
 able fictions. 
 
 CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By meana 
 of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western 
 ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- 
 tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum 
 exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
 and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, 
 and opened in 1822. 
 
 CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by 
 almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into 
 ten months, comprising 3§4 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was 
 of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than 
 the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with 
 any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by 
 adding two months ; and Julius Cajsar, desirous to make it more correct, 
 fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost 
 perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- 
 ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. 
 The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar 
 year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 
 365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had 
 amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead 
 of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, 
 that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- 
 larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bi»- 
 sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 
 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 
 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 
 ysars, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
 period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible tc 
 correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are 
 avoided. See New Style. 
 
 CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, 
 which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought 
 to England by the East India Con.pany, in 1631. CaUco printing, and the 
 
286 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Ca* 
 
 Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro- 
 hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700 ; and again, in 1721. They were first 
 made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror 
 of Mexico, 1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate 
 Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by 
 Philip n. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego 
 and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- 
 bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used 
 natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 
 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New "'alifornia 1769. 
 Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 
 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- 
 plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with 
 that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 
 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by 
 Com. Montgomery. July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper 
 California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- 
 ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c,, 1846. Cali- 
 fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold 
 placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, Februai'y, 1848. 
 Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Ck^d- 
 vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- 
 stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, 
 Dec. 1849. 
 
 CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle ; the title assumed by the Sophi of 
 Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- 
 sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the fathei* of 
 the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a.d. 631. In process of 
 time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the 
 title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. 
 Herbert. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHl. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- 
 tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 
 B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and 
 beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, 
 creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
 month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he 
 presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, 
 enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- 
 rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, 
 the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. 
 — Holinshed. 
 
 CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, 
 and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. 
 The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, 
 with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to 
 whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. 
 
 CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by 
 CroUius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously 
 known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced 
 by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was knovm somd 
 centuries before. 
 
CAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 
 
 CALVARY, Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33. 
 Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated 
 to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time 
 of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount 
 Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. 
 Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all 
 Christian countries. 
 
 CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- 
 former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal 
 errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- 
 ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angouldme, where he composed his Insti- 
 tutio Christianee Rehgionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He 
 subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he 
 differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider 
 themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A 
 formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561 
 where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs 
 burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. 
 
 CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric 
 takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- 
 prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war 
 of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, 
 when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to 
 surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to 
 fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. 
 Colville. June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was 
 occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. 
 
 CAMBRAY, League op. This was the celebrated league against the republic 
 of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and 
 Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in 
 the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. 
 
 CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrics 
 were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- 
 beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and 
 was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 
 1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now 
 allowed. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fre- 
 quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. 
 Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of 
 king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by 
 Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during 
 the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains 
 thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most 
 ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the 
 chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. 
 
 CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674.— Wood's Ath. Ox. 
 Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- 
 scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger 
 Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural 
 magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent 
 invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- 
 nent ; the last was produced in 1839. 
 
 CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians^ 
 and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -Burn<jt, 
 
288 
 
 THE world's progress. [ CAB 
 
 CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently 
 most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are 
 told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- 
 trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments 
 are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The 
 last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. 
 
 CAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520.; it was taken by the Eng- 
 lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- 
 booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up 
 the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 
 1662. 
 
 C AMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south 
 of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral 
 Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter 
 losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. 
 
 4.MP0 FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the 
 latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, 
 and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- 
 able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the 
 Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the 
 Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. 
 
 CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d. 
 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608, but it had been previously 
 visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- 
 stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was 
 confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two 
 provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates 
 on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke 
 and Mr. Fox arose. 
 
 CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- 
 treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. 
 Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were 
 repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, 
 governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, 
 April 12, 1888. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- 
 ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at 
 Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes 
 took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several 
 hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- 
 bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor ot 
 Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of .£1.000 for Papi- 
 neau, Dec. 5, 1837. MLeod (charged with the destruction of the CaraZme, 
 American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 80, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 
 ( 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United 
 States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- 
 calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, 
 took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- 
 ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying 
 losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. 
 Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against 
 such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, 
 the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. 
 
 CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes 
 over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The 
 canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean 
 
CAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 
 
 was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- 
 menced in 1675. That between tlie Caspian Sea and tlie Baltic, commenced 
 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That oetween 
 the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between 
 the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was 
 by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. 
 That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 
 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- 
 land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the 
 length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there 
 are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the 
 Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams. 
 
 CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal 
 in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. 
 The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- 
 peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the ForUi- 
 nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparch;is, 
 about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, 
 A. D. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which 
 flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts 
 of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. 
 
 CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. 
 It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken 
 by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the 
 Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 
 men perished, 1669. 
 
 CANDLE. The Roman candles Avere composed of strings surrounded by wax, 
 or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the 
 lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were 
 little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The 
 wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said 
 to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of 
 modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are 
 made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which 
 is fragrant, and yields a bright light. 
 
 CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse- 
 crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the 
 year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of 
 the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- 
 sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, 
 this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice 
 of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order 
 of coimcil 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 
 
 CANNvE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to 
 the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50 000 Africans. Gauls, and 
 Spaniards; and Paulus ./Emilius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of 
 whom 40 000 were slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three busbel.s 
 of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. 
 Neither party perceived an awful earthquake Avhich occurred during the 
 battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 
 216 B. c. — Bossuet. 
 
 CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform 
 US that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 
 13 
 
290 THE WORLDS x-ROGRESS. [ CAS 
 
 Amori(;an tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the 
 present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage 
 nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and tho 
 Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I 
 The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in 
 America See Anthro'pophagi. 
 
 CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According 
 to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but 
 Lliis Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at 
 the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by 
 the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rijmer's Fasdera. Louis XIV. 
 upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed 
 upon his cannon, "The last argument of kings." See Artillery. 
 
 CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast 
 in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in 
 Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen 
 feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet 
 four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge 
 of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, 
 in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- 
 pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 
 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, 
 and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, 
 
 " Charge me well, and sponge me cleaii, 
 I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." 
 
 Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A. leathern cannon was 
 fired three times m the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. 
 
 CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. 
 Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon 
 existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. 
 Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon 
 law autho'-, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — 
 Stowe. 
 
 CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the 
 Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800.— Talle^it's Tables. Saints have so 
 accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henault. 
 
 CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, 
 king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during 
 the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous 
 for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and 
 Edward the Black Prince. 
 
 CANTERBURY, Archbishopric op. This see was settled by St. Austin, who 
 preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of 
 Kint. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great 
 fa fors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's 
 dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, 
 although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas &. Becket, mur- 
 dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- 
 litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of 
 all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had 
 formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch 
 This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and 
 to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St 
 Austin was tho first bishop, 596, The see was made superior to York, 1073 
 
cap] dictionary of dates. 291 
 
 — See Yoi-k. The revenue is valued in the king's books at i;2816. 1"; j. ^d. — 
 
 Beatsnn. 
 
 CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried sind pulver- 
 ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into 
 medica. practice by Aretaeus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — 
 Frei'iid'. History of Phtjsic. 
 
 CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed 
 up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- 
 pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- 
 land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating 
 to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 
 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 
 more than 1000 persons in October 1833. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes 
 by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, 
 called Haevia caoutchouc and Sifhonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe 
 trees. It Avas first brought to Europe from South America, about 1738. — 
 See India Rubber. 
 
 CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the }^ead, 
 and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But at one 
 period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their 
 slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark 
 of infamj'^, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in 
 France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear 
 a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449; 
 the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. 
 into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A 
 statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20<^. (40 cts.) nor cap 
 above 2s. U. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VH. 1489. 
 
 CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the 
 French in 1632. but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and 
 re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison 
 and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven 
 ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng 
 land at the peace of 1763. 
 
 CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610 :' but it soon fell to 
 the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British 
 settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the 
 Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English 
 by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. 
 
 ('APE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East 
 Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally 
 called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," 
 and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of 
 Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having 
 reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage 
 to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by th« 
 Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general 
 Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802; again taken by 
 sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8. 1806-; and finally ceded to 
 England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March 
 1820. The CafTres have made several irruptions on the British settleraentj 
 here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct, 1.834 
 Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848, 
 
292 THE world's progress. [ CAP 
 
 CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients undei 
 the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered 
 by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. li^ltQ 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty shi}:« of war, 
 and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by adminil Tourville, 
 wilh a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
 English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
 destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of 
 the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being' 
 in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the 
 Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off" this Cape, and signally defeated the 
 enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several 
 others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English 
 peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 
 3000Z. a year. 
 
 CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count 
 of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- 
 vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, 
 A. D. 987. — Henault. 
 
 CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temjjle was built 
 to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- 
 quinius Prisons, 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to 
 this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of 
 gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds 
 were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- 
 stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. d. 70. The Capitoline games in- 
 stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- 
 cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of 
 Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes II. 
 became king of Cappadocia. 
 
 Pharnaces is declared king - B. c. 744 
 His successors are unknown for nearly 
 three centuries. 
 
 Reign of Ariarathes I. 
 
 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- 
 rathes is crucified - 
 
 Defeat of the Parthians - 
 
 Irruption of the Trocmi 
 
 Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- 
 cends the throne 
 
 Orophemes dethrones Philopator 
 
 Attains assists Philopator, and Oro 
 phernes dethroned - 
 
 Philopator joins the Romans against 
 Aristonicus, and perishes in battle 
 
 His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp 
 
 ing the throne, poisons five of her own 
 
 children, the sixth and only remaining 
 
 child is saved, and the queen put to 
 
 death - - - - -153 
 
 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes 
 
 VII. 153 
 
 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. . 97 
 Ariarathes Vlll. assassinated - - 96 
 
 Cappadocia declared a free country by 
 
 the senate of Rome - - - 95 
 
 The people elect a new king Ariobar- 
 
 zanes I. - - - . . 94 
 
 His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns • 65 
 
 He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 
 
 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, 
 
 dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to 
 
 the Roman empire - a. d. 17 
 
 CAPRI. The Capreas of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- 
 rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, 
 during the seven last years of his life : it was embellished by him witli a 
 sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sii 
 Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 
 
 CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, 
 from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or 
 hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- 
 chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Altho igh tho 
 
CAB,] DICTIONARY OF BATES. 293 
 
 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for thei? 
 extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. 
 CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. _c. Tha 
 covered cars {currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal 
 cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the 
 Elder, according to others. 
 CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province 
 declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by 
 a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks 
 and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or 
 their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. 
 CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for 
 freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror 
 in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- 
 ment in Sept. 1820. 
 CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, atd constitute the 
 conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or 
 incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the 
 eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the 
 popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they 
 ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes 
 of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; 
 and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say in 1623.— Z)m. Cange. 
 CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed 
 that they were invented in France about the year 1890, to amuse Charles VI. 
 during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought 
 him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an 
 amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of 
 wisdom. — Malkvn. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Daines 
 Barrin^ton. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed 
 in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. 
 In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
 stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs 
 paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th 
 Jan. 1840. — Pari. Reports. 
 CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he 
 first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by 
 bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — 
 De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; 
 and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, iising the 
 initials H. B., arc political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. 
 CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a 
 strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., waa 
 made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken 
 by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. 
 CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the aflfairs of Europe: The popular spirit of 
 emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic 
 government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come 
 to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- 
 nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchic! 
 and free institutions, August 1, 1819. 
 CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of the 
 four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141, 
 Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 
 
294 THE world's progress. [ CAR 
 
 Interrupted succession from Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Camcilhas a monas* 
 tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 
 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides : it is often 
 referred to in Jewish histories. 
 
 " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, 
 And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pope. 
 
 CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, 
 amounting tc about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- 
 lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See 
 N. (^ S. Carolina. 
 
 CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days oi 
 Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on 
 which persons sat who dwelt in tents: but Avhen first used in houses, 
 even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- 
 cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's 
 splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in 
 winter strevyn with clean straw or hay, about a. d. 1160. The manufacture 
 of Avoollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of 
 Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France 
 in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 
 175U. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially 
 the former, ai'e most prized. The famous Axrainster, Wilton, and Kidder- 
 minster maimfacture is the growth of the last hundred j'^ears. The manu- 
 facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within 
 fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. 
 
 CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed toEricthonius of Athens, who 
 produced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France 
 in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, 
 and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the 
 art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used 
 by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth centur3^ Hen- 
 ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- 
 rious : they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were 
 then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; 
 and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first 
 let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name. 
 See Coaches. , 
 
 CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Ren^ des Cartes, the French 
 philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker: 
 his metaphj'sical principle "I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke; 
 and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov- 
 ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great 
 singularities and originalities ; but a spirit of independent thought prevails 
 throughout it, and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des 
 Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — 
 Dvfresnoy. 
 
 CARTHAGE, founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 
 869 E. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took 
 refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of 
 the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total dem»- 
 lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground. 146 b. c 
 when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants 
 perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The 
 Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of 
 this once powerful republic. — Eusebius, 
 
cab] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 295 
 
 CARTHAGE, continuea. 
 
 Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Eyrsa. 
 
 —Blair - - - B. c. 869 
 
 First alliance of the Carthaginians with 
 
 the Romans - - - • 509 
 
 The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated 
 by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. 
 Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480 
 
 They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407 
 The siege of Syracuse - - • 396 
 
 The Carthaginians land in Italy - 379 
 
 Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340 
 
 They are defeated by Agathocles, and 
 immolate their children on the altar of 
 Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 
 The first Punic war begins - - 264 
 
 The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- 
 mans in a naval engagement - - 260 
 Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 255 
 Rc-'ulus is crucified - - - - 256 
 Asdrubal defeated by Metellus - - 251 
 Romans defeated before LilybCEum - 250 
 End ol the firsx Punic war - • - 241 
 War between the Carthaginians and 
 
 African mercenaries - - - 241 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he 
 takes wilh him his son, the famous 
 
 Hannibal, at the age of nine years, 
 having first made him swear an eter- 
 nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 237 
 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- 
 tones - - - - -227 
 Asdrubal is assassinated . . - 22C 
 Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as 
 
 the Iberus - - - - 219 
 
 The second Punic war begins - -219 
 
 First great victory of Hannibal - - 217 
 
 Hannibal rvosses the Alps, anJ enters 
 
 Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 
 
 Great battle of Canns (which see) • 216 
 New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio • 210 
 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated 
 
 and slain in Italy - - - 207 
 
 Tlae Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 200 
 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege 
 
 to Utica 204 
 
 Hannibal recalled from Italy - - 203 
 
 Great battle of Zama (ijhich see) • 202 
 
 An ignominious peace ends the second 
 
 Punic war - - . . 201 
 
 The third Punic war begins • - 149 
 
 Destruction of Carthage, which is burned 
 to the ground .... 146 
 
 CARTHAGENA, or New Carth.4.ge, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Ca: tha- 
 ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable 
 march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, 
 was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of 
 £1,200,000 in 1697; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but 
 he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired 
 from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of 
 Dauphin^. Their .rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and 
 were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not 
 leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was 
 two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The 
 general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, 
 from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origlnes Car Urns. 
 
 CA,RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- 
 tican, under Julius II. and Leo X., about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them 
 that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of 
 England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- 
 sent — 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter 
 .and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- 
 nias; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to 
 Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. 
 
 CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- 
 odus xxxi. The art of carving is tirst mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. 
 and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and 
 afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers 
 and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- 
 cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called bj' the Greeks deriditares, are mention- 
 ed by Homer. 
 
 CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls 
 is described as being " the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." 
 The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that 
 Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well 
 imitated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersfield. 
 
296 THE world's progress. (" CAT 
 
 Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, aboul 
 the ye&r 1650. — Bernier. 
 CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, 
 Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful 
 visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- 
 ples and Sicily, in 1783, this to\vn was almost obliterated. It is recorded 
 that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, 
 looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 
 persons perished ; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. 
 
 C ASTIGLIONE, Battle op. One of the most brilliant victories of the French 
 arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, 
 commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively, 
 from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in 
 this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 
 000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. 
 
 CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here 
 about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 
 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the 
 whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. 
 See Arra.gon and Spain. 
 
 CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and 
 built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo 
 Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi 
 steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the 
 nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these 
 were demolished by Henry 11., who deprived the barons of such possessions, 
 on his accession, in 1154. 
 
 CATACOMBS ; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted 
 the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places 
 of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, 
 explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years 
 ago: among others, si chef-d'auvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- 
 maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental 
 alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- 
 tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The 
 Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- 
 combs, especiallj those of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. 
 
 CATANIA, OR CATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony 
 from Chalcis, 758 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women 
 were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful 
 overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity 
 to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava 
 four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in 
 a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 
 1609. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- 
 lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried 
 in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number 
 of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. 
 
 CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- 
 gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread ol 
 the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with 
 needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. 
 
 CATAPULT.^. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense 
 weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They 
 
CAUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. • 297 
 
 were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.— 
 
 Pardon. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- 
 gory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon sui-named the Catho- 
 lic; A. D. 739 The title of Callioiic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. 
 See Spain. 
 
 CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, 
 having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance, 
 and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin ci 
 his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, 
 as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set 
 Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, 
 whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices 
 arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. 
 Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreiiis 
 attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspii- 
 ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c. 
 His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence 
 he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is 
 said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths 
 more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. 
 
 CATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." 
 Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which 
 alone " sustains the name and dignity of man :" unable to survive the inde- 
 pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of 
 suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- 
 ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of 
 no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might 
 have moderated Cassar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public 
 affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu. 
 
 CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and 
 desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of 
 the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, 
 and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb. 
 23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates. Brunt, Davison, 
 Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their 
 CO iviction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, 
 on May 1, following. — -Haydn. 
 
 CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of 
 Mount TaiTrus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently 
 by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It 
 was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with 
 fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to 
 gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- 
 out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by 
 Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors, 
 1548 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasia; Portce, and 
 it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their 
 way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Strabo.. Hero- 
 dotus. 
 
 CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of 
 burning the colors into wood or ivoiy. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was 
 the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress 
 Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gar- 
 lands of flowers J and from this circumstance the picture, which waa 
 13* 
 
298 THE world's progress. [ CEM 
 
 bought afterwards by LucuUus for two talents, received the name of Step}ui- 
 noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinii Hist. Nat. 
 
 CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those 
 who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought 
 Charleri I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- 
 heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. 
 
 CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans Avere the most celebrated fo> 
 their cavalry, and for its disciphne and efficiency. Attached to each of the 
 Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turm» ; the com- 
 mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In the 
 earlv ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field : 
 they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c. : and iO,OOC 
 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in :654. It 
 was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch 
 These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by 
 the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 
 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne 
 pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 
 
 CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 
 368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. 
 The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. 
 The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, 
 and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in 
 diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is 
 eighteen feet. See Globes. 
 
 CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by 
 pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the 
 same period. 
 
 CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about 
 A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate 
 places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at 
 the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 
 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 
 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, 
 held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- 
 ing were unfriendly to matrimony : — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion. 
 Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the following 
 among the moderns: — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, 
 Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, 
 Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Rej'nolds, Haydn, 
 Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, 
 Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. 
 CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all 
 their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre 
 cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom 
 of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans 
 were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in 
 gardsns — Jo/m xix. 41 ; and in fields, and arcong rocks and mountains— 
 Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish 
 clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being 
 interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- 
 some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many line plants that 
 grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is onlj 
 
CEY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 
 
 within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in thes« 
 countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the 
 danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called 
 for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Pire la Cham at 
 Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London 
 suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid 
 out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- 
 teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, 
 Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially 
 that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia 
 (183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in 
 their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. 
 
 CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and 
 correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over 
 private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors 
 were appointed 448 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. 
 
 CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and 
 personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : 
 established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of the Roman Slate. 
 In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial 
 periods, of which the last v/ere the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new 
 census, 1841. 
 
 CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, 
 viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken 
 this year, 1850. — See Population. 
 
 CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- 
 man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was 
 distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the 
 Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 560 b. c. 
 
 CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally 
 observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our 
 Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded 
 by church historians. — Pardon. 
 
 CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by 
 M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the 
 naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying 
 power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by 
 Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. 
 
 CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in 
 the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the 
 Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The 
 Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by 
 the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements 
 
 * Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and 
 his confessor. He died in 1709; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by 
 fliis beautiful cemetery. It, was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the 
 graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it ia 
 then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs ; which in Asia Minor, and 
 Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or 
 cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamented 
 Btone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- 
 tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles. 
 which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put aboij 
 Iheir graves. — Mailet; Chandler; Butler. 
 
300 THE world's progress. I^cha 
 
 were seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jafifnaj)atam, in 
 Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens 
 in 1802. Tlie British troops Avere treacherously massacred, or imprisoned 
 by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- 
 reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 
 
 CH^^RONEA, Battlks of. The Athenians are defeated by the Bosotians, 
 and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chaeronea, in which 
 Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- 
 erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle 
 of Chseronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by 
 Sylla. and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. 
 
 CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to 
 be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top ol 
 one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst 
 chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the 
 chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast ol 
 Wales, July 1818.— See Menai Bridge. 
 
 CHAIN-CABL.es, pumps, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the 
 Veneti, a people intimately connected with the BelgcE of Britain in the time 
 of Caesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the 
 royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an 
 enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- 
 pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 
 
 CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a 
 light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Caesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- 
 lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, 
 about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chario' 
 
 CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 
 2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 
 331 B. c, being a period of 1903 j'ears. These registers were sent by Callis- 
 thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed 
 from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. 
 
 CHAMP DE MARS an open square space in front of the Military School at 
 Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to 
 the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here 
 was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " f(Sderation," or solemnity of 
 swearing fidelity to the " patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- 
 ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings; public balls were given by 
 the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- 
 nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held 
 here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the 
 country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced 
 abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under 
 the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. 
 
 CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- 
 tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion 
 still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one 
 that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary 
 in "the Dymocke family. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks 
 after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the 
 office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards 
 bishop of I.iondonj was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who 
 
CHA J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 301 
 
 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwardt low 
 
 Somers. 
 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 
 1705 Lord Cowper, Z7. K. 
 
 was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own 
 judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office waa 
 more that of a high state functionarj^ than the president of a court of justice. 
 Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very 
 ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588. 
 In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it 
 was not until 1818 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice-Chaiuelkr 
 was permanently held. 
 
 LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, 
 
 {From Ike time of Cardinal Wolsey.) 
 1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 
 1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). 
 
 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. ! 1710 In commission, 
 
 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 1713 Lord Harcourt. 
 1545 Lord Wrioihesley. , | 1714 Lord Cowper again. 
 1547 Lord St. John. | 1718 In commission. 
 
 1547 Lord Rich. | 1718 Viscoimt Parker, afterwards earl ol 
 
 1551 Bishop of Ely again. i Macclesfield. 
 
 1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Lord Keeper. \ 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. qflerwarda lord 
 
 1653 Bishop of Winchester. Kins. 
 
 1555 Archbishop of York. ' 1733 Lord Talbot. 
 
 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. ' 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 
 
 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. i 1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord 
 
 1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. I Henley, and earl of Northington. 
 
 1592 Sir John Packering. ' 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 
 
 1596 Sir Thomas Egerton. 1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next 
 
 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord day. 
 
 Verulara. 1770 In commission. 
 
 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- 
 
 1639 Sir John Finch. i ed as earl Bathurst. 
 
 1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord ' 1778 Lord Thurlow. 
 
 Littleton. i 1783 Lord Loughborough and others 
 
 1645 Sir Richard Lane. j (in commission) ■ - April 9 
 
 1648 In commission. 1'83 Lord Thurlow again • - Dec. 23 
 
 1653 Sir Edward Herbert. . 1792 In commission. 
 
 "1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards eavl of 1793 Lord Loughborough again. 
 
 Clarendon. 1801 Lord Eldon. - - April 14 
 
 1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K. 1806 Lord Erskine. - - Feb. 7 
 
 1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. , 1807 Lord Eldon again. - March 25 
 
 1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of i 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. - - April 2C 
 
 Nottingham. 1830 Lord Brougham. • Nov. 22 
 
 1682 Lord Guilford. L. K. 1834 Lord Lyndhurst again - Nov. 14 
 
 1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 1835 In commission. 
 
 1690 In commission. 1836 Lord Cottenham. - - Jan. 16 
 
 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - Aug. 31 
 
 son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. • 1846 Lord Cottenham again - July 6 
 
 CHANCELLOR of IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by 
 Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The 
 office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- 
 ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Tuiville, archdeacon of Dublin, 
 being so named, 1232. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm IL who reigned 
 A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes 
 assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the 
 nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for 
 keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie,baith day and 
 nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, 
 afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the 
 office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. 
 
 CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a 
 better footing by William I., in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in 
 the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other 
 courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or 
 against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 
 
302 THE world's progress. I CUA 
 
 women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches 
 of trust and confidence, for which there is no ledress at common law, are 
 relievable here. — Blackstone. 
 
 BPFE3TS OP SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWINO DECENNIAL PERIODS. 
 
 1770 - Amount lotted - £5,300,000 I 1810 - Amount lodged - X56,212,000 
 
 1780 - ditto - - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34,20.9,785 
 
 1790 . - ditto . 13,338,000 1830 • - ditto - 38,886,1.35 
 
 1800 - ditto - - 19,834,000 | 1840 - ditto • • 39,772.746 
 
 TJiere are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number 
 of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari 
 Heturns. 
 
 CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the 
 souls of the donors. — Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement ot 
 the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant- 
 ers. — See Chanting. 
 
 CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of 
 inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation ol 
 the world, and from which the imiverse was formed by the hand and power 
 of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom 
 the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely 
 drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
 choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. o. 
 See Geology. 
 
 CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses 
 to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot 
 racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian 
 officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in 
 the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Csesar relates that Cassi- 
 belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 
 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our 
 phsetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, df'C. 
 
 CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevoknce. In England there are tena 
 of thousands of charit-able foundations ; and the charity commission reported 
 to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to 
 :el 500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted 
 in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic 
 seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. 
 
 CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French 
 refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
 settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- 
 scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 
 1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until May follow- 
 ing. Population in 1790, 16.359 ; in 1810, 24.711 ; in 1820, 24.780 ; in 1830, 
 30,289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 
 slaves. 
 
 CHARTERS op RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of 
 England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry L 
 A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known as Magna ChaHa. 
 or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215! 
 The rights and privileges granted by this charter Avere renewed and ratified 
 by Henry III. in 1224, el seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
 had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of 
 frequent grant from the reign of Wilham I. See Magna Charta. 
 
 CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 
 1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles H. 
 
CHE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 303 
 
 1684 ; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an 
 aik to preserve it from the tj'rannical Andros. General suppression oi 
 charter governments in America, 1688. 
 
 CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient 
 chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating 
 to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry 
 III., about 1243. 
 
 CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so 
 called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the. 
 law of the land, 1S38. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. 
 Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. 
 Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate 
 defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- 
 ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near 
 London, exciting great alarm (chietly because of the recent revolution in 
 Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni- 
 versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual 
 parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. 
 
 CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- 
 tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
 Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect- 
 ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken 
 as a plane, was drawn, 1556. 
 
 CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another 
 whirlpool called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- 
 ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation 
 of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- 
 ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the 
 ancients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vuU vitai e Chary bdim, became a 
 proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. 
 
 CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from, the pa- 
 gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in 
 churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory 
 the Great, who estabhshed schools of chanters, and corrected the church 
 song. — Dufresiioy. 
 
 CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- 
 sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted 
 against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning 
 at any time more than lOZ., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, 
 and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- 
 stone's Comm. 
 
 CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the 
 process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts 
 with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. 
 Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu- 
 ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- 
 don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyfere of Switz- 
 erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, 
 a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons. 
 
 CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish 
 Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, 
 and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex 
 tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine 
 
304 THE world's progress. [ cm 
 
 and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an 
 early acquaintance with chemistry; but the fathers of true chemical philo- 
 sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c. 
 The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, 
 who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the 
 production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with 
 Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France; then followed Thomson, Davy, 
 and other distinguished men. 
 
 CHEERIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 
 ■B.C. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia; the finest plums from 
 Damascus and Armonia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons 
 from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree 
 was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were 
 brought from Flandei-s, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an 
 orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year iilOOO, a. d. 1540. See 
 Gardening. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bs.y of that name, between 
 the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the 
 naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 
 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a^British fleet 
 in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British 
 frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1813. 
 
 CHESS, Game op. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c; and ac- 
 cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and 
 Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that 
 the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-playei 
 was exhibited in England in 1769. 
 
 CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in 
 a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a 
 minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial 
 had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be 
 a.woman, July 1, 1777. He subseqiiently wore female attire for many years; 
 yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of 
 his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — 
 Bifl. Die. 
 
 CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos- 
 ing their infants— the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on 
 highways — when they could not support or educate them ; in such cases 
 they were taken care of, and humanely protected bj the state. The custom 
 which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to 
 the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017.— 
 Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury 
 with her, in the same grave, such of her children as ^» ere unable, from their 
 tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- 
 perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants 
 to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to 
 prevent them from immediately drowning. 
 
 CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. d. 
 1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span- 
 iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected »or them gold and 
 silver, amounting to 290.000 ducats, a present which led to Mis subsequent 
 cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, 
 in 1546. The Chilians fougt-t for liberty at various times, aid with various 
 success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by iPb.n Mai'tin ever 
 
^m. ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 305 
 
 the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- 
 pressors, and declared independent. 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain 
 of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- 
 hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on membei-s 
 of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an 
 office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again 
 returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. 
 
 nHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- 
 neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when 
 they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the 
 stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
 were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of 
 stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among 
 them ; but this is disputed. 
 
 CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed 
 many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- 
 ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By 
 others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of 
 the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the 
 sun, moon, and planets, and were ucute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, 
 which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards 
 the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes 
 more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, 
 the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the 
 coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. 
 
 Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- 
 
 The Chinese state their first cycle to 
 liave commenced - - b. c 2700 
 
 Tlie first of the 22 Chinese dynasties 
 commenced .... 2207 
 ***** * 
 
 In the history of China, the first dates 
 which are fixed to his narrative, by 
 Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651 
 
 Confucius, the father of the Chinese 
 
 philosophers, born - - - 551 
 Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 
 The dynasty of Han - - - - 206 
 Literature and the art of printing encou- 
 raged 202 
 
 Religion of Ta '-tse commenced - - 15 
 Religion of the .'bllowers of Fo, com- 
 menced about - - A. D 60 
 Embassy from Rome - - - 166 
 Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 
 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, 
 
 flourishes .... 449 
 
 The Nestorian Christians permitted to 
 
 preach their doctrines - - . 635 
 
 They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 
 The seat of the imperial government is 
 
 transferred to Pekin - - ■ 1260 
 
 Wonderful canal, called the Yu Ho, 
 
 completed about - - - 1400 
 
 Eur V aans first arrive at Canton - 1517 
 
 Macao is granted as a settlement to the 
 
 Portugttfse - - - - 1536 
 
 Jesuit rnissionaries are sent by the pope 
 
 from Rome .... 1575 
 The country is conquered by the East- 
 em Tartars, who establish the pre- 
 sent reigning house - - - 1644 
 An earthquake throu ghout China buries 
 900,00f' persons at Pekin alone - 1662 
 
 blish Christianity - - - - 1692 
 
 The .fesuits are expelled through their 
 own misconduct - - - 1724 
 
 ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. 
 
 Earl Macartney's embassy; he leaves 
 England - - Sept. 26, 1792 
 
 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, 
 
 Oct. 7, 1793 
 
 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 
 
 Lord Amherst's embassy; he leaves 
 England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 
 
 [His lordship failed in the objects of 
 his mission, having refused to make 
 the prostration of fhe kou-lou, lest he 
 should thereby compromise the ma- 
 jesty of England.] 
 
 The exclusive rights of the East India 
 Company cease - April 22, 1834 
 
 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- 
 intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 
 
 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, 
 
 Nov 7, 183, 
 
 Commissioner Lin issues an edict for 
 the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 
 
 British and other residents forbidden to 
 leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 
 
 The factories surrounded, and outrages . 
 committed - - March 24, 1839 
 
 The opium destroyed during several 
 days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839 
 
 The British trade with China ceases, by 
 an edict of the emperor, and the last 
 servant of the company leaves the 
 country this day - - Dec. 6, 1831 
 
 Edict of the emperor interdicting all 
 trade and intercourse with England 
 for ever - - - Jan. 5, 184* 
 
306 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [cm 
 
 CHINA, contviued. 
 
 Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 
 15 sail and several war steamers, hav- 
 ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders 
 from Sir Gordon Bremer • June 28, 1840 
 
 Seizure of Oapt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 
 
 Lin deprived of his authority, and 
 finally degraded ; Keshin appointed 
 imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 
 
 Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the 
 Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 
 
 Hong-Kong ctded by Keshin to Great 
 Britain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to 
 be paid within ten days to the British 
 authorities • - • Jan. 20, 1841 
 
 Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the 
 conditions of the treaty made by Ke- 
 shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 
 
 Hostilities are in consequence resumed 
 against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 
 
 Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 
 
 Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
 bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
 50,000 dollars to be given for ring- 
 leaders and chiefs ■ Feb. 25, 1841 
 
 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- 
 mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 
 guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 
 
 Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of 
 the army - - March 2, 1841 
 
 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 
 guns captured - - May 25, 1841 
 
 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 
 of which 5,000,000 are paid down, 
 and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 
 
 British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 
 
 Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin- 
 ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- 
 claims the objects of his mission ; 
 Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 
 
 Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and 
 destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 
 
 The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 
 
 The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns 
 capturedj and the island of Chusan 
 re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1341 
 
 Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many 
 of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 
 
 Treaty of peace sig jed before Nankin, 
 on board the CornwaL' e by sir Henry 
 Pottinger for Englanc, and Keying 
 Elepoo and Neu-Kien on tht part of 
 the Chinese emperor • Aug. 29, 1843 
 
 CONDITIONa OF THE TREATY. 
 
 Lasting peace and friendship between 
 the two empires. 
 
 China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part 
 forthwith and the remainder within 
 three years. 
 
 The ports of Canton. Amoy, Foo-choo- 
 foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be 
 thrown open to the British. 
 
 Consuls to reside at these cities. 
 
 Taritis of import and export to be esta- 
 blished, &c. &c. 
 
 The emperor signifies his assent to the 
 conditions - • Sept. 8, 1842 
 
 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger 
 as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844 
 
 Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar 
 and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar- 
 tillery seized and spiked • April 5, 1847 
 
 Treaty between China and the Uni- 
 ted States negotiated by Caleb 
 Cushing, American Commis- 
 sioner - - July 3, 1844 
 
 ratified at Washington 
 
 Jan. 16, 1845 
 
 Alexander H. Everett appointed 
 commissioner to China from the 
 United States - - - 1845 
 
 John W. Davis appointed commis- 
 sioner trom the United States - 1847 
 
 CHINESE EMPERORS. 
 
 The following is a list of those who have 
 reigned for the last two centuries : — 
 
 Chwang-lei 1627 
 
 Shun-che 1644 
 
 Kang-he 1669 
 
 Yung-ching .... 1693 
 Keen-lung - - • - - 1738 
 
 Kea-ding 1796 
 
 Taou-kwang - - - - - 1821 
 
 Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850 
 
 The embassy of lord Macartnej' from England procured the first authentic 
 information respecting this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- 
 vinces, containing- 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole country is 
 given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at £66,000,000 ; and the army, in- 
 cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the religion 
 is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci- 
 ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and 
 influence the manners of the people. See details in Williains's " MiddU 
 Kingdom." 
 CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; 
 it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain 
 was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at 
 Bow in 1758 ; in various other parts of England, about 1760 ; and by the 
 ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, 
 in Staffordshire, 1762 etseq. 
 
 CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. 
 
 Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some bun- 
 
 ' dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record evectJ 
 
eHO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 307 
 
 said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, 
 more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, oi 
 course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their 
 empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 (JHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were ie- 
 feated by the Americans under general Brown, -July 5, 1814. Another ac- 
 tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the 
 latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. 
 
 CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif- 
 teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of 
 most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties 
 of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- 
 self to speak the truth, to maintam the right, to protect the distressed, to 
 practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous 
 adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the 
 feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. 
 
 CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, 
 that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of 
 James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court 
 of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter 
 and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are 
 found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by 
 the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account 
 of fifteen marks of silver, fo?- the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into 
 the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William 
 de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the ivife of 
 Geoffrey de Faucre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in 
 custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer 
 ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It 
 is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used 
 in Spain. It was sold in the London cofiee-houses soon after their establish- 
 ment, 1650.— Ta^fer. 
 
 CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time 
 of Constantino. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- 
 bury, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. 
 — See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient 
 chorus. — Warburton. 
 
 CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form 
 as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries 
 of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where 
 alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two 
 years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. 
 Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform 
 quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- 
 burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London 
 February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was yery 
 great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 
 18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on thia 
 continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832 ; and at New-York, June 27, 1832. Cho- 
 lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It 
 again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- 
 don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- 
 peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 
 
308 THE world's progress. [_ CIUl 
 
 May, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States 
 until November of that year. 
 
 CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer 
 of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- 
 siah in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom 
 they expected, and who Vas promised to them by all the prophets. This 
 appellation is commonly put to our Jksus (signifying Saviour), the name of 
 the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, 
 the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on 
 the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before 
 the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first 
 Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity 
 of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred 
 and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. 
 
 CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of 
 Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Ad: xi. 26, in the year 38, accord- 
 ing to Butler; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other 
 authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, 
 presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who 
 were to be exorcised. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it 
 dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th 
 Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian 
 period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very 
 generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era 
 A. D. 1. It was first used in modern-chronology in 516. 
 
 CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was 
 given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a 
 distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions 
 obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons 
 were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign.— HenauU ; Pleury. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of 
 the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first 
 taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success 
 in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- 
 tain, and in the world: he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in 
 England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time 
 it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into 
 Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. 
 Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 
 201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. 
 
 In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries. 
 In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights, 
 when they v.'ere returning from the 
 holy wars - - -AD. 1227 
 
 In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- 
 
 Constantine the Great made his solemn 
 
 declaration of the Christian religion a. d. 312 
 Christianity was established in France 
 
 under Clovia the Great - - 496 
 
 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643 
 In Flanders in the seventh century. 
 In Denmark, under Harold - • 827 
 
 In Bohemia, under Borzivoi - • 894 
 
 In Russia, by Swiatoslaf • • 940 
 
 In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - • 992 
 In Hungary, under Geisa • - 994 
 
 In Norway and Iceland, undet Olaf I. - 1000 
 
 lished, about - - - - 1386 
 
 In China, where it made some progress 
 (but was afterwards extir])ated, and 
 thousands of Chinese Christians were 
 put to death) - - - . 1575 
 
 In Greece, where it was once more re- 
 established .... 1628 
 
 * It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced ona 
 day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty whtt 
 were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and findmg they were English Pagans, he ia 
 ■aid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed Angeli,forent, si essent Chris iani.'' 
 
OHU] 
 
 DICTIONARY DF DATES. 309 
 
 Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angdla, 
 and Congo, in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some 
 progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the 
 world. 
 
 CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com 
 memoi ation of *jhe nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ. 
 mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to 
 express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a 
 festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be 
 performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* 
 In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany (which see) were 
 deemed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally 
 keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hc;!ly and misletoe used 
 at Christmas are remains of the rehgious observances of the Druids, and so 
 with many other like customs. 
 
 CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, 
 •Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all 
 well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally 
 priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. 
 — Phillips. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- 
 tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the 
 .Jewish ; but owing to the neghgence of the Jews, they have created abun- 
 dance of diflSculties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived 
 at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is 
 the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the 
 first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the different eras through the 
 volume. 
 
 IT/'H URCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first 
 century; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See 
 Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of 
 an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be- 
 lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral 
 at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- 
 tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- 
 light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early 
 churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 
 1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of 
 Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- 
 don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- 
 yards were permitted in cities in 742. 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, 
 and was formally established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church 
 consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of 
 Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- 
 drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor 
 canons, and priest vicars ; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, 
 
 thatis, "they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he wa« 
 struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named 
 Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in th« 
 year 596 — Goldsmilh. 
 
 ' Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that th« 
 Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered ih* 
 doors to be shut, and the chuich to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in the burning pile. 
 This was the commenceme it of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303. 
 
310 THE world's progress. [ cm 
 
 and ch<tpelries, mi ke the number of preferments of the established church, 
 according to tho last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches fol 
 Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. 
 
 CHURCH OP IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the 
 United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- 
 
 • ralities Act of "William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and 
 eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased ; that act 
 providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord- 
 ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- 
 estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other 
 houses of prayer. See Bishops. 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its 
 distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuiary of 
 faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It 
 was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by 
 an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the 
 treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- 
 pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- 
 oprics, which were then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The 
 Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the 
 Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. 
 
 CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the 
 Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- 
 terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century 
 Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting. 
 
 CHURCH- WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first 
 canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also 
 appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti- 
 tuted. — Johnson's Canons. 
 
 CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, 
 A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any 
 signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatiey. 
 It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days 
 after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the 
 expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and ofier a lamb with a 
 young pigeon or turtle, and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. 
 See Purification. 
 
 CIDER, Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine, 
 about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, 
 he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that coun- 
 try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in 
 England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — 
 Butler. 
 
 CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus 
 Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of 
 the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans are slain, 105 b. c. The Teutones are de- 
 feated by Marius in two battles at Aquae Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 aro 
 killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by 
 Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000 
 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk 
 in that of the Teutones or Saxons. 
 
 CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the AUeghanies in tho 
 United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and 
 
9TR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 
 
 New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,540 ; in 182Q 
 9,642; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338. 
 CINCINNATI, Society of. Established by the officers of the American army, 
 in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- 
 ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- 
 ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed 
 away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. 
 CiRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- 
 ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated ""imur ; but in the six- 
 teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the 
 Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little 
 Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic ia 
 the sale ol their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, 
 and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the 
 merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener- 
 ally Jews. — Klaprotk's Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened 
 by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had 
 little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — Fergu- 
 son's Biog. 
 CIRCULATION op the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- 
 firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician 
 ftnd anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- 
 covery the medical and surgical art became gi'eatly improved, to the benefit 
 of mankind. — Freind's Hist, of Pliysic. 
 CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant 
 made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of 
 the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to 
 salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary 
 by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious 
 rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave 
 of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted 
 by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to 
 Avhich Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced 
 into the Liturgy in 1550. 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- 
 terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was 
 first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this 
 illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed 
 to their names. See Navigators. 
 
 Clipperton, British - • A. D. 1719 
 
 Roggewein, Dutch - - 1721 
 
 Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740 
 
 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764 
 Wallir,, British - - • - 1766 
 
 Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 
 
 Cook, the illustrious captain - - 176& 
 
 On the death of Captain Cook, his last 
 
 voyage was continued Ijy King - -779 
 Bougainville, French - - - 1776 
 
 Portlocke, British - - -" 178S 
 
 Wilkes, American - - - - 1837 
 
 D'Urville, French - - - 1837 
 
 Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who 
 
 entered the Pacific ocean - A. d. 1519 
 
 Groalva, a Spanish navigator - - 1537 
 
 Avalradi, a Spaniard - - - 1537 
 
 Mendana, a Spaniard • - - - 1567 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 
 
 Cavendish, his first voyage - . 1586 
 
 Le Maire, a Dutchman - - - 1615 
 
 Quiros, a Spaniard - - - 1625 
 Tasman. Dutch .... 1642 
 
 Cowley,' British - - - - 1683 
 
 Dampier, an Erglishman . - 1689 
 
 Cooke, an Englishman . - . 1708 
 
 'The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was 
 Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, In the service of Spain, and by keeping a 
 westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- 
 pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was killed or his homeward passage, at 
 •he Philippines, in 1521 . — Butler. 
 
312 THE world's progress. [en 
 
 Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bv 
 the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else 
 where. 
 
 CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; 
 tlie largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which vas built by the 
 elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia 
 and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman 
 feet. This circus was enlarged by Ccesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and 
 was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and 
 Julius Cpesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could 
 be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight.— 
 Pliny. 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- 
 knowledged by the emperor of Gernrany to be independent, by the treaty of 
 Campo Formio {which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution 
 in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- 
 leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- 
 roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. 
 
 CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh 
 century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe 
 in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- 
 stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most 
 austere. — De Vitri. 
 
 CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at 
 which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland 
 is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were verj'^ inconsiderable in 
 the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- 
 tion of cities has aided much in introdiicing regular governments, police, 
 manners, and arts. — Robertson. 
 
 CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England 
 a citizen is a pei'son who is free of a city, or who- doth carry on a trade 
 therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as 
 freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- 
 zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
 were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, 
 with tlie peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder- 
 men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stoive. The title of 
 citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq 
 
 CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French 
 June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained 
 in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded 
 by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon 
 Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from 
 the position. 
 
 CrVlI.. LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body 
 of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first 
 collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and 
 a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The 
 Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290; the Theodosian in 435; and the 
 Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the 
 emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian 
 codo, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil 
 law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Blair. Civil law was intro- 
 duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterward* 
 
CLE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 313 
 
 archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual coiirti 
 only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws. 
 
 CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the 
 kin^s of England, partly in lieu of their ancient liereditary income. The 
 entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000^. and that of Charles I. 
 was but 800,000Z. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on 
 the new king and queen of 700,000/., iho parliament taking into its own 
 hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list 
 of George II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th 
 year of his reign, was 1,030,000/. By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil 
 list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000/. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec, 
 1887, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000/. ; and Prince Albert 
 obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000/. per ami. 4 Victoria, 
 1840. 
 
 CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same 
 name, and originated in feudal times.— See Feudal Laws. They may be 
 said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. 
 Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- 
 land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty 
 of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746. — Ruffhead. 
 The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's 
 feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — 
 Ckambers. 
 
 CLARENDON, St.^tutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament 
 held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous 
 power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of 
 Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up 
 under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted 
 without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to 
 prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical 
 affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, 
 threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume. 
 
 CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 
 800 it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their 
 tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the 
 common trumpet. — Pardon. 
 
 CLASSIS. The name was first given by TuUius Servius in making divisions of 
 the Roman people. The first of six classes were called dassici, by way of 
 eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 
 573 B. c. 
 
 CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- 
 tive father, Clemens Romaiius, a cotemporarj^ of St. Paul; some say he 
 succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the 
 decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. — 
 Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
 years, then merged into a common monk. 
 
 CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted 
 for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the 
 others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of 
 Clement VIT. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various 
 interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts 
 of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 
 14 
 
314 THE world's progress. I CLO 
 
 England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon thf. 
 death of Gregory XL 1378. — Hume. 
 
 CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title o* 
 presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher 
 functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: 
 this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under 
 Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- 
 lar power. ^ 
 
 CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh 
 century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness waa 
 forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fruits 
 of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, ljJ34. The cler- 
 gy were exclirded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tho 
 Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenct. Two 
 thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, rathei than 
 subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- 
 nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The 
 Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had 
 been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under .^/ames II., 1689. 
 The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. 
 
 CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen 
 after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the otticers being cler- 
 gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- 
 stone's Comm. 
 
 CliOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 
 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- 
 bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Csesar on invading Britain, 
 55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope 
 Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, 
 invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
 diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, 
 was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century. 
 
 The scapement, ascribed to Gerbert, a.d, 1000 
 A clock constructed by Richard, abbot 
 ofSt. Alban's, about - - -1326 
 
 A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 
 
 A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 
 
 den) and the younger Galileo con- 
 structed the pendulum • a. d. 1641 
 Christian Huygens contested this disco- 
 very, and made his pendulum clock 
 some time previously to ■ - 1658 
 
 The first portable one made - - 1530 , Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the 
 
 In England no clock went accurately pendulum, about - . - 1659 
 
 before that set up at Hampton-court | Repeating clocks and watches invented 
 
 (maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1540 1 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 
 
 Richard Harris (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escape- 
 
 the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- I ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 
 
 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and 
 the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; 
 the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, 
 Arnold, Earnshaw and others. 
 
 CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. 
 
 CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse 
 woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of 
 cloth-workers from the "Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in- 
 vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer's For- 
 dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- 
 factured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 
 1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun- 
 tries, 1667. The maiufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of liaen 
 
COA j 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 315 
 
 countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. Sea 
 
 Woollen Cloth. 
 
 CLOVIS, Family op. Kings of France. The real founder of the French m<>- 
 narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike 
 prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and pub- 
 lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, 
 he exclaimed, "0, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would 
 have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, 
 and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France: removed 
 the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of 
 his new kingdom; he died in bll.— Renault. 
 
 COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- 
 temporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which 
 belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
 Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but 
 without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was 
 John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account 
 of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France 
 travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode 
 behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of 
 Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — 
 Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of 
 Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making 
 them. — Anderson's Hist, of Cojnnierce. A bill was brought into parliament 
 to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. 
 See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the 
 French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out 
 of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They 
 were entered into as follows : 
 
 1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- 
 nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 
 
 2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 
 sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, 
 signed - - - June 22, 1799 
 
 3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
 
 and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 
 
 4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, 
 
 and Sa.xony - - Oct. 6, 1806 
 
 5th. By England and Austria - April 6, 1809 
 6th. By Russia and Prussia ; tlie treaty 
 
 ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 
 See Treaties. 
 
 COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated min- 
 istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an 
 extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- 
 like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards 
 the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, 
 same year. See Administrations. 
 
 COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they 
 are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use 
 by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne in 1284, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prc- 
 hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human 
 health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. _ Coals 
 were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard H. 
 1381. — Rymer's Fadera. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints 
 
 * In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever 
 nnce the Gunpowder Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about 
 with fix horses in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and m that manne; 
 pisseA from the tower through the city. — Rapin. 
 
316 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ COrf 
 
 against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Loc- 
 don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign 
 of Charles I., 1625. 
 
 KUHBGR OF CHALDRONS OP COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWIMG YEARS : 
 
 1650 - - 160,000 chald. I 1800 - - 814,000 chald. I 1830 - - 1,688,360 chald. 
 
 1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 1835 - 2,299,816 tons. 
 
 1750 - - 510,000 ditto. | 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. | 1840 - - 2,638,256 ditto. 
 
 The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in 
 extent; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are 
 also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorlishire. 
 The coal in Soutlr Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, 
 supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there are 
 now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips, 
 Scotland teems witli tlie richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries 
 there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- 
 kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from 
 Newry, in 1742. — Burns. 
 
 COALS IN THE UNrrED States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pe^insylva- 
 nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. 
 
 COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held, 
 amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, 
 after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian 
 faith, 1665. 
 
 (-OCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards 
 soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in 
 Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. 
 The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 
 1,081,776, in 1845. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. 
 It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and 
 was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in tlie 
 reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
 Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and 
 again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was 
 a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- 
 couraged by the law. 
 
 COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (?) practised upon the credulous 
 multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance 
 was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she 
 was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was 
 carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; biit 
 it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory 
 and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 
 
 COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1600. 
 The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need 
 of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, 
 clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masta for ships, sails, 
 eordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. 
 
 CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoron^us were instituted 1807 e. c. : those 
 of Lycurgus. 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus 
 Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- 
 vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gi-egorian 
 and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 
 435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529— a digest from 
 
OOIj DICTIONARY OF DATES, 317 
 
 this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the fourdation 
 of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws. 
 
 CODKHLS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the 
 first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, 
 about 31 B. c. 
 
 CCEUR DE LION, OR THE Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan- 
 tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. 
 This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized 
 himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This 
 latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given Mm. 
 
 COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a 
 beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia 
 Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, 
 in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. 
 Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which 
 country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- 
 fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who 
 made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson. 
 
 COFFEE and TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods 
 is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848) 
 thus : — 
 
 1821 
 
 - Tea, 4,586,223 lbs. 
 
 • Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 
 
 1830 - 
 
 " 6,873,091 lbs. - 
 
 " 38,363.687 lbs 
 
 1885 - 
 
 . " 12,331,638 lbs. 
 
 - - « 91,753;002 lbs. 
 
 1842 - 
 
 « 13,482,645 lbs. - 
 
 " 107,387,567 lbs. 
 
 1816 - 
 
 - " 16,891,020 lbs. 
 
 " 1^4,336,054 lbs. 
 
 COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, 
 in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
 brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first 
 house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom- 
 bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the 
 first house in that country. — Afiderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near 
 Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. 
 Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The 
 proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea 
 and coffee. 
 
 COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616 ; 
 and wore carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at 
 Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the 
 plantations about 1732. 
 
 COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coflQns of the cedar tree ; ow- 
 ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydides. Coffins of 
 marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been 
 buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. 
 The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of 
 king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542, 
 — Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. 
 
 COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of 
 coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money 
 
 * Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- 
 (armed by a goat herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then 
 wake at night, ai 1 sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to pro-^e its virtues. He ac 
 cordingly tried it m his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matins, and he found that it checked 
 their slumbers. 
 
318 THE woi. ld's progress. [col 
 
 was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 
 B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius TuUius, about 673 B. c. 
 The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but 
 others are bel'.eved to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
 Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that 
 little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver 
 were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used 
 in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresnoy . Julius C^sar was the 
 first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait 
 on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more 
 simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon 
 their money: the heads were those of their deities, ~ or of those who had re- 
 ceived divine honors. 
 
 COIN IN ENGLAND. The fiist coinage in England Avas under the Romans at 
 Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as 
 square, oblong, and round, lintil the middle ages, when round coin only was 
 used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a. d. 1351. Coin was 
 made sterling m 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
 maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stoive 
 
 The first gold coins on certain record, 
 struck, 42 Henry HI. - a. d. 1257 
 
 Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Cam- 
 den) 1337 
 
 First large copper coinage, putting an 
 
 end to the circulation of private lead- 
 en pieces, &c. - - . - 1620 
 
 Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665 
 
 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 
 Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 
 
 Half-fanhings - - - - 1843 
 
 Elizabeth - • ;e5,832,000 
 
 James I. - - 2,500,000 
 
 Charles I. - ■ - 10,500,000 
 
 Cromwell - - 1,000,000 
 
 Charles II. - - 7,524,100 
 
 George III. and regency, 
 
 gold - - £74,501,586 
 George IV. - - 41,782,813 
 William IV. - - 10,827,603 
 Victoria, to 1848, 82.870.814 
 
 Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles 
 followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee : after- 
 wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size* 
 but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed fo> 
 more. SeeGuineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826 
 See Gold. 
 
 MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. 
 
 •Tames II. - - je3,740,000 
 
 William III. - - 10,511,900 
 
 Anne - - - 2,691,026 
 
 George I. - - 8,725,920 
 
 George II. - - 11,966,576 
 
 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was 
 estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- 
 ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. 
 — Phillips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic 
 currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of 
 coin,1830. — Duke of Wellingto7i. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching 
 forty-five millions. See Gold. 
 
 COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from 
 that time to 1836 was thus : — 
 
 Pieces. Value. 
 
 Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035 
 
 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 
 
 Copper - - 77,752,965 - 740,331 
 
 Total - 197,891,502 - - $69,581,549 
 
 1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - - $81,436,155 
 
 Total in 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 
 The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eagles, quartet 
 eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- 
 posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 
 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. 
 
COL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 
 
 COINING. ITiis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed 
 between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill wai 
 invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- 
 gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great iraprovementa 
 of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. 
 The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery 
 at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. 
 
 COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- 
 tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, 
 the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 
 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and 
 in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- 
 est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 
 16" below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See 
 Frosts, Ice. 
 
 COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in 
 the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 
 72. The splendid Colisaeum of London, and one of its most worthy objects 
 of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. 
 
 COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which 
 were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- 
 ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said 
 to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but some 
 authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date 
 is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at 
 Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first 
 doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. 
 
 Cheshunt College (bunded 
 
 Doctor's Commons, civil law - 
 
 Durham University 
 
 Edinburgh University - 
 
 Eton College - 
 
 Glasgow University 
 
 Harrow 
 
 Highbury College 
 
 King's College, Aberdeen - 
 
 King's College, London - 
 
 COLLEGES IN THE United States. The first established was Harvard, at 
 Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- 
 portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William 
 and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, 
 College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Columbia, New-York, 1754. 
 Sixth, University of Pen7isylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh, Brown 
 University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. 
 Ninth, Rutgers, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the 
 Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 
 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 
 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 
 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard 
 College opened Jan. 1, 1848. 
 
 COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled 
 from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into 
 ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In 
 the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of 
 St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- 
 gins said to have been put to death along with her. 
 
 COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 
 
 1. 1792 
 
 Mareschal College, Aberdeen ■ 
 
 ■ A- D. 1593 
 
 -1670 
 
 Maynooth College 
 
 - 1795 
 
 . * * 
 
 Physicians, London • 
 
 - - 1518 
 
 -1580 
 
 Sion College 
 
 - 1329 
 
 - 1441 
 
 Sion College, re-founded - 
 
 - - 1630 
 
 - 1451 
 
 Surgeons, London 
 
 - 1745 
 
 -1585 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin 
 
 - - 1591 
 
 -1826 
 
 University, London 
 
 - 1826 
 
 -1494 
 
 Winchester College - 
 
 - -1387 
 
 -1S29 
 
 
 
320 THE world's progress. [coi 
 
 declared their indeilendence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chiefs 
 have been contending one against anotlier, and each state has been a prej 
 to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. 
 
 New Grenada, discovered by Colurh- , Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly 
 
 bus - • • - A. D. 1497 1 _ overthrown j^ - June 24, 1821 
 
 Venezuela discovered - - -1498 
 
 1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, 
 
 under a captain-°;eneral - ■ 1547 
 
 The history of those provinces under 
 the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- 
 niards, presents but one continuous 
 scene of^rapine and blood. 
 
 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- 
 gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1831 
 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 
 
 formed - - - June 30, 1824 
 
 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825 
 Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- 
 sident of the republic - Aug. 1926 
 Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 1826 
 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 
 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1828 
 Conspiracy of Santander against the 
 
 life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 
 
 Bolivar resigns his office of president of 
 
 the republic - - April 11, 1?29 
 
 He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 
 
 Confederation of Venezuela - -1810 
 
 Independence formally declared - - ISll 
 
 Defeatof General Miranda - -1812 
 
 Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 
 
 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of 
 Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 
 
 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- 
 nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies • . May 26, 1840 
 
 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it 
 is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by 
 Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. — Siiidas. It was known to Aristotle. Our 
 punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. 
 The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. 
 The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, 
 amounts to about 2,500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- 
 tion, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van 
 Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been 
 ascertained. Tlie act for the abolition of slaver}^ throughout the British 
 colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) 
 was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all 
 the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Angust 1, 
 1834. 
 
 COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free 
 people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- 
 ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- 
 cated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the 
 legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod 
 Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henrj 
 Clay Liberia purchased 1821. 
 
 COLOSSUS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, 
 erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the 
 wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown 
 down by an earthquake 221 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the SaraceiM 
 on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg 
 being extended on each side of tlie harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could 
 enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be 
 discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. 
 The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been 
 repaired ; but now tlie Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
 weighuig 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in 
 transporting it to Alexandria — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 COLUMBIA, District cf. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- 
 ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming tha 
 seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetowa 
 
COM J D JTIONARY OF DATES 321 
 
 and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- 
 tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons, 
 and 4,694 slaves. 
 COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and 
 Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed 
 the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, 
 for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. — 
 Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 
 434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are 
 extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Csecilius wrote upwards of SO come- 
 dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Lselius and Terence 
 were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- 
 land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy 
 (the School for Scandal), tlie best opera (the Duenna), and the best after- 
 piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. 
 
 rOMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by 
 Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets 
 appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- 
 dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or 
 the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was 
 seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were firs* 
 rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- 
 fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 
 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, 
 by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
 within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared 
 in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. 
 Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. 
 
 COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account 
 of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of 
 the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 
 Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pr^ 
 dieted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeka. 
 Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage 
 was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. 
 
 COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly 
 named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting 
 its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the 
 three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
 tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 
 
 COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest 
 astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of 
 the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same todies, 
 and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet 
 of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of 
 the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to 
 the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
 first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. 
 — Vitice's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
 about seventy-six years • it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on 
 March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. 
 
 COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in 
 the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- 
 eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241. — See Hanse Toions. The discoveries of 
 Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese enlarged the 
 14* 
 
322 THE WORLD S i'KOUKK&b. y OOM 
 
 sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to encage 
 extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this swbject, 
 
 COMMERCE. See Navigation. 
 
 COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- 
 land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward 
 I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308.— 
 Anderson. See Treaties. 
 t'-OMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. 
 The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appellar- 
 tlon, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. 
 COMMON LAW of ENGLA^Sp. Custom, to which length of time has 
 given the force of law, or rules generally received and heU as law, called 
 lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law 
 derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), a. d. 890. 
 The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See 
 Custom. Laws. 
 COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of 
 parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- 
 liament, and the Directory {which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- 
 clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. 
 COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of 
 Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with 
 Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of 
 two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet 
 tlie barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen 
 his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was 
 the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons 
 were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. 
 — Goldsrniih. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament 
 formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and 
 writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the 
 first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The 
 first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was 
 killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent 
 members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminsttf was 
 not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, 
 or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following 
 is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the 
 Reform Bills {which see,) in 1882 : — 
 
 144 
 4 
 323-471 
 
 15 
 
 14 — 29 
 
 Enoiish.— County members 
 
 Universities 
 
 Cities and boroughs - 
 Welsh. — County members 
 
 Cities and Boroughs - 
 
 English and Welsh - 500 
 
 Scotch. — County members - 30 
 
 Cities and Boroughs - 23 — 53 
 
 Irish. — County members - - 64 
 
 University - • - • 2 
 
 Cities ana boroughs . - 3S>— 105 
 
 English and Welsh - 500 ■ 
 
 Total (see Parliament) - 658 
 
 COMMONWEALTH op ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the 
 decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the 
 government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 
 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- 
 well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person 
 of Charles 11. , who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown, 
 ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 609 b. c, when the govern- 
 
CON J DICTIONARy OF DATES. 323 
 
 mentof kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh 
 and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome 
 advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy 
 received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- 
 ria, Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- 
 dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Csesar this republic had the 
 Euphrates. Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; 
 Ethiopia, in the south ; the Danube, in the north ; and the Atlantic Ocean, 
 in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- 
 til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement 
 of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. 
 
 COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in 
 the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is 
 said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth 
 Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at 
 least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as uow observed in tha 
 church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. 
 
 COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be 
 named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company 
 was the merchants of St. Thomas a. Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was 
 the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thire are 
 ninety-one city companies in London ; the iirst twelve are 
 
 1 Mercers 
 
 - A. D. 1393 
 
 7 Merchant Tailors • 
 
 A. D. 1466 
 
 2 Grocers - 
 
 - 1345 
 
 8 Haberdashers 
 
 -1447 
 
 3 Drapers 
 
 - 1439 
 
 9 Salters - 
 
 • - 1558 
 
 4 Fishmongers 
 
 • - 13S4 
 
 10 Ironmongers - 
 
 • 1464 
 
 5 Goldsmiths 
 
 - 1327 
 
 11 Vintners - 
 
 • - 1437 
 
 6 Skinners - 
 
 . - 1327 
 
 12 Clothworkers- 
 
 -1482 
 
 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have 
 been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, 
 was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, 
 in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of 
 families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 
 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for 
 taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- 
 curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were 
 totally ruined. See Law^s Bubble, and Bankrupts. 
 
 COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 
 1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- 
 moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or 
 water ; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the 
 invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 
 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of 
 Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a 
 couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- 
 troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation 
 was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- 
 pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- 
 vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass 
 was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. 
 
 CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in 
 honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or 
 without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of 
 Dec. by the church, in 1389. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established 
 148S. 
 
324 THE world's progress. [con 
 
 CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, it 
 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and 
 talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform 
 ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and 
 frequent. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aiistotle and 
 Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It 
 was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published 
 fiis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 
 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. 
 
 CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The concave is a range of small 
 cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the 
 cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used 
 for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a 
 pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at 
 Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the 
 choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the 
 magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the 
 gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical p&lace till 
 they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while 
 thej"^ elect a pope. 
 
 CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all 
 the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- 
 tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made 
 under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 
 monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abb^ Lenglet. 
 
 CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a 
 prince and the pope, usually concerning bene Sees. The celebrated concordat 
 between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul 
 was made, in effect, the head of the Galilean Church, as all ecclesiastics 
 were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 
 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontilf was sign- 
 ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. 
 
 CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d. 
 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, 
 both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very 
 different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is 
 formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called half-marriage, 
 is still in use in some parts of Germany. 
 
 CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this 
 memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- 
 tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the 
 people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See 
 Champ de Mars, Bastile. 
 
 CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- 
 ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, 
 the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to 
 serve in case of war, and they established a die t at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 
 See Germanic Confederation. 
 
 CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court 
 palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting 
 ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2 
 James 1. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which 
 
con] dictionary of dates. 325 
 
 was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the 
 United States ; and during tiie meeting some altera Jons in the church liturgy 
 were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was 
 done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same 
 view was held in 1661. 
 CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted 
 about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, 
 in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- 
 nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done 
 with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in 
 heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifierent, 
 by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clwirch 
 of England. — Burnet. 
 
 rONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian .hurch; it was 
 used by Peter and Paul; and was general, according to some church au- 
 thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion 
 by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the 
 church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into 
 a sacrament by the church of Rome. 
 
 CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- 
 ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the 
 interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had 
 an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were 
 elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry YIII., 1535. 
 
 CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- 
 ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held 
 during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable 
 congresses of Europe : — 
 
 Congress of Soissons - Jiine 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad • Aug. 1, 1819 
 
 Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 
 
 Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821 
 
 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 
 
 See Alliances, Conventions, i^c. 
 
 Congress of Antwerp • April 8, 1793 
 
 Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 
 
 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 
 
 Congress of Vierma ■ Nov. 3, 1814 
 
 CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates 
 from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. 
 Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Continental Congress 
 met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774: again May 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 
 1776 ; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776 ; at Phila. March 4, 1777 ; at Lancaster, Pa. 
 Sep. 27, 1777 ; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778 ; at Prince- 
 ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapohs, Nov. 26, 1783 ; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; 
 at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until 
 the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- 
 ington, 1800. 
 
 CONVENTION, The, for forming he Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. 
 May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. 
 
 GONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803, 
 They were used with great eflfect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, 
 when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they 
 were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- 
 charged by a corps called rocket-men. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known 
 to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of 
 them was cultivated in the time of Plato 890 b. c. The earliest treatise 
 vras written by Aristteus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were 
 
326 THE world's progress. |_ooa 
 
 written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo j 
 the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. 
 
 CONJURATION AND WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by 
 various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against 
 them in England in former times. See a,rtic\e Witchcraft. Conjuration vyas 
 felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George n., 
 1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- 
 meanor. — English Statutes. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by 
 a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the Enghsh in 1635, the 
 Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently 
 hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New 
 Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- 
 ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, 
 near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in 
 the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by 
 the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, 
 adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- 
 ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237,946: 1810, 261,942; 1^30, 297,655; 1840, 
 309,978. 
 
 CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke 
 of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the 
 crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the 
 Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been 
 erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England 
 by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated 
 his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against 
 him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- 
 toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- 
 merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
 who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- 
 liam I. — Selden. 
 
 CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the 
 Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic 
 and the Caesars : because their names were written in the registers of the 
 senate. 
 
 CONSECRi^TION. Tha' of churches was instituted in the second century, 
 the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a 
 patron saint. Tb? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- 
 ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in 
 the latter church in 1549. — Stowe. 
 
 CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with 
 the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law 
 of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- 
 sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called 
 the Court of Arches. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the 
 recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- 
 able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- 
 ties of note :^ 
 
 Of Anthonjf Babington and others, 
 against Elizabeth - - a. d. 1586 
 
 T*.j! Gunpowder Plot {which see) - 1605 
 
 Insurrection of the fifth monarchy men 
 tgainst Charles 11. - - - 1660 
 
 O; BlQod and his associates, who seized 
 
 the Duke of Ormond, wounded hiin, 
 .and would have hanged him; and 
 who afterwards stole the crown - 1671 
 The pretended conspiracy of tlie French, 
 Spanish, and English .lesuits to assas- 
 siiiate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- 
 
con] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 327 
 
 mous Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and 
 others - - - - - 1678 
 
 riie Meal-tub plot 1679 
 
 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the 
 king on his way to Newmarket. (See 
 Rye-house plot) .... 1683 
 Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against 
 Queen Anne. - - - - 1703 
 
 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- 
 turn the government . - - 1802 
 
 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when 
 lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 
 
 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, 
 against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1801 
 
 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the 
 king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 
 
 CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. 
 
 Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the I 
 
 United States .... 1807 
 
 John Henry's secret mission from the 
 British government, to undermine 
 the American union, expose^, Feb. 25, 1812 
 
 CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of ^fmmes (!) which con- 
 demned the pious martj^rs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt 
 alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, 
 on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- 
 cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in 
 that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, 
 he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend 
 him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of 
 his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and 
 treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of 
 Wicklifle, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration 
 is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hu-me. 
 
 CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to 
 Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French 
 occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French 
 and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, 
 but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the 
 seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders 
 who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. 
 Retaken by Michael Palccologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. 
 Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palaeologus, the last 
 Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- 
 sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing 
 the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, 
 and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred 
 by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- 
 or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 
 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe 
 See Eastern Empire and Turkey. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. 
 It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used 
 in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- 
 tical year towards the end of March ; the day is not exactly determined. 
 To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 
 5509 from September to the end. 
 
 CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Ardurus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, 
 are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
 lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained 
 in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud 
 Ptolemaeus, about a. d. 140. * 
 
 CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends tht, 
 whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 
 
328 THE world's progress. [com 
 
 it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. 
 This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in 
 this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought 
 to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at 
 any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated 
 on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the 
 co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in 
 the LAW. — Sheridan. 
 CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- 
 gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states 
 at different times. See the respective states. 
 The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New 
 York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced 
 an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. 
 
 CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, 
 capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- 
 riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, 
 British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to 
 the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important 
 naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see 
 Naval Battles. 
 
 CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed 
 regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius 
 Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, wei-e the 
 first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 
 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambac^rfe, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and 
 subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life. May 6, 1802. Com- 
 mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 
 1485. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions 
 to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of 
 the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that 
 in 1798, when, to suppoi't the war against France, the contributions amount- 
 ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, 
 sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000Z. ; and200,000Z, 
 were transmitted from India in 1799. 
 
 CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and 
 were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from 
 the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the 
 schools of WicklifFe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, 
 were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. 
 
 CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, TVeaties, &c. in their respective places through 
 out the volume. 
 
 CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d, 
 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — 
 Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took 
 the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. 
 Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that 
 of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More 
 than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The 
 emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 
 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all 
 the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in 
 Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. 
 
COP "] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 
 
 rOJTVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany 
 Bay, was iu 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
 Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- 
 portation. 
 
 COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in tha 
 Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- 
 ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir 
 Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, 
 accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to 
 explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. Is 
 his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of 0-why 
 bee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- 
 lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 
 
 COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems 
 to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were 
 incorporated in 1501. 
 
 COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more 
 than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, 
 valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- 
 .sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, 
 admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- 
 barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their 
 engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen 
 were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- 
 bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- 
 ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of 
 eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- 
 boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. 
 
 COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- 
 posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the 
 planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are 
 here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to 
 have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 
 This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1580 ; and may in many points be 
 regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. 
 
 COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have 
 preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
 copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this 
 metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, 
 soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in 
 water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if thie least drop of water 
 touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boiile. The 
 mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the 
 world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now 
 forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty 
 
 • A memorial was ijresented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan- 
 tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transiJ 
 of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, 
 prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed 
 in July 1768, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous 
 voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa 
 tions made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed 
 by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; tna 
 distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled al 
 108,000,000 mile3,4nstead of Jie commonly received computation, of 95,000,000.— Bwrter. 
 
330 THE world's progress. [ COP 
 
 mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil 
 liam III. 
 COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius TuUius, used 
 rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money ia 
 of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into 
 use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined 
 by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- 
 ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- 
 land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- 
 menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. 
 
 (JOPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in 
 Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- 
 vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a 
 mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, wiU multiply cop- 
 per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. 
 
 COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 
 
 COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber 
 regarding it, a. d. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 
 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the 
 consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- 
 acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George 
 III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- 
 thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- 
 lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 
 17th George III,, extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International 
 copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for ai-ticles of manu- 
 facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary 
 Properly. — Haydn. 
 
 COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary 
 property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah 
 Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, 
 April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 
 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for 
 International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. 
 Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books 
 to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library 
 of Congress and oflSce of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid 
 to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. 
 
 POETRT. 
 
 Byron's Works (in all) - - iSO.OOO 
 
 Moore's Lalla Rookh • - - 3,000 
 
 Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000 
 
 Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after 
 
 ten years' publication) - - 1,000 
 
 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto • 1,50C 
 
 FICTION. 
 
 It was estimated that Scott's novels 
 produced for copyright at least - 250,00C 
 
 Bulwer received lor his novels, each 
 
 1,200 to 1,50C 
 
 Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,20C 
 
 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. 
 Johnson for - - - - 6S 
 
 5,000 
 4,633 
 18,000 
 
 Fragments of English History, by 
 
 C.J. Fox- - - - £5,000 
 
 History of England by Sir J. Mackin 
 
 tosh - . . . 
 
 Ditto, by Lingard - 
 Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott 
 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 
 1 and remainder, £600 per annum 
 for ten years, say - - - 3,000 
 
 Prescott's Historical Works are said to 
 have produced to the author (who yet 
 owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Life of Wilberforce - . . jE4,000 
 
 Life of Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 
 
 Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,.500 
 Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4.000 
 
 Goldsmith received for '' Animated 
 Nature" - - - - 80(! 
 
 Noah Webster is said to have derived 
 $1000 per annum from his Spelling 
 Book. 
 
cor] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 
 
 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs ol 
 leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the 
 third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed 
 and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See 
 Hemp. 
 
 CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of 
 the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of 
 Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. 
 
 CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus 
 in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was 
 rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- 
 braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acro- 
 corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. 
 The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the 
 Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans. 
 Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. 
 
 A colony goes to Sicily, and they build 
 
 Syracuse - - • b. o. 732 
 
 Sea fight between the Corinthians and 
 
 Corcyreans - - . . 664 
 
 Periander rules and encourages genius 
 
 and learning - - . . 629 
 
 Death of Periander - • ■. . 585 
 
 The Corinthians form a republic - 582 
 
 War with the Corcyreans - . 439 
 
 The Corinthian war (which see) - - 395 
 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ■ 242 
 The Roman ambassadors first appear 
 
 Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, 
 (Abbe Lenglet) . - B. c. 1520 
 
 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first 
 called by its name ■ • - 1410 
 
 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon 
 the city (idem) ■ • ■ - 1375 
 
 The Pythian games instituted, it is said 
 by Sisyphus .... 1375 
 
 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors 
 are called Bacchidas, in remembrance 
 of the equity of his reign - - 935 
 
 The Corinthians invent ships called 
 
 triremes ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth - - . . 228 
 
 benches of oars - - - 786 
 
 Thelestes deposed, and the government 
 of the Prytanes instituted: Auto- 
 menes is the first on whom this dig- 
 nity is conferred ... 757 
 
 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius 
 who sends to Italy the first fine paint- 
 ings there seen, they being part of the 
 spoil (Livy) • . . -146 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, 
 aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- 
 cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it 
 is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles 
 were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 395, by a 
 confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against 
 the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- 
 tra, which see. 
 
 CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who 
 having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — 
 Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making 
 bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
 Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c, — 
 Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest- 
 ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. — 
 See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, 
 by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation 
 of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its 
 importation into England, in 1686. 
 
 CORN LAWS IN England. "Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'' 
 or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its 
 importation when corn should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The "shding- 
 scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842 ; act fixing 
 
332 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. (" COB 
 
 ths duty on wheat at 45. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter^ 
 passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws— 
 and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- 
 fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. 
 
 CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at 
 Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was 
 introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation 
 of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, 
 October 28, 1216. A plain circle*was used on this occasion in lieu of the 
 crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, 
 in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew 
 Paris. Rymer. 
 
 CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the 
 kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards 
 canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that 
 now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The f^tes 
 given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- 
 onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of 
 former times. 
 
 CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every 
 county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward 
 I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners wei-e instituted in Scotland in the reign of MaL 
 colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, 
 coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of 
 ilhiess. Aug. 22, 1843. 
 
 CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish 
 the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry 
 III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles H. — Baker. 
 But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of 
 the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when 
 the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. 
 
 CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- 
 quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from 
 Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break 
 the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- 
 arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch. 
 
 CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized 
 by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and 
 members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in 
 law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Covjel. Corporations 
 were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- 
 ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d. 
 1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them 
 to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, 
 and conditions. — Blackstone. 
 
 CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this 
 island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
 according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- 
 thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 b. c. In modern times, 
 Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold 
 to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first 
 and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in 
 the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- 
 nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency 
 
COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333 
 
 in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hii 
 creditors, an! died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel- street, Soho. 
 The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his 
 grave, in St. Anne's church. Dean-street : — 
 
 " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
 
 Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
 
 But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
 
 Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
 
 Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
 
 The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, 
 in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaus, and fled to England, 1769. 
 The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 
 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and he opened a parliament 
 in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was relin- 
 quished by the Bi'itish, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the 
 French. 
 CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ol 
 Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a 
 long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and they settled the new constitutioTi, 
 March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
 banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- 
 general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- 
 ularly convened. 
 
 CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army imder sir John Moore (who 
 was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. 
 
 COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, 
 and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- 
 cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- 
 ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. 
 Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered 
 women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, 
 and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint 
 more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on 
 cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- 
 tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take 
 out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, 
 and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a 
 plane. — Seidell. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the 
 earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record 
 of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- 
 resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geogravhy 
 respectively. 
 
 COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,, 
 Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys 
 and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- 
 phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions 
 of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body 
 of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- 
 vincibly 
 
 COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote 
 antiquity The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and 
 graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, 
 wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a tejture, 
 and their gara.ents, which were always white, were so clear and thin, thai 
 
334 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ COT 
 
 their bodies could be seen through them - Ovid. As relates to costume 
 worn on the stage, .^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who 
 erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited 
 to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles. 
 
 COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but 
 about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny 
 with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- 
 ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of 
 machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton 
 invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- 
 ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since 
 made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- 
 nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that 
 more than one thousand millions sterling have be^ >n yielded by it to Great 
 Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- 
 ed in 1774. — Haydn. 
 
 HISTORY OP COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 
 
 The following brief items of the history of cotton., from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a South 
 
 Carolina paper : — 
 
 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn 
 in England by machinery. 
 
 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from 
 Surinam. 
 
 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 
 at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ; 
 but not successful in its operations. 
 
 1749. The fly shuttle generally used in 
 England. 
 
 1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made 
 in England for the first time. 
 
 1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent 
 for the spinning frame, which he further 
 improved. 
 
 1768. The stocking frame applied by 
 Hammond to inakin" of lace. 
 
 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export 
 of machinery used in cotton factories. 
 
 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 
 
 1782. First import of raw cotton from 
 Brazil into England. 
 
 1782. ^att took out his patent for the 
 steam-engine. 
 
 1783. A bounty granted m England on the 
 export of certain cotton goods. 
 
 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- 
 wright — steam engines used in cotton fac- 
 tories. 
 
 1785. Cotton imported into England from 
 the United States. 
 
 1786. Bleaching first performed by the 
 agency of the oxy muriatic acid. 
 
 1787. First machinery to spin cotton put 
 in operation in France. 
 
 1785', Sea Island cotton first planted in the 
 United States ; and upland cotton first cul- 
 tivated for use and export about this time. 
 
 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the 
 first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents 
 the cotton gin, which he patents. 
 
 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton 
 erected in Switzerland. 
 
 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced 
 into Saxony this year. 
 
 1803. First cotton factory built in New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely 
 introduced into England. 
 
 1807. The revolution in Spanish America 
 begins to furnish new markets for cotton 
 manufactures. 
 
 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the 
 United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another 
 by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 
 
 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa 
 tented by John Burn. 
 
 1813. The India trade more free, and more 
 British manufactures sent thither. 
 
 1814. The power-loom introduced into the 
 United States ; first at Waltham. 
 
 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents- 
 higher than since 1810. New method of 
 preparing sewing cotton by Mr- Holt. 
 
 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama 
 cotton lands. 
 
 1820. Steam power first applied with suc- 
 cess extensively to lace manufactures. 
 
 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 
 1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt 
 into Great Britain. 
 
 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 
 25 cents per pound. 
 
 1826. Self acting mule spinner patented 
 in England by Roberts. 
 
 1827. American cotton manufactures first 
 exported to any considerable extent. 
 
 1829. Highest duty in the United States on 
 foreign cotton manufactures. 
 
 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introducdd 
 a machine from the United States into Eng 
 land for the purpose of making cards. 
 
 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported into 
 the United States reduced ; and in England 
 it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, 
 to work them more than ten hours per day, 
 or more than nine hours on a Saturday; la 
 consequence they work at something else. 
 
 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 
 
 1835. Extensive purchases madeof cottoi 
 lands by speculators and others. 
 
 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. 
 
eou] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 335 
 
 50 
 
 COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and witb great judgment 
 by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, 
 after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans 
 during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William 
 III. 1701. It was removed to Esses-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's- 
 yani, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained 
 damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. 
 
 COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to 
 whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- 
 ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The fii*t 
 was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were 
 admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the 
 second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the 
 present privj'' council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was 
 pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- 
 tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right 
 to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin 
 of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the 
 term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- 
 endon. — See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c. 
 
 COUNCILS OP THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable 
 Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils 
 (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches 
 or <5cclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. 
 
 The second Lateran, tenth General, In- 
 nocent II. presided ; the preservation 
 of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, 
 the principal subject, which occa- 
 sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- 
 thers of the church - - A. D. 1139 
 
 The third Lateran, eleventh General ; 
 held against schismatics - - 1179 
 
 Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 
 bishops and 1000 abbots attended ; 
 Innocent III. presided - • - 1215 
 
 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under 
 pope Innocent IV. - - - 1245 
 
 Of Lyons, the fourteenth General, under 
 Gregory X. - - - -1274 
 
 Of Vienne in Dauphind, the fifteenth 
 General ; Clement V. presided, and 
 the kings of France and Arragon at- 
 tended. The order of the Knight 
 Templars suppressed - - • 1311 
 
 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General ; Gre- 
 gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, 
 and Alexander elected - - 1409 
 
 Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; 
 Martin V. is elected pope ; and John 
 Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
 demned to be burnt - - - 1414 
 
 Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431 
 
 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- 
 ral, begun by Julius II. - - 151& 
 
 Continued .under Leo X. for the sup- 
 pression of the Pragmatic sanction of 
 France, against the council of Pisa, 
 &c. till \bh 
 
 Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- 
 ral council, styled Oecumenical, as re- 
 garding the affairs of all the Chris- 
 tian w5rld ; it was held to condemn 
 the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, 
 Zuinglius, and Calvin.— .466^ Lenglet 1545 
 
 Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d 
 Of the western bishops at Aries, in 
 
 France, to suppress the Donatists ; 
 
 three fathers ol the English church 
 
 went over to attend it - 
 The first Oecumenical or General Ni- 
 
 cene, held at Nice, Constantine the 
 
 Great presided : Arius and Eusebius 
 
 condemned for iieresy. This council 
 
 composed the Nicene Creed - 
 At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- 
 
 sius was canvassed 
 The first held at Constantinople, when 
 
 the Arian heresy gained ground 
 At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which 
 
 lasted eighteen months 
 At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended 
 Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and 
 
 Constantine obliged them to sign a 
 
 new confession of faith 
 The second General at Constantinople 
 
 350 bishops attended, and pope Da- 
 
 masius presided 
 The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- 
 
 lestine presided 
 Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar- 
 
 cian and his empress attended 
 The fifth at Constantinople, when pope 
 
 Vigilius presided 
 The sixth a.! Constantinople, when pope 
 
 Agatho presided 
 Authority of the six general cotuicils re 
 
 established by Theodosius 
 The second Nicene council, seventh Ge 
 
 neral ; 350 bishops attended - 
 Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the 
 
 emperor Basil attended 
 The first Lateran, the ninth General ; 
 
 the right of investitures settled by 
 
 treaty between pope Calixtus IL and 
 
 th« emperor Henry V. 
 
 - 359 
 
 - 715 
 
 787 
 
 1122 
 
336 THE world's progress. [cov 
 
 COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of A ncients was an assembly 
 of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 
 1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a 
 Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. 
 Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Si^yfes, consuls pro- 
 visoires. — See Prance. 
 
 CJOUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion 
 were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- 
 sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William HI. 1696. 
 Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel 
 6 & 7 WiUiam IV., Aug. 1836. 
 
 COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king 
 Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The 
 division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were 
 instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- 
 liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See 
 Covivions, and Parliament. 
 
 COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and 
 Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does 
 not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of 
 Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are 
 said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. 
 The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the 
 reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- 
 ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 
 1463. — Henault. 
 
 COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areoptv- 
 gitce. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 
 B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other 
 countries. 
 
 COURT OP HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
 constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., 
 and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to 
 prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these 
 countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons 
 who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby 
 mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects o/ 
 the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between 
 England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by 
 parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. 
 
 < ;OVENTRY, PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its 
 origin to the following tradition : — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed suet 
 heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties 
 importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her 
 riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to 
 consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and 
 ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- 
 dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to 
 curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been 
 famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown 
 to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair 
 the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom' 
 
ORE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 
 
 paniod by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to hei 
 limbs. 
 
 COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security 
 against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general 
 in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the 
 ieats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- 
 warded by parliament with the muv.iticent grant of XlO,000, June 2, 1802. — 
 See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination. 
 
 CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with 
 the spoils taken from the Franks, a.d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. 
 in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one 
 side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- 
 led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to 
 the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- 
 pied by 10 000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. 
 Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- 
 corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. 
 
 CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may 
 be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 
 220 B. c.—Livy. 
 
 CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, 
 started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol- 
 lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems 
 to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all 
 countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The 
 science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many diflfei- 
 ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. 
 
 CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng 
 lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- 
 mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxtord, Oct. 16, 1555>; and Cran 
 mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- 
 duced Cranmer. some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a 
 paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the 
 stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, 
 with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before 
 the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand !" 
 Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first 
 martyr of the Christian church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit !" 
 
 CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and 
 twisted on the mill. Its manufixcture is of very early date, and it is said 
 some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680. 
 It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used 
 for mourning. 
 
 CRAYONS. They were known in France before a.d. 1422 — improved by 
 L'Oriot, 1748. 
 
 CREATION OF THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Duft-esnoy 
 4004 B. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees 
 with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Okl 
 Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation: 
 some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- 
 logue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried 
 in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- 
 nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of 
 years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient ChaJ- 
 15 
 
338 THE world's progress. [oai 
 
 deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 
 y«ars. 
 CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found 
 convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting 
 before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at 
 a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right 
 time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 
 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud 
 make it 5344 ; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it 
 vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 , but the 
 Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- 
 rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener- 
 ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. 
 CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while 
 after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship 
 in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. 
 This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The 
 Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in 
 K. D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 
 340. — -See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. 
 CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- 
 ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, 
 king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs 
 ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of 
 Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French 
 nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the 
 English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich 
 feathers, with the motto ''/cA Dien" in English, "I serve;" and in memory 
 of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- 
 land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. 
 CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies 
 by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of 
 crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- 
 tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume 
 of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns 
 above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
 on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well 
 on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. 
 CRETE. Now Candia, which see. This island was once famous for its hundred 
 cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 
 B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- 
 ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It 
 was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed 
 into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the 
 Turks, in 1669. — Priestley. 
 CRIME. " At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a 
 one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- 
 sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth 
 have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and 
 every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- 
 nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, 
 as an almost necessary consequence, into crime." A comparative view of 
 foreign coimtries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and 
 ignorance on the great mass of the population. In North America pauper- 
 ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- 
 
0B.O ] DICTIONAKY OF DAIES. 339 
 
 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several 
 states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly 
 rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated 
 are compai-ativelj" free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- 
 able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- 
 ence is painfully exemplified : — 
 
 Scotland. England. Ireland. 
 Instruction to the people- - • 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 
 
 Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - 1 in 920 - 1 in 468 
 
 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several 
 acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- 
 gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law 
 of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and 
 revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, 
 passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by 
 statute 4 William IV., 1834. See Executions, Hanging, Triak, &c. — Haydn. 
 
 CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. 
 The Genoese were expelled by the Grim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were 
 tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took 
 possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following 
 year; and secured to them in 1791. 
 
 CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianua 
 were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- 
 velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian 
 religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- 
 tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the 
 town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On 
 this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them 
 as their tutelar saints. 
 
 CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class 
 were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distingtiished men. In modern 
 times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- 
 ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, 
 ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published 
 at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work 
 of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term 
 being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Waies of Litera- 
 ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly 
 Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in 
 England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756 ; the 
 Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American 
 Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The 
 North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818 ; the Ame~i- 
 can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New York Review, by 
 Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See 
 Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English 
 courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought 
 by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- 
 termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however 
 sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. 
 
 CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and 
 Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, 
 many of their domestic articles being of eartlfen manufacture. Crockery, 
 of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy 
 about A. D. 1310; and it is stiU callad/ayewce in French. See Earthenware 
 
340 THE world's progress r CUL 
 
 CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story 
 of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- 
 man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet 
 tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
 also of stuff's adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- 
 gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by 
 pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 
 1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- 
 ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown 
 with two circles. — Rainaldl. 
 
 CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, 
 Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on 
 account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other 
 tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- 
 padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prison- 
 ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, 
 and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year 
 of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- 
 tino, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. 
 
 CRUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- 
 tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, 
 called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter 
 the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted 
 the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy 
 Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in 
 possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- 
 gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at 
 Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- 
 tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a 
 general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 
 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The 
 holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of 
 Crois^s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volontc de Dieu, "God's 
 will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the 
 end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, 
 cost the lives of 2.000,000 of men. — Voltaire. 
 
 CUBA . Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered 
 by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- 
 gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by 
 admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
 Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of 
 Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, 
 defeated May, 1850. 
 
 CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read 
 . of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Ee- 
 brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' .sh 
 feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to iho 
 extremity of the middle finger. — Calmet. 
 CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and 
 Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the 
 poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. 
 It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. 
 CULLODEN, Battle of. Fn which the English, under William duke of Cum- 
 berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, tha 
 last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men 
 
CYC J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 341 
 
 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, 
 while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- 
 tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless 
 inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately 
 after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued 
 wandering among the ifrightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- 
 000^. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
 constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, 
 and died at Rome, in 1788. 
 C1/RA.C0A. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the 
 French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with 
 the Dutch, the latter surrendered the islaftd to % single British frigate. It 
 was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a 
 British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. 
 
 CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This was a Norman institu- 
 tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I., a. d. 1068. On the 
 ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles 
 were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was 
 abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. 
 CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 
 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree {Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada 
 in 1705. 
 CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- 
 sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands 
 opposed to lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
 derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, 
 and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. 
 CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- 
 red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
 lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, 
 for 20,000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were 
 farmed by Charles II. for 390,000^. in the year l&m.—Davenant. 
 In 1530 they amounted to - - £14,000 
 
 In 1592 ditto - - - 50,000 
 
 In 1614 ditto • - 148,000 
 
 In 1622 ditto - . - 168,000 
 
 In 1642 ditto . - 500,000 
 
 In 1720 ditto - - -1,555,600 
 
 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, 
 Zd. ; on every last of hides, 6*^. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals 
 of Dublin. Custom-house oflScers, and officers of excise, were disqualified 
 from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George 
 III., 1782. See Revenue. 
 CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected 
 
 In 1748 they amounted to - £2,000,000 
 
 In 1808 ditto - - 9,973,240 
 
 In 1823 ditto - - - 11,498,762 
 
 In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540,-323 
 
 In 1835 ditto - . - 18,612,906 
 
 In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 
 
 re, m 
 1789-9. 
 
 - $4,399,473 
 
 1820 - 
 
 - $15,005,612 
 
 1845 
 
 - - $27,528,113 
 
 1800 - 
 
 . 9,080,938 
 
 1825 - 
 
 ■ - 20,098,714 
 
 1846 
 
 - - 26,712,668 
 
 1805 
 
 12,936,487 
 
 1830 - 
 
 . 21,922,391 
 
 1847 
 
 - - 23,747,864 
 
 1810 - 
 
 - 8,583,309 
 
 1835 - 
 
 ■ - 19,391,311 
 
 1848 
 
 - - 31,757,070 
 
 1815 
 
 .. 7,282,942 
 
 1840 - 
 
 13,499,940 
 
 
 See Tariff. 
 
 CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the 
 week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen 
 lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The 
 cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the 
 time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by 
 Victorius, a. d. 463. — Blair. 
 
342 THE world's progress. [ d \q 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA— See Encyclopedia. 
 
 CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record, 
 It was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, 
 but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- 
 ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was 
 used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. Tho 
 festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with tl»e dances of Cory- 
 bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 e. c. 
 
 Ci'NICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c. — Diog. 
 Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- 
 phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all 
 sciences, except morality; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did 
 all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without 
 blushing.— /«/em. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on 
 the ground. — Diog. Laert. 
 
 CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love 
 and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the 
 time of Cyrus, who subdued them; it ranked among the proconsular pro- 
 vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but 
 recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of 
 England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — 
 Priestley. 
 
 CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of 
 the Cyrenaici, 392^3. c;. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme 
 good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual 
 kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, 
 and onlj"- so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. 
 — Laer. Ar. Cicero. 
 
 CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristseus, who was the chief of the 
 colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- 
 olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- 
 lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 
 b. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. 
 
 CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. 
 Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and 
 made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and 
 returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). 
 — Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian 
 Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. 
 
 DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre Oi 
 Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon 
 thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- 
 tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An 
 apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same 
 time by M. Niepc^, and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- 
 don : the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger 
 Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above 
 process, pictures in colors are prodxiced both on paper and plates. So im- 
 portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by tho 
 French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6OO0 
 francs. 
 
DAE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 
 
 Damascus. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It 
 is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, 
 Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- 
 ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the 
 Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006 ; and was destroyed by Tamerlane 
 in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- 
 lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the 
 gospel, about a. d. SO. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 
 
 DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, 
 and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being 
 raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the 
 Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England 
 by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between 
 the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. 
 
 DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- 
 demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to 
 go and settle some domestic aflTairs, on a promise of returning at the appoint- 
 ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his 
 engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, 
 and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at 
 this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was 
 so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, 
 and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 e. c. 
 
 DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 
 1534 B. c. — Euscbius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to 
 their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on 
 the Roman stage, 22 b. c— Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced 
 into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the 
 first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country 
 dance {contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
 — Spelman. 
 
 DANES, Invasions op the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to 
 England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon 
 Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under 
 Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and 
 ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy 
 in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- 
 mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. 
 
 DANTZTC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- 
 ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king 
 of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the 
 French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- 
 sit, it was restored to its former independen ;e, under the protection of 
 Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and after 
 a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Paris 
 it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to 
 the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10,000 head of cattle 
 and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 
 1829. 
 
 DARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called 
 Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding 
 the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They M^ere built by the emperor 
 Mahomot IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelks from the contiguoui 
 town of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing i he passage of the Dar 
 
344 THE world's progress. [ DEi 
 
 danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John , 
 Duclcworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, 
 which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, 
 following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, 
 each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. 
 
 DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from 
 the province of Dauphin^, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert 11. 
 to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne 
 should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. 
 
 HAl VIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose 
 name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. 
 
 DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- 
 set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced 
 at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the 
 present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
 strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all 
 other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- 
 tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, 
 and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. 
 The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
 day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is 
 the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and 
 night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of 
 Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vosskts de Scien. Math. 
 
 DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the 
 instituti'^^n of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a 
 long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The 
 original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme- 
 nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. 
 Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb 
 was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. 
 Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. 
 Vi'allis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first 
 regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in 
 Edinburgh in 1773. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. 
 In 1840 there were 6.916 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population; 
 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. 
 There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 
 2,840 patients. 
 Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have 
 promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the 
 United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe, of 
 Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. 
 
 DEATH, Punishment op. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- 
 ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stowe. The most eulogized 
 heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered 
 on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture 
 mai>y days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the 
 fate of Mithridates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia; 
 see also Ravillac ; Boiling to Death ; Burning to Death, &c. Maurice, the 
 son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first 
 execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment 
 
DEL } DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 
 
 of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9, 
 in other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases 
 of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank- 
 fort, same day, August 4, 1848. 
 
 DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the 
 year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year ia 
 March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, 
 in 71 ; b. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the 
 year 
 
 DKCEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- 
 vern the commonwealth instead of consuls; first instituted 450 b. c. — Livy. 
 The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and tho 
 attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, 
 the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- 
 suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. 
 
 DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the 
 earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is 
 that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, 
 the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English 
 tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be 
 used in all law-suits in May, 1731. 
 
 DEFENDER or the FAITH. Pidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. 
 on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church 
 of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Cat/wlicce, and against Luther, 
 who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which "the pope gave 
 him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs 
 of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. 
 
 DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded 
 as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first 
 degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude 
 was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- 
 ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations 
 have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; 
 and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- 
 wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. 
 
 DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- 
 teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to 
 disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation 
 than that of Atheism. — Virofs Instruction Chretienne, 1563, Deism is a 
 rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light 
 of nature, believing that there is a God. a providence, vice and virtue, and 
 an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called freo-thinlc- 
 ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, ■was Herbert, baron 
 of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal. 
 Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft. and Godwin. 
 
 DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled 
 in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus 
 and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the 
 Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 
 1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wra. 
 Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. 
 This state bo-e an honorable part in the revolution, and suflered much in 
 the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 
 15* 
 
346 XHE world's progress. f DEH 
 
 vote 311 convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population,— 1790, 59;D94; 1840, 78,085; 
 including 2,G05 slaves. 
 
 DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : :t is now in decay, but 
 contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 17o8, when Nadir' Shah 
 invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine 
 followed : 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword ; and plunder to 
 the amount of 62,000,000Z. sterling was said to be collected. 
 
 DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of 
 Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyona, 
 1263 B. G. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came 
 to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- 
 ple was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the 
 Alcmseonid^, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered 
 by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- 
 ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning 
 the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced < n Delphi 
 being attacked by the Phociaris, 356 b. c. — Z>w Presnoy. 
 
 DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the 
 world 1536; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark- 
 rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- 
 ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c— Blair. The following 
 are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. 
 
 Septuagint b. c. 3246 
 Jackson - 3170 
 Hales . - 3155 
 Josephus - 3146 
 
 Persian - B.C. 3103 I Playfair - B.C. 2.352 
 Hindoo - - 3102 Usher - - 2348 
 Samaritan - - 2998 English Bible - 2348 
 Howard - - 2698 Marsham - - 2344 
 
 Petavius - b. c. 2323 
 Straucliuis - 2293 
 Hebrew - - 2288 
 Vulgar Jewish 2104 
 
 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction 
 (!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were every where built 
 to guard against the calamity ; but the season happened to be a very fine 
 dry one, a. d. 1524. 
 
 DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according 
 to Eusebhts. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the 
 general flood: but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely 
 a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose 
 course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and 
 Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and 
 some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. 
 
 DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- 
 dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it 
 occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c— Blair. Buflfon 
 thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from 
 the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. 
 
 DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were 
 taken by the British, 1796, but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demaraia 
 and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and 
 commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. 
 
 DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri 
 and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Gcths. The Teutones 
 settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were 
 defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the 
 Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
 Dan^ the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi- 
 fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. 
 
D£N I 
 
 D1C1I0NARY OF DATES. 
 
 347 
 
 DENMARK, coniimied. 
 
 ReignofScioId, first king - B.C. 60 
 
 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings 
 to the time of Radnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750 
 
 [Ragnor is killed m an attempt to ir- 
 vade England, and for more thai '200 
 years from this time the Danes were 
 a terror to the northern nations of Eu- 
 rope, and at length conquering all 
 England. See Danes.] 
 
 Reign of Canute ihe Great - - 1014 
 
 Reign of Waldemar the Great - -1157 
 
 Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, 
 makes immense conquests - - 1223 
 
 Gothland conquered - - • 1347 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
 united into one kingdom • - 1397 
 
 Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414 
 
 The nations reunited - - - 1439 
 
 Copenhagen made the capital - • 1440 
 
 Accession of Christian I., from whom 
 the present royal family springs - 1448 
 
 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- 
 pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 
 
 Lutheranism established by Christian 
 III. 1536 
 
 Danish East India Company established 
 by Christian IV. - - ■ - 1612 
 
 Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- 
 testant league ... - 1629 
 
 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades 
 Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and 
 makes large conquests - - 1658 
 
 The crown made hereditary and abso- 
 lute • - - - - 166P 
 
 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, 
 Tonningen, and Stralsund ; reduces 
 Weismar, and drives the Swedes out 
 of Norway - - - 1716 et seq. 
 
 Copenhagen destroyed by a Are which 
 consumes 16-50 houses, 5 churches, the 
 university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 
 
 The peaceful reign of Christian VI., 
 who promotes the happiness of his 
 subjects .... 1730 
 
 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- 
 denly confines his queen, Caroline 
 Matilda, sister of George III. who is 
 afterwards banished. See Zell iaxi. 18, 1772 
 
 The counts Struensee ard Brandt are 
 seized at the same time on the charge 
 of a criminal intercourse with the 
 queen ; and the former confessing to 
 avoid the torture, both are beheaded 
 for high treason • April 28, 1772 
 
 The queen Caroline Matilda dies at 
 Zell - - - May 10. 1773 
 
 Christian VII. becomes deransed, and 
 prince Frederick is appointed regent 1781 
 
 One-fourth of Copenl agenis destroy sd 
 by fire - - • June 9 1736 
 
 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard 
 Copenhagen, and engage the Danish 
 fleet, taking or destroying IS ships of 
 the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- 
 ed. The Confederacy of the North 
 (see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- 
 solved - - - April 2, 1801 
 
 Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart 
 bombard Copenhagen, and seize the 
 Danish fleet of I? shiosof the line, 15 
 fr ^ates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1S07 
 
 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to 
 Denmark, in e.Kchange for Norway - 1814 
 
 Commercial treaty with England - 1824 
 
 Frederick bestows a new constitution 
 on his kingdom - - • 1831 
 
 A new constitution ofl^ered by Christian 
 VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 
 
 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de- 
 mand separation from Denmark 
 
 March, 1848 
 
 The king grants freedom of the press 
 and of public meetings • March, 1848 
 
 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
 volt and join the groat German na- 
 tion - - - March 26, 1848 
 
 Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- 
 izes the Grand Duchy of Posen 
 
 March 26, 1848 
 
 Danes victorious over the Germans, 
 April 10 ; but driven ou: of Schleswig 
 
 April 23, 1848 
 
 Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- 
 ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- 
 while) - - - July 10, 1»18 
 
 Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848 
 (See Copenhagen.) 
 
 KINGS OP DENMARK. 
 
 .714 
 750 
 770 
 801 
 809 
 811 
 812 
 814 
 
 849 
 a56 
 853 
 873 
 915 
 920 
 925 
 928 
 930 
 935 
 960 
 
 Gormo I. 
 
 Ragnor Lodbrog. 
 
 Sigefrid. 
 
 Godefrid. 
 
 Olaus I. 
 
 Hemming. 
 
 Si ward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. 
 
 Harold and Regner; the latter made 
 
 prisoner in Ireland, and died in a 
 
 dungeon there. 
 Siward II. deposed. 
 Eric ; killed in battle 
 Eric II. 
 Canute I. 
 Frothon. 
 Gormo II. 
 Harold. 
 Hardicanute 
 Gormo III. 
 Harold III. 
 guenon. 
 
 1014 Canute II. the Great. 
 1036 Hardicanute II. 
 1041 Magnus L 
 1048 Suenon II. 
 
 1079 Harold IV. 
 
 1080 Canute III, assassinated. 
 10S6 Olaus II. 
 
 1097 Eric III. 
 
 1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 
 
 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 
 
 1138 Eric V. 
 
 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldeaui 
 
 for assassinating prince Canute. 
 1157 Waldemar the Great. 
 1182 Canute V. 
 1202 Waldemar II 
 1240 Eric VI. 
 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against 
 
 the Prisons. 
 1252 Christopher I., jioisoned by the bishop 
 
 of Arnus. 
 
348 THt world's progress. {■ m« 
 
 15'^3 Frederick. 
 
 1534 Christian III. 
 
 1559 Frederick II. 
 
 1588 Christian IV. 
 
 1648 Frederick III. 
 
 1670 Christian V. 
 
 1699 Frederick IV. 
 
 1730 Christian VI. 
 
 1746 Frederick V. 
 
 1766 Christian VII. 
 
 1808 Frederic VI. 
 
 1839 Christian VHI. died Jan. at, 1648. 
 
 DENMARK, continued. 
 
 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 
 
 1286 Eric VIII. 
 
 1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of 
 
 seven years.) 
 1340 Waldemar III. 
 1375 Glaus III. 
 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 
 
 Norway. 
 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 
 1439 Christopher III. 
 
 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 
 1481 John. 
 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a 
 
 dungeon, where he died. 
 
 DENIS, St. An ancient town of France, six miles irom Paris to the north- 
 ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — famous foi 
 its abbey and church, the former abohshed at the Revolution; the lattei 
 desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place ol 
 sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. 
 ■ DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the 
 policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition 
 of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- 
 temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at 
 present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate 
 those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at 
 Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty 
 crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- 
 tonishment; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and 
 lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity 
 of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police 
 against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great 
 number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which 
 they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously 
 adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he 
 would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned 
 in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printioig. 
 
 DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and 
 which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or 
 wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
 forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. 
 Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — 
 Tillemont. 
 
 DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the 
 sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius 
 Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times 
 of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. 
 They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. 
 
 DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the 
 mine of Sumbulpour was the first known ; and where the mines of Golconda 
 were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. 
 The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728, From these last a diamond, 
 weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, 
 and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- 
 lions i by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated 
 to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400.000Z. The diamond 
 called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul, was 
 the most superb gem ever steen ; it was of the finest water, and the size oi 
 
0IEJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES- 349 
 
 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a h.ilf. The great dia- 
 mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., 
 troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 1(M,166Z. besides an annuity 
 for life, to the owner, of 1041^. which was refused ; but it was afterwards 
 sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, with- 
 out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- 
 day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 
 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold tc the king of Franco 
 for 125,000Z. in 1720. 
 
 DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, 
 built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect 
 was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing^ 
 this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, 
 and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons 
 of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It wtu set on Hre on the 
 night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
 who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him 
 to destroj^ so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name 
 to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the 
 Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, U7iiv. Hist. 
 
 DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in 
 stituted 498 b. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap 
 pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the 
 Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. 
 Caesar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion 
 of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to 
 exist in Rome, 44 b. c. 
 
 DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing 
 about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations 
 somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who 
 lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- 
 teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps 
 the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one 
 in eight languages, about a. d. 1500.— Nicer 07i. The Lexicon Heptaglotton 
 was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- 
 lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to 
 think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopasdia, the first dictionary of the circle 
 of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of 
 the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis 
 Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from 
 this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. 
 Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two 
 quarto vohimes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- 
 printed in ] -adon, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1882. Numerous 
 abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since Wm published. 
 See EncT/clopedia. 
 
 DI£T OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire 
 may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. 
 The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of electors, the 
 college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with 
 the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise 
 constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The 
 diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. 
 The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was 
 held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1629; 
 
360 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 I D^^ 
 
 aud the famous ciet of Augsburg^, in 1530. In the league of the German 
 princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- 
 fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- 
 solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany, 
 
 DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the partle ol 
 the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle, of Gisors, 
 in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ; 
 and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et mon droit" 
 the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained 
 A. D. 1198. — Rymer's Fadera. 
 
 DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared 
 by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Orat. 
 Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of 
 eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- 
 nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the 
 civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. 
 
 DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were 
 at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantino, a. d. 323 ; but 
 Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long 
 before. — Strabo, lib. siii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- 
 diction are coeval with Christianity; there are twenty-four dioceses, of 
 which twenty-one are sufli-agan to Canterbury, and three to York. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian 
 writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixtli century, and 
 is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
 which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. 
 It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- 
 tians in the reign of Diocletian. 
 
 DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an 
 object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 
 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead 
 of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture 
 at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama 
 and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and 
 in the completeness of the illusion. 
 
 DIPLOMACY OP THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to 
 Great Britain and France. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 17.S3 John Adams. 
 1789 Gouv Morris, commissioner. 
 1792 Thomas Pinckney, ofS. C, min. ple.n. 
 1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 
 
 1796 Rufus King, do. do. 
 
 1803 James Monroe, Va. } Jointly, 
 1803 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 
 1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do. 
 1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 
 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 
 
 1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 
 
 1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 
 
 1830 Louis McLane, Del. do. 
 
 1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 
 18-32 AarOT. Vail, charge d'affaires. 
 R36 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 
 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. 
 IS'lf) Louis McLa.ie, Md. do. 
 1846 Georse Bancroft, Mass. do. 
 1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. 
 
 FRANCK. 
 
 1776 B. Franklin, S, Deane, & A. Lee, com'ni 
 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'atfairea. 
 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 
 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 
 
 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ; . 
 
 1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, \ ""• 
 1799 Ol. .Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, 
 
 and W. Vans Murray, do. 
 
 1801 James A. Bayard, Del. cd. 
 
 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co- 
 
 1804 John Armstrong, do. do. 
 
 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo. 
 
 1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. do. 
 
 1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. 
 
 1823 James Brown, La. do. 
 
 1&30 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 
 
 1833 Edward Livingston, La. do, 
 
 1836 Lewis Cass, Midi. co. 
 
 1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. do. 
 
 1819 W. C. Rives, Va d& 
 
DIVJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 
 
 DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England 
 at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
 liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the 
 ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- 
 sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given, 
 which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no 
 form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to 
 make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by aa 
 ordinance of ihe parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor. 
 
 DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- 
 embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November 
 1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five 
 members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- 
 cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who, 
 with Cambaceres and Si^yfes, became the ruling power of France, the three 
 governing as consuls, the first as chief Nov. 9, 1799. 
 
 DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in 
 the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish 
 models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with 
 the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious 
 worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- 
 beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in 
 those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was 
 established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon- 
 don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis- 
 senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters 
 from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. 
 c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of 
 the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- 
 sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for 
 certain offices, &c. was repealed. May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- 
 orating effect have been since passed. 
 
 DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of 
 divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- 
 tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, 
 augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- 
 trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary 
 opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted 
 by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, <^c. 
 
 DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b. c. 
 The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been 
 used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish 
 Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, 
 it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground 
 at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force 
 down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in 
 Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which 
 was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- 
 bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed 
 in sub-marhie surveys. The first diving-^fZfe was the wife of Captain Mor- 
 ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. 
 
 DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- 
 cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- 
 vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, 
 that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 
 
352 THE world's progress. [ Doa 
 
 to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a. d. 1539. The bill to 
 prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 
 1801. 
 DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- 
 structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- 
 don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the 
 principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in 
 July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and wei-e opened Aug. 
 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, 
 decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London 
 docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. 
 The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, 
 and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks 
 was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until 
 they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 
 
 DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church 
 was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos- 
 tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the 
 Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title 
 of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 
 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the 
 time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it 
 is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d, 725. 
 See Collegiate Degrees. 
 
 DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law 
 residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- 
 lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' 
 Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- 
 stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the 
 old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, 
 bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See 
 article Civil Law. 
 
 DOG. The ckie7i de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole 
 race. — Buffon. Buff'on describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," 
 assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of 
 instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in 
 Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken 
 from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, 
 landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned 
 to Vienna. 
 
 DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end 
 on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard 
 the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause 
 of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed 
 as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only vario* 
 in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and 
 later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same 
 rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. HuUon. 
 
 DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a 
 
 * Mathematicians assert thai Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars; 
 and they compute its distance Irom our earth at 2,200,000 m.illions of miles. They maintain that 
 a sound would net reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with 
 its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage ihenoe to oui 
 flobe. 
 
DOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 
 
 prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against 
 their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an 
 aristocratic republic, 1030^. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying 
 the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was 
 observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- 
 pensed with. See Adriatic. 
 
 DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The 
 city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and 
 nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. 
 Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French 
 colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died 
 in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- 
 tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- 
 ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 
 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Haijti, in 
 which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- 
 mingO; acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. 
 
 DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This 
 island was taken by the British in 1761, and was coniirmed to them by the 
 peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the 
 subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- 
 licane in 1806; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently 
 occurred. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days 
 of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as 
 by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one 
 of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin 
 on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is 
 G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter 
 call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the 
 first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap 
 years count two letters. 
 
 DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- 
 versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, 
 and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and 
 the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's 
 rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation 
 of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they 
 erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called 
 Blackfriars. 
 
 DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis 
 An^lics. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign 
 of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register 
 whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book 
 the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still 
 decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, 
 consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
 England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. . It was fin- 
 ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- 
 day book was the tax-book of kinge Vf\\\\a.m.."— Camden. The taxes were 
 levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu- 
 rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day 
 book. 
 
 DORIC Order of Architecture. The most ancient of the five, the invention 
 of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name tc 
 
354 THE world's progress. |_dra 
 
 the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesut< took 
 place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies 
 into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native 
 country. 
 
 DORl . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in 
 the breaking down of the dylies ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 
 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- 
 lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 800 
 villages -were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for 
 ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- 
 estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent 
 from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the 
 differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- 
 pally upon points cf justification and grace. The synod condemned the 
 tenets of Armiiius. — Aitzema. 
 
 DOUAY, IN France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spajn, who 
 founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay 
 was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was 
 taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the i^'rench 
 next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of thv Bible, 
 which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the suc>.,essive 
 popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version 
 authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes 
 of Catholic divines. 
 
 DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a 
 code of laws, Avhich, on account of their severity, were said to be written 
 in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as 
 murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, arid he could 
 not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 B. c. — 
 Sigonius de Repub. Athen. 
 
 DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, 
 No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many 
 perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral 
 under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict 
 with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over 
 the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- 
 rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the 
 common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents 
 to Indian chief^ — Stowe. Rapin. 
 
 DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the 
 Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Snsarion and Dolon, 
 on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 
 556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, 
 on a wagon, 536 b. c. Artcnd. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- 
 gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a 
 goat, 536 B. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- 
 troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- 
 dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. 
 
 DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion 
 of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and 
 C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- 
 tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. 
 Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. 
 hul)sequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and 
 
DROJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 
 
 afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning 
 satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy. 
 Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- 
 ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger 
 exhibitor. — Livy. 
 
 DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of 
 minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. 
 Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin 
 of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
 church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 364, on the Passion 
 of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to 
 have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not 
 clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that 
 " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- 
 tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteriea 
 were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the 
 parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- 
 rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual 
 characters were introduced in Henry VII. 's reign. The first regular drama 
 acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
 sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect 
 in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England 
 was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, 
 to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- 
 speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 
 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two 
 companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's 
 and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. 
 
 DRESDEN, Battle op, between the allied army under the prince of Schwap 
 zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 
 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- 
 tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an 
 error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
 dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme 
 pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all 
 his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal 
 wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 
 
 DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of 
 Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close 
 sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, 
 and embroidered with pearis. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and 
 pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, 
 with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and 
 buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with 
 precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600^ ; and he had a suit 
 of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, 
 rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could 
 afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
 shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the 
 pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. 
 
 DEOWTSTING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
 were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is saii to 
 have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the 
 fourth at Paris, in 1772 5 and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societiei 
 
356 THE world's progress. [dtjk 
 
 have been instituted in other countries. The motto of tne Royal Humane 
 Society in England is very appropriate : — Lateat scintUlula forsan — a smali 
 spark may lurk unseen. 
 
 DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and BritonSj 
 who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted 
 as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with 
 supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, 
 that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- 
 cure them the greater respect. They were versed in 'sciences ; had the 
 administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and 
 supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed 
 Caesar's tirst landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending 
 the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- 
 linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland's 
 Mona Antiqua. 
 
 DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, 
 " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice 
 of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- 
 ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. 
 In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. 
 Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. 
 He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and diifered 
 from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in tho 
 commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. 
 
 DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d. 140. 
 
 DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy.— Procopiiis. First 
 struck in the duchy of Apulia.— Z>w Ca?ige. Coined by Robert, king ot 
 Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — JohTi- 
 son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. &d., and that o/ 
 the gold 9s. Qd. — Pardon. 
 
 DUELLING and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- 
 bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, 
 took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 
 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. 
 to the emperor Charles V., 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- 
 duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should 
 be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling 
 was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, <fc. Aa 
 many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- 
 macteric. — Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in 
 which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases 
 both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- 
 tence of the law. — Hamilton. 
 
 DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In 
 England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, 
 duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of 
 Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black 
 Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was 
 created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The 
 first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, 
 piince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
 the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. 
 
 DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and 
 immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged 
 
EAR J BICTIONARY OF DATES. 357 
 
 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night, 
 and his sen, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope 
 Pius V. in 1569. 
 DUNBAR, Battle op, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John 
 Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- 
 ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English unde" 
 Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. 
 
 DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and 
 Freni h, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year 
 of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000Z. U 
 Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- 
 tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the 
 basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. 
 
 UUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal 
 Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle 
 between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- 
 land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., 
 whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who 
 was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in 
 Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- 
 ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. 
 
 DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at 
 Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen 
 Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, 
 who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to 
 pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- 
 sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 
 
 DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing 
 and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their 
 manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England 
 for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the IjOw Countries 
 in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the 
 north" (of England) 1628. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the 
 Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and 
 sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a 
 spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When 
 Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added 
 the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of 
 Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- 
 perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 
 It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. 
 
 I ARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages 
 the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard 
 II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They 
 had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the 
 sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their 
 title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or 
 shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and 
 their powers were abriiig ?d. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute foi 
 king. 
 
358 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 EAB 
 
 EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of 
 Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring ac 
 arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the 
 sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all 
 towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed roun(' 
 the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- j 
 lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert iu 1676. < 
 The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to 
 be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- 
 covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. 
 
 EAJRTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancieni 
 nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c, 
 The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent 
 ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to 
 a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- 
 poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a 
 very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See 
 China. — Porcelain. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with 
 any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- 
 duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the 
 vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, 
 and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which 
 have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, 
 others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- 
 men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, 
 when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. 
 Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to 
 suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors 
 or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. 
 These principles at the same time were advanced by Signor Beccaria, with- 
 out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has 
 been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- 
 ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into 
 steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which 
 occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the 
 most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from 
 the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all 
 that have occurred : — 
 
 One which made the peninsula of 
 Euboea an island - -B.C. 425 
 
 Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, 
 swallowed up ... 372 
 
 One at Rome, when, in obedience to 
 an oracle, M. Cuitius, armed and 
 mr unted on a stately horse, leaped 
 into the dreadful chasm it occasion- 
 ed (ZttJt/) - - - -358 
 
 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its 
 inhabitants ; and twelve cities in 
 Campania also buried - - 345 
 
 Lyaimachia totally buried, with all its 
 inhabitants .... 283 
 
 Awful one in Asia, which overturned 
 twelve cities • - - a. D. 17 
 
 One accompanied by the eruption of 
 Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum buried - 79 
 
 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and 
 two in Galalia, ovjrturned • • 107 
 
 Antioch destroyed - • A. D, 
 
 Nicomedia, Caesarea, and Nicea in 
 
 Bithynia, overturned 
 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 
 
 cities and towns damaged. • 
 Nicomedia again demolished, and its 
 
 inhabitants buried in its ruins 
 One felt by nearly the whole world 
 At Constantinople : its edifices destroy- 
 ed, and thousands perished - 
 In Africa ; many cities overturned 
 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and 
 Asia ; more than 500 cities were de- 
 stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- 
 ed all calculation 
 In France, Germany, and Italy 
 Constantinople overturned, and sU 
 
 Greece shaken 
 One felt throughout England - 
 One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- 
 
 114 
 
 126 
 
 357 
 
 358 
 543 
 
 558 
 560 
 
 742 
 801 
 
 93« 
 1061 
 
BA8 J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 359 
 
 1114 
 
 1137 
 1142 
 
 1186 
 1274 
 
 1456 
 
 15S0 
 
 1596 
 1638 
 
 1662 
 1690 
 
 1692 
 
 1693 
 1726 
 
 1731 
 1736 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, continued. 
 
 ed : among them, Mariaeum and Ma- 
 
 mistria - - - a. d 
 
 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 
 
 15,000 persons buried in the ruins 
 
 One severely felt at Lincoln 
 
 At Calabria, vehen one of its cities and 
 all its inhabitants were overwhelm- 
 ed in the Adriatic Sea 
 
 One again felt throughout England 
 
 At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit 
 ants penshed - 
 
 One feit in London : part of St. Paul'i 
 and the Temple churches fell 
 
 In Japan, several cities made ruins 
 and thousands perished 
 
 Awful one at Calabria • 
 
 One in China, when 300,000 persons 
 were buried in Pekin alone • 
 
 One severely felt in Ireland 
 
 One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- 
 ed Port Royal, whose houses were 
 ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 
 persons perished 
 
 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 
 cities and towns, and 300 villages. 
 Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabit- 
 ants, not a trace remained ; more 
 than 100,000 lives were lost - 
 
 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 
 persons perished 
 
 Agairi in China; and 100,000 people 
 swallowed up at Pekin 
 
 One in Hungary, which turned 
 mountain round 
 
 Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 
 persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 
 
 One at Palermo, which swallowed up 
 a convent : but the monks escaped 1740 
 
 In London, the inhabitants terrified by 
 a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 
 
 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 
 
 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752 
 
 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 
 40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 
 
 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 
 
 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about 
 eight minutes most of the houses, 
 and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, 
 were swallowed up,and whole streets 
 buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
 Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- 
 fully, and St. llbes was wholly over- 
 turned. In Spain, a large part of 
 Malaga became ruins. One half of 
 Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
 more than 12,000 Arabs perished 
 there. Above half of the island of 
 Madeira became waste ; and 2,000 
 houses in the island of Meteline, in 
 the Archipelago, were overthrown : 
 this awful earthquake extended 5000 
 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 
 
 One in Syria extended over 10,000 
 square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 
 
 One at Martinico, when 1600 pereons 
 lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 
 
 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- 
 habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 
 
 EA^'ER So called in England from the 
 of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68 
 was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 
 
 A destructive one at Smyrna - a. D. 177i 
 
 At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, 
 and multitudes buried - - 1780 
 
 One which overthrew Messina and a 
 number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 
 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 
 
 Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 
 12,000 persons buried in its rums - 1784 
 
 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening 
 of the earth swallowed up many 
 houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 1789 
 
 Another fatal one in Sicily - - 1791 
 
 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing 
 forth its flames overwhelmed the city 
 ofTorre del Greco - - -1794 
 
 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 
 10,000 persons lost their lives - 1794 
 
 The whole country between Santa Fe 
 and Panama destroyed, including the 
 cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of 
 whose people were, in one second, 
 hurled mto eternity - - - 179(J 
 
 One at Constantinople, which destroy- 
 ed the royal palace and an immen- 
 sity of buildings, and extended into 
 Romania and Wallachia. - - - 1800 
 
 A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 
 
 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 
 persons lost their lives - - 1805 
 
 At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- 
 chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling 
 water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 
 
 Awful one at Caraccas {which see) ■ 1812 
 
 Several felt, throughout India. The 
 district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons 
 were buried with it - - June 1819 
 
 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many 
 other towns ; great damage sustain- 
 ed, and thousands perished - - 1319 
 
 One fatal, at Messina • • Oct. 1326 
 
 One in Spain, which devastated Mur- 
 cia, and numerous villages ; 6000 
 persons perished - March 21, 1829 
 
 In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 
 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- 
 gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many 
 houses were thrown down, and not a 
 chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 
 
 In many cities of Southern Syria, by 
 which hundreds of houses were 
 thrown down, and thousands of the 
 inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1837 
 
 At Martinique, by which nearly half 
 of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 
 700 persons killed, and the whole 
 island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839 
 
 At Ternate : the island made a waste, 
 almost every house destroyed, and 
 thousands of the inhabitants lose 
 their lives - - Feb. 14, 1840 
 
 Awful and destructive earthquake at 
 Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts 
 of Armenia 3137 houses were over- 
 thrown, and several hundred persons 
 perished - - July 2, 1840 
 
 Great earthquake at Zante, where 
 many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 
 
 Saxon goddess Eosire. The festival 
 i ; the day for the observance of it 
 597. It was orda'ned by the council 
 
360 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 i ECL 
 
 of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian 
 world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full mson that occurs aftei 
 the 21st of March. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the 
 defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453 
 Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- 
 tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by 
 assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortuaate emperor, 
 seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of tht 
 enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were 
 massacred by the soldiers, and th^ women reserved to gratify the lust of the 
 conqiieror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- 
 menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, 
 in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey/. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and 
 ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. 
 The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
 apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- 
 nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, 
 probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES or the CHURCH. See Roine. In 
 
 A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the Erench, who erected it 
 into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove 
 into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the 
 same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Veniee ; and, in 1800, 
 cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of 
 Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This 
 power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his 
 temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; 
 but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. 
 
 ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes, 
 or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they 
 chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- 
 andria, about A. D. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian 
 church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of 
 the doctrine of the Christian. 
 
 ECLIPSES. The theo'^y of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 
 
 B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to 
 be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during 
 its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. 
 at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with 
 accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary 
 eclipses of the sun and moon : — 
 
 OP THE SUN. 
 
 That predicted by Thales ; observed at 
 Sarais (Pliny, lib. n.) - B.C. 
 
 t)ne at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) - 
 
 Total one ; three days' supplication de- 
 creed at Rome (Livy) - - laa 
 
 One general at the death of Jesus Christ 
 {Josephus) ■ - - A. D. 33 
 
 One at Rome, causing a total darkness 
 at noon-day {Livy) - - ■ 291 
 
 One observed at Constantinople - 968 
 
 In France, when it was dark at noon- 
 day iDu Fresnoy) - June 29, 1033 
 
 585 
 424 
 
 In England, where it occasioned a total 
 darkness (W7?j. TlMwsJ.) - - 114C 
 
 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the 
 morning (Camden') • June 23, 1191 
 
 The true sun, and the appearance of 
 another, so that astronomers alone 
 could distinguish the difference by 
 their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.} ti9) 
 
 Again ; total darkness ensued {idem') • 1331 
 
 A total one ; the darkness so great that 
 the stars shone, and the birds went to 
 roost at noon (.Oldfiiir on' s Annals of 
 Geo. I.) . . April ?2, 1718 
 
EDCj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 361 
 
 Again, in Asia Minor {Polybius) • 21t 
 One at Rome, predicted by Q,. Sulpitius 
 
 Gallus {Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 163 
 
 One terrified the Roman troops and 
 
 quelled tlieir revolt ( Tacitus) a. d. 14 
 
 ECLIPSES, continued. 
 
 Remarkable one, central and annular 
 in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7 1820 
 
 OF THE MOON. 
 
 The first, observed by the Chaldeans al 
 
 Babylon (Ptolemy, lib. iv.) - b. o. 721 
 A total one, observed at Sardis ( Thti- 
 
 cydides,lib. vii.) - • - 413 
 
 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 
 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
 the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, 
 who died 328 b. c. 
 
 E11)EN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- 
 tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some 
 in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in 
 Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts 
 that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a 
 peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below 
 the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 
 27° N. lat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf^ an event which may 
 have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden 
 extended into Armenia. — Calmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a 
 view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good 
 for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — 
 Genesis ii. 8, 9. 
 
 EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and 
 the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; 
 Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded 
 the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. 
 
 «CDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of 
 France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- 
 voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to 
 France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 
 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of 
 manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet 
 remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued 
 the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they 
 excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — Atv- 
 derson's Orig. oj Englisk Commerce. 
 
 EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were 
 two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public 
 and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; 
 they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- 
 kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and 
 treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties 
 of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in 
 many instances as models for our -magistracy. — Pardon. 
 
 EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest 
 cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records. Dun Edin, 
 signifying the "hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, 
 king of Northumbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected 
 it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of 
 the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by 
 Ca melon, king of the Picts, 830 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
 ptanding at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and befor* 
 ihe use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 
 16 
 
362 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Ear 
 
 EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of Ii»- 
 struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New 
 Yorlc, Oct. 20, 1830. 
 
 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000Z. for national education, pro- 
 posed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 276 to 273, July 9, 
 and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the 
 grant, July 11, 1839. 
 
 fCGALIT^. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, tho 
 infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the 
 abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of 
 Louis XVI liis relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He 
 was guillotmed ]\ov. 6, 1793. 
 
 E(ifYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the 
 son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; 
 it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- 
 ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The 
 famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim 
 I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys 
 till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, 
 under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, 
 and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for. modern 
 events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. 
 
 Mizraim builds Memphis (_Blair) b. c. 2188 
 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- 
 per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and 
 Memphis (Abbe Lenglet, Blair) • 2126 
 Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 
 
 Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) - 2111 
 
 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, 
 passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, 
 and causes his exploits to be repre- 
 eented in sculpture and painting 
 {Usher, Lenglet) ■ ■ -2100 
 
 The Phffinicians invade Lower Egypt 
 
 and hold it 260 years ( Usher) - 2080 
 
 The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938 
 
 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt 
 
 to avoid the famine in Canaan • 1921 
 Syphoas introduces the Use of the com- 
 mon letters ( Usher) - • • 1891 
 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters 
 
 {Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 
 
 Amenophis 1. is acknowledged the 
 
 king of all Egypt {Lenglet) - - 1821 
 
 Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt 
 
 as a slave {Lenglet) ■ ■ - 1728 
 He interprets the king's dreams • 1715 
 His father and brethren settle here - 1706 
 Sesostris reigns ; he extends hh do- 
 minion by conquest over Arabia, 
 Persia, India, and Asia Minor {Leng- 
 let)' 1618 
 
 Settlement of the Ethiopians {Blair) 1615 
 Bampses, who imposed on his sub- 
 jects the building of walls and pyra- 
 mids, and other labors, dies {Lenglet) 1492 
 Amenophis 1. is overwhelmed in the 
 Red Sea, with all his army {Lenglet, 
 
 Blair) 1492 
 
 Reign of Egyptus, from whom the 
 
 country, hitherto called Mizraim, is 
 now called Egypt {Blair) - b. ti. 
 Reign of Thuons (the Proteus of the 
 Greeks) who had the faculty of as- 
 suming whatever form he pleased, 
 as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 
 fire . . . . • 
 
 [These fictions were probably intend- 
 ed to mark the profound policy of 
 this king, who was eminent for his 
 wisdom, by whicli his dominion 
 flourished. — Blair.] 
 Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages 
 Judea, and carries off the sacred veS' 
 sels of the Temple 
 The dynasty of kings called Tanites 
 
 begins with Petubastes {Blair) 
 The dynasty of Saites {Blair) 
 Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the 
 king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to 
 be roasted alive ( Usher) 
 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 
 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 
 19 years, the longest siege in the an- 
 nals of antiquity ( Usher) 
 Necho begins the famous canal be- 
 tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- 
 terranean sea {Blair) 
 This canal abandoned, after costing 
 the lives of 120,000 men {Herodotus) 
 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes 
 
 Apries ( Usher) 
 Apnes taken prisone c and strangled in 
 
 nis palace {Diod. Siculus) - 
 The philosopher Pythagoras comes 
 from Samos intr Egypt, and is in- 
 structed in the nysteries of Egyp- 
 tian theology ( Usher) 
 
 1485 
 
 1189 
 
 - 971 
 
 825 
 781 
 
 737 
 660 
 
 647 
 
 610 
 609 
 
 - 581 
 571 
 
 . 535 
 
 * The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later, 
 &B to the achiei ements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several king^ 
 Bttributed by thj Egypiian priests to Ses)stris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 
 
BLE J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 363 
 
 129 
 
 129 
 
 128 
 
 128 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 EGYPT, continued. 
 
 The line of the Fharaoha ends n the 
 murder of Psammenitus by Camby- 
 etta {Blair) ■ ■ -B.C. 526 
 
 Dread! ul excesses of Cambyses; he 
 
 puts the children of the grandees, 
 
 mala and female, to death, and makes 
 
 the com try a waste (flerodoZMs) - 534 
 He sends an army of 50,000 men across 
 
 the desert to destroy the temple of 
 
 Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish 
 
 in the burning sands {Justin) • 524 
 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again 
 
 subdued by Xerxes {Blair) - - 487 
 
 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - • 463 
 
 Successful revolt under Amyrtseus, 
 
 who is proclaimed king {Le^iglet) • 414 
 Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its 
 
 temples pillaged ( Usher) - - 350 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Egypt, 
 
 wrests it from the Persians, and 
 
 builds Alexandria (BteiV) - - 332 
 
 Philadelphus completes the Pharos of 
 
 Alexandria {Blair) • - - 283 
 
 The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- 
 tament made about this time - 283 
 The famous library of Alexandria also 
 
 d^tes about this period (Blair) - 283 
 Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 
 
 Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, 
 
 and returns laden with rich spoils, 
 
 and 2500 statues and vessels of gold 
 
 and silver, which Cambyses had 
 
 taken from the Egyptian temples 
 
 (Blair) - ■ - - 246 
 
 Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 
 At the death of Philometer, his brother 
 
 Physcon marries his queen, aiid on 
 
 the day of his nuptials murders the 
 
 infant son of Philometer in its moth- 
 er's arms .... 145 
 He repudiates his wife, and marries 
 
 her daughter by his brother (Blair) 130 
 
 ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to 
 
 have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruffhead' $■ Statutes, 
 
 Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving 
 
 excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their 
 
 , votes, 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. 
 
 ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic 
 body ma4iB choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which 
 prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed 
 the greafcest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
 peror. — Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648 ; and a ninth 
 in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to 
 eight, in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. 
 The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when 
 the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 b. c. Electricity 
 was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances 
 by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its 
 power, of ( onductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that 
 two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock 
 was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the 
 "Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, 
 and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 
 
 His subjects, wearied with his cruel- 
 ties and crimes, demolish his stat- 
 ues, set fire to his palace, and he 
 flies from their fury (Blair) b. o. 
 He murders his son by his new queen ; 
 also his son by her mother, sending 
 the head and limbs of the latter as a 
 present to the parent on a feasx day 
 
 Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he 
 recovers his throne ; and dies 
 
 Pestilence from the putrelaction of 
 vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- 
 sons perish in Egypt - 
 
 Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famout 
 city of Thebes destroyed ai'tera siege 
 of three years (Diod. Siculus) 
 
 Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to 
 his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa- 
 mous Cleopatra (Blair) 
 
 During a civil war between Ptolemy 
 and Cleopatra, Alexandria is be- 
 sieged by Caesar, and the famous 
 library nearly destroyed by fire 
 (Blair) .... 
 
 Ceesar defeats the king, who, in cross- 
 ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the 
 younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra 
 reign ..... 
 
 Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 
 years of age) and reigns alone 
 
 She appears before Mark Antony, to 
 answer for this crime. Fascinated 
 by her beauty, he follows her intp 
 Egypt 
 
 Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar 
 at the battle of Actium (Blair) 
 
 Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and 
 Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the 
 kingdom becomes a Roman prov- 
 ince . . . • . 
 
364 THE world's progress. I SUM 
 
 was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au- 
 rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1709, 
 
 ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- 
 
 vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries 
 of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), 
 and discovered the modtj of combining the metals; constructed what L" 
 very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the whole science into a 
 system which should rather be called Voitaism than Galvanism. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were 
 discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, .n 1807. This analogy was established 
 in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, 
 Germany, the United States and other countries 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, ^aving more or less 
 bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by 
 Winckler, at Leipsic, 1746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; 
 Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of 
 " Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof Volta's. " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 
 1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in 
 telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great 
 advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- 
 netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof Morse, 1832, patented 
 1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between 
 Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- 
 gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States 
 in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in 
 Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. — See Supplement. 
 
 ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- 
 tory of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they appointed 
 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants 
 were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus 
 were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- 
 ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of 
 enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry lU., in 1238. — 
 Baker's Chroii. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed 
 by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- 
 ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- 
 pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one 
 revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon 
 him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis 
 into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- 
 dosius the Great, a. d. 389. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived 
 chieflf from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens. 
 of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- 
 dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during 
 his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by 
 the British government for 36,000^., and placed in the British Museum, in 
 1816. 
 
 EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many 
 thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter 
 were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. 
 The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and 
 wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible^ 
 
BMP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 
 
 but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal 
 likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies, sorne of which, buried 
 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is iio\i 
 lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last 
 duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh 
 and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38. 
 
 ETilBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it ia 
 rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to 
 war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- 
 tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all 
 Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, 
 owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 
 
 EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all -essels in the ports 
 of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with 
 Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- 
 pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 
 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. 
 
 E]\IBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to 
 implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
 fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which 
 penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four 
 times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer 
 to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. 
 
 EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we 
 learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- 
 larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very 
 early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. 
 An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- 
 try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux 
 Tapestry. 
 
 EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in 
 Peru ; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no 
 true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- 
 uine emerald in the Paris Musciim, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., 
 who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred 
 that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. 
 
 EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- 
 ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American 
 colonies. West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
 Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the 
 decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively 
 of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- 
 ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were 
 registered as born in 
 
 Great Britain ard Ii-eland • - 148,212 
 
 Germany .... 58,018 
 
 France - - - - - 7,748 
 
 Sweden and Norway . - 903 
 
 Denmark .... 210 
 
 Switzerland - - - - - 319 
 
 Other countries or unknown - - 3,043 
 
 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. 
 This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter 
 Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given 
 the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers 
 (another title being joined). 
 
 EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode of putting criminals tc 
 
366 THE world's progress, [ ENC 
 
 death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, pai ticularly 
 by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through 
 the body on a stalce fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in 
 Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked 
 in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. "Wil- 
 liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- 
 clifFe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. 
 This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. 
 
 EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- 
 nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustiu 
 Csesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperoi 
 of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of 
 Germany, crowned by Leo III. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- 
 ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia 
 was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal 
 was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. 
 
 EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- 
 pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was 
 useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of 
 the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of 
 Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. 
 
 ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was 
 practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in 
 England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel 
 which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was 
 made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, 
 after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, 
 A. D. 1749. 
 
 ENCYCLOP.iEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly 
 given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. 
 Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- 
 ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, 
 in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedie 
 Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri- 
 buted, was pubhshed in 1782 etseq., in 200 quarto voliunes. The British En- 
 cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the 
 first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David 
 Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States. 
 Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of 
 the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica, edited by Professor Napier, and 
 published by A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, in 1840 etc., was stated to have been 
 i;126,000, of which i;23,000 were paid to the contributors. This was pro- 
 bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved bj' private enter- 
 prise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished 
 in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished 
 writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 
 1796-1830 and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- 
 menced in L^hiladelphia in 1829-30. Penny C'ycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. 
 
 ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called 
 Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. 
 The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain 
 Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Th« 
 corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military 
 force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a 
 
SNG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 
 
 colonel-in-chlef, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty 
 colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The 
 Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at 
 Washington. 
 
 ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert^ first king of Eng- 
 land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative 
 had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- 
 fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons 
 and lond, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession ot 
 Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England 
 and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, 
 and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated 
 with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and 
 the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or 
 Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of tho 
 most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- 
 glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had 
 been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English 
 tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry 
 VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the 
 Latin disused. May 1731. 
 
 ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- 
 tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal 
 rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- 
 tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- 
 dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
 Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The 
 art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United 
 States during the last ten years. 
 
 ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their 
 appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, 
 surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The 
 earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses 
 for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it 
 followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis 
 Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. — 
 De Piles. 
 
 ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois 
 Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced 
 on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 
 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackennann of 
 London in 1817. 
 
 ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- 
 proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further impioved 
 it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beaiitiful efiect is produced, 
 was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; he com- 
 municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished 
 for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en^ 
 graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, ona 
 of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincographj , if-c. 
 
 ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, aftet 
 it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in- 
 
368 THE world's progress. [ EPl 
 
 definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of 
 Philadelphia, in 1819. 
 ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahJers, or manufacture! a 
 of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of 
 printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See 
 Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
 Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden 
 in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, 
 and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789, et. seq. The earliest wood en- 
 graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christophe" 
 carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- 
 ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London 
 Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the 
 study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods 
 of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. 
 
 ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. 
 Envoys Extraordinary are of modem date. — Wicquefort. The court of 
 France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the 
 royal carriages, a. d. 1639. 
 
 EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was 
 one of the seven Wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, 
 and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings 
 contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to 
 perpetuate his memory, 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was 
 richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — 
 Univ. Hist. 
 
 EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- 
 trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as 
 censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the 
 kings, and even imprison them, If they were guilty of irregularities. 
 
 EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See 
 Homer. 
 
 EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the 
 founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a 
 happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but 
 from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with 
 itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his 
 system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. 
 
 EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the 
 ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin 
 epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled aU 
 others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- 
 ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine 
 at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example : — 
 
 " Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." 
 And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr 
 Doddridge, on the words Dum vivirmis vivamus, is the finest specimen fa 
 ©ur language : — 
 
 " Live while we live !" the epicure will say, 
 
 " And taste the pleasures of the present day." 
 
 " Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, 
 
 " And give to God each moment as it flies." 
 Lord ! in my view let both united be, 
 We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Doddridge 
 
ERA J DICTIONA lY OF DATES, 369 
 
 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its ftarly 
 history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this faovereign, 
 who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- 
 lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed iii 
 the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. 
 
 Reign of the great Pyrrhus - B.C. 306 
 He enters into a league against Deme- 
 trius ; the battle of BercEa - - 294 
 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first 
 
 battle against the Romans • - 280 
 
 He gains another great battle - - 279 
 
 His conquest of Sicily - - • 278 
 
 His last battle with the Romans - 274 
 
 He takes Macedon from Antigonus • 274 
 
 Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 272 
 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, 
 tlirov.'n at him from a house-top by a 
 
 woman .... 272 
 
 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon • 220 
 
 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 
 
 Annexed to the Ottoman empire A, D. 1466 
 
 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It 
 may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's 
 chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second 
 century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- 
 tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishopa. 
 In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abohshed at the period of the revolution, 
 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500 — 
 Burnet. 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United St.ites. Episcopacy established in New- 
 York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- 
 sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First 
 Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and 
 Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. 
 
 EPITAPHS. Thej' were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- 
 mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- 
 land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the 
 epigram. — Boileau. . 
 
 EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial 
 comjilimentary song, or epithalaraium. He received the name of Stesicho- 
 ru3 from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — 
 Bossuet. 
 
 EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- 
 ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to 
 regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- 
 larly adopted. — See Eras. 
 
 Creation ... 
 
 Deluge ... 
 
 Calling of Abraham 
 
 Argonautic ejcpedition . 
 
 Destruction of Troy 
 
 1st Olympiad - • - 
 
 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places 
 and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When 
 the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, 
 the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; 
 once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in 
 the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. 
 
 EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity 
 and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See CAaw- 
 cery. 
 
 ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order, 
 a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser. after which 
 16* 
 
 B. c. 4004 
 
 Building of Rome • 
 
 . B. c. 753 
 
 -2.^8 
 
 Nabonassar 
 
 - 747 
 
 - - 1921 
 
 The Seleucidae 
 
 • 312 
 
 -vm 
 
 The battle of Actium • 
 
 - 3a 
 
 - IISJ 
 
 The Christian era . 
 
 A.D. 1 
 
 - 776 
 
 Diocletian 
 
 - 2&1 
 
370 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ? EMB 
 
 the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb 
 26, 747. Tlie era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 
 312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 
 776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning 
 A. D. 813 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- 
 mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards 
 from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted 
 among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- 
 ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet frooi 
 Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. 
 
 ERAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and ChristiaBB 
 have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly 
 used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the 
 World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians have 
 made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, 
 when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot 
 of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the 
 birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — 
 Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- 
 land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in 
 this work. — See Ci'eaiion, and Christian Era. 
 
 ESCURIAL, The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most 
 magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; 
 and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forma 
 a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some 
 notion of tlie surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according 
 to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than 
 four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way 
 being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English 
 miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 
 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. 
 
 ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, 
 or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires 
 by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a 
 pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the 
 armigcrum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire 
 was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. 
 — Stowe. Meyrick's Ancient Armor. 
 
 ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether M^as first dis- 
 covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the 
 chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by 
 count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by 
 Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said 
 to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by 
 Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. 'This, however, is disputed, for 
 about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist 
 and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of 
 Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- 
 ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. 
 It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, 
 and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- 
 ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- 
 burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is 
 inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first 
 used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance 
 
eVE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 
 
 called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first 
 employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. 
 
 RTHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely 
 more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and 
 government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with 
 astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in 
 the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand yeara 
 before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not 
 only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. 
 
 ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called 
 by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus 
 Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions 
 as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 
 B. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carver a. One in 1012. — 
 Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 
 inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful 
 and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens 
 of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over 
 the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and 
 in May 1830, when several villages were destroj'ed, and showers of lava 
 reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte 
 destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. 
 
 EUCLID, Elements op. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished 
 there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- 
 able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented 
 by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who 
 reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- 
 rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of 
 geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus, 
 in A. D. 1533. 
 
 EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian 
 and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in 
 courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- 
 ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng- 
 let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on 
 the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. 
 
 EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken 
 by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British 
 forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It 
 was recovered by th« French under the marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same 
 year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- 
 stored in 1814. 
 
 EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 
 55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil 
 at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of 
 Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. 
 — Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of 
 the adopted Evangelists. 
 
 EVESHAM, Battle op, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and 
 Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, 
 and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one 
 period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who 
 did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, "Do not 
 
372 THE world's progress. r BXF 
 
 kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory brok« 
 up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. 
 
 EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. 
 The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind 
 in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- 
 nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, ' 
 June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in 
 Jasi. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1844 
 
 EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site 
 of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and 
 finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, 
 also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 
 
 EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting ^ »f officers whose 
 functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the 
 first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the 
 barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon- 
 don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- 
 ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. l&IZ.—Stowe. The English 
 and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 
 
 . EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long 1-aiIia- 
 ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized 
 as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an 
 office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions 
 to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was 
 built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and 
 'ustoms were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782 
 See Revenue. 
 
 AMOUNT OP THE EXCISE KBVENUB OP GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 1830 United Kingdom - £18,644,385 
 
 1834 Ditto - - 16,877,292 
 
 1837 Ditto . . . 14,518,142 
 
 1840 Ditto . . - 12,807,766 
 
 1845 Ditto . - - 13,585,583 
 
 1744 Great Britain - • £3,754,072 
 
 1786 Ditto - - - 5,540,114 
 
 1808 Ditto - . - 19,867,914 
 
 1820 Ditto - . - 26,364,702 
 
 1827 United Kingdom • - 20,995,324 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict'from Chris- 
 tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of 
 the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- 
 gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to 
 be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the 
 Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian 
 churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar 
 punishments in aid of their respective religions. — PAilUps. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- 
 cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes 
 have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose 
 sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant 
 power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germanj'^, in 1077, ab- 
 solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, 
 " his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to 
 bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II.'s reign ; 
 and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all 
 England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were 
 excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to 
 queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary in(Jul- 
 geaces were offered to aU who should assist in deposing her. 
 
 EXECUTIONS. See Co-ime. In the reign of Henry VHI. (thirty-eight yearo) 
 
BXPj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 373 
 
 it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.— 
 Stowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- 
 land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the numbet 
 of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, 
 the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three yeara 
 ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840( 
 they had decreased to 62.— Pari. Returns. 
 
 EXECUTIO'S IN LONDON IN THE POLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 In the year 1820 - 43 1 In the year laSS • nil l In the year 1838 - nil I In the year 1841 - 1 
 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In the year 1812 - S 
 In the year 1830 - 6 | In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | In the year 1843 • 1 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of 
 war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, 
 smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, tf. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, 
 Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- 
 tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The 
 Peacock lost on the bar of CoTumbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes 
 (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, 
 June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 
 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- 
 pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes, 
 
 EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1791 
 
 ■ $52,200,000 
 
 «19,012.041 
 
 1792 
 
 31,500,000 - 
 
 20,753;098 
 
 1793 
 
 - 31,100,000 
 
 26,109,572 
 
 1794 
 
 34,600,000 . 
 
 33,026.233 
 
 1795 
 
 - 69,756,268 
 
 47,989,472 
 
 1796 
 
 81,436,164 - 
 
 67,064.097 
 
 1797 
 
 ■ 75,379,406 
 
 56,850;206 
 
 1798 
 
 68,551,700 - 
 
 61,527;097 
 
 1799 
 
 - 79,')68,148 
 
 78,665,522 
 
 1800 
 
 91,252,768 - 
 
 70,971,780 
 
 1801 
 
 . 111,36.3,511 
 
 94,115,925 
 
 1802 
 
 76,333,333 - 
 
 72,483,160 
 
 1803 
 
 - 64,666,666 
 
 55,800,033 
 
 1804 
 
 85,000,000 - 
 
 77,699,074 
 
 1805 
 
 - 120,000,000 
 
 95,566,021 
 
 1806 
 
 129,000,000 - 
 
 101,536,963 
 
 .'807 
 
 • 138,500,000 
 
 108,343,150 
 
 1808 
 
 56,990,000 - 
 
 22,439,960 
 
 1809 
 
 . 59,400,000 
 
 52.203,231 
 
 1810 
 
 85,400,000 - 
 
 66,757,974 
 
 1811 
 
 . 53,400,000 
 
 - 61,316,831 
 
 1812 
 
 77,030,000 . 
 
 38,527,236 
 
 1813 
 
 - 22,005,000 
 
 ■ 27,855,997 
 
 1814 
 
 12,965,000 - 
 
 6,927,441 
 
 1815 
 
 - 113,041,274 
 
 . 52,557,753 
 
 1816 
 
 147,103,000 . 
 
 81,920,452 
 
 1817 
 
 . 99,250,000 
 
 • 87,671,569 
 
 1818 
 
 121,750,000 . 
 
 93,281,133 
 
 1819 
 
 - 87,125,000 
 
 70,142,521 
 
 EXPORTS, 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Edward I 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1820 
 
 74,450.000 - 
 
 69,691,669 
 
 1821 
 
 - 62,585,724 
 
 64,974,332 
 
 1822 ■ 
 
 83,241,541 - 
 
 72,160,281 
 
 1823 
 
 - 77,579.267 
 
 74,699,030 
 
 1824 
 
 80,549,007 - 
 
 75,986,657 
 
 1825 
 
 - 96,340,075 
 
 99,535,388 
 
 1826 . 
 
 84,974,477 - 
 
 77,595,322 
 
 1827 
 
 - 79,484,068 
 
 82,324,827 
 
 1828 
 
 88,509,824 - 
 
 72,264,686 
 
 1829 
 
 - 74,492,527 
 
 72,358,671 
 
 1830 
 
 70.876,920 - 
 
 73,849,508 
 
 1831 
 
 - 103,191,134 
 
 81,310,583 
 
 1832 
 
 101,029,266 - 
 
 87,176,943 
 
 1833 
 
 - 108.118,311 
 
 90,140,433 
 
 1834 
 
 12S;.521,332 - 
 
 104,336,973 
 
 1835 
 
 - 149,895,742 
 
 121,693,577 
 
 1836 
 
 189,980,035 . 
 
 128,663,040 
 
 1837 
 
 - 140,989,217 
 
 117,419,376 
 
 1838 
 
 108,486,616 . 
 
 113,717,404 
 
 1839 
 
 • 121,028,416 
 
 162,092,132 
 
 1840 
 
 131,571,950 - 
 
 104,805,891 
 
 1841 
 
 - 127,946,177 
 
 121,851,803 
 
 1842 
 
 100,162,087 - 
 
 104,691,534 
 
 1843 
 
 - 64,753,799* 
 
 84,346,480- 
 
 1844 
 
 108,435,035t - 
 
 lll,200,046t 
 
 1845 
 
 - 117,254,564t 
 
 114,646 ,606t 
 
 1846 
 
 121,69I,797t - 
 
 113,488,5161 
 
 1847 
 
 - 146.545,638t 
 
 158,648,6221 
 
 1848 
 
 154;977,876t • 
 
 154,032.131t 
 
 by h 
 
 is encouragemen 
 
 t of trade, 
 
 turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance 
 of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,0001., 
 and the imported to only 38,000^. 
 
 VALUE OP EXPORTS PROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD, VIE: — 
 
 In 1700 - 
 
 - £6,097,120 
 
 In 1820 - 
 
 -je51,733,113 
 
 In 1842 - 
 
 ..£102,180,517 
 
 In 1750 
 
 . 10,130,991 
 
 In 1830 
 
 - - 66,735,445 
 
 In 1843 
 
 - - 100,260,101 
 
 In 1775 - 
 
 - 16,326,363 
 
 In 1835 - 
 
 - 78,376,732 
 
 In 1844 - 
 
 - 117,877,27a 
 
 In 1800 
 
 . 38,120,120 
 
 In 1840 
 
 - - 97,402,726 
 
 In 1845 
 
 - - 131,564,503 
 
 In 1810 - 
 
 - 45,869,839 
 
 In 1841 - 
 
 - 102,705,372 
 
 In 1846 - 
 
 . 134,509,118 
 
 * Only nine months of 1843. 
 
 t For the year ending June 30. 
 
374 THE world's progress. [PAl 
 
 The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom 
 of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and 
 colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : 
 
 InlSJl - •jEU6,479,678 IInl843 - -£113,844,259 I In 1845 - - £145,961,749 
 In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 150,879,986 
 
 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the 
 United Kingdom was 85,281, 958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- 
 land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,028Z. But even this 
 great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year 
 immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — 
 Brit. Revenue Returns. 
 EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most 
 bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- 
 manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were 
 so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians 
 on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss 
 in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. 
 
 F. 
 
 FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from 
 faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they 
 were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and 
 were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against 
 the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in 
 which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There 
 only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
 him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. 
 
 FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful 
 as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. 
 xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest coUectionof fables extant is of east- 
 ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, 
 called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. 
 — Sir William Jones. The well-known .lEsop's fables (which see), were 
 written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- 
 riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, 
 a green, blue, red, and white, to which Doraitian added two others, one in 
 coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both 
 the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- 
 cular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, 
 between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the 
 name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in 
 religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. 
 
 FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in 
 England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spelman. They were established by order of 
 Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Ferice, at which the monks celebrated tha 
 festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- 
 mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people making 
 merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- 
 land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the 
 first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and 
 Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. 
 
 FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, 
 commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were alaib 
 
rsol 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 
 
 the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with 
 dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. 
 FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of 
 the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine that 
 raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 
 436 B. c. Livy. 
 
 Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42 i voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, 
 
 A; Rome, attended by plague - 
 In Britain, so grievous that people ate 
 the hark of trees - - - 272 
 
 306 
 310 
 370 
 
 450 
 
 In Scotland, and thousands die 
 
 In EngVand, where 40,000 perish 
 
 Awfurone in Phrygia • 
 
 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate 
 their children (Dufresnoi/) 
 
 In England, Wales, and Scotland 
 
 Again, when thousands starve 
 
 Again, which lasts four years - 
 
 Awful one throughout Europe 
 
 In England and France ; this famine 
 leads to a pestilential fever, which 
 lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195 
 
 Another famine in England - - 1251 
 
 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- 
 
 262 1 and vermin - - - a. d. 1315 
 
 One in England and France {Rapin) ■ 1353 
 Again, one so great, that bread was 
 
 made from fern roots iSlowe) - 1438 
 
 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 
 
 One general in Great Britain - ■ 1743 
 
 One which devastates Bengal - - 1771 
 
 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- 
 
 739 i sons perish .... 1775 
 
 823 I One grievously felt in France - - 1789 
 
 954 1 One sevex'ely felt in England - - 1795 
 
 1016 Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 
 
 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden Uter- 
 
 cepting the supplies • - - 1813 
 
 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the 
 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 
 
 FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc jlabellum cL 
 ventulum huic sicfacito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies 
 ■was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false 
 hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England 
 from France. — Siowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in 
 church. — Pardon. 
 
 FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows 
 which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. 
 These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined 
 form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called 
 comedies. See article Drama. 
 
 FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations 
 from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other 
 stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, 
 to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as 
 a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. 
 
 FEASTS and FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by 
 Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest 
 magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- 
 mon, 1005 b. c. — Josef hus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, 
 Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be 
 observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. 
 Jubilees in the Romish chuTch were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. 
 See Jubilees. For fixed festivals ol^served in the church of England, as set- 
 tled at the Reformation, cl seq., see Book of Conimnn Prayer. 
 
 FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a feast 
 which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when 
 sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the 
 dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- 
 viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. 
 
 FERRARA. A citv in the papal dominions, eracuated by the Austrians, ex 
 
 cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. 
 FEITDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner 
 
 of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600. Tlie 
 
376 THE world's PROGRESS. [ WUi 
 
 slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in TOOFi. Tliis was 
 done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain 
 persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- 
 ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. 
 in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- 
 ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into 
 Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 
 20 George II. 1746. — Littlpton ; Ruffliead ; Blackstone. 
 
 FEUILL ANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues 
 and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where 
 their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins 
 invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, 
 Dec. 25, 1791. 
 
 FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, foiinded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about 
 A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M- rocco 
 States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than 
 seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means 
 of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became 
 checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, 
 in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, tiat " no fiction of law 
 
 SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO 
 
 PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional 
 maxim is now a rule of law. 
 
 FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert 
 I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, 
 before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons 
 (see Feudal Laws). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. 
 
 FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet 
 Fiancis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 
 1520. Tlie nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with 
 such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview 
 (an open plain) the name of Tlie Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the 
 king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and 
 were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain 
 splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the 
 interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. 
 
 FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of 
 Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at 
 hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal 
 monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king a,t London ! 
 Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. 
 
 FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of 
 computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900. 
 They were first known in England about the year 1253. previously to which 
 time the numbering by letters was in use there. See ArithmeMc. 
 
 FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The 
 poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, 
 king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of 
 Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- 
 tries of the East, 2115 b.c. — Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the 
 world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and 
 
wa] 
 
 DICTIONAHY OF DATES. 377 
 
 taught this theory about 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is 
 said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire— as to Moses in the 
 burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to tlie prophets Isaiali, Ezekiel, and St. 
 John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, 
 as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were 
 brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- 
 land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the 
 carl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at 
 the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who 
 armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the 
 Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the 
 Genoese, in 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the 
 battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See 
 Artille?-y. 
 
 FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although flie forcing 
 pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The 
 fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 
 the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the 
 present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 
 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. 
 
 FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most 
 formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to 
 destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of 
 them in the English naVy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- 
 wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement 
 with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin. 
 
 ri'iRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : 
 they were invented in Europe at Florence, about k. d. 1360 ; and were first 
 exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 
 in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- 
 sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with 
 a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected 
 over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 
 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard 
 ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surroimded by 
 fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and 
 dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. 
 
 FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. 
 
 In New York, destroying 600 warehou- New York, destroying 302 stores and 
 
 ' """ dwelling-nouses, and property wortfi 
 
 $6,000,000^ lives lost ■ July 19, 1845 
 St. .lohn's, Newfoundland ; nearly the 
 
 whole town destroyed— 6,000 people 
 
 made houseless - - June 12, 1846 
 
 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons 
 
 burned to death - • June 14, 1846 
 Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued 
 
 $800,000 - - - July 13, 1846 
 
 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 
 
 IS persons killed - April 14, 1347 
 
 At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides 
 
 steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over, 
 
 loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, .849 
 
 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, 
 
 $7.50,000 - • - Sept. 9, 1848 
 
 At St. Louis ; 23 steamboats and 1.5 
 
 blocks of houses destroyed, loss about 
 
 $3,000,000 - - May 17, 1846 
 
 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July d, 1860 
 
 ses and foperty to amount of $20,- 
 000,000 - ... Dec. 16, 1835 
 
 At Washington, destroying the General 
 Post Oflice and Patent 'Office, with 
 10,000 valuable models, drawings, 
 &c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 
 
 At Charleston, S. C. ; 14-5 acres and 
 1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 
 
 New York; 46 buildings; loss, $10,- 
 000,000 - - ' - Sept. 6, 1839 
 
 Philadelph.a ; 52 buildings ; loss, 
 $500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and 
 property valued about $6,000,000 
 
 ' April 10, 1845 
 
 Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, 
 immense loss of property, and se- 
 veral li-'es, May 28, 1845. Another, 
 burnmf 1,300 dwellings; in all, two- 
 thirds ol the city - June 28, 1845 
 
378 THE world's progress. [ ft o 
 
 FIRE OP LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four days eigtty- 
 niue chiirches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the 
 Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, 
 besides 13 200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened 
 (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three 
 days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up oi 
 houses. — Hume; Rapin; Carte. 
 
 FIRST FRUITS. Primiticz among the Hebrews. They were offerings which 
 made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits 
 were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in 
 England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- 
 land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VHI., 1535, when the 
 first fiuits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- 
 sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of 
 the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of 
 First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 
 1838. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS, Sect of. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d 
 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- 
 lation, and publicly lashed themselves, M'hile in procession, preceded by the 
 cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad 
 Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. 
 
 FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgse ; conquered by Julius Caesar, 
 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by 
 its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the 
 house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders 
 shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it 
 was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrun by 
 the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. II 
 was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected 
 into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. — See Belgium. 
 
 FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many 
 ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. 
 A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the 
 flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. 
 See article Hemp. 
 
 FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English ajid Scots. James IV. ol 
 Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. 
 of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy; 
 and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10 000 of his army 
 were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, 
 lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging 
 Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513. 
 
 FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en- 
 larged bj' the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- 
 built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- 
 aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be fourd tho 
 rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- 
 emy, and the Accademia della Crusca, were instituted to enrich the literature 
 and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it 
 rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by tho 
 French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. 
 
 FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian CaboJ 
 sailing under the English flag, in 1197. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven- 
 
FLO] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 379 
 
 turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539, 
 Hernando de Soto, wlio had been an oflBcer under Pizarro, overran the penin- 
 sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few yeai^s 
 after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange foi 
 Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United 
 States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the 
 Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another 
 protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 
 1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The 
 Seminole chief Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1880, 34,723; 
 in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. 
 
 FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A floren was issiied by Ed- 
 ward III, which was current in England at the value of 65., in 1337. — Cam- 
 den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because 
 the latter was of the best gold. — Aske. The florin :f Germany is in value 
 2s. 4^. ; that of Spain 4s. 4^fiJ. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. %d, ; that of 
 Holland 2s. — Ayliffe. 
 
 FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our 
 gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is 
 said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for 
 the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of 
 our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckviann. With what good- 
 ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even 
 the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the 
 reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, 
 for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers 
 in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects 
 of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented 
 in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of 
 whose introduction to Engli.sh gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the 
 following : — 
 
 FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C, 
 
 Acacia, N. America, before 
 Allspice shrub, Carolina 
 Anniseed tree, Florida, about • 
 Arbor Vitae, Canada, before 
 Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 
 Auricula, Switzerland 
 Azarole, S. Europe, before 
 Bay, royal, Madeira 
 Bay, sweet. Italy, before 
 Camellia, China 
 Chaste tree, Sicily, before 
 Christ's thorn, Africa, before 
 Canary bell-flower, Canaries - 
 Carnation, Flanders 
 Ceanothus, blue, New Spain - 
 Canary convolvulus. Canaries 
 Convolvulus, many-flowered - 
 Coral tree, Cape 
 Coral tree, bell-flowered. Cape 
 Coral tree, tremulous, Cape 
 Crseper, Virginian, N. America 
 Dahlia, China 
 Dryandra, New Holland 
 Evergreen thorn, Italy 
 Everlasting, great-flowered. Capo 
 Everlasting, giant. Cape • 
 Fernbush, sweet, N. America • 
 Fox-glove, Canaries 
 Geranium, Flanders 
 6ill3"flower, Flanders 
 
 1640 
 172(i 
 1766 
 1596 
 1774 
 1567 
 1640 
 1665 
 1548 
 1811 
 1570 
 1596 
 1696 
 1567 
 1818 
 1690 
 1779 
 1816 
 1791 
 1789 
 1603 
 1803 
 1803 
 1629 
 1781 
 1793 
 1714 
 1698 
 1534 
 1567 
 
 Gold-plant, Japan 
 Golden bell-flower, Madeira 
 Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer- 
 ica, before 
 Heath, ardent, Cape 
 Heath, beautiful. Cape 
 Heath, fragrant. Cape • 
 Heath, garland. Cape 
 Heath, perfumed. Cape 
 Honeyflower, great. Cape - 
 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - 
 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 
 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America 
 Hyssop, south of Europe, before - 
 Jasmine, Circassia, before 
 Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - 
 Judas-tree, south of Europe, before 
 Laburnum, Hungary 
 Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before 
 Laurestine, south of Europe, before 
 Lavender, south of Europe, before 
 Lily, Italy, before - 
 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 
 Lily, red-colored. South America - 
 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before 
 Lupine tree, Cape, about - 
 Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America 
 Magnolia, dwarf, China 
 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America 
 Mafden-hair. Japan • 
 Mignionette, Italy 
 
 1783 
 
 1777 
 
 1683 
 1800 
 1795 
 1803 
 1774 
 1803 
 1688 
 1805 
 1752 
 1656 
 1548 
 1548 
 1629 
 1595 
 1576 
 1713 
 1590 
 1568 
 1460 
 1800 
 1623 
 1739 
 1793 
 1688 
 1786 
 1734 
 1714 
 152S 
 
380 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [pon 
 
 Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon - 1629 
 Rose without thorns, N. America, be- 
 
 fore 
 
 Rosemary, south of Europe 
 St. Peter's wort. North America - 
 Sage, African, Cape 
 Sage, Mexican, Mexico 
 Sassafras tree, N. America, before 
 Savin, south of Europe, before 
 Snowdrop, Carolina 
 Sorrel tree, N. America, before - 
 Sweet bay, south of Europe, before 
 Tamarisk plant, Germany - 
 Tea tree, China, about - 
 Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - 
 Trumpet-flower, N. America • 
 Trumpet-flower, Cape 
 Tulip, Vienna 
 
 Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1629 
 
 Virgin's-bower, Japan 
 Weeping willow, Levant, before 
 Wax tree, China 
 Winter berry, Virginia 
 Youlan, China - 
 
 1726 
 1543 
 1730 
 1731 
 1724 
 1663 
 1584 
 1756 
 1752 
 1548 
 1560 
 1768 
 1739 
 1640 
 1823 
 1578 
 
 1776 
 1692 
 1794 
 1736 
 1789 
 
 FLOWERS, continued. 
 
 Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape • - 1713 
 Milk-wort, showy, Cape - - 1814 
 
 Mountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 
 Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 
 Myille, candleberry, N. America - - 1699 
 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - - 1776 
 
 Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 
 Olive, Cajie, Cape ■ - - 1730 
 
 Olive, sweet-scented, China - - 1771 
 
 Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596 
 
 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - - 1724 
 Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 
 
 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 1792 
 Pigeon-berry, N. America - - 1736 
 
 Pink, from Italy - - • - 1567 
 
 Ranunculus, Alps - • - 1528 
 
 Roses, Netherlands - - • - 1522 
 
 Rose, the China, China - - 1789 
 
 Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and 
 
 south of Europe, about - - 1543 
 
 Rose, the Japan, China - - - 1793 
 
 Rose, the moss, before ... 1724 
 Rose, the musk, Italy - - - 1522 
 
 Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 
 
 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from 
 
 China 1821 
 
 FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarch. 
 The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; 
 and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay 
 claim to its invention. It was in far more genei-al use as a concert instru- 
 ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- 
 relli came over. — See Music. 
 
 FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- 
 nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, 
 La Grange, and La Place. 
 
 FLYING. Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- 
 tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac- 
 tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man 
 call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him 
 call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away pre- 
 viously to the accomplishment of these predictions. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in 
 1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and 
 Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- 
 poleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- 
 tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 181-3. Fon- 
 tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here 
 Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, 
 April 5, 1814. 
 
 FONTENOY, Battle op, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, 
 and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
 duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the 
 carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and 
 the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end 
 defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which 
 he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring 
 his troops that the day would be their own ; April 30, 1745. 
 
 FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in 
 a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early 
 
rou J 
 
 mCTIDNARY OF DaTES. 381 
 
 ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser 
 voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- 
 tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167. 
 FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and 
 were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of 
 absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed 
 jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu- 
 rope), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. 
 
 FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many 3M 38 
 forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- 
 shire was made by Wihiam I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, 
 pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, 
 A. D. 1079-85.— Stowe. 
 
 FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., 
 made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut 
 off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual 
 imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 
 1634. 
 
 FORGERY, Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- 
 bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- 
 uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in 
 the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200Z. : the greatest interest was made, 
 and the highest infiuence was exerted to save him, but when the case came 
 before the council, the minister of the day said to George IIL, " if your 
 majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he 
 was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London 
 banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- 
 chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for 
 forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maj'nard, December 31, 1829. 
 
 FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — 
 Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- 
 son's Itmerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was 
 served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he 
 cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
 hand." Thomas Corj^ate describes, with much solemnity, the manner ol 
 using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate 
 the Italian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. 
 
 FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified 
 cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues 
 were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about 
 A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- 
 ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. 
 
 FOrHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard 
 III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death 
 is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded 
 in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8, 
 1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- 
 land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provision 
 lor the preservation of exposed children; but foundling hospitals are a 
 modern institution. That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1807 
 had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings in 
 1784, was 40,000- in 1798, over 51,000; in 1822, 138,500. The increase 
 m Europe during the last fifty j-ears has been very great. In England 
 these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine II. built a 
 loatlv one near Moscow, where 8000 infanta were succoi'ed. 
 
382 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [fri 
 
 FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In 
 the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Ger- 
 many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave 
 the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, 
 are the i"eal ancestors of tlae modern French. Previous to the revolution, 
 France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, 
 first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica, 
 Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Vieivs, 65 et seq. 
 
 The Franks, under their leader Phara- 
 mond, sjttle in that part of Gaul till 
 late called Flanders - - A. D. 420 
 
 Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481 
 
 [The Events in 1-rench History and the 
 succession of sovereigns will be found 
 in the Tabular Views in this volume, 
 commencing p. 65.] 
 720. ChildericII. 
 737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic 
 
 sway during an Interregnum. 
 742. Childeric HI., the Stupid ; turned 
 monk. 
 
 THE CARLOVINGIANS. 
 
 752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 
 tel ; this race called Carlovingians. 
 
 768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; 
 afso emperor of Germany. 
 
 S14. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, 
 the Debonnaire ; dethroned, and im- 
 prisoned in a monastery. 
 
 840. Charles n., surnamed the Bald; poi- 
 soned by his physician Henault. 
 
 877. Louis the Stammerer. 
 
 879. Carloman and Louis IH. The latter 
 died, 882. Carloman reigned alone. 
 
 884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. 
 
 887. Eudes or Hugh. 
 
 898. Chanes III., the Simple ; deposed and 
 died in prison. 
 
 923. Rudolph. 
 
 936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 
 from his horse. 
 
 954. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said b) 
 his wife Emma. 
 
 986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by 
 
 hie wife Blanche, and in him ended 
 the vice of Charlemagne. 
 
 THE CAPETS. 
 
 987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of 
 
 kmgs are called Capevingians. 
 996. Robert the Sage. 
 1031. Henry 1. 
 1060. Philip I., the Fair. 
 1108 Louis VI., the Lusty. 
 1137 Louis VII., the Young. 
 1180 Philip II., Augustus. 
 1223. Louis VIII., the Lion. 
 1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis; died iH 
 
 his camp before Tunis ; canonized. 
 1270. Philip III., the Hardy. 
 X285, Philip IV., the Handsome. 
 1314. Louis X., Hutin. 
 1316. John, who reigned only eight days. 
 1316. PhiUp v., the Long. 
 1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; king of 
 
 Navarre. 
 
 HOirSE OP VALOI» 
 
 1328. Philip de Valois. 
 
 1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
 in London. 
 
 1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise; th« 
 first prince who had the title of dau- 
 phin. (See article Dauphin.) 
 
 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 
 
 1422. Charles VII., the Victcjious. 
 
 1461. Louis XI., detested for his atrocioua 
 
 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable. 
 
 1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed 
 
 the Father of his People. 
 1515. Francis I. 
 1547. Henry II. : died of a wound receivea 
 
 at a tournament. 
 
 1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart, 
 
 afterwards queen of Scots ; died 
 the year after his accession. 
 
 1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his 
 
 mother, obtained the regency, which 
 trust she abused. 
 
 1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland; 
 murdered Aug. 1, 15S9, by Jacques 
 Clement, a Dominican friar. In this 
 prince was extinguished the house 
 of Valois. 
 
 1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, 
 king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- 
 cis Ravillac. (See Ravillac.) 
 
 1610. Louis XIII., the Just. 
 
 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled 
 Dieu-Do7ine. 
 
 1715. Louis XV., the Well-Beloved; bu*. 
 which surname he lost. 
 
 1774. Louis XVI., his grandson ; guillo- 
 tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen 
 Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 
 
 1789. The Revolution commences with the 
 destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 
 
 1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. 
 
 FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- 
 ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the 
 pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes 
 the iron crown. May 26, 1805. Re- 
 nounces the thrones of France and 
 Italy, Apr. 5, 1814. 
 
 BOURBONS RESTORED. 
 
 1814. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the thron«i 
 May 3, 1814 ; dies, Sept. 16, 1824. 
 
 1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, 1830; 
 retires to Rambouillet same day, 
 and subsequently seeks protection 
 in England. 
 
 HOUSE OP ORLEANS. 
 
 1830. Louis-Philippe ; declared " king at 
 the Frencn," August 9. 
 
PRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 
 
 FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an- 
 ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure, In Spain, 
 churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they 
 were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun- 
 ties on persons having 405. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruff head' i 
 Statutes. See Electors. 
 
 FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church 
 of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some 
 authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
 very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared ia 
 England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VHI., 
 they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a. d 1536-38. 
 
 FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken 
 several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the 
 iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- 
 anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was 
 established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. 
 
 FREDERICKSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable by the death of 
 Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, 
 and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. 
 He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer- 
 book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis- 
 tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- 
 brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North." 
 
 FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves 
 masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and 
 harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build- 
 ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, 
 Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- 
 tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been 
 fixed at the year a. d. 674 ; although by other authorities it is assigned a 
 much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free- 
 masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into 
 great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was e.stablished ; that 
 of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- 
 sons were excommimicated by the pope, in 1738. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French 
 laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
 The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- 
 land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of 
 Edward III., lZ&2.—Stowe. 
 
 FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the 
 American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the 
 British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- 
 can commander and his troops were made prisoners. 
 
 FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng- 
 land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689 The 
 French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me., &c., 1690 ; but were dafeated 
 by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. " Queen Anne'a 
 war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish 
 invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French 
 in Port Royal, 1707 ; and against Canada, 1710 ; both failed. Peace of 
 Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744 ; Louisbourg and 
 Cape Breton taken bj English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749^ French en- 
 
384 THE world's progress. [ FRC 
 
 croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3 
 Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken 
 by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louishourg taken by the Eng- 
 lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon- 
 deroga. Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. 
 Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, 
 Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the j^eace of Paris, 1763. 
 French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 
 1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the 
 United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. 
 
 FRIDAY, The sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga. a goddess wO;*- 
 shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same 
 with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, 
 and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of 
 our Saviours crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. 
 
 FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on 
 the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- 
 pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 
 50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by whicl 
 Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nea-ly half hei 
 dominions. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, a. d. 1642. 
 Visited by Walhs, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and bj' capt. Cook, 
 who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi- 
 tion of the natives, 1773. 
 
 FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in 
 the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into 
 importance they have been regulated and protected bj^ various legislative 
 enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than 
 twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly 
 Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities. 
 
 FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince 
 Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han- 
 over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- 
 land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but 
 Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Frise (some- 
 times, though rai-ely, written Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived 
 from Friesland, where it Avas invented. 
 
 FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng- 
 lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. 
 After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, Avhich 
 has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, 
 bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain 
 gold, and which induced queen Ehzabeth to patronize a second voyage, and 
 lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up 1 o » 
 third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. 
 
 FROSTS, The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a. d. 401. — Univ. Hut. 
 A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued 
 until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred 
 miles from the shore. — Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day 
 was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035.— ,S^ee^. The 
 frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that 
 country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the 
 French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable 
 
row] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385 
 
 year. ' Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the 
 frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battaUons, and the horses 
 fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effects 
 of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
 more than 400,000 men. 
 
 FRUITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned 
 as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and 
 flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought 
 thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII. , and of Mary and Elizabeth, 
 between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Floiuers. Among 
 others of less note, were musk-melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- 
 dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saffron, woad, and 
 other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with- 
 out success. — Hackluijt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits 
 whose introduction into England has been traced : — 
 
 FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame- 
 
 Almond-tree, Barbary - - A. D. 1548 rica, before - - - a. d. 1629 
 
 Apples, Syria 
 
 Apple, the custard, North Americe 
 
 Apple, the Osage, ditto 
 
 Apricots, Epirus 
 
 Cherry-trees, Pontus 
 
 Cornelian cherry, Austria - 
 
 Currants, Zante - 
 
 Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 
 
 Fig-tree, south of Europe, before 
 
 Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 
 
 Gooseberries, Flanders, before 
 
 Grapes, Portugal 
 
 Lemons. Spain ... 
 
 Limes, Portugal ... 
 
 Lime, the American, before 
 
 Melons, before 
 
 Mock orange, south of Europe, before 
 
 Mulberry, Italy 
 
 M ilberry, white, China, about • 
 
 1522 Mulberry, the paper, from .U pan, before 1754 
 
 1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - - 1562 
 
 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - - 1730 
 
 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China • 1771 
 
 100 Oranges 1595 
 
 1596 Peaches, Persia .... 1562 
 
 1533 Pears, from various climes - . * * * 
 
 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568 
 
 1548 Pippins, Netherlands - • - 1525 
 
 1789 : Plums, Italy - ■ - - . 1522 
 
 1540 ! Plum, the date, Barbary - - - 1596 
 
 1528 : Pomegranate, Spain, before ■ - 1548 
 
 1554 Quince, Austria - - - - 1573 
 
 1554 Q,uince, the .Japan - • - 1796 
 
 175'.i Raspberry, the flowering, N. America - 1700 
 
 1540 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before - 1696 
 
 1596 I Strawberry, Flanders - - - 1530 
 
 1520 I Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724 
 
 1596 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 162i> 
 
 FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, hi 
 A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 
 1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies 
 for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues 
 (the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. — Mo-r- 
 timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of 
 the Bank of England. — A?iderso7i. Tlie Three per cent, annuities were crea- 
 ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three 
 per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
 hoiise, 1751. Three and a-half ^er cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- 
 ties, 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1702. Five per cent, annuities, 1797, and 
 1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. 
 
 FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks 
 they were chiefly horse races ; and among the Romans, processions and tne 
 mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were 
 abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- 
 then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in- 
 dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place a. d 
 1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. 
 
 FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, 
 when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- 
 ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 b. c. Po« 
 pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funera 
 17 
 
386 THE world's progress. [ GA^ 
 
 which was done by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that JuliiM 
 Caesar did the like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, 
 Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- 
 tus, 580 B. c. 
 FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- 
 ury advanced, they were used by princes as hnings for their tents^ They 
 were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward HI. enacted that 
 all such persons as could not spend 100^. a year, should be prohibited this 
 species of finery, 1337. 
 
 G. 
 
 SALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were 
 invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens, 
 786 B. 0. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting 
 in them, see Polybius. 
 
 GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent ; it was first noticed in 1767, by 
 Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani 
 of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and 
 from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Gaivani 
 having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the 
 contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon: and 
 in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. 
 Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- 
 rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers. 
 See Electro- Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles 
 of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 
 livres, in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesvierism. 
 
 GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the 
 north of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by 
 William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture ot 
 property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. 
 Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters : and they protested against 
 ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 
 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume- 
 rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. 
 
 GAMING, Excessive. Introduced into England by the Saxons ; the loser was 
 often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. — 
 Camden ; Slowe. Act, prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting 
 tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 
 38 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act 
 to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and 
 the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. 
 — Ruffkead's Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaminghouse in London 
 for one season have been estimated at 150,OOOZ. In one night a million of 
 money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. 
 
 U AMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their "espectivo 
 heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on 
 new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
 games were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See 
 
 the Ca'pitoline, Isthmian, Ohjmpic, Pythia7i, Secular, and other Games. 
 
 GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art ol 
 building houses. — Walpole. Noah planted a vinej'^ard, and drank of the wine. 
 Of fruit, flower, and kitchei gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt, 
 
sAa I 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 387 
 
 the prototype. — Idem. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par- 
 terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one 
 in that of our William III. — Idem. The art of gardening became better 
 understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our 
 vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign 
 of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 
 1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : — 
 
 ROOTS AND VKGETABLES. 
 
 Carrots 
 
 - Flanders 
 
 Plums - 
 
 Damascui 
 
 
 
 Brocoli - 
 
 • Cyprus 
 
 Oranges - 
 
 Spain 
 
 Rice, from 
 
 Ethiopia 
 
 Beans • 
 
 - Greece 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Spain 
 
 Buckwheat - 
 
 ■ Asia 
 
 Peas - 
 
 - Spain 
 
 Pink 
 
 Italy 
 
 Borage 
 
 Syria 
 
 
 
 Provence-rose 
 
 Marseille* 
 
 Cresses 
 
 Crete 
 
 FRUITS AND 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 Convolvulus 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Cauliflowjr 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 
 
 Arctopus 
 
 Cape 
 
 Asparagus - 
 
 Asia 
 
 Jasmine 
 
 • Circassia 
 
 Bell-fower 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Lettuce - 
 
 Brabant 
 
 Elder-tree 
 
 - Persia 
 
 Cherr.JiS 
 
 Pontus 
 
 Artichokes - 
 
 Holland 
 
 Tulip - 
 
 - Cappadocia 
 
 Figs - - 
 
 Italy 
 
 Garlic - 
 
 The East 
 
 Daffodil - 
 
 . Italy 
 
 Date-plum - 
 
 Barbary 
 
 Shallots 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Lily - 
 
 Syria 
 
 Mulberry - 
 
 Italy 
 
 Horse-radish 
 
 China 
 
 Tuberose - 
 
 Java, &c. 
 
 Nectarine • 
 
 Persia 
 
 Kidney-beans 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Carnation • 
 
 Italy, &c. 
 
 Passion-flower 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Gourds • 
 
 Astracan 
 
 Ranunculus 
 
 Alps 
 
 Pomegranate 
 
 Spain 
 
 Lentils - 
 
 ■ France 
 
 Apples 
 
 Syria 
 
 Rosemary 
 
 Italy 
 
 Chervil - 
 
 Italy 
 
 Apricots - 
 
 • Epirus 
 
 Laburnum - 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Celery - 
 
 Flanders 
 
 Currants 
 
 - Zante 
 
 Laurel 
 
 Levant 
 
 Potatoes - 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Damask-rose 
 
 • Damascus 
 
 Lavender 
 
 Italy 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 America 
 
 Hops - 
 
 - Artois 
 
 Peaches - 
 
 Persia 
 
 Cabbage - 
 
 Holland 
 
 Gooseberries 
 
 - Flanders 
 
 Quince 
 
 Austria 
 
 Anise • 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Gilly-ilowers 
 
 • Toulouse 
 
 Weep. Willow Levant 
 
 Parsley • 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Musk-rose 
 
 • Damascus 
 
 Fennel - 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and 
 the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, && 
 were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- 
 rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. , about 
 1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, 
 in Sussex, 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng- 
 land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several 
 sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came 
 from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by 
 archbishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted 
 flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose, 
 &c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots 
 from Vienna, 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 
 1600. See Flowers; Fruits. 
 GARTER, Ordkr OF THE. This institution outvies all other similar institu- 
 tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France 
 and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, 
 with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of bis 
 mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and 
 thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed 
 a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to 
 the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1844, published royal 
 letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
 knights as had a mind to ventiire their reputation at the jousts and tour- 
 naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor , it 
 was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- 
 meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were 
 entertained at the king's own expense of lOOZ. a week. In 1346, Edward 
 gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with suc- 
 cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, .and 
 having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner j and Edward the Black Frince 
 
S88 THE world's progress. [sbh 
 
 his son, having expelled the rebels in Ca&tile, and enthroned the lawful so- 
 vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, 
 A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the 
 ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in- 
 scription in old French — " Honi soit qui mal y pense " — evil to him who evil 
 thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled 
 Equites aurecz Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. 
 
 GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr, 
 Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- 
 nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis- 
 play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, 
 on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently 
 used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips 
 and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights 
 were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They 
 were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London 
 in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- 
 nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex- 
 tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) 
 first lighted with gas, 1823-4. 
 
 GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first 
 printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because 
 una gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. 
 Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. — 
 Truster. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 
 1115.— Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub- 
 lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 
 7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed 
 to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are 
 used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter 
 was forged with a view of affecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud 
 succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The 
 Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. 
 
 GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the 
 church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes 
 the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
 burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- 
 sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates 
 ft"om presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. 
 To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its 
 decision is final. See Church of Scotland. 
 
 GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote 
 times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the 
 title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203. — Renault. It is observed 
 by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Gcneralissim.o, 
 upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 
 1629. 
 
 GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub- 
 lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. 
 Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in 
 consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted 
 60,000^. to defray the expenses of their journey, and t.> purchase thenj 
 lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came tc 
 
GEO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 
 
 Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it : at this period many 
 Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Gfe- 
 neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. 
 
 GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- 
 mans, 115 b. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till 
 A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other 
 magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 
 1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated 
 Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. 
 Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1746. 
 Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of 
 the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- 
 querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without 
 eflfect. Genoa lost Corsica 1780. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The 
 city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally 
 starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren- 
 dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The Jagurian 
 Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly 
 invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire. May 25, 
 1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicihan army, April 18, 
 1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection 
 against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued ApriJ 11, 1849. 
 
 GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, 
 the Scutarii and GentUes had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- 
 plied to them the terms ecwyers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gen- 
 tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the weU descended, 
 about A. D. 1430. — Sidney. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge 
 is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing 
 the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the 
 countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The 
 priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the 
 world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, 
 about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- 
 cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of 
 Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mari- 
 ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern 
 geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England 
 by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a 
 western continent, a. d. 1489. 
 
 GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical 
 speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been 
 cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories 
 and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as 
 being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the 
 astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by 
 scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries 
 in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by 
 Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that 
 the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was 
 framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, 
 created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world 
 into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible 
 reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that 
 man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years 
 
390 
 
 IBE world's progress. 
 
 [ OEIt 
 
 upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to tht: 
 same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken 
 of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments 
 drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- 
 nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from 
 each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teeming 
 with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been 
 called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blomjield. 
 
 <'«EOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations 
 of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the 
 boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 
 B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of 
 curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic 
 sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b c. The conchoid 
 curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The scienoj of geometry was 
 taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- 
 metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected 
 with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stowe. 
 
 GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general 
 Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known 
 by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- 
 racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., 
 Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were 
 sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was sutFered to leave 
 France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. 
 In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, which see. 
 
 GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- 
 thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- 
 nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town 
 and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted 
 the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82,584 ; in 1840, 
 691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. 
 
 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, 
 or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that 
 instead thereof, a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- 
 rangement was adopted in 1815, by the allied sovereigns ; and Germany is 
 now governed by a diet, consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any 
 alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- 
 sion, and the genei-al assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, 
 divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. 
 
 GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman 
 historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent 
 states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans 
 to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; biit by the repeated 
 efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a. d. 290. In 432, 
 the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive 
 country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, 
 became master of the whole, a. d. 802. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the 
 West at Rome - - a. d. 800 
 
 He adds a second head to the eagle, to 
 denote that the empires of Rome and 
 Germany are united in him - - 802 
 
 Louis (Debonnaire) separates Germany 
 fram France .... 814 
 
 Charles III. was the first sovereign who 
 added " in the year of out Lord" tr 
 his reign - - - -871 
 
 The German princes assert their inde- 
 pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 
 
 [The electoral character assumed about 
 this time. See Electors.] - 913 
 
0ER J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 391 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 Reign of Henry I. (king) eurnamed the 
 Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, 
 Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 
 
 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is 
 crowned emperor by the pope • 962 
 
 Henry III. conquers Bohemia, wasting 
 It with fire and sword - - 1042 
 
 Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders 
 through Germany, where they mas- 
 sacre "the Jews . - - 1095 
 
 Henry IV. excommunicated by pope 
 Pascall. (Hildebrand) about -1106 
 
 Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- 
 vestitures, with the pope - - 1122 
 
 The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140 
 
 Conrad III. leads a large army to the 
 holy wars, where it is destroyed by 
 the treachery of the Greeks - - 1147 
 
 Teutonic order of knighthood - -1190 
 
 Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, 
 chosen by the electors - - 1273 
 
 The famous edict, called the Golden 
 Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356 
 
 Sigismond, king of Boheinia, elected 
 emperor. He betrays John Huss and 
 Jerome of Prague, who are burned 
 alive (see Bohemia) • - - 1414 
 
 Sigismond being driven from the throne, 
 Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 
 (In his family the crown resides for 
 three centuries) - - - 1438 
 
 The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - 1439 
 
 The empire divided into circles - 1512 
 
 Era of the Reformation (Luther) • 1517 
 
 Abdication of Charles V. • - 1556 
 
 War of the two parties, the Evangelic 
 union under Frederick, elector pala- 
 tine, and the Catholic league, under 
 the duke of Bavaria - - - 1618 
 
 . Battle of Prague, which lost the elector 
 
 palatine the crown - - - 1620 
 
 Treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 
 
 John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats 
 the Turks in many battles, and obliges 
 them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683 
 
 The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 
 
 The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 1722 
 
 The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 
 pied with wars against the Turks, and 
 m establishing the Pra:gmatic sanc- 
 tion, in favor of the succession of his 
 daughter, Maria Theresa, married to 
 the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 1742 
 
 Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries 
 the heiress of Austria, the celebrated 
 Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; 
 and is elected emperor - - 1745 
 
 Joseph 11. extends his dom Jiicns by the 
 dismemberment of Poland - - 1772 
 
 Again, by the final partition of that de- 
 voted kingdom - - - 1795 
 
 [In the ruinous wars between Germany 
 and France, the emperor loses the 
 Netherlands, all his territories west 
 of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 
 1793, et seq.] 
 
 Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 
 ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804 
 
 Dissolution of the German empire ; for- 
 mation of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine - - - July 12, 1806 
 
 General agitation arning the people, 
 
 and demands for reform granted in 
 various degrees by sovereigns of 
 Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those 
 of the smaller principalities of Ger- 
 many - - Feb. and March, 1848 
 
 A federal union of the German States 
 demanded by Prussia March, 1848 
 
 Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit- 
 ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1843 
 
 German Parliament meets at Frank- 
 fort - - - May 18, 184p 
 
 The archduke, John of Austria, elected 
 by the parliament as lord-lieutenant 
 of the Empire- - June 29, 1813 
 
 He is installed at Frankfort, and names 
 his ministers - - July 15, 1848 
 
 Great excitement in Germany on ac- 
 count of the execution at Vienna of 
 Robert Blum, a Leipsio publisher, 
 for aiding the insurrection Nov. 7 1848 
 
 A. D. EMPERORS C P OB- MANY. 
 
 800. Charlemagne the Great. 
 
 814. Louis the Debonnaire. 
 
 840. Lothaire. 
 
 855. Louis II. 
 
 875. Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 
 
 878. Louis III., the Stammerer. 
 
 879. Charles 111., the Gross. 
 887. Arnould. 
 
 899. Louis IV. 
 
 912. Otho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the 
 dignity on account of his age. 
 
 912. Conrad, duke of Franconia. 
 
 919. Henry t., the Fowler. 
 
 936. Otho I., the Great. 
 
 973. Otho 11, the Bloody. 
 
 983. Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. 
 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria ; the Holj 
 
 and Lame. 
 1024. Conrad II., the Salique. 
 1039. Henry III., the Black. 
 1055. Henry IV. ; deposed. 
 1077. Rodolphus ; killed in battle. 
 1080. Henry IV. ; re-instated. 
 1105. Henry V. 
 1125. Lothaire II. 
 1138, Conrad III. 
 
 1152. Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned ia Bo- 
 hemia. 
 1191. Henry VI., the Sharp. 
 1198. Philip; killed at Bamberg. 
 1208. Otho IV; deposed. 
 1211. Frederic 11. ; deposed. 
 
 1245. Henrv VII ; killed. 
 
 1246. William ; killed in battle. 
 
 1273. Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, tiM 
 
 first of the Austrian family. 
 1291. Adolphus ; deposed. 
 1298. Albert 1. ; killed by his nephew. 
 1308. Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, ID 
 
 the consecrated wafer. 
 1314. Louis IV., cf Bavaria ; killed by a fsU 
 
 from his horse. 
 1347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 
 1378 Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. 
 1399 Frederick, Duke of Brunswick. 
 1400. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. 
 1410. Sigismond, king of Hungary. 
 1437. Albert II., duke of Austria and king at 
 
 Bohemia. 
 1440. Frederick III., archduke of Austria. 
 
392 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 f OIB 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress 
 
 of Burgundy. 
 1519. Charles v., king of Spain. 
 1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 
 1564. Maximilian II. 
 1576. Rodolphus 11. 
 1612. Matthias I. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary. 
 J637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 
 16.58. Leopold 1., ditto 
 1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 
 1711. Charles VI. 
 1742. Charles VII. 
 
 1745. Francis I. ; husband of Maria Thereea 
 queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 1765. Joseph 11. 
 
 1790. Leopold II. 
 
 1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em 
 peror of Austria only, in 1806. 
 
 1806. Confederation of the Rhme (which see), 
 
 1815. Germanic Confederation. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand 1., of Austria. 
 
 (See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning 
 p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavaria, 
 Prussia, Wurtemburg, &c.) 
 
 There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English 
 counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine 
 (one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the 
 head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. 
 
 GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- 
 ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. 
 Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of 
 Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- 
 tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great 
 Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. 
 
 GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height ; he was 
 also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, 
 and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an or-linary man. — Zivinglius. 
 "The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, 
 who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. 
 He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in 
 Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, 
 the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in 
 height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of 
 the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- 
 es long ; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 
 20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is 
 now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. 
 
 GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- 
 ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with 
 Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of 
 Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English 
 feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik. Mountain of 
 Tarik, whence its present name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of 
 Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George 
 Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, 
 bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- 
 ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since 
 continued an appendage to the British crown. 
 
 Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 
 21st July, and taken on the 24th, a. d. 1704 
 
 Besieged by the Spanish and French ; 
 they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- 
 ous English but 400 - Oct. 11-, 1704 
 
 The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, 
 and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 
 
 They again attack it with a force of 
 
 20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the 
 loss of the English is only 300 - 172J 
 
 Memorable siege of the Spaniards and 
 French, whose prodigious arma- 
 ments' (the greatest ever brought 
 against a fortress) were wholly over- 
 thrown. The siege continued from 
 July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 
 
 * The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troop* 
 of Fiance. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, ^ra 
 
sle] 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 393 
 
 GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. The capitol was the first 
 building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
 gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole 
 ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Truster. A 
 single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf 
 that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo- 
 niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on 
 wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. 
 
 GISORS, Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in 
 which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the 
 day was " Dieuet man droit" — " God and my right;" and from this time it 
 was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. 
 
 GL AlDIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, 
 or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral 
 ceremonies of the Romans, 263 e.g., probably following the Greek custom 
 of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. 
 Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When 
 Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- 
 tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- 
 tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- 
 nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet. 
 
 GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from 
 James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest 
 commerce was in salmon, about 1420. 
 
 GLASS. The EgJT)tians are said to have been taught the art of making glass 
 by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- 
 houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for 
 many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of 
 Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were 
 formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next 
 France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses 
 in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Andersoji. The manufacture 
 was established in England at Crutched- friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. — 
 Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the 
 reign of WiUiam III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- 
 ted, 1845. 
 
 GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles 
 in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England 
 towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great -perfection about 
 1530. 
 
 GIiENCOE, Massacre op. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending 
 and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering 
 in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain; 
 and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked 
 
 were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 
 212 guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutlers, and gun and mortar boats; 
 while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 Aells 
 were daily thrown into the town , and on a single occasion, 800O barrels of gunpowder were ex- 
 pended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, 
 and their whole line of works aniihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general 
 Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy' 3 loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at 
 upwards of 2,600,000Z. sterling. B it their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred 
 Sept. 13, 1782. 
 
 17* 
 
394 THE world's progress. [ GOD 
 
 in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black 
 deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. 
 
 GIjOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principa. 
 circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar 
 eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 
 640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars 
 by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an- 
 tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and 
 evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere d 
 the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, 
 the spheres of the moon, the sim, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
 and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main- 
 tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun; 
 which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- 
 losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage 
 round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- 
 lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same 
 enterprise was sir Francis Di-ake, 1577. — See Circumnavigation, and Earth. 
 
 GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, 
 angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from 
 the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. 
 The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of 
 Rome, and was called doxology because it began with S6^a, glory, a. d. 
 382. 
 
 GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving 
 of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and 
 two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, 
 A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
 was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- 
 corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 
 1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. 
 
 GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. 
 The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the 
 Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in- 
 famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a 
 complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to 
 extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con- 
 sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which 
 they diflered among themselves as much as they did from others. 
 
 GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the 
 suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the 
 chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to 
 have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the 
 scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the 
 same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
 all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- 
 tion of Mens. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by 
 the celebrated Le Brun, by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Fres- 
 noy. 
 
 GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir- 
 cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in bap-tism arose 
 in the desire of assuring that tlie child should be of the religion of Christ. 
 It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander ; 
 according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d 
 
CKK) ' DICTIONARY OP DATES. 395 
 
 130. In Catholic countries theyha\c godfathers and godmothers in the 
 baptism of their bells. 
 
 ISOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, 
 from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most 
 valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with 
 copper 01 silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our 
 coin is twenty-two cai'ats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no 
 metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The 
 smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to 
 observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. 
 
 (jiOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most 
 abundant in Africa, Tapan, and South America, in which last gold was dis- 
 covered by the Spaniards in 1492, fi'om which time to 1731, they imported 
 into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- 
 clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing 
 ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
 was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, 
 in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; 
 in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- 
 fornia, April 1848. 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, aa 
 stated in the Mining Journal : 
 
 Gold. Silver. 
 
 Mexico JE6,436,453 = jE139,818,032 
 
 Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,822,924 
 
 Buenos Ayres - - . - - ■ 4,0^,895 = 27,182,673 
 
 Russia 3,7(33,7 43 = 1,502,981 
 
 jE17,003,.''>79 = ^6170,326,610 
 The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3J 
 times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- 
 phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, 
 discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4, 377. 500,. Those 
 of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 
 1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which 
 was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. 
 mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in 
 the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North 
 and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago, 
 4|, Africa 14. See Coin. 
 GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from 
 lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- 
 cover his treasures, which the perfidious jEetes, king of Colchis, had seized, 
 after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to 
 Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave 
 occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re- 
 covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c. 
 GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows 
 the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, 
 about 432 b. c. — Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar 
 cycle, add one to the date and divide l)y nineteen, then the quotient is the 
 number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number. 
 
 GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been 
 held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour en 
 Friday, April 3, a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be pecuhar to 
 the Church of Eng snd : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long FVi- 
 
396 THE world's PEOGRESS, [ GOV 
 
 day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- 
 joined on this day. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to 
 the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia. 
 Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the 
 oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
 away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a 
 military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora' 
 cle, 330 B. c. 
 
 SORDONS "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George 
 Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's 
 Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition 
 to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences 
 to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but 
 proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down 
 the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several 
 other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- 
 tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overcc ming the civil 
 power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of 
 the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, 
 then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- 
 menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private 
 mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; 
 among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
 5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the 
 rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in 
 the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George 
 was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. 
 — Anmial Register. 
 
 GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; 
 St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found 
 buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 
 485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was 
 thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, 
 and banished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings 
 of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of 
 Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for 
 propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. 
 
 GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who 
 first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : 
 it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of 
 their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop 
 Burnet. 
 
 GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, 
 Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 
 . 251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After 
 the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under 
 Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
 their dominion till a. d. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, 
 Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- 
 dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an 
 elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, Tiz. ; 
 
ORiE:] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 397 
 
 In the United States : aggregate of 
 national expenditure, lor eacli in- 
 habitant ■ - - - $0 97 
 
 Aggregate of State expenditure, for 
 each inhabitant - - - 50 
 
 Aggregate of town or city expendi- 
 ture, for each inhabitant • - 92 
 
 Total cost of Government in the 
 
 United States, per head - - $2 39 
 
 or $47,800,000 if the population is 
 20 millions. 
 
 In England, according to Maccul- 
 
 loch, the average is equal, per 
 
 head, to - - - • «12 33 
 
 In France, according to Chevalier, 
 in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 
 millions of francs, or 40 francs per 
 head — say - - - - $7 SO 
 
 Thus, France pays about three 
 times, and Great Britain five times 
 as much for Government as the 
 United States. (See Administra- 
 tions of the United States.) 
 
 GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the 
 altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that Account. They would not 
 partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, 
 to their gods ; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat 
 in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet. 
 
 GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- 
 ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed 
 at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- 
 cero, Messala, Julius Csesar, Nicias, jElius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, 
 Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenseus, and other distinguished men, were of 
 this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- 
 cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's 
 said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- 
 cover one error." 
 
 GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure 
 food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn 
 from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- 
 sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — 
 Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 
 quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, 
 thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- 
 crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. 
 
 GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally deifeated the 
 Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the 
 Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 
 horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. 
 — Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, 
 and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
 by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 
 B. c. — Bossuet. 
 
 GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their 
 halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large 
 stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There 
 were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were 
 most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200. 
 See Chimneys. 
 
 GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the 
 Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, 
 about a. d. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615 ; and Hook pub- 
 lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at 
 Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, 
 about 1687. 
 
 GR.^CIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted coloniea 
 
398 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [GAB 
 
 but its boiindaries are very uncertain. Some say ttat it extended to the 
 southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Graecia compre- 
 hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was 
 likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lempriere. 
 
 GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- 
 cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece 
 was so called from a very ancient king named Grascus ; and another king 
 named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls 
 the inhabitants, indifferently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For 
 ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. 
 
 Sicyon founded {Eusebius) • b. c. 2089 
 Uianu3 arrives in Greece (Lenglel) ■ 2042 
 Revolt of the Titans - - - ' ' 
 
 War of the Giants - - - * * 
 
 Kingdom of Argos begun {Eusebius) ■ 1856 
 Reign of Ogyges in BiBotia (idem) ■ 1796 
 Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in 
 
 Greece by Phoroneus - - - 1773 
 
 According to some authors, Sicyon was 
 
 now begun (Lenglet) - - - 1773 
 
 Deluge of Ogyges (which see) ■ - 1764 
 
 A colony ol Arcadians emigrate to Italy 
 
 under ffinotrus : the country first 
 
 called QDnoTtiia, afterwards Magna 
 
 GrcBcia (Ensebius) - ■ • 1710 
 
 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles 
 
 commences (Eusebius) - - 1582 
 
 Ceerops comes into Attica (idem) ■ 1556 
 Tlie Areopagus instituted - - 1506 
 
 Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) - 1503 
 Reign of Hellen (z(ieTO) - - -1459 
 
 Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters, 
 
 settles in Boeotia 
 
 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards 
 
 called Sparta - 
 Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship 
 
 ever seen in Greece - 
 He gets possession of Argos. His fifty 
 
 daughters 
 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, 
 
 by the Idobi Dactyli (Eusebius) 
 Iron discovered by the Idcbi Dactyli 
 Corinth rebuilt, and so named - 
 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches 
 
 tire art of making bread 
 Tlie Isthmi.-i games instituted - 
 Mycenas created out of Argos - 
 Argonautic expedition (which see) 
 The Pythian games by Adrastus 
 War of the seven Greek captains 
 The Amazonian war ; these martial fe^ 
 
 males penetrate into Greece - 
 Rape of Helen by Theseus 
 Rape of Helen by Paris 
 Commencement of the Trojan war 
 Troy taken and destroyed on the night 
 
 of the 7th of tlie month Thargelion 
 
 (27th May, or Uth .June) 
 jEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and 
 
 arrives in Italy 
 Migration of the jEolian colonies, who 
 
 build Smyrna, &c. 
 Settlement of the lonians from Greece 
 
 in Asia Minor - 
 The first laws of navigation originate 
 
 with the Rhodians 
 Homer flourishes about this time 
 
 (Arundelian Maibles) 
 Olympic games revived at Elis 
 
 1493 
 1490 
 
 1485 
 
 1453 
 1406 
 1384 
 
 1383 
 1326 
 1313 
 1263 
 1263 
 1225 
 
 1213 
 1213 
 1198 
 1193 
 
 1124 
 1044 
 
 907 
 884 
 
 The first Messenian war - n. o. 
 
 The second Messenian war 
 
 The capture of Ira 
 
 The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and 
 
 give their own name Messene to Zan- 
 
 cle (now called Messina) 
 Sea-fight, tlie first on record, between 
 
 the Corinthians and the inhabitants 
 
 of Corcyra . . . . 
 
 Byzantium built by the Argives 
 Sybaris, in Magna Grascia, destroyed, 
 
 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 
 
 300,000 Sybarians 
 Sardis taken s.nd burnt, which occa^ 
 
 sions the Persian invasion 
 Thrace and Macedonia conquered 
 Battle of Marathon (ivhich see) - 
 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 
 
 at Thermopylee by I.eonidas - 
 Battle of Salamis (which see) • 
 Mardonius defea'cd at Platasa • 
 Battle of Eurymedon 
 The third Messenian war 
 Athens begins to tyrannize over the 
 
 other states of Greece 
 Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles 
 The first sacred war 
 Herodotus reads his history ir- '.he 
 
 Council at Athens 
 The sea-fight at Cnidus • 
 Battle of Mantinea 
 Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes 
 
 all the cities of the Phoceans 
 Battle of Cha3ronea 
 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters 
 
 Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and 
 
 destroys the city of Thebes - 
 Commencement of the Macedonian or 
 
 Grecian Monarchy 
 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the 
 
 throne of Darius 
 
 743 
 68S 
 670 
 
 ■ 668 
 
 6^ 
 658 
 
 508 
 
 504 
 
 496 
 490 
 480 
 
 479 
 476 
 465 
 
 459 
 455 
 448 
 
 445 
 394 
 633 
 
 348 
 338 
 
 335 
 331 
 
 330 
 
 395 
 
 Alaric invades Greece - - a. D, 
 
 The empire under Nicephorus com 
 
 menced - • - • 811 
 
 Greece mastered by the Latir,5 - - 1204 
 
 Re-conquered .... 1261 
 Invaded by the Turks - - . 1350 
 
 Its final overtlirow. See Eastern Em- 
 pire ..... 1353 
 [This country, so long illustrious for the 
 military exploits, the learning, and 
 arts of its people, became of late 
 years the scene of desperate con- 
 fiicts with the Turks, in order to re- 
 gain its independence, and the coun- 
 cils of the great powers of Europe 
 were friendly to the design.] 
 Great struggle for independence • 1770 
 
ore] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 399 
 
 GREECE, continued. 
 
 The first decided movement in these lat- 
 ter times, by the Servians - A. d. 1800 
 
 The Servians defeat the Turks at Nyssa 
 
 April 2, 1807 
 
 100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, 
 overrun the country, committing the 
 most dreadlal excesses - - 1813 
 
 Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- 
 chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 
 
 Proclamation of prince Alexander to 
 shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 
 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at 
 Constantinople - April 23, 1821 
 
 10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- 
 though not engaged in the revolt - 1821 
 
 Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- 
 rest; even the women and children 
 not spared .... 1821 
 
 Independence of Greece formally pro- 
 claimed . - Jan. 27, 1822 
 
 Siege of Corinth - . - Feb. 1822 
 
 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; 
 most horrible massacre recorded m 
 modern history" . . April 23, 1822 
 
 Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, 
 Thermopylee, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 
 
 National Congress at Argos - April 10, 1823 
 
 Victories of Marco Botzans - June, 1823 
 
 Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote 
 himself to its cause - August, 1823 
 
 Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- 
 solonghi - - April 19, 1824 
 
 Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at 
 Samos - - August 16, 1824 
 
 The Provisional Government of Greece 
 instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 
 
 The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- 
 pitan Pacha . - June 2, 1825 
 
 The Provisional Government of Greece 
 invites the protection of England 
 
 July 24, 1825 
 
 Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging 
 Turks are defeated in a formidable 
 attack upon it - August 1, 1826 
 
 The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet 
 
 Jan. 28, 1826 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha takes Mistolonghi by 
 assault . - April 23, 1828 
 
 The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle 
 with Omer Pacha - June 1, 1828 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the 
 Mainotes . August 8 and 9, 1826 
 
 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 182S 
 
 Ticaty of London, between Great Bri- 
 tain, Russia, and France, on behalf 
 of Greece, signed - Jitly 6, 1827 
 
 Battle of Navarino {which see) ; the 
 Turkish fleet destroyed . Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- 
 dent of Greece - . Jan. 18, 1828 
 
 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of 
 State estabUshed . Feb. 2, 1828 
 
 National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828 
 
 Greece divided into departments, viz. 
 Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Uppei Messe- 
 nia, Lower Messenia, Laconia, and 
 Arcadia, and the islands formed also 
 _into departments - April 26, .82:J 
 
 Final evacuation of the Morea by the 
 Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 
 
 Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 
 
 Greek National Assembly commences 
 its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the indepeijc- 
 ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830 , 
 
 Prince Leopold finally declines the so- 
 vereignty - - May 21, 1830 
 
 Count Capo d'Istria, President of 
 Greece, assassinated by the brother 
 and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote 
 chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 
 
 The assassins put to deatli Oct 29, 1831 
 
 Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 
 Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 
 A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- 
 force ministerial responsibility and 
 national representation, is consum- 
 mated - ■ - Sept. 14, 1843 
 The king accepts the new constitution 
 
 March 16, 1844 
 [See Athens. Macedon, Sparta, Thrace,a.nd 
 other states of Greece.] 
 
 GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century between the 
 eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a 
 half terminated in a separation : this churcli is called Greek in contradis- 
 tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior- 
 ity as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and 
 many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- 
 lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli- 
 gion of Russia. 
 
 Si'REEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- 
 nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syi'ia, in the seventh century, 
 
 * The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire 
 which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 
 Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, j'uar- 
 anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of them, 
 butchered ! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and more 
 beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- 
 der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured city, is too long 
 •nd top shocking for transcription here. 
 
400 THE world's progress. f OVA 
 
 in order tc destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general 
 of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 30,000 men were killed. The property 
 of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac- 
 cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- 
 gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of 
 copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- 
 vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; 
 but it is now lost. 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe 
 about A. D. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned 
 English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronunciar 
 tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honor to teach Erasmus, 
 1490. — Wood's Athen. Oxon. 
 
 GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a. d. 980, 
 and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter 
 country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England 
 to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 
 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind 
 by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when 
 the company's ships brought them home. — 'Plndal. The Greenland Fishing 
 Company was incorporated in 1693. 
 
 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore 
 and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, 
 so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- 
 nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the 
 meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory 
 contains a transept circle by Trough ton ; a transit instrument of eight feet 
 by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector 
 The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- 
 flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera 
 obscura. 
 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory- XIU., 
 from whom it derives its name, a.d. 1582 ; and inti'oduced into the Catholic 
 states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710 ; and adopted 
 by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- 
 lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to 
 eleven days. See Calendar, and New Style. 
 
 GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos- 
 sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; 
 the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered 
 by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the 
 French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was 
 ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in 
 1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the 
 French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which 
 was not finally quelled till June, 1796. 
 
 GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word ancientlp meant 
 " ingrossers or moncpolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The 
 Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- 
 don, incorporated in 1429. 
 
 GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493. It was colonized by 
 the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1769, and restored in 1768. 
 iVgain taken by the English in 1779, 1794,.and 1810; and in order to allure 
 
RUT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 401 
 
 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. Etwas 
 however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. 
 
 GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have 
 been derived from Hlewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- 
 nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies 
 during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the 
 Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal 
 family of England. — See Bruoiswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood 
 was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards 
 George IV., in 1816. 
 
 GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise 
 obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be 
 seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolics Questiones of Achilles 
 Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there 
 called the Ma?i7iaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; 
 Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the 
 regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, 
 from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his 
 name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- 
 father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some 
 hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a 
 prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the 
 Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, 
 enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. 
 
 GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first 
 coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were 
 then valued at 30^. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced 
 in currency from 225. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were 
 coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of 
 an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. 
 
 GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- 
 tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- 
 wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was- 
 known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- 
 nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, 
 moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his 
 treatise De Nullitate Magice, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy kno^vn by 
 this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- 
 troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there 
 assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was 
 projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the 
 enterprise Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, 
 preparing the train for being fired on the next da3^ Catesby and Percy (of 
 the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, 
 Winter. Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, 
 as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in 
 which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the 
 late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. 
 
 GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin 
 to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having be- 
 stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder 
 of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the 
 erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 
 
402 ^ THE world's progress. [haq 
 
 cost him 18,793^., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sum 
 of 219,499/!, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,OOOZ. was made to this 
 hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; 
 his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. 
 GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were 
 performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also 
 philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- 
 ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- 
 sium — gumnos, niidus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their 
 limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. 
 The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in 
 Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. 
 
 GYPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- 
 liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 
 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- 
 cendants of a great body of Egyptians who rev olted from the Turkish yoke, 
 and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their 
 supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal reccj^ tion in 'hat age 
 of credulity and superstition. Althougli expelled from France in 1560, and 
 from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe, 
 as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- 
 trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against theii 
 itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- 
 ecuted at one assizes for haying associated with gypsies for about a month 
 contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near LondoUj 
 was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were 
 in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and 
 many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their 
 intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, 
 customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. 
 
 H. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' PFni of Right, passed for the security and 
 liberty of individuals, May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to 
 Magna Charta. for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- 
 gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is 
 shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpits Act can alone be sus- 
 pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and 
 when the emergency is exti-eme. In such a case, the nation parts with a 
 portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
 persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — ■ 
 Blackstone. 
 
 HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- 
 horse (Jiaquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly 
 harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle 
 called coche-a-haquenee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- 
 gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 
 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of 
 London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 
 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of 
 Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on 
 the outside of the vehicle. 
 
 HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the 
 States-General, and residence of the former earls of Holland, the prinoes o/ 
 
ham] dictionary of dates. 403 
 
 Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip 
 £1. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the re- 
 monstrants, which occasioned the sj'nod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague, 
 entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed 
 by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces 
 here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- 
 ary, 1795; favorea by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the 
 inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, 
 and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and 
 escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly 
 after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions 
 and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce botweea 
 England and Holland, December 16, 1837. 
 
 HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and 
 hence the appellation Gallia comaia ; and cutting off the hair was inflicted 
 as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- 
 ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear 
 long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic 
 institution. — Isidorus Hlspalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear 
 long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate 
 of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion 
 • in 1795 ; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into 
 use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England, 
 which yielded 20,000^. per annum. 
 
 HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after 
 the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the 
 year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase 
 was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or 
 of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human life. — Butler. 
 
 HALLIDON HILL, Battle op, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, 
 in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13,000 slain, while a com- 
 paratively small number of the EngHsh suffered, reign of Edward III., July 
 19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of 
 Scotland. — Robertson. 
 
 HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- 
 nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, 
 shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the 
 town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- 
 inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
 by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment ; but king 
 James I. in the year 1620, took this power away : and the town is now under 
 the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. 
 
 HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the 
 Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The 
 meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were 
 first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro- 
 duction from the Jewish into the Christian churcli is ascribed to St. Jerome, 
 one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 
 
 HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. 
 France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper 
 Tandy, (see Napper Tandy ^ October 1799. British property sequestrated, 
 March 1801. Hamburgh taJven by the French after the battle of Jena in 
 1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French 
 on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and "estored to its 
 
404 THE world's progress. [uaj 
 
 independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which 
 destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
 tinued for three days, May 4, 1842. 
 
 HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of tha 
 manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it 
 to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his 
 mother, Jane Seymour, died; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of 
 our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and 
 the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was 
 held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and thf» 
 members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the 
 Bible. See Conference. 
 
 HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- 
 ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- 
 man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
 Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of 
 execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and 
 their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. 
 — Stowe. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- 
 merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in 
 chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. 
 
 HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George 
 I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and 
 principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was 
 
 • seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; 
 and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the 
 crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, 
 Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in 
 November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke 
 of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom 
 of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. 
 
 HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an 
 act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise 
 of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, 
 of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the 
 granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of 
 Brunswick Luneburgh, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the 
 throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. 
 
 HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was 
 formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other 
 against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 
 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At tirst it consisted only of towns 
 situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- 
 creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be 
 admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They 
 grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, 
 about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12 000 
 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who 
 ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their 
 effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. 
 In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the 
 name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
 HAPSBURGH, House of. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. 
 Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near 
 Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, 
 
HAS 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405 
 
 whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, 
 when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany 
 and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany. 
 
 HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who 
 80 much frequented Mr. Barley's house, that his friends and acquaintance 
 used to call him Harlequino, little Harley. — Menage. Originally the name 
 implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at 
 a play-house. 
 
 HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of 
 harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- 
 ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious 
 amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- 
 saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 
 350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- 
 rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a 
 character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John- 
 son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party ^-olors, 
 and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III., 
 1352. 
 
 HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, 
 in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- 
 mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather 
 by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- 
 four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were 
 first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The in- 
 vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 
 
 HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp 
 before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the 
 moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very 
 few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- 
 brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more 
 ancient harps, with wire. 
 
 HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 
 1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third ia 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured 
 him the reward of 20,000?., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- 
 tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- 
 fected in 1772. 
 
 HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from 
 the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration ol 
 Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814. 
 
 H A STINGS, Battle of. one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which 
 more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- 
 land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and 
 kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned 
 king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, knovra as the Con- 
 quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. 
 
 HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial op. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, 
 tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but 
 acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government 
 which, if was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other 
 charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 10O,O0OZ. from the 
 nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular meana 
 of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months, 
 
406 THE world's progress. Cheo 
 
 1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- 
 tings, attracted universal admiration. 
 HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They 
 are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- 
 phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and 
 surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the 
 ■use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place 
 of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats 
 were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510: before this time 
 both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stowe. Very high 
 crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns 
 were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- 
 land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. 
 
 HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the 
 English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, 
 in 1759, in 1794, in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a'siate of blockade, 
 Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 
 1804. 
 
 HAYTI, OR Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus m 
 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de- 
 stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including 
 women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. 
 Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- 
 salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
 1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- 
 ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of 
 color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title 
 of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. 
 Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, 
 and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed 
 suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. 
 Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected 
 president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. 
 
 HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- 
 ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was rot connected, but 
 composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, 
 ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the 
 name they now bear. 
 
 HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; 
 but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they 
 possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- 
 rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the 
 expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. 
 
 HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. Abont 
 twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. 
 The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic 
 mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. 
 
 HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
 which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622; 
 the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many 
 chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July ; but Cantemir 
 has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the 
 first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahometism 
 and Medina. 
 
DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 407 
 
 BffilDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the 
 river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant 
 electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the 
 famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- 
 heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads, 
 and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University oJ 
 Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, 
 contained in ISIO, 622 students. 
 
 HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the 
 most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very 
 lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, 
 she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the 
 court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, 
 and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by 
 the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character 
 from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice ot 
 Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his 
 hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though 
 not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam, 
 received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the 
 princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath: and the siege and destruc- 
 tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife 
 being QEnone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his 
 diath by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- 
 tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone, whom he 
 had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, howevel-, 
 still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed 
 it Avith her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. 
 
 HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival 
 of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it 
 until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India 
 company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by 
 the JEnglish and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it 
 to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's 
 captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 
 1821. 
 
 HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it 
 was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- 
 chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England 
 by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway wag 
 ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of 
 the British crown. 
 
 HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- 
 vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Chnslo- 
 pher Scheiner in 1625. 
 
 HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among 
 the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise 
 above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks 
 was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a 
 plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English 
 king.", had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had 
 a fiat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was 
 surnaounted by a cro\vn, 1306. — Gwillim. 
 
 BffiLOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore despercte 
 
408 THE world's progress. [ HEh 
 
 resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. Tlie Spartans, not satisfied 
 with tlie ruin of tlieir city, reduced tlie Helots to tlie most debasing slavery; 
 and to complete their inftimy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the 
 prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helotce, and further exposed 
 them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward 
 ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ana 
 the sudden disapi>earance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
 Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. 
 
 HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed 
 to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its 
 cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government 
 and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- 
 ported from Russia in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John 
 Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 
 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage 
 of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 
 
 HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England 
 was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, 
 and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, 
 when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch oi 
 England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. 
 
 HERACLIDJi^, The, or the return of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus: a 
 ' famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- 
 tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This 
 return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after 
 the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. 
 
 HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of 
 the world. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow; the Thracians, Mars; the 
 Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a 
 horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwai'ds the fleur-de-lis, which 
 sec. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed 
 in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next, 
 to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the 
 feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie. It was at length methodized and 
 perfected bv the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 
 1095. 
 
 HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with 
 Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was 
 buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper 
 under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which 
 year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- 
 ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. 
 were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
 William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, 
 where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the 
 museum of Portici. 
 
 HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here ■ 
 tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- 
 tholic church. — Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have sufFei'ed death bj 
 torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon 
 Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretics 
 came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were 
 
aid J DICTIONARY OF DATES. _ 409 
 
 branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets its 
 the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hun- 
 ger and cold, ll&O.— Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession 
 of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- 
 pealed, 25 Henry VIII., 1534-5. 
 
 HI-^RMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to 
 * avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and 
 meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged in 
 dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- 
 out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- 
 gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the 
 Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebaia, 
 and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250. 
 
 hfcRO AND LEANDER: their, amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so 
 gre^t, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the 
 night 'frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to 
 have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she di- 
 recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, 
 Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from 
 her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 b. c. — Livy, Herodotus. 
 
 HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as 
 the ninth centurj'. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of 
 preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to 
 the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British 
 Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. 
 
 HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- 
 flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus {which 
 see), March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 
 17B3 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, 
 which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- 
 tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- 
 copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new 
 nebulas, nebulous stai's, planetary nebulse, and clusters of stars which he 
 had discovered. 
 
 HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, 
 daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was 
 diescended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl 
 of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry 
 v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. 
 There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and 
 it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six 
 thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion 
 being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000^. three per cent, stock, was 
 transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the 
 American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again 
 hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion 
 there in 1798. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single picturea 
 and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodicard. Hiero- 
 glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Tha 
 earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letterSj 
 and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- 
 tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. 
 
 HIGH CHURCH and L0^7 CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned bj 
 18 
 
410 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [hoi 
 
 the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for 
 two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions 
 of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against 
 the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents 
 Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa- 
 cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
 He died in 1724. 
 
 HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating 
 the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to 
 British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1-552. By this statute two living 
 witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal 
 of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- 
 set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. 
 By the 40th George III. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial 
 for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life 
 of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the 
 case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. ' 
 
 HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and 
 sometimes Your Gra^e, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but 
 about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- 
 ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. 
 
 HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began -3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- 
 luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the 
 sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, 
 A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. 
 
 HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are 
 vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian 
 Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, 
 are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- 
 sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 
 476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 
 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the 
 English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor- 
 ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of 
 history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was 
 succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. 
 
 HOHENLINDEN, Battle or, between the Austrian and French armies, the 
 latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated 
 with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and 
 their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, November 8, 1800. 
 
 HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who 
 derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been 
 obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and 
 established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and 
 the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of 
 their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion 
 cf Francs and Frisians. 
 
 Sovereignty founded by Thierry, first 
 
 count of Holland • - A. D. 868 
 
 The county of Holland devolves to the 
 
 counts of Hainault - - - 1299 
 
 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, 
 
 dulce of Burgundy - - - 1436 
 
 100,000 persons are drowned by the sea 
 
 breaking in at Dort • • 1446 
 
 Burgundy and its dependencies become 
 a circle of the empire • - - 1521 
 
 They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and 
 religious persecution cause a revolt 
 in Batavia • • - • 1568 
 
 The revolted states with William, 
 prince of Orange, at their head, en- 
 ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1671 
 
HOL.] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 411 
 
 HOLLAND, continued. 
 
 They elect William as Stadtholder • 1579 
 
 The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- 
 nated - .... 1584 
 
 The Dutch East India company found- 
 ed 1602 
 
 After a struggle of thirty years, the king 
 of Spain ts obliged to declare the Ba- 
 tavians free - - - - 1609 
 
 The republic wars against Spain in the 
 East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- 
 miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- 
 nish galleons, value 20,000,000/. ster- 
 ling 1635 
 
 Cromwell declares war against Hol- 
 land, and many naval battles are 
 fought ; Blake signally defeats Van 
 Tromp 1653 
 
 William, prince of Orange, having 
 married Mary, daughter of James II., 
 is called to the British throne - 1688 
 
 The office of Stadtholder is made here- 
 ditary in the Orange family - - 1747 
 
 Era of the civil war - • - 1787 
 
 The French Republican army march 
 into Holland ; the people declare in 
 their favor - - - - 1793 
 
 The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 
 
 He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 
 
 Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- 
 nally aefeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 The Tpxel fleet, of twelve ships of the 
 line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- 
 dered to the British admiral Duncan, 
 without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 
 
 A new constitution is given to the Ba- 
 tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. 
 J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title 
 of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 
 
 Holland erected into a cingdom, and 
 Louis Bonaparte declared king 
 
 June 5, IS06 
 
 Louis abdicates - • July I, 1810 
 
 Holland united to Franco - July 9, 1810 
 
 Restored to the house of Orange, and 
 Belgium annexed to its dominions 
 
 Nov. 18, 1813 
 
 The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- 
 vereign prince of the United Nether- 
 lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 
 
 He receives the oath of allegiance 
 from his subjects - March 30, 1814 
 
 And takes the title of king as William 
 I. - - - March 18, 1815 
 
 The revolution in Belgium (which see) 
 commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 
 
 The Belffians take the city of Antwerp 
 (whicii tee) - - Oc: 27, 1830 
 
 Belgium •is separated from HollLnd, 
 and Leopold of Cobourg is elected 
 king - - - July 12, 1831 
 
 Holland renews the war against Bel- 
 gium - - - Aug ?. 1831 
 
 Conference in London on the affairs of 
 Holland and the Netherlands termi- 
 nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831 
 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
 signed in London - April 19, 1839 
 
 Abdication of William I. in favor of 
 his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 
 
 Death of the ex-king • Dec. 12, 1844 
 
 The king promises his assent to all re- 
 forms passed by the chambers 
 
 March 14, 1848 
 
 New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 
 
 Death of William II. - March 17, VLAS 
 
 STADTHOLDEBS, ETC. 
 
 A.D 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 
 sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- 
 vinces owe their foundation and glo- 
 ry : killed by an assassin, hired by 
 Philip of Spain. 
 
 1584 Henry Philip William. 
 
 1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 
 
 1625 Frederick Henry. 
 
 1647 William 11. 
 
 1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 
 and king of England in 1689. 
 
 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass 
 ing a ferry in Holland. 
 
 1711 Charles Henry Frizo. 
 
 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- 
 holder. 
 
 1751 William V. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1813 William I. 
 1840 William II 
 
 1849 William III., present king, (1852.) 
 See Belgium. 
 
 HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first 
 discovered. In 1605, etseq., various parts of the coast were traced by the 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the 
 south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, 
 called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's 
 name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South Wales, and 
 Van Diemen's Land. ' 
 
 HOLY ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and 
 Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- 
 selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all 
 their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- 
 ber 26, 1815. 
 
 HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.-« 
 
 Ashe. 
 
412 THE world's progress. [ HOP 
 
 HOJMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Tioy furnish tee two 
 most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that 
 has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of 
 Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after 
 the destruction of Troy. Among .the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- 
 stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written 
 in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Uiiiv. Hist. 
 The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to 
 mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to 
 sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. 
 
 HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 B. c. 
 He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another 
 that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not 
 deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, 
 daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, 
 assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
 wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly 
 to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high 
 priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, 
 wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- 
 tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees 
 of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. 
 
 HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such 
 as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious 
 drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a 
 moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of 
 Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- 
 rope, drank,"" it is said, so freely of hydroviel on his marriage-day, that he 
 died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is, however, ascribed 
 to another cause. See Attila. 
 
 '' HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- 
 bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward 
 III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui mal 
 y pense," " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the 
 motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- 
 supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsviith. 
 
 HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly 
 among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that 
 people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about 
 B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102 
 B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter 
 that to Honor without going through the temple of "Virtue ; and Mariua 
 ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby 
 to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. 
 
 HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were 
 used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- 
 wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, 
 and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there are 
 between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the 
 
 * The epic poems of Homer and Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tabso, the Paradise Lostot 
 Mir.TON, and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and Milton's is considered 
 lo rank next to Homer's. " Paradise Lost is not ihe greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. Juhn 
 ■OKf " only because ii is not the first." — Butle" . 
 
ttUD] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 
 
 culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Herefor I, Kent, and 
 
 Worcestershire. 
 
 HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the 
 Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on 
 each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman 
 knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective 
 countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the 
 Horatii, united Alba to Rome. 
 
 HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably 
 were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke 
 them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- 
 ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for 
 his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the 
 horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the 
 work of six men. — Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering 
 to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were 
 only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced 
 into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions 
 of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural 
 horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- 
 tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses 
 in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, 
 amounts to about 350,000^. per year. See Race Horses. 
 
 HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order cf St. John, of Jerusalem, 
 who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the 
 reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic 
 order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. 
 
 HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- 
 stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- 
 ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, 
 a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and 
 endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499/!. See Itifirniaries. 
 
 HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- 
 tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff" who 
 decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to 
 the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. 
 
 HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when 
 L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. 
 Previously to the invention of water-clocks {which see), 158 b. c, the time 
 was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into 
 twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty- four hours round, 
 instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the 
 measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult: one expedient was 
 by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning 
 twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- 
 glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a 
 North- West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part 
 of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by 
 Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further 
 north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, 
 with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The 
 Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The 
 forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 
 
414 
 
 HE world's progress. 
 
 ^ {lUH 
 
 HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing^ " with horn and 
 with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers 
 and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa* 
 sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; 
 but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed 
 by riotous assemblies. 
 
 HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term 
 of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of tha 
 reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. Tha 
 memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St. 
 Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- 
 siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- 
 rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. 
 
 HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was 
 formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 
 1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury 
 and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- 
 cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. 
 
 HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 
 B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the 
 Christiar. era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after-- 
 wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements 
 were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were 
 expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila, 
 whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of " The Scourge of 
 God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed 
 with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be- 
 sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians 
 Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- 
 lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. 
 
 Stephen receives the title of Apostolic 
 king from the pope - - A. D, GOT* 
 
 The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 
 
 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under 
 the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout 
 Hungary, Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. 
 
 Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- 
 ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1342 
 
 Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 
 
 He dies, and the history of Hungary 
 now presents a frightful catalogue of 
 crimes ..... 1378 
 
 Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, 
 queen of Louis, is drowned, and king-' 
 Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- 
 mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and 
 causes the rivers of Hungary to flow 
 with blood - - - - J 378 
 
 The unhappy Hungarians call the 
 Turks to their assistance - - 1380 
 
 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
 in battle .... 1389 
 
 Sigismond recovers from this blow, 
 and makes Wallachia and Moldavia 
 tributary to him - - - 1390 
 
 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 
 
 is elected emperor of Germany -1410 
 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne 
 of Hungary, thus laying the founda- 
 tion of the subsequent power and 
 greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 
 It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 
 
 Solyraan II., emperor of the Turks, in- 
 vades HunMry, and takes Buda; 
 battle of Mohatz (which see) - ■ 1526 
 
 Buda sacked a second time by the 
 Turks, and all the inhabitants put to 
 the sword .... ]540 
 Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 
 
 Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 
 
 Transylvania seized by Solyman ■ 1556 
 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 luen 
 in a fruitless attempt to take Buda 
 from the Turks - . 1684 
 
 He at length carries Buda by storm, 
 and delivers up the Mahcmetans to 
 the fury of the soldiers - - 1688 
 
 Temeswar wrested from the Turks by 
 prince Eugene .... 1719 
 
 * The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and consa 
 quentiy, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with ihe title of king 
 Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charkis Duras, came to the crown, she waa stylej 
 King Mary. 
 
EUN J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES 
 
 415 
 
 HUNGARY, continued. 
 
 Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey 
 at the peace of Belgrade 
 
 Temeswar incorporated with the kin, 
 dom of Hungary 
 
 The struggle for independence com- 
 menced in - - - 
 
 Count Lomburg, Austrian commission' 
 er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, 
 
 The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the 
 emperor of Austria ; martial law 
 proclaimed; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- 
 atia, appointed to the supreme gov- 
 ernment, - - Oct. 3, 
 
 Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- 
 dent of the defence committee and 
 dictator - - - - Oct. 
 
 [Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] 
 
 Hungarian army advances within six 
 
 I miles of Vienna ; 'ellachich a.so ad- 
 
 1739 vances there, Octcber II; Kossuth 
 
 retreats to Hungarian territory, I7th, 
 
 1778 Hungary declares itself an independent 
 
 ! republic - • - Dec. 1948 
 
 1848 Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered 
 
 by Windisgratz - • .Ian. 5, 1849 
 
 Ukase of Russiar. emperor Nicholas, 
 declaring his purpose of aiding Aus- 
 tria against Hungary - April 26, 
 Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- 
 ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- 
 trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 1S(I 
 
 The war ended by the complete subju- 
 gation of Hungary, and the flight or 
 execution of her leaders. 
 See Germany. 
 
 KINGS OP HUNGART. 
 
 A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 
 1038 Peter I., deposed. 
 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 
 1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is 
 
 again deposed, and has his eyes put 
 
 out. 
 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother 
 
 Bela. 
 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 
 
 tower. 
 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 
 1073 Geiga I. 
 1076 St. Ladislaus. 
 1095 Coloman. 
 
 1114 Stephen II., sumamed Thunder; turn- 
 ed monk. 
 1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by 
 
 his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 
 
 ruled the kingdom. 
 1141 Geiga II. 
 1161 Stephen III. 
 1173 Bela III. 
 1191 Emeric. 
 
 1200 Ladislaus H. 
 
 1201 Andrew II. 
 1235 Bela IV. 
 1275 Stephen IV. 
 
 1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 
 1291 Andrew III. 
 1301 Wenceslaus. 
 1304 Otho. 
 
 1309 Charles Robert. 
 
 1342 Louis I. the Great. 
 
 1383 Mary. 
 
 1389 Mary, and her husband Sigism> ftd. 
 
 1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 
 
 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the 
 Turks. 
 
 1444 Ladislaus v., poisoned while an infant. 
 
 1458 Matthias 1., son of Iluniades, late re- 
 gent. 
 
 1490 Ladislaus VL 
 
 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting tha 
 Turks. 
 
 1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 
 
 1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. 
 1534 .John Sepusius, again. 
 
 1539 John II. 
 
 1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor ot 
 
 Germany. 
 1573 Rodolphus. 
 1609 Matthias H. 
 
 1618 Ferdinand 11., emperor of Germany 
 1625 Ferdinand 111., ditto. 
 1647 Ferdinand IV. 
 1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 
 1687 Joseph, ditto. 
 17 a Charles VI , ditto. 
 1740 Maria Theresa. 
 
 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany, 
 See Germany. 
 
 On the death of Charles VL, in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had 
 married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of heing deprived of her 
 father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length 
 overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, 
 Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See 
 Germany. 
 
 HIJKS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 
 years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d. 93, and 
 the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the 
 Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their 
 arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by 
 them, about a. d. 433. 100,000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- 
 pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles 
 during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceas.ed to appear aa 
 
416 THE world's progress. f lAM 
 
 a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the 
 name of Hungary, which see ; see also Attila. 
 
 HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to 
 issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a refor- 
 mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give 
 an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- 
 mund sent hira a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the 
 strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon 
 thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
 burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- 
 nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same 
 fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome of Prague, the intimate com- 
 panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- 
 porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, sutfered. May 30, 1416. 
 See Cranmer, and M^riyrs. 
 
 HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and aa 
 they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- 
 posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their 
 tirst onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, " and were 
 oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on 
 their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," 
 — Pardon. 
 
 HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth 
 ■ century, and may be found in the lettei'S of Synesius to Hypatia; but it is 
 not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs 
 of it are to be found. — Beckiimim. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., 
 and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science 
 in 1746. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 
 300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 
 B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 
 B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The 
 science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was 
 scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- 
 tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was giveti 
 to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. 
 
 HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise 
 of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and 
 Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said 
 to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, 
 about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with 
 trumpets, drums, and cymbals. 
 
 IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of 
 Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over 
 Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, 
 stories, and poetical eff'usions ; and from her free and satirical verses have 
 been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 
 700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- 
 bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, 
 richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on the 
 old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. — Herodotus. 
 
a>0] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 417 
 
 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than tht water which 
 composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by 
 means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. 
 Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing unde-r it a 
 vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common 
 salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the 
 zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze 
 mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, 
 so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. 
 
 ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor. 
 of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first tc 
 Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
 capable of containing 141,832 tons. 
 
 ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to 
 leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had 
 been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
 Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- 
 canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and 
 a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
 pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising 
 to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that 
 flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken 
 breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally 
 overwhelmed by fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. 
 
 ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their 
 library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 
 26, 1847. 
 
 ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by 
 some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- 
 tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter 
 with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a 
 chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his 
 heels ; Bacchus, crowned with \yy ; Pallas, leaning on her aegis ; Venus, 
 drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- 
 logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; 
 and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. 
 The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the 
 early part of the eighth century. See Idols. 
 
 IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each 
 month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was 
 the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, 
 and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on 
 which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other 
 conspirators, 44 b. c. 
 
 IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see /re- 
 sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national 
 institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is 
 one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in 
 every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. 
 
 IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- 
 nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- 
 nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 
 Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to" be de- 
 Btroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a. d.— Dufresnoy. In Britain, the 
 18* 
 
il8 THE world's progress. { IMP 
 
 religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- 
 tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon 
 overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the 
 week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after 
 the coming of St. Augustin. See ChristiaJiity . 
 
 ELIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c. 
 Troy {wliick see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and 
 Ilus, his successor, called the country IHum. This kingdom existed 296 
 years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The 
 Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, 
 whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus, 
 king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged 
 in this expedition; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns 
 and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten 
 years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the 
 inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 b. c. — Apcllo- 
 dorus. 
 
 ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- 
 kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 
 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants fl-om other states since 1800. In 1789 it 
 was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- 
 tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population 
 in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has 
 always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- 
 exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. 
 
 ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were 
 called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, 
 they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- 
 chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and 
 attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret 
 society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 
 1776. 
 
 ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, 
 drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
 great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted. 
 Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
 their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- 
 ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th 
 and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the 
 great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia- 
 ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 
 13, 1788 ; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. 
 Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806, 
 Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke ol 
 York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal 
 Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- 
 fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
 her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, 
 Not. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV. 
 
 IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of 
 Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit- 
 ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual 
 peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, January 22, 1801, 
 
MP] 
 
 DICTIOof'fARY OF DATES. 
 
 419 
 
 The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since 
 the passing of the Reform Bill {which see), in 1832, there are 471 English; 
 29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members — in all 658. In the Lords, 
 459 membi^R of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers 
 of Ireland^pftd 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, 
 Parliament, and Reform. 
 
 IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c. 
 Table, p. 317. 
 
 VALUE OP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD. 
 
 In 1710 - je4,753,777 I In 1800 - JE30,570,605 I In 1830 - jE46,315.241 
 -•50 . - 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - - 62,004;00i; 
 1775 - - 14,815,855 | 1820 • - 36,514,564 1 1845 • - 85,281,958 
 
 IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions Of religious, political, and other im- 
 postors, would All a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every 
 country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from 
 various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — 
 
 Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- 
 tended he had a letter from the Redeem- 
 er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
 he seduced multitudes to follow him into 
 woods and deserts, and to live in imitation 
 of John the Baptist. 
 
 Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to 
 be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by 
 the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. 
 
 George David, son of a waterman at 'Ghent, 
 styled himself the nephew of God, sent 
 into the world to adopt children worthy of 
 heaven ; he denied the resurrection, 
 preached against marriage, in favor of a 
 community of women, and taught that 
 the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
 had many foUowere ; died at Basle, 1556. 
 
 Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 
 tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of 
 Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris iiad 
 put to death ; but he maintained that ano- 
 ther child had been substituted in his 
 place : he was supported by the arms of 
 Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- 
 sians, who invited him to the throne, and 
 delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- 
 ing czar, and all his family, whom he 
 cruelly put to death : his imposition being 
 discovered, he was assassinated in his 
 palace, 1606. — D'Alembert's Revolutions 
 of Russia. 
 
 Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused 
 the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- 
 stantinople and other places, by person- 
 ating our Saviour, 1666. 
 
 IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Two men crucified, both pretending to be 
 the Messiah ; and two women executed for 
 assuming the characters of the Virgin 
 Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III., 
 1221. 
 
 Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of 
 Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- 
 tion, by pretending to inspirations from 
 heaven, fortelling that the king would have 
 an early and violent death if he divorced 
 Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 
 
 Boleyn. She and her confederates wera 
 hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIU, 1534.— 
 Rapin. 
 
 In the first year of Mary's reign, after her 
 marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth 
 Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- 
 creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made 
 for the purpose, uttered many seditious 
 speeches against the queen and the printe, 
 and also against the mass and confession, 
 for which she was sentenced to stand upon 
 a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- 
 mon-time, and make public confession of 
 her imposture, 1553: she was called the 
 Spirit of the Wall. — Baker's Chron. 
 
 William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our 
 Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 
 34 Eliz., 1591. 
 
 James Naylor, personated our Saviour; he 
 was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, 
 and his tongue bored through with a hot 
 iron on the pillory, by sentence of the 
 House of Commons, under Cromwell's 
 administration, 1656. 
 
 ■''alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, 
 who pretended to cure all diseases by 
 stroking the patient ; his imposture de- 
 ceived the credulous, and occasioned very 
 warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in 
 England, where it fell into disrepute, in 
 1666, upon his examination before the 
 Royal Society, after which we hear no 
 more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the 
 Roy. Society. 
 
 Dr. Titus Oates. See Conspiracies. 
 
 Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending 
 she bred rabbits within her, so imposed 
 upon many persons (among others, Mr. 
 St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
 espoused her cause, 1726. 
 
 The Cock-lane ghost imposture by WiUiaia 
 Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. 
 
 Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed hel 
 conception of the Messiah, and hadamul 
 titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1814 
 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed ta 
 
 be the Messiah, New- York. 1830-31. 
 Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. 
 
 /MPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 
 
420 THE world's progress. I IHB 
 
 practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
 known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. 
 Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- 
 tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the kiBji^s naval service 
 above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who h^S not served at 
 sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-^ates of 50 tons, 
 and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- 
 lic boards, and none except by an oflScer with a press-warrant. 
 
 INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and 
 Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to 
 death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and 
 it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. 
 
 [N('EST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and 
 Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- 
 stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his 
 brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his 
 brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. 
 In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own 
 daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, 
 queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and 
 the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteentli year, mar- 
 ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of 
 Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, 
 in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was 
 early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the 
 Commonwealth, in 1650. 
 
 INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not, as some suppose, a new impost,. 
 In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, 
 and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with 
 France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 
 1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per 
 cent, on all incomes above 150^., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 
 1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, 
 embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — 
 
 In 1804, at Is. in the pound - ^,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - jEl 1,500,000 
 In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985 
 
 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657^937^. ; from fund- 
 ed and stock properties, 2,885,505Z. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088Z. 
 and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456Z. ; total, sixteen millions and a half 
 Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax 
 of 21. 18s. M. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 
 1842 : it produced about 5,350,Oi30Z. a year. This tax was renewed for three 
 years more, in March, 1845. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They 
 are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregatioa 
 may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- 
 sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
 prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm 
 that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- 
 communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was 
 that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. 
 
 INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of 
 Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent. 
 
on)] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 421 
 
 The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was 
 forbidden (witli certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a buU of 
 pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works 
 of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. 
 
 — Ashe, 
 
 INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- 
 rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by 
 Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and 
 the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is 
 reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — 
 Remiei, 
 
 Irruption of the Mahometans, under 
 Mahmud Gazni - ■ a. d. 1000 
 
 Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 
 
 Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most 
 bloody conquerors of the world ; 
 14,000,000 of the human race perish 
 by his sword, under the pretence of 
 establishing the worship of one god : 
 he died 1237 
 
 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct 
 of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- 
 lane, invade Hiadostan • - 1398 
 
 Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- 
 feats the Indian army, makes a con- 
 quest of Hindostan, and butchers 
 100,000 of its people - - -1399 
 
 The passage to India discovered by 
 Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 
 
 Conquest of the country completed by 
 the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- 
 gul empire .... 1525 
 
 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the 
 greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 
 
 Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions 
 extendmg from 10 to 35 degrees in 
 latitude, and nearly as much in longi- 
 tude, and his revenue amounting to 
 32,000,000Z. sterling - - - 1660 
 
 Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or 
 Kouli Khan .... 1738 
 
 At Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
 and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 
 
 He carries away treasure amounting 
 to 125,000,000/. sterling - - 1739 
 
 Defeat of the last imperial army by the 
 Rohillas - - - - 1749 
 
 [The Mogur empire now became mere- 
 ly nominal, distinct and independent 
 sovereignties being forme! by nu- 
 merous petty princes. The empe- 
 rors were of no political consequence 
 from this period. 
 
 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 
 
 Attempt made to reach India by the 
 
 north-east and north-west passages - 1528 
 Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 
 
 Levant company make a land expedi- 
 tion to India .... 1589 
 First adventure from England - - 1591 
 
 First charter to the London company 
 
 of merchants .... 1600 
 Second charter to the East India com- 
 pany ..... 1609 
 Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 
 
 Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. 
 
 See Calcutta. .... 1756 
 He imprisons 146 British subjects, of 
 
 whom 123 perish in one night. See 
 Blackhole. ■ - May 19, 1758 
 
 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards 
 lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at 
 Plassey - - June 20, 1757 
 
 Warren Hastings becomts governor of 
 Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 
 
 India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 
 
 Supreme court established - - 1773 
 
 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 
 
 The strong fortress of Gualior taken by 
 major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 
 
 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and 
 defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 
 
 He takes Arcot - • Oct. 31, 1780 
 
 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
 Madras - - - June 22, 1781 
 
 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre 
 Coote . . - - July 1, 178) 
 
 Death of Hyder, and accession of his 
 son, Tippoo Saib • Dec. U, 1782 
 
 Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- 
 ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1788 
 
 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two 
 sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 
 
 Government of lord Mornington, after- 
 wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 
 
 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo 
 Saib killed - ■ May 4, 1799 
 
 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic 
 conquered .... 1800 
 
 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 
 
 Marquis Comwallis resumes the gov- 
 ernment - - July 30, 1805 
 
 Act by which the trade to India was 
 thrown open ; that to China remain- 
 ing with the company July 31, 1813 
 
 Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 
 
 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- 
 vernor-general - - July 4, 1828 
 
 Act opening the trade to India, and tea 
 trade, &c. to China, forming a new 
 era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833 
 
 Lord Auckland, governor-general ; he 
 leaves England - - Sept. 1835 
 
 Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John, 
 now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny) 
 
 July 23, 1S9 
 
 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, 
 and he and the British army enter 
 Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839 
 
 English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 184C 
 
 Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at 
 his funeral his successor is killed by 
 accident, and Dost Mahom*^, next 
 heir, surrenders to England • Nov. 5, ISH 
 
 General rising against the Briitish at 
 
422 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [are 
 
 Ameers of Scmde defeated by Sir Char- 
 les Napier ; Scinde is afterwards an- 
 nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17 1843 
 
 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniat ; 
 the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib^ 
 raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, '&13 
 
 Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover- 
 nor-general - • May 2, 1844 
 
 SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. 
 
 The citadel of Lahore is occupied by 
 the British under Sir Hugh Gough ; 
 and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 
 
 Great battle between the British under 
 Loi-d Goueh, and the Sikhs under 
 Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1848 
 
 Moultan taken, after a long s-iese, Jan. 3, 1849 
 
 Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough 
 
 Feb. 21, 1849 
 
 The Punjaub formally annexed to the 
 British crown - March 29, 1849 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Cabul; Sir Alexander Bumes and 
 other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 
 
 Lord EUenborough appointed governor- 
 general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 
 
 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously 
 assassinated - • Dec. 25, 1841 
 
 The British, under a convention, evacu- 
 ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as 
 hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; 
 a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 
 
 THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE 
 
 The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, 
 
 and attack the British post at Feroze- 
 
 pore, which was held by Sir John 
 
 Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 
 
 Battle of Aliwal ; tlie Sikhs defeated 
 
 Jan. 28, 1846 
 Battle of So'oraon ; the enemy defeated 
 
 with immense loss in killed and 
 
 drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 
 
 [The Sikhs lost 10,000 men : the British 
 
 2,338 in killed and wounded.] 
 
 INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercitil intercourse of the En- 
 gUsh with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ship.s fitted 
 out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three 
 years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another 
 ship, tlie sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to 
 a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. 
 Their stock then consisted of 72,000Z., and they fitted out four ships, and 
 meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold 
 at 500^. for a share of 100^., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698 ; 
 and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- 
 larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. 
 
 INIMItA. BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the 
 British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, 
 passed June 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill 
 passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. 
 Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from 
 South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several 
 plants produce various kinds of elastic gum ; but that in commerce is 
 chiefly the juice of the Siplionia Elastica, or syring#tree. Incisions in the 
 bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- 
 stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly 
 elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions 
 made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it 
 flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer. 
 
 INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by tho 
 French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made 
 by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered 
 much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into 
 the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840, 
 685,866. 
 
 INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent 
 continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They 
 have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of tha 
 white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers 
 
ind] dictionary of dates. 423 
 
 are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 
 1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- 
 tacked by Capt. Church, 1704 ; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704 ; and Haver- 
 hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the 
 French, 1754-9 ; CheroKees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. 
 [During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both 
 sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with 
 the Creeks, 1790 ; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 
 1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty 
 with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- 
 feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, 
 Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- 
 son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with 
 Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed 
 May 27, 1882 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 
 
 27, 1832 ; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832 ; war against the 
 [ndians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, 
 Tessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : 
 
 Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for 
 them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 
 
 Number yet to be removed ......... 72,181 
 
 Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the Mississippi and the Rocky 
 Mountains .... 150,341 
 
 Total withm the territory of the United States - - 352,879 
 
 Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- 
 sippi for $1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837 ; Powell 
 alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- 
 rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, 
 Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans 
 tribe entirely destroyed— Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the 
 Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June 
 
 28, 1839 ; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- 
 ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians 
 in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried ofi" 64 pri- 
 soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe 
 engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. 
 
 rNDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used 
 in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage 
 round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, 
 partly through the Persian Gulf and partly by land to Babylon, or through 
 Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so 
 little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by 
 letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality 
 of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call 
 indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men- 
 tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to 
 Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, 
 in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., 
 and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. 
 
 INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about a. d. 800 ; were 
 much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- 
 man pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement 
 V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, 
 Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac- 
 tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Refoimation in 
 
424 THE world's progress. [ ma 
 
 England, in 1534. — Bower^s Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were ft)r the 
 pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- 
 sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and 
 signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. 
 
 INFIRMARIES, Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- 
 eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of ^sculapius for a cure, 
 as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- 
 working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- 
 vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and 
 the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- 
 ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be 
 visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the 
 sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- 
 tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- 
 maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals. 
 
 INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they 
 being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus pimished in- 
 formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to 
 Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularly in London, 
 numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- 
 sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, 
 subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. 
 
 INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and 
 Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise various 
 colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- 
 milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and 
 must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, 
 most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. 
 It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- 
 posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. 
 
 INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different 
 periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of 
 which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the 
 Outer) was oViginally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights 
 Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made 
 inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Oster not until the 
 reign of Ehzabeth, about 1560. — Slowe's Survey. 
 
 INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in 
 England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- 
 ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the 
 first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. 
 The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy 
 from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr, 
 Tenner, January 21, 1799 ; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had 
 been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was 
 voted 10,000/. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- 
 poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- 
 berated Dr. Wickham when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and 
 subsequently the emperoi liberated whole families of English, making it a 
 
 ' Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair oy our grandfathers. The London Daily 
 Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomaj 
 Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they ar« 
 both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. 
 Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox. 
 
N8 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 
 
 point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced ia the 
 United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800. See Small Pox and Vaccination. 
 
 INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishops 
 only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- 
 tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, tliey ordained that such as 
 were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. 
 This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power 
 was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- 
 vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth 
 century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- 
 sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It waa 
 instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 ; and Gregory IX. in a council held 
 dt Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of 
 it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the 
 direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, 
 by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was 
 established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated 
 in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the 
 work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy oflBce is still exer- 
 cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva- 
 tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. 
 
 INSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than 
 tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than 
 it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in 
 England is as follows: lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but 
 allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- 
 rage of one to every thousand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 138 — 
 idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, 
 they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland 
 has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- 
 ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, 
 were not completed. — Sir Andreio Halliday. The number of insane persons 
 and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,4.34. There were 23 asylums 
 capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of 
 late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica, 
 formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this 
 cause. 
 
 INSOLVENCY in the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis' 
 was at its height. The ' heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone 
 amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans 
 to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 
 1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- 
 ments May 10, 1887. The New England Banks generally, immediately 
 after. 
 
 INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it 
 was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were 
 passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The 
 benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, 
 by 50,738 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a 
 period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have 
 been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose 
 debts are less than 300^., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose 
 compositions and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- 
 son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844. 
 
 INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Su3tonius conjectures that 
 
426 THE world's progress. [ nni 
 
 Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use 
 in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in 
 Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. 
 Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year 
 following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for 
 insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of 
 the first and most'extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular 
 office set up in London was the Hand-in-Hand, in 1696. A duty was laid 
 on insurances of \s. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was 
 increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first io- 
 surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. 
 
 /^TSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- 
 chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- 
 rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts 
 
 of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 
 
 INTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles 
 V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were altew- 
 ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- 
 fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in 
 England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII. , 1546. This law was repealed by 
 Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch 
 could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest 
 was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 
 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so 
 confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at 
 which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six 'per cent.; regulated 14 
 George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, 
 and punishable by the statute. — BlacJcstone. The law does not now apply to 
 bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laws. 
 
 INTEREST OF MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- 
 ent States, viz: — In La. five^r. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., 
 Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is "six per cent. In 
 N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and 
 Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the 
 whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, 
 and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void 
 in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 
 
 INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous 
 catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most 
 remarkable: — 
 
 An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned 
 more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. 
 
 Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town 
 and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, 
 1108. The present city was built above a 
 league from the channel where the old one 
 lies submerged. — Hisloire de Flandre. 
 
 At the Texel, which first raised the com- 
 merce of Amsterdam, 1400. 
 
 The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 
 villages, and 100,000 people, and formed 
 the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17, 1446. 
 
 The Severn overflowed during ten days, and 
 carried away men, women, and children, 
 in their beds, ar d covered the tops of many 
 mountains ; the waters settled upon the 
 
 lands, and were called The Great Waters 
 for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.- 
 Hollinshed. 
 
 A general inundation by the failure of the 
 dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number ol 
 drowned said to have been 400,000. 
 
 At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- 
 ed, 1617. 
 
 An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock 
 opened, and poured out water to the height 
 of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. 
 Trans. 
 
 Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants 
 were drowned, and incredible damage was 
 done at Hamburg, 1717. 
 
 At Madrid, several of the Spanish nelaj t} 
 
low J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 427 
 
 INUNDATIONS, continued. 
 
 and other persons of distinction perished, 
 1723. — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their 
 lives by the torrents from the mountains, 
 Sept. 1767. 
 
 At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
 Danube, by which 24 villages and their 
 inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. 
 
 By the overflow of the Da tube, a Turkish 
 corps of 2000 men, on a s nail island np.ar 
 Widdin, were surprised, and met instant 
 death, Sept. 14, 1813. 
 
 In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 
 ruin of the French armj- under Macdonald 
 was accelerated by the floods ; nlso in Po- 
 land 4000 lives were supposed to have 
 been lost, same year. 
 
 In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 
 water, and great loss of life and property 
 was sustained, in March 1816. 
 
 Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by 
 the Vistula breaking through some of its 
 dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and 
 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous 
 
 At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in 
 habitants lai 1 under water, Feb. 1830. 
 
 10,000 houses swept away, ar ^ about iOOS 
 persons perished, at Cantor), u: China, ir 
 consequence of an ir.ur.dation, occasioned 
 by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- 
 lamity was produced by the same cause 
 in other parts of China. Oct. 18-33. 
 
 Awful inundation in France ; the Saone 
 poured its waters into the Rhone, broke 
 through its banks, and covered 60,000 
 acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 
 100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses 
 were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
 upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and 
 Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such 
 a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 
 1840. 
 
 Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- 
 leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- 
 ed, May 12, 1849. 
 
 The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi. 
 &c., at different times, have caused great 
 destruction of property, and (at times) oi 
 life. 
 
 lives lost, April 9, 1829. 
 
 INVOCATION OP THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish 
 church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the 
 prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 
 about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by 
 calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- 
 vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- 
 nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives 
 gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, 
 prayers and oblations for and to them. 
 
 IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a 
 manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with 
 great advantage by M. Clement, in 1818. Iodine is very active ; it is of a 
 violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable 
 blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- 
 low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of 
 iodine form iodic acid. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty 
 of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and 
 Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the lattej power, 
 November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince fegent of 
 England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands 
 are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the 
 seat of government. 
 
 IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement 
 on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about 1350 b. c, — Vitruvius by 
 PerrauU. 
 
 IONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. 
 This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under 
 the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- 
 imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelau.*, the master of Socrates. 
 
 IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- 
 sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 
 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the 
 Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- 
 ritory, 1888. Admitted info thfe Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111 
 
428 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [IE4 
 
 IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the de« 
 feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- 
 nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas« 
 Sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 
 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in 
 fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. j)nti 
 gonus and his sou were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wa» 
 originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the 
 first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 
 2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was 
 followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- 
 cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
 kings. 
 
 Arrival of Heremon - -B.C. 1070 
 
 A colony from Spain bring with them 
 
 the Phoenician letters, about • - 500 
 
 Arrival of St. Patrick - - A. d. 448 
 
 The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is 
 
 crowned at Tara - - - 1002 
 
 Battle of Clontarf, which terminates 
 
 the power of the Danes - - 1039 
 
 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi 
 
 ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, 
 Leinster, Meath^ Connaught, and 
 Munster ; besides a number of petty 
 principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
 tinually war with each other.] 
 
 Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to in- 
 vade Ireland, on condition that he 
 compelled every Irish family to pay 
 a carolus to the Holy See, and held 
 it as a fief of the church - -1157 
 
 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- 
 ceives the submissions of the kings 
 and princes of the country, settles the 
 government upon a footing similar to 
 that of England, and makes his son 
 
 John lord of Ireland 
 Ireland wholly subdued 
 English laws and customs introduced 
 
 by king John 
 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king. 
 
 instead of lord of Ireland 
 The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to 
 
 expel the English, and cruelly maS' 
 
 1172 
 1210 
 
 sacre the Protestant settlers m Ulster, 
 to the number of 40,000 persons, com- 
 menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 
 
 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole 
 island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 
 
 Landing of king William III. at Car- 
 ricklergus - - June 14, 1690 
 
 Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of 
 Schomberg killed - July 1, 1690 
 
 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced 
 May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- 
 pressed until the next year - - 1799 
 
 Legislative Union of Great Britain and 
 Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 
 
 Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 
 
 Roman Catholic emancipation. (See 
 Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 
 
 Great repeal movement ; meeting at 
 Trim. (See Repeal) ■ March 19, 1843 
 
 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 
 
 O'Connell died at Genoa, set. 72, May 15, 1847 
 
 Famine and great distress in Ireland 
 throughout .... 1347 
 
 Relieved by England, and by voluntary 
 gifts fi'om the United States. 
 
 Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland 
 passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847 
 
 Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 
 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 
 
 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- 
 lion put down - • Aug. 5, 1848 
 
 e 
 
 IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the 
 mount having been burnt by lightning, 1482 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. 
 The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass 
 to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. 
 Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were 
 placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. 
 Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of 
 Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex 
 in 1543. — Rijmer's Fadera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into 
 bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first 
 introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of 
 iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamors, 
 &c., see Steamers. 
 
 ' Tnere is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare sreighing twenty 
 fcur poxmds.—Anon. 
 
ITA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 
 
 IRON- MASK, THE MAN op the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a 
 mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar- 
 guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was 
 treated with profound respect ; but his keei^ers had orders to dispatch him 
 if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on hia 
 table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an 
 Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died 
 ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, 
 son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp 
 before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of 
 Beaufoi t, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ; 
 while ?till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- 
 mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on 
 Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been 
 a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, his father being the duke 
 of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- 
 cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have 
 caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. 
 
 ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, 
 where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two 
 Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the 
 other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he fi'amed his 
 Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times 
 from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he 
 publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of 
 God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, <^c. 
 
 [SLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch 
 were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at 
 Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and 
 many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- 
 session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony, ^ee Mauritius. 
 
 ISMAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who 
 lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 
 22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- 
 vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting 
 of 30,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, 
 not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of 
 his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were 
 murdered in cold blood. 
 
 ISSUS, Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle 
 with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- 
 tured, 333 B. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse 
 in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus 
 Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot 
 and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were 
 left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. 
 
 ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received 
 their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- 
 tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted 
 in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred 
 and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it, 1259 b. c — 
 Arundelian Mccrbles. 
 
 fTALY. The garden o ' Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- 
 ceived its name from Jtalus, a king of the country, or from Italos, a Greek 
 word signifying an ox. The aborigines ot Italy were the progeny of 
 
430 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [lA* 
 
 Meshecli, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites oi 
 Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into 
 Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- 
 vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the 
 Celts ; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna 
 Grsecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy 
 may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely 
 to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the 
 kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Views. 
 
 553 
 
 Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- 
 goths under Alaric. See Rome a. d. 410 
 
 The Huns ravage the Roman empire 
 under Attila, " Die ScouTgeqf God''' ■ 447 
 
 The Western Roman empire is de- 
 stroyed by the Heruli, wliose leader, 
 Odoacer, erects tlae kingdom of Italy 476 
 
 The reign of Totila, who twice pillages 
 Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to 
 such distress, that the ladies and peo- 
 ple of quality are obliged to beg for 
 bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 
 
 The power of the Goths destroyed, and 
 their kingdom overthrown by the ge- 
 nerals of the Eastern empire - 
 
 Narses, governor of Italy, invites the 
 Lombards from Germany into this 
 country ... - 568 
 
 The Lombards overrun Italy - - 596 
 
 Venice first governed by a doge - 697 
 
 Charlemagne invades Italy - - - 774 
 
 He repairs to Rome, and is crowned 
 emperor of the West - - - 800 
 
 [During the reign of Charlemagne, the 
 pope of Rome, who had hitherto been 
 merely a spiritual minister, finds 
 means to assume a temporal power, 
 not only independent of, but superior 
 to all others.] 
 
 Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- 
 es himself to be crowned witha tiara 1053 
 
 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- 
 brand, pretends to universal sove- 
 reignty, in which he is assisted by the 
 countess Matilda, mistress of the 
 greater part of Italy, who makes a do- 
 nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 
 
 Disputes between the popes and empe- 
 rors, relative to the appointment of 
 bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate 
 Italy and Germany during several 
 centuries. 
 
 The Venetians obtain many victories 
 over the Eastern emperors - - 1125 
 
 Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 
 
 The duchies of Ferrara, iffiodena, and 
 Reggio are created - - - 1228 
 
 Milan erected into a duchy - - 1277 
 
 The papal seat removed for seventy 
 years to Avignon, in France - - 13Sj£ 
 
 The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- 
 tion of a pope, they set fire to the con- 
 clave, and separate, and the papal 
 chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 
 
 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master 
 of Mantua, with the title of imperial 
 vicar . . - . 1328 
 
 Lucca becomes an independent reput 
 lie 1370 
 
 Naples conquered by Ciiarles VIII. - 1492 
 
 The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- 
 lian provinces in a single campaign, 
 assailed by the pope, the emperor, 
 and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 
 
 Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- 
 ces, opens the sale of indulgences and 
 absolutions, which soon replenishes 
 his treasury . - . . 1517 
 
 Parma and Placentia made a duchy • 1545 
 
 Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of 
 Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 
 
 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- 
 dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 
 
 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. 
 See Jeddo - • - - 1619 
 
 The Corsicans revolt from the Gepoese, 
 and choose Theodore for their king. 
 See Corsica ... - 1736 
 
 Milan vested in the house af Austria by 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1743 
 
 Division of the Venetian states by 
 France and Austria - - - 1797 
 
 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by 
 Bonaparte - - - - - 1798 
 
 The Italian republic - • - 1802 
 
 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- 
 leon crowned . - - - 1805 
 
 Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of 
 Italy 1805 
 
 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow 
 of Napoleon - ■ - - 1814 
 
 [The various other events relating to 
 Italy will be found under the respec- 
 tive heads of Genoa. Lombardy. Mi- 
 lan, Naples, Rome, Venice, ^c] 
 
 The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts tc 23,677,000. - 
 Aim, de Gotha. 
 
 J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du 
 Fresnoy. 
 
 JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French r». 
 volutioa The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association 
 of about I'orty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminat* 
 
MM J DICTIONARY OF iATES. 431 
 
 political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from theit 
 meeting in the hail of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu- 
 merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- 
 cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, 
 to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the 
 national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They 
 are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- 
 cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first graac 
 spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. Tht 
 religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules 
 of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. 
 
 JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba^ 
 radjeus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and 
 seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. 
 They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- 
 sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed 
 their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- 
 tinction is now entirely lost. 
 
 JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, 
 and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, 
 the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaflfa was taken by Bona- 
 parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in 
 June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. 
 
 JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from 
 the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venablea 
 in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. 
 Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was 
 desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 
 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose 
 against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous 
 hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
 washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 
 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which 
 numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy- 
 ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared 
 the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26, 
 1843. The Cholera in 1850. 
 
 JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly 
 reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by 
 Amuratli I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to 
 an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them 
 were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman 
 was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. 
 
 JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, 
 about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "Augitstv- 
 mis," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, 
 and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- 
 versj' on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- 
 ban VIII. 
 
 JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a 
 divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to 
 the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- 
 stice, and made it thn first month, because Janus was supposed to preside 
 over the beginning of all business. This g( id was painted with two face* 
 
4-32 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEM 
 
 because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked 
 towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first 
 day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other 
 presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among 
 us, was originally taken. 
 
 JANUS, Temple op, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in 
 the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during 
 above 700 years, viz : — under Numa, 714 e. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; 
 and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed 
 in war, 
 
 JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after 
 an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was 
 driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About 
 this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, 
 and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, 
 March 31, 1814. 
 
 JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and 
 was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as 
 the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins 
 with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 
 660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- 
 ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- 
 went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See 
 Jeddo. 
 
 JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, 
 sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, 
 and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon 
 their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, Aiigust 
 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary 
 prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to HoUand 
 in 1814. 
 
 JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num- 
 nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the 
 court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, 
 which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- 
 turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622, and the 
 inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of 
 indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars 
 of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories 
 high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- 
 cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. 
 
 .lEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modem 
 times; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in 
 woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number 
 of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, 
 whish lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the 
 number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on thai 
 of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. 
 
 JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the 
 French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperov Na- 
 poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with 
 the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In 
 
TEB I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 433 
 
 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced tc 
 Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806 
 
 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchj 
 of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- 
 queror, in lOGG. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A 
 body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and 
 compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander ol 
 the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked 
 the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was 
 killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. 
 
 JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found 
 ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 
 30, 1001 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair; 
 Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one 
 of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews 
 perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by 
 the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- 
 doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Sarjicens 
 in 636; and bj^ the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 
 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from 
 the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the 
 Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in 
 February 1799. See Jews. 
 
 JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as "a witty and jocose 
 person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other 
 men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English 
 kings kept jesters, and partieularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court 
 in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 
 
 JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), 
 a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. 
 Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 
 1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- 
 litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- 
 cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage 
 to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order 
 in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul HI. who 
 made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of 
 chastit}^, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the 
 holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by 
 •which their number was not to exceed 60 That clog, however, was taken 
 off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and 
 Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- 
 erful and numerous. But though Franqois Xavier, and other missionaries 
 the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable 
 globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at P.iris. Tht- 
 Sorbonne issued a dgcree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, 
 as being ca Iculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. 
 Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, 
 have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- 
 land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were pu'; 
 down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated 
 1764; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. 
 in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since toleral -i in othe"- states 
 19 
 
434 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 f JE"W 
 
 and even where not tolerated, the body, as now ui England, possesses a se- 
 cret and extensive existence. 
 
 /ESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year ot,' 
 Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- 
 ment of the common era. Christ's baptism by John, and 
 his iirst ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted 
 the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- 
 day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5; ascended 
 to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and hia 
 Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, 
 A. D. 33. 
 
 JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- 
 travagiince of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia 
 Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916Z. sterling. Jewels 
 were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- 
 tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. 
 
 JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until 
 the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. 
 They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years 
 and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish 
 time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 
 
 JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They 
 derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- 
 ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular 
 Views, p. 6 to p. 42. 
 
 JEWS, Modern Hfstory op. 
 
 Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and 
 temple are sacked and burnt, and 
 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- 
 tudes destroying themselves a. d. 70 
 
 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 
 dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 
 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects 
 a temple to Jupiter - - ■ 130 
 
 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain 
 by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 
 
 [They are now banished from Judea by 
 an edict of the emperor, and are for- 
 bidden to return, or even to look back 
 upon their once flourishing and be- 
 loved city, on pain of death. From 
 this period, the Jews have been scat- 
 tered among all other nations.] 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 
 
 Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at 
 a solemnization of the Passover, they 
 sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich 
 tradesman at Paris, for which the 
 criminals are executed, and all Je\vs 
 banished France - - - 1080 
 
 The Jews massacred in London, on the 
 coronation-day of Richard I., at the 
 instigation of the priests - - 1089 
 
 500 bemg besieged in York castle by 
 the mob. they cut each other's throats 
 to avoid their fury - - -1190 
 
 Jews of both sexesj imprisoned ; their 
 eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- 
 bers inhumanly butchered, by king 
 John 1204 
 
 They circumcise and attempt to cruci- 
 fy a child at Norwich ; the ofienden 
 
 are condemned in a fine of 20,000 
 marks 1235 
 
 Th%y crucify a child at Lincoln, for 
 which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 
 
 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew 
 having forced a Christian to pay him 
 more than 2s. per week as interest 
 upon a loan of 20s. — Stoice - ■ 1262 
 
 Statute that no Jew should enjov a free- 
 hold, passed - - '. . 1269 
 
 Every Jew lendmg money on interest 
 compelled to wear a plate on his 
 breast signifying that lae was a usu- 
 rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 
 
 267 Jews hanged and quartered for 
 clipping coin - - - . 1277 
 
 They crucify a cliild at Northampton, 
 for which fifty are drawn at horses' 
 tails and hanged • - - 1282 
 
 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one 
 day, and are all banished England. — 
 Jiapin 1287 
 
 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the 
 peasantry; 500 defend themselves in 
 a castle, where, for want of weaoons. 
 they throw their childrfin at thei: en- 
 emies, and then destroy one inoth.ir 131 
 
 A fatal distemper raging in E.\rope, 
 they are suspected of having pi^ison- 
 ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- 
 sacred. — Lenglet. - - - 1349 
 
 500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and 
 150,000 from Portugal - - 1493 
 
 They are banished France • - 1494 
 
 After having been banished England 
 365 years, they are re-admitted by 
 Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with 
 Manasseh Ben Israel - - - 1G53 
 
ryo] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 
 
 435 
 
 land, lost on the second reading, by a 
 
 majority in the Commons, 228 against 
 
 165 - - - May 17, 1836 
 
 Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff 
 of London ; and knighted by the 
 queen, being the (irst Jew on whom 
 that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 18J7 
 
 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- 
 mitting the title of citizen of the first 
 class to be held by any Jew who ren- 
 ders himself worthy of it 
 
 Owing to the disappearance ol a Greek 
 priest, a persecution of the Jews be- 
 gan at Uanascus. — See Dainascus 
 
 Feb. 1. \mi 
 
 :s3S 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 
 Statute to naturalize them iri England, 
 
 passed . - - - - 1753 
 
 This act repealed on the petition of all 
 
 the cities in England - - - 1754 
 
 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and 
 
 Avisnon are declared to be citizens 
 
 of France .... 1790 
 
 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, 
 
 convened by the emoeror Napoleon 
 
 Jan. 20, 1S07 
 London Society for promoting Christi- 
 anity among the Jews . - 1808 
 Alexander of Russia grants land on the 
 
 sea of Azoph to converted Jews, 
 
 Sept. 1, 1820 
 Bin for Jewish emancipation in Eng. ) 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine 
 of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, .foan of 
 Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles 
 VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised 
 the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- 
 glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the 
 enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession 
 of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. 
 In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. 
 She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed 
 any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
 May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a 
 witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her 
 age. — Voltaire's Pucclle d' Orleans. 
 
 JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well 
 known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and 
 since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard 
 Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. 
 
 JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty 
 years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by 
 pope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty j-ears 
 by command' of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban 
 VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to ever}' twenty-fifth year, at 
 which period it is now fixed. 
 
 JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius 
 Anglia : these judges continued until the erection of the Covirts of King's 
 Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the ofHce of Justiciarius Anglia 
 was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 
 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- 
 liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- 
 ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- 
 potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of 
 Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench, 
 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1585. 
 Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench 
 and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of 
 them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the 
 crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by 
 the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the 
 judges in England was established by making their appointments patents 
 for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 
 
436 
 
 THE world's progress. f tVl 
 
 one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his sea*, ag 
 vice-chancellor. May 5, 1813. 
 JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in 
 number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and 
 Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have 
 been John Jay, appointed, 1789 ; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796 ; Oliver 
 Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir- 
 cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges- of the several Statea 
 are thus appointed : — 
 By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, Now 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts, Louisana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. 
 
 By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
 Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, 
 Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. 
 
 By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. 
 
 By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York,* and Maryland. 
 
 The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good 
 behavior") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. 
 
 Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. 
 •Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. 
 
 For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- 
 bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; and for 
 one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. 
 
 They are removable — 
 By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court 
 of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As- 
 sembly, in New York. 
 JUDICIAL COMMiriEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of 
 Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire 
 land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Court?, 
 of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the 
 Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William 
 IV. 1833. 
 JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera- 
 tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two 
 rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil- 
 lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god 
 is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and 
 to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones : the 
 temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. 
 JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- 
 duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Ca^cilius 
 Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and 
 afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to 
 Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been 
 immortalized by the pen of Sallust. 
 JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the 
 lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It con.sists of 7980 
 
 * The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new coiwti 
 tution of 1846 
 
urn.] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 437 
 
 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- 
 ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any pei-iod 
 antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common witli the mun- 
 dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian 
 period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 
 4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. 
 
 JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of 
 C. Cffisar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month 
 in the Roman calendar imtil Numa added January and February to the 
 year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year 
 
 JUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year, 
 ft had its name Junius, which some derive h Junone, and others d Juniori- 
 bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
 When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is 
 now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. 
 
 JUNITJS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political 
 writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They 
 were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- 
 ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British 
 literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
 Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, 
 Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. 
 Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- 
 neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis ; but '.he matter is still 
 hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall 
 perish with me." — Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. 
 
 JiJPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- 
 mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, 
 made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stixrs are accurately described ; this 
 chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter 
 were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed 
 some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. 
 
 JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- 
 tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen 
 appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, 
 and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false 
 verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed 
 to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of 
 the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
 one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. 
 By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge 
 peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament, 
 and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge 
 any of his peers. 
 
 JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used 
 to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common 
 law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A 
 jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree 
 upon a verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till 
 they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their 
 pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though 
 they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to 
 agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the 
 court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791. — 
 PkiMi^s. 
 
438 THE world's progress. [kib 
 
 JUSTICES or the PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- 
 tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- 
 ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the 
 peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. 
 — Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, 
 and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. 
 
 JUSTINIAN CODE. Wherein was written what maybe termed the statute 
 law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. 
 To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and 
 Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body 
 of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. 
 
 K. 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- 
 duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. 
 Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument 
 perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- 
 tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the 
 formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- 
 covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of 
 by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by 
 Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
 considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year 
 being dreary winter. 
 
 KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected 
 subsen uently by John of Gaunt ; and its remains now form one of the most 
 picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred 
 on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- 
 tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment 
 of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000^. a vast 
 expenditure in those times. 
 
 KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, 
 an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. 
 Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad 
 mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73 677 ; in 1810, 406,511 , 
 in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. 
 
 KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, 
 about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of 
 Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form 
 was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient 
 keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. 
 The late P^ancis Douce, esq., had some of i-emarkable shapes, the shaft ter- 
 minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of thi."* 
 description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again 
 upon divorce or separation. 
 
 B.IEL, Treaty or. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- 
 uary 14, 1814. By tliis treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously 
 the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent 
 a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission 
 was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, 
 and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, 
 but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and tlw 
 diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. 
 
CIN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 43S 
 
 KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Reij, the French R(yu, 
 all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first 
 founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fre&noy. Misraim built cities in 
 Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the 
 earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states 
 were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians 
 understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- 
 ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the 
 sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was 
 a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public 
 and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should 
 devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, 
 the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, 
 were all prescribed. 
 
 KING oy ENGLAND. The style " kir^ of England," was first used by Egbert 
 A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of the English nation, 
 existed during the Heptarchy. See Briiain. The plural phraseology of we, 
 us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of '' king of Ire- 
 land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until .542, when Henry VIII. 
 changed lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted 
 at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the 'United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- 
 uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to nm thus : — 
 "Georgius Tcrtlus, Dei GraLia Britanniarum Rex, Fidei Defensor," "George 
 the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." 
 
 KING OP THK FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title of 
 " king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of 
 " king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in 
 1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. 
 was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," 
 August y, 1830. See France. 
 
 KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term 
 queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds 
 to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals ol 
 Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See 
 Himgary. 
 
 KING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest 
 sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- 
 tained them the title of " king of the Romans," this people being compre- 
 hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 
 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to 
 Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected 
 next emperor; he obtained the title of " king of the Romans," but failed in 
 succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived 
 by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; 
 but the title ceased with the extinction of the dj'nasty of Napoleon, April 
 5, 1814. 
 
 KING'S BENCH, Court op, in England. Obtained its name from the king 
 sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the 
 judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdi.> 
 tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control 
 as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The 
 name of this court has been altered to that of Q,ueen's Bench, since the 
 
440 THE world's progress. [ KNi 
 
 accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is tlie case with all institutions in 
 immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. 
 
 KIND'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the liings of England. 
 The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar 
 ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- 
 teen 3'ears, 92,107 persons were touclied; and, according to Wiseman, the 
 king's pliysician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne ofiicially an- 
 nounced in the London GazeUe, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch 
 publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- 
 til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. 
 
 E.ING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered by 
 Henrj' I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after reniarkiBg with his accus- 
 tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become 
 chief of a new administration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one 
 thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- 
 cal blunders in king's speeches; these things will still be wiitten in the 
 same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in 
 a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbelt. 
 
 KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to 
 have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian 
 monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Menes. or Misraim, makes his son Atholas, 
 surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Toso- 
 thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c. — Blair. Ninus founds the As- 
 syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. 
 
 K.ISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing 
 was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas 
 approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- 
 ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, 
 and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. 
 From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling 
 to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709. 
 
 KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and 
 gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose of 
 promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they 
 effected by .'spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, 
 and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of 
 the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook, 
 who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and 
 who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life of Qiieen Anne. 
 
 KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived 
 from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in 
 Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who, 
 after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 
 750 B. c. — Livy. 
 
 KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. _ Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, 
 particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and 
 Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru- 
 saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief 
 amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, 
 and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights 
 travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the 
 cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don 
 Quixote. 
 
 tNlGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, ai!tet 
 
tm] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 441 
 
 confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptftrchy 
 The first linight made by the sovereign with the swoi'd of state was Athei- 
 Stan, on wliom Alfred bestowed tliis new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelmaii. The 
 custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed 
 in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashjiiok's Institutes. All persona 
 having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 
 38 Henry III. 12oi.— Salmon. 
 
 ■<NIGHTHOOD in EUEOFE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- 
 valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- 
 cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state ol 
 anai'chy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- 
 sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. 
 Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
 treasure were carried oti' by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich 
 fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and 
 to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, 
 and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men ot 
 the highest rank and largest possessions, adr fission into the order was 
 ♦lecmed a great honor. 
 
 MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 A. D. 1160 
 
 Eenewed. 
 
 Alcantara, insiituted 
 Alexander Nevskoi, Russia 
 Amaranla, Sweden 
 Angelic Knights, Greece 
 Annunciada, JVIantua 
 Annunciation, Savoy 
 Argonauts, Naples 
 Avis, Portugal 
 Band, Spain 
 Bannerets, England, 1360. 
 
 See Bamierets • - - - 
 
 Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See 
 
 Bath . . . . . 
 
 Bear, Switzerland - - - - 
 
 Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by 
 
 Frederick I. - 
 Blood of Christ, Mantua - • - 
 
 Brotherly Love, instituted 
 Burgundian Cross • - - - 
 
 Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San- 
 
 cho III. ..... 
 
 Carpet, England - - - - 
 
 Catharine, Russia 
 
 Cliase, instituted by the duke of Wir- 
 
 temberg . - . - - 
 
 Christ, Livonia .... 
 Christ, Portugal 
 Christian Charity, France 
 Cincinn.itus, America 
 Conception of the Virgin 
 Concord, Pru.ssia, instituted by Chris- 
 tian Ernest, elector of Brandenfcurgh 
 Crescent, Naples . - - - 
 
 Crown Royal, France - 
 Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by 
 
 Waldemar IL, 1219 ; revived by 
 
 Christian V. . . - - 
 
 Death's Head, Female Order, by the 
 
 widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe 
 
 Mersburgh 
 Dove of Castile 
 Dragon, Hungary 
 Ear of Corn, Brittany 
 Elephan'. De.i.nark, by Christian I. 
 firmine, France - 
 Garter, England 
 
 19* 
 
 1700 
 1645 
 456 
 1618 
 13.55 
 1382 
 1147 
 1232 
 
 1485 
 
 1725 
 1213 
 
 1701 
 1608 
 1708 
 1535 
 
 1156 
 1553 
 1698 
 
 1719 
 
 1203 
 1319 
 1590 
 17a3 
 1619 
 
 1660 
 1448 
 802 
 
 -1709 
 -1379 
 -1439 
 
 - 1050 
 
 - 1478 
 
 - 14.50 
 -1350 
 
 Generosity, Brandenburgh 
 
 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by 
 
 Philip, surnamed the Good 
 Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel 
 Golden Shield and Thistle - • - 
 
 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. 
 Guelphic, Hanover - - . - 
 
 Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 
 Holy Ghost, Rome 
 
 Holy Trinity - - - - - 
 
 Hospitallers (ichicfi see) 
 Januarius, Naples - • • - 
 
 .lerusalem. See Malta - 
 .lesus, France - - - - 
 
 Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John 
 
 XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 
 Knot, Naples .... 
 La Calza, Venice - . . - 
 
 Legion of Honor, France, instituted by 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte . 
 Lily of Arragon . ■ • - 
 
 Lily of Navarre - - - - 
 
 Loretto, Lady of - - - - 
 
 Malta. See Malta. 
 
 Martyrs, Palestine - - - - 
 
 Maria- Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 
 Mauritians, Savoy 
 Merit, instituted by the landgrave of 
 
 Hesse Cassel • - - • 
 
 Merit, Prussia . . . . 
 
 Noble Passion, Germany 
 Oak of Navarre, Spain - 
 Passion of Jesus Christ, I ranee 
 Pius, founded by Pius IV. . 
 Porcupine, France 
 
 Red Eagle, Prussia - • - - 
 
 Redemption, instituted - 
 Rosary, Spain - - - - 
 
 Round Table, England— See Knights 
 
 of the Round Table - 
 ,St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes 
 
 to this saint the i.itroductionof Chris- 
 tianity into Muscovy) 
 St. Andrew, Scotland, 809 ; renewed 
 
 14.52 ; and again by James VI. 
 St. Anthony, Ethiopia 
 
 1685 
 
 1429 
 1785 
 1370 
 1559 
 1816 
 1559 
 1193 
 1211 
 1092 
 1738 
 1048 
 1206 
 
 1610 
 1351 
 
 1400 
 
 1802 
 1403 
 1048 
 1587 
 1531 
 1319 
 1792 
 1430 
 
 1785 
 1740 
 1704 
 722 
 1382 
 155& 
 1393 
 1792 
 1212 
 1172 
 
 528 
 
 -1698 
 
 160o 
 353 
 
U2 
 
 THE AVORLD'S progress. 
 
 [kw 
 
 KaMGHTHOOD in EUROPE, coiitinued. 
 
 St. Anthony, Ilainault - - -1382 
 St. Blaze, Aeon - - - 12.50 
 St. Catliarine, Palestine- - -1163 
 St. Catharine, Russia - • - 1698 
 St. Uenis, France - - - 1267 
 St. George, Austria - - - - 1470 
 St. George, Carinthia - - • 1279 
 St. George, Uelender of the Immacu- 
 late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 
 St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- 
 ward HI. See Garter • - 1349 
 St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by 
 
 Frederick III. - - - - 1460 
 
 St. George, Rome - - - 149C 
 
 St. Georse, Russia - • - - 1782 
 
 St. George, Spain - - - 1318 
 
 St. George, Venice - - - • 1200 
 
 St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of 
 
 Juliers and Cleves - • - 1417 
 St. James, Holland - - - • 1290 
 St. James, Portugal • - - 1310 
 St. James, Spain - • - - 1030 
 St. Jerome, Germany - • -11-54 
 St. John of Aeon • • • -1370 
 St. John of Jerusalem - • -1048 
 St. John of Malta - • - -1522 
 St. John ol' Rhodes - - - 1300 
 St. Julien, of Alcantara - - -1176 
 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- 
 uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572 
 St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 
 St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed - 1562 
 St. Mary the Glorious - - - 12,33 
 St. Mary de Merced, Spain • - 1218 
 St. Michael, France - - - - 1469 
 
 St. Michael, Germanj . - 161S 
 St. Patrick, Ireland - . • 1783 
 St. Paul, Rome - - - 1540 
 Sr. Peter, Rome - • - - 1520 
 St. Rupert, Germany, by tt:3 archbish- 
 op of Saltzburgh - - - 1701 
 St. Sepulchre, Palestine - - - ICOi 
 S Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, 
 
 grand-duke of Tuscany - 1561 
 
 St. Thomas of Aeon- - - -1370 
 Saviour, Greece - - Jime 1, 1833 
 
 Seraphims, Sweden - - - - 1334 
 
 Ship and Crescent, France - - 1261 
 Sincerity, instituted by the elector of 
 
 Saxony - - - - - IfcX 
 
 Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662 
 
 Swan, Cleves - - - - 960 
 
 Sword, Cyprus - . - - 1195 
 
 Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - -1772 
 
 Templars.— See Teinplars - 1118 
 
 Teste Mcrte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652 
 Teutonic, U90 ; renewed in Prussia - 1522 
 
 Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370 
 
 Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived • 1540 
 
 Trinitarians, Spain - - - 159-1 
 
 Tru.\-illo, Spain - - - - 1227 
 United Ladies for the honor of uie 
 
 Cross, in Germany - - - 1666 
 
 Virgin Mary - - - • - 1233 
 
 Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607 
 
 Warfare of Christ, Poland - • -1705 
 
 Warfare of Christ, Russia - - 1325 
 
 Wing of St. Michael, Portugal - - 1165 
 
 Wladimir, Russia - - - 1682 
 
 KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of snperioi 
 worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womei 
 also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved thu 
 city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their 
 stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the 
 Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were 
 granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. 
 * KNIGHTS or the ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d. 
 528.— j45.S67-'s Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward 
 III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the 
 recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became 
 anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest and thereupon 
 projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a 
 solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. 
 He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return 
 of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those 
 jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. 
 
 KNIGHTS OK THE SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by 
 Doornsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, weifi 
 greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the 
 latter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence 
 called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307. 
 
 KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118 
 They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple 
 in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights 
 were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and 
 possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct,. 
 
LAB J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 
 
 1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Thei; order wai 
 abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Viennc, in 1312 ; 
 and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given 
 to the knights of Malta. See Malta. 
 
 KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of 
 cutlery, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- 
 don, 5th Eliz., 1563. — Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks. 
 
 KORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general 
 aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in 
 the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under 
 certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- 
 phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- 
 tainly possessed every tine qualitj', was said to be that of paradise. Maho. 
 met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty- 
 three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, 
 fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de- 
 scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- 
 sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading artutle of 
 faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and 
 a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
 is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
 1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. 
 It is a rhapsody of 3000 ver.-ses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran; 
 Islamism; Mecca; Mahovietism, <^c. 
 
 L. 
 
 LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
 admirals Russel and Rooke, and the "French fleet commanded by admiral 
 Tourville. The English attacked the Frencji near La Hogue, gaining a 
 splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight 
 more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon 
 England, May 19, 1692. 
 
 LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed 
 from France for the Pacific, with the Boitssole and Astrolabe under his com- 
 mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, 
 in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search 
 of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the 
 East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast 
 away on two different islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by 
 various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought 
 with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. 
 
 LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were 
 successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- 
 tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe 
 reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, 
 until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. 
 
 LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by 
 Daedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ; 
 the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that 
 place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the 
 HetruricB, about 520 b. c. — Pliiiy. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of 
 Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with 
 pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. 
 The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of 
 
4:4:4: THE world's progress. [ LAM 
 
 Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton 
 
 Court that is much visited. 
 LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very deUcate texture in Fraiice and 
 Flanders in 1320 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for 
 the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace 
 was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- 
 nes, Aiechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An 
 ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds 
 in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty 
 pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. 
 
 LACED.zEMON. See Sparta. I.elez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco- 
 nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedae- 
 mon, and makes hfm partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta 
 was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most 
 known. The Lacedaemon republic became famous in history after 700 b. c. 
 particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 
 B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucydides ; Priestley. 
 
 LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the 
 ■ poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were 
 therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the 
 words wei-e at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, 
 that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of 
 Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly 
 belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom 
 has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women 
 of eminence or gentility. See Lord. 
 
 LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in nuru 
 ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives 
 having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, 
 he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are 
 called to this day. 
 
 LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 850, 
 according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord- 
 ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought 
 to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called 
 the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its 
 chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- 
 nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In 
 England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th 
 of March. 
 
 LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American 
 independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen 
 years old. He raided a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- 
 wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- 
 inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal 
 reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- 
 ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward 
 for his services ; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, September 
 7, 1825. 
 
 LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they 
 were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- 
 tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000 
 drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. 
 I.«amps were in general use through the streets of London up to the closo 
 
lan] dictionary of dates. 445 
 
 of the ISth century, as were flambeaus which were carried by link-boya 
 London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps 
 in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture; of this kind 
 is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, e.t seq. 
 See Safety Lamp. 
 
 LANCASTERTAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual 
 instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not 
 much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general 
 attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, 
 who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 
 1198. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of 
 them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in 
 Senegal, and were extensively institirted in Russia, in ISW. 
 
 LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry YIIL 1544. 
 The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000Z. in 1600. It was 
 about 14,000,000?. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 
 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 
 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 
 miUions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior 
 class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has 
 been recently estimated in parliament at 1 27 millions, but authorities vary 
 much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. 
 
 LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- 
 minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it be- 
 came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the 
 rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse 
 Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. 
 
 LANGSIDB, Battle OF; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the 
 earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter 
 suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal 
 battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at Workington, in 
 Cumberland, on May 16 ; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth. 
 
 LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- 
 ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
 Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the 
 former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians, and the pro- 
 foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that 
 Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam ; but others deny this, and say that 
 the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which hag 
 for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring 
 to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two 
 children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they 
 were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they 
 both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- 
 fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other 
 nations, 047 B. c. — Herodotus, Polycen., Strabo. 
 
 LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The 
 original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, 
 spoken \n the east : Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in 
 the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazj^gian, remain- 
 ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary; and the Finnic, 
 in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin 
 sprung tlie Italian, French and Si-anish ; and from the Spanish the Portu- 
 guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High 
 Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Daoish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scoicii, 
 
446 THE world's progress. [LAf 
 
 &.C. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world Of these, 
 937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American language? 
 and dialects. — Professor Adelung. 
 
 LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn 
 were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn 
 was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, 
 A. D. 872-901. — Siowe's Chron. London was hghted by suspended lanterns, 
 with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn have served 
 for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are 
 preferred. See article, Lamps. 
 
 LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally 
 allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- 
 ander, Atlienodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence 
 as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group ia 
 allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by 
 human hands. 
 
 LATERAN, COUNCILS OF the. They were held in the Basilica of the La- 
 teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right 
 of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry 
 v., 1122; by the second council were secured the temporalities of ecclesias- 
 tics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179; the fourth on 
 church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots ; and the fifth was 
 the famous council of Julius II., 1512. 
 
 LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and oth«r substances, so as to shape 
 them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude 
 construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c. 
 Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines 
 frequently cost thousands of pounds. 
 
 r^ATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and 
 from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the 
 Latini, and the Latin! from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most 
 beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be 
 spoken in Italy, about A. D. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- 
 mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred 
 years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed 
 to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more 
 or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- 
 tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. 
 
 LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It ia 
 the extent of the earth or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to 
 either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, 
 and made it 69.493; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 
 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732; and 
 Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 
 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot, 
 68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at 
 • the equator ; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- 
 late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, 
 while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. 
 
 LATIUM. Now the city of Komania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, 
 who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 904 b. c. 
 Laureutum was the capital of the country iu the reign of Latinus, Lavinium 
 under ^neas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally 
 known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus hai 
 founded the citv of Rome in their country 
 
LAWj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 447 
 
 LATTER-DAT saints, a Bew sect, whose principles are variously repre- 
 sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not varj^ much from those 
 of the Church of England, the Scriptures, witiiout mysticism, being the 
 foundation of them. By others it is said that tliey assume the power of 
 curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work 
 ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generatioi 
 of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire 
 and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Greal 
 numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. 
 
 LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 
 B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- 
 nians, 623 B. c. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of 
 Solon, 578 B. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. c. ; they 
 remained in full force for 100 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- 
 tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race 
 of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman 
 laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
 codes were published in a. d. 290. The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- 
 tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Laiu. 
 
 LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the 
 Saxon, in A. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's 
 code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was 
 compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated 
 his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136 ; Henry Il.'a 
 confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. 
 See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation 
 by Henry III., 1216, et seq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charier of the. 
 Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, 
 ' That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
 fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Alansfield. 
 
 •LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- 
 jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- 
 general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- 
 blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of 
 which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his 
 plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful 
 enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710 ; and in 
 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke 
 of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every 
 rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed 
 both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal 
 bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so 
 that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the 
 current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false 
 credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, 
 ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- 
 perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same 
 fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nbicv. Diet. 
 
 LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been 
 first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign 1291. Serjeants, the highest 
 members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common 
 Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis 
 Bacon, in 1604. There are about 12oO barristers in England : and the num- 
 ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- 
 neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in 
 tlie United States, was published in New York, 1850. 
 
448 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. . [lEA 
 
 LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri- 
 tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clj'des- 
 dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and 
 Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, 
 that most fit for pencils, is produced onlj'- at Borrowdale, but there in great 
 quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use 
 in 1236. 
 
 LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Go..d, 
 was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other 
 princes against Louis XL of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was 
 entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The 
 League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so 
 called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the 
 Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- 
 nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, who was then of the 
 reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 
 1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in 
 Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal 
 authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. 
 
 LEAP-YEAR, OR BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- 
 mers of Julius Csesar, 45 B. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, 
 comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another; 
 the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
 fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was 
 called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost 
 perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- 
 out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when 
 the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference 
 between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, 
 and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in 
 the course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 
 be a leap-year ; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year, Gregorian 
 Calendar, &c. 
 
 LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the 
 Greeks during the fourth century B. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined 
 until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a.d. 
 1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, 
 that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from 
 Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latiiii, 
 and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- 
 ragement to literature and the arts. 
 
 The illustrious Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. 
 — Foniana. And about this time literature began to flourish in Franco, 
 Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the 
 "golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature. 
 
 LEATHER. It was very ea.rly known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of 
 manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. 
 The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B. c. The ancients un- 
 derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, 
 and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into 
 many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
 and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced 
 annually in England, 450,000Z., and in Ireland, about 50,000i It was abo- 
 lished in both countries. May 29, 1 830. 
 
LEP| DICTIONARY OF DATES. 449 
 
 ^iEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. 
 It wa.s entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, 
 but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously 
 removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken 
 the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- 
 ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. 
 
 LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first 
 formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, 
 about 750 B. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c, the legion consisted 
 of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 B. c, it was 6200 soldiers, besides 
 700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept 
 at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, 
 about 5 B. c. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these 
 formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions. 
 A Legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with 
 a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. 
 
 LEGION OP HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions 
 in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such 
 individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the 
 state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon 
 family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. 
 
 LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, 
 king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept 7, 1631. The siege of Leip> 
 sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In 
 the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it 
 two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars 
 it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article. 
 
 LEIPSIC, Battle of. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive o* 
 modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the, 
 one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; tht, 
 former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was los^- 
 by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon alliea, 
 turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in 
 the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
 artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by 
 the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. 
 The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- 
 peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- 
 den, entered 'Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. 
 
 LENT. The quadi-agesimal fast observed in the Catholic church from Ash- 
 Wednesday {which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- 
 tion. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
 which is now called the first Sunday of Lent; and the four days beginning 
 were added by pope Fehx III., in the year 487, in order that the number of 
 fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by 
 command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. — Baker^s Chron. 
 
 FiEPANTO, Battle of. The great naval engagement between the combined 
 fleets of Spain, Yenice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the 
 Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted 
 of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys of which, 
 after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed 
 and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, 
 Oct. 7, 1571.— Fbimre. 
 
450 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. [lEX 
 
 LETTERS. Those of the alphahet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 
 1822 B.C. — Usher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
 alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other 
 nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so 
 vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the 
 alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. 
 LETTERS OF MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in 
 England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels and for repri- 
 sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer'' s Fadera. They were 
 first granted in 1295. — Baker's Ghron. They are usually granted in time oi 
 war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of 
 belligerent nations. — Powel. 
 LETTERS i)E CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in 
 use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the 
 earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree 
 their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprispnment, Nov. 1, 1789. — 
 Rist. of the French Revol. 
 LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at 
 the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, 
 under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 
 the victory being with the former. In this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000 
 Lacedemonians were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, ST 
 B. c. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, 
 whi(5h they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the 
 Thebans. — Plutarch. Xenophon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans. 
 LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all 
 things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of 
 this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck 
 were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the 
 churches which Luther had left standing; and then finding an army in their 
 followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- 
 tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head ol 
 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- 
 gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce 
 these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- 
 try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him: 7000 of the enthusi- 
 asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be- 
 headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French 
 Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. 
 LEWES, Battle of. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, 
 earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In th'S 
 battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard 
 king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., 
 were taken prisoners. One division of four of Moutfort's army, a body ol 
 Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing 
 the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort 
 used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- 
 struction. See Evesham. 
 LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese 
 language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters as having been compiled 1100 
 B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- 
 teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- 
 peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. 
 See article, Dictionary. 
 LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle claims distinction as being the first 
 fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the wa' 
 
lib] dictionaey of dates. 451 
 
 ■of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos- 
 ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the 
 Americans and 273 of tliem were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. 
 
 LEYDEiSr, Siege op. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, 
 and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d. 
 1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- 
 lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. 
 The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel lader; 
 with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolisMng a large 
 part of the town, and kilhng numbers of people, Jan. 1807. 
 
 LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affectec 
 the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law 
 whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteeic 
 of the world, is deemed a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the 
 li^el," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. 
 Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gor- 
 don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison- 
 ment for five years and fined 500Z., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times^ libel on 
 the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning Posts 
 libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel 
 on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L^Ambigu, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 
 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- 
 fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England 1820. Act 
 regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York 
 and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was 
 made with good motives and for justifiable ends. 
 
 LIBERIA. Colony in "West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by 
 American Colonization Society, 1822; Jehudi Ashmun was the first supei- 
 intendent of the colony; new Constitution — Roberts elected president — 
 Oct. 5, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- 
 gust 1, 1849. 
 
 LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads 
 were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever 
 was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no 
 sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple 
 was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ■ 
 that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom; religion a mere state trick-, 
 with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1525; and 
 the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. 
 
 LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in 
 history was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 b. c. The second of any 
 note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly de- 
 stroyed when Julius Cassar set fire to Alexandria, 47 B. c. 400,000 valuable 
 books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The 
 first private library was the properly of Aristotle, 334 B. c. — Strabo. The 
 first library at Rome was instituted 167 B. 0. : it was brought from Ma- 
 cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 
 86 B. G. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's 
 works. A librarj"- was founded at Co»stantinople by Constantino the Great, 
 about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed 
 from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- 
 sisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, 
 who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead 
 of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine 
 
452 
 
 THE WORLD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 [lib 
 
 Apollo should be committed to the flames under the notion of confining the 
 clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn- 
 ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has beet 
 emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The earl/ 
 Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the 
 destruction of the Alexandrian library; their emperor, Chee-wang-tee, 
 ordered all writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew aa 
 from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- 
 ceeding emperors with great difficulty. 
 
 rjBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain- 
 ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- 
 holy accessible are in this proportion, viz. : in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit- 
 ants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany, 
 261 ; in Prussia, 200 ; in Austria, 167 ; in Prance, 129 ; in Belgium, 95 ; in 
 Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention 
 of printing, is said to have been founded by -Richard de Bury, chancellor of 
 England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas 
 Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- 
 brary for the use of the public, A. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de 
 Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, 
 (imperial,) 1440 ; Vatican, 1465 ; &c. See talk, below. 
 In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes 
 each (of which there are, in Prance alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are 
 not taken into the account : 
 
 Saxony has 6 containing 554,000 vols. 
 Bavaria " IT do. 1,267,000 " 
 Denmark " 5 do. 645,000 " 
 
 Tuscany " 9 do. 411,000 " 
 
 G. Britain " 83 do. 1,771,493 " 
 
 France has 170 Public Li- 
 braries, containing 
 Belgium has 14 do. 
 Prussia " 44 do. 
 Austria " 48 do. 
 
 4,000,000 vols. 
 
 538,000 " 
 2,400,000 " 
 2,400,000 " 
 
 Taking the capital cities we find the following results : 
 
 Paris has 9 Public 
 
 braries, containing 
 Brussels has 2 do. 
 Berlin " 2 do. 
 Vienna " 8 do. 
 Milan " 2 do. 
 
 Li- 
 
 Dresden has 4 containing 840,500 vols. 
 Munich " 2 " 800.000 " 
 
 Copenhagen " 8 " 557,000 " 
 
 Florence « 6 " 818.000 " 
 
 London " 4 « 490,500 " 
 
 Founded. 
 Paris (1) National Lib., 1S95 
 Munich, Eoyal Lib., 1550 
 
 Petersburg Imperial Lib., 
 London, British Museum, 1753 
 Copenhagen, Eoyal Lib., 1550 
 Berlin, Eoyal Lib., 
 Vienna, Imperial Lib., 
 Dresden, Eoyal Lib., 
 Madrid National Lib., 
 Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 
 Stuttgard, Eoyal Lib., 1765 
 Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 
 
 1650 
 1440 
 1656 
 1712 
 
 Milan, Brerea Lib., 1797 
 
 Paris (8), St. Genevieve, 1624 
 Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, 1760 
 Florence, Magliabecchian, 1714 
 Naples, Eoyal Lib., 
 Brussels, Eoyal Lib., 
 Eome (1), Casanate Lib., 
 Hague, Eoyal Lib., 
 Paris (4), Mazarine Lib, 
 Eome {^\ Vatican Lib., 
 Parma, Ducal Lib., 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 
 1,474,000 vols. 
 143,500 " 
 530,000 " 
 458,000 •' 
 230,000 " 
 
 Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they wculd stand as 
 follows : — 
 
 Vols. 
 
 824,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 446,000 
 
 435,000 
 
 412,000 
 
 410,000 
 
 313,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 187,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 1889 
 1760 
 
 1661 
 1465 
 1760 
 
 170,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 133,500 
 120,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 
 The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order: — 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 
 6ottingen,UniVtyLib., 1786 860,000 
 
 Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000 
 
 Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000 
 
 Tubingen, Univ'ty Lib., 1562 200,000 
 
 Munich, University Lib., 200,000 
 
 Heidelburg, Univ'ty Lib., 1703 200.000 
 
 Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724 
 
 Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000 
 
 Prague, University Lib., 1777 130,000 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 
 Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115,000 
 
 Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,000 
 
 Copenhagen, Univ'rsity Lib., 1730 110,000 
 
 Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000 
 
 Louvaine, University Lib., 1639 105,000 
 
 Dublin. Trinity College Lib., 104.2S9 
 
 Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 
 
 Eriangen, University Lib., 1748 100,000 
 
 Edinburgh, University Lib., 1582 90,8M 
 
lib] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 453 
 
 The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of tlie 
 
 Founded. Vols. I Fomided. Vola, 
 
 1 British Museum, London, 1753 435,000 Eoyal Institution, London, 
 
 2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000 i London Institution, 
 
 3 University, Cambridge, 1484 166,724 London Library, 
 
 4 Advocates. Edinburgh, 1682 148,000 Sion College, &c. 
 
 5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,289 | 
 
 LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief 
 public and college libraries in the United States in 1849, was stated to be 
 1,294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 
 10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000 ; and only 2 over 60,000. In 1849 the 
 precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus ' 
 
 Vols. I Vols. 
 
 6 Mercantile Library, New York, 82,000 
 
 7 Georgetown College, D. C, 
 
 8 Brown University, 
 
 9 New York State Library, 
 
 10 Yale College, 
 
 11 Astor Library, New York, 
 
 25,000 
 24,000 
 24,000 
 21,000 
 20,000 
 
 1 Harvard College, including Divin' 
 
 ity and Law'Schools, 72,000 
 
 2 Philadelphia and Loganian Lib., 60,COO 
 
 3 Boston Athenaeum, 50,000 
 
 4 Library of Congress, 50,000 
 
 5 New York Society Library, 82,000 
 
 The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. 
 The Smithsonian Institution at Washington has not yet commenced collecting 
 its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the 
 State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis- 
 tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, 
 chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent 
 date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and 
 contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes; 
 in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12,200 volumes. There are similar 
 ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. 
 
 The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- 
 ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : — 
 
 1 Alabama, has 1 Pnblii 
 
 2 Columbia, Dist. of, has 
 8 Connecticut, 
 
 4 Georgia, 
 
 5 Kentucky, 
 
 6 Louisiana, 
 
 7 Maine, 
 
 8 Maryland, 
 
 9 Massachusetts, 
 
 10 Missouri, 
 
 11 New Hampshire, 
 
 84 468,6091 Total - - - 72, 979,656 
 
 The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, 
 parish, and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. 
 The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries ; i. e. 
 half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari Rep. Brit. 
 Mus. ; Prof. JewetCs Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Livermore in K Amer. Rev,, 
 July 1850, &c. 
 
 I lEG-E. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and eon- 
 vents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo- 
 men." In the time of Louis XL of France, a.d. 1461, Liege was a large 
 and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign 
 power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702 , 
 and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
 was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, in 
 1814. 
 
 
 Vols. 
 
 
 
 Vols. 
 
 ic Library, 
 
 6,000 
 
 Brought up, 
 
 84, 
 
 458,609 
 
 tias 2, 
 
 53,000 
 
 12 New Jersey, 
 
 has 8, 
 
 28,500 
 
 6, 
 
 81,449 
 
 18 New York, 
 
 " 12, 
 
 157,411 
 
 1, 
 
 18,000 
 
 14 North Carolina, 
 
 " 1, 
 
 10,000 
 
 " 1, 
 
 7,000 
 
 15 Ohio, 
 
 " 1, 
 
 80,497 
 
 " 1, 
 
 5,500 
 
 16 Pennsylvania, 
 
 " 14, 
 
 159,200 
 
 8, 
 
 88,860 
 
 17 Ehode Island, 
 
 " 8, 
 
 87,185 
 
 " 1, 
 
 12,000 
 
 18 South Carolina, 
 
 " 2, 
 
 80,000 
 
 " 14, 
 
 200,000 
 
 19 Tennessee, 
 
 " 2, 
 
 16,000 
 
 " 3, 
 
 14,800 
 
 20 Vermont, 
 
 " 2, 
 
 16,254 
 
 " 2, 
 
 22,500 21 Virginia, 
 
 " 4, 
 
 41.000 
 
454 THE world's progress. |"lib 
 
 LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people, 
 and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of 
 Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-twci miles ; the Pharos 
 of Messina ; the Colossus of Rhodes,' &c. There are forty-two' round the 
 coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, 
 and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish 
 coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. 
 
 LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of 
 Genoa. Tha doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa, 
 August 10, 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with Prance, it 
 having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged 
 into tlie kingdom of Italy. 
 
 LIMA. See America and ColumMa. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru, 
 was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a 
 city, and gave it the name of Giudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. 
 This Spanish nam'e it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known aa 
 Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by 
 annual festivals, a.d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it 
 was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see. 
 
 LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- 
 tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in 
 England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253. 
 Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen 
 weavers estabhshed itself in London in 1368; and the art of staining linen 
 became known in 1579. A colony of Scots, in the reign of James I., and 
 other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the sue 
 ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- 
 land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- 
 raged by the lord deputy "Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, 
 and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. 
 This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture 
 there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 171 1 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- 
 lin, was opened 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermhne in 
 Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnesley in Yorkshire, are, in Great 
 Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. 
 
 LINN^AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, 
 or, as his name is Latinized, Linnaeus, was commenced about 1725-30 ; and 
 his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, 
 orders, and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- 
 ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and frait the test of his vari- 
 ous genera. The Linnssan Society in London was instituted in 1788, and 
 was incorporated March 26, 1802. 
 
 LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city 
 when they conquered it, a.d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
 Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 
 1, 1755: See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court 
 fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French 
 army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle 
 of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- 
 sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 
 
 LISLE, Siege of. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the 
 allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it 
 was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty 
 of Utrecht, m 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications 
 
uv] 
 
 DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 455 
 
 of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his- 
 tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from 
 the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 
 
 LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about 
 A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced bj'- pope Gre- 
 gory I., in or about 595. — Xewton on the Prophecies. The first English litany 
 was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII. in 
 1543.— Co&er's Ecc. Hist. 
 
 LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen 
 Anne, 1709-10, securing hterary property, was confirmed by a memorable 
 decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- 
 right was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have 
 an exclusive right for 14 years, a.nd if at the end of that term he were living, 
 the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts 
 extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, 
 then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right 
 is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ; 
 but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is stiU to endure for 
 42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death ia 
 to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July 
 1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The 
 International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection 
 in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the same 
 protection to English authors. 
 
 LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected 
 with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through 
 the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, 
 and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. 
 The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve 
 authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty ; 
 this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature waa 
 established Sept. 15, 1825. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose 
 first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was 
 announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- 
 tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be 
 referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died iu 
 1841. 
 
 LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was 
 restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first 
 composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The 
 offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same 
 form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the 
 solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to 
 very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng- 
 hsh language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, iu 1637. 
 Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
 chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil- 
 kiugton, and dean May, and secretary Smith. 
 
 LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their 
 vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a 
 single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- 
 ment, and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe. 
 
 UVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive 
 
456 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. [lOC 
 
 increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first 
 rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- 
 day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient recorda 
 its various appellations are, Liiherpul, and Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the 
 ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced 
 Its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the " Liver," 
 or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 
 11'72, its favorable situation, and the convenience of fts port, attracted the 
 notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation 
 of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843,. the number of ships 
 which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows; British, 2,615, of the 
 aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. 
 The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 6th Jan- 
 uary, 1844, was £4,121.522.— ParZ. Bet. 
 tLOYD'S, London. The cofifee-house in connection with the Eoyal Exchange, 
 and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side 
 of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of 
 emhaent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c. ; and here are 
 effected insurances for aU the world on ships and merchandise. The books 
 kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are 
 remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. 
 LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Ita 
 virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua- 
 lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. — Siurmius. Aristotle 
 assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it 
 under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with ita 
 attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, 
 known m Prance before A. D. 1180 ; but this honor is accorded to Roger 
 Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its 
 virtues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of 
 the mariner's compass. See Compass. 
 LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor- 
 rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Ehzabeth. In 1559, that queen 
 borrowed 200,OOOZ. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own 
 coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city of Bondon joined in the secu- 
 rity. — Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo- 
 rable periods, was, viz : 
 
 Seven years war -.-... from 1755 to 1T63 - - £52,000,000 
 
 American war from 1776 to 1784 - - 75,500,000 
 
 French revolutionary war .... from 1798 to 1802 - - 168,500,000 
 War against Bonaparte .- - - - from 1803 to 1814 - - 200,800,000 
 Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one 
 millions and twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a 
 subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- 
 don in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil- 
 lions, Dec. 5, 1796. 
 LOOHLBVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake 
 of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and 
 his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the 
 English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of 
 St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl 
 of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re- 
 mai'kable as the place of the unfortunate queen Mary's imprisonment, in 
 1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary waa 
 compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which aa 
 interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abbot : and of which. 
 
LOm] DICTTONAEr OF DATES. 457 
 
 also, some new and afifecting particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the Tth 
 volume of his History of Scotland, published in August, 1840. 
 
 LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con- 
 trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian locli of wood. Du Cange 
 mentions locks and padlocks as early as A. D. 1381. The French are ac- 
 counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best, Bra- 
 mah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784. Locks have been 
 made at "Wolverhampton in suits of sight, ten, or more, of exquisite work- 
 manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its 
 own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys. 
 
 LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently 
 superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of 
 these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt 
 and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perislied, 128 B, c. The country of 
 Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and 
 after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable 
 stench caused a pestilential fever, A. d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred 
 in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
 about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the 
 streets, and were preserved by the curious; they resembled grasshoppers, 
 but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 
 1748. They infested G-ermany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 
 1816. 
 
 LODI, Battle op the Bridge of. One of the great early achievements in 
 Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed 
 to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant 
 and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands 
 of the imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made 
 prisoners. May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won- 
 derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and 
 the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. 
 
 LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a. d. 1570; and first mentioned by Bourne 
 in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which 
 the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly 
 the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used 
 in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. 
 
 LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of num- 
 bers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent 
 Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means 
 of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence 
 called Napier's hones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr. 
 Briggs, at Oxford. 
 
 LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic 
 religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- 
 liffe. — Chaucer. The original sect was founded by "Walter LoUard in 1315 ; 
 he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his 'death the disciples 
 of "Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account 
 of religious opinions was "WiUiam Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith, 
 London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed 
 by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or 
 persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri ; Garte. 
 LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com- 
 posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
 or Venice, — Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 
 20 
 
458 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. [lOO 
 
 by pope Gregory TX. to lend money to convents, commnnitiea, and private 
 persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
 throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229. 
 They had ofSces in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called 
 , after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
 
 from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 LOMBARDY, The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the 
 marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited 
 into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser- 
 vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548, They 
 passed into Italy, and their chief waa proclaimed king by his army at Milan, 
 in 570. The hsngdom of Lombardy supported itself and made considerable 
 conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and 
 annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan, &c. 
 LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that 
 a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 854 
 years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Triuobantes 
 54 B. C. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a. d. 61, it was 
 known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta waa 
 the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade 
 and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. — Tacitus. It 
 is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king 
 who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood ; but its name is from 
 Llyn-Din, the " town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. 
 LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though 
 rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to 
 have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of 
 Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic 
 record for upwards of 3000 years. — Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of 
 Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and 
 considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per- 
 fect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, 
 the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
 in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are 
 some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia; and at Dantzic a man 
 is said to have died at 184 ; and another to be living in Wallacliia, aged 186 
 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the 
 greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood ; 
 but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is no 
 fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. 
 LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree 
 in the Canaries, 162 B. c. Harrison made a time-keeper in A. D. 1759, which 
 in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required 
 by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the 
 reward of 20,000Z. offered by that act, which he received The celebrated 
 Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the 
 chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude almost 
 to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but Newton 
 has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. 
 LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in 
 England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth, 
 in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufecture of them in the 
 last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection 
 of late }'ears, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, tha 
 walls of large rooms. 
 
LOXJ 
 
 DICTIONAET OF DATES. 459 
 
 LOOM-ENGINB. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought 
 into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the 
 general principle of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- 
 genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 15,000 
 power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two 
 yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. 
 LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for 
 the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap- 
 plied to any other being. "With us, it is a term of nobility. — See Lords and 
 Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally 
 Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by 
 contraction Lord. " The etymology of this word," a writer observes, " ia 
 worth observmg, for it was composed of hlaf, a load of bread, and ford, to 
 give OT afford; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread; be- 
 cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the 
 poor; for which reason they weie called givers of bread.'" — See Ladies. The 
 nickname of "My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, 
 is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn. 
 LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 
 1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when Wilham Fitzosborne, the first 
 peer, was made earl of Hereford ; "Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; 
 Copsi, earl of Northumberland : Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and 
 Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were 
 made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests 
 for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can- 
 not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- 
 son ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same 
 reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns ; or, 
 in case of a riot, from attending the posse comiiatiis. See Baron; Earl; 
 Ma/rquess, &c. 
 LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to 
 consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 1 Jolm, 1205. 
 The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until 
 some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs 
 • were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And 
 writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain 
 that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was 
 held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well 
 as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer- 
 tain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
 this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : 
 some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- 
 made peers ; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, 
 and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- 
 land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for hfe. 
 The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 
 earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English 
 prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers. 
 LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at 
 the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued 
 day and night until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the 
 fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 
 The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotte- 
 ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large 
 annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin 
 
460 THE world's progkess. [lut 
 
 in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in Prance by a decree of the national 
 convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act 
 was passed imposing a penalty of 501 for advertising foreign or any lotteries 
 in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote 
 of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng- 
 land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states 
 there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures 
 
 LOUISIANA, One of the United States. First explored by the French, and 
 received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a 
 settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful 
 attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a 
 colony. His efforts were followed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, whe 
 held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the 
 year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, 
 at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and 
 Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 
 1731, the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded 
 the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province 
 to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for 
 $15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of 
 the Mississippi. In 1812 the present State of Louisia,na formed a constitu- 
 tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,558 ; in 1820, 
 153,407 ; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, mcluding, 168,452 slaves. 
 
 IiOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign 
 of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now 
 called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of 
 paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief 
 of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, 
 but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. 
 
 LUCCA, The Ducht of, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall ctf the Lombard king- 
 dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied 
 by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of 
 Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's 
 demand for "eforms. Sept, 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled, 
 Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of $215,- 
 000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria 
 Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. 
 
 LUCIA, St First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several 
 times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French 
 negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- 
 nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was 
 restored to France at the peace of 1802; but was again seized on by Eng- 
 land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
 See Colonies. 
 
 LUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the em- 
 peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo 
 Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form 
 the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, 
 Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 
 
 LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman 
 people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 
 B. c. Every five years were called a lustrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty 
 years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. 
 
 LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub- 
 lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was 
 
LTC] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 461 
 
 deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zoal to such 
 a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; that no crime could be 
 committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, 
 not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. 
 Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and 
 thus began the Eeformation in Germany. — MelcMor Adam, in Vila L^dlieri. 
 
 LUTZEISr, Battle of, between the "French army commanded by Napoleon on 
 the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by 
 general Wittgenstem, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened 
 the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed tie 
 victory, it was manifestly on the side of France ; but in this engagemer.t 
 marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurt- 
 zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when 
 the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to. 
 and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did 
 not produce peace. 
 
 LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle of ; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
 against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, 
 the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protestant 
 religion in Germany, and in alliance vnth Charles I. of England, was foully 
 killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle 
 of Lippstadt. 
 
 LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken 
 and pillaged by the French in 1543 ; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544; 
 by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken 
 by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, 
 and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief 
 occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it 
 surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795 
 The garrison, on the capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- 
 public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the 
 Rhine immediately after. 
 
 LUXURY. The uistances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his- 
 tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been 
 enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, 
 muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and 
 black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. LucuUus, at Rome, waa 
 distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals ; his halls were 
 named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to 
 surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been 
 prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to 
 serve it in the hall of ApoUo ; this feast for three persons casually met, 
 would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, 
 luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- 
 flned to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, 
 except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a 
 free estate of lOOZ. per annum, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk; 
 and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all 
 others it was prohibited, A. d. 1837. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of 
 France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup 
 and two dishes," 1340. 
 
 LTCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem- 
 ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gaUery, built by Lyceus, son 
 of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the His- 
 8US in Atticaj where Aristotle taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught 
 
462 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ltb 
 
 his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi- 
 losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c. 
 — Stanley. 
 
 LTDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of 
 whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by 
 Cyrus, 548 B. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with 
 many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as- 
 cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hero- 
 dotiis. 
 
 T18 
 
 Argon, a descendant, of Hercules, reigns 
 
 in Lydia.—fferod. . . b. o. 1223 
 The kingdom of Lydia, properly so 
 called, begins under Ardysus I. — 
 Blair. ...... T97 
 
 Alyattes reigns ..... T61 
 
 Meles comniences his rule . . 74T 
 
 Eeign of Candaules .... 735 
 
 Gyges, first of the race called Merm- 
 nadae, puts Candaules to death, mar- 
 ries his queen, usuips the throne, 
 and makes great conquests 
 Ardysus II. reigns ; the Oimbri be 
 
 siege Sardis, the capital of Lydia . 680 
 
 The Milesian war commenced under 
 
 Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, 
 
 who reigns 631 
 
 Keign of Alyattes II . . . .619 
 Battle upon the river Halys between 
 the Lydians and Medes, intercepted 
 by an almost total eclipse of the sun, 
 which superstitiously occasions a 
 conclusion of the ■war.-Blair. May28, 585 
 [This eclipse had been predicted many 
 years before by Thales, of Miletus. — 
 
 Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to 
 the throne, and becomes celebrated 
 for his victories and conquests, b.o. 562 
 
 Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni- 
 ans, .^olians, and other parts of Asia 
 Minor are subjected to his dominion 554 
 
 All the nations west of the Halys are 
 conquered, and that river becomes 
 theboundary of the kingdom Blair 550 
 
 CroBSus, dreading the power of Cyrus, 
 whose conquests had reached to the 
 borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys 
 to attacli the Medes. with an army 
 of 420,000 men and 60,000 horse &i8 
 
 He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- 
 sieged in his capital, and taken 513 
 
 The conqueror orders Croesus to be 
 burned alire, and the pile is already 
 on lire, when he calls on the name 
 of Solon in agony of mind, andCyrus 
 hearing him pronounce it, spares his 
 life 548 
 
 Lydia, the kingdom of the " richest of 
 mankind," is made a province of the 
 Persian empire . ... 548 
 
 Blair.l 
 
 jEsop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a 
 style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Auacreon of 
 Tecs, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain- 
 ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan- 
 der, about 330 B. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, 
 founded by Philaeterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to the 
 Eomans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Empire, A. d. 
 \i2Q.~Priesiley. 
 LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. o. The city was reduced to ashes in a 
 single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen- 
 eral councils were held here in the 13th and 14th centuries. The silk man- 
 ufacture commenced in the reign of Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged 
 in 1793 by the convention army of 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7, 
 when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention 
 decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the 
 Austrians, March, 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, 
 which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21,1831. 
 Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful mundation occurred at Lyons, 
 Nov. 4. 1840. See Inundations. 
 
 LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to 
 Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and 
 accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three 
 strings, is duo to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added severa. 
 strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phrynis, a musician 
 of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 b. o. 
 
mac] 
 
 DICfTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 463 
 
 M. 
 
 MA.CEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 B. o. li 
 was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under tlie protection of Athens, 
 sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the 
 father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and ex- 
 ploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his 
 son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan- 
 der inclusive : after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divided 
 among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new king- 
 dom. See Tabular Vieivs, p. 15 to p. 37. 
 
 Eeign of Caranus - - B. o. 814 
 
 Eeign of Perdiccas 1. - - - 729 
 
 Keign of Arsaaus L- - - 678 
 
 Eeign of Philip I. - - - 640 
 
 Eeign of ^ropas; he conquers the 
 
 Illynans . - - - 602 
 
 Eeigti of Amyntas - - - 547 
 
 Eeign of Alexander I. - - - 497 
 
 Eeign of Perdiccas II. - - 454 
 
 Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, 
 
 murders the legitimate heirs of his 
 
 father, and seizes the throne 
 He is snrnamed the "Patron of 
 
 Learning" - - 
 
 He is murdered by a favorite to 
 
 whom he promised his daughter in 
 
 marriage, yet gave her to another - 
 Eeign of Amyntas II. - - - 
 
 He is driven from the throne 
 Eecovers his throne, and puts Pau 
 
 sanias to death 
 The Illyrians enter Macedonia, ex- 
 pel Amyntas, and put Argasus, 
 
 brother of Pausanias, on the throne 
 Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 
 Eeign of Alexander II. 
 He is assassinated - - 
 
 Eeign of Perdiccas III. 
 He is killed in battle 
 Eeign of Philip II. and institution of 
 
 the Macedonian phalanx 
 Philip gains the battle of Methon 
 
 ©■^er the Athenians 
 He defeats the Illyrians in a despe 
 
 rate engagement 
 He takes Amphipolis, and receives an 
 
 arrow in his right eye. See Archery 858 
 He conquers Ttirace and lUyria - 856 
 Birth of Alexander the Great - 856 
 
 Philip adds to his conquests - - 348 
 Close of the first sacred war - 848 
 
 lUyricumoverrunbythearmyof Philip 844 
 Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 843 
 Aristotle appointed tutor to tlbe 
 
 young prince Alexander - 843 
 
 War against the Athenians - - 841 
 Philip besieges Byzantium - 841 
 
 Battle of Ohajronea; Philip conquers. 
 
 See Choeronea - - - 838 
 
 Philip is assassinated by Pausanias, at 
 
 Egaea,duringlheceIebrationofgames 
 
 in honor of his daughter's nuptials 
 Alexander III., surnamed the Great, 
 
 succeeds his father - - - 
 
 He enters Greece 
 The Greeks appoint him general of 
 
 their armies against the Persians 
 The Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes 
 
 413 
 411 
 
 899 
 
 - 897 
 
 390 
 871 
 
 370 
 366 
 860 
 
 860 
 
 - 860 
 e- 
 
 - 859 
 
 336 
 
 - 335 
 
 832 
 
 882 
 
 - 883 
 
 to the ground ; the house of Pindar 
 
 is alone left standing - - 385 
 
 The Almighty favors Alexander with 
 a vision, in which the high-priest of 
 the Jews appears to him, exhorting 
 him to enter Asiii, See J&ws - 334 
 
 He passes into Asia, and gains his 
 first battle over Darius. See Qra- 
 nieus. Battle of - - - 884 
 
 Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; 
 Halicarnassus is taken, and nume- 
 rous cities in Asia Minor - 884 
 
 Memnon ravages the Cyblades ; Da- 
 rius takes the field with 460,000 in- 
 fantry and 100,000 cavalry - 388 
 
 Battle of Issus {which see) - - 888 
 
 Alexander, in his way to Egypt, lays 
 siege to Tyre, which is destroyed 
 after seven months - - 833 
 
 Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- 
 sures of Darius come into the pos- 
 session of the victor 
 
 Gaza surrenders - - - 
 
 Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and 
 Egypt conquered 
 
 Alexandria founded 
 
 Great battle of Arbela, the third and 
 last between Alexander and Da- 
 rius ; the Persian army totally de- 
 feated. See Arbela - - 831 
 
 Alexander proclaimed master of Asia; 
 he enters Babylon in triumph - 831 
 
 GEECIAN OK MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander sits on the throne of Da- 
 rius at Susa ... 880 
 
 Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by 
 Alexander - - - - 329 
 
 Thalestris. queen of the Amazons, 
 visits him, attended by a retinue of 
 800 women. See Amazons - 829 
 
 He puts his friend Parmenio to 
 death, on a charge of conspiracy, 
 supposed to be false - - 829 
 
 Alexander makes more conquests - 328 
 
 His expedition to India ; Porus, king 
 of India, is defeated and taken ; 
 and the country as far as the 
 Ganges is overrun - - 827 
 
 Calisthenes is put to the torture for 
 refusing to render divine homage 
 to Alexander ... 326 
 
 Subiection of the Cosseans - - 326 
 
 Death of Alexander - - - 323 
 
 His conquests are divided among his 
 generals - - - - 823 
 
 His remains are transported to Alex- 
 andria, and buried by Ptolemy - 829 
 
464 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS, [MaH 
 
 MACEDON, continued. 
 
 The Greeks defeated by sea and land 
 
 near Cranon {which see) - b. o. 822 
 
 Thebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 
 
 Seleucus recovers Babylon - 812 
 
 Cassander puts Eoxana and her son 
 
 to death, and usurps the throne - 811 
 
 Battle of Ipsus (OT^icA see) - - 801 
 
 New division of the empire - - 301 
 
 Reign of Antigonus Gonatus b. c. 277 
 Pyrrhu8invadesMacedon,defeatsAn- 
 
 tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274 
 
 Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored - 272 
 
 Antigonus takes Athens - - 268 
 
 The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268 
 
 Revolt of the Parthians - - 250 
 
 Reign of Demetiius II. - - 242 
 
 Reign of Philip, his son - - 2S2 
 
 His war against the Rhodians - 202 
 
 Philip is defeated by the Romans - 198 
 
 He is totally subdued - . 196 
 
 The reign of Perseus - - - 179 
 
 Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171 
 
 MACEDON IL 
 
 Death of Cassander - . . 298 
 
 Reign of Alexander and An tipater - 298 
 Demetrius murders Alexander, and 
 
 seizes the crown of Macedon - 294 
 
 Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279 
 
 The consul -<Emilms Paulus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman 
 province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 B. c, and. next year 
 walk in chains before the chariot of ./Emilius in his triumph for the conquest 
 of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath 
 II. in A. D. 1429. Priestley. 
 
 MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho- 
 las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By 
 some they are stigmatized as " the most pernicious maxims of government, 
 founded on the vilest policy;" and by others as "sound doctrines, notwith- 
 standing the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared 
 in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.* 
 
 MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lo- 
 renzo Almeida A. D. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist" a race 
 of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsup- 
 ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved 
 pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the 
 pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in ] 809. 
 
 MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, by 
 Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England for 
 an illicit amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French 
 lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to Pedro, 
 king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered 
 by a Portuguese, A D. 1345. But it is maintained that the Portuguese did 
 not visit this island until 1419, nor did toey colonize it until 1431. It waa 
 taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admiral 
 Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in 
 trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the 
 BrazUs. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. 
 
 MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of 
 the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French 
 in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. 
 
 MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was 
 sacked A. D. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The 
 Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. 
 The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family 
 had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to 
 
 * The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) "the 
 doing of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, 
 whereby ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desirei 
 prompt them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety." — Ferguson.. 
 
mag] 
 
 DICTIO^TARY OF DATES. 465 
 
 expel tliem, -when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona- 
 parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. 
 Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year: and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, 
 when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored 
 May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the 
 late civil war, for which see Spain. 
 
 MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1 570, and was taken by the 
 prince ot Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a 
 memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Louis XIV. 
 took it in 1673; Wilham prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but, 
 in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French, 
 who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being 
 restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes- 
 tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters 
 of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to 
 the allied forces. 
 
 MAGDALENS and MAGDALENETTES. Communities of nun.s and women, 
 the latter class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of 
 Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, a. d. 1324. That at Metz was insti- 
 tuted in 1453. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by 
 pope Leo X., in 1516; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and 
 further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without 
 will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have 
 their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their 
 effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 
 1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally 
 under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New-York, a similar institution called 
 " A Home for the Friendless " was founded, 1846. 
 
 MAGELLAN, Straits of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer- 
 nando de Magellhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by 
 the emperor Ciiarles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was 
 undertaken by this illustrious navigator ; and his vessel performed the enter- 
 prise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
 since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want of 
 food. 
 
 MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of 
 the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know- 
 ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular 
 homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars 
 nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent 
 God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
 their oft'erings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and 
 their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so 
 that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, tOl they were , 
 finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was tho 
 reformer of the sect of the Magi: he flourished 1080 B. 0. — Du Fremoy. 
 
 MAGIC. LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon, 
 England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260. Bacon first invented the con- 
 vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, 
 applied them to this use. 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have 
 
 been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henrj' I. and hia 
 
 successors, Stephen, Henry II., and John. But the Charter more particularly 
 
 meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by JohJa 
 
 20* 
 
466 THE world's pkogress. [m;,u 
 
 and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took 
 arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was manj'- times confirmed, 
 and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last kings grand charter 
 was granted in the 9lh year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward 
 I. Tt is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it he swore on the word 
 and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it For this grant 
 a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were 
 temporals or spirituals ; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
 had been confirmed above thirty times. 
 
 MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Episiola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the 
 attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im- 
 memorial ; but, that it was our countiyman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in 
 Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro- 
 perty of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered tb.at it could 
 communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the 
 same was taken notice of by Helvelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of 
 Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The impor- 
 tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made 
 about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's 
 experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather 
 improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an- 
 nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. 
 
 MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro- 
 mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned 
 general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. 
 Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel 
 during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Ara- 
 bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered 
 as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 
 500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written in 
 various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is 
 said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, 
 by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and 
 immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideaux. 
 
 MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and 
 were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be- 
 came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the 
 invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed by 
 carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. 
 
 MAINE, one of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bristol. 
 The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a 
 governor and councO. It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 Dy 
 the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; annexed to Massachusetts, under 
 charter from William & Mary, in 1691: became a separate State in 1820. 
 Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793. 
 
 MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were ad- 
 dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of 
 state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany 
 took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to .hemselves. 
 It was first given to Louis XL of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles 
 V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
 style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
 England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your 
 Majesty, 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this title 
 with the term "Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles. 
 
man] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 467 
 
 MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see 
 Minorca. 
 
 MALPLAQUET, Battle op. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
 prince Eugene, against the arras of France commanded by marshal Villars. 
 The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the 
 victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh- 
 ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid 
 by the capture of Mons; fought Sept. 11, 1709. 
 
 MALTA, Knights op. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of 
 St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some 
 merchants of Melphis, trading to tlie Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of 
 Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
 whom they received with zeal and charity, A. D. 1048. They afterwards 
 founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers. 
 This foundation was laid in a. D. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they 
 now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality 
 entered, and changed their names into knights. After the Christians had 
 lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired 
 to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then 
 they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi- 
 nions, where they stayed till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, 
 under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it 
 undor the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, hia 
 successors have used P. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Foriitudo ejus 
 Ehodum tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called 
 knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they 
 retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
 city of Viterbo for their retreat ; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave 
 them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself 
 grand-master of the order in June, 1799. 
 
 MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon 
 the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by 
 general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. 
 He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, 
 a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 muskets; besides an immense treasure 
 collected by superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at 
 hberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and 
 was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1 800 ; but at the peace of 
 Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The 
 British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between 
 the two nations: but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua- 
 ranteed to Great Britain. 
 
 MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in 
 Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were 
 established by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a.d. 1246. They 
 advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so uiritil 
 Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into 
 pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On the 
 conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. As- 
 sisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the war, the 
 Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government In 1811 
 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain. 
 MANNHEIM. First built m a.d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in 
 1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 caused the re^ 
 
468 TiiK world's pkogkess. [mar 
 
 moval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies of 
 the alHes and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered to 
 the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1796 On the 
 25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, defeated the 
 French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in 
 the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, 
 was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sandt, 
 April 2, 1819. 
 MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest 
 the East, about a.d. 271. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and 
 particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, left 
 him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy 
 of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter that 
 Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good, 
 and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing but good, 
 and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. Several 
 other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death by Sapor, 
 king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, his having 
 dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one of the 
 royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms. — 
 Nbuv. Did. Hist. 
 MANILLA. Capital of the PhiUppine Isles; a great mart of Spanish com- 
 merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was 
 taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The cap- 
 tors humanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster- 
 ling ; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establishment 
 of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, the usual 
 Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; and 
 the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private bottoms 
 by free companies of merchants. — Builer. 
 MANTINEA, Battle op, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans, 
 and the combined forces of Lacedssmon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. 
 The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time 
 Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 B.C. — 
 Strdbo. 
 fANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near the city. Mantua surrendered to 
 the French, Jan. 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; and it was attacked 
 by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it surrendered 
 after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again 
 obtained possession of it ; but they delivered it up to the Austrians in 
 1814. 
 MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian 
 philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer 
 on record, 570 B.C. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A 
 celestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century. — 
 Fi-eret. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew 
 Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
 A.D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. 
 Mercator's chart, in wbich the world was taken as a plane, was invented in 
 1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dautzic, in 1647. See 
 Charts. 
 MARATHON, Battle of. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history 
 The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, the number of the Persians not known. 
 The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, who 
 defeated the Persians. Persian loss 6,400 — Athenian 192. Among tha 
 
mak] dictionary of dates. 469 
 
 number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remaindoi 
 of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 B. c. 
 
 MARBLE. Lipsenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
 sculptured marble, and pohshed their works ; all statues previously to their 
 time being of wood, 568 B. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for 
 statues, and the columns and ornaments of iine buildings and the edifices 
 and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine 
 marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which 
 were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than 
 those of even Rome itself. These latter were discovered by some EngUsh 
 tiavellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra. 
 
 MARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January 
 and February, 713 B. C. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave 
 to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes, 
 that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu- 
 lus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year for- 
 merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. 
 
 MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army 
 was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies 
 of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix 
 (who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes 
 of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost 
 6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon ; and though the 
 French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, 
 it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty be- 
 tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on 
 the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos- 
 session of the latter : and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. 
 
 MARESCHAL, OB MARSHAL. In France marshals were the ancient esquirea 
 of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van- 
 guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp- 
 ment. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French 
 marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of 
 peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, 
 the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em- 
 pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown. 
 See Marshal, Field. 
 
 MARIGNAN, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage- 
 ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be- 
 tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First upwards of 
 twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest 
 troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515. 
 
 M ARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to 
 their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah; and some of 
 thci. historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. c. See Com- 
 pa>^s. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given 
 to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city 
 of Naples, A. D. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by 
 Columbus in his voyage of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London 
 in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass- 
 maker of Ratcliffe, in that year. 
 
 MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to 
 make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another 
 prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first userf 
 
470' THE WORLD'S PKOGRESS. [mAB 
 
 by the Yenelian government. The first letters of marque granted in Enp 
 land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, a. d. 1295.— 
 Hymer's Fcedera. 
 
 MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the 
 Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the 
 language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office waa 
 to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next ptece of 
 honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been 
 established in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great 
 favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created 
 marquess of Dubhn. and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and 
 earls, A. D. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, 
 was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. 
 
 MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for 
 hfe, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to 
 Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B. c.~Eusebius Pref. to Chron. The prevail- 
 ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride, 
 after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more 
 sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil 
 magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar- 
 riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a. d. 1199. 
 Marriage was forbidden in Lent, a. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 
 692 and to priests in 1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the vow 
 of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace 
 under an act of the Commons hi Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1653. A 
 tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50Z., of a com- 
 mon person 25. 6d, the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages v?ere again 
 taxed in 1784. 
 
 MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a certain time every year, 
 the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid- 
 der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased 
 them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off 
 those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms. 
 When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lots, 
 beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing 
 a premium to the purchaser of each: the bidders were to name a sum below 
 the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid ; and 
 he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female 
 was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo- 
 chus, about 1433 B. c. 
 
 MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 
 600 B. c. — Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken 
 by Julius Caesar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the 
 Saracens, A. D. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected 
 to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown o( 
 France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles, 
 and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. 
 
 MARSHALS, FIELD, in tlie British army. The rank is of modern date, and 
 was preceded by that of captain-general, and tliat also of commander-in- 
 chief The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil- 
 itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal we^e those of France. George 11. 
 jrst conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork- 
 ney in 1736. See Mareschal. 
 
 MAKSTON MOOR, Battle op. This battle was the beginning of the misfor- 
 tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles L of England. The Scots and 
 
m&.rJ 
 
 UICTIONART OF DATES. 471 
 
 parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Ru« 
 pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. 
 Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and 
 the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command- 
 ed the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who 
 now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had 
 taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious, he pushed his 
 opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en- 
 gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artilery waa 
 taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow; fought July 
 3, 1644. 
 
 MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and 
 the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February 
 1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. 
 They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of 
 Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution 
 took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed 
 by the British, June 1, 1815 ; and Martinique reverted to its Fi-ench masters 
 at the late general peace, 1815. 
 
 MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, h§s abounded in 
 martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to 
 their faith. Tiie festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient 
 date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr- 
 dom A.D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs; and the accounts of 
 those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fiU 
 volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer, 
 Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a 
 " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cran- 
 mer, Laiimer, and Ridley,''^ kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
 in the custody of those officers, previously to thek being burnt alive : — 
 
 1st. octobek, 1554. — dinner. i Item, a post 
 
 Bread and ale - - - £0 2 Item, 3 chains 
 
 Oysters - - - - 1 
 
 Butter - - - - 2 
 
 Eggs 2 
 
 Lyng - - - - 8 
 
 A piece of fresh Salmon - - 10 
 
 Wine - - - - 8 
 
 Cheese and pears - - - 2 
 
 The three dinners • - £0 2 6 
 
 TO BTTRN LATIMEK AND MDLET. 
 
 For three load of wood faggots to 
 
 burn Latimer and Kidley - 12 
 Item, 1 load of furze faggots - 3 4 
 Item, for the carriage of these 4 
 loads - - - - 2 6 
 
 -£0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Item, 2 staples 
 Item, 4 laborers 
 
 £15 8 
 [They were burnt on Oct the 16th, 1555.1 
 
 CHABGK FOE THE BURNING OF THE BODY 
 
 OF CRANMER. 
 
 For 100 of wood faggots for the 
 
 fire - - - - 6 
 
 For 100 and X of furze - -034 
 For the carriage of them - 8 
 
 For two Liborers - - - 2 8 
 
 £0 12 8 
 [He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.] 
 
 MARTYRS, Era op. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used 
 by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced 
 in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, 
 particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences fi'om the day upon 
 which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a.d. 284 ; and ihe 
 persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa- 
 tent of 'v''irginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632; 
 named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were 
 Cathohcs who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634; free toleration 
 of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled 
 
472 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [mas 
 
 io 1650, and again in 1776; the State bore an active part in the revolution, 
 adopted the ii'ederal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population 
 in 1790 was 319,728 ; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,483 
 slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March, 
 1847. 
 
 MASKS. Poppaea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard 
 her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the 
 G reeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to ^schylus ; yet Aristotle 
 says tlie real inventor and time of their introduction were unknown. Modem 
 masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were devised by the 
 harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. — Stovje's Ghron 
 
 MASQUERADISS. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III, 1340 ; 
 and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the 
 citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa- 
 tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No le.ss than six 
 masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re- 
 vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, 
 and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque- 
 rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-five 
 guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. 
 
 MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the cele- 
 bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of 
 the passion of our Saviour. Hence everj^ part of the service is supposed to 
 allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge- 
 neral division of masses consists in high and low : the first is that sung by 
 the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- 
 deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed 
 without singing. Mass^^as first celebrated in Latin about a.d. 394. Its 
 celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Pros- 
 tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States, First settled at Plymouth by -v 
 colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This 
 was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and 
 Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692 
 The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this 
 State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, 
 Bunker Hill, Lexington, &c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; 
 revised and altered in 1820 ; slavery abolished in 1783 ; Shay's rebellion in 
 this State in 1786; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 
 against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472,040; 
 in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699. 
 
 MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class 
 under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities 
 of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upoa 
 another, in vindication of the Christian religion ! The following are among 
 the most remarkable massacres recorded by varfous authors . — 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, which 
 took place 397 b o. 
 
 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the 
 sword for not surrendering Tyro to 
 Alexander, 331 B.C. 
 
 The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- 
 habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them, 
 for refusing to surrender tlieir arms to 
 Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 
 164B.O. 
 
 A dreadful slunghter of the Teutones and 
 Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Ro- 
 man general, 200,000 being left dead on 
 the spot, 102 B.C. 
 
 The Romans, throughout Asia, women and 
 children not excepted, cruelly massacred 
 in one day, by order of Mithridatea, 
 king of Pontus, 83 b.o. 
 
 A great number of Roman senators mas- 
 sacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertoriiu 
 
KAS] 
 
 DICTIONAKT OF DA'l-ES. 
 
 473 
 
 MASSACRES, continued. 
 
 Many patricians dispatch themselves to 
 avoid their horrid butcheries, 86 b. c. 
 
 Again, under Sj'lla, and Catiline, his minis- 
 ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c. 
 
 At Pra3neste. Octavianus Csesar ordered 
 300 Roman senators and other persons 
 of distinction, to be sacrificed to the 
 manes of Julius Csesar, 41 b. o. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 At the destruction of Jerusalem. 1,100,000 
 of Jews were put to the sword, a. d. 70. 
 
 The Jews, headed by one Andrai, put to 
 death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, in 
 and near Cyrene, a. d. 115. 
 
 Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- 
 ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400.000 of 
 the inhabitants oi'Seleucia, a. d. 167. 
 
 At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens 
 are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, 
 A. D. 213. 
 
 The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 
 of the inhabitants upon his reduction of 
 Gaul. A D. 2T7. 
 
 Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the 
 emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they 
 were put into a ship which was set on 
 fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 870. 
 
 Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invit- 
 ed into the circus, were put to the sword, 
 by order of Theodosius. a. d. 890. 
 
 Belisarius put to death about 30.000 citi- 
 zens of Constantinople for a revolt, to 
 which the.y were impelled by the tyran- 
 ny and exactions of two rapacious minis- 
 ters set over them, a. d. 552. 
 
 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, 
 by order of Andronicus, a. t>. 1184. 
 
 Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, com- 
 menced at Toulouse, a. d. 1209. Tens 
 of thousands perished by means of the 
 sword and gibbet. 
 
 The Sicilians massacre the French through- 
 out th3 whole island of Sicily, without 
 distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, 
 the first bell for vespers being the signal. 
 This horrid atfair is known in history by 
 the name of Sicilian Vespers, a. d. 1282. 
 — J)u Fresnoy. 
 
 A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, 
 by the peasants, who, from a pretended 
 prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was 
 to be recovered from the infidels by them. 
 500 of these .Jews took shelter in a castle, 
 and defi'ndod themselves to the last 
 extremity, when, for want of weapons, 
 they threw their children at the enemy, 
 and then killed each other, a. d. 1317. 
 
 At Paris, of several thousand persons, at 
 the instance of John, duke of Burgun- 
 dy, A. D. 1418. 
 
 Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by or- 
 der of Christian IL, a. d. 1520. 
 
 Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants 
 throughout the kingdom of France, at- 
 tended with circumstances of the most 
 horrid treachery and cruelty. It began 
 at Paris, in the night of the festival of 
 St. Bartholomew,'" Aug. 24. 1572. by se- 
 cret orders from Charles IX., king of 
 France, at the instigation of the queen 
 dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mo- 
 
 ther. It is styled in history, the Massa- 
 cre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, 
 when 65,000 were slain, a. d. 1592. 
 
 Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death un- 
 der a pretended legal sentence of the 
 chancellor of Poland, for being concerned 
 in a tumult occasioned by a Roman 
 Catholic procession, a. d. 1724. All the 
 Protestant powers in Europe interceded 
 to have this unjust sentence revoked, 
 but unavailingly. 
 
 At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred 
 by the natives, October 1740, under the 
 pretext of an intended insurrection. 
 
 At the taking of Ismaol by the Russians, 
 80,000 old and young were slain, Decem- 
 ber, 1790.— See lamael. 
 
 In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made 
 proclamation for the massacre of all the 
 whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou- 
 sands perished. 
 
 Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of 
 the French, May 2, 1808. 
 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel 
 of Cairo, March 1, 1811. 
 
 Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
 Catholics, May 1815. 
 
 Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabi- 
 tants of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whoso 
 ferocious disorders continue for soi.ie 
 days, March 6, 1820. 
 
 massacres in BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, 
 May 1, A. D. 474. 
 
 Of the monks of Bangor, to the ntimber of 
 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber- 
 land, A. D. 580. 
 
 Of the Danes in the southern counties of 
 England, in the night of November IS, 
 1002, and the 23d Ethelred II. At Lon- 
 don it was most bloody, the churches 
 being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest 
 was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of 
 Denmark, left in hostage for tho per- 
 formance .of a treaty but newly conclud- 
 ed. — Baker's Chronicle. 
 
 Of the Jews in England. Some few press- 
 ing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s 
 coronation, were put to death by the peo- 
 ple ; and a false alarm being given that 
 the king had ordered a general massacre 
 of them, the people in many parts of 
 England, from an aversion to them, slew 
 all they met. In York, 500, who had 
 taken shelter in the castle, killed them- 
 selves, rather than fall into the hands of 
 the multitude, a. d, 1189. 
 
 Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's "Wood, 
 Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), a. d. 1209. 
 
 Of the English factory at Amboyna, in 
 order to dispossess its members of tho 
 Spice Islands, a. d. 1623. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland i,t> 
 O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up- 
 wards of 30,000 British were killed in the 
 commencement of this rebellion.— jS'i»" 
 William Petty. In the firsi two or Ihiee 
 days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the 
 Protestants were destroyed.— ZorrfcYar- 
 endon. Before the rebellion was entirely 
 
474 THE world's progress. [mm 
 
 death by pikes, perpetrated by the ii.Mii^ 
 gent Irish, at the barn of !Scullabo.eue, 
 Ireland, in 1T9S. — Sir Rich. Musgru/te. 
 Massacre of 64 American prisoners at 
 Dartmoor, England, (disowned by Brit- 
 ish Government,) April 6, 1815. 
 
 i£ASSACRES, coniinned. 
 
 suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were 
 
 massacred. — Sir W. Temple. 
 Of the imoffendino: Macdonalds of Glencoe, 
 
 May 9, 1691.-See&7ewcoe. 
 Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly 
 
 Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to 
 
 MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principaJ 
 courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of 
 the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception 
 of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603. — 
 Baker. 
 
 MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher 
 Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made 
 to a master, A. D. 1588 ; and the masters have since been chosen from among 
 the most learned equity members of the bar. 
 
 MASTER OF THE ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from 
 his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and 
 recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for 
 that name. 
 
 MATHEMATICS, "With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and disci- 
 pline; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics 
 were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and 
 quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians, 
 so early as 1950 B. c. — Joseplius de Aniiq. Jud. 
 
 MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning 
 of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins imply 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow, 
 the massacre of prince Demetrius, and aU the Poles his adherents, at six 
 o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. 
 
 MAURITIUS. The isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, A. d. 
 1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after 
 prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of 
 Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French 
 landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This 
 island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty 
 of Paris in 1814. 
 
 MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- 
 ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that 
 at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
 and erected to his memory a monument, which for its grandeur and magnifi- 
 cence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument 
 she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of 
 unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed 
 rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. 
 The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B. c. 
 
 MAT. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, 
 received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in 
 respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores; 
 though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, 
 to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompilius by 
 adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, which 
 before was the third, 113 b. o. 
 
 MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of 
 Egeria on May-day. May-daj has also been immemorially observed ir 
 
MKC] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 i7o 
 
 England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in 
 many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed iu honor of the day. 
 The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-daj', an 
 entctainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class the 
 chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English 
 fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their 
 departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of 
 the feast. 
 
 MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- 
 dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of student* 
 who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 
 35 Geo III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of 
 this college, at the instance of the government, to which 30,000Z. for the en- 
 largement of the buildings, and 26,000^. annually, were granted by parliament,, 
 June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy 
 in England. 
 
 MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free citiea 
 by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor 
 of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel 
 ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, et seq., under the last kings of the Mero- 
 vingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it mads 
 hereditary in his family, Maj-'ors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, 
 before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by port- 
 reeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign ol 
 Richard I. 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 
 B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- 
 wards ; they were very early known in England. Standards of weights and 
 measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London. 
 8 Richard I., A. D. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. 
 They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. 
 
 MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. D. 571. 
 The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one 
 of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually 
 retired to perform his devotions; and where the greatest part of the Koran 
 was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from 
 the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 
 1871 B. c. 
 
 b£ECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- 
 troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been 
 ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for 
 instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of 
 Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses 
 of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved aud 
 elevated. 
 
 The first writing on mechanics, was by 
 Ari-stotle, about . . . B. o. 820 
 
 The Stitera Eomana invented . . ** 
 
 The fundamental property of the lever 
 and other instruments was demon- 
 strated by Archimedes . . .205 
 
 The hand-mill, or quern,was very early 
 in use; the Eomans found one in 
 Yorkshire ♦* 
 
 Cattle mills, moles jumeniarim, were 
 also in use by the Eomans, and in 
 parts of Europe . . . . ♦* 
 
 The water-mill was probably invente i 
 in Asia ; the first that was described 
 was near one of the dwellini;s of 
 Mithridates . . . . n. c. 
 
 A water-millis said to have been erect- 
 ed on the river 'I'iber, at Kome 
 
 Floating mills on the Tiber . a. d. 
 
 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use 
 in Venice about .... 1018 
 
 Wind-mills were in very general use 
 in the twelfth contuiy . . . ** 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 536 
 
476 
 
 THE WOELB'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [msh 
 
 Application of mectunics to astrono- 
 my, parallelogism of forces, laws of 
 motion, &c., Newton . a. d. 1679 
 
 Problem of the catenary with the 
 analysis, by Dr. Gregory . . 1697 
 
 Spirit level (and many other inven- 
 tions), by Dr. Hooka, from 1660 to 1702 
 
 The Mechanics' Institute in London 
 was formed in .... 1828 
 
 Mechanics' Institute in JJew York 
 formed 1888 
 
 Cyrus made king of Persia . b. o. 559 
 Astyages deposed by Cyrus . . 550 
 CrflBsus kingof Lydia defeated, and his 
 
 throne seized by Cyrus . . . 548 
 Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar 
 to death ; and makes Astyages (or 
 Darius, the Mede) viceroy . . 538 
 By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be- 
 comes master of all Persia ; and this 
 era Is properly the commencement 
 of the Persian empire. — Lenglet. . 387 
 
 MECHANICS, continued. 
 
 Saw-mills are said to have been in use 
 at Augsburg . . . .a.d. 1832 
 
 Theory of the inclined plane inves- 
 tigated by Cardan, about . . 1540 
 
 Work on statics, by Stevinus . . 1586 
 
 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . 1638 
 
 Theory of oscillation, Iluygens . 1647 
 
 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . 1662 
 
 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of 
 wheels, Eoemer .... 1675 
 
 Percussion and animal mechanics, 
 Borelli; he died .... 1679 
 
 Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in 
 England. 
 MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It 
 revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c, and afterwards became an independent 
 kingdom, and conquered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the 
 Mede, 536 B. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and 
 shared its fate. — Blair ; Priestley. 
 
 Revolt of the Medes.— 5Zcfir. b. c. 820 
 The country was subjected to the As- 
 
 syriaus. — Idem. .... 766 
 Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, 
 
 Armenia, and other countries . . 647 
 Battle of Rages ; the Assyrians defeat 
 
 the Medes.— 5toir. . . . .625 
 War with the Lydians; the hostile ar- 
 mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun 
 soalaims them, they conclude peace 
 ■without striking a blow . . . 585 
 The reign of Astyages.— jBZair. . . 585i 
 
 The Medcs were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux- 
 ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous 
 who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boaat 
 of at least five husbands. — Aspin. 
 
 MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Reposi- 
 tory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It was 
 conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. 
 
 MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the 
 East, about A. D. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation 
 was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close 
 of the fifteenth century, or the beghining of the sixteenth. Tlie practice of 
 medicine ia now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the 
 hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes have 
 been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. 
 
 MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in 
 a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of 
 rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Maho- 
 met was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, A. D. 622. This flight 
 gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Eegira, a word 
 that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or quit one^s country ov friends. 
 
 MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- 
 sented to us as if they were present. — Cardon. Simonides, grandson of 
 Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia 
 for teachmg artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 B. c. — 
 Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger- 
 many in 1807. See Mnemonics. 
 
 MENDICANT ERIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious 
 
&LBS] 
 
 DIOTIO>rAIlY OF DATES. 477 
 
 who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti 
 ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held bj 
 Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominican^ 
 Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders 
 subsequently branched from them. 
 
 MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is 
 of very early date. The various properties of con'ic sections were dis- 
 covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration 
 may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., 
 about 218 B. c. 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to havo 
 been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- 
 tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how- 
 ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these 
 charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- 
 gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of 
 latitude as they recede from the equator. 
 
 MERCHANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who 
 trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted 
 the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by 
 queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of 
 Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurers' society (see 
 Adventurers Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it 
 extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an 
 English corporation in 1564. — Haydn. 
 
 MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found 
 in vast quantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany 
 are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 
 tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues 
 of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512. — 
 Nouv. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol- 
 lius early in the seventeenth century ; the first direcHons for its preparation 
 were given by Beguin, 1 608. It was given to patients under inoculation 
 for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 
 1162. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Oberlin, of Vienna, 1785. 
 
 MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- 
 sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry 
 VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and 
 good-humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, 
 and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The 
 name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — UEsirange. 
 Johnson. 
 MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the lette? 
 of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- 
 pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting 
 this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about a. d. 310 — 
 Baronius, Annal. 
 
 MESSENIA, now Maura-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom 
 was commenced by Policaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- 
 guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred 
 ciCies, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the 
 Achsean league 216 B. c. 
 
 MESSENIAN WARS The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia 
 Tho first began 743 B. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered 
 
478 THE world's progress. [met 
 
 to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion common 
 to both nations; the king of Sparta being Ivilled in his efforts to defend the 
 females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and atone period made 
 so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- 
 married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the 
 end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. 
 The second war was commenced 685 B. c. to throw off the galling Spartan 
 yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending m the defeat of the Messenians who 
 fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 B. c, it endured ten years, when 
 the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. 
 
 MESSINA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then 
 called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, 
 but fell to the Saracens a. d. 829. — Priestley. — In the eleventh century Roger 
 the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- 
 pression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took 
 place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated 
 by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and 
 in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since 
 which it has been handsomely rebuilt. 
 
 METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned 
 as " an instructor of every artificer, in brass and iron." The seven metala 
 are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel 
 in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skiU in working me- 
 tals. 
 
 METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated 
 with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be 
 traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor- 
 dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly 
 called the revival of learning. 
 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from 
 one body to another. The first beUef in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
 would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which 
 the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so 
 long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- 
 migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- 
 balming the dead; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 B. c. 
 
 METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- 
 cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. 
 " Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, "is not to form a sect, or to 
 bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or 
 form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians 
 in heart and life, in temper, word, and work — such as lived in the early days 
 of Christianity, and such as we may conceive may still live." The methodists 
 may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford A. D. 
 1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- 
 thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their 
 career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward 
 in the days of Puritanism, being suggested hj the Latin appellative Metho- 
 disice, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence of 
 the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist 
 missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke 
 in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these 
 missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organia- 
 ed for their support, until 1817. 
 
uid] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479 
 
 MEXICO. Discovered in a. u. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under 
 Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, 
 A. D. 1521. Tlie mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in 
 1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in- 
 dependence. Iturbide made emperor. May, 1822. Mexican constitution 
 proclaimed by the president Vitloria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 
 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles 
 suppressed. May 1826. Tlie expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 
 1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. 
 Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. 
 The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European 
 powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June, 1830. Civil war 
 between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president^ 
 March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of 
 San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, 
 March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa 
 Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- 
 redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and 
 Herrera made president, Dec. 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. 
 War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, 
 May 8, 1846 ; and subsequently, at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, 
 and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- 
 ment to raise $15,000,000 for tlie war against the United States, upon the 
 mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
 Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in 
 disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 
 1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American 
 general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States rati- 
 fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, 
 June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be- 
 comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz 
 surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and 
 Mexico. Signer de la Rosa, first Mexican minister to the United States after 
 the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. 
 
 MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving, representing figures on cop- 
 per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of i'' 
 is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648 ; but baron Heinikin states 
 that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Ameha Eliza- 
 beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving. 
 
 MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit 
 in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted 
 to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the 
 peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States in 1805 ; 
 admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the 
 territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen- 
 eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830 
 31,639; in 1840, 212,267. 
 
 MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d. 
 1 62 1. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- 
 fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded 
 to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. Id 
 England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, 
 r.R.S., who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — Biog. Did. 
 
 MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the H» 
 
480 THK world's peogeess. [mil 
 
 brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 
 B. C, is stj'^led by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad- 
 vanced under Celsus, who flourished A. d. 37, and under Qaleu, wholived A D. 
 131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- 
 tution of the College of Phj'sicians, 10 Henry VII., 1518. The celebratec 
 Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after 
 his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc 
 affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther 
 back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 
 1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted 
 with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the 
 subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives 
 after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 
 
 MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- 
 puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B. c. It submitted to the 
 Romans 222 B. c. ; was formed into a republic A. D. 1221 ; and lastly waa 
 governed by dukes from a. d. 1395 until 1505, when it was conquered by 
 Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, 
 about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan by Charles V. of Ger- 
 many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan 
 was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spaip, 1748. 
 Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; 
 but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the 
 capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned 
 with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree 
 of Napoleon against aU Continental intercourse with England, declaring 
 England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. 
 Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept 8, 1847. 
 Colhsion of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848 ; followed 
 by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- 
 ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- 
 ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered 
 Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on 
 proposed union with Piedmont. — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing 
 it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- 
 ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians 
 at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. 
 
 MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, 
 but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather 
 than allowed, as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times 
 proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- 
 out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- 
 try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the 
 insurrection of June, 1848. 
 
 MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most 
 historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- 
 jects soldiers, A. D. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved 
 in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England 
 was in 1422, In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the 
 
 * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised lier sex to learn medicine. She was t.iiight by 
 Sieropholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, aUvaj's discovered her sex 
 to her patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who 
 were now out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed 
 bor sex to the judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. 
 —Svff./a. 2T4. 
 
minJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 481 
 
 appointment of officers are different in the different States See Encyck' 
 pedia Americana. Tlie aggregate militia force of the United States, as re- 
 ported in 1848, was 1,888,538, but as the returns in some instances were 
 for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000. 
 As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000) 
 the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. 
 
 MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as Iha 
 road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- 
 cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, 
 who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who lie was, she 
 threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. 
 Democritus was the first who taught that the via ladea was occasioned by a 
 confused multitude of stars, about 428 B. c. 
 
 MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex- 
 piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation ; and that during 
 the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It 
 was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was 
 propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium 
 was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our 
 blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- 
 tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet. 
 
 MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and 
 dresses for woman, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be 
 derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption 
 of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 
 1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very 
 strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at 
 all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- 
 posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while 
 the perfumed coxcomb ["He was perfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare..] 
 measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady 
 phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. 
 
 MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. 
 Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be 
 like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the 
 Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced 
 the water-mill. See article Mechanics. 
 
 MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. 
 Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- 
 land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, 
 occurs 47 Henry III., 1262. — Ending. It related to mines containing gold, 
 together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, 
 and salt exist in great abundance, in various States : lead mines in Mis- 
 souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North 
 Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Copper, 
 Tin, Gold, &c. 
 
 MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40» 30' nort'- 
 lat., and between 91" 10' and 102» west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux 
 Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigranta 
 from the United States about 1845-6. 
 
 * I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most tinworthy members of society, but 
 as one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons haranguing upon the merits 
 of muslin or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of con- 
 tempt ; for the employmeiil that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from proo 
 tltntion. — I>r. Southey 
 
 21 
 
482 THE world's progress. [mis 
 
 MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. 
 Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in 
 A-Ugust 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 
 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral 
 Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the pubhc mind, and to the safety 
 of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the 
 enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. 
 Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured 
 by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up 
 at the peace of 1802. 
 
 MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of mancrs to 
 divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- 
 men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about A. D. 1560. John of 
 Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign 
 of Henry YIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at 
 the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk 
 into neglect. 
 
 MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at 
 New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C, 1837 ; at Dahlonega, 1838. See Coining. 
 
 MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage 
 in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women 
 were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 
 B. c. See Looking Glasses. 
 
 MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was 
 considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in 
 Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a hotile, about 1782, was the first 
 actress announced as Miss. — Galfs Lives of the Flayers. 
 
 MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. 
 Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. 
 The Jesuits had missions to China {which sec), and to most other parts of 
 the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was 
 a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian 
 Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, 
 about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov 
 4, 1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions, 
 The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; 
 first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Cej'lon, 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che- 
 rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- 
 tions of about $200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts 
 of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this 
 Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical 
 science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. 
 The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu- 
 merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of 
 Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- 
 ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevo- 
 lent Societies. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- 
 chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the 
 Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part 
 ' of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, 
 together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817. 
 when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,92i> 
 in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. 
 
MOg] DICnONAET OF DATES. 483 
 
 MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included with Louisiana in the 
 purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French 
 in 1764, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri- 
 torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State 
 in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise, 
 which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- 
 souri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, in- 
 cluding 58,240 slaves. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- 
 brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced 
 about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital k 
 said to have amounted to 100,000,OOOZ. See Law's Bubble. 
 
 MITHRIDATB. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed 
 to bi) the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented 
 by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 B. c. It was formerly 
 thought to be a great antidote against poison; but though it is now out 
 of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the 
 capital medicines of our shops. 
 
 MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 B. c, 
 and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human 
 life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having 
 taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of 
 Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He 
 ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down hia 
 throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 B. c. — Lenglet. 
 
 MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by 
 the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young 
 women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, 
 wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according 
 to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less 
 magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of 
 Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. 
 
 MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. 
 The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- 
 ides the younger, 477 B. C. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics 
 have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey is an 
 esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have 
 it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no 
 ticed in the London monthly periodicals. 
 
 MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the 
 French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions 
 were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- 
 cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb, 5, 1831. The 
 archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and 
 restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, 
 March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provi- 
 sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. 
 
 MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, 
 Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards 
 known as Turks, TartarS; and Moguls The first conqueror of the Mogul 
 empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died A. D. 1236. Timour 
 Beg became great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous 
 Bophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried 
 away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the 
 nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 
 
484 THE world's peogkess. [mon 
 
 MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon 
 after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost 
 nniversal monarchies, — the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. See 
 them respectively. 
 MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in 
 A. D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic 
 houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religioua 
 communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- 
 ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among 
 other persecitors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear 
 at Ephesus . he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, 
 and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the 
 vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their 
 eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their 
 various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. 
 Austin arrived in England A. D. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol 
 temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and hia 
 successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic 
 houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 
 1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIIL 
 1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, 
 whose descendants enjoy them to this day. 
 MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- 
 nesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year 
 of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to 
 the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it 
 having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 B. c. Money was 
 made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- 
 cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so 
 late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since 
 the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity 
 that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- 
 dity. See articles. Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, &c. 
 MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- 
 serts to avoid the Decian persecution about A. D. 250. St. Anthony is sup- 
 posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular 
 monastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate 
 St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. 
 MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son 
 of Charles II., was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded 
 England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on 
 the 20th of the same month. "Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and 
 was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, 
 from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIIL 
 about 1535. 
 MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, 
 that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence 
 mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were 
 further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were 
 totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, 
 as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. — Ander 
 son's Histoi-y of Commerce. 
 MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extr* 
 
MOKJ DICrriONAET OF DATES. 485 
 
 ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of 
 prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- 
 demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- 
 riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three 
 lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- 
 fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 
 
 MONTREAL. Surrendered to the Bnghsh by the French in 1760. It was 
 taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 
 12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The cliurch, Je- 
 suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great 
 military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the "Rebellion Losses" Act; 
 the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849. 
 
 MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar- 
 tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of 
 conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. 
 Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by 
 Thales, 640 B. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
 moon, 79 B. c. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- 
 zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-lighd at full moon is 90,000 times 
 less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times less — 
 Bouguer. 
 
 MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a. d. 113. — Univ. Hist. The Saracens in 
 Spain, beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who 
 seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d. 
 1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. 
 The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the 
 power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leou and Castile, slew 
 200,000 Moors in one battle; three leagues round the country was covered 
 with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- 
 nand v., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the 
 number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Priestley. 
 
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science 
 of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- 
 garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. c. And Grotius is 
 esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, 
 about A. D. 1623. — Bate, &c. 
 
 MORAVIANS. United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, 
 it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt; while the Brethren say 
 that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They 
 appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died 
 at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order 
 to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed 
 settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and "West Indies, and 
 other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now 
 so general, 
 
 MORGARTEN, Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and 
 glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, 
 commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They 
 seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through 
 which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved 
 their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. 
 
 MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe 
 Smith" is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. 
 Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Jo« 
 
486 THE 'WORLD'S PEOGEESS. [mIIN 
 
 Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28, 
 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. 
 The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, 
 and the Mormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9. 
 MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the Romana 
 it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, Abdallali, a leader 
 of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last 
 sovereign's defeat in Spain. ■ About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces 
 shook off their dependence: but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, 
 subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France 
 provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, 
 commenced May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, 
 and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abd-el-Kader taken 
 prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. 
 MORTARS. A short gun witlr an extraordinary large bore, -and close chamber, 
 used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated 
 mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. 
 MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156 ; was 
 taken by Tamerlane, 1382 ; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the 
 Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This' 
 city was entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1^12, and the Russian governor, 
 Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at 
 once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the 
 ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- 
 ters, evacuated Moscow Oct. 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 
 22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. 
 MOSKWA, Battle of, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. 
 MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting 
 themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and 
 perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- 
 ted A. D. 1609. 
 MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II., 
 1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of 
 Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. 
 MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu ei mon Droit was first used by Richard L, A. D. 1193. 
 The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, " I 
 serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Gressy, 
 the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Hani soit qui mal y 
 pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendrai, "■! will 
 maintain," was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper eadem was or- 
 dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. 
 MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to 
 wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibitiou 
 of grief for a friend lasted for seven days; and upon extraordinary occasions 
 it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for 
 the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in 
 Europe is black ; in China it is white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; 
 and it was white in Spain, until A. D. 1498. — Herrera. 
 MUNSTER, Teeatt of, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; Spain 
 continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle 
 of a balance of power in Eiu-ope was first recognized. Signed at Monster 
 Oct. 24, 1648. 
 
MUSj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 487 
 
 MURDER. The highest offence agamst the law of nature. A court of P]phet» 
 was estabhshed by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B. c. The Per- 
 sians did not punish the first oifence. In England, during a period of the 
 Heptarchy, murder was punished by fi.nes only. So late as Henry Vlll.'a 
 time, the crime was compounded for in "Wales. Murderers were aUowed 
 benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, may happer. 
 in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and 
 an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. The 
 enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- 
 mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance. 
 The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next bu^; one 
 after his conviction, was repealed 7 "William IV., July 1836. — Haydn. 
 
 MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexander, like the Pi7ta- 
 neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained 
 by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. 
 The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 who here placed his library, about 284 B.C. See British Museum, &c. 
 
 MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in 
 hollow reeds. Pranckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers 
 of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And 
 Zarluio to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first 
 reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B c. The flute and harmony or concord in 
 music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marhles. Vocal choruses of 
 men are first mentioned 556 b. c. — Du Presnoy. Pythagoras maintained that 
 the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible 
 to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Ceciha, a 
 Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel 
 was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her 
 melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufBcient author- 
 ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third 
 century. 
 
 MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guide Aretin, 
 a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, a. d. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present 
 used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by 
 Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical compos'- 
 tion in the sixteenth century, and they efifected great improvement in the 
 science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries 
 about 1616. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- 
 stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- 
 tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was 
 established in 1741. and other musical societies followed. The Royal Society 
 of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the 
 performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- 
 sic established 1822. 
 
 MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish 
 historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier 
 with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- 
 troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid a.side, 
 12 Henry VIIL 1521.— Carfe. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the 
 musket into use in the Low Countries, 1569. — Branstone. 
 
 UUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so 
 called as not being bare but having a downj' nap on its surface resembling 
 Eioss, which the French call mousse. According to others it was first brough> 
 
488 THE world's progress. [mtt 
 
 from Mouso], in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng- 
 land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in 
 England in 1778. 
 
 MUTES. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason m 
 felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- 
 ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, 
 on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon 
 his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one 
 day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately 
 until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in A. D. 
 1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment ia 
 awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if tliey were convicted or 
 confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
 Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778 Another on a charge of burglary, 
 at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, 
 Aug. 21, ISOl.^PhilUps. 
 
 MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie; mid- 
 shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. 
 
 MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. Eor particulars see Bounty. 
 
 MYOALE, Battle of, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and 
 Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and 
 slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just 
 returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were 
 completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, 
 and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- 
 mos with an immense booty. 
 
 MYCENJj], A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty 
 stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse. Perseus 
 removes from Argos to Mycenee, and reigns, 1.313 B. c. Mycenae destroyed 
 by the Argives, 568 B. c. 
 
 MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in- 
 stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- 
 ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt 
 up in a veil of ahegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isia 
 and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks The 
 Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B. c. 
 The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits 
 of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil- 
 ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries 
 They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, A. D. 389. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the 
 authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated : 
 and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in 
 this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding 
 of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal, 
 and therefore after death the multitude wore easily taught to reverence them 
 with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- 
 visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and 
 then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions 
 of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, 
 and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to 
 have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B. c. ; and Cadmus 
 the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 
 
 B.a 
 
NAPj 
 
 DICnONART OP DATES. 
 
 489 
 
 N. 
 
 NABONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince 
 of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 B. o. To find the Julian year on which 
 the "year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; 
 if after Christ, add to it 748. 
 
 NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it 
 to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans 
 taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their 
 names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation 
 to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name tiU 
 then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 
 956 : and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and 
 Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to 
 change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of 
 Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but 
 at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It 
 is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new 
 names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the 
 world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. 
 
 NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It wag 
 garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. 
 Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, 
 the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again 
 talc en by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; 
 but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered 
 it up to the Allies, in 1814. 
 
 NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. 
 
 NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples 
 was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- 
 tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and 
 the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this 
 country. 
 
 The Goths having become masters of 
 Naples and of Sicily, are expelled 
 by Belisarius, general of the Eastern 
 empire - - - a. d. 537 
 
 The Lombards next get possession of 
 Naples, anjj are dispossessed by 
 Charlemagne ... 800 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St.Louis, 
 king of France, obtains the crown 
 from the pope, to the exclusion of 
 the rightful heir, Conradin, who is 
 beheaded, aged sixteen years - 1266 
 
 The French becoming hated by the Si- 
 cilians, a general massacre of the in- 
 vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
 only escaping. See Siailicm Vespers 
 
 March 30, 1282 
 
 Peter of Arragon reigns - - 1282 
 
 The two crowns disjoined - 1308 
 
 Charles Durazzo, becoming king of 
 Hungary,is murdered there by order 
 of the queen regent, in her presence 1386 
 
 For this murder she is taken out of her 
 carriage, and drowned in the river 
 Boseth .... 1386 
 
 Sicily again united to Naples, and the 
 kings ever since called king of the 
 Two Sicilies - - - 1449 
 
 21* 
 
 Taken from the French and annexed 
 to Spain .... 1504 
 
 The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to 
 an insurrection, excited by Massa- 
 niello, a fisherman, who in fifteen 
 days raises an army of 200,000 men 1617 
 
 This insurrection subsides, andMassa- 
 nlello is murdered - - 1647 
 
 Attempt of the duke of Guise to pos- 
 sess the crown - - 1647 
 
 The kingdom completely conquered 
 by prince Eugene - - 1707 
 
 Discovery of the ruins of Hercula- 
 neum. See Seroulanewm - 1711 
 
 Naples ceded to the emperor by the 
 treaty of Eadstadt, 1714 ; Sicily 1720 
 
 Both kingdoms are recovered by the 
 crown of Spain ... 1734 
 
 And Charles, the son of Philip of 
 Spain, reigns ... 1735 
 
 Reign ot Ferdinand IT. - - 1759 
 
 His flight on the approach of the 
 French republicans - Jan. 14, 1799 
 
 Nelson appears, Naples is retaken,and 
 the king restored - July 13, 1799 
 
 It is again taken by the French, Ap'17,1801 
 
 Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 
 
490 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 [ifAT 
 
 BfAPLES, coniinued. 
 
 the kingdom, and thousands perish 
 
 July 26, 1805 
 Treaty offensive and defensive be- 
 tween France and Naples Oct. 8, 1805 
 Ferdinand is again driven from Na- 
 ples, and Joseph Bonaparte is 
 crowned king - Feb. 6, 1806 
 
 Joseph abdicates for the crown of 
 
 Spain - - - June 1, 1808 
 
 The crown is transferred to Joachim 
 
 Murat - - - July 1, 1808 
 
 Naples is surrendered to aBritishfleet, 
 
 and Ferdinand re-enters June 17, 1815 
 Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15, 1815 
 Eevolutionary movement, headed by 
 
 general Pepe - - July 15* 1820 
 
 Suppressionof the Carbonari Sept.16, 1820 
 EeigQ of Francis I. - - - 1826 
 
 And of Ferdinand 11. - Nov. 8, 1830 
 Commencement of the dispute rela- 
 tive to the sulphur monopoly,(which 
 is afterwards amicably adjusted) 
 
 March 15, 1840 
 
 Demonstration in favor of Pius IX. 
 and reform, fired upon at Naples, 
 and arrests made - Dec. 15, 1841 
 
 Sanguinary disorders at Mosfalna Jan.4,l84S 
 
 Rebellion at Palermo, &c. Jan. 12, 1343 
 
 Palermo bombarded Jan. 13-49, 1843 
 
 The king signed a coustilution Jan.2S, 1848 
 
 Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar- 
 rison - - - Feb. 22, 184S 
 
 The parliament of Sicily declares that 
 island independent ; Messina bom- 
 barded by theNeapolitan lleet Ap.3, 1843 
 
 The national guard raises barricadesat 
 Naples - - May 14, 1843 
 
 The people put down by the king's 
 troops ; 1440 killed - May 15, 1843 
 
 TheSicilian parliament elects the duke 
 of Genoa as king of Sicily July 10, 1843 
 
 Messina bombarded and taken by the 
 Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848 
 
 New constitution conceded to Sicily 
 
 March 6, 1849 
 
 Catania bombarded and reducedAp. 5.1849 
 
 NARVA, Battle op, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated 
 by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The 
 army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish 
 army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. 
 
 NASBBT, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Pair- 
 fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by 
 lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marma'duke Langdale 
 the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory 
 was with the parliamentary forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfor- 
 tunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing 
 all his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 
 14, 1645. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- 
 rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
 national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted in 
 the year 1697, to about five milUons sterling, and the debt was then thought 
 to be of alarming magnitude. 
 
 In 1702, On the accession of queen 
 Anne, the debt amounted 
 to- - - - £14,900,000 
 In 1714, On the accession of Geo. I. 
 
 it amounted to . 54,000,000 
 In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- 
 nish war.it amounted to 78,000,000 
 In 1763, George III.: end of the 7 
 years' war, it amounted 
 to ... . 139,000,000 
 In 1786,Threeyears aftertheAme- 
 
 ricanwar,itamount'd to 268,000,000 
 In 1798, The civil and foreign wai', 
 
 • it amounted to - 462,000,009 
 
 In 1802, Close of the French Ee- 
 volutionary war, it a- 
 mounted to - £571.000,000 
 
 In 1814, Close of the war against 
 
 Bonaparte - - 865,000,000 
 
 In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- 
 lish exchequers were 
 consolidated - 848,282,477 
 
 In 1830, Total amount of the 
 funded and unfunded 
 debt - - - 840,184,022 
 
 In 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578,000 
 
 In 1845, Funded debt - 768,789,241 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times. 
 
 In 1791 the debt was 
 
 In 1800 " 
 
 In 1810 " « - 
 
 In 1815 " 
 
 In 1816 " " - 
 
 In 1820 " " 
 
 NATURALIZATION. 
 
 $75,463,476 
 
 82,976,294 
 
 - 53.173,217 
 
 - - 99,833,660 
 
 127,334,934 
 
 - - 91,015,566 
 
 It is defined to be 
 
 In 1830 the debt was 
 In 1835 " " 
 Inia39 " " - 
 In 1845 " « 
 In 1848 '• " - 
 
 . $48,565,406 
 37,733 
 
 - 11,98:3,733 
 
 - 16,801,647 
 
 - 65,804,450 
 
 ' the making a foreigner or alien 
 
 a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, aa it were^ 
 
NAVJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 491 
 
 both a subject aud a native of a king or country, that by nature he did nM 
 belong to." The first act of naturahzation in England passed in 1437 ; and 
 various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, 
 several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- 
 ization of the Jews passed in 1153, but it was repealed in the following year, 
 on the petition of all the cities in England. See United Stales. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe 
 Sieyes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- 
 bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by 
 order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Mai repaired to 
 the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had 
 digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. 
 Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. 
 
 NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the 
 Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
 at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that 
 that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, " That the 
 citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being 
 met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that 
 the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a 
 new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed 
 at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. 
 
 NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution 
 was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the 
 Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. 
 They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the 
 first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. Sir G. Beau- 
 mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British 
 Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been 
 augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- 
 fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed 
 and opened in 1837. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the 
 first upon record, 1263 B. c. — Du Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is 
 ■that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 B. c. — Blair. The fol- 
 lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the 
 page of history. 
 
 at Cnidos : Pisander, the Athenian 
 admiral, is killed; and the mari- 
 time power of the Lacedemonians 
 destroyed. — TTiueydides - • 804 
 
 The Roman fleet employed in the 
 siege of Lilybajum, burned by the 
 Carthaginians - - - 249 
 
 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by 
 the consul Lutatius ... 242 
 
 The Roman fleets vanquished by 
 Hannibal, the Carthaginian gene- 
 ral ; 800 galleys taken, and 16,000 
 prisoners; second Punic war - 209 
 
 At Actium,between the fleets of Octa- 
 vianusCaesar andMarcAntony. This 
 battle decides the fate of the latter, 
 800 of his galleys going over to CaR- 
 sar, by which he is totally defeated 81 
 
 BEFORE OHEIST. 
 
 First sea-fight on record, in which the 
 Corinthians conquer theCorcyreans 664 
 
 The Athenian fleet under Themistoo- 
 les, with 880 sail, defeat the Per- 
 sian, consisting of 2000, at the 
 straits of Salamis .... 480 
 
 Again, at the mouth of the river Eu- 
 rymedon ; Cymon, theAthenian ad- 
 miral, vanquishes the Persian fleet 
 and army, in one day. — Herodotus 470 
 
 The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Al- 
 cibiades, the Athenian - - - 410 
 
 The Spartan general, Lysander, total- 
 ly defeats the Athenian fleet under 
 Conon; bythis victoryhe puts an end 
 to the maritime power of Athens - 407 
 
 The Persians engage Conon to com- 
 mand their fleet, with which he en- 
 tirely vanquishes theLacedemonian 
 fleet, and takes 50 sail out of 90 - 400 
 
 The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan 
 
 ANNO DOMINI. 
 
 The emperor, Claudius II. defeats 
 the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their 
 €iiv^s.—I>u Fresnoy - - S6f 
 
492 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [SAV 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, 
 and Pius V. defeat the Turkish 
 fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. The 
 Christian fleet consisted of 206 gal- 
 leys, and 30,000 men. The Turks, 
 out of 250 galleys, saved only 100; 
 and lost 30,000 men in killed and 
 prisoners. — Voltaire . - - 1571 
 
 Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spani- 
 ards. This was a bloody conflict and 
 decisivevictoryandsettledforatime 
 thesuperiorityof theDutch,Apr. 25, 1607 
 
 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BBIUSn HISTORY. 
 
 Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 
 sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset 
 and Hampshire coast.— .4sser's Life 
 of Alfred 807 
 
 Near iSluys; Edward III. defeated 
 the French fleet of 400 sail, which 
 were all sunk. 80,000 French were 
 killed in this engagement - - 1340 
 
 The English and Flemings; the latter 
 signally defeated - - - - 1371 
 
 English and French, in which the 
 latter power loses 80 ships - - 1389 
 
 Near Milford Haven; the English take 
 14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 
 
 Off Barfleur ; the Duke of Bedford 
 takes 500 French ships - - 1416 
 
 In the Downs : the French fleet cap- 
 tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 
 
 Bay of Biscay; English and French, 
 the latter defeated ... 1512 
 
 Sir Edward Howard defeats the 
 French under Prejeant - - 1513 
 
 In the Channel; the British defeat 
 the French fleet with great loss - 1545 
 
 HheSpaniihArmadadiiYeii from the 
 EnglishChannel tothe roadof Calais, 
 bya running fight the Spaniards los- 
 ing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are 
 again defeated, and obliged to bear 
 awayfor Scotland and Ireland,when 
 theirfleet isdispersed in a storm,and 
 they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 
 more men. See Armada, July 19, 1588 
 
 Dover Straits; between the Dutch 
 admiral, Van Tromp, and admiral 
 Blake. TheDutch surprise the Eng- 
 lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 
 40 English, six of which are taken 
 or destroyed ; and the Dutch admi- 
 ral sails in triumph through the 
 channel, with a broom at his mast- 
 head, to denote that he had swept 
 the English from the seas. June 29, 1652 
 
 In the Downs ; same admirals, and 
 nearly same loss 
 
 Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1653 
 
 The English gain a victory over the 
 Dutch fleet oft" Portsmouth, taking 
 and destroying 11 men-of-war and 
 80 merchantmen. Van Tromp was 
 the Dutch, and Blake the English 
 admiral .... Feb. 10, 1663 
 
 Again, near Portland, between the 
 English and Dutch ; the latter de- 
 feated - - - Feb. 18, 1653 
 
 Again, off the North Foreland The 
 Dutch and English fleets consisted 
 of near 100 men-of-war each. Van 
 
 Tromp commat-aed the Dutch; 
 Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- 
 lish. Six Dutch ships were taken ; 
 11 were sunk, and the rest ran into 
 Calais road . . . June 2, 1658 
 
 Again, on the coast of Holland ; the 
 Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad- 
 miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1663 
 
 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 
 2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken 
 by the English - - - Sept. 1656 
 
 The Spanish fleet vanquished, and 
 then burnt in the harbor of Santa 
 Cruz, by Blake - - - April, 1607 
 
 English and French ; 180 of the Bor- 
 deaux fleet destroyed by the duke 
 of York .... Dec. 4, 1664 
 
 The duke of York (afterwards James 
 II.), defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
 wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up 
 with all his crew ; 18 capital thips 
 taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 
 
 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of 
 war and 2 India ships - Sept 4, 1665 
 
 A contest between the Dutch and 
 English fleets for victory ,maintain- 
 ed for four days. The English lose 
 9,and theDutch 15 ships, June 1—4, 1666 
 
 Decisive engagement at the mouth of 
 the Thames, when the English 
 gain a glorious victory, the Dutch 
 lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals kill- 
 ed, and 4,000 ofllcers and seamen. 
 Fought . - - . July 26, 1666 
 
 The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the 
 French of 80, near Martinico - - 1667 
 
 Coast of Holland ; by Prince Rupert, 
 May28,June 4,and Aug. ll.D'Etrees 
 and Kuyter defeated ... 1678 
 
 Several actions to the disadvantage of 
 the Dutch. They agree to strike to 
 the English colors in the British 
 seas. 25 Charles II. ... 1673 
 
 Off Tangiers, battle between the En- 
 glish and Moors, which lasted 11 
 days 1679 
 
 Off Beachy-head; the English and 
 Dutch are defeated by the French, 
 
 June 80, 1690 
 
 The English and Dutch combined 
 fleets gain a signal victory over the 
 French fleet,near CapeLallogue ; 21 
 of their largest men-of-warwere de- 
 stroyed.— See La I/ogue, May 19, 1692 
 
 Off St. Vincent; theEnglishandDutch 
 squadrons,under admiral Eooke,de- 
 feated by the French - June 16, 1698 
 
 Off Carthagena,between admiral Ben- 
 bow and theFrench fleet,command- 
 ed by admiral Du Casse, fought 
 
 Aug. 19, 170a 
 
 The English and Dutch fleets, under 
 sir George Kooke,defeat the French 
 fleet (having theSpanish galleons in 
 convoy) in the port of Vigo. They 
 take 9 out of 13 galleons,laden chief- 
 ly with silver, and six men-of-war; 
 the other 4 galleons, and 14mea-of- 
 war, destroyed, fought - Oct. 12, 1709 
 
 Off the Lizard, when the English fleet 
 was defeated - - - Oct 9, 17M 
 
NAV ] 
 
 D CTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 493 
 
 NAVAL B.VTTLES, continued. 
 
 In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake 
 took sixty French vessels laden with 
 provisions - - May 22, 1708 
 
 The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- 
 feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro 
 of Messina - - Aug. 11, 1718 
 
 Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews 
 and Lestock against the fleets of 
 France and Spain. Here the brave 
 captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- 
 toi-y was lost by a misunderstanding 
 between the English admirals. — Na- 
 val Hist. .... 1744 
 
 Off" Cape Finistere, the French fleet 
 taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 
 
 In the East Indies ; the French retired 
 to Pondicherry - - - 1747 
 
 Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took 
 seven men-of-war of the French 
 
 Oct. 14, 1747 
 
 Admiral Hawke defeats the French 
 fleet commanded by Conflans, in 
 Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a 
 projected invasion of England, fought 
 
 Nov. 20, 1759 
 
 Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a 
 fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 
 
 Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- 
 ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- 
 gara, the latter defeated and taken 
 prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 
 
 At' St. Jago ; Mens. Suflrein defeated by 
 commodore Johnston April 16, 1781 
 
 Admiral Rodney defeated the French 
 going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships 
 of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) 
 and sent the French admiral, count 
 de Grasse, prisoner to England 
 
 April 12, 1782 
 
 The British totally defeated the fleets 
 of France and Sj'ain, in the bay of 
 Gibraltar.— See Oibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 
 
 Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- 
 feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of 
 battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 
 
 , Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; 
 \ admiral Nelson loses his right arm ; 
 
 July 24, 1797 
 
 Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- 
 feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 
 ships of war, with the admiral (De 
 Winter), taken ■ Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 ■ Nile I Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 
 ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of 
 
 the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escapeil, 
 
 Aug. 1. 179*:? 
 
 Gibraltar bay ; engagement between 
 the French and British fleets ; the 
 Hannibal of 74 guns lost July 6, 1801 
 
 Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains 
 a victory over the French and Span- 
 ish fleets ; 1 ship captu.:ed, fought 
 
 July 12, 1801 
 
 Sir Robert Calder wiih 15 sail, takes 2 
 ships (both Spanish) out ol'20 sail of 
 the French and Spanish combined 
 fleets, off Ferrol - July 22, 1805 
 
 Off Trafalgar; memorable battle, in 
 which lord Nelson defeated the fleeta 
 of France and Spain, and in which 
 he received his mortal wound. — (See 
 Trafalgar) - • Ov.. 21, 1806 
 
 Sir R. Stfachan, with 4 sail of British, 
 captures 4 French ships of the line, 
 off Cape Ortegal - Nofr. 4, 1805 
 
 In the West Indies ; the French defeat- 
 ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of 
 the line taken, 2 driven on shore 
 
 Feb. 6, 1806 
 
 Sir John Borlase Warren captures the 
 French fleet under command of ad- 
 miral Linois • - March 13. 1806 
 
 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage 
 of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles, 
 
 Feb. 19, 1807 
 
 Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 
 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- 
 renders to lord Cathcart and admiral 
 Gambler. (See Copenhage7i) Sepi 7, 180? 
 
 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the 
 Tagus, surrenders to the British, 
 
 Sept. 3, 180b 
 
 Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. 
 See Algiers ■ - Aug. 27, 1816 
 
 Navarino ; the British, French, and 
 Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- 
 hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava- 
 rino ■ ■ - Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Action between the British ships Vol- 
 age and Hyacinth, and 29 Chinese 
 war jvmks, which were defeated 
 
 Nov. 3, 1839 
 
 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The 
 British squadron under admiral Stop- 
 ford achieved this triumph with tri- 
 fling loss, while the Egyptians lost 
 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 
 prisoners. See Syria - Nov. 3, 1840 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. 
 
 Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- 
 teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 1776 
 
 His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 
 
 He captures the British frigate Serapis 
 
 Sept. 23, 1779 
 
 Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- 
 politans - - - - 1803 
 
 —recaptured by Decatur - -Feb. 1, 1804 
 
 Tripoli bombardid by '.ommodore Pre- 
 ble - . - - Aug. 1804 
 
 Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the 
 British ship Leopard, for refusing to 
 be searched .... 1807 
 
 Frigate President, vs. British sloop 
 UttleBelt • • May 16, 1811 
 
 Constitution captures British frigate 
 Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 18i2 
 
 Captain Elliott captures two British 
 frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8. 1812 
 
 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro 
 lie, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by 
 British 74, Poictiers - Oct 20, 1812 
 
 Frigate United States, captain Decatur, 
 captures British frigate Msce^oniaii 1S12 
 
 Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap- 
 tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 
 
 Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures 
 British snip Peacock, captain Peake, 
 
 Feb. 23, 1811 
 
494 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [na-v 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. 
 
 [Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- 
 aded by British.] 
 
 Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the 
 Britifh frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 
 
 Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop 
 Pelican - - • Aug. 14, 1813 
 
 B.ag Ei'iterprise captures the British 
 bjig Boxer - - - Aug. 1813 
 
 Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, 
 captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 
 
 FlrtiUa, commodore Chauncey, cap- 
 tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario, 
 
 Oct. 5, 1813 
 
 Frigate Essex, commodore Purter, cap- 
 tured by frigate Phoebe and sloop 
 Cherub - - - March 28, 1814 
 
 Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, 
 surrendered to British frigate Or- 
 pheus - - - April 21, 1814 
 
 Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, 
 captures British brig Epervier 
 
 April 29, 181 
 
 Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- 
 tures British brig Reindeer, June 2d, 1814 
 
 Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- 
 torious over the British on lake Cham- 
 plain - - - Sept. 11, 1814 
 
 Frigate President, surrendered to the 
 British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1816 
 
 Frisjate Constitution captures British 
 brigs Cyane and Levant, off Maaeria 
 
 Feb, 1815 
 
 Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- 
 tures British brig Penguin, off' Brazil, 
 
 Feb. 23, 18 E 
 
 U. S. naval force under commodore 
 Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly 
 with the land force under general 
 Scott) 1847 
 
 NAVAEINO, Battle op, between the combined fleets of England, France, and 
 Russia, under command of admiral Codvington, and the Turkish navy, in 
 which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, 
 many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turka 
 themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 
 1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that 
 of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
 power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an 
 " untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. 
 
 NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The 
 first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first 
 account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing 
 round Africa, 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander 
 the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently 
 the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively 
 from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- 
 iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch. 
 
 Plane charts and mariner's compass 
 
 used about - - - a. d. 1420 
 
 Variation of the compass discovered 
 
 by Columbus - - - • 1492 
 
 That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- 
 rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537 
 First treatise on navigation - - • 1545 
 The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1-577 
 Mercator's chart - - - - 1599 
 Davis's (juadrant, or backstafl^, for 
 measuring angles, about - - 1600 
 
 Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- 
 tion by Gimter - - a. d. 1620 
 Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 
 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 
 Hadley's quadrant - - - 1731 
 Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764 
 Nautical almanac first published - 1767 
 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the 
 compass - - - - - 1820 
 See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, S^c. 
 
 NAVIGATION, INLAND, of the United States. An official report of U. S. 
 Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- 
 ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16,674 miles ; entire length of lake consf, 
 of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboal 
 tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249,055 tons. Aggregate value ol 
 commerce on the western rivers, S'183,609,725. Estimated amount of lake 
 tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different periods, 
 see Shipping.] 
 
 NAVIGATION, INLAND, op Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo, in his evidence be- 
 fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more 
 inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." 
 The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well tha 
 
nay] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 495 
 
 navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- 
 ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard L, 1194. 
 See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more 
 extensive act was passed in 1511. Act relating to the trade of the colonies 
 passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act 
 regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- 
 tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- 
 liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 184i^, 
 
 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States 
 was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at 
 Portsmouth, N. H., 1781 ; but the regular navy was commenced by Act ol 
 Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The 
 Constitution launched at Boston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See 
 Naval Battles. } 
 
 NAVIES OP EUROPE and AMERICA. 
 
 COMPARATIVE 
 
 VIEW OP THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OF EUROPE 
 
 
 
 
 AND 
 
 AMERICA, 1846. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Relative naval 
 power of each nation. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Buildin 
 
 ry, 
 
 I, ordina- 
 &c. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 ® 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Z"' 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 332 
 
 4,583 
 
 304 
 
 13,098 
 
 §636 
 
 17,681 
 
 40,000 
 
 141 
 
 France, - 
 
 215 
 
 4,293 
 
 131 
 
 4,635 
 
 346 
 
 8,928 
 
 27,554 
 
 68 
 
 Russia, - 
 
 179 
 
 5,896 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 5,896 
 
 59,000 
 
 ;^2 
 
 Turkey, - 
 
 62 
 
 2,636 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 66 
 
 2,660 
 
 26,8-20 
 
 9 
 
 United States, 
 
 47 
 
 1,1.55 
 
 30 
 
 1,190 
 
 77 
 
 2,345 
 
 8,724 
 
 5 
 
 Egypt, 
 
 35 
 
 1,148 
 
 3 
 
 312 
 
 38 
 
 1,760 
 
 
 1 
 
 Holland, 
 
 48 
 
 302 
 
 86 
 
 1,344 
 
 134 
 
 1,646 
 
 
 4 
 
 Sweden, - 
 
 330 
 
 660 
 
 50 
 
 1,196 
 
 380 
 
 1,856 
 
 
 2 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 96 
 
 344 
 
 12 
 
 732 
 
 108 
 
 1,076 
 
 
 
 Austria, ... 
 
 74 
 
 686 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 686 
 
 
 
 Brazil, - 
 
 31 
 
 450 
 
 11 
 
 325 
 
 42 
 
 775 
 
 
 R 
 
 Sardinia, ... 
 
 11 
 
 226 
 
 4 
 
 220 
 
 15 
 
 446 
 
 
 2 
 
 Spain, - 
 
 21 
 
 348 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 318 
 
 
 4 
 
 Two Sicilies, 
 
 17 
 
 338 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 338 
 
 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 -- 
 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OP DIFFERENT NATIONS. 
 
 Nations, in the order of their commercial 
 importance. 
 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain, 
 United States - - • . 
 
 France, 
 
 Norway and Sweden ... 
 
 Holland, 
 
 Russia, ..... 
 
 Two Sicilies, • • • « 
 Austria, ..... 
 
 Turkey, ..... 
 
 Sardinia. ..... 
 
 Denmark, .... 
 
 Portugal, ..... 
 
 Spain, 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 No. of vessels 
 in commerce 
 and •fisheries. 
 
 23,898 
 
 19,666 
 
 13,782 
 
 5,450 
 
 1,528 
 
 Not known. 
 
 9,174 
 
 6,199 
 
 2,220 
 
 3,502 
 
 3.036 
 
 ' '798 
 
 2,700 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 No. of guns 3 
 each 100,000 
 tons of com- 
 merce. 
 
 3,007,581 
 
 2,416,999 
 
 839,608 
 
 471,772 
 
 241,676 
 
 239,000 
 
 21.3,193 
 
 208,551 
 
 182,000 
 
 167,360 
 
 153,408 
 
 80,525 
 
 80,000 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 97 
 
 1,063 
 
 224 
 
 683 
 
 2,466 
 
 158 
 
 321 
 
 1461 
 
 265 
 
 709 
 
496 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 NEW 
 
 NAVY OF ENGLAND. TJie first fleet of galleys, like those of ;he Danes, 
 was built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased unde3 
 Edgar to 850, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub- 
 lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007, 
 et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. 
 From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, 
 and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- 
 miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 
 1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- 
 lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may 
 therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-oflSce was ap- 
 pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stom 
 ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson's 
 Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 
 tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the 
 Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, 
 consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 
 ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever buii*-. — Gibson'' s 
 Co7itinuation of Camden. 
 
 ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OP THE ROYAL NAVY OP ENGLAND, FROM HENRI 
 VIII'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OP THE LAST WAR, 1814. 
 
 Yr. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men voted 
 
 Navy estim. 
 
 Yr. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men voted 
 
 Navy estim. 
 
 1.521 
 
 16 
 
 7,260 
 
 
 no account. 
 
 1760 
 
 412 
 
 321,134 
 
 70,000 
 
 ;e3,227.143 
 
 1578 
 
 2i 
 
 10,506 
 
 6.700 
 
 no account. 
 
 1793 
 
 498 
 
 433,226 
 
 45,000 
 
 5,525,331 
 
 m)H 
 
 42 
 
 17,055 
 
 8,346 
 
 no account. 
 
 1800 
 
 767 
 
 668,744 
 
 135,000 
 
 12,422,837 
 
 1658 
 
 157 
 
 57,000 
 
 21,910 
 
 no account. 
 
 1808 
 
 869 
 
 892,800 
 
 143,800 
 
 17,496,047 
 
 1638 
 
 173 
 
 101,892 
 
 42,000 
 
 no account. 
 
 1814 
 
 901 
 
 966,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 18,786,509 
 
 17U2 
 
 272 
 
 159,020 
 
 40,000 
 
 ^£1,056,915 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1814, Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 
 1830. she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- 
 sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home 
 service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- 
 sion was 183. 
 
 NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that 
 of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the 
 French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under 
 Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French 
 navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became greatly 
 educed in the late wars against England. 
 
 NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- 
 cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and 
 White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th 
 parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. 
 First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- 
 plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. 
 
 NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home 
 trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- 
 dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, 
 London, in ths time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain-; but, 
 as he would not impart the secret it was lost at his death, and not recovered 
 again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, 
 taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest 
 degree of perfection. — Stowe^. The family of the Greenings, ancestors oi 
 lord Dorchester, established' a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this 
 time. — Anderson. 
 
 NE MEATS GAMES. So called from Nemaea, where they were celebrated. 
 
NEW ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 
 
 Tliey were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorua( 
 who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed 
 them. They were one of the four great and solemn games \vhich were 
 observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- 
 onae, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhitited 
 foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of everj 
 kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a 
 crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure 
 of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They 
 were celebrated, every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or 
 more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- 
 Herodotus. 
 
 NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galk 
 of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. 
 
 N^ESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some limo 
 bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, 
 is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was 
 the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for 
 that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had nol 
 herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as 
 distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; 
 that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was. 
 subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., a& 
 other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly 
 applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant 
 go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, 
 and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma- 
 tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name 
 of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- 
 try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was 
 governed by its own counts and earls; and afterwards fell to the dukes of 
 Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were 
 united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see 
 Holland and Belgium. 
 
 VEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island 
 was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at 
 the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the 
 Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America 
 under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- 
 vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Set 
 these respectively. 
 
 !fEW HAINIPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- 
 nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. li 
 came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was 
 made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several 
 times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it 
 has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 
 1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858; in 1830, 269,328- 
 ill 1840, 284 574. 
 
 SEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a 
 continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 
 
498 THE WORLDS 1 ROGRESb. | S'EMt 
 
 by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was 
 dis/;overed by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east 
 and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New 
 Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's disco-ve- 
 rie= with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, 
 which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, 
 in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty 
 leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of 
 the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- 
 ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of 
 George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri- 
 tish dominions. See New South Wales. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. One of the United States; first "settled by the Dutch from 
 New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finnt on the De- 
 laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by 
 Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lord Berkley 
 and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued 
 by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a 
 company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at 
 Salerh, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi- 
 culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne. 1702 ; continued under 
 royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered 
 much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal 
 Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in 
 1790, 184,189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306. 
 
 NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from 
 about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- 
 ington— a,n area of about 200,000 square miles. The country taken posses- 
 sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of 
 Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or 
 fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F^, and 
 founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards 
 after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between 
 the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty Math 
 Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is 
 yet (July 1850) undecided. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. See Neiv Holland. The eastern coast of New HoL 
 land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, 
 in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that 
 the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the 
 first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788 : 
 but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the 
 head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. 
 
 NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next ear 
 eleven days were left out of the calenda^i-— the third of September, IY52, 
 being reckoned as the fourteenth— so as to make it agree with the Grego- 
 rian Calendar, ivhich see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, 
 there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- 
 ven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be- 
 forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates 
 the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From thia 
 variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the diflTer- 
 ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. 
 
 NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is tha 
 oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed, 
 
i»EW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 499 
 
 The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre- 
 sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans 
 sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; 
 and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of 
 letters did the same as to books, poems, &.c. ; and the consuls, though cho- 
 sen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After tho 
 government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on 
 New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a ci owd, all in new clothes, when 
 two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great 
 deal of incense and other perfumes wei-e spent in the temple ; the flamens, 
 together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity ^.ffered their vows 
 for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an 
 oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding 
 year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, 
 and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word. 
 The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is 
 in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, 
 this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from 
 the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed 
 in Paris. 
 
 NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts 
 among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. who having consi- 
 dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
 to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of 
 the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the 
 name of Strense, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, 
 and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, 
 they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to 
 the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came 
 into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- 
 thers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo- 
 ralities committed i;nder that cover and protection ; but since the govern- 
 ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is 
 still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed 
 in the United States. 
 
 NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of 
 Manhattan, where New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry 
 Hudson, an En^;l shman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently 
 settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- 
 glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to 
 England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 
 1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; first legisla- 
 tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta- 
 blished by law, 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active part in 
 French war, 1756, and the war of Independence ; city captured by English, 
 1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution 
 by 30 to 85, 1788 ; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 
 1732, 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1,372.812 ; in 1840, 
 2,428,921. 
 
 NEW YORK, City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614 ; fort built by them at 
 S. poini of the island, 1623; surrendered to the English, 1664; assessed 
 value of all the property in the town in 1668, was i;78,231 ; city taken by 
 the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States 
 Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United 
 States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- 
 vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire is 
 
500 THE woeld's progkess. [new 
 
 the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property 
 valued at about ^20,000,000, Dec. 10, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 
 1845 ; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration 
 of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population iu 1790, 
 83,131 ; in 1810, 96,378 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 812,710. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed ta 
 the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French, 1800; purchased by the 
 United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, betweea 
 the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in 
 which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the 
 Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population 
 in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,810; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448 
 slaves. 
 
 NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines 
 were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted 
 to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry IIL in 1239 ; but in 1306, 
 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, 
 chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which 
 were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- 
 nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
 place for more than 500 years. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista. 
 June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 
 1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the 
 English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from 
 Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 
 1577. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in- 
 creased so much that the ports of Devonshire aloae employed 150 ships, and 
 sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- 
 milies reside here all the year ; and in the fishing season, beginning in May 
 and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, 
 which may be esteerhed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New- 
 foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A 
 bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great 
 portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at ^£1,000,000 sterling, 
 June 9, 1846. 
 
 ^'EWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh 
 account of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — L' Es- 
 trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times. — Addi- 
 son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective 
 new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent 
 practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters 
 of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; — 
 
 importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters 
 of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. 
 NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi» 
 dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger 
 L'Estrange, In 1663; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued 
 nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of "the Gazette. A 
 publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, bad 
 
NKWj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 
 
 previously ai)peared ; it was called the English Mercury* and came out un- 
 der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the 
 Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. 
 In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and 
 in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- 
 lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which 
 the following were the titles : — 
 
 England's Memorable Accidents. 
 
 The Kingdom' s Intelligencer. 
 
 The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- 
 liament. 
 
 The Mercurius Aulicus. 
 
 The Scotch Intelligencer. 
 
 The Parliament's Scout. 
 
 A paper called the London Gazette was published August 22, 1642. The 
 London Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the 
 court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at 
 London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and 
 pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — >'almon's Chron. Newspa- 
 pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : — 
 
 The ParliaTnent's Scout's Discovery, or 
 Certain Information. 
 
 The Mercurius Civicus, or London's In- 
 telligencer. 
 
 The Country's Complaint, SfC. 
 
 The Weekly Account. 
 
 Mercurius Britannicus. 
 
 In 1810 - - - 20,172,837 
 
 In 1820- - -24,862,186 
 
 In 182.5 - - - 26,950,693 
 
 In 1830 - - . 30,158,741 
 
 In 1835 • -32,874,652 
 
 In 1840 - ■ - 49,033,384 
 
 In 1843 . - . 56,443,977 
 
 In 1849 - - - 76,569,235 
 
 In 1758 - - - 7,411,757 
 
 In 1760 - - - 9,404,790 
 
 In 1774 - - - 12,300.000 
 
 In 1790 - - - 14,035,639 
 
 In 1800 - - - 16,084,905 
 
 The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 
 was 603, viz: 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland, 
 and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London 
 newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of .666,458 25. ; in the 
 English provincial newspapers, 834,729, yielding to the crown a revenue of 
 £62,604 135. M. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying £11,026 4s., and in the 
 Scotch papers, 2.409,11, paying in duty £18,075 16s. Qd. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, &c. in the United States. The first was the ''Boston News 
 Letter," in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston 
 Gazette, 1719 ; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia, 
 started one day after the last. First Netu York Gazette, in 1725 ; first 
 newspaper in the Carolinas at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga- 
 zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at WiUiamsburgh, in 1736. 
 In 1775, there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers; in 1810, in the United 
 States, 356 : in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de France, established 
 by Renaudot, in 1631, and continued with few intwruptions till 1827, when 
 it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced 
 1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Con- 
 stitutionelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula- 
 tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri^ 
 ndical Lit. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pueh Occurrences, pub- 
 lished in 1700 : Faulkner'' s Joitrnal was established by George Faulkner, " a 
 man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 
 1728. — Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin "newspapers, 
 
 • The full title is, " No, 50, The English Mercuric, published by authoritie, lor the preventioa 
 of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barliert her highness's printer, No. 50." It describei 
 the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this 
 month, between her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Adniirall HI 
 the Lordes of council." 
 
 [It is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, aod thll 
 .-tie first English paper was the Weeklev Netoes, pubhshed by Nathaniel Butler in 1622. J 
 
502 THE vVorld's progress [utt 
 
 is the FreemaTi's Jour?,al, founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about the year 
 1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest 
 of the provincial prints, was established in 1768. — Idem. 
 
 NEY, MARSHAL, his' Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince 
 of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of 
 France. After the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath 
 of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France 
 from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded 
 the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris, 
 March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he 
 fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five 
 horses having been shot under him, until night and defeat obliged him to 
 fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guar- 
 anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken 
 in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to 
 trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of 
 Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced 
 to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly 
 fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. 
 
 NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by 
 the first general council held there in the palace of Constantine the Great. 
 In this celebrated council, which assembled a. d. 325, the Arians were con- 
 demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set- 
 tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter. 
 
 NILE, Battle of the. One of the greatest in British naval history, between 
 the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora- 
 tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the 
 celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, 
 two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called 
 the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of 
 baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
 "Victory or Westminster-abbey !" 
 
 NILE, SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, 
 in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives 
 no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the 
 source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of 
 Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 
 1773. This river o^'erflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to 
 the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to 
 the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the 
 inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were 
 drowned, and immense property lost. 
 
 NIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between 
 France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his- 
 tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the 
 British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 : but were 
 defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov. 8, following. 
 
 KirRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by 
 Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav- 
 endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. 
 Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid, 
 nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas 
 was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Ga? was discov- 
 ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 
 
NOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503 
 
 NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they 
 had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to 
 distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to 
 have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were fii'st 
 granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of 
 Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de- 
 graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his utter want ci 
 property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in 
 June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also 
 Peerage 
 
 NOBILITY OF FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and 
 continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period 
 of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered- 
 itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
 marquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished; 
 that all citizens take their family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings, 
 shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol- 
 umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A 
 new nobility was cheated by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary 
 peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See France 
 
 NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into confonr- 
 ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen 
 and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship 
 and form of church-government which are established and supported by the 
 state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their 
 own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, \vas established 
 at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con- 
 formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed, 
 August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re- 
 signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was un- 
 justly deposed, and Avho, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to 
 the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several 
 of the bishops, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a 
 double taxation, and were obhged to register their estates. May 1723. 
 
 NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by 
 the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed 
 a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in 
 1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. 
 The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the afi^air was 
 amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to 
 England in 1790. 
 
 NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, 
 by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle- 
 ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay, 
 on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severesi 
 penal colony of Great Britain. 
 
 NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen. 
 tury this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called 
 Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles 
 the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, a. d. 905 to 912, 
 and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first 
 duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his suc- 
 cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, lis 
 
504 
 
 xrtE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [N0!> 
 
 1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost iu 
 the rei^n of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. Tha 
 English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which 
 Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 
 
 NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was 
 made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted 
 by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen 
 Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was' associated in London, and 
 was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." 
 The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British 
 navigators, in the years respectively stated : — 
 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to 
 find a north-west passage to China, 
 sailed from the Thames' May 20, 1553 
 
 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find 
 a north-west passage to China - 1576 
 
 Captain Davis's expedition to find a 
 north-west passage - - - 1585 
 
 Barentz's expedition - - - 1594 
 
 Weymoulh and Knight's 
 
 Hudson's voyages ; the last undertalcen 
 
 (See Hudson's Bay.)- • - 1610 
 
 Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 
 
 Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay - - 1616 
 
 Foxe's expedition • - - - 1631 
 
 [A number of enterprises undertaken 
 
 by various countries, followed.] 
 Middleton's expedition - - - 1742 
 
 Moore's and Smith's - - - • 1746 
 
 Hearne's land expedition - - 1769 
 
 Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- 
 
 grave, his expedition - - - 1773 
 
 Captain Cook in the Resolution and 
 
 Discovery • - - July 1776 
 
 Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789 
 
 Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 
 
 The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- 
 turned from a voyage of survey and 
 discovery on the north-west coast of 
 America - - Sept. 24, 1795 
 
 Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1S15 
 Captain Buchan's and lieul. Franklin's 
 
 expeditionin the i?o;'0(/ieaand Trent 1818 
 Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the 
 
 Isabella and Alexander ■ - 1818 
 
 Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla 
 
 and Griper - • May 4, 1819 
 
 They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820 
 
 Capts. Parry and Lyon, m the Fury 
 
 and Hecla ■ ■ - May 8, 1821 
 
 Capt. Parry's third expedition with the 
 
 Hecla ■ ■ - May 8, 1824 
 
 Capts. Fianklin and Lyon, after having 
 attempted a land expedition, again 
 sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 
 
 Captain Parry, again in the Hecla. 
 
 sails from Deptford - March 25, 1827 
 And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 
 
 Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re- 
 turn from his arctic expedii "n, after 
 an absence of *b'ir years, aud when 
 all hope of hi£ return had been near- 
 ly abandoned - • Oct. 18, 1833 
 
 1602 j Capt. Back and his companions arrived 
 
 at Liverpool from their perilous Arc- 
 tic Land Expedition, after having 
 visited the Great Fish River, and ex- 
 amined its course to the Polar Seas 
 
 Sept. 8, 1835 
 
 Captain Back sailed from Chatham iii 
 command of His Majesty's ship 7'er- 
 ror, on an exploring adventure to 
 Wager River. [Captain Back, in 
 the month of Dec. 1835, was award- 
 ed, by the Geographical Society, the 
 king's annual premium for his polar 
 discoveries and enterprise .June 21, 1836 
 
 Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- 
 vening space between the discover- 
 ies of Ross and Parry, and establish 
 that there is a north-west passage 
 
 Oct. 1839 
 
 Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in 
 the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- 
 land - - - May 24, 1845 
 
 Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- 
 ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849 
 
 Another expedition (one sent out by 
 lady Franklin) in search of sir John 
 Franklin, consisting of two vessels, 
 sailed from England, April-May 185C 
 
 Still another, consisting of two vessels, 
 the Advance and Rescue, liberally 
 purchased for the purpose by Henry 
 Grinnell, a New York merchant, and 
 manned at Government cost from the 
 U. S. navy, under command of lieut. 
 de Haven, sailed from New York 
 
 May 1850 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, one op the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- 
 ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- 
 
 • The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radcliffe, on his fatal voyage foi 
 discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the 
 court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared 
 »t the windows, ana the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost th« 
 noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parade 
 was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice. and frozen U 
 jealh, on the coast of Lapland.— ffni(^i/MV' 
 
ITDL ] DU.'TIONARY OF DATES. 505 
 
 secTition, about 16G0. The district granted to lord Clarendon, wh(.) induced 
 the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chici 
 magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. 
 This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- 
 ed by the crown for i;17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. 
 
 N'ORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- 
 ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- 
 cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. Tha 
 city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark 
 in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were 
 united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- 
 change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. waa 
 proclaimed king by •the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two 
 countries of Sweden and Norway have Since then been termed the Scandi- 
 navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of 
 Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. 
 
 NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notables of France was con- 
 vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI. , in 1788. The deranged state 
 of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled 
 Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much 
 against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any 
 good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England: and Louis, having 
 lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. 
 de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General 
 were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, v-Iiich 
 see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish 
 notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
 him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. 
 
 NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
 Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, 
 in the first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a 
 commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their 
 authenticity in any other country. 
 
 N'OVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- 
 ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name 
 of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed 
 rulers and proprietors, nor Avas it confirmed to England till the peace of 
 Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745. and 1758 ; but was again confirmed 
 to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided iLto two provinces, in 1784; 
 and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. 
 
 NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its 
 name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 
 B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators 
 (for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished 
 to call this montli in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
 Caesar, and Augustus ; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, 
 " What will, you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars 1 " 
 
 NOVI, Battle of. in which the French army commanded bj' Joubert was de- 
 feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss. Aug. 15, 1799. 
 Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several 
 other distinguished officers. A second batt'le fought here between the Aus- 
 trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated. January 8, 
 1800. 
 
 SirLLIFICATION (. p the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right 
 22 
 
506 THE world's progress. [ OAl 
 
 claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature 
 of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against thf 
 Nullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C, 
 same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United 
 States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in 
 consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1884. 
 
 NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated w°ar of Numantia with the 
 Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge 
 to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 
 141 B. c. — Livy. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia 
 was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The 
 inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- 
 ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to seq,the destruction of Nu- 
 mantia. He began the siege wiA an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely 
 opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear 
 arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the 
 Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- 
 gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on 
 that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill 
 and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all 
 destroyed themselves, b. c. 138, so that not even one remained to adoi-n the 
 triumph of the conqueror. 
 
 NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In 
 early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of 
 Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
 Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission 
 to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of 
 St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in. 
 France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 860. — Dii, 
 Fresnmj. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald, 
 king of Kent, 630. — Dugdale's Mo7iasticon Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys 
 and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, 
 in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 
 1790, 
 
 0. 
 
 DATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chap- 
 lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, 
 he became a lecturer in London; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- 
 vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, 
 Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, 
 A. D. 1678 Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of Jamea 
 II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- 
 ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685 ; 
 but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. 
 
 OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced 
 by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a 
 judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
 jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first 
 framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stowe's Chrou. Of abjuration, 
 being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- 
 mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, aD<? 
 
OGT 3 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 507 
 
 abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William ill. 1701, 
 Oaths were talven on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528; and the words " So 
 help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. 
 
 OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of 
 an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths 
 to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a 
 decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, 
 the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths 
 less binding than if tliey had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has 
 left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients 
 swore. It was usual with tliem to swear by what they held most dear ; as, 
 for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by tliose pei • 
 sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above 
 any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair.— 
 Ovid, <^'C. 
 
 OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of 
 Egypt, about 1485 e. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and 
 the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they differed veiy much as to 
 their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome , 
 one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the 
 pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 
 14 B. c. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the 
 temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was 
 another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at 
 Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was 
 at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel, 
 1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. a. d. 
 1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers mako 
 their calculations. 
 
 First modern meridional instrument, 
 
 by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540 
 First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561 
 Tycho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576 
 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1657 
 Royal (French) .... 1667 
 Royal Observatory at Greenwich - . 1675 
 Observatory at Nuremberg - - 1678 
 At Utrecht 1690 
 
 Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc- 
 tion 
 At Bologna . 
 At Petersburg 
 Oxford, Dr. RadcUffe 
 Dublin, Dr. A7idrews - 
 Cambridge, England 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 New Haven • 
 Cincinnati 
 
 171" 
 171.i 
 1725 
 1772 
 
 1783 
 1824 
 
 OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, 
 and the tentL in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has 
 still retained its first name, in spite of all the difl^erent appellations which 
 the senate and Roman emperoi's would have given it. The senate ordered 
 it to be called Faustinus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the 
 emperor; Commodus would have had it called Invictus ; and Domitiau 
 Doviitiarmis. October was sacred to Mars. 
 
 ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions 
 accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps 
 the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are 
 those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 
 757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; 
 and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes 
 were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species* of writing 
 is that of our court poets at this day. 
 
 OGYGES. DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 
 200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no othei 
 
508 THE world's progress. [oms 
 
 than the uni/ersal delage ; but according to some writers, if it at all oc- 
 curred, it arose in the overflowiag of one of the great rivers of the country. 
 See Deluge. 
 OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, 
 April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- 
 nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New 
 Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature 
 met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- 
 necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 
 1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 
 1802. Population in 1790. was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 
 1830, 987,637 ; in 1840, 1,519,467. 
 
 OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, 
 about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and ajar full was 
 the prize at the Panathenjean games. It was the custom of the Jews to 
 anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings. 
 Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid 
 seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress, 
 Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be 
 resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the 
 process of lighting by coal-gas was luade apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- 
 tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. 
 
 OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 
 
 OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- 
 piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus 
 was successful ;,'. the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in 
 being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- 
 riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date„ the year 
 and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 
 772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 
 740, &c. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- 
 tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every 
 fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, 
 now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those 
 who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun- 
 trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of 
 wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 
 1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived 
 by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufresnoij. 
 )MENS. See Angury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having 
 drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said 
 to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- 
 brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- 
 four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were 
 seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed 
 that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of 
 the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- 
 dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature 
 to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. 
 
 O.MNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the London 
 circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named 
 Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- 
 bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In New 
 
OFT J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES.. 
 
 509 
 
 York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There wore 465 
 licensed in New York in 1849. 
 
 DPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of 
 the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other 
 dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with 
 him, A. D. 1590. — Nouv. Did. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the 
 chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- 
 tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, 
 was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in 
 London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build- 
 ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Hanile! 
 were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres 
 a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's 
 Beggar^s Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive 
 nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain 
 refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled " Polly." 
 This reseritment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication 
 with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200^., 
 whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400/. — Life of Gay. 
 
 OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great 
 mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the 
 regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a.d. 1756. See 
 article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by 
 lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- 
 guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- 
 rable loss, 'Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. 
 
 OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of 
 Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of 
 our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. 
 
 424 
 
 Burning lenses known at Athens at 
 least - • - • B. c. 
 
 Two of the leading principles known 
 to the Platonists - - - - 300 
 
 First treatise on, by Euclid, about - 280 
 
 The magnifying power of convex glass- 
 es and concave mirrors, and the pris- 
 matic colors produced by angular 
 glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 
 
 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy - - 120 
 
 Greatly improved loy Alhazen - . - 1108 
 
 Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- 
 en by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 
 
 Spectacles (said to have been) invented 
 by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 
 
 Camera obscura said to have been in- 
 vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 
 
 Telescopes' invented by Leonard Digges, 
 about - - - ■ - 1571 
 
 Telescope made by Jan?-'T (who is said 
 also to have invent'-c the .-.".icro- 
 scope), about - - - . ]609 
 
 [The same instrument constructed by 
 Galileo, without using the produc- 
 tion of .lansen] 
 
 Astronomical telescope suggested by 
 Kepler 1611 
 
 Microscope, according to Huygens, in- 
 vented by Drebbel, about - - 162) 
 
 [.lansen and Galileo have also been 
 
 stated to be the inventors.] 
 Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621 
 
 Law of refraction discovered by Snell- 
 
 ius, about - - - a.d. 1624 
 
 Reflecting telescope, .lames Gregory - 1663 
 
 ■ Newton - - 1666 
 
 Motion and velocity of light discovered 
 
 by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 
 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 
 
 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] 
 Double refraction explained by Bartho- 
 
 linus - - - - - 1669 
 
 Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 
 
 Telescopes with a single lens, by 
 
 Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690 
 
 Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 
 Structure of the eye explained by Petit, 
 
 about 1700 
 
 Achromatic telescope construcfed by 
 
 Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - ;733 
 Constructed by Dollond, most likely 
 
 without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757 
 Herschel's great reflecting telescope, 
 
 erected at Slough - - - - 1789 
 
 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaslon) - 1807 
 
 Ramage's reflecting telesccpe erected 
 
 at Greenwich - • - • 1820 
 
 OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been 
 N. Varole, a surgeon a,nd physician of Bologna, about a. n. 1538. — Nouv 
 Dit. 
 
510 THE world's progress. l^OFl* 
 
 ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- 
 mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles 
 were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what 
 would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained tc 
 mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several 
 sorts of oracles ; as first, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God 
 spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, 
 visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep no? 
 awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied 
 with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued 
 with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions; 
 fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- 
 ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but 
 it immediately afterwards ceased. — Levipriere ; Pardon. 
 
 ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, 
 and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- 
 sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, 
 and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of 
 Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories 
 in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey 
 count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter 
 and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other 
 domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau 
 family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau 
 in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, 
 landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his 
 queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. 
 
 ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio 
 in London was performed in Lincoln's- Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 
 1732. 
 
 ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear 
 to have been adopted imtil about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 although they had doubtlesslj'' existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- 
 viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. 
 
 ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term 
 signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences 
 by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions 
 taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the 
 upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence 
 the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women 
 accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- 
 nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would 
 put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this 
 day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- 
 suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- 
 footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry 
 burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were 
 judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used 
 from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol. 
 
 ■ The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected 
 were adjudgod innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course ol 
 lature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or legs into scalding water, which if 'h«v 
 brought out without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime. 
 
OB.K ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 511 
 
 ished byarojal proclamation, 45 Henry III.. 1261. — Laiv Diet. Rymer'i 
 F'cedcra. 
 
 ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and 
 absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was 
 to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and 
 ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; 
 and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- 
 tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- 
 culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. 
 
 OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. 
 First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1-592 ; by sir Francis 
 Drake, 1578; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- 
 tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, 
 May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 
 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur 
 Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of 
 the Columbia, by Aster's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 : 
 occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of 
 the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- 
 ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole 
 of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. 
 McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 
 1846. Population at that time about 20,000. Territorial government esta- 
 blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. 
 
 ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 
 220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- 
 tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The 
 organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied 
 to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellarmine. Organs were 
 used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. It 
 is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, 
 when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an 
 organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile 
 ofi'; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount 
 of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 
 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes. 
 The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human 
 voices. 
 
 ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the 
 Music-hall, Birmingham, the next ; both equal, perhaps, to that at Harlaem. 
 
 ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark 
 to Scotland in a. d. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of 
 money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with 
 Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of 
 Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm 
 by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 
 1689. 
 
 ORLEANS, Siege of, by the Enghsh, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, 
 Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as 
 its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it 
 was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan 
 of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege 
 of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 
 
 ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explafa 
 
512 THE world's progress. [ova 
 
 the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the 
 construction of the clepsydras and other horological automata. Ptolemy 
 devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130. 
 The planetary clock of Fin(5e, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of 
 De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by 
 Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. 
 Rowley of Lichheld, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery bar 
 been greatly improved of late years. 
 
 OSTEND. This town is famous for the lo-ug siege it sustained against the Spa- 
 niards, from July 1601 to September 1604:, when it surrendered by an honor- 
 able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized 
 Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the 
 allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 
 the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen 
 Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which they 
 evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. 
 
 OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- 
 tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' 
 banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for 
 fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without 
 any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been 
 first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- 
 thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they 
 most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and 
 presented it to the senate. Upon a scru'^iny, he whose name was oftenest 
 written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But 
 this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- 
 wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, 
 Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing 
 Hyperbolus, a mean person. 
 
 OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the 
 Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of 
 Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it 
 was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, 
 a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
 carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the 
 district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- 
 pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She 
 retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by 
 admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- 
 zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. 
 
 OTTERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl 
 of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- 
 glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- 
 tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle 
 the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Walsliigham. 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman I. 
 on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkeij. 
 
 OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of 
 their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re- 
 warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being 
 consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the 
 honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be 
 allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called 
 ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capitol. 
 
PAI J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DAIES. 
 
 513 
 
 whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiuj 
 Tubertus \^as the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. 
 
 OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered bj 
 captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden 
 resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- 
 ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage 
 till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- 
 mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Ccok 
 and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. 
 
 XFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been 
 a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- 
 vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though 
 the university is ascribed to Alfred,' yet that no regular institution deserving 
 the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. 
 
 COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester ; first called St. 
 
 All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 
 
 Chichely, abp. of Canterbury a. d. 1437 Oriel Colloge. King Edward II.; 
 
 Baliol. John Baliol. knt., and Deborah Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 
 
 his wife ; he was father to Baliol kin^ 
 
 of the Scots .... 1263 
 
 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop 
 of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton • 1509 
 
 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; 
 and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 
 
 Corpus Christi. Richard Fo.x, bishop 
 of Winchester - - - - 1516 
 
 Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- 
 eter 1314 
 
 Hertford College . - . - 1312 
 
 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen 
 Elizabeth - - - - - 1571 
 
 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 
 1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop 
 of Lincohi .... 1475 
 
 Magdalen. Waynflete, bishop of Win- 
 chester - - - - - 1458 
 
 Merton College. Walter de Merton, 
 bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 
 
 New College. William of Wykeham, 
 
 Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R 
 Whitwick, clerk - - - 1620 
 
 Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, 
 clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, 
 consort of Edward III. - - - 1340 
 
 St. John's. Sir Thomas White 
 
 Trinuy. Sir Thomas Pope - - 
 
 University. Said to have been founded 
 by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- 
 liam of Durham ... 
 
 Wadbam. Nicholas Wadham, and 
 Dorothy his wite - - - - 
 
 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- 
 ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- 
 inally called Gloucester College 
 
 HALLS. 
 
 St. Albans .... 1547 
 
 St. Edmund's - - - - 1269 
 
 St. Marv's .... 1616 
 
 St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 
 
 New Inn Hall - . . . 1392 
 
 1557 
 15&; 
 
 UTr 
 16' 2 
 
 1714 
 
 OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical 
 phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
 Aug. 1774. 
 
 P. 
 
 PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in 
 A. D. 1540. 
 
 PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- 
 tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- 
 lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure 
 us th(^y concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- 
 lief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
 the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in ths 
 reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tillemont. 
 
 PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. 
 Osymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting 
 2100 B. 0. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a 
 method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 b. c. The ancients 
 considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said 
 to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — PUnv. The art was 
 22* 
 
514 THE world's PROORESS. [»Al 
 
 introduced af. Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, who on tJiat account 
 
 was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy* The first excellent pictures were 
 brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, 
 not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
 was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint 
 ing on canvas seems to have been Icnown at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the 
 Saxon historian, who died in 73-5, knew something of the art. It revived 
 about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is 
 awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- 
 erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother 
 Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in 
 oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- 
 tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which 
 time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. 
 
 PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity 
 was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting por- 
 traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in 
 Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in 
 Chestv3r County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster, 
 Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in 
 1760 ; he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. 
 Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode 
 Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756). William Dunlap (New 
 Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists 
 in succession in the United States. See Dunlap's Arts of Design, &c. 
 
 PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, 
 Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. 
 Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy 
 of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. 
 
 PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from 
 the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived 
 in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a 
 brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the 
 protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, 
 where parliament granted them 24 000^. for their suppoi't. 3000 were sent 
 to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the 
 inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged 
 by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss 
 Proteetants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 
 Anne, 1709. — Anderson. 
 
 PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- 
 gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was build- 
 ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the 
 oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium 
 was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, 
 they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though 
 some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that 
 the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by .^neas, 1183 e.g., 
 
 * Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended 
 for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds 
 came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and 
 • Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the 
 painting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, " Zeuxis has deceived 
 the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis !" Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, aad wore 
 * crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 4J5 b. c— Plutarch. 
 
pap] dictionary of dates. 515 
 
 and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of 
 
 Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. 
 PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusaleni) 
 multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took 
 branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations 
 and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish 
 countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm 
 Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in theii 
 hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga 
 faimata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. 
 
 PALMYRA, Ruins op, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English 
 travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly 
 of w> ite marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than 
 eveij Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- 
 ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, tlie queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman 
 power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the 
 place, caused all the inliabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the 
 city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 
 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, 
 on ascending a neighboring mount, was strucli with the most magnificent 
 sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were 
 so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed 
 to touch one another. 
 
 PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles. 
 
 PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 
 504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a. d. 1137; 
 they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library 
 of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectce. Florentina,. 
 
 PANORAMA, This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention 
 of Robert Barlier. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper 
 round the wall of a circular building, with a striliing resemblance to reality. 
 In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the 
 first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- 
 don, having adopted the name of ' PunoraTna,' to attract notice, and was 
 ultimatel}^ enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for 
 that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, 
 a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent 
 in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since which numerous similar works 
 have been achieved. 
 
 PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus C^sar, some say by 
 Agrippa, his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in 
 the wall, wjiere the particular image or representation of a particular god 
 was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and 
 the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the 
 Virgin Macy, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda. 
 
 PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among 
 the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades acd 
 Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of 
 stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the 
 same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- 
 poraneous with our stage. 
 
 PAPER. See Papijrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170 
 B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000; and of rags in 1319. 
 White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, 
 
616 THE world's progress. [ FAl 
 
 in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.— 
 Stowe. Paper for writing and printing-, manufactured in EngkiJd, and an 
 act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690 ; before this time we paid 
 for these articles to France and Holland lOO.OOOZ. annually. The French 
 refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- 
 clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us ia 
 1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louia 
 Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. 
 The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fcurdrinier, 
 he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- 
 turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made 
 tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and 
 four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. 
 
 PaPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain 
 and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- 
 ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved 
 in this countrj' from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been 
 brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil- 
 lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. 
 
 PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and 
 India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c. 
 Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- 
 gamus should make a library equal to tliat of Alexandria. A manuscript 
 of the Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among 
 the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library 
 at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. 
 
 PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), 
 of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated libi'ary at Pergamus, formed on 
 the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this 
 time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the 
 world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the 
 Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long 
 before Eumenes's time. 
 
 PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward 
 III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege 
 sua dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, 
 stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; 
 hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- 
 tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king 
 cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- 
 vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- 
 ment of the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- 
 doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice 
 which upsets Blackstone's tkeory. 
 
 PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 
 264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a.d. 
 1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university 
 of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
 Arundelian Marbles, lohich see. 
 
 PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- 
 ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed 
 upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- 
 vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it 
 fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, 
 when the hungry wolves entered the city and committf.d, we are told, ci'eal 
 
par] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 517 
 
 devastation. The events in connection with this great cit;; will be found 
 under their respective heads. 
 
 The Luxembourg, by Mary of Modicis - 15ftl 
 
 Hospital of Invalids - - • 1595 
 
 The H6tel Dieu founded • • • 160i5 
 
 The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610 
 
 The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645 
 
 Arch of St. Denis erected - • 1673 
 
 Tlie Palace of the Deputies - . 1723 
 
 The Military School - - • 1751 
 
 The Pantheon ; St. Genevieye - - 1761 
 
 St. Denis founded - - a. d. 613 
 
 Rebuilt ..... 1231 
 Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 
 
 The Louvre built (see Louvre) ■ ■ 1522 
 Hotel de Ville .... 1533 
 The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 
 
 Fountain of the Innocents - - 1551 
 
 The Tuileries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 
 The Pom Neuf begun - - - 1578 
 
 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, 
 and detached forts, with an enceinte of 15J leagues, were commenced in Dec, 
 1840. and completed March, 1846, at an expense exceeding i;5,000,000 ster- 
 ling. See France. 
 
 PARK, MUNGO, H7s Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first 
 voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the 
 source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after 
 having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertropi- 
 cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. 
 He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- 
 pointed to a new expedition by government;, but never returned. The ac- 
 counts of his murder on ths Niger were a long time discredited; unhappily 
 however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. 
 It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, 
 and all killed, with the exception of one slave. 
 
 PARKS. The Remans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom- 
 pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first 
 great park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, 
 Formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen- 
 tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained 
 by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare 
 for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
 Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River 
 although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, 
 by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired 
 of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would 
 cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Throe crowns, 
 your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- 
 tained. 
 
 PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin 
 from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu- 
 tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken 
 from purler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to ipea,k one's 
 mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name 
 was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, 
 about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared 
 in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward 1., a. d. 
 1272; and j^et Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, 
 when speaker (a. d. 1592), that this name was used even in the time of 
 Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- 
 rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account wj 
 have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was 
 in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, 
 that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three 
 parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton'i 
 Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 
 
518 XHii WUK.LD b fKoGflESb. ^ f as 
 
 place 49 Henry III., 1265. — Dugdale's Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. 
 The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, 
 that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. 
 It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing 
 laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done 
 in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the 
 religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward 
 VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke. 
 X A.RMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- 
 centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabetb 
 Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, 
 with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni- 
 ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla) , and on the fall of Napoleon 
 was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- 
 bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates, England, France, 
 and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, 
 June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon- 
 ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 men, and four 
 generals, July 12, 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke ol 
 Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for 
 reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people 
 revolt ; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency ; 
 flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, 
 March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and 
 is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. 
 
 PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not 
 being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius 
 having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed 
 him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and 
 an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp 
 reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus 
 wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In 
 France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. 
 
 PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being 
 exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. 
 Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over 
 all Asia, 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the 
 world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, 
 who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The 
 last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were 
 annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. 
 
 PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, 
 for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the 
 second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke 
 Chai'les presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- 
 ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the 
 first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the 
 second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year; the third 
 was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other 
 similai treaties I'elating to Poland, but not under this name. 
 
 PASQUIN ADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in 
 this way : — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of 
 idle p&rsons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant saUies of Pasquin, and 
 to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery ai 
 the expense of *iie passers-by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth 
 
fJIV _ DICTIONARY Of DATEiS. 519 
 
 century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- 
 ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time aflSxed their lampoons 
 upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at 
 night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the 
 name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533. 
 
 PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem' 
 oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- 
 parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp- 
 tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they 
 being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before, 
 and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated iD 
 the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher. 
 
 PATAY, Battle op, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the 
 Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was 
 taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence 
 of this victory, Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
 crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full 
 armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted 
 for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1*344, by Edward III. They were 
 first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about 
 which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures 
 were secured by letters patent. 
 
 PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity 
 among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian 
 church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- 
 nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa- 
 triarchs till the 7 th century. 
 
 PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the 
 world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church 
 is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been 
 a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, 
 was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He 
 explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church 
 is supposed to hafve been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and 
 to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by 
 the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the 
 great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London, 
 commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present 
 cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; 
 and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the 
 whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo- 
 pher Wren. 
 
 Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. I Length of St. Peter's, B-ome ■ 669 feet. 
 Its greatest breadth • - 223 Its greatest breadth within - - 442 
 
 Height from the ground - • 340 I Height from the ground - » 432 
 
 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved 
 their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave- 
 ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and 
 was constructed 312 b. c. In England there were few paved streets before 
 Henry VH.'s reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood 
 pavement commenced in 1839 ; but was generally disused in 1847. 
 
 PAVIA, Battle op, between the French and Imperialists, when the formei 
 were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valor, 
 
520 THE world's progress. Tpei 
 
 and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender 
 himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of 
 the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived 
 in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdu, madame, fori 
 Chonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian 
 soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. 
 
 Pawnbrokers. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- 
 posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about 
 k. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers 
 Avas regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 
 1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively 
 of London, 1127. 
 
 PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- 
 dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and 
 absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
 like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 
 80,000^. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size 
 of a pigeon's %gg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996Z. A pearl 
 spoken of by Boetius, named the Incoviparable, weighed thirty carats, equal 
 to five pennj'weights. and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
 pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of 
 Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 
 110,400Z. 
 
 PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz 
 Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first 
 peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
 Richard II.. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by 
 Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
 Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by 
 Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — 
 
 At the death of Charless 11. - 176 peers. I At the death of George III. - 339 peers. 
 
 At the death of William III. - 192 | At the death of George IV. • 396 
 
 At the death of Anne - - 209 I At tlie death of William IV. - 456 
 
 Atthe deaih ofGeorge I, - 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 
 
 At the death of George II. - 229 | 
 
 PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect 
 maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
 sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of 
 Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are 
 in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified 
 men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with 
 the gospel. 5. That .the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in 
 virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at 
 Rome, and in Carthage about 412. 
 
 fELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. 
 The wreck here of the East India Companj^'s packet Antelope, captain Wil- 
 son, 1783. The king. Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
 Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after 
 of the small-pox; and the East India Company erected a monument ovei 
 his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. 
 
 f'ELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty. 
 seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, 
 with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting 
 of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. I( 
 began 431 b. c, and ended 404 b. c. 
 
PER J DICTIONARY OP DATES, 521 
 
 f'ENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against 
 Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the 
 period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unre- 
 pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the 
 Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. 
 
 PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted 
 in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession 
 upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of 
 penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced 
 into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- 
 judged to the sin of fornication. 
 
 PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the 
 younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this 
 discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.- 
 Dufreinoy. 
 
 PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- 
 ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Mar- 
 seilles, about a. d. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- 
 gregation of religious in Spain who liad led a licentious life, formed about 
 1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 
 1662. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William 
 Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes 
 and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres 
 sold by Penn for i;400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. 
 The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the 
 legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors £130,000 in lieu of quit- 
 rents. Battles of Brandywiue and Germantown, and other important ac- 
 tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal 
 Constitution adopted in convention. Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental 
 Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, 
 when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000; 
 1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1 J24,033. 
 
 PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- 
 holsterer, A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the 
 undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's 
 Bench bar in the reign of Chi^rles 11, . was adjudged to belong to the duke 
 of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to 
 the revenue of the crown. — Dekvitne 1690. This institution was considera- 
 bly improved in and round London, Jul}' 1794, et seq., and was made a two- 
 penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- 
 office. 
 
 I ENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and 
 in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty 
 days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii._ 15, It is called the feast 
 of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the 
 Passover. 
 
 TiS^RFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to 
 the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses 
 and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. 
 — Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- 
 gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- 
 ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- 
 tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 
 
522 THE world's progkess, [pej 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. 
 
 peripatetic; philosophy. The philosophy taught by Aristotle about 
 342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- 
 totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same 
 river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the 
 Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- 
 sophy was called Peripatetic. 
 
 PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early 
 Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the 
 Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- 
 sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable 
 judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon 
 them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely 
 upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the 
 primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the 
 false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
 In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. 
 
 PERONNE, Treaty of. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the 
 power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con- 
 firming those of Arras and Coniians, with some other stipulations of a re- 
 strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon 
 ten. f he first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium 
 of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, 
 massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn 
 and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, 
 A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- 
 jan, a. d. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor 
 Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Decius, 
 more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their 
 habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 
 8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under 
 Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with 
 Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with 
 ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS op the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. 
 
 PERSECUTION of the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia. where a multitude 
 of Luther's followers were massafired by William de Furstemberg, 1525. — 
 Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury, and La- 
 timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great 
 numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the 
 Protestants in France, when numbers perished ; their assemblies were pro- 
 hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys 
 proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- 
 testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of 
 their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. 
 See Massacres and Bartholomew. 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire 
 was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per- 
 seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps 
 established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject 
 to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian 
 monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it 
 appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from 
 the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when 
 
PET ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 523 
 
 Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became 
 monarchy, a. d. 229. 
 
 Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of 
 the Magi. — Justin • B. o. 2115 
 
 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- 
 nerally confounded with the king of 
 Bactria. — Zanthus ... 10S2 
 
 Cyrus, king of Persia - 
 
 Lydia conquered by the Persians 
 
 Cyrus becomes master of all Asia 
 
 Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see) 
 
 Darius made king of Persia 
 
 Revolt of the Babylonians - 
 
 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 
 
 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with 
 an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade 
 the Peloponnesus 
 
 The troops advance towards Athens, but 
 are met in the plains of Marathon, by 
 Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- 
 nians. — See Marathon 
 
 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of 
 this year, at the head of an immense 
 force. The battle of Thermopylae • 
 
 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 
 200,000 of his troops, and is defeated 
 in a naval engagement off Salamis - 
 
 Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 
 250 vessels, takes several cities from 
 the Persians, and destroys their navy, 
 consisting of 340 sail, near the island 
 of Cyprus . . . . 
 
 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- 
 ridates, the eunuch • b. c. 
 
 The assassin is put to death in a horrible 
 manner . . . - - 
 
 R.eign of Artaxerxes 
 
 Cyprus taken from the Persians 
 Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See 
 article Retreat 
 
 ■ 401 
 
 the founder of the second Persian 
 
 The sea-fight near Cnidus • • 394 
 
 The Sidonians being besieged by the 
 Persians, set fire to their city, and perish 
 in the llames - - .352 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first 
 battle in Phrygia, near theri^er Gra- 
 nicus - - ■ - - 334 
 
 [For the exploits of Alexander in Per- 
 sia, see the article Mocedon.'] 
 Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is 
 
 torn in pieces - • - - 331 
 
 Alexander founds the third or Grecian 
 
 monarchy .... 331 
 Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, 
 at the instance of his mistress Thais, 
 sets fire to the palace of Persepolis . 330 
 [The riches of this town, whose ruins, 
 even as they exist at this day, are of 
 indescribable magnificence, were so 
 immense that 20,000 mules and 50IX) 
 horses were laden with the spoils.] 
 Persia was partly reconquered from the 
 Greeks, and remained tributary to 
 Parthia for near five hundred years, 
 till about - - - A. D. 250 
 
 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a 
 common soldier, restores to Persia its 
 ancient title .... 229 
 Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 238 
 He IS assassinated ... 273 
 
 Hormisdas reigns . • - . 273 
 
 Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel 
 
 and successful tyrant - . . 310 
 
 Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 
 It fell under the dominion of Tamer- 
 
 lane, by the defeat of Bajazet . 1402 
 
 Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - -1732 
 He carried the Persian arms into India, 
 which he ravaged. See India • 1738 
 
 In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- 
 petitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughtei 
 and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. 
 
 PERU. First visited in a. d. 151-3, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- 
 niard \, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest 
 of th^.5 country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, 
 with I ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, 
 which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1581, embarked with three 
 small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with these, and two re- 
 inforce.uents of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid 
 the foundation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New 
 World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the 
 Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any 
 attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- 
 dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new 
 Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 
 21, 1828. 
 
 PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at 
 Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, 
 because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on 
 all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they 
 paid one penny. It was confirmed by OfFa, 777, andwaa afterwards claimed 
 
524: THE world's progress. [ PttA 
 
 by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- 
 pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. 
 PETER, THK WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- 
 wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
 He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees lilce a squirrel, 
 and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- 
 posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
 dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bai'k 
 of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the 
 many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage 
 Labits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, 
 at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- 
 pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 
 
 PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantino. About 
 the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- 
 nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, 
 until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, 
 and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height ol 
 324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious 
 hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St. 
 
 PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
 this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched 
 wooden hovels. In 1710 the count Golovkin built the first house of brick; 
 and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a 
 house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial 
 city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels 
 were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. 
 Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- 
 sumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
 June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. 
 The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. 
 
 PETERSBURGH, Peace op, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring 
 all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Peter.sburgh, 
 for the partition of Poland, (see article ParbUion Treaties,') Aug. 5, 1772 
 Treaty or Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. 
 Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince 
 royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join 
 in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive 
 Norway, March 24. 1812. 
 
 PETRARCH and LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- 
 teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- 
 mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subjec< 
 of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned 
 with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at 
 Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 
 
 PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalana 
 consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears 
 crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called 
 the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c. 
 
 PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- 
 brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended 
 to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The 
 admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri 
 tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii. 9. 
 
PBI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 
 
 PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptoiemy Philadelphus, and 
 esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white 
 marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires 
 were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of thia 
 .ower (,ost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100Z. English, U 
 Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon 
 it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but 
 Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his owe 
 name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote 
 the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's 
 name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible;— 
 •' Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for 
 I he benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. 
 
 I'HARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Caesar and Pompey, in which the for- 
 mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Ctesar in all its 
 consequences. Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200. 
 Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his 
 army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After 
 this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- 
 der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on 
 the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that 
 way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo- 
 ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay 
 in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view 
 to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- 
 sent limits by the charter of 3701. First or ''Continental" Congress at 
 Philadelphia. Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 
 4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken 
 by the British, Sept. 26, 1777 ; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- 
 tion met here. May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a 
 constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. 
 Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established 
 here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. 
 Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96,664; in 1830, 
 167,811; in 1840, 220,423. 
 
 PHILIPPI, Battle of, between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side, 
 and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former 
 obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who 
 commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care 
 of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him 
 through the body. In the secoiKi battle, the wing which Brutus command- 
 ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself 
 surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and 
 soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 e.g. 
 — Bossuet. 
 
 PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- 
 mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the 
 second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which 
 latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- 
 pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- 
 ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. 
 
 PPULOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- 
 tory, which is only the tnowledge of facts ; or tq mathematics, which is th« 
 
526 THE vvorld's progress. [ PHI 
 
 knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which 
 natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of 
 philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. 
 See Moral Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their 
 schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has 
 undergone four great changes : — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and 
 superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason 
 and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- 
 nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa- 
 tion, taught uy Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided 
 between the two last. 
 
 THILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which 
 some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all 
 imperfect metals into silver and gold— all metals but these being so consid- 
 ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- 
 petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have 
 cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a long time, 
 without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in 
 relation to this subject, see Alchemy. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured 
 it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from 
 bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 
 1670, and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — ISouv. Diet. Phos- 
 phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- 
 lier; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's 
 phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- 
 drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod- 
 ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim 
 improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- 
 nological Society has been established in London. 
 
 PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- 
 tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed 
 to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- 
 ting. — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen 
 a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which 
 he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. 
 — Hyginus. Egypt ajapears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; "and 
 the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, 
 and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands 
 of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it 
 from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the 
 formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- 
 cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine 
 and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 
 131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery 
 of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new 
 system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. 
 
 PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching 
 from an atom to God himself It is made to embrace the entire doctrine oi 
 the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and 
 effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. 
 The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans. magi, ana Hebrew and 
 Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- 
 larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 
 
PIO ' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527 
 
 B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic 
 schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- 
 sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy 
 or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason ol 
 the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it 
 is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- 
 ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. 
 Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are 
 discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is 
 referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a 
 fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the 
 last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system, 
 Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck 
 with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at 
 which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. 
 
 PIANO-FORTE. Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- 
 ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, 
 G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes 
 with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- 
 strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by 
 Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were 
 made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since 
 greatly improved by others here. 
 
 PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable 
 conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau 
 arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- 
 fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 
 6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- 
 ticle Georges, &c. 
 
 PICQUET, The Game op, the first known game upon the cards, invented by 
 Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
 of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mezerai. See ar- 
 ticle Cards. 
 
 PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about 
 the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudas, or Western Isles. 
 They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands 
 and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d, 
 838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized 
 all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 
 PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the 
 Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was 
 purchase! by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740 b. c. 
 See Painting. 
 
 PIGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The 
 ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when 
 they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with 
 uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought 
 proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- 
 ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its 
 flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to 
 his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at ^Egina a 
 
528 THE world's PjvOGress. [pit 
 
 pigeon stained with purple.— Ot'wZ. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by 
 means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted 
 were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and 
 Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- 
 don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them 
 arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the 
 remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. 
 PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, 
 but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many 
 licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 
 7 Henry VI., 1428. 
 
 PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- 
 mous, and make them a public spectacle, for eveiy one to see and know, 
 that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with 
 them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- 
 victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put 
 through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded 
 with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- 
 gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, 
 by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and 
 putrid offal. It was aboUshed as a punishment in all cases except perjury, 
 in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 
 1837. 
 
 PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- 
 tutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France 
 in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
 queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- 
 bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and 
 skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — 
 Stowe. 
 
 PISA, Leaning Tower op. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, 
 on account of its having been erected for the pur[)Ose of containing bells, 
 stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of 
 white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with 
 a round of columns, rising one above another. It incHnes so far on one side 
 from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 
 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have 
 been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the 
 architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another 
 cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundatioij on that 
 side. 
 
 PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the 
 saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket 
 &c.— Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 
 1544. 
 
 i'lTCAIRN S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by 
 Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from tha 
 ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or 
 rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the 
 Bounty. 
 
 PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states- 
 man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (Avhich see), Dec. 
 27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right 
 honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died 
 
pla] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 529 
 
 .Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt ^vas a minister of commanding powers, and still 
 loftier pretensions, and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a 
 large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- 
 nor by parliament, and a grant of ^40,000 to pay his debts. 
 
 PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called 
 Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name 
 was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- 
 ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also 
 been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in 
 A. D. 142. 
 
 PLAGUE. " The ofispring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying 
 locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the 
 world occurred 767 b. c. Peiavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible 
 that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ba- 
 ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred 
 thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it 
 spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. 
 Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 
 2000 persons every day, 188 b. c. Pliny. 
 
 At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- 
 sons perish daily, a. d. 78. 
 
 The same fatal disease again ravaged the 
 Roman empire, a. d. 167. 
 
 In Briiam, a plague raged so formidably, 
 and swept away such multitudes, that the 
 living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 
 dead^A.D. 430. 
 
 A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- 
 tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is 
 said did not cease for many years. Univ. 
 Hist. 
 
 At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- 
 habitants perished, A. D. 746. 
 
 [This plague raged for three years, and was 
 equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and 
 Greece.] 
 
 At Chichester in England, an epidemical 
 disease carried ofi' 34,000 persons, 772. — 
 Will. Malms. 
 
 In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a 
 pestilence, A. D. 954. 
 
 In London, a great mortality, A. d. 1094 ; 
 and in Ireland, 1095. 
 
 Again in London : it extended to cattle, 
 fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. 
 — Holings. 
 
 In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry 
 II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. 
 
 Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
 perished, 1204. 
 
 A genera] plague raged throughout Europe, 
 causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- 
 tain and Ireland sutTered gi'ievously. In 
 London alone, 200 persons were buried 
 daily in the Charterhouse yard. 
 
 In Paris and London a dreadful mortality 
 
 Erevailed in 1362 and 1367 ; and in Ire- 
 md, in 1370. 
 A great pestilence in Ireland, called the 
 fourth, destroyed a great number of the 
 psople, 1383. 
 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- 
 lence in London, 1407. 
 Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- 
 ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; aijd Dub- 
 lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. 
 
 23 
 
 An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; anu 
 throughout England a plague which de- 
 stroyed more people than the continual 
 wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
 — Rapin ; Salmon. 
 
 The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating 
 sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — 
 Deluune. 
 
 The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- 
 ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 
 l^OQ.—Stoice. 
 
 Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in 
 three hours). In most of the capital 
 towns in England half the inhabitants 
 died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 H. 
 VIII., \b\l.—Stowe. 
 
 Limerick was visited by a plague, when 
 many thousands perished, 1522. 
 
 A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and 
 the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence 
 in Dublin, 1575. 
 
 30,578 persons perished of the plague in 
 London alone, 1603-1604. It was also 
 faial in Ireland. 
 
 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- 
 tinople, in 1611. 
 
 In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 
 35,417 persons perished, 1625. 
 
 In France, a general mortality; at Lyons 
 60,000 persons died, 1632. 
 
 The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- 
 ples (being introduced by a transport with 
 soldiers on board), raged with such vio- 
 lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- 
 ants in six months, 16.56. 
 
 Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 
 persons in London, 1665. 
 
 [Fires were kept up night and day to purify 
 the air for three days ; and it is thought 
 the infection was not totally desti oyed till 
 the great conflagration of 1666.] 
 
 60,000 persons persons perished of the 
 plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, 
 brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. 
 
 One of the most awful plagues that evei 
 raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abb, 
 Mariti 
 
530 THE world's progress, [PLl 
 
 bers were earned off by a pestilent (li» 
 ease in 18M and 1805. 
 
 Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, mucli 
 resembling the plague, caused great mor- 
 tality, 1828. 
 
 The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832. 
 1834, 1849. 
 
 PLAGUE, continued. 
 
 In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which earned 
 
 off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 
 
 1773. 
 In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died 
 
 of plague, 1792. 
 In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 
 
 247,000 perished, 1799. 
 In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- 
 
 PLAGTJES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although 
 he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a d'^play 
 of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated Iho 
 plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen- 
 ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red 
 Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet. 
 
 PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry 
 n. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {which see), 1485. Anti- 
 quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation; and the 
 best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of 
 that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- 
 grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement; where being scourged with 
 broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or 
 . Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- 
 ing likenesses by its use was first discovered bj' Andrea Verrochio, about 
 A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, 
 whence it obtained its name. 
 
 PLAT^A, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of 
 Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian 
 army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their 
 lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few 
 men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen 
 Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The 
 plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau- 
 sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor 
 during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their 
 respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same 
 day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver- 
 ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account 
 of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia 
 dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. 
 
 PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely 
 traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in 
 public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act 
 passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty 
 upon plate passed in 1784. 
 
 PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and 
 gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from 
 the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery 
 color. It was imknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio 
 [Jlloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru.^ 
 Greig. 
 
 PLATTSBURGH, jnLake Champlain, New York, Battle of; 14,000 British 
 troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet 
 on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. 
 
POE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 631 
 
 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greeca 
 and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 b. c.j 
 but they Avere performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The 
 Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a 
 proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The 
 plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 
 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went 
 with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The 
 plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. 
 The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their 
 ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays 
 were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397- The first company 
 of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, 
 and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 
 1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See 
 Drama. 
 
 PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
 made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- 
 French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued un- 
 til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to 
 De taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the 
 courts of law till 1731. 
 
 P0I<2T LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. 
 The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 
 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- 
 lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist.Exch. Chaucer, on 
 his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth 
 year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
 wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 
 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles 
 I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary 
 Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
 
 NAMES OP PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OP ftUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, 
 
 who died - - - a. d. 1598 
 
 Samuel Daniel, died - - - 1619 
 
 Ben Jonson, died - - - 1637 
 
 Sir William Davenant, died - -1668 
 
 John Dryden ; he was deposed at the 
 
 revolution .... 1688 
 Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 
 
 Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716 
 
 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 
 
 Colley Gibber, died - - - - 1757 
 
 William Whitehead, died - - 1785 
 
 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 
 Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813 
 
 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 
 William Wordsworth, died - - 1850 
 
 The present laureate is Tennyson. 
 POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest 
 species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and 
 the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, 
 and before painting in description. — HazUtt. The exact period of the in- 
 vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on 
 the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, 
 is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- 
 lime. — Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed 
 the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 
 B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished 
 about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse (which see) was introduced by 
 Archilochus, 700 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are 
 told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to 
 England by Aldhelmi or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close 01 
 the seventh century. 
 
532 
 
 THE world's PKOGRESS. 
 
 f TKH 
 
 POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning 
 their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave 
 denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be pub- 
 licly executed, 831 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge 
 they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
 land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re- 
 markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death. 
 
 POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John 
 king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard ol 
 France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. 
 The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through 
 which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two iings, 
 prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- 
 rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, 
 Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. 
 
 POLAND. Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it tc 
 invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550; 
 and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the 
 emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- 
 ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its 
 political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king 
 formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- 
 tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 
 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. 
 
 Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- 
 cal dignity - - - a. d. 842 
 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his 
 reign was so prosperous that every 
 succeeding native sovereign was call- 
 ed a Piast.] 
 Introduction of Christianity - • 992 
 Red Russia added to Poland - - 1059 
 Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of 
 Cracow with his own hands ; his 
 kingdom laid under an interdict by 
 the pope, and his subjects absolved 
 of their allegiance - - -1080 
 He flies to Hungary for shelter; but is 
 refused it by order of Gregory VII., 
 and he at length kills himself - 1081 
 TJladislaus deposed - - - 1102 
 Premislaus assassinated - - - 1295 
 Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 
 War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 
 The Wallachians treacherously carry 
 off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to 
 the Turks as slaves - - - 1498 
 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 
 Stephen forms a militia composed of 
 Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom 
 he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 
 
 Abdication of .lohn Casimir - - 1669 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 
 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 
 He abolishes torture - - - 1770 
 
 An awful pestilence sweeps away 
 
 250,000 of the people - - - 1770 
 
 The evils of civil war so weaken the 
 kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the 
 royal plunderers, the empress of 
 Russia, emperor of Austria, and king 
 of Prussia - - - -1772 
 
 The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 
 
 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 
 A new constitution is formed by the 
 
 virtuous Stanislaus - -May 3, 1791 
 
 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on 
 various pretexts, pour their armies 
 into Poland, 1792, et seg.] 
 The brave Poles, under Poniatowski 
 and Kosciusko, several times contend 
 successfully against superior armies, 
 but in the end are defeated. Kosci- 
 usko, wounded and taken, is carried 
 prisoner to Russia - • - 1794 
 
 Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 
 Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 17M 
 
 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- 
 
 • An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- 
 viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; but in per- 
 mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of Austria and 
 Prussia had long been deadly enemies, ancl both hated Russia ; yet they now conspired against a 
 country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in 
 scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives ! Russia seized Lithuania, 
 and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the 
 provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions j and Prussia secured the maritiir.e districts 
 The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affair was the total inaction of th e two grtai 
 powers, Engla.id and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policy 
 as well as justice, and deplored by the jood and brave among mankind. — Haydn. 
 
POL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 533 
 
 POLAND^ continued. 
 
 ere 30,000 Polss of all agea and condi- 
 tions in cold blood.] 
 Courland is annexed to Russia- -1795 
 
 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- 
 tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 
 Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 
 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, 
 
 Feb. 12, 1798 
 Treaty of Tilsit Cwhich see) ■ July 7, 1807 
 [Ihe central provinces form the duchy 
 of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] 
 General Diet at Wai^paw - June, 1812 
 
 New constitution - - Nov. 1815 
 
 Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 
 
 Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; 
 the army declare in favor of the peo- 
 ple - - - Nov. 29, 1830 
 The Diet declares the throne of Poland 
 
 vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 
 
 Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the 
 
 Russians lose 7010 men ; the Poles, 
 who keep the iield, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 
 Battle of Ostrolenka; signal defeat of 
 
 the Russians - - May 26, 1831 
 
 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831 
 Grand Duke Constantine dies, June 27, 1831 
 Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) Ju!y 14, 1831 
 Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1831 
 [This last fatal event terminated the 
 nemorable and glorious, but unfor- 
 tunate struggle of the Poles.] 
 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, 
 decreeing that the kingdom of Poland 
 shall henceforth form an integral part 
 of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 
 
 A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march 
 
 on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 
 Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and 
 the treaty which had made it inde- 
 pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 
 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1818 
 
 DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. 
 
 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- 
 sassinated. 
 
 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus; 
 he refused the title of king ; deposed, 
 
 1300 Winceslaua. 
 
 1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 
 
 1333 Casimir the (ireat, kiHed by a fall 
 
 from his horse, while hunting. 
 1370 Lewis, kmg of Hungary, succeeded by 
 
 his daughter, 
 1383 Hedwigis, who married, in 
 1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em 
 
 braced the Christian religion, and 
 
 took the name of 
 Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to 
 
 Poland. 
 1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 
 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 
 1447 Casimir IV. 
 1492 John Albert. 
 
 1502 Alexander, prmce of Livonia. 
 1507 Sigismund I. 
 
 1548 Sigismund IL, Augustus, chose 
 1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue 
 
 ceeding to the French throne. 
 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- 
 vania. 
 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king ol 
 
 Sweden. 
 1632 Uladislaus VII. 
 1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 
 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown, 
 1674 Juhn Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter 
 
 regnum for a year. 
 1698 Frederick Augustus II., forced to r& 
 
 sign. 
 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re 
 
 tire in 1710. 
 1710 Frederick Augustus IL, again. 
 1733 Stanislaus I., again. 
 1733 Frederick Augustus III. 
 1764 Stai>t;ausAugustus resigns the crown 
 
 So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old mes 
 when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. 
 
 POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pa» 
 
 . 550 Lechus I. His posterity held the 
 dukedom for about 150 years. 
 700 Cracus I. 
 
 * * Cracus II. , assassinated by his brother. 
 
 * * Lechus II., deposed. 
 750 Venda, drowned herself. 
 
 760 Premislaus. who on being elected was 
 
 named Lescus or Less. 
 804 Lescus II., killed by the French. 
 810 Lescus lU. 
 015 Popiel I. 
 830 Popiel IL 
 
 842 Piastus, a country peasant. 
 861 Zemovitus. 
 892 Lescus IV. 
 913 Zemomislaus. 
 
 964 Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. 
 999 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 
 1025 Miecislaus II., went mad. 
 1041 Casimir the Pacific. 
 1058 Boleslaus 11., killed himself. 
 i082 Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus. 
 1102 Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 
 \.40 Uladislaus II., fled. 
 , 1146 Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 
 ' 1173 Miecislaus III., deposed. 
 1178 Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 
 1194 Lescus V., relinquished. 
 1200 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a 
 few months restored Lescus V. ; but 
 for bad conduct he was again forced 
 to relinquish the government. 
 1203 Uladislaus 111. ; he voluntarily retired. 
 1205 Lescus V., a third time, being chosen 
 by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son, an infant. 
 1228 Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 
 1279 Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son 
 of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 
 died 1289. An interregnum of five 
 years, when the Poles chose 
 
534 THE world's progress. [pom 
 
 POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
 stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- 
 ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the 
 seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese 
 to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned 
 and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 
 
 POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- 
 riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I, 
 1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The 
 London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The 
 London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by stt; ute, 
 June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in intioducing a 
 suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but 
 we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the 
 world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and 
 useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but 
 preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A 
 science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. 
 Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth 
 of Nations, 1776. 
 
 POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or 
 the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- 
 ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — 
 Henault. 
 
 POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- 
 bellion (>f Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was 
 again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed 
 by the head, viz. — a duke lOOZ., a marquis 80^., a baronet 30^., a knight 20Z., 
 an esqiiire lOZ., and every single private person 12,d., 1667. This grievous 
 impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. 
 
 POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. 
 It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and 
 Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
 wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who 
 took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- 
 dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. 
 In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- 
 fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See 
 Marriages. Polygamy forms an article of the Mormon Creed. 
 
 POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan- 
 guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible 
 termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17: 
 the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- ■ 
 pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483i. 
 for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printe-.U 
 at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- 
 ris, by Le Jay, ii. 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by 
 Bryan Walton, in t vols, folio, 1657. — Brunei. 
 
 POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished 
 by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed 
 up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the 
 night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens ha^^pen- 
 ed at the. time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles weie 
 
pop] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 535 
 
 exhibited, The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding 
 country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries; a countryman, as he was turning 
 up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discoveiy attract- 
 ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- 
 ti(^ns to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. 
 Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried 
 city ; the part fii'st cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. 
 
 PONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by 
 the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and 
 was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in 
 January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- 
 tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. 
 
 PONTUS, The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a 
 portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- 
 tus Euxi?ius) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus oy Darius 
 Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of 
 the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. 
 
 Art.Hbazes made king of Pontus by Da- 
 rius Hystaspes - - • b. o. 487 
 Reisn of Jiithridates I. - - - 383 
 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 
 Mithridates II. recovers it - • - 336 
 Mithridates III. reigns - - - 301 
 Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 
 Mithridates IV. is besieged in liis capi- 
 tal by .the Gauls, «&c. - - -252 
 Miihridates makes an unsuccessful at- 
 tack upon the free city of Sinope, and 
 is obliged to raise tfie siege by the 
 Rhodians - - - - 219 
 Reign of Pliarnaces ; he takes Sinope, 
 and makes it the capital of his king- 
 dom 183 
 
 Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 
 
 He Is murdered in the midst of his court 123 
 Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or 
 Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 
 » years of age - - - 123 
 
 Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115 
 She attempts to poison him; he puts 
 
 her and her accomplices to death - 112 
 Mitliridates makes a glorious campaign ; 
 conquers Scythia^ Bosphorus, Col- 
 chis, and other countries - - 111 
 He enters Cappadocia - - - 97 
 His war with Rome - - - 89 
 
 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. 
 
 Mithridates enters Biihynia, and makes 
 himself master of many Roman pro- 
 vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans, to 
 death . . - . . 
 
 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero- 
 nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain 
 
 Victories and conquests of Mitliridates 
 up to tills time .... 
 
 The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un- 
 der LucuUus, in two battles 
 
 Mithridates defeated by Lucullus 
 
 Mithridates defeats FabJus - 
 
 But is defeated by Pompey 
 
 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces 
 
 BatUe of Zela (see Zela); Pharnaces 
 defeated by Caesar 
 
 Darius reigns - - - - 
 
 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 
 
 Polemon II. succeeds his father • a.e. 
 
 Mithridates VII. reigns 
 
 Pontus afterwards became a Roman 
 province, under the emperors. 
 
 Alexis Comnenus founded anew empire 
 of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this 
 country, a. d. 1204, which continued 
 till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 
 
 3f 
 
 8S 
 
 POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as 
 the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By 
 an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should 
 give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to 
 be sustained by '■ parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
 none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. 
 impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor But no 
 compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of 
 the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. 
 
 £188,811 
 
 665,562 
 
 819,000 
 1,556,804 
 2,184,950 
 4,952,421 
 
 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy- 
 genus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface HI. procured Phcias emperor of th« 
 
 Li 1580, the Poor Rates were 
 1680, they amounted to 
 1698, they amounted to 
 1760, they amounted to 
 1785, they amounted to 
 1802, they amounted to 
 
 In 1815, the Poor Rates were 
 1820, they amounted to 
 1830, they amounted to 
 1835, they amounted to 
 1840, they amounted to 
 1845, they amounted to 
 
 *6,4]a.845 
 7,329,594 
 8,111,422 
 6,356,345 
 5,468,t;99 
 6,543,650 
 
536 THE world's progress. [ Tot 
 
 East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho- 
 cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was estabhshed. Tha 
 custom of kissing the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign 
 act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined 
 with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, 
 on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John 
 XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The 
 first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 
 rV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- 
 footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority 
 was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the 
 pope were introduced 19 Stephen, llbL—Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- 
 land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and 
 also for Becket, 1170?* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's crown 
 ofi" his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- 
 ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom ol 
 England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, 
 for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by 
 parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. — 
 Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books, 1541. 
 The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other 
 ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- 
 titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in effigy 
 at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was 
 expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22 1798, and died at Valence, 
 August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was 
 dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- 
 leon's overthrow; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected 
 June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, 
 May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 
 16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and 
 grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace 
 for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to MoIa-di-Gaeta, Nov. 
 24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed 
 Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See 
 ItaJt/ ; Rome; Reformation, <^c. 
 
 ' POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 
 
 A.» 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulg-ences for j 1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months 
 
 crime led to the reformation. 
 
 1522 Adrian VI. 
 
 i523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. 
 of England. 
 
 1534 Paul III. 
 
 1550 .lulius III. 
 
 1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 days. 
 
 1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty. 
 
 1559 Pius IV. 
 
 1566 Pius V. 
 
 1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- 
 formed the Calendar, (which see). 
 
 1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 
 
 1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 
 
 1590 Gregory XIV. 
 
 1.592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 
 1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 
 1605 Paul V. 
 
 1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 
 1623 Urban VIII. 
 
 1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 
 1655 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned. 
 1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 
 1670 Clement X. 
 
 1676 Innocent XI. ; reformed abuses. 
 1689 Alexander VlII. 
 1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism. 
 1700 Clement XI. 
 
 1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff ot 
 his family. 
 
 • '' When Louis, king of France, and Henry 11. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle 
 e/Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the 
 reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into 
 the castle."— Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. Hie 
 arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold 
 his slirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brelc«3peM«, 
 He was elected to the popedom in 1154. 
 
POP 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 537 
 
 1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Vec 
 
 ice, as Pius \'II., Marcii 13. 
 
 1 823 A nnibal della Genga,Leo XII., Sept.2a 
 
 1831 Mauro O'apellari, Gregory XVI.,Feb.a 
 
 1846 Mastai Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurated 
 
 June 21, aged 54. - -June 16. 
 
 rOPES, continued. 
 
 \T2i Benedict XHI. 
 
 1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses. 
 
 1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious. 
 
 1758 Clement XIII. 
 
 1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelll. 
 
 1775 Pius VI., February 14. 
 
 For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Views, from page 
 50 to page 115. 
 
 POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a femalSj 
 named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young- monk named Felda, 
 and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit. 
 On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being 
 very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan- 
 dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated 
 and believed without offence." — Gibbon. 
 
 POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to 
 assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have 
 affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and 
 others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three 
 particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- 
 pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason 
 as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the 
 scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — 
 Rapin. 
 
 POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best 
 and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c., be 
 stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to 
 contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions ; America, 76 
 millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 
 1377 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483 it 
 had increased to 4,689,000. The following tables of the population of the 
 United Kingdom are from official returns : — 
 
 POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOB ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 
 
 Year 1700 
 
 Population 5.475,000 
 
 Year 1770 
 
 Population 
 
 7,428,000 
 
 1710 . 
 
 ditto 5,240,000 
 
 1780 - - . "ditto 
 
 7,953.000 
 
 1720 
 
 - - ditto 5,565,000 
 
 1790 - . . ditto 
 
 8,675,000 
 
 1730 - 
 
 ditto 5,796,000 
 
 1801 - - . ditto 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 1740 
 
 - - ditto 6,064,000 
 
 1821 . - . ditto 
 
 14,391,631 
 
 1750 - 
 
 ditto 6,467,000 
 
 1841 - - - ditto 
 
 18,844,434 
 
 1760 
 
 - - ditto 6,736,000 
 
 
 
 
 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 Year 1790 
 
 Population 3,929.827 
 
 Year 1830 Population 
 
 12,866,920 
 
 1800 - 
 
 ditto 5,305;925 
 
 1840 - - - ditto 
 
 17,063,353 
 
 1810 
 
 - - ditto 7,239,814 
 
 "See the several States. 
 
 
 1820 - 
 
 - ditto 9,638,131 
 
 
 
 PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Chinese empire 
 
 
 Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000 
 
 Holland - - - 
 
 5,100,0t'C 
 
 (.Balbi) . . 
 
 180,000,000 
 
 United States of 
 
 Dutch monarchy 
 
 
 Russia - - - 
 
 58,500,000 
 
 America' - 17,063,000 
 
 (total) ■ 
 
 14,750,000 
 
 Russian empire • 
 
 72,000,000 
 
 Turkey - . - 12,000,000 
 
 Bavaria - - - 
 
 4,600,00(1 
 
 France 
 
 36,500,000 
 
 Ottoman empire 
 
 Sweden and Nor- 
 
 
 Austria - - - 
 
 34,599,000 
 
 (total) . . 24,500,000 
 
 way - 
 
 4,550,000 
 
 Great Britain and 
 
 
 Persia - . - 11,800,000 
 
 Belgium- - - 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 Ireland - 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 Mexico - - 9,500,000 
 
 Poland 
 
 4,250,000 
 
 British empire - 
 
 15S,n00,000 
 
 Kingdom of the 
 
 Portugal - - 
 
 3,950,000 
 
 Japan - - - 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 two Sicilies- - 8,750,000 
 
 Republic of Co- 
 
 
 Spain - 
 
 17,1)0,000 
 
 Brazil- - - 6,250,000 
 
 lumbia - 
 
 3,350,000 
 
 Spanish empire 
 
 
 Sardinia - - - 5,800,000 
 
 Eccies. States- - 
 
 2,970,000 
 
 {total) - - - 
 
 19,500,000 
 
 Morocco • - 5,200,000 
 
 British America - 
 
 2,950,000 
 
 23* 
 
 In 1840. In 1830, estimated at 22,000,000. 
 
538 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 I POK 
 
 2,45O,00C 
 
 St. Petersburgh - 
 
 405,000 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 172,0!X 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 Vienna - - - 
 
 395,000 
 
 Lyons 
 
 168,00(1 
 
 1,780,000 
 
 New York (1845) 
 
 371,000 
 
 Palermo 
 
 147,00C 
 
 1.680,000 
 
 Moscow 
 
 355;000 
 
 Marseilles - 
 
 146,000 
 
 1.650,000 
 
 Grand Cairo - ■ 
 
 335,000 
 
 Copenhagen • - 
 
 145,000 
 
 i;550,000 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 298.000 
 
 Turin - 
 
 143,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 Aleppo - 
 
 280;000 
 
 Seville - - - 
 
 142,000 
 
 
 Berlin - 
 
 280,000 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 141, OOC 
 
 Inhab. 
 
 Amsterdam - - 
 
 274,000 
 
 Tunis - - - 
 
 138,0a) 
 
 
 Madrid 
 
 270,000 
 
 Baltimore (1818) 
 
 134,000 
 
 1,776,556 
 
 Philadelphia (1848) 
 
 258,000 
 
 Prague 
 
 133,000 
 
 1,680,000 
 
 Bordeaux - - 
 
 247,000 
 
 Smyrna - - - 
 
 132,000 
 
 ;,600,000 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 245,000 
 
 Brussels 
 
 '30,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Mexico • - - 
 
 225,000 
 
 Florence - - 
 
 1:^2,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 Rome - 
 
 S-24,000 
 
 Stockholm -. 
 
 U1,000 
 
 800,a)0 
 
 Rio Janeiro - - 
 
 200,000 
 
 Munich • - • 
 
 i 13,000 
 
 710,000 
 
 Milan • 
 
 193,000 
 
 Dresden 
 
 114.000 
 
 435,000 
 
 Barcelona - - 
 
 183,000 
 
 Boston (1845) - - 
 
 114,000 
 
 410,000 
 
 
 
 Frankfort - 
 
 110,000 
 
 POrUI>ATION, continued. 
 Switzerland 
 Denmark - - 
 Hanover 
 Wirtemberg - - 
 Saxony 
 
 Tuscany - - - 
 Baden 
 
 CITIES, 
 
 Cities. 
 
 London (Parlia- 
 mentary Ret.) 
 Jeddo (reputed) - 
 Pekin (reputed) 
 Paris - 
 
 Nankiu - - - 
 Cons;an,inople - 
 Calci;tta 
 
 Madras - - - 
 Naples 
 
 PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being 
 formerlj^ believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under 
 ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making 
 porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried 
 on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest 
 porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after 
 which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresden 
 China. 
 
 PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth; burnt by 
 the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3 677 ; in 1820, 8,581 ; in 1840 
 15,082. 
 
 PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken 
 from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 
 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- 
 tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, 
 and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the 
 rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 
 
 PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke 
 of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when 
 Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by 
 the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residence of 
 Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most 
 strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses 
 were established in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, 
 the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman 
 arms about 250 e. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall 
 of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors a. d. 713. They kept 
 possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, 
 assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone 
 most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of 
 Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- 
 tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, 
 which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093. 
 
 Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths 
 
 here - - - - a. d. 472 
 
 Invasion by the Saracens • • 713 
 
 The kings of Asturias subdue some 
 Saracen chiefs, and Alphoijsos IIL 
 establishes episcopal sees • - 900 
 
 Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish 
 kings, and is proclaimed king by his 
 army ... - - lJ.3f 
 
 Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their 
 way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- 
 bon from the Moors • - • 11^ 
 
por] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 539 
 
 PORTUGAL, continued. 
 
 The ki/igdom of Algarve taken from the 
 
 Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189 
 
 Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father 
 of his country, who builds 44 cities 
 or towns in Portugal • • - 1279 
 
 Military orders of Christ and St. James 
 instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 
 
 John I., surnamed the Great, carries 
 
 his arms into Africa - . • • 1415 
 
 Ma(*cira and the Canaries seized - 1420 
 
 Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape 
 
 of Good Hope, discovered - - 149S 
 
 Discovery of the Brazil's - - 150U 
 
 The Inquisition established • - 1526 
 
 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of 
 Spain 1580 
 
 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and 
 place John, duke of Braganza, on the 
 throne. His posterity still possess 
 the crown .... 1640 
 
 The great earthquake which destroys 
 Lisbon. See Earthquake - ■ 1755 
 
 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and 
 narrowly escapes death - - 1758 
 
 [This affair causes some of the first 
 families of the kingdom to be tortured 
 to death, their very names being for- 
 bidden to be mentioned ; yet many 
 were unjustly condemned, and their 
 innocence was soon afterwards made 
 manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- 
 pelled on this occasion.] 
 
 Joseph, having no son, obtams a dis- 
 pensation from the pope to enable 
 his daughter and brother to intermar- 
 ry. See Incest. ■ . - 1760 
 
 The Spaniards and French invade Port- 
 ugal, which is saved by the valor of 
 the English - - 1762 and 1763 
 
 Regency of John (afterwards king) 
 owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 
 
 The Court, on the French invasion, 
 emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 
 
 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 
 
 Convention of Cintra (see article under 
 that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 
 
 Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 
 
 Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 
 
 Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 i 
 
 Return of the Court _ - -July 4, 1821 I 
 
 Independence of Brazil, the prince re- j 
 
 gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 • 
 
 The king of Portugal suppresses the j 
 
 constitution - - June 5, 1823 ] 
 
 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel | 
 
 departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824 I 
 
 Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 | 
 
 KINGS OP 
 
 s.0. 1093 Kmg of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 
 ugal. 
 
 1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 
 
 1185 Sancho I. 
 
 1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or 
 the Fat. 
 
 1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 
 
 1247 Alphonsus III. 
 
 1279 Dennis. 
 
 1325 Alphonsus IV 
 
 1357 Peter the Severe. 
 
 1367 Ferdinand I, died 1383; an interreg- 
 num for 18 months. 
 
 Death of John VI. - Feb. 18, : 836 
 
 Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- 
 firms the regency - April 26, 182»i 
 
 He relinquishes the throne in favor of 
 his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1^6 
 
 Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at 
 Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 1826 
 
 Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- 
 ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 
 
 Portugal solicits the assistance of Gr-sat 
 Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1826 
 
 Departure of the first British auxiliary 
 troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1826 
 
 Don Miguel formally assumes tlie title 
 of king - - - -July 4, 1828 
 
 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 
 
 Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 
 
 Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 
 
 Insurrection in favor of the queen, in 
 which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 
 
 Don Pedro's expedition sails from 
 Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 
 
 At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- 
 self i-egent of Portugal, on behalf of 
 his dauehter - - April 2, 1&J2 
 
 He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832 
 
 After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- 
 pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 
 
 Don Miguel is permitted to leave the 
 country unmolested - May 31, 1834 
 
 Massacres at I^isbon - June 9, 1834 
 
 The queen declared by the Cortes to be 
 of ase - - . Sept. 15, 1834 
 
 Don Pedro dies . - Sept. 21, 1834 
 
 Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of 
 Leuchtenberg), just married to the 
 queen, dies - • March 28, 183S 
 
 The queen marries prince Ferdinand of 
 Saxe Coburg - - - Jan. 1, 1836 
 
 A sudden change of ministry leads to a 
 formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 
 
 Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat- 
 ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 
 
 [Oporto, where a revolutionary junta 
 is established, and other large towns, 
 are seized by the insurgent army ] 
 
 Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassi).=i, 
 Braga, Torres-Vedras, <&c., favorable 
 to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the 
 Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men 
 in killed and wounded - May 1, 1847 
 
 Intervention of England, France, and 
 
 Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 
 Claim of the United States on Portugal 
 for damages in the war of 1812, re- 
 sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- 
 bon .... July, 185C 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 1385 John L, the Bastard, natural son W 
 
 Peter the Severe. 
 1433 Edward. 
 1438 Alphonsus V. 
 1481 John II. 
 1495 Emanuel. 
 1.521 John 111. 
 
 1557 Sebastian, killed in Africa. 
 1578 Henry, the Cardinal. 
 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son ol Em^a 
 
 uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain, 
 
 who united Portugal to his other do 
 
 minions, i ill 1640. 
 
540 
 
 PORTUGAL, continued. 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 troi 
 
 1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos- 
 sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 
 claimed king, Dec. 1. 
 
 1656 Alphonsus VI. 
 
 1668 Peter II. 
 
 r07 Jolin V. 
 
 1750 Joseph. 
 
 1777 Mary Frances Isabella. 
 
 1799 John VI. 
 
 1S26 Don Pedro ; he abdictites May 2, m 
 
 favor of his daughter. 
 1826 Maria de Gloria. 
 
 POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who 
 erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the 
 first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed 
 l)ost-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800. — 
 Ashe. Louis XL first established post-houses in France owing to his eager- 
 ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 
 1470. — Henault. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward 
 IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty 
 miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence 
 of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen w^th the 
 Scots. — Gale. Richard IIL improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
 154.3 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post com- 
 munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype. 
 
 POST-OFFICE, The General, op England. See freceding article. The first 
 chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by 
 queen Elizabeth in 1581.* 
 
 THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. 
 
 In 1643 It yielded - 
 
 £5,000 
 
 In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424,994 
 
 1653 Farmed to John Manley, 
 
 
 1815 Ditto - - - - 1,755,898 
 
 Esq., for - - - 
 
 10,000 
 
 1820 United Kingdom - - 2,402,697 
 
 1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 
 
 
 1825 Ditto - - - -2,255,239 
 
 Esq., for - 
 
 21,500 
 
 1835 Ditto - . -2,353,340 
 
 1674 Farmed fo.r - - - 
 
 43.000 
 
 1839 Last year of the heavy 
 
 1685 It yielded - 
 
 65^000 
 
 postage - - -2,522,495 
 
 1707 Ditto . 
 
 111,461 
 
 1840 First year of the low rate, 
 
 1764 Ditto 
 
 432.048 
 
 1 penny for all distances 471,000 
 
 1800 Ditto . - - . 
 
 745,313 
 
 
 POST-OFFICE IN THE UNITED STATES. The first post-oflSce in the colo- 
 nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general 
 post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- 
 partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of 
 the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the 
 Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of 
 the cabinet. For successive Postmaster-Generals see Administrations. The 
 following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States 
 at different times since 1790. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of Post 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Net Revenue. 
 
 Extent in milea 
 
 
 OMces. 
 
 Postagt 
 . «37,93i. - 
 
 
 
 of Po^t Roads 
 
 1790 ■ 
 
 . - 75 - - 
 
 
 - $5,795 - 
 
 - 1,875 
 
 1800 - 
 
 - 903 - 
 
 - 280,804 - 
 
 
 - 66,810 - 
 
 - 20,817 
 
 1810 • 
 
 - 2,300 - 
 
 - 551,684 - 
 
 
 - 55,715 - 
 
 . 36,406 
 
 1820 - 
 
 - 4,500 - 
 
 -1,111,927 - 
 
 
 
 - 72,492 
 
 1830 . 
 
 - 8,000 - 
 
 -l,a50,583 - 
 
 
 . t . 
 
 - 115,000 
 
 1840 • 
 
 - 13.468 • 
 
 -4,539,265 - 
 
 
 
 - 155,739 
 
 1845 . 
 
 - 14,183 
 
 -4,289,842 - 
 
 
 
 ■ 143,940 
 
 1846 ■ 
 
 - 14,601 - 
 
 -3,487,1991 - 
 
 
 
 • 152,865 
 
 1847 - 
 
 - 15,146 - 
 
 - 3,955,893 1 • 
 
 
 • 1 ■ 
 
 - 153,818 
 
 1848 - 
 
 - 16,159 - 
 
 -4,371,0771 - 
 
 
 - 44,227 - 
 
 - 163,208 
 
 The number of dead letters returned quarte 
 
 rly 
 
 is estimated 
 
 at 450,000. 
 
 ' Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week be- 
 tween Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only sent a single letter, which 
 wts for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 
 
 t In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures. 
 
 } The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed March 3, 1815 
 leducing tlie letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for aU greater distances. 
 
PR a] dictionary of dates. 541 
 
 POTATOES. Tie potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori 
 ginally carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw- 
 kins, A. D. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 
 1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as 
 occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Waltei 
 Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the 
 county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that 
 " patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding- 
 ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It is 
 affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine. 
 — Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great 
 •'■larm and distress, Oct. 1845. 
 
 POTOSI, Mines of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, 
 and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the 
 form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in 
 Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in 
 comparison of what was formerly obtained. 
 
 POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
 about A. D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, 
 consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. 
 The value of the Roman ipondo is not precisely known, though some sup- 
 pose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 3^. 4s. Id. Our avoirdupois 
 weight {avoir du poids) came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; 
 it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chambers. 
 
 POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad- 
 singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them- 
 selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the 
 high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered- 
 hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice 
 of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guinea for each person. 
 The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 
 7000^. per year, and in Scotland about 250Z. It was abolished in Ireland. 
 
 PR^TORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when 
 one praetor only was appointed; but a second was appointed in 252 b. c. 
 One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges 
 in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, 
 two more praetors were created to assist the consul in the government 
 of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, 
 and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province. 
 A. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Csesar increas- 
 ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 
 64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, 
 in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers 
 were reduced to three. 
 
 FRAGA, Battle or, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless 
 Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which 
 the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded 
 by general Giesraar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 
 12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothoff and Wawer, March 31, 1831. 
 
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some- 
 times state afiairs ; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings 
 of France, wherein the rights of the Galilean church were asserted against 
 the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's 
 letter by ad vicfl of his council, in answer to high personages in particulai 
 
542 THE world's progress. [ PHB 
 
 contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of (Jermany 
 in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published the 
 Pi-agmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should 
 succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713. 
 and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity 
 thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, in 
 which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. 
 
 PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, 
 who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) foi 
 their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to fler? 
 with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money 
 behini him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and 
 the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla- 
 nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by the 
 Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by the 
 French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was. 
 taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same 
 year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. 
 In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia, 
 and their whole camp taken; their illustrious commander, general Browns, 
 was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was 
 killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but 
 he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. 
 
 PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so 
 called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled himseli 
 according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This pai'liarr.cnt 
 consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they ware 
 to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parliaraont 
 themselves. 
 
 PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressf^d by 
 the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and 
 signified that the ship so licensed came, from a place or country in a healthy 
 ntate, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease. 
 The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intenf 
 and import. — Aslie. 
 
 PE AYERS FOR THE DE \D, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris 
 Man church about a. d. 190. — Eusebius. Prayers addressed to the Virgin 
 Mary and to the 3.^Ults were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593. The 
 ■mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface 
 11., A. D. 532. 
 
 PRECEDENCE. P"ecedence was established in very early ages ; and in most 
 of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws o< 
 Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed amonj; cour- 
 tiers respecting* priority of rank and office, the order of preceden -y wai 
 regulated chiei^y by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIII. 1639 ; 
 and the other, 1 George I., 1714. 
 
 THE kbEEN. 
 
 Prince '.f Wales. 
 Pnncf Albert. 
 ftuoen Uo wager, 
 itte-sn's other sons, 
 ((•rincess royal. 
 
 TABLE op PRECEDENCY. 
 
 Princess Alice ; and other I Archbphop of Cant« r*i«rj. 
 
 princesses. 
 Duchess of Kent. 
 Queen's uncles. 
 Queen's aunts. 
 Queen's cousins. 
 
 Lord Chancellor. 
 Archbishop of York. 
 'Lord high treasura 
 "Lord president. 
 'Lord privy seal. 
 
 ' If of the rank of barons. 
 
tbe] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 
 
 543 
 
 PRECEDENCE, continued. 
 
 'Lord high constable. I commoners. 
 
 TLord great chamberlain of I The Speaker. 
 England. Treasurer, comptroller, and 
 
 'Earl marshal. 
 
 'Lord high admiral. 
 
 Lord steward of the house- 
 hold. 
 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 
 Dukes, according to patent. 
 
 Marquesses, accordmg to 
 their patents. 
 
 Dukes' eldest sons. 
 
 Earls, according to their^ pa- 
 tents. 
 
 Marquesses' eldest sons. 
 
 Dukes' younger sons. 
 
 Viscounts, according to their 
 patents. 
 
 Earls' eldest sons. 
 
 Marquesses' younger sons. 
 
 Bishop of London. 
 
 Bishop of Durham. 
 
 Bishop of Winchester. 
 
 All other bishops, according 
 to their seniority of conse- 
 cration. 
 
 Secretary of State, being a 
 baron. 
 
 Commissioners of the great 
 seal. 
 
 Barons, according to their 
 patents. 
 
 [All the above, except the 
 royal family, hold their 
 precedence of rank by act 
 31 Henry VIII.] 
 
 PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably 
 appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of 
 the most jjerplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It 
 was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet intro- 
 duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the 
 strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose 
 in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus. 
 a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470. 
 
 PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient 
 states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of 
 the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsbiirg, the Tyrol, all the possessions 
 of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau. and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec- 
 tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of 
 Baden, were then created kings bj" Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel- 
 vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called 
 from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in tho 
 New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling 
 elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting- 
 house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey 
 Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguish- 
 ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri- 
 
 vice-chamberlain of the 
 
 household. 
 Secretaries of State, if they be 
 
 under the degree of baron. 
 Viscounts' eldest sons. 
 Earls' younger sons. 
 Barons' eldest sons. 
 Knights of the Garter. 
 Privy councillors. 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 Chancellor of the duchy of 
 
 Lancaster. 
 Lord chief justice of the 
 
 queen's bench. 
 Master of the rolls. 
 Vice-chancellor. 
 Lord chief justice of the com- 
 mon pleas. 
 Lord chief baron. 
 Judges and barons, accordirig 
 
 to seniority. 
 Hereditary bannerets. 
 Viscounts' younger sons. 
 Barons' younger sons. 
 Baronets. 
 
 Bannerets for life only. 
 Knights of the bath. 
 
 Grand Crosses. 
 Knights commanders. 
 Knights bachelors. 
 Eldest sons of the younger 
 
 sons of peers. 
 Baronets' eldest sons. 
 
 Knights of tha Garter'a eldos 
 
 sons. 
 
 Bannerets' eldest sons. 
 
 Knights of the bath's aides' 
 sons. 
 
 Knights' eldest sons. 
 
 Baronets' younger sons. 
 
 Flag and field officers. 
 
 Sergeants-at-law. 
 
 Doctors, Deans, and chaa 
 cellors. 
 
 Masters in chancery. 
 
 Companions of theb^sth. 
 
 Gentlemen of the pr'Ty 
 chamber. 
 
 Esquires of ti" je knijhts of the 
 Bath. 
 
 Esquires by creation. 
 
 Esquires by office or com- 
 mission. 
 
 Younger so. e of knights of 
 the garter. 
 
 Sons of bannerets. 
 
 Younger sons bf knights of 
 the bath. 
 
 Younger sons of knights ba- 
 chelors. 
 
 Gentlemen entitled to bear 
 arms. 
 
 Clergymen, not dignitaries. 
 
 Barristers at law. 
 
 Officers of the army and 
 navy, not esquires by com- 
 mission. 
 
 Citizens, burgesses, &c. 
 
 * Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII. 
 t When in actual office only, by 1 George I. 
 N. B. Tlis priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is t»ken V, 
 n&l: of office, and net title. 
 
644 THE world's progress [ PBS 
 
 bufced to John Knox, and compiled by that reformei in 1560. It wa8 
 approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act 
 of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with 
 England in 1707. 
 
 PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously elected 
 president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 26 
 to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United 
 States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations. 
 
 PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from 
 the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the 
 eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton, 
 a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Stowe'i 
 Ckron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 18U6. 
 The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in . 811, and Applegath's fol- 
 lowed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced in 1814; and the 
 Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after. 
 Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at 
 The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and 
 Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought in, o 
 use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within 
 a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac- 
 turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New-York. Their largest presses 
 for newspapers "are capable of throwing off" 10.000 sheets per hour, which is 
 so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders 
 from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the 
 best in the world for book printing. See article Printing. 
 
 PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur, " let it be printed," was much used 
 on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The 
 liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in 
 London and Westminster Hmited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. 
 And again by act of parliament, 6 WiUiam III., 1693. The celebrated toast, 
 "The liberty of the press— it is like the air we breathe— if we have it not 
 we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig 
 dinner in 1795. Presses were hcensed, and the printer's name required 
 to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France 
 and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but 
 again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it 
 was fully guaranteed by the constitution. 
 
 PRESSING TO DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of 
 Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of 
 the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, i? the 
 following :— Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered 
 \v.o of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign- 
 ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 
 death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James 
 I. 1605, — Stou-e's Chron. 
 
 FRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charke 
 Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir Johc 
 Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to 
 fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the 
 field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce 
 his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish 
 ballad, called, from the doughty hero, " Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21, 
 1745. 
 
 PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the f Mender, 
 
FBI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 645 
 
 or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac- 
 knowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- 
 claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, 
 Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, 
 to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had 
 promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
 the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines), 
 Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. 
 
 PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, 
 born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 
 1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, 
 January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and 
 sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds 
 of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000Z. was offered for taking him, 
 he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
 his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- 
 caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- 
 . al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His 
 brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Fngland, born 
 March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. 
 
 PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the 
 liead of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing 
 in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low 
 room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none 
 admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion 
 of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- 
 bers were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained to complete their 
 wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith,. 
 
 PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. 
 In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among 
 the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- 
 mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and 
 the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar 
 privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but 
 that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or 
 high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular 
 sects. 
 
 PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- 
 merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should 
 publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the 
 Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — 
 Ashe. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, Right op, an usage brought down from the earliest times. 
 The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, 
 and in the absence of his father was priest in the family. In England, by 
 the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It 
 came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. 
 
 PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa 
 been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, 
 Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to 
 attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes 
 John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and 
 letters, Speculum Humance. Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous 
 and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." Th<» 
 leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to 
 
546 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [PE» 
 
 getlier. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the 
 T^ractatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal 
 types, and used them in printing the earhest edition of the Bible, which waa 
 commenced in 1444 and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schaeflfer cast 
 the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete 
 PRINTING, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy. 
 
 Book of Psalms pnnieA -? a. D. 1457 
 
 The Durandi lialionale., first work 
 printed with cast metal types % - 1459 
 
 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, 
 about this time. — Collier. But this 
 statement is discredited by Dibdin.] 
 
 A Livy printed. — Dufresnoy ■ 1 ■ 1460 
 
 The first Bible completed.— /rfeml - 1460 
 
 [Mentz taken and plundered, and the art 
 of printing, in the general ruin, is 
 spread to other towns] - - 1462 
 
 The types were uniformly Gothic, or 
 old German (whence o\u English, or 
 Black Letter) until - - - 1465 
 
 Greek characters (quotations only) first 
 used, same year - - - - 1465 
 
 Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 
 
 Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 
 
 A Chronicle, said to have been found 
 in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- 
 lace (the fact disputed), bearing the 
 date Oxford, anno • - - 1468 
 
 William Caxton, a mercer of London, 
 set up the first press at Westminster' 1471 
 
 He printed Willyam Caxton' s Recuyel 
 of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul 
 le i^eM7-e.— Phillips - - - 1471 
 
 His first pieces were, A Treatiseon the 
 Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices 
 (seebeloic). — Dibdin- - -1474 
 
 ^sop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is 
 supposed 10 be the first book with its 
 leaves numbered • - • 14S4 
 
 Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a 
 Greek book printed (ap Aldi) - - 1476 
 
 He introduces the Italic - - - 1496 
 
 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - A. D. 1482 
 
 Homer, infolio.^ beautifully done at Flo- 
 rence, eclipsing all former printing, 
 by Demetrius !438 
 
 Printing used in Scotland - - - ^509 
 
 The first edition of the whole Bible was, 
 strictly speaking, the Complutensian 
 Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see 
 Polyglot 1517 
 
 The Liturgy, the first book printed in 
 Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550 
 
 The first Newspaper printed in England 
 (see Newspapers) .... 1588 
 
 First patent granted for printing - ] 591 
 
 First printing-press improved by Wil- 
 liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601 
 
 First printing in America at Cambridge, 
 Mass., when the Freeman's Oath and 
 an Almanac were printed - - 1633 
 
 First Bible printed in Ireland was at 
 Belfast.— iforrfy's Tour. ■ - ■ 1704 
 
 First types cast in England by Caslon. — 
 Phillips. 1720 
 
 Stereotype printing suggested by Wil- 
 liam (Jed, of Edinburgh. — Nichols. 1735 
 
 The present mode of stereotype inven- 
 ted by Mr. Golden, of New York - 1779 
 
 Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
 land in the last century. — Phillips.] 
 See Stereotype. 
 
 The printing-machine was first suggest- 
 ed by Nicholson .... 1790 
 
 The Stanhope press was in general use 
 
 - 1806 
 
 1811 
 
 -1814 
 
 Machine printing (see Press) 
 Steam machinery (see Press) 
 
 TITLES OP THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDB. 
 
 The Game and Playeofthe Chesse. Trans- 
 lated out of the Frenche and emprynted 
 by me Williain Caxton Fynysshid the last 
 day of 3'Iarche the yer of our Lord God a 
 thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 
 
 THLLY. 
 
 Thf Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted 
 by me simple persone William Caxton i?i 
 to Englysshe as tlie play sir solace and re- 
 verence of inen growyng in to old age the 
 xij day of August the yere of our lord 
 M.cccc.lxxxj. — Herbert. 
 
 THE POLYCRONYCON. 
 
 The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges 
 and Dedes of many Tymes in eyghtBokes. 
 imprinted by William Caxton after hav- 
 ing somewhat chaunged tlie rude and 
 olde Englysshe, that is to icele (to wit) cer- 
 
 tayn Words which in these Days be ney. 
 ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the 
 second day of Juyll at Westmestre the 
 xxij yere of tlie Regne ofKynge Edward 
 the fourth, and of tlie Incarnacion of oure 
 Lord a Thousand four Hondred four 
 Score and tweyne [1482.] — Dibdin's Typ. 
 Antiq,. 
 
 THE CHR0N1CI.es. 
 
 The Cronicles of England Enpnted by me 
 Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre 
 by London the v day of Juyn the yere 
 of thincarnacion of our lord god 
 
 M CCCC.LXXX. 
 
 POLYCRONICON. 
 
 Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth days 
 of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne o/' 
 kinge Harry the seuenth and of the Jhi- 
 
 * To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
 •rhere the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by 
 the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of the Chesse," tta 
 first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which il 
 waa printed, li m all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh. 
 
pa:] 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 
 
 547 
 
 PRINTING, continued. 
 
 carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv 
 Emprynted by 'U ynkyn Theworde at 
 Westmestre. 
 
 HILL OF PERFECTION. 
 
 The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the 
 instance of the reverend relygyous fader 
 Tho. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or- 
 def of the charterouse Accomplyshe[d] 
 anafynysshe[d] alt Westmynster the uiii 
 day ofjaneur the yere of our lord Thou- 
 sande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the xii y^re 
 qfkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
 worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 7'he Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot- 
 land and Ireland speaking of the Noblesse 
 and Worthynesse of the same Fynnysshed 
 and enprynted in Flete strete in the syne 
 of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde 
 the yere of our lord a yi.ccccc and ij. men- 
 sis Mayiis [mense Mail]. — Dibdin' s Typ. 
 Ant. 
 
 the festival. 
 
 The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and 
 holidais taken out of the golden legend en- 
 
 prynted at london in Fletestrete at ye synt 
 of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
 yere of our lordM.ccccc.viii. And ended 
 the xi daye of May e. — Ames. 
 
 THE lord's prayer. 
 
 As printed by Caxton in 1483. 
 
 Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be 
 thy name : thy kyngdome come to zis ; thy 
 will be done in earth as is in heaven : oure 
 every days bred give us to day ; and for- 
 give us oure tresspasses, as toe forgive 
 them that tresspass against us ; and lead 
 us not into temptation, but deliver us from 
 all evil sin, amen. — Lewis's Life op 
 Caxton. 
 
 A placard. 
 As printed by William Caxton. 
 
 If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to 
 bye ony pies of two or thre comemoracios of 
 Salisburi use ' enpryntid after the forme 
 of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and 
 truly correct, late him come to westmon- 
 ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale 
 [red pale] and he shall have them good 
 there. — Dibdin's Typ. ANTia. 
 
 Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, 
 interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the 
 semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of 
 abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered 
 leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced 
 with the art of printing. 
 
 PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, 
 and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many 
 hundred years old. A similar i^rocess has been resorted to even in the 
 Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. 
 See article Cotton, The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- 
 toria, 1839. 
 
 PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 in 
 England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first 
 seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between 
 England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on 
 the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. 
 These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 
 Henry V. 1414. — Rymers Fadera. 
 
 PRISONERS OF WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when 
 spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less 
 continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead 
 of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, 
 and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30, 
 1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence- 
 ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri- 
 soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, 
 Sept. 1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
 French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest 
 
 * Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is sup 
 poeed from the different color ol the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign prin» 
 818. — Wheatley. 
 
648 THE world's progress. fPRO 
 
 number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period cf the 
 last war. 
 
 PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- 
 thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held 
 its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by 
 the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, 
 the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of 
 crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, 
 on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits. — 
 Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object 
 was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active 
 promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for 
 the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems 
 adojpted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- 
 phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from 
 Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady 
 — Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per- 
 son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a 
 higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. 
 
 PRIVY COUNCIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted 
 by Alfred, .\. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was 
 afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and 
 despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the 
 principal officers of state (councillors ex officio), and ten lords and five com- 
 moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To 
 attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made 
 capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was 
 examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures 
 made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- 
 buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless 
 under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the 
 said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants, 
 &c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. 
 one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth; ordinary and 
 able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths, 
 
 PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who 
 having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until the 
 end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; 
 they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of 
 a head in a verv majestic manner." — Addison. 
 
 PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign- 
 able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 
 1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 
 
 PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish 
 Church, Congregatio de Propaganda Pide, was constituted at Rome by pope 
 Gregory XV." in" 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- 
 ceeding pontiffs. 
 
 PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy 
 of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid 
 the king in a war with France. 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- 
 posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy 
 to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this 
 tax : they w«ire required to declare on oath the real value of their effects ; 
 but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to givi 
 
FRUj . DICTIONARY OP BATES 549 
 
 an exact account of their eflPects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- 
 pondents in foreign countries At length, by agreement, the king was 
 pl( ;ased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves. 
 — Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of ^reat amount 
 in the last years of the late war. The assessments on i eal property, under 
 the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,423Z. 
 
 PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred 
 writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- 
 ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve 
 lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter 
 are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- 
 phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the 
 earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed 
 by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem {Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8) 
 executed by Titus, a. d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in 
 Scripture. 
 
 PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to 
 request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means 
 for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- 
 position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to 
 support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with 
 the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 
 April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of 
 Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated 
 from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, 
 the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two 
 dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
 these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- 
 stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, d^c. 
 
 PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100 
 men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry 
 I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and 
 eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 
 1200. — Burton's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing 
 loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole 
 grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. Qd. per quarter, 
 the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
 (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat. 
 Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe. 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is. 
 per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Stoive. The price of provisions fixed by 
 the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ; 
 a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from 
 Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299. 
 Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of 
 our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn SI. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two 
 dozen of eggs, 3^. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common- 
 council above recited. 7 Edward II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine', the best sold 
 for 20s. per tun. 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 
 1390. this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by 
 the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, 
 and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — An- 
 derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, foi 
 one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stotoe's Chronicle. 
 
 PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 32C 
 B. 0. The Venedi wei'e conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in- 
 
550 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [PB.€ 
 
 habited the Riphaean mountains ; and from these the country was called 
 Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- 
 nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The 
 Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, 
 ' and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known 
 until about a. d. 1007. 
 
 St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
 Christianity, but is murdered by the 
 pagans - - - a. d. 1010 
 
 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death 
 by dreadful ravages - • . * • • 
 
 Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- 
 lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear- 1163 
 
 The Teutonic knights, returning from 
 the holy wars, undertake the conquest 
 of Prussia, and the conversion of the 
 people ----- 1225 
 
 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- 
 tal of Prussia - - - - 1286 
 
 The Teutonic knights, by their barba- 
 rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It 
 is repeopled by German colonists in 
 the 13th century - - . • " • 
 
 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by 
 purchase from Sigismond, emperor 
 of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- 
 denburg .... 1415 
 
 [This Frederick is the head of the pre- 
 sent reigning family.] 
 
 Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- 
 tives against the oppression of the 
 Teutonic knights - - - 1446 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master 
 of the Teutonic order, renounces the 
 Roman Catholic religion, embraces 
 Lutheranism, and is acknowledged 
 duke of East Prussia, to be held as a 
 fief of Poland - - - - 1525 
 
 University of Konigsberg founded by 
 duke Albert .... 1544 
 
 The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the 
 electorate of Brandenburg, and so 
 continues to this day - - - 1594 
 
 John Sigismund created elector of Bran- 
 denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608 
 
 The principality of Halberstadt and the 
 bishopric of Minden transferred to the 
 house of Brandenburg - -1648 
 
 Poland obliged lo acknowledge Prussia 
 as an independent state, under Frede- 
 rick William .... 1657 
 
 Order of Concord instituted by Christian 
 Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish 
 the part he had taken in restoring 
 peace to Europe - - - 1(560 
 
 The foundation of the Prussian monar- 
 chy was established between the years 
 1640 and .... 1680 
 
 Frederic III., in an assembly of the 
 states, puts a crown upon his own 
 head, and upon the head of his con- 
 sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- 
 sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 
 
 Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 
 
 Frederick I. seizes NeufchatelorNeun- 
 burgh, and Valengia, and purchases 
 the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707 
 
 which the Prussian monarchy is 
 made to rank among the first powers 
 in Europe - . - a. d. 1740 
 
 Breslau ceded to Prussia - - - 1741 
 
 Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded - - 1742 
 
 Frederick the Great visits England • 1744 
 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, 
 and a Russianarmy, march to Berlin. 
 The city laid under contribution ; and 
 pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000 
 crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and 
 foundries destroyed - - - 1760 
 
 Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1780 
 The Prussians take possession of Hano- 
 ver - . - Jan. 30, 1806 
 Prussia jcms the allies of England 
 
 against France - - Oct. 6, fOe 
 
 Fatal battle of .lena - Oct. 14, 18u6 
 
 [Here followed the loss of almost eveiy 
 corps in succession of the Prussian 
 army, the loss of Berlin, and of every 
 province of the monarchy except 
 Prussia proper.] 
 Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 
 Peace of Tilsit {which see) - July 7, 1807 
 Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808 
 
 Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813 
 Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 
 
 The king promised liberty of the press 
 
 March, 1847 
 Outbreak at Berlin: the king resists 
 urgent demands for liberal measures, 
 
 March 14, 1847 
 Barricades and fights between troops 
 
 and students - - March 15, 1847 
 
 The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 
 - issues decree demanding a federal 
 union of Germany, and granting li- 
 berty of the press - March 18, 1847 
 Another bloody collision, 274 killed 
 
 March 18, 1847 
 New ministry formed - March 18, 1847 
 The king grants general amnesty 
 
 March 20, 1847 
 Agitations general throughout Prussia 
 A free constitution granted, in a solemn 
 
 convocation, by the king - April 11, 1347 
 The duchy of Posen reorganized by the 
 
 king . - . March 26, 1843 
 
 Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 
 Constitutional assembly of Prussia 
 
 meets - . - May 22, 1848 
 
 The arsenal at Berlin captured by the 
 
 mob - - - June 16, 1848 
 
 The king prorogues the assembly at 
 Berlin, and appoints its meeting at 
 Brandenburg - . Nov. 9, 1848 
 
 The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the 
 order of the king to disband. Berlin 
 in a state of siege • - Nov. 12, 1848 
 The assembly dissolved, and a new con- 
 stitution promulgated - Dec. 6, 1849 
 
 Beign of Frederick the Great, during 
 
 MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OP BRANDENBURG, ETC. 
 
 A..0. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. I succession of time, passed into tht 
 
 * • Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in | families of Staden, Ascanio, BelleD 
 
P(JR] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 661 
 
 PRUSSIA, continued. 
 
 stadt, and that of Bavaria ; till the 
 emperor Sigismond, with the consent 
 of the states of the empire, gave per- 
 petual investiture to 
 
 1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 
 elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 
 
 1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or 
 Ironside ; resigned. 
 
 1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil- 
 les. He confirmed the deed made by 
 his predecessor, of mutual succession 
 with the families of Saxony and 
 Hesse; resigned. 
 
 1476 John, suniamed the Cicero of Germany, 
 his son. 
 
 1499 Joachim I., his son. 
 
 1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew 
 1571 John George. 
 1598 Joachim Frederick. 
 1608 John Sigismund. 
 1619 George William. 
 1640 Frederick William the Great. 
 1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made Idnj 
 of Prussia. 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 1701 Frederick I. 
 
 1713 Frederick William I. 
 
 1740 Frederick II., surnamed tiie Grsxt 
 
 1786 Frederick William II. 
 
 1797 Frederick William III. 
 
 1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. 
 
 PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted 
 to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, 
 A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was 
 about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32.600 ; and in 1790, the number in 
 Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 
 public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The 
 number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. 
 
 PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- 
 ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple 
 of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in 
 a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- 
 bination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1. — Phillips. 
 
 PULTOWA, Battle or. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of 
 Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to 
 take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch 
 would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagem.ent, had he 
 not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a 
 Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. 
 This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to 
 the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, 
 which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able 
 to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. 
 
 PUMPS- Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- 
 vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although 
 the invention is ascribed to l)anaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in 
 . general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
 Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on 
 the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well 
 beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282. 
 
 PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against 
 Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it 
 lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- 
 gan 218 b. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 
 foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the 
 gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with 
 uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his 
 progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticiuus, and 
 of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and 
 ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated 
 by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. 
 
 PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and heU 
 
552 THE world's progress. [ PYT 
 
 where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the 
 fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of 
 purgatory was known about a. d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman 
 church in 593. — Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century.— 
 D%pin. 
 
 PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to 
 the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the 
 Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the 
 birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she waa 
 to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among 
 the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of 
 the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, whei-e, according to custom, she 
 presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- 
 gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called 
 Candlemas-day. 
 
 PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- 
 beth, king James, aud king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of 
 living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were 
 members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon 
 account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- 
 verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson. 
 
 PYRAMIDS OP EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- 
 nini, " so celebrated from remote anticjuity, are the most illustrious monu- 
 ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found 
 but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and 
 diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- 
 nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high 
 mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, 
 it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the 
 seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- 
 dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of 
 the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed 
 of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- 
 man labor has not been found on the earth. 
 
 " Virtue alone.outbuilds the pyramids, 
 
 " Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Youno. 
 
 PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commande(iby lord 
 Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The 
 latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the 
 battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- 
 dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
 his al^ilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of 
 more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from 
 July 25 to August 2. 
 
 PYRENEES, Peace op the. A peace concluded between France and Spain ; 
 by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her 
 rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c., 
 and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 
 
 PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head 
 of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
 transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- 
 ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been 
 produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the 
 world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported 
 that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter by 
 
^UA J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 553 
 
 the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the 
 world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im- 
 prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at 
 this day, 639 b. c. 
 PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple 
 of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received 
 opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he *iad 
 obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ; 
 though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, 
 or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio 
 tyons, B. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a 
 French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a 
 shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor 
 added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addison. Qaacks 
 sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly 
 England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta- 
 blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 
 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss 
 Cashiu, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- 
 slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct. 
 30, 1830. 
 
 QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. 
 The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- 
 nomers under the Caliphs, in a.d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feeJ 8 inches 
 radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- 
 suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See 
 Navigation. 
 
 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great 
 Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the 
 accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple 
 Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the 
 reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of 
 the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. 
 
 QUiESTOR, in Roman antiquity, was an ofiicer who had the management of 
 the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship was the first office 
 any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the 
 senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was 
 greatly increased. 
 
 QUAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
 truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic 
 of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear 
 towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet of Derby, gave the society the 
 name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and 
 those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect- 
 able sect, excelling in morals prudence, and industry, was commenced in 
 England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- 
 ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith, 
 Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by tha 
 
 * The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, when 
 the first Friends who arrived weie females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and ttieW 
 
 24 
 
654 THE world's progress. [ QUI 
 
 Quakers originated with tlieir founder, who published a book of instruc- 
 tions for teacliers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was 
 enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- 
 quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1693. 
 
 QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all 
 merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in 
 the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- 
 mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of 
 Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other 
 nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- 
 rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged 
 most safe. 
 
 QUATRE-BRAS; Battle op, between the British and aUied army under the 
 duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the 
 French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. 
 In this engagement the gallant cluke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. 
 
 QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, 
 with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged 
 by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, 
 after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
 victory, Sept. 18, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. 
 Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was 
 slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The 
 public and private stores, and several whai'fs, were destroyed by fire in 
 1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000?. Awful flre, 165(1 
 houses, the dwellings .of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground. May 28, 
 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 
 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. 
 
 QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was 
 Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the 
 city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most 
 magnificent and superb city in the world. Tlie title of queen is coeval with 
 that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name af queen, 
 that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of 
 king. See note to article Hwngary. 
 
 QUEEN CAROLINE S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- 
 land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate 
 Investigation. May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- 
 nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her 
 funeral, Aug. 14. 
 
 QUEENS OF ENGLAND There have been, since the conquest, besides the 
 present sovereign, four quegns of England who have reigned in their own 
 right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady 
 Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- 
 four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who 
 
 ears cut oflf, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 
 2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- 
 selves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger 
 (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by a-n 
 order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em- 
 bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service 
 But tlie Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol 
 diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured 
 by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners m Holland, the rest having died of the plague in thai 
 year. See Plngue. Of the 120 few reached America. 
 
i 
 
 que] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 555 
 
 died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac- 
 tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen 
 The following list includes all these royal personages : — 
 
 Of William I. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
 Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and 
 died 1084. 
 
 William II. 
 
 This sovereign died unmarried. 
 Of Henry I. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
 Scotland ; she was married November 11, 
 1100; and died May 1, 1119. 
 
 Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- 
 vaine ; she was married January 29. 1129. 
 Survived the king. 
 
 Maude oi Matilda. 
 Dl nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to 
 the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- 
 ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry 
 v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. 
 She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
 earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the 
 English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed 
 in England and claimed the crown, 1139. 
 Crowned, but was soon after defeated at 
 Winchester, 1141. Concluded a peace with 
 Stephen, which secured the succession to 
 her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. 
 
 Of Stephen. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
 Boulogne ; she was married in 1128 ; and 
 lied May 3, 1151. 
 
 Of Henry II. 
 
 Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
 VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
 and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; 
 and died 1204. 
 
 [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of 
 this prince. 
 
 Of Richard I. 
 
 Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- 
 varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- 
 vived the king. 
 
 Of John. 
 
 Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
 she was inarriid in 1189. Divorced. 
 
 Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- 
 leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of 
 the count de la Marche ; married to John in 
 1200. Survived the king, on whose death 
 she was remarried to the count de la Marche. 
 
 Of Henry III. 
 Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
 vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. 
 Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- 
 nastery, whither she had retired 
 
 Of Edward I. 
 
 Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 
 1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- 
 tend, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. 
 
 Margaret, sister of the king of France ; sfvi 
 
 was married September 12, 1299. Survived 
 the king. 
 
 Of Edward II. 
 Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
 she was married m 1308. On the death, by 
 the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she W£.s 
 confined for the rest of her life in her own 
 house at Risings, near London, — Hume. 
 
 Of Edward III. 
 Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland! 
 and Hamault ; she was inarried January 24 
 1328 ; and died August 16, 1369. 
 
 Of Richard II. 
 
 Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi 
 Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married 
 in January 1382 ; and died Ausust 3, 1395. 
 
 /saieWa, daughter of Charles Vl.of France; 
 she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the muj- 
 der of her husband she returned to her fa- 
 ther. 
 
 Of Henry IV. 
 
 Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; 
 she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
 in 1394. 
 
 Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke oi 
 Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- 
 vived the king, and died in 1437. 
 
 Of Henry V. 
 Catherine, daughter of the king of France > 
 she was married May 30, 1420. She outliv- 
 ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudot, 
 grandfather of Henry VII. 
 
 Of Henry VI. 
 
 Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
 she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- 
 ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and 
 died in 1482. 
 
 Of Edward IV. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
 Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John 
 Grey, of Groby ; she was married Marcli 1, 
 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection 
 of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in 
 confinement. 
 
 Edward V. 
 
 This prince perished in the Tower, in 
 the 13th year of his age; and died unma"- 
 ried. 
 
 Of Richard III. 
 
 Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwi-k, 
 and widow of Edward, prince of Wales, 
 whom Richard had murdereil, 1471. She ia 
 supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
 (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to 
 make way for his intended marriage with 
 the princess Elizabeth of York. 
 
 Of Henry VII. 
 
 Elizabeth of York, princess of Englani 
 daughter of Edward IV. ; she was niarrie/ 
 January 18, 1486; and died February 11 
 1503. 
 
556 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [QUI 
 
 QUEENS, continued. 
 
 Of Henry VHI. 
 
 Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's 
 elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She 
 was married June 3, 1509 ; was the mother 
 of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- 
 wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533 ; died 
 January 6, 1536. 
 
 Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- 
 leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She 
 was privately married, before Catherine was 
 divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of 
 queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- 
 er, May 19, 1536. 
 
 Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- 
 mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. 
 She was married May 20, 1536, the day after 
 Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- 
 ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, 
 Oct. 13, 1537. 
 
 Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke 
 of Cleves. She was married January 6, 
 1540; was divorced July 10, 1540; and died 
 in 1557. 
 
 Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of 
 Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; 
 and was beheaded on Tower hill February 
 12, 1542. 
 
 Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
 Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. 
 She was married July 12, 1543. Survived 
 the king, after whose death she married sir 
 Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and 
 died September 5, 1548. 
 
 Edward VL 
 This prince, who ascended the throne m his 
 tenth year, reigned six years and five months, 
 and died unmarried. 
 
 Lady Jane Grey. 
 Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife 
 of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen 
 on the death of Edward. In ten days after- 
 wards returned to private life ; was tried 
 Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 
 1554, wlien but seventeen years of age. 
 
 Mary. 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended 
 the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. 
 of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- 
 ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 
 1598. 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to 
 the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 
 4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. 
 
 Of James I. 
 Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
 Frederick II. ; she was married August "31, 
 1589; and died March 1619. 
 
 Of Charles I. 
 
 Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
 
 king of France : she was married June 13, 
 
 1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and 
 
 died in France, August 10, 1669. 
 
 Of Charles IT. 
 Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughtcA 
 of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. : sh« 
 was married May 21, 1662. Survived th« 
 king, returneo to Portugal, and died Dec. 
 21, 1705. 
 
 Of James II. 
 
 Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde 
 earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep 
 tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend- 
 ed the throne, in 1671. 
 
 Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh 
 ter of Alplionzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- 
 ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution 
 in 1688, she retired with James to France ; 
 and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur- 
 vived her consort seventeen yejus. 
 
 William and Mary. 
 Mary, the princess of Orange, daughter )f 
 James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16' 7 ; 
 ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- 
 cember 28, 1694. 
 
 Anne. 
 Daughter of James 11. She married George 
 prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed- 
 ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
 children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
 husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 
 1, 1714. 
 
 Of George I. 
 Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol 
 Zell. She died a few weeks previously to 
 the accession of George to the crown, June 
 8, 1714. 
 
 Of George II. 
 Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
 denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and 
 died November 20, 1737. 
 
 Of George III. 
 Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke ol 
 Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married September 
 8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. 
 
 Of George IV. 
 Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
 duke of Brunswick ; she was married ApriJ 
 8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- 
 cess Cliarlotte; and died August?, 1821. See 
 article Queen Caroline. 
 
 Of William IV. 
 
 Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Carolirie, 
 sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she 
 was married July 11, 1818; and survived th« 
 king. 
 
 Victoria. 
 Alexandrtna Victoria, the reigning queen 
 daughter of the duke of Kent ; born May 24 
 1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 
 crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousii 
 prince Albert of Saxe-Cotnirg-Gotha, FeS> 
 ruary 10, 1840. 
 
 QUEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri 
 
RAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 557 
 
 ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the 
 Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
 same day. 
 
 QtnCKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It 
 •is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight 
 of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- 
 ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the 
 chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- 
 many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 
 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It 
 was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by 
 Mr. Walker, in 1787. 
 
 QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, 
 whose work, the Spintual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists 
 in France. His principal tenet was, that thb purity of religion coi.sisted in 
 an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and 
 the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of 
 absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when 
 arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then 
 imagined the soul to be wholly emploj^ed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- 
 dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions 
 and prophecies, but released through the interest of Pension, the celebrated 
 archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she 
 occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect 
 sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. 
 
 QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some 
 say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty 
 from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, 
 ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillip': 
 
 QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {which see) celebrated as having been ihe 
 scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and 
 Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls 
 were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost 
 overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. 
 
 R. 
 
 RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chayv- 
 ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, 
 who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- 
 zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, 
 and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were 
 races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of 
 Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Ne^vmarket, 
 although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, 
 and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. 
 
 RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- 
 sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. 
 The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times ao in- 
 strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., 
 erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now 
 eeen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of 
 Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- 
 ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as 
 being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravilla,c. 
 
558 THE world's progress. [ EA 
 
 RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- 
 cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40,000^. to the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone oi 
 the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 
 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. 
 
 R ADSTADT, Peace op, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- 
 gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, 
 Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- 
 cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian 
 regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. 
 
 RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow'seas but on 
 rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was hrought 
 among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 
 1485 B. c. — Heylin. 
 
 RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram- ways in and about New- 
 castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made o! 
 wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the 
 pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 :— " The 
 manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the 
 river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- 
 ers fitting those i-ails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will 
 draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the 
 coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, af. 
 Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at 
 Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament 
 (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small 
 branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames 
 at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first 
 great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester 
 railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. 
 
 EXTENT OP RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOnT THE WORLD, IN 1847. 
 
 'Miles 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 - 3,375 
 
 Italy .... 
 
 115 
 
 United States (in 1849, 6,117) - 
 
 - 3,800 
 
 Denmark .... 
 
 106 
 
 Germany (in 1849, 3,100) ■ 
 
 - 1,570 
 
 Cuba - - • - 
 
 800 
 
 Holland .... 
 
 - 200 
 
 Russia .... 
 
 52 
 
 Belgium 
 
 - 1.095 
 
 British Colonies 
 
 1,000 
 
 France . . . - 
 
 - 2,200 
 
 East India .... 
 
 500 
 
 Total length of railways opened throughout the world :— in 1847, 21,761 miies. 
 
 In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at ' the rate of 6 miles 
 per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; 
 in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the 
 North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour ; and at the present 
 moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During 
 the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been 
 diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed foi 
 one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres 
 ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railways, 1847. 
 
 HAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In Janaary 1849, the lines complet 
 ed reached an aggregate of 
 
 In New England 1,219 miles. 
 
 In New York 840 do. 
 
 ] n other parts of the United States - .... 4,058 do. 
 
 Tola' .... 6,117 do 
 [9eo Amtrican Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.] 
 
RAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 
 
 A C(msiderable number of miles have since been completed, including a 
 portion of tiie New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The 
 first railway in the United States, Avas the Quincy and Boston, to convej 
 granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, 
 opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- 
 cester, July 6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- 
 timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1887. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 
 1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb 
 12, 1840. 
 
 RAILROADS in FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 
 1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezioux 22 miles, 
 commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident 
 on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- 
 ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and 
 Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 
 8, 1846. 
 
 RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the fiist in 
 Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. 
 
 RAMILIES, Battle of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough 
 and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on 
 Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious 
 victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other "import- 
 ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which 
 had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his 
 daughters. 
 
 RATISBON, Peace of, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- 
 many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
 October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
 princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under 
 the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. 
 
 RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest 
 of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions 
 of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. 
 Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in 
 the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, 
 that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western 
 deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- 
 vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an(/. 
 in some parts 6f France are still unknown. 
 
 RAVENNA, Battle of, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix 
 (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal 
 armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment 
 of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 
 11, 1512. 
 
 R.iVILLAC'S MURDER of HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death cf Ravil- 
 lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king. May 
 14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. 
 He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in tha 
 shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened 
 the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. 
 Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot 
 pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin wero 
 poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain; and 
 his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to ba 
 
560 ■ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ RFl 
 
 pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, 
 and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through thu 
 streets. 
 
 REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation 
 for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for 
 a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- 
 sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- 
 form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl 
 Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by 
 lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords 
 by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority. May 7. 
 New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers 
 (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. 
 
 REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church 
 may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinua, bishop of Aqui- 
 leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal 
 reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, 
 Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The 
 eras of the Reformation are as follows : — 
 
 In England (TFtcAiijfe) - - a. d. 1360 
 In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 
 In Germany (Luther) ■ • - - 1517 
 In Switzerland (Zjtm^ZzMs) - - -1519 
 
 In Denmark 1521 
 
 In France ( Calvin) 1-529 
 
 Protestants iirst so called ... 1529 
 
 In Sweden (Petri) • - - A. D. 1530 
 In England (Henry VHI.) - - - 1534 
 In Ireland (Browne) .... 1535 
 In England, completed (Cranmer, h u- 
 cer, Fagius, S;-c.) .... [547 
 
 In Scotland (Knox) 1560 
 
 In the Netherlands .... 156'2 
 
 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession 
 to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first 
 prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Duther, 
 Protestants, (^c. 
 
 RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to 
 God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and 
 applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false 
 gods among the heathens, — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes 
 and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits 
 being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious 
 ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- 
 troduced by Enos, 2832 b. c. — Lenglet. See the diflerent sects as described 
 throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced 
 with the Reformation {which see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for 
 the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered 
 death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; 
 they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1568, and receiv- 
 ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. 
 
 REPEAL OF THE UNION of Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- 
 tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 
 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 
 1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- 
 berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in 
 various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150 000 persons, and 
 called "monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf on Oct. 8, 
 was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were 
 brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. 
 
 RETREAT of the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had 
 joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- 
 xerxes> Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the 
 retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though undet 
 
lEV] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 561 
 
 continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Peisians, he was- enabled 
 to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops ef moun- 
 tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. 
 This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned 
 home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 
 216 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might 
 now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosophei 
 who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which 
 he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 b. c. — Vossius. 
 REVENUE, PUBLIC, op England. The revenue collected for the civil list 
 and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- 
 nary, i;l,200;000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoi'ation of Charles 
 n. Raised to i;6,000 000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, 
 which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 
 1690. — Salmvii's Chron. Hist.. 
 
 BENERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC 
 
 William the Conqueror 
 
 William Rufus 
 
 Heniy I, 
 
 Stephen 
 
 Henry II. 
 
 Richard I. 
 
 John 
 
 Heniy III. 
 
 Edward I. 
 
 Edward II. 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 Richard II. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Henry V. 
 
 Henry VI. 
 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Edward V. 
 
 Richard III. 
 
 Henry VH. 
 
 REVENUE SINCE 
 
 - £400,000 
 350,000 
 300,000 
 2.50,000 
 200,000 
 150,000 
 100,000 
 80,000 
 150,900 
 100,000 
 154,000 
 130,000 
 100,000 
 76,643 
 64,976 
 
 100,000 
 130,000 
 400,000 
 
 THE CONQ,UEST, BY SIR JOHN 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Edward VI. . - - 
 
 Mary .... 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 James I. .... 
 
 Charles I. 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 James II. - 
 
 William m. - 
 
 Anne (at the Union) - 
 
 George I. ... 
 
 George II. ... 
 
 George III., 1788 - 
 
 Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 
 
 George IV., 1825, ditto - 
 
 William IV., 1830, ditto - 
 
 Ditto, 1835, ditto 
 
 Victoria, 1845, ditto - 
 
 SINCLAIR. 
 
 - X 800,000 
 400,000 
 450,000 
 500,000 
 - 600,0OL 
 895,819 
 1,517,247 
 1,800,000 
 2,001,855 
 3,892,205 
 5,691,803 
 6,762,643 
 8,522,540 
 15,572.971 
 65.599,570 
 62,871,300 
 55,431,317 
 50,494,732 
 51,067,856 
 
 REVENUE OF THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and 
 sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 
 
 1790 - - $4,399,473 1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 - - $16,993,858 
 
 1795 - - - 5,926.216 1830 - '■ 24,280.888 1844 - • 28,504,519 
 
 1800 - - 10,624;997 1835 - - - 34,163,635 1845 - - - 29,769.134 
 
 1805 - - - 13,520,312 1836 - - 48,288,219 1846 - - 29,499,247 
 
 1810 - - 9,299,737 1837 - - - 18,032,846 1847 - - - 26,346,79C 
 
 J815 - - - 15,411.634 1838 - - 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750 
 1820 - - 16,779;331 1839 - - - 30,399,043 
 
 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a re- 
 view was the '"Journal des Savants" established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis 
 de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- 
 tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De 
 Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la 
 Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society ol 
 learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 
 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued; but in 
 1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- 
 tributors, as De Sacy, Langl^s, R^musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other 
 literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few 
 years. 
 
 The Gentleman'' s Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly 
 Review, in 1749, were the first works of t'he kind published in London, that 
 obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals 
 which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated 
 by Nichols; viz. " Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth/ 
 24* 
 
562 THE world's progress. [ REt 
 
 1688-9; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; 'New Memoirs of 
 Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 
 18 vols., 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. 
 
 The Gentleman'' s Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the 
 first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate, 
 David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 
 1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more 
 than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author 
 of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole 
 editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession; 
 and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work 
 from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag;- 
 azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- 
 tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of 
 this magazine, that its ■' scheme is known wherever the English language is 
 spoken —tliatit is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which 
 literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun 
 January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 volurjes 
 
 The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was 
 established in 1749, by Ralph Grifliths, LL. D., who continued to :onduct it 
 54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was 
 continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, 
 from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 
 1825 108 volumes. 
 
 The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- 
 ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 
 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished 
 upwards of 2 620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. 
 First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 
 to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes ; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 
 volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series 
 was begun in 1815. 
 
 The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were 
 the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom died 
 in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the 
 work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first pubhshed in 
 monthly numbers ; \>v-^ ^-om 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of 
 " The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, 
 called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- 
 bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High 
 Church principles. 
 
 The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri- 
 odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range 
 and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any jireced- 
 ing publication of the kind. It has imiformly been a strenuous asserter of 
 Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith 
 (the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its 
 principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished 
 names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham 
 and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, 
 upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- 
 what less than 9000. 
 
 The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early aa 
 1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It 
 may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- 
 
ftEV ] DICTIONAR.T OP DATES, 563 
 
 ing, in ft manner equally uncompi'omising, opposite or High Tory principles. 
 It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William GifFord ; then by 
 H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- 
 bered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and 
 learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected 
 with the government. 
 
 The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. 
 It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- 
 ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had 
 many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert 
 Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, from 
 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 
 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. 
 
 The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members 
 of the established church, was commenced in 1802, and maintains what are 
 commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- 
 butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel 
 Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have be-oi republished 
 in this country. 
 
 BlackiooocVs Edi^iburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. 
 It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. 
 The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 
 
 1 he Westminster Reviev:, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- 
 iham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- 
 lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, 
 and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. 
 
 The Foreign Quarterly Rev mo [London], established in 1827, devoted to 
 foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united 
 to the Westminster Review. — Amer. Almanac, &c. 
 REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- 
 land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James 
 II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- 
 sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 
 1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was 
 consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) 
 being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. 
 REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- 
 stroj^ed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 
 536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- 
 sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 
 B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or 
 Greek monarchy, by Julius Csesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded 
 by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. 
 The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. 
 This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire 
 under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, 
 from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern 
 empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the 
 Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, 
 France, Portugal, &c. 
 REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated in modern history. In Portugal, a. d. 
 1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730 
 and 1762. In Sweaen, 1772 and 1809. fn America, 1775. In France. 1789, 
 1830. and 1848. In Holland, 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In 
 the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 
 
564 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 KIQ 
 
 Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary onlj 
 — the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- 
 tively. 
 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- 
 rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lit©- 
 rary journals "i several places in this country, particularly Boston, New 
 York, and Philaaeiphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or 
 had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary anj 
 religious reviews and magazines : 
 BOSTON. Founded. 
 American Monthly Ma- 
 gazine, (the first) es- 
 tablished by Jeremy 
 Gridley, continued 3 
 years, about - - 1745 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 
 Monthly Anthology, Prf. 
 Ticknor, A. H. Eve- 
 rett, Buckminster, &c. 
 (to 1811) - ■ - 1803 
 
 General Repertory and 
 Review, (1st Amer. 
 quarterly,) edited at 
 Cambridge by Andrews 
 Norton - - 1812-13 
 
 North American Re- 
 view, commenced by 
 W. Tudor* - - 1815 
 
 Christian Examiner, 
 (quarterly) Channing, 
 Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 
 
 American Biblic. Repo- 
 sitory, founded by E. 
 Robinson, D.D., at An- 
 dover • - - 1831 
 
 Christian Review,(.Bsip- 
 tist) quarterly - - 1835 
 
 Boston Quarterly Re- 
 DteMj, (Brownson) - 1837 
 
 New England Maga- 
 zine, Buckingham - 1833 
 
 American Quarterly Re- 
 
 fister, Edwards - 18 — 
 e Dial, (quarterly) 
 Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 
 Massachusetts Quarter- 
 ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 N. Y. Magazine and 
 Literary Repository, 
 (to 1792) - - 1787 
 
 Literary Review, R. C. 
 Sands, &c. (to 182-3) - 1822 
 
 Atlantic Mag., Sands, 
 afterwards New York 
 Monthly Review, ■ 1824 
 
 Knickerbocker Mag., C, 
 F. Hoffman, succeeded 
 by Flint, and now L. 
 
 G. Clark - - 1832 
 
 Democratic Review (un 
 til 1841 at Washington) 1837 
 
 American Monthly Ma- 
 gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838; 
 Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- 
 jamin - - - 1835 
 
 N. Y. Review, (quar- 
 terly) J. G. Cogswell, 
 (to 1842) - - 1837 
 
 American Review, G. 
 H. Colton - - 1844 
 
 Hunt's Merchant's Ma- 
 gazine • - - 1839 
 
 NEW HAVEN. 
 
 Christian Observer 
 
 American Journal of 
 Science Sf Arts, (Silli^ 
 man's) quarterly 
 
 New Englander, Tlieol 
 (quarterly) 
 
 Church Review (quar- 
 terly) - 
 
 1818 
 1843 
 
 1848 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Aitkin's Pennsylvania 
 Magazine was the 
 most popular before 
 the Revolution; Thos. 
 Pame and Francis 
 Hopkinson, editors 
 
 Amer. Museum, pub. by 
 Matthew Carey, (to 
 1792) - ■ -1787 
 
 Literary Magazine and 
 American Register, C. 
 Brockden Brown, (to 
 1810) - - -1816 
 
 Portfolio, pub. monthly 
 from 1809 by Jos. Den- 
 nie ; edited by Nicho- 
 las Biddle,] 812-16, and 
 1816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 
 
 Analectic Mag., Moses 
 Thomas, (to 1820) ')»13 
 
 Amer. Quar. Review, 
 Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 
 
 Graham's Magazine - 
 
 Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale 
 
 Stryker's A7nerican Re- 
 gister, (quarterly) - 1847 
 
 Southern Quarterly Re- 
 view, at Charleston, 
 (to 1833, recommenced 
 1842) - - - 1828 
 
 Southern Lit. Messen- 
 ger, at Richmond, by 
 T. W. White - - 1834 
 
 Biblical Repertory and 
 Theological Review, 
 Princeton, N. J. - 18— 
 
 RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt 
 in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, 
 the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. 
 The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, 
 becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from 
 paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city 
 was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. 
 
 RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
 Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at 
 Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. "We are first to consider what ia 
 to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to 
 be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in 
 Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 
 
 * Subsequent editors :— W. Phillips, 1817 ; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks, 1817 ; Edwara 
 Eterett, 18'9 Jared Sparks, 1823 ; A. H. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835 ; F. Bowen, .842. 
 
AOM ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 565 
 
 RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Roger Williams 
 and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, 
 and founded the town of Providence, in 1636. Williams obtained a patent 
 from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode 
 Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, 
 which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. 
 Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in 
 June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti- 
 tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United 
 States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Poj>- 
 ulation in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,180. 
 
 RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- 
 dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- 
 itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not 
 completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b. c. Its famous Colossus 
 (which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroyed 
 by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. 672 — Priestley. 
 
 RJALTO, AT Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in 
 his "Merchant of Venice."' It was built in 1570, and consists of a single 
 arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near 
 the middle, where it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet 
 wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. 
 
 RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- 
 land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill oj 
 Rights. 
 
 RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : 
 
 At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- 
 ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812. 
 
 At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- 
 taiy, Sept. 24, 1831. 
 
 At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 
 killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835. 
 
 At New York, '■ abolition riots," caused by 
 disQjissions on slavery, and supposed in- 
 tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- 
 gamation" between whites and blacks, 
 July 10-12, 1834. 
 
 At Chariest own, Mass., a Catholic seminary 
 or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. 
 
 At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 
 40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. 
 
 At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause, 1835-6. 
 
 At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- 
 ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 
 30, 1836. 
 
 At New York, caused by the high price ot 
 flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- 
 troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. 
 
 At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- 
 very newspaper destroyed, and he was 
 killed, Nov. 7. 1837. 
 
 At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 
 slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- 
 nia Hall, &c.. May 17, 1838. 
 
 In the Pennsylvania legislature, two difl^erent 
 legislatures organized, the Senate expelled 
 from their Chamber by a mob. Militia 
 called out and the contest settled after 4 
 days, Dec. 8, 1838. 
 
 At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against 
 abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. 
 
 Disgraceful affray in Pennsylvania legisla- 
 ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 
 8, 1843. 
 
 Another in House of Representatives of U. 
 S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, 
 Jan. 25, 1844. 
 
 Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- 
 ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 
 churches burned, fourteen persons killed, 
 forty wounded : finally put down by the 
 military, May 6-8, 1844. 
 
 The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and 
 wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- 
 ed out, July 7,1844. 
 
 Outrages of "Anti-Renters^" in Rensselaer 
 County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 
 1844 : renewed in December. 
 
 Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor 
 Wright to be in a state of insurrection. 
 Collection of rents being resisted by rioteia 
 disguised as Indians, and an under sherifl 
 murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. 
 
 Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 
 25, 1847. 
 
 Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y. 
 against Mr. Macreadv, the Lnglish attor 
 21 killed ; May 10, 1849. 
 
 Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mia 
 sissippi and Benton of Missourij in th« 
 Senate of the U. S., the first gross irsgultM 
 that assembly, May, 1850. 
 
 RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- 
 
566 THE world's progress. [ E3M 
 
 sembled at Chicago, 111., July 5, 1847. House of Representatives votes 
 (112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- 
 ment to promote such improvements, July 1848. 
 ROBESPIERRE'S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the 
 populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement oi 
 the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers ol 
 eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- 
 tion. Blllaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- 
 bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through 
 the hall; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked 
 minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and 
 suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. 
 
 ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of rubbers, who 
 infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made 
 excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historiacs 
 assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, 
 who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. 
 Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- 
 merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247, 
 when he died. — Stowe's Chron. 
 
 ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were 
 invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were 
 first usod at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated 
 in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See 
 article Boulogne Flotilla. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of 
 its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was 
 alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the 
 rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of 
 Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 82-3. See Bo7ne. The foundation of the 
 papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of 
 Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- 
 phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. 
 The tremendous power of the Roman pontifis was weakened by the Reform- 
 ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed 
 doctrines, and the general dift\ision of knowledge among the nations of the 
 earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under 
 the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 
 1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor 
 there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded 
 from the British throne same year. Obhged to register their names an^d 
 estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament 
 in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 
 1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation 
 Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his 
 seat under the act. 
 
 ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic 
 flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — 
 Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author 
 of Etkiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence 
 styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and 
 particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.- - 
 Huet de O.'igine Fabul. Roman. 
 
ROS] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 567 
 
 ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the 
 most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. 
 Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- 
 brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of 
 the Juhan period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the 
 birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of 
 the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
 the summit of Mount Palatine"^; and the founder, to give his followers the 
 appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard 
 a^ a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from 
 their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From 
 such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the 
 death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the 
 Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and 
 Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, 
 to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of nearij the 
 whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting 
 for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. 
 The three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, having 
 been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- 
 bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 e. c. — 
 Liry. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63. 
 
 Foundatinn of the city commenced by 
 Romulus - • - B. c. 
 
 Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters 
 Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the 
 title of king of Italy, which ends the 
 Western empire - - a. d. 
 
 Rome is recovered for Justinian, by 
 Belisarius .... 
 
 Retaken by the Goths 
 
 Narses, Justinian's general, again re- 
 conquers Rome 
 
 Papal power established 
 
 Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, 
 and becomes free 
 
 Pope Stephen 11. invested with the tem- 
 poral dominion of Rome 
 
 Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor 
 of the West - - - - 
 
 753 
 
 476 
 
 553 
 606 
 
 756 
 
 Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at 
 Rome - - - • • 1347 
 
 [The popes continued in possession of 
 the city and territories. See article 
 Popes and Italy.'] 
 
 The recent struggles of Rome for free- 
 dom commenced in - - • 1848 
 
 Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 
 
 &c. The pope refuses ; the people 
 attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the 
 pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- 
 nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1&43 
 
 The pope, after being a prisoner in his 
 palace for seven days, escapes from 
 Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis- 
 guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 
 
 Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- 
 stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1848 
 
 The Roman republic proclaimed ; Maz- 
 zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 
 
 French armament against the republic 
 reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1819 
 
 French repulsed under the walls of 
 Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 
 
 Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 
 days, and false promises on the part 
 of the French - - July 2, 1849 
 
 Rome entered by the French under Ou- 
 dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi 
 and liis force of 3,000 men • July 3, 1849 
 
 Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 
 
 Oudinot surrenders the government 
 into the hands of three commissioners 
 of the pope, who begin the work of 
 reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349 
 
 Letter of the French president, dictat- 
 ing the basis of the restoration of the 
 pope's temporal power, viz. : general 
 amnesty, secularization of the admi- 
 nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- 
 ral government - Aug. 18, 1849 
 
 Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 
 
 Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- 
 ter, assassinated at the senate-house. 
 The populace march to the Quirinal, 
 and present thoir demands to the 
 pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- 
 stituent assembly, a new ministry, 
 
 ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- 
 gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary 
 and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as 
 being said in 1093. 
 
 ROSES, The White and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated 
 England, were carried on under the symbols of the IVhUe and the Red Rose^ 
 and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the bouse of Lan- 
 
668 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ RCM 
 
 caster chose the ? ed roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York 
 were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- 
 ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- 
 chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king 
 by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii 
 to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward 
 III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, XhbLhira 
 son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira- 
 cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- 
 scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards iilled the kiugdoiB 
 with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, particularly ir 
 the reigns of Henry Vl. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22 
 1455. See Alhans, Si. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VU 
 with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486 
 
 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger 
 many in 1302, and again early in the 17th century. They swore fidelity 
 promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an 
 cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno 
 sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. 
 
 ROUND- HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng- 
 land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava- 
 litrs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. Thii 
 latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves 
 putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii 
 hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY or ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- 
 age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was 
 appointed its first president. — Leigh. 
 
 ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of 
 persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- 
 berden. Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally bj' the exertions 
 of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the 
 metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus 
 and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. 
 
 ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- 
 der the patronage of George III. . and incorporated by royal charter aa 
 " The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and 
 facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and 
 improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and 
 experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. 
 The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- 
 tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thii 
 establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. 
 Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the' several doctors of 
 divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in tht 
 apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society 
 continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a bodj 
 politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and 
 Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.'' 
 
 RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the 
 civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- 
 aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the 
 Presbyterian party, whom he confined ; above 160 more were excluded ; 
 and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, wer« 
 
tiV9 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 
 
 569 
 
 permii ted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was 
 called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 
 
 lQi9.— GoldsviiiL 
 
 RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this 
 vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son 
 of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion 
 from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- 
 guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- 
 pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. 
 Rurick was grand-duke of JMovogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- 
 thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian 
 king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- 
 cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in 
 subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In 
 the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered 
 Siberia. 
 
 The young prince, the rightful heir, till 
 now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 
 
 The dismemberment of Poland com- 
 menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177* 
 
 This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 
 
 Catherine gives her subjects a new code 
 of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- 
 ing criminals ; and dies - - 1796 
 
 Murder of the emperor Paul, who is 
 found dead in his chamber, March23, 1801 
 
 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 
 by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 
 
 Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 
 
 The grand-duke Constantine renounces 
 the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 
 
 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at 
 Moscow - . . Sept. 3, 1826 
 
 Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1826 
 
 Nicholas invested with the order of the 
 Garter - - - July 9, 1827 
 
 Peace concluded between Russia and 
 the Persians - - Feb- 22, 1828 
 
 War between Russia and the Ottoman 
 Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 
 
 [For the disastrous consequences to 
 Turkey of this war, see Tur/cey and 
 Battles.] 
 
 The war for the independence of Poland, 
 against Russia - - Nov. 29, 1830 
 
 This war closed with the capture of 
 Warsaw, and the total overthrow of 
 the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 
 
 [For the events of this last war, see ar- 
 ticle Poland.] 
 
 Cracow, which had been erected into a 
 republic, and its independence gua- 
 ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 
 ISlo, is occupied by a Russian and 
 Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 
 
 Failure of the Russian expedition a- 
 
 gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1840 
 
 Treaty of London. See Syria ■ July 15, 18W 
 
 The foundation of the present monarchy 
 
 laid A. D. 1474 
 
 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- 
 to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 
 
 Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, 
 signifying great king, and drives the 
 Tartars clear out of his dominions, 
 1534 to 1550 
 
 The navigation from England first dis- 
 covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554 
 
 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 
 30,000 of the people - - - -1571 
 
 The Novogorodians having intrigued • 
 with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief 
 inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- 
 ces before his eyes .... 1581 
 
 The race of Rurick, who had governed 
 Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 159S 
 
 The imposition practised by Demetrius 
 See Impostors. 1606 
 
 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their 
 
 ■ own king, Sigismund II., upon the 
 throne of Russia .... I6IO 
 
 Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of 
 Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 
 
 Revolt from Polish tyranny - - - 1613 
 
 Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 
 
 Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682 
 
 He visited England, and worked in the 
 dock-yard af Deptford - - - 1697 
 
 Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- 
 ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 
 
 The Russians begin their new year 
 from January i - . . 1700 
 
 Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 
 
 Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given 
 to Anne of Courland - - - 1730 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 
 in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, 
 who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 
 
 Peter III. dethroned and murdered ; suc- 
 ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 
 
 THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA 
 
 i. D 1461 John m. 1606 Chousky. 
 
 1504 Demetrius; murdered. " ' ' 
 
 1504 Basil V. 
 
 1534 John IV. 
 
 1584 Theodore I. 
 
 1598 Bovise Godounove. 
 
 1605 Theodore II. 
 
 1605 Demetrius II. , assassinated. 
 
 1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 
 
 1645 Alexis. 
 
 1676 Theodore III. 
 
 1682 Peter I., the Great. 
 
 1725 Catherine 1. 
 
 1727 Peter II. 
 
 1730 Anne, a nun. 
 
570 THK world's progress. [sal 
 
 RUSSIA, continued. 
 
 1762 Catherine II. 
 
 1740 John V. : murdered, Ji ly 17, 1762. 
 
 1741 Elizabeth. 
 
 1762 Peter 111. ; deposed, ami died soon af- 
 terwards. 
 
 1796 Paul 1.; murdeied, Feb 25, 1901. 
 
 1801 Alexander. 
 
 1825 Nicholas, December 1. 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy U 
 as.sassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards Jamej 
 II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. 
 This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at JNew- 
 market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight 
 days before the plot was to take place, March 22. 1683. The plot was discov- 
 ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a 
 false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. 
 , RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Sp^^in, and Holland, 
 signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 80, 1697. 
 
 SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh 
 day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- 
 dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in 
 commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- 
 sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be 
 kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at 
 break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one 
 shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 8 James I. 1606. 
 Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform 
 ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, 
 meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of 
 five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. 
 
 SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts 
 of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturdaj', instead of the mo- 
 dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not 
 a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath 
 was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently 
 that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the 
 Jews, 1549. 
 
 SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, 
 during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every 
 forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, 
 &c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, 
 &c. — Josep/ius. 
 
 SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away 
 their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some 
 public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to 
 revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf 
 of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- 
 tween them, 750 b. c. 
 
 8ACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 e. c. 
 The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phoci^ns, 
 356 B. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all 
 the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b, c. — Plutarch. 
 
 SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con- 
 sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; Ushti . 
 Sacrifices to the gods were fii st introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of 
 
ST. V] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571 
 
 Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated 
 with the Clialdeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and 
 other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- 
 fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 33. 
 
 SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, 
 which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in 
 the third centurj^ and are mentioned as made of leather in j*. d. 304. They 
 were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in 
 use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard IL, introduced them to the En- 
 glish ladies. — SLowe. 
 
 3ADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one 
 Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, 
 taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul 
 was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. 
 As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed 'u general with the Sama- 
 ritans, excepting that they were partakers of aU the Jewish sacrifices. This 
 sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. 
 
 SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- 
 cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- 
 proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in 
 passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be 
 capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- 
 nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
 Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are 
 authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in 
 Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year. 
 
 SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now 
 Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. g. The heroic citizens, after 
 exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the 
 ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- 
 selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became 
 master of a pile of ashes and of dead. 
 
 ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or 
 America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called 
 Guanahami. or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for 
 his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of 
 discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. 
 
 ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- 
 hngton. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most 
 heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, 
 was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31 
 1813. 
 
 Wr. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- 
 lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by 
 Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- 
 rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
 breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of 
 Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at 
 Rome. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets oflT the 
 Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St, 
 Vincent), who took four hne-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged thfl 
 rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 
 
5(2 THE WORLDS TPftOGRESS. [ SAP 
 
 SALAMANCA, Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord 
 Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought .July 22, 
 1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington wag 
 victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in 
 killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy 
 was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 
 pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed 
 to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- 
 shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An 
 immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 
 , more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. 
 
 SALAMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- 
 flght, October 20. 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 
 366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. After 
 this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, 
 with 300,000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- 
 treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, 
 now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. 
 
 SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- 
 ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- 
 fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French 
 monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to 
 the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual 
 to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but 
 this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring 
 the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. 
 
 SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from 
 salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous saltrUiines of Wielitska, near 
 Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been 
 lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered 
 about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine 
 salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. 
 
 SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They 
 were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and 
 were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple 
 built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- 
 tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place 
 between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- 
 proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lempricre. 
 
 SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one 
 entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety 
 of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- 
 cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. 
 St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935 ; West^ 
 minster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- 
 tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were 
 privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- 
 pressed in 1696. 
 
 SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At 
 first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot 
 from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of 
 cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest 
 materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kingSj 
 princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn 
 by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, 
 
KarJ dictionary of datfs. o73 
 
 among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of 
 which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry 
 their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See 
 Shoes. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They 
 were discc vered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- 
 tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard 
 of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna- 
 vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. 
 Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, 
 effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of 
 Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihorih >, his son, succeed? 
 him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihorihoand his queen died in Eng- 
 land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established 
 by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 
 pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- 
 Thouars, 18-37. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- 
 aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king. Dr. G. P. Ji dd, an Ame- 
 rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1881 there were 14 ships. 2630 tons, belong- 
 ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling 
 station. See Owhyhee. 
 
 SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- 
 enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from 
 Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jbsus Christ, John 
 xviii. 81. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon 
 at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. 
 
 SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- 
 lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her 
 amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth 
 of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea 
 from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid 
 her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. 
 
 SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their 
 language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; 
 and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part 
 of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 718 et seq. ; the 
 empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. 
 — Blair. Thei-e are now no people known by this name ; the descendants 
 of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. 
 
 SARAGOSSA. Anciently Caesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name. 
 Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, 
 ■ while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and 
 left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little 
 Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- 
 luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of 
 the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by 
 the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re 
 nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. 
 
 SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman 
 der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir 
 the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to thf 
 American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17 
 1777. 
 
 SARD ANAP ALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. One of the mos* 
 
574 
 
 THE world's PRORUESS 
 
 SA1 
 
 infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to 
 his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into 
 their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh Here he caused 
 a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon 
 it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, 
 and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart^ 
 ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. 
 This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches 
 thus destroyed were -worth a thousand myriadh oj talents of^ gold, and tebi 
 TIMES as many talents of silver 111 about "l,400,000,000Z. stQilm^. —AthencBus. 
 
 SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to 
 have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gaula 
 (when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from 
 whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the 
 Alps, with respect to Rome): it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, 
 from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has 
 been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- 
 nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v.liich 
 various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. 
 Subjugated by the Romans - b.c. 231 
 
 Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 
 
 Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 
 
 The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, 
 who are, however, too weak to expel 
 the Saracens 1132 
 
 Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes 
 master of Sardinia - • - -1324 
 
 Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- 
 lish naval forces ... - 1708 
 
 Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 
 
 They again lose possession - - - 1719 
 
 Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- 
 valent for Sicily .... 1720 
 
 Victor Amadous, having the title of king 
 abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 
 
 Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is 
 taken, and dies in prison - - - 1732 
 
 [The court kept at Turin till 1706, when 
 these dominions were overrun by the 
 French arms, and shortly afterwards 
 annexed to the French empire.] 
 
 The king resigns his crown to his bro- 
 ther, duke o? Aoust - . June 4, 1802 
 
 Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- 
 parte crowned king of the whole. 
 
 December 26, 1805 
 
 Restored to its rightful sovereign, with 
 Genoa added to it December 1814 
 
 King Charles Albert, having protested 
 against Austrian encroachments in 
 Italy, calls out an additional force of 
 25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1548 
 
 Proclaims the basis of a Constitutior. 
 
 Feb. 8, 1848 
 
 Declares war against Austria, enters 
 Milan with xa army, to assist the po- 
 pular cause, and drives the Austrians 
 towards Mantua - - March 23, 1848 
 
 Takes Lodi .... April 1, "" 
 
 Forces the Austrian line, near Verona, 
 
 April 17, ***• 
 
 Takes Peschiara - - -May30, **** 
 
 Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, 
 at Goito *'*• 
 
 Sardmian army driven from Vicenza, 
 Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 
 
 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of 
 Milan Aug. 4, '*'* 
 
 Followed by an armistice - - '.'*" 
 
 Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849 
 
 Battle of Novara ; the t^ardinians under 
 Charles Albert, totally defeated by 
 Radetsky "*' 
 
 The king abdicates in favor of his son, 
 Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and 
 leaves the kingdom - March 23, **** 
 
 Insurection at Genoa against the new 
 king April 1, "*' 
 
 Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, "" 
 and fully reduced - - April 11, *"* 
 
 Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- 
 bon July 28, ***• 
 
 Victor Emanuel opens the legislative 
 chamber with a moderate speech, and 
 is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. "*' 
 
 Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, **" 
 
 The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re- 
 lieve the refugees fom various parts 
 ofltaly • ■ - Aug 30, *••' 
 
 i B. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- 
 nuel duke of Savoy. 
 1730. Charles Emanuel 
 1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 
 1796. Charles Emanuel. 
 
 KINGS OF SARDINIA. 
 
 1802. Victor Emanuel. 
 1821. Charles Felix. 
 1831. Charles Albert, AprL 27. 
 1848. Victor Emanuel 
 
 SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made ita 
 appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in 
 this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 
 
SAW 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575 
 
 B. c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we 
 may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ao 
 companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. 
 
 SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with 
 the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol 
 worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was 
 named by them Saterne's-day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, 
 dies Saturni. — Addison. 
 
 SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the 
 sun, and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by 
 Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1634: ; 
 his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by 
 Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the 
 planets. 
 
 SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long 
 before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and 
 equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, 
 however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in , h*; 
 reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while 
 others support that Jamis first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
 whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first 
 celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- 
 mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were 
 encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased 
 to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- 
 cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was 
 adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an 
 extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks 
 to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. 
 Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings 
 banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in 
 that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount 
 deposited, 32,661,924^. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- 
 ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous 
 throughout the United States. 
 
 SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 
 395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title 
 of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- 
 nions into a duchy, which he did at Carabray, February 19, 1417. Victor 
 Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicil}', by treaty, from 
 Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
 Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country 
 in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont 
 Blanc, in 1800. 
 
 SAW. Invented by Daedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — Apollodorus. Ta- 
 lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut 
 through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. 
 Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he 
 e~rs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. 
 Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
 fVom M iry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 
 1555. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur- 
 key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them 'vere 
 
676 THE world's PROGRESis. [ BOB 
 
 violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be 
 abandoned. 
 
 °.A XONY. Tlie royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied 
 to all the roya;! houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the 
 same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than 
 two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many 
 centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick 
 Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his 
 brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- 
 gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became 
 the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at 
 Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put 
 down by the Prussian troops. May 7, 1849. 
 
 SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating 
 to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, 
 such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other 
 great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, 
 false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. 
 
 SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. 
 Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, 
 never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject 
 and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence 
 As he showed so much inditference in every thing, and declared that life 
 and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he 
 did not hurry himself out of the world"? "Because," says he, "there 
 is no dilFerence between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- 
 lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — 
 Strabo. 
 
 SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the 
 earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walkir;g-staves ; 
 they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was 
 the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. g. The 
 French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Le 
 Gendre. 
 
 SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- 
 tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — 
 Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scully. In Eng- 
 land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the 
 education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- 
 chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday 
 schools) 4.836; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of 
 schools in Wales is 841, and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland, 
 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of 
 public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school- fund 
 in Maine amounts to $350,000"; in Massachusetts. $850 000 ; in Connecticut, 
 $2,077,641 ; New York, $6,491 803 ; New Jersey, $369,278 ; Delaware, 
 $225,000; Virginia. $1.448.261 ; Georgia, $262 300; Alabama, $1215,381 ; 
 Tennessee, $1346 068; Kentucky. $1,221,819; Ohio. $1,566,931; Michigan, 
 $500,000; Indiana. $2.195149; Missouri, $575 668; Iowa, $132,909. Total 
 in 1849, $21.420 275. In the State of New York the number of District 
 School Libraries is about 11,000. See Educatio7i, Libraries, &c. 
 
 SCIENCE IN THE United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752, 
 American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences, 1780. First ";ourse of Chemical Lectures in the United 
 States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. V , 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of 
 
BCr 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 577 
 
 Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- 
 tion for the Advancement of Science formed, 1845. 
 
 SCH.LY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men 
 tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwrech 
 of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This 
 brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these 
 rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which 
 were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went 
 instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romney and 
 Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sii 
 Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in 
 Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire 
 was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued 
 an independent kingdom t-'ll the death of the English queen Elizabeth, 
 when James VI. of Scotknd, the most immediate heir, was called to the 
 throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- 
 cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each 
 country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of 
 queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name <./ 
 Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., el seq. 
 
 SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping- 
 screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, 
 is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the 
 screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the 
 two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each 
 handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be 
 seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, 
 the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the 
 assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could 
 do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the 
 spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig. 
 
 SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. 
 The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by 
 others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and 
 sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach 
 to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel 
 and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the 
 vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and 
 their excellence is recorded as the gift of God. Exodus xxxi. Dipoenus and 
 Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of 
 them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
 • before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact 
 so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art 
 was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making 
 his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were 
 so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in 
 gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the 
 Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of 
 the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donate di Bardi, born at 
 Florence, a. d. 1883, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- 
 ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. — 
 Abbi Lenglet. 
 
 SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and 
 Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 
 25 
 
578 THE world's progress. [ BSK 
 
 Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account 
 of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were 
 unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast 
 tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians rc^de 
 several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 
 624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight 
 years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in 
 E irope, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ 
 they invaded the Roman empire. 
 ^EAS Sovereignty of the. The claim of England is of very ancient date. 
 Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, 
 and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England 
 over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken 
 by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death 
 of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated 
 by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, 
 to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. 
 
 SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. 
 Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign two secretaries were appointed ; 
 and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for 
 Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the 
 reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the 
 American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- 
 liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the 
 secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of 
 State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washmgton, 
 Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- 
 tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected 
 by the people. 
 
 SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of 
 things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all 
 others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- 
 tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- 
 sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. BaW 
 
 .Tews - • , - - 4,500,000 I Idolaters, &c., not professing the 
 
 Christians - - ' - - 225,000^000 Jewish, Christian, or Maho- 
 
 Mahometans - - - 155,000,000 | metan worship - - 665,500,000 
 
 SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first 
 seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by 
 the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex- 
 claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of 
 beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- 
 cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of 
 such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use 
 in 1649. 
 
 SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other 
 punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And 
 even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in 
 the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss 
 of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paley's 
 Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by 
 the legislature of New York in 1844. 
 
 BEMPACH, Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The 
 heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic- 
 tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle t^isy es- 
 
3EX] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 579 
 
 tablishei the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo 
 rated with great solemnity at Sempach. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the 
 seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became 
 the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by 
 Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name 
 of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his 
 own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of 
 Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor 
 I'acitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into 
 disuse. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- 
 lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and 
 on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or 
 letter. — Justin Martyr. St. Jerome aflSrms they translated only the Pen- 
 tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- 
 lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the Tostaijient, 
 and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Josephus. 
 Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM, Battles of, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the 
 British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts 
 were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. 
 After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed 
 to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 83,0U0,000 of rupees (about 
 3,300,000^. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his 
 two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be- 
 fore Seringapaiam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 
 14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
 same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. 
 
 SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily 
 attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus 
 along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many 
 of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was 
 afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American 
 papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the 
 coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from 
 Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which 
 was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an 
 Orkney pony, 1808. 
 
 SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 
 1775. This' tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants 
 was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on 
 servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000^. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue 
 from it had fallen to 201,482Z. 
 
 SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at 
 Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the 
 Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and 
 Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 
 9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken bj 
 assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 
 1812. 
 
 SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains 
 sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude ol 
 the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 
 
580 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [sm 
 
 in 1550.— Fjttc? s Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are 
 said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. n 
 995— ^5/k. 
 
 SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed 
 being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish vi^ool, vphich proved 
 detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. I'^QI .—Anderson. 
 Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. Tha 
 number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated— by some 
 at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. 
 
 SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shvre-reve, governor of a shire oi 
 county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.^ reign ; but some sajr 
 that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William 
 in 1079. 
 
 SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar- 
 gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier 
 de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar ; the insur- 
 gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The 
 battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same 
 cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the'^ Egyptians, as the first inven- 
 tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece 
 by Danaus, 1485 b. c— Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by 
 the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- 
 land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called 
 the Great Harry, and cost 14,000Z.— Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships 
 were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being 
 on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
 by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 
 1600. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- 
 gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
 with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping 
 of the United States— especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from 
 New York— are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the 
 world. See Navy and Steam Vessels. 
 
 SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the 
 river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle 
 of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons 
 —less than London now. In 1840, the number of ships in the British em- 
 pire was 29,174 ; tonnage, 3,277,338 ; seamen, 205,904. These returns were 
 exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steavi Vessels. 
 
 SHIPPING OF THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different periods. 
 
 Years. 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1801 
 1805 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 502,146 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1806 
 
 1,208,735 
 
 1821 
 
 1,298,958 
 
 1835 
 
 564,437 
 
 1807 
 
 1,268,548 
 
 1822 
 
 1,324,699 
 
 1836 
 
 491,780 
 
 1808 
 
 1,242,595 
 
 1823 
 
 1,336,565 
 
 1837 
 
 628,817 
 
 1809 
 
 1,350,281 
 
 1824 
 
 1,389,163 
 
 1838 
 
 747,964 
 
 1810 
 
 1,424,783 
 
 1825 
 
 1,423,112 
 
 1839 
 
 831,900 
 
 1811 
 
 1,232,502 
 
 1826 
 
 1,534,190 
 
 1840 
 
 - 876,913 
 
 1812 
 
 1,269,997 
 
 1827 
 
 1,620,608 
 
 1841 
 
 398,328 
 
 1813 
 
 1,666.628 
 
 1828 
 
 1,741,392 
 
 1842 
 
 - 946,408 
 
 1814 
 
 1,159;209 
 
 1829 
 
 1,260,978 
 
 1S43 
 
 972,492 
 
 1815 
 
 l,368;i27 
 
 1830 
 
 1,191,776 
 
 1844 
 
 - 1,033,219 
 
 1816 
 
 1,372,218 
 
 1831 
 
 1,267,846 
 
 1845 
 
 892,101 
 
 1817 
 
 1,399,911 
 
 1832 
 
 - 1,439,450 
 
 1846 
 
 949,147 
 
 1818 
 
 . 1,225,184 
 
 1833 
 
 - 1,601,150 
 
 1847 
 
 ■ 1,042,404 
 
 1819 
 
 - 1,260.751 
 
 1834 
 
 - 1,758,907 
 
 1848 
 
 - 1,140,369 
 
 1820 
 
 - 1580,166 
 
 
 
 
 Tormage. 
 
 1,824,940 
 1,892,102 
 1,896,685 
 1,995,635 
 2,096,478 
 2,180,764 
 2,130,744 
 2,092,390 
 2,158,602 
 2,280,095 
 2,417,002 
 2,562,.084 
 2,839, >« 
 3,150,506 
 
BHR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 681 
 
 SHIP-MONEY It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. 
 Tliis impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- 
 tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; 
 Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000Z. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 
 tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp' 
 den for refusing to pay the tax. which he at first solely opposed, took place 
 in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. 
 Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June 
 24, 1643. 
 
 SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Skipping. 
 
 SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- 
 ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Fresnoy. 
 Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of 
 Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period 
 from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans.— 
 Stowe. 
 
 SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, linen, rush, or "ffood. 
 Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah 
 iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would 
 have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; pi'obably, that 
 they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- 
 frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by 
 women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
 shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stonfis. The Indians, 
 like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- 
 land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore 
 the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves 
 in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
 fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
 This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for- 
 feiture of 205. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467. 
 See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The 
 buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe ; Mortimer. 
 
 SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops 
 was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in 
 London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
 whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was 
 passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See 
 Acts. 
 
 SHREWSBURY, Battle of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the 
 army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of 
 Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- 
 sisted of about 12 000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry 
 was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; v,hile his valliant son, 
 who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, 
 and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- 
 formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur 
 supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and 
 every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 
 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur 
 by an unknownjiand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory 
 to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.] 
 
 SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, 
 and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the 
 treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d, 61 
 
582 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [SIC 
 
 While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazaled by 
 the splendors that surrounded him. "Alas!" he cried, " how is it possible 
 that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an 
 humble cottage in Britain 1" The emperor was affected with the British 
 hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained 
 upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith. 
 
 SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- 
 fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- 
 mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake 
 of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and hence arose the 
 custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek 
 Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. On these 
 days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, 
 provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; 
 and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in 
 every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the 
 parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- 
 ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the 
 name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. 
 
 SIBYLS. The Sibyllse were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished 
 in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks 
 of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^Elian of four, and Varro of ten, an 
 opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is 
 said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- 
 nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon 
 the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for 
 the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again 
 demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring 
 with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created 
 to consult them on all occasions, 531 b. c. 
 
 SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, 
 a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A 
 second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 
 1264 B. c. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, 
 ' and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they 
 were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors 
 suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was 
 separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb- 
 dis were formed. — Justin ; Livy. 
 
 The Romans arrive m Sicily - b. o. 264 
 
 Agngentum taken by the Romans • 262 
 
 Palermo besieged by the Romans - - 254 
 
 Archimedes flourishes - - - 236 
 The Romans take Syracuse, and make ail 
 
 Sicily a province - - - - 212 
 
 The servile war began. — Livy • • 133 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens - a.d. 821 
 
 [They made Palermo the capital, and the 
 
 standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 
 
 years.] 
 They are driven out by a Norman \ rince, 
 
 Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the 
 
 title of count of Siaily - - - 1080 
 
 Roger II., son of the above-named, unites 
 
 Sicily with Naples, and is crowned kmg 
 
 of the Two Sicilies - - - 1131 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, king 
 
 of France, conquers Naples and Sicilj. 
 
 Arrival of Ulysses. — Homer ■ - B.C. 1186 
 
 He puts out the eye of Polyphemus - 1186 
 
 Syracuse founded. — Eusebius • - 732 
 
 Gela founded. — Thucydides - - • 
 
 Arrival of the Messenians - 
 
 Plidlans, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to 
 death. — See Brazen Bull 
 
 Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela 
 
 Law of Petal ism instituted 
 
 Rsign of Dionysius - - - - 
 
 O fended vt'ith the freedom of the philo- 
 sopher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a 
 slave. — Stanley .... 
 
 Plato ransomed by his friends - 
 
 Damon and Pythias flourish. — See Damon 
 and Pythias .... 
 
 The sway of Timoleon - - • - 
 
 ■Usurpation of Agathocles - 
 
 Defeat of Hamilcar 
 
 Pillage of the temples of Lepari 
 
 713 
 
 668 
 
 552 
 496 
 466 
 405 
 
 386 
 
ns J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 583 
 
 SICILY, continued. 
 deposes the Norman princes, and makes 
 himself king - - . a. d. 1266 
 
 The French becoming hated by the Sici- 
 lians, a general massacre of the invaders 
 takes place, one Frenchman only escap- 
 ing. — See Sicilian Vespers - - 1288 
 
 la the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet 
 sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; 
 but Naples remains to the house of An- 
 jou, which expires - - - 1382 
 ana, the late sovereign, having left her 
 crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre- 
 tensions are resisted by Charles Du 
 raszo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the 
 throne 1386 
 
 Alphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- 
 sion of Naples .... 1453 
 
 Thj kingdom of Naples and Sicily united 
 to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504 
 
 The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an 
 insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a 
 fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises 
 two hundred thousand men - - 1647 
 
 Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of 
 these commotions, procures himself to 
 be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few 
 days, delivered up to the Spaniards by 
 his adherents - - - - - 1647 
 
 Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by tiie 
 treaty of Utrecht • - a. d. 1713 
 
 Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI., 
 Sardinia being given to him as an equi- 
 valent 172( 
 
 The Spaniards having made themselves 
 masters of both kingdoms, Charles, son 
 of the king of Spain, ascends the throne, 
 with the ancient title renewed, of king 
 of the Two Sicilies - - - 1734 
 
 Order of St. Januarius instituted by king 
 Charles 1738 
 
 The throne of Spain becoming vacant, 
 Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne 
 of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother 
 Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 1789 
 
 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
 which destroys 40,000 persons - - 1783 
 
 Naples preserved from the power of the 
 French by the British forces under admi- 
 ral Nelson .... 1799 
 
 Violent earthquake in the neighborhood 
 of Naples .... 1805 
 
 The French invade Naples, depose I '"ig 
 Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of ifte 
 Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- 
 ther to the emperor of the French - 1806 
 For subsequent events, see Naples. 
 
 KINGS OP THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; lie 
 resigned it to the emperor Charles 
 VI., in 1718, and got Sardi/ua in 
 lieu ol' it. 
 
 1718. Charles VI. emperor. 
 
 1734. Charles, second son to the king of 
 Spain, resigned in 1759. 
 
 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 
 kmg. 
 
 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 1808. Joachim Murat ; he was shot, October 13, 
 1S15. 
 
 1815. Ferdinand 1. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of 
 Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand 
 III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- 
 dom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 1826. Francis I. 
 
 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8. 
 
 SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known 
 by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had 
 become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou 
 was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- 
 plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- 
 lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
 happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a 
 Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under 
 pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this a,f- 
 front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
 were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, 
 crying out "Let the French die!" and, without distinction of rank, age, 
 or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number ot 
 8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the 
 massacre became general throughout the island. 
 
 SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psarametichus the Powerful, held ovA 
 for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. 
 This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siega 
 of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen 
 tury :— 
 
 Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessels 
 
 first used by a French en- 
 
 gineernamed Renau, 1816 
 Alkmaer, 1573. 
 
 Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- I 
 parte ; siege raised after \ 
 60 days, open trenches. 
 
 Algesiras, 1341. j 
 
 Almeida, August 27, 1810 
 
 Amiens, 1597. 
 Ancona, 1798. 
 Angouleme, 1345 , 
 
584 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [mi 
 
 SIEGES, continued. 
 
 Antwerp, 1576. I se of in- 
 fernal machines 1583,1585 
 1706, 1792, 1814. 
 
 Arras, 1414. 
 
 Ath, 1745. 
 
 Avignon, 1226. 
 
 Azoff, 1736. 
 
 Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- 
 ken by escalade on the 
 night of April 6, 1812. 
 
 Bagdad, 1248. 
 
 Bangalore, March 6, 1791. 
 
 Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
 
 Bayonne, 1451. 
 
 Beauvais, 1472. 
 
 Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 
 1688, 1717, 1739, 1789, 
 
 Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. 
 
 Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, 15^, 1622. 
 1747, 1814. 
 
 Berwick, 1293. 
 
 Besancon, 1668, 1674. 
 
 Bethune, 1710. 
 
 Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
 
 Bologna, 1512, 1796. 
 
 Bommel ; the invention of 
 the covert-way, 1794. 
 
 Bonifacio, 1553. 
 
 Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 
 
 Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. 
 
 Bouchain, 1676, 1711. 
 
 Boulogne, 1545. 
 
 Brannau, 1744, 1805. 
 
 Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. 
 
 Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. 
 
 Breslau, .Ian. 8, 1807. 
 
 Brisac, 1638, 1703. 
 
 Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
 
 Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. 
 
 Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 
 1812 ; raised. The French 
 in their retreat blew up the 
 works, .lune 13, 1813. 
 
 Cadiz, 1812. 
 
 Caen, 1346, 1450. 
 
 Calais, 1347, {British histo- 
 rians affirm that cannon 
 were used at Cressy, 1346, 
 and here in 1347. First 
 used here in 1388. — Ry- 
 mbr's Fced.) 1558, 1596. 
 
 Calvi, 1794. 
 
 Cam po- Mayor, Mar. 23,1811. 
 
 Candia ; the largest cannon 
 then known inJEurope used 
 here by the Turks, 1667. 
 
 Capua, 1501. 
 
 Carthagena, 1706. 
 
 Castillon, 1452, 1586. 
 
 Ceuta, 1790. 
 
 Chalons, 1199. 
 
 Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 
 1736, 1794. 
 
 Chartres, 1568, 1.591. 
 
 Chaves, March 25, 1809. 
 
 Cherbourg, 1450. 
 
 Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706; July 
 10, 1810 ; Jan. 19, 1812. 
 
 Colberg, 1760, 1807. 
 
 Colchester, 1645. | 
 
 Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 
 
 1430. 
 Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. 
 Ooni, 1691, 1744. 
 Constantinople, 1453. 
 Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. 
 Corfu, 1715. 
 
 Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. 
 Cracow, 1772. 
 Cremona, 1702. 
 Dantzic, 17,34, 1793, 1807, 1813 
 
 to Jan. 12, 1614. 
 Dendermonde, 1667. 
 Dole, 1668, 1674. 
 Douay, 1710. 
 Dover, 1216. 
 Dresden, 1745, 1813. 
 Drogheda, 1649. 
 Dublin, 1500. 
 Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
 Edinburgh, 1093. 
 Figueras, Aug. 19, 1811. 
 Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. 
 FoMtenoy, 1242. 
 I'TRderickshal ; Charles XII. 
 
 icilled, 1718. 
 Frederickstein, August 13, 
 
 1814. 
 Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 
 Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, 
 
 July, 1806, 1815. 
 Genoa 1747, 1800. 
 Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. 
 Ghent, 1576, 1708. 
 Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See 
 
 Gibraltar), 1782. 
 Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
 Gottingen, 1760. 
 Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. 
 Gravelines, 1644 
 Grenada. 1491, 1492. 
 Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. 
 Guastalia, 1702. 
 Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. 
 Haerlem, 1.572, 1573. 
 Ham, 1411. 
 Harfleur. 1415, 1450. 
 Heidelberg, 1688. 
 Herat, June 28, 1838. 
 Huningen, 1815. 
 Ismael: themerciless Suwar- 
 
 row butchered 30,000 men, 
 
 the brave garrison, and 
 
 6000 women, in cold blood, 
 
 Dec. 22, 1790. 
 Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
 Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 
 
 1792, and 1793. 
 Landrecis, 1543, 1712. 
 Laon, 991, 1594. 
 I.eipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813 
 Lemberg, 1704. 
 Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. 
 Leyden, 1574. 
 Liese, 1468, 1702. 
 I.ille, 1667, 1708, 1792. 
 Lilo, 1747. 
 
 Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
 Londonderry, 1689. 
 Louisbourg, 1758. 
 Lyons, 1793. 
 Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau- 
 
 ban first came into nottet, 
 
 1676, 1743, 1794, 
 Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. 
 Malaga, 1487. 
 Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
 Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. 
 Marseilles, 1544. 
 Mentz, by Charles V., liSi 
 
 1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. 
 Melun, 1420, 1559. 
 Menin, 1706, 1744. 
 Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. 
 Messina, 1282, 1719. 
 Metz, 1552. 
 Mezieres, 1521. 
 Middleburgh, 1572. 
 Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 174& 
 
 1792, 1794. 
 Mcntargis, 1427. 
 Montauban, 1621. 
 Montevideo, Jan. iS08. 
 Mothe : theFrench, taught by 
 a Mr. MuUer, an English 
 engineer, first practised thi 
 art of throwing shells, 1634. 
 Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. 
 Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. 
 Naples, 1,381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 
 
 1792, 1799, 1806. 
 Nice, 1705, 
 Nieuport, 1745, 1794. 
 Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. 
 Olrautz, 1758, 
 Orleans, 1423, 1563. 
 Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. 
 Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. 
 Padua, 1509. 
 
 Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. 
 Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594. 
 Parma 1248. 
 Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796. 
 Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
 Philipville, 1578. 
 Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 1688, 
 first experiment of firing 
 artillery a-ricochet, 173?, 
 1795. 
 Plattsburg, Sept. II, 1814. 
 Pondicherry, 1748, 1792, 
 Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. 
 Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. 
 Quesnoy, 1794. 
 Rennes, 1357. 
 Rheims, 1359. 
 Rhodes, 1522. 
 Riga, 1700, 1710, 
 Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
 Rome, 1527, 1798, ' 
 Romorentin ; artillery firil 
 used in sieges -Voltaikb, 
 1256. 
 Rosas, 1645. 1795, 1808 
 Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 
 Roxburgh, 1460, 
 St, Sebastian, Sept, 8, 1813, 
 Salamanca, June 27 1812, 
 Salisbury, 1.349. 
 Saragossa, 1710, 1809. 
 Saverne, 1675. 
 
 Schweidnitz ; first expert- 
 ment to reduce afortretU 
 
so. J 
 
 lIcnONARY 01 DATES, 
 
 581 
 
 Thorn, 1703. 
 
 Thouars, 1372, 1793. 
 
 Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. 
 
 Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
 
 Toulouse, 1217. 
 
 Toumay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 
 1667, 1709, (this was the 
 best defence ever drawn 
 from countermines), 1745, 
 1794. 
 
 Treves, 1675. 
 
 Tunis, 1270, 1535 
 
 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. 
 
 Urbino, 1799. 
 
 Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. 
 
 Valencienes, 1677, 1791 
 
 Vannes, 1343. 
 
 Venloo, 1702, 1794. 
 
 Verdun, 1792. 
 
 Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) ISti 
 
 Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
 
 Wakefield, 1460. 
 
 Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. 
 
 Xativa, 1707. 
 
 Xeres, 1262. 
 
 Ypres, 1648, 1744, 17&1. 
 
 Zurich, 1544. 
 
 Zutphen, 1572, 1586. 
 
 SIEGES, continued. 
 
 by springing globes of coin- 
 
 pression, 1762, 1807. 
 Scio (see Greece"), 1822. 
 Seringapatam. 1799. 
 •Seville 1096, 1248. 
 Smolensko, 1611. 
 Soissons, 1414. 
 Siralsund ; the method of 
 
 throwing red hot balls first 
 
 practised with certainty, 
 
 1675a2'13, 1807. 
 Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811 
 Tarragona, May 1813. 
 Temeswar, 1716. 
 Thionville, 1643, 1792. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed v/lth. 
 free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whit«s, 
 mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra 
 Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. 
 The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, 
 February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- 
 ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. 
 
 SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at 
 Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the 
 use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves 
 by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
 silk, A.D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for 
 weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. 
 Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- 
 lemagne sent OfFa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. 
 The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, 
 when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the 
 silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south 
 of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510 ; and Henry IV. 
 propagated mulberry-trees and silk- worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. 
 In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a iDall at 
 Kenilworth Castle. 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. 
 Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 
 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in London, at Spital- 
 fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
 Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- 
 ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. 
 
 SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other 
 ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
 are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 
 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. 
 In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a 
 mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museun^ 
 at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1Q801. In England silver-pkfeS) 
 and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty 
 and ambitious man, a.d. 709. — Tyrell's Hist, of England. Silver knivea, 
 spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. 
 
 SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say; others, by 
 Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor. 
 269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which 
 were 223 grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin 
 in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 
 25* 
 
58G . THE world's progress. ( SL* 
 
 were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 15s. in silver, being a yearly 
 average of Ui,SBOl.—ParL Ret. 
 
 ^IMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder 
 Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome 
 about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he 
 had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in 
 France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and 
 the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- 
 larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan. 
 21, 1834. 
 
 SINGING. See Music. ^ The singing of psalms was a very ancien. custom both 
 among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which 
 was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode 
 and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the 
 empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian H. a. d. 386, eccle- 
 siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it 
 was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern 
 nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with a tedious 
 sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of 
 the world. — St. Aiogustm. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church 
 music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- 
 neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. 
 
 SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and 
 distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- 
 nefactor ; Philopater, lover of his father ; PhUometer, lover of his mother, 
 &c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- 
 tides was called the Jitst ; Phocion the Good ; Plato, the Athenian Bee ; 
 Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian 
 Sage ; Menedsemus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus, the LoAcghing Philoso- 
 pher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- 
 land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old 
 Normans used Fitz, which signifies son. as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, 
 for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed 
 Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the 
 father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such 
 as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and 
 other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — 
 Rymefs Fmdera, vol. x. 
 
 SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- 
 nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, 
 and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. 
 In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. 
 The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
 butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
 proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, 
 they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold 
 the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 b. c. See 
 Helots. 
 
 SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a 
 great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. 
 By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent 
 debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their sert i ^es or labor, they 
 had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave 
 him the slightest ofience into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampieys, 42 b, c 
 Csecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves 12 b. c. 
 
SLA. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587 
 
 SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect- 
 ing the sale of slaves wai made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so 
 commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were 
 sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- 
 land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a 
 runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before 
 two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
 adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take 
 the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and 
 cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within thai 
 space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead 
 or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second 
 desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, 
 arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, md, on running 
 away, become a slave to his master, 1547. 
 
 81^ VE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the 
 Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, 
 describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized 
 a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four 
 millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the 
 Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- 
 soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computes that, at the 
 time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, 
 "Add 1,000,000 at least moi'e, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. 
 Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. 
 the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, 
 the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the 
 English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by 
 government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn 
 from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been 
 sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave 
 trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, 
 allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, bj^ the representatives 
 of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. 
 King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 
 9, 1847. 
 
 ?5LAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was 
 the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic 
 of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring 
 negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West 
 Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the 
 colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should 
 
 ' European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, 
 recollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and 
 that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — Cooper's Letters on the Sl.i.v» 
 Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstx-ous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with tm- 
 punity. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us ths 
 itowns and the judgments of heaven. 
 
 '■ By foreign wealth are British morals changed. 
 And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." 
 T.ls trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United 
 States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared agamst it, February 
 1815. Napoleon,' in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 
 1817 ; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic contmaet 
 to be enco araged in several states. — Haydn. 
 
588 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ san 
 
 oe devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
 land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and 
 ihat the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantable 
 negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, 
 and carried off 42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; 
 and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- 
 riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of 
 slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 
 770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament 
 in 1787. The deb-ate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. Tho 
 motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. 
 After several other efforts of humane and just mi_n, the q\iestion was 
 introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis- 
 ters, March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament, 
 March 25, 1807. 
 
 SLAVERY OP THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe. 
 
 Many of the early navigators to Ame- 
 rica, including Colvrabus himself, 
 carried considerable numbers of the 
 aborigines to Europe, where they 
 were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- 
 bella commanded the liberation of 
 Indians held in bondage in her pos- 
 sessions, in • - • - 1501 
 
 — but the next year the slaveij of Ji- 
 dians was recognized as lawful ; and 
 the practice of selling the natives of 
 North America into foreign bondage 
 continued for nearly two centuries. 
 The excellent Winthrop enumerates 
 Indians among his bequests. — Ban- 
 croft. 
 
 SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade. 
 
 The first negro slaves in the English 
 
 colonies of North America were 
 
 brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel 
 
 of war - - . - -1620 
 
 Negroes " who had been fraudulently 
 
 brought from Guinea" to Massachu- 
 setts (the first in New England), were 
 
 sent home at the public expense by 
 
 the general court of that colony - 1646 
 Gorton and Roger Williams made a de- 
 cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 
 White slaves were sold in England, to 
 
 be transported to Virginia : average 
 
 price for 5 years' service, j£5 — while 
 
 a negro was worth j£25. — Bancroft ■ 1672 
 Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 
 The Quakers abolished slavery among 
 
 themselves .... 1754 
 Resolutions against the slave trade 
 
 passed by the first congress of the 
 
 colonies .... 1774 
 
 Act against the external slave trade 
 
 passed by congress of the United 
 
 States ..... 1789 
 
 [Slavery had been already prohibited 
 in most of the northern States in their 
 constitutions.! 
 Act of congress against fitting out ves- 
 sels for slave trade - - • 1794 
 Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- 
 ted States from holding property in 
 foreign slave vessels. United States 
 vessels authorized to seize slavers . 180C' 
 Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, 
 the introduction of slaves into the 
 United States - - - - 180 
 Act declaring the slave trade piracy, 
 
 punishable with death - - 1820 
 
 [Slavery has, however, been continued 
 in thirteen of the States. See Mis- 
 souri. ] 
 The number of slaves in the United 
 States in 1790 was - - - 697,697 
 
 In 1800 896,849 
 
 In 1810 1,191,364 
 
 In 1820 1,538,064 
 
 In 1830 2,010,436 
 
 In 1840 2,487,355 
 
 SLAVES, Emancipation op. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
 British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted 
 slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- 
 vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000,000?.. sterling, 
 passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, 
 slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1884, and 770,280 
 slaves became free. 
 
 BLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day 
 attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- 
 tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says he 
 slept fifty-seven years ; and when he awoke, he found every object so al- 
 tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, 
 
BOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 589 
 
 596 B. c. We have manj , and even very late, instances of persons in 
 these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. 
 SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the 
 small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with i)erfec< 
 success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, 
 to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. 
 Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr. 
 Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- 
 sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination, 
 
 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithaon, a na-i 
 tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left £100,000 
 " to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution 
 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men."^ Act of Congress 
 accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846. 
 Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. 
 
 SMOLENSKO, Battle or. One of the most memorable of the celebrated 
 Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The 
 French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but 
 they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, 
 which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, 
 the Russian commander-in-chief incurred the displeasure of the eraperor 
 Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded 
 to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. 
 
 SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to 
 enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- 
 terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against 
 smuggling was enacted in 1736. 
 
 SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures 
 made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo 
 in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice 
 soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- 
 ably more than 3,000.0000/. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, 
 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were 
 entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263Z. See Tobacco. 
 
 SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express 
 mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be 
 an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
 In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon 
 in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, washed theirs by 
 treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. 
 The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it 
 was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. 
 
 SOBRAON, Battle op ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir 
 Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- 
 my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken •, 
 and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, 
 the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
 more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British 
 loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. 
 
 SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and 
 queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by 
 the French government. 
 
 SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that aL' 
 men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, op 
 
590 THE world's progress. I BOB 
 
 gauiied on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in 
 all ages and nations : by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among 
 the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among tho 
 Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of tho 
 Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella, 
 A. D. 1623 ; and byBabeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern 
 
 teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was bornatBesangonin 1772; 
 and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri 
 St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of 
 England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru 
 mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, 
 England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has & 
 considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made 
 by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize 
 labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious 
 sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, 
 adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. 
 
 SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Lae^ius Socinus. 
 They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before ho 
 was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- 
 son; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ 
 died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- 
 trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated 
 as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. 
 
 SODOM and GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed 
 by fire from heaven, 1897 b. c— Bible, Blew; Usher. The offence of sodomy 
 was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- 
 minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive. 
 The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry 
 VIII. , who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by 
 statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. 
 SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- 
 tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught 
 by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he 
 placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
 round it— a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- 
 quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most 
 accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- 
 goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican 
 system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. 
 How truly the poet says — 
 
 " He who through vast immensity can pierce, 
 
 See worlds on worlds compose one universe, 
 
 Observe how system into system runs, 
 
 What otlier planets circle other suns, 
 
 What varied beings people every star, 
 
 May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope. 
 
 SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance 
 from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, Octobei 
 30, 1004 B. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer.— C/sW, 
 L^nglet. 
 
 SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions. 
 33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Eli- 
 zabeth, 1568. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing 
 with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instancet 
 of the punishment of sorcerers, see Witchcraft. 
 
spa] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 
 
 SOUDAN OR SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-g-enerals of the caliphs, 
 which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterward? 
 made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- 
 dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 
 A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. 
 
 SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when 
 the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. 
 Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; 
 Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were 
 fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. 
 The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles 
 on the sea. See Acoustics. 
 
 SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Ediptis, took extraordinary 
 soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, 
 where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was 
 made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 
 mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the 
 weight employed amounted to 4-50 lbs., 1840. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made 
 under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670. and at Charleston 1671 ; re- 
 ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes, 1690; church of England established by law, 1703; proprietary 
 government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- 
 ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- 
 liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South 
 Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. 
 This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active 
 in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by 
 the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution 
 adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed 
 Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249.000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830, 
 581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. 
 
 SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 
 1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which 
 ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, 
 to the value of 2.014,000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, 
 absconded with 100,000Z. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000^., and 
 returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- 
 dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The 
 artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100^., to the 
 enormous price of 1000^. See Lwio's Bubble. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. 
 
 SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, 
 fifth son of Japheth. The Phcenicians and Carthaginians successively 
 planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- 
 try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, 
 Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- 
 dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et seq. 
 
 The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain I Alplionsus II. refusing to pay the Sara- 
 
 from the Romans - - a. d. 412 
 
 The Visigoths enter Spain under their 
 
 leader, Euric - - - - 472 
 
 The Saracens from Arabia invade the 
 
 country • • - 713 et seq. 
 
 Pelagiiis, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed 
 
 king of Asturias - . - 718 
 
 cens the annual tribute of 100 viraina, 
 war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- 
 rious, and obtains the appellation of 
 " the chaste" - - a. d. 791 st seg. 
 
 Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. • 83C 
 
 Ferdinand I., count of Castile, tates the 
 title of king - - - KCf 
 
592 
 
 THE world's .*E0GRE3S. 
 
 I BP4 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031 
 The kingdom of Arragon commenced 
 
 under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 
 
 Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 
 Portugal taken from the Saracens by- 
 Henry of Bourbon - - -1087 
 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the 
 Christians, call in the aid of the Moors 
 from Africa, who seize the dominions 
 they came to protect, and subdue the 
 Saracens - - - 1091 et seq 
 The Moors defeated in several battles 
 
 by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118 
 
 Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one 
 
 great pitched battle - - - 1135 
 
 University of Salamanca founded - 1200 
 Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226 
 
 Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- 
 ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- 
 tile and Leon - - - - 1236 
 The kingdom of Granada begun by the 
 Moors, their last refuge from the 
 power of the Christians - - 1238 
 Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - -1252 
 The crown of Navarre passes to the 
 
 royal family of France - - 1276 
 
 200,000 Moors invade Spam - - 1327 
 
 They are defeated by Alphonsus XL, 
 
 with great slaughter - - - 1340 
 
 The infant Don Henriquez, son of John 
 the First of Castile, first hart the title 
 of prince of Asturias - - - 1388 
 
 Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- 
 bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole 
 Christian dominions of Spain are uni- 
 ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 
 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; 
 and the power of the Moors finally 
 extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 
 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore 
 
 the western world - - - 1492 
 
 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of 
 
 the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512 
 
 Accession of the house of Austria to the 
 
 throne of Spain - • - 1516 
 
 Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- 
 tires from the world . - - 1556 
 Philip I. commences his bloody perse- 
 cution of the Protestants - - 1561 
 The Escurial began building • - 1562 
 Portugal united to Spain - - • 1580 
 The invincible Spanish Armada de- 
 stroyed. See Armada, and Naval 
 Battles .... 1588 
 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their 
 descendants, to the number of 900,000, 
 from Spain - - • - 1610 
 Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 
 Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704 
 Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 
 Charles III., king of the Two. Sicilies, 
 
 succeeds to the crown - - 1759 
 
 Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 
 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,- 
 000 dollars, seized by the English 
 
 Oct. 29, 1804 
 Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, 
 
 Battle of • • Oct. 31, 1505 
 
 Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 
 
 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias 
 
 against his father ■ July 25, 1807 
 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 
 
 The French take Madrid A. D. March, 18U6 
 The prince of Peace disn issed by the 
 
 king of Spain - March 13, 1803 
 
 Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of 
 
 Ferdinand - - March 19, ISttS 
 
 And at Bayonne, in favor of his " friend 
 and ally," Napoleon, when Ferdi- 
 nand relinquished the crown, May 1, ISOk 
 The French are massacred at Madrid, 
 
 May 2, 1008 
 Napoleon assembles the notables at 
 
 Bayonne - - May 25, 1308 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as 
 
 king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 
 
 He retires trom the capital - July 29, 1808 
 Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 
 Madrid retaken by the French, ar.d Jo- 
 seph restored • - Eec. 2, 1808 
 The royal family of Spain imprisoned 
 in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, 
 
 Dec. 5, 1808 
 [Spain now becomes the scene of the 
 struggle called the Peninsular War, 
 for the events of which see the arti- 
 cles severally.] 
 Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 
 Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 
 Spanish revolution began • Jan. 1, 1820 
 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of 
 
 the Cortes - - March 8, 1820 
 
 Removal of the king to Seville, and 
 
 thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823 
 
 The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 
 They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 
 Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 
 Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- 
 solved ; executions - Oct. 1823 
 Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 
 The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828 
 Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 
 Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 
 Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- 
 ing the king's indi^jposition, and a 
 complete change made in the minis- 
 try - - - Oct. 25, 1832 
 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate 
 successor to his brother's throne, 
 should the king die - April 29, 1833 
 Death of Charles IV.. and his queen 
 assumes the title of governing queen, 
 until Isabella II., her infant daughter, 
 attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 
 The royalist volunteers di;'armed, V'th 
 
 some bloodshed, at JIadrid - Oct. 27, 1833 
 Don Carlos lands at I'ortsmouth with 
 
 his family - - June 18, 1834 
 
 He suddenly appears among his ad- 
 herents in Spain - July 10, 1834 
 The peers vote the perpetual cxcli.sion 
 of Don Carlos from the throne, ,4.ug. 30, 183* 
 [Here commences the dcwjjating c:vii 
 war, in which British aiL^iiiaries take 
 the side of the queen.] 
 Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, 
 
 and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 183? 
 
 General Evans retires from vhe com- 
 mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- 
 rives in London, after having achieved 
 various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 
 Madrid is declared in a state of sieee, 
 
 Aug." 11, 1837 
 [Espartero and ")ther Chriatino generals' 
 
i5»Al 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 
 
 593 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 engage with the Cs.' ists, and nume- 
 rous conflicts talie place with various 
 success.] 
 
 Madrid is again declared in a slate of 
 siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1S38 
 
 The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 
 
 The Carlists under Marota desert Don 
 Carlos - - - Aug. a3, 1839 
 
 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty 
 of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 
 
 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 
 
 Sept. 13, 1839 
 
 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to 
 maintain the war, enters France with 
 a body of his troops - July ", 1840 
 
 The British auxiharies evacuate St. Se- 
 bastian and Passages - Aug. 2o, 1840 
 
 Espartero makes iiis triumphal entry 
 into INIadrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 
 
 The queen regent appoints a new min- 
 istry, who are nominated by Espar- | 
 tero .... Oct. 5. 1840 
 
 The abdication of the queen regent of 
 Spain - . . Oct. 12, 1840 • 
 
 [She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; ■ 
 
 visits France; next settles in Sicily; 
 but returns to France.] 
 
 Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the 
 papal nuncit) • - Dec. 29, 1840 
 
 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero j 
 
 regent during the minority of the 
 young queen - ■ Apr. 12. 1841 
 
 Insurrection in favor of Christina is j 
 
 commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. 
 O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 
 
 It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of 
 the kingdom • - Oct. 1841 
 
 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at | 
 
 Madrid, and his followers are repuls- i 
 
 ed, and numbers of them slain by the ' 
 
 queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 ( 
 
 Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is j 
 
 shot at Madrid . - Oct. 15, 1841 
 
 Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 i 
 
 Rodil, the constitutional general, enters i 
 
 Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 j 
 
 Espartero decrees the suspension of 
 queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 
 
 Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
 into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 
 
 An insurrection breaks out at Barce- 
 lona ; the national guard joins the 
 populace - . Nov. 13, 1842 
 
 Battle in the streets between the national 
 guard and the troops ; the latter lose 
 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
 to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 
 
 The troops evacuate the citadel, and 
 retire to Moutjuich - Nov. 17, 184S 
 
 The regent Espartero arrives before 
 Barcelona, and demands its uncondi- 
 tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 
 
 Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 
 
 It capitulates . - Dec. 4, 1842 
 
 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 
 
 The revolutionary junta is reestablish- 
 ed It Barcelona - - June 11, 1843 
 
 (Cormna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, 
 and numerous other towns, shortly 
 afterwards " pronounce" against the 
 regent Espartero.] 
 
 Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, 
 which surrenders • • July 15, 1843 
 
 Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 
 
 The siege is raised - • July 27, 1843 
 
 [The revolution is completely success- 
 ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and 
 embarks on board her Majesty's ship 
 Malabar. ] 
 
 The new government deprive Espartero 
 of his titles and rank - Au^. 16, 1843 
 
 Espartero and his suite and friends ar- 
 rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 
 
 Reaction against the new government 
 breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 
 
 The young queen Isabella II., 13 years 
 old, is declared by the cortes to be of 
 age - - - Nov. 8, 1843 
 
 The queen-mother. Christina, returns to 
 Spain - ■- - March 23, 1844 
 
 Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- 
 linquishes his right to the crown, in 
 favor of his son - - May 18, 1815 
 
 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 
 12 ; they return to power, March 17 ; 
 and again resign - - March 28, 1846 
 
 The queen is publicly aflianced to her 
 cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke 
 of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846 
 
 Escape of Don Carlos and others from 
 France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 
 
 Marriage of the queen ; and marriage 
 also of the intanta Louisa to the duke 
 de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846 
 
 [The Montpensier marriage occasions 
 the displeasure of England, and dis- 
 turbs the friendly relations of the 
 French and English governments.] 
 
 Amnesty sranted by the queen to po- 
 litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1^6 
 
 The queen has a son bom, who dies the 
 same day • • • July 1, 1850 
 
 KINGS OP SPAIM. 
 
 4.II. 406. AlaricL, king of the Goths ; murdered. 
 411. Aihalsus: murdered by his soldiers. 
 415. Wallia. 
 
 420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 
 450. TorrisMuna , assassinated by liis fa- 
 vorite. 
 452. Theodoric 11. 
 466. Euric. 
 
 484. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
 507. Qesalric; killed in battle. 
 611. Ainalaric; killed in battle. 
 fi31. Theodat; assassinated by a madman 
 
 548. Theodisele ; murdered for female 7io 
 
 lation. 
 
 549. Agila; taken prisoner and put todeatJu 
 554. Athanagild. 
 
 507. From tliis year to the year 687 rxteef 
 
 kings reigned. 
 687. Egica or Egiza. 
 697. Vuizza. 
 741. Roderick; killed in tattle in 714 
 
 An interregnum till 
 718. Pelagius. 
 736. Fa Vila ; killed by a boar in huntini; 
 
594 
 
 THE WURLUS PROGRESS. 
 
 [«P. 
 
 8PAJX, continu'.d. 
 
 738. Alfiho.isus I. ; Catholic. 
 757. Froila I.; killed by his brother Aure- 
 
 lius. 
 768. Aureliua. 
 774. Silo. 
 783. Mauregat. 
 789. Veremond. 
 
 791, Alphonsus IT. ; the chaste. 
 324. Pq.miio I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to 
 
 •.he sword in one battle. 
 860. Ordogno I. 
 802. Alphonsus III. ; surnamed the great; 
 
 deposed by hia son. 
 910. Garcias. 
 914. Ordogno II. 
 
 923. Froila II. 
 
 924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 
 931. Ramiro II. , killed in battle. 
 950. Ordogno III. 
 
 955. Ordogno IV. 
 
 956. Sflncho I., the Fat; poisoned with an 
 
 apple 
 967. Ramiro III. 
 982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty, 
 999. Alphonsus V. ; . killed at the siege of 
 
 Viscu. 
 1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 
 1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and 
 
 Castile. 
 1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; 
 
 Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and 
 
 Garcias in Galicia. 
 1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant; in Castile 
 
 and Leon. 
 1109. Alphonsus VII. 
 1122. Alphonsus VIII. 
 
 1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, in Castile; 
 
 Ferdinand in Leon. 
 
 1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 
 1214. Henry I. 
 
 1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas- 
 tile and Leon were reunited, and per- 
 petually annexed. 
 
 1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 
 
 1284. Sancho IV.. the Brave ; Peter III. in 
 Arragon. 
 
 1295. Ferdinand IV. 
 
 1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 
 
 1350. Peter tl t Ci uel ; deposed. Reinatatetf 
 by Edward the Black Prince of Eng 
 land; afterwards beheaded by h» 
 subjects. 
 
 1368. Henry II., the Gracious; poisoned b^ 
 a monk. 
 
 1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to CastiU . 
 
 1390. Henry 111., the Sickly. 
 
 1406. John II. 
 
 1454. Henry IV the Impotent. 
 
 1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom 
 by liis marriage with Isabella, the 
 'iingdoms of Castile and Arragon 
 were united. 
 
 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queep 
 Joan. 
 
 1500. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 
 
 1516. Charles 1., and emperor of Germany, 
 resigned both crowns, and retired to 
 a monastery. 
 
 1555. Philip II., married Mary, queen-reg- 
 nant of England. 
 
 1598. Philip III., son of the preceding; he 
 drove the Moors from Grenada and 
 the adjacent provinces. 
 
 1621. Philip IV., his son ; a reign of nearly 
 continuous and unfortunate wars with 
 the Dutch and France. 
 
 1665. Charles 11. 
 
 1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to 
 Louis XIV. of France; resigned. 
 
 1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few 
 months. 
 
 1724. Philip V. ; again. 
 
 1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamed the Wise; he 
 distinguished his reign by acts of 
 liberality and beneficence. 
 
 17.59. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of his 
 son and succe-ssor. 
 
 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of 
 of France, also forced to resign. 
 
 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- 
 leon ; deposed. 
 
 1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded 
 by his daughter. 
 
 1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29 ; who came to tna 
 tnrone when tnree years of age. 
 
 While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- 
 try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- 
 able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From 
 the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and 
 the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, 
 and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from 
 the kingdom. 
 
 SPANISH ARMADA against England. See article Armada. 
 
 SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics ol 
 the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without 
 walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for 
 eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is 
 supposed to have been the first king, 151S b. c. From Lacedaemon the fourth 
 king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the 
 city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history oil 
 Lacedfemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, 
 from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidae, comprising about four hun- 
 
9PI _ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595 
 
 dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidas as absolute monarchs, till 
 Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the 
 government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the 
 establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors 
 by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the 
 appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- 
 dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- 
 jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- 
 two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views : Gi-eece, page 7, et 
 seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They 
 cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All theii 
 laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- 
 tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never 
 were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They 
 hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- 
 selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The 
 women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall 
 of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their 
 own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought 
 disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- 
 known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented 
 in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, 
 about A. D. 1285. — Ge7i. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own 
 illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly 
 given by Bacon about 1280. Some aifirm that the real inventor was Salvi- 
 no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- 
 tacles. 
 
 SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- 
 ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- 
 vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed 
 by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagq(i-as that the 
 motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to 
 the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 
 
 SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the 
 goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- 
 dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with 
 her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to 
 her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a 
 garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the teraj- 
 ple of Fortune. Augustus Csesar usually wore no garments but such as 
 were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- 
 vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton 
 was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious 
 mechanic, near Ekckburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. 
 Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright'g 
 machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har- 
 grave's ; but he elso applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, 
 and. for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he 
 worked his machhiery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream 
 of the Derweiit, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which 
 is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P dllips. 
 
 SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was 
 the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the 
 French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet t* 
 
59G THE world's progress. [STi 
 
 condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the empcrof 
 Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. 
 
 SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- 
 rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of 
 numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquora 
 have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support 
 of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions o^ gallons of spirits, 
 Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- 
 lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, 
 on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2-830,263 gallons ; brandy, 
 1,1G7,756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 
 gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons; mak- 
 ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons,' upon which the duty 
 amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returiis. 
 
 SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it 
 Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it 
 was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be 
 the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from 
 the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by 
 statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed 
 upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was 
 commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which 
 stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable 
 statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain 
 which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the 
 United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- 
 menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- 
 duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,535^. ; and in 
 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c. 
 
 STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the 
 cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross 
 to Constantino, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on 
 the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- 
 peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. 
 Standard of Mahomet; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- 
 ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno- 
 rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace The 
 Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- 
 ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
 kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. 
 
 STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished 
 with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and 
 part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its 
 roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), 
 but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- 
 chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- 
 ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. 
 The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of 
 the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent 
 of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in 
 their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- 
 temptible. — Goldsmith. Jt was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There wer« 
 
steJ dictionary of dates, 597 
 
 from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting foioa.-' 
 Gibbon. 
 STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b, c 
 Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
 that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably 
 gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 a. c. Job, He- 
 siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library 
 at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in 
 which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- 
 covered l)y Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronoimj and Solar System. 
 
 S1ATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- 
 viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- 
 sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- 
 vened by Louis XVL, and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a 
 a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
 or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming 
 the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
 proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if 
 they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to 
 concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. 
 
 STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the 
 dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of 
 great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was 
 not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in 
 Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 
 
 STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter 
 passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among 
 the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the 
 request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with 
 ivory and gold, and measured 89 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden 
 statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the 
 art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast 
 models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among 
 the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that 
 of Charles I. in 1678. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- 
 nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the 
 marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as "a way to drive up 
 water by fire," a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- 
 ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. 
 
 Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 
 
 Captain Savery's engine constructed 
 for raising water - - - 1698 
 
 Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal 
 Society, about - - • - 1699 
 
 Atmospheric engine by Savei-y and 
 Newcomen .... 1713 
 
 First idea of steam navigation set forth 
 in a patent obtained by Hulls • 1736 
 
 Watt's invention of performing conden- 
 sation in a separate vessel from the 
 cylinder .... 1765 
 
 His first patent - ... I7t;9 
 
 His engines upon a large scale erected 
 in manufactories, and his patent re- 
 newed by act of parliament - - 1775 
 
 Thomas Paine proposed the application 
 of steam in America - . - . ]778 
 
 Watt's expansion engine - - - - 1778 
 
 Double acting engines proposed by Dr. 
 Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 
 
 Watt's double engine, and his first pa- 
 tent for it granted .... 1781 
 
 The marquess .JouiTroy constructed aii 
 engine on the Saone - - - 1781 
 
 Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- 
 tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's 
 \m. Curias.) .... 1783-* 
 
 Oliver Evans' experiments in the 
 same - ... - . . 1785-6 
 
 Rumsey 's experiments in the same in 
 Virginia 1787 
 
 W. Symington made a passage on the 
 Forth and Clyde canal .... 1789 
 
 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by 
 Henry Jackson 1791 
 
 Engine made to give a rotary mC'in - 1778 Jouffroy's experiment* io Fnac* - • 179i 
 
598 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [STI 
 
 STEAM ENGINE, continued. 
 
 Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer 
 on the Hudson 1797 
 
 First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 
 
 The experiment of Mr. Symington re- 
 peated with success .... 1802 
 
 Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 
 
 Oliver Evans' experiments in locomo. 
 live engines in Penn. - - - 1804 
 
 WoolPs double cylinder expansion en- 
 gine constructed .... 1804 
 
 Manufactories warmed by steam . 1806 
 
 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
 Hudson, built by himself, and named 
 "The North River;" engine by Boul- 
 ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33 
 hours ; first steam navigation on 
 record - ... 1807 
 
 The next three steam-boats in the world 
 were the Car of Neptune, ■ -1808 
 
 T:\ieParagon 1811 
 
 The Richmond 1812 
 
 all in New York. 
 
 Steam power to con\-ey coals on a rail- 
 way, employed by Blenkinsop . - 1811 
 
 Steam vessels first commenced plying 
 on the Clyde (first in Europe) - 1812 
 
 Steam applied to printing in tne Times 
 office. See Press .... igi;; 
 
 There were five steam vessels in Scot- 
 land {Pari. Returns) in - . - 181£ 
 
 First steam vessel on the Thames 
 brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 181* 
 
 The first steamer built in England (Pari. 
 Returns) 1815 
 
 The Savannah '.-.eamer, of 350 tons, 
 went from New York to Liverpool 
 in 26 days .... July ]5. 1819 
 
 First steamer in Ireland - . - 1820 
 
 Captain Johnson obtained 10,OOOZ. for 
 making the first steam voyage to In- 
 dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed 
 from Falmouih - - Aug. 16, 182J 
 
 Locomotive steam carriages on rail- 
 ways, at Liverpool - . Oct. 1829 
 
 The Railway opened (see Liverpool) ■ 1830 
 
 The Great Western arrives from Bris- 
 tol at New York, and the Sirius from 
 Cork, same day, being their first voy- 
 age, in 18 days - • June 17, 1838 
 
 War steamers built in England - . 1838 
 
 First steamer of the Cunard line was 
 
 the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas. 
 sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840 
 
 STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States 
 gave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153, 6G0 tons; but these 
 returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great: 
 probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 
 tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, 
 which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole 
 number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United 
 States, in 1838, was 3,010. 
 
 STEAM VESSELS of the BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 BTEAM vessels belonging to the BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ; 
 
 Year. England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1814 - - Q 
 
 1815 . - 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1820 - . 17 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 1825 - - 112 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 168 
 
 1830 - - 203 
 
 61 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 315 
 
 1835 . - 344 
 
 85 
 
 68 
 
 48 
 
 545 
 
 1815 . - 694 
 
 139 
 
 79 
 
 89 
 
 1001 
 
 STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated l/u, 
 lance in the Pentateuck The Slatera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
 tioned in 315 B. c. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac- 
 tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the 
 hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, 
 improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Sefieca. The 
 
 - Ar& Scriiendi Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- 
 tant, Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. 
 There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement 
 and great simplicity. 
 
 STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking 
 the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — 
 Anderson. 
 
 Sl-EREOTYPE See Pnvting. It is said that stereotyping was known in 
 1711 ; bu'i this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Qed 
 
gTO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 
 
 of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by 
 others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran- 
 cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype 
 printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and 
 Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — PJiiUips. Stereotyping was intro- 
 duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem. 
 
 Sl'EREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have 
 been invented by Cadwallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of his 
 plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan 
 to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- 
 ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- 
 thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that 
 which Golden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New 
 York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Gatechism. In 
 June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. 
 J. W. Francis. 
 
 STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 
 1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- 
 ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones 
 any more. — Hoivell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, 
 except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; 
 for Strain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with 
 a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and 
 the present was then much taken notice of — Idem. Others relate that Wil- 
 liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, 
 a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like 
 them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind 
 made in England, 1564. — Stowe. 
 
 STOGKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced 
 into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have 
 had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 
 337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- 
 missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols 
 averaged in the year — 
 
 1780 - JE63 13 
 
 6 1795 
 
 - ;£74 8 
 
 6 
 
 1810 
 
 - £&I 16 
 
 3 
 
 1825 
 
 - ;£90 
 
 8 
 
 1785 - - 68 6 
 
 6 1800 - 
 
 -66 3 
 
 3 
 
 1S15 - 
 
 -58 13 
 
 9 
 
 1830 - 
 
 -89 15 
 
 7 
 
 1790 71 2 
 
 6 1805 
 
 ■ 58 14 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 - 68 12 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 - 89 17 
 
 6 
 
 See Public Debt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher ; they obtained the name 
 of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch 
 or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- 
 preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and 
 reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected 
 the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this 
 sect is famous for. — Stanley. 
 
 STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone 
 bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge 
 exists at Growland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Brides 
 The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone 
 china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
 was manufactMred by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 177t>. 
 Stone paper was made in 1796. 
 
 ISrONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. 
 Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosid'a 
 in menaory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hpngist, the Saxon, a u 
 
coo 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [STO 
 
 ^%.— Geoffrey oj Monmouth Erected as a sepulchral monumint of Am- 
 brosius, a. d.' 500.— Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in 
 which the Druids officiated.— Z?r. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- 
 ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminiS' 
 tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker- baskets, 
 
 STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo- 
 rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944 
 One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming 
 from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 housee 
 fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais; when Hugh de Beauvais^ 
 and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against 
 the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed. 
 
 It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- 
 pests of rain and wind, a.d. 12.33. 
 
 A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash 
 passed throu'gh a chamber where Edward 
 I. and his queen were conversing, did them 
 no damage, but killed two of their attand- 
 ants : 1285. — Hoveden. 
 
 A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in 
 France, which fell on the army of Edward 
 III., then on its march. The hail was so 
 large that the army and horses suffered 
 very much, and Edward was obliged to 
 conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. 
 
 When Richard 11. 's queen came from Bohe- 
 mia, on setting foot on shore an awful 
 storm arose, and her ship and a number 
 of oihers were dashed to pieces in the har- 
 bor, Jan. 1382. — Holinshed. 
 
 Richard's second queen also brought a storm 
 with her to the English coasts, in which 
 the king's baggage was lost, and many 
 ships cast away, 1389 — Idem. 
 
 A hurricane throughout Europe, which did 
 very considerable damage ; more remark- 
 ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the 
 day that Cromwell A\ed..^Mortiiner. 
 
 A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 
 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of 
 their crews, 1696. 
 
 The storm called the '■^ Great Storm," one of 
 the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
 land. The devastation on land was im- 
 mense ; and in the harbors, and on the 
 coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives 
 was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703." 
 
 A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, 
 it is said, perished upon the mountains, in 
 their march to attack Drontheim, a. d. 
 I7I9. 
 
 One in India, when many hundreds of ves- 
 sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, 
 
 freatly damaged, and some ^ipa lost, and 
 0,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane at the Havana ; many 
 public edifices and 4048 houses were de- 
 stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, 
 Oct. 25, 1768. — Annual Register. 
 
 An awful storm in the north of England, in 
 which many vessels were destroyed, and 
 4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. 
 
 At Suratj in the East Indies ; destroyed 700C 
 ol the mhabitants, April 22, 1782; 
 
 One hundred and thirty-one villages and! 
 farms laid waste in France, 1785. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the 
 Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 
 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 
 104 \ essels were lost. 
 
 At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred 
 vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 
 
 Awful hurricane on the western coast of 
 England, and in Ireland. The storm raged 
 through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- 
 wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- 
 verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 
 100 were drowned in the neighborhood ; 
 the coast and harbors were covered with 
 wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels 
 lost being nearly half a million sterling. In 
 Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other 
 places, more than 200 houses were blown 
 down, and as many more were burnt, the 
 wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- 
 ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- 
 hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 
 6-7, 1839. 
 
 Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 
 houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct 
 10-11, 1846. 
 
 Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 
 21, 1848. 
 
 iSTOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the Grerman 
 stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of 
 
 ' The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000^. sterling. The number of per- 
 sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in 
 ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve 
 men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Tree* 
 were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, 
 and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bi 
 shop oi Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multf 
 tudee of cattle were also lost; In one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 
 
SCO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 
 
 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port* 
 able braziers. See Chimneys. 
 
 STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg-, ty Louis. 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- 
 cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of 
 the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the 
 French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, 
 by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See' France. 
 
 J5TRATT0N-HILL, Battle op, In Devonshire, between the royal army and the 
 forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the 
 victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed 
 and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 
 1643. 
 
 STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized 
 by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 It was revived by D'Udlne about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- 
 formed in Italy and France, and Is advancing rapidly to perfection in 
 England. 
 
 STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Cscsar's ordering leap-year to be 
 but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 e.g. 
 Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See 
 Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act 
 passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 
 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. 
 
 STYLE, ROYAL, of the KINGS op ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and 
 Titles. 
 
 SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- 
 ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the 
 war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of 
 England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a 
 bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- 
 reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- 
 ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable 
 of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at 
 Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
 vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting 
 powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, 
 Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to 
 the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. 
 
 SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging 
 to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed 
 Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. 
 
 SUCCESSION, ACT op. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics 
 from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the 
 crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of 
 June 12, 1701. 
 
 SUCCESSION, The WAR op. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by 
 the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and 
 unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French 
 prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. 
 Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the alliea 
 withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 to 
 1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. 
 SUGAR, Saccharum officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to fhe 
 26 
 
602 THE world's progress. [ eui 
 
 ancient Je'w s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander) 
 325 B.C. — Stiabn. An oriental nation in alliance witia Pompey used the 
 juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was 
 produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — 
 Encydop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 
 1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the 
 Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about Ibl^.— 'Robertson^ s 
 History nf Charles F.* 
 
 SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- 
 ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. Itwaslirst practised in England in 1G59, 
 though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few yeara 
 sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor- 
 timer. See Beet Root. 
 
 SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish 
 history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman 
 philosophers deeined it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from 
 the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- 
 stance recorded occurs in tlie reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, think- 
 ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- 
 troj^ed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of 
 illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church, 
 ii the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be 
 made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- 
 tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the 
 statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation 
 of land and goods. 
 
 A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. 
 
 Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 
 
 or marshal Benhier - - June 1, 181.5 
 
 Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 
 
 Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 
 
 Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 
 
 Of marquessofLondonderry Aug. 12, 1822 
 
 Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 ' June 22, 1845 
 
 There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of 
 the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount 
 Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, 
 into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the 
 furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates tliat an unaccount- 
 able passion for su'dde seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could 
 not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree 
 being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should 
 be drawn naked through the streets^ a stop was soon put to the extraordi- 
 nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being 
 previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. 
 SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and 
 given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the 
 Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vattier. It 
 
 * About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was tmnsported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence 
 to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar 
 was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. 
 Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p- 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript 
 letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him tha<, 
 sir Edward had taken up for his lordsl.ip, 25 sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte 
 pence a pounde." In 1840. the imports of sugar mto the United Kingdom weretiearly 5,000,000 cwts.. 
 of which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about fiv« 
 willion-j and a half sterling. 
 
 Of lord James Beresford - April 27, 1841 
 Of the earl of Munster - March 20. 1842 
 Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25! 1845 
 Ofcol. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845 
 Of Haydon, the eminent painter 
 
8XJP] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 603 
 
 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourtli 
 century of the Hegira. 
 
 SUMMATRA, Island op. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having coniinittec 
 piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States 
 frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. 
 
 SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. 
 Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more 
 than one maid in the street unless she were drunk ; and that she should 
 not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 
 450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among 
 the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the 
 dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which 
 was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be 
 left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ea- 
 ward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. 
 
 SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres,, about 
 529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were tirst calculated 
 geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, 
 about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, 
 and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought 
 into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
 was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- 
 lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculae 
 were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed 
 by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened 
 the sun's di.sk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its 
 motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- 
 cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 
 1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length 
 taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. 
 
 SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 ^.c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first 
 erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided 
 into hours, 293 B. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.^ 
 Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 SUNDAY, OR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- 
 vine adoration was paid \o the Sun. Among Christians it is called the 
 Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's I'ising from the dead on that 
 day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the 
 sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews 
 on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance 
 was made by Constantine, a. d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans 
 prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Lmocent Sitnday Sports, au- 
 thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- 
 lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy 
 and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary 
 cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by 
 the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Rapin. 
 Sunday schools were estabhshed in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. 
 Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. 
 
 SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the 
 -hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made 
 head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VHI. 
 shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Oui 
 kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- 
 ferred upon thecL by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 
 
604 THE world's progress. [ SWl 
 
 tLa ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others, 
 beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. 
 
 SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made 
 a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions 
 the arribe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. 
 Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus ..Egineta 
 in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century 
 spi'ung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was 
 confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the 
 illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England 
 surgeons and doctoi'S were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 
 1513, at which period thei-e were only thirteen in London. 
 
 SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- 
 ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was 
 enacted that " no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
 occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the 
 drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and 
 a new charter in 1800. 
 
 SURPLICES. First vv'orn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d, 
 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying 
 public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The 
 garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; 
 and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, 
 near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from 
 rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- 
 sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait 
 is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. 
 
 SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from 
 one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his 
 death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows 
 have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 
 700 have thus perished, imtil lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present 
 at many of these sacrifices. On February 4, 1748, he saw a young and 
 beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, 
 thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every 
 witness of the scene. — Holwell. The English government in India have dis- 
 couraged these self-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference 
 with tke religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by 
 English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though 
 rarely, taken place. 
 
 SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d 628. Introduced in judicial 
 proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by 
 fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 25. for the first offence ; for 
 the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See 
 Oaths. 
 
 SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- 
 tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory 
 on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been 
 masters of the country. 
 
 Gylf reigns in Sweden - - • B.C. 57 I barbarians, falls upon the Nor> >. 
 During this reign, Odin, sumamed the Europe, making vasts conquus<8 
 
 Divine, at the head of a swarm ol | 
 
•WE j 
 
 DICTIONARY OF BATES. 
 
 605 
 
 SWEDEN, continued. 
 
 Vnge, founder of the family of the Yn- 
 lingars, reigns - - • B.C. 32 
 
 [The early history of the kingdom is 
 altogether Involved in fables and ob- 
 scurity.] 
 
 Ohf the Infant is baptized, and intro- 
 duces Christianity among his people, 
 about .... A.D. 1000 
 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike 
 people and invasions of other coun- 
 tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 
 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- 
 
 gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 
 Stockholm founded - - - 1260 
 
 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular 
 
 form of government - - - 1279 
 
 The crown of Sweden, which had been 
 hereditary, is made elective ; and 
 Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, 
 or the Foolish, king of Norway, is 
 
 elected 1318 
 
 Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 
 
 The crown made elective . - 1320 
 
 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365 
 
 Sweden united to the crownof Denmark 
 
 and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 
 University of Upsal founded - -1476 
 Christian II., "the Nero of the North," 
 massacres all the Swedish nobility, to 
 fix his despotism - - - 1520 
 
 The Swedes delivered from the Danish 
 
 yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523 
 He makes the crown hereditary, and 
 
 introduces the reformed religion - 1544 
 The titles of ;ountand baron introduced 
 
 by Eric XIV. .... 1561 
 The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 
 between 1612 and - . • 1617 
 
 He is siain at Lutzen - - - 16.33 
 
 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 
 Abdication of Cliristina - - -1654 
 
 Charles X. overruns Poland^ - - 1657 
 
 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 
 Charles XI]., " the tnadman of the 
 
 North," begins his reign ■ - 1699 
 
 He makes himself absolute abolishes 
 the senate - - . •*•• 
 
 KINGS OF 
 
 A, D. 825 Regnard Lobrock. 
 
 * ' ' Reigns uncertain.] 
 966 Eric, the Victor. 
 994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 
 
 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 
 
 1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 
 
 1041 Haquin, 
 
 1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 
 
 1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 
 
 1064 Halstan. 
 
 1080 Philip. 
 
 1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 
 
 1130 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 
 
 1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 
 
 1144 Sucrcherll. 
 
 1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels. 
 
 1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- 
 nute, who reigns. 
 
 1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 
 
 1192 Suercher 111., son of Charles; killed in 
 battle. 
 
 1211 Eric XI. 
 
 1220 John I. 
 
 Battle of Pultowa, where Chailta is 
 defeated by the czar of Rissia. See 
 Pultowa - - ■ K.\>. 170S 
 
 He escapes to Bender, where after tnree 
 years' protection, he is made prison- 
 er by the Turks - - - 1713 
 
 He is restored • and after ruinous wars, 
 and fighting numerous battles, he is 
 at length killed at the siege of Frede- 
 rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 171a 
 
 Uueen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- 
 ii, government .... 1719 
 
 Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- 
 terwards called Linuceus - - 1741 
 
 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, 
 who are beheaded - - - 1756 
 
 Despotism re-established • - 1772 
 
 Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 
 
 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count 
 Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he 
 expired the 29th - - - 1792 
 
 The regicide was dreaafully scourged 
 with whips of iron thongs three suc- 
 cessive days ; his right hand was cut 
 off, then his head, and his body im- 
 paled - - - May 16, 1792 
 
 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- 
 vernment assumed by his uncle, the 
 duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 
 
 Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of 
 Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 
 
 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte 
 Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of 
 Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 
 
 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, 
 
 Nov. 12, 1810 
 
 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 
 
 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 
 
 Sweden joins the grand alliance against 
 Napoleon . - March 13, 1813 
 
 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- 
 ty of Kiel . . Jan. 14, 1814 
 
 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- 
 den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S 
 
 Treaty of navigation between Great 
 Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 
 I 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 1223 Eric XII. 
 
 1250 Waldemar. 
 
 1276 Magnus II. 
 
 1290 Birger II. 
 
 1318 Magnus III. ; dethroned by his Bubjooti 
 
 1365 Albert. 
 
 1397 Margaret. 
 
 1411 Eric XIII.; abdicated; 
 
 1441 Christopher. 
 
 1448 Charles VIII. 
 
 1458 Christian I, 
 
 1497 John II. 
 
 1520 Christian II. 
 
 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 
 
 1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 
 
 1569 John III. 
 
 1592 Sigismond I., kinj; tl Poland. 
 
 1606 Charles IX. 
 
 1611 Gustavus Ado|f)hus II. 
 
 1632 Christina ; resigned her cro'vm to 
 
 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke ol Deu 
 
 Poms. 
 1660 Charles XI. 
 
606 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 I 8WI 
 
 1771 Gustavus m., Adolphua. 
 
 1792 Gustavui3 Adolphus IV. 
 
 1809 Charles XIII. 
 
 1818 Charles .John XI v., Bernadolte, Feb. 6 
 
 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. 
 
 SWEPEN, continued. 
 
 ',S99 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of 
 
 Frederickshall. 
 1718 Ulrica Eleanora ; resigned when her 
 
 husband was elected. 
 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 
 1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec- 
 centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Ne\^ 
 Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- 
 tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man, of 
 the Word, of heaven and of hell— concerning all which subjects error and 
 ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its 
 proper fruits— love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. 
 His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, 
 but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- 
 rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered 
 by Julius Caisar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. 
 Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz 
 was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in 
 Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; 
 after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given 
 name to the whole confederacy. 
 
 The Helvetian . converted to Christian- 
 ity by Irish missionaries - A. D. 612 
 
 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 
 
 Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 
 
 Fribourg built by Berihold IV. - - 1179 
 
 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions 
 the memorable revolt under the pa- 
 triot William Tell. - - 1306 
 
 Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 
 
 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- 
 ton of Basle, 11,000 souls - - 1314 
 
 Form of government made perpetual - 1315 
 
 Lucerne joins the confederacy - - 1335 
 
 Tlip canton of Zurich joms, and be- 
 cbmes head of the league - - 1350 
 
 Berne, Claris, and Zug join • - 1-351 
 
 The Grisons league (see Caddee) ■ 1400 
 
 Second league of the Grisons - -1424 
 
 The third league of the Grisons - 1436 
 
 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay 
 of France, under Louis XI. - -1480 
 
 Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 
 
 Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges 
 Swiss independence - - - 1499 
 
 Schaffhausen joins the union - -1501 
 
 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged 
 by France and other powers - 1516 
 
 The Reformation begins at Basle ; the 
 bishop compelled to retire - 1519 
 
 The Grison leagues join the Swiss .on- 
 federacy as allies - - - 1544 
 
 Appenzel joins the other cantons -1597 
 
 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts 
 Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, 
 and penetrates the town ; but in the 
 end is defeated - - - 1602 
 
 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- 
 nual festival commemorative of their 
 escape from tyranny.] 
 
 i' WORDS. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 
 1S79 B. z.— Univ. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implementi 
 
 Independence of Switzerland recognized 
 by the treaty of Westphalia (see 
 Westphalia, Peace of) ■ a. d. 1648 
 
 [From this period until the French Re- 
 volution the canton enjoyed trantjuil- 
 lity, disturbed only by the changes 
 arising out of their various constitu- 
 tions.] 
 
 Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 
 
 Domestic strife in Geneva, between the 
 aristocratic and democratic parties; 
 France interferes - - - 1781 
 
 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum 
 in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782 
 
 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 
 
 Helvetic confederation dissolved; its 
 subjugation by France - - 1798 
 
 The number of cantons increased to 19 : 
 the federal government restored ; and 
 a lanilamman appointed by France, 
 
 May 12, 18(K 
 
 Uri, Schweitz, ana Underwald separate 
 from the republic - .luly 13, 1802 
 
 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 
 men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 
 
 The Allies entered Switzerland in the 
 spring of 1S14. The number of can- 
 tons increased to 22, and the indepen- 
 dence of Switzerland secured by the 
 treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 
 
 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 
 
 — passes resolves against the Sonder- 
 bund, and troops of Uri attack canton 
 Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 
 
 Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. 
 10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 
 
 Neufchatel declares independence, 
 
 Feb. 29, ISa 
 
btr] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 607 
 
 of wai Tlie Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- 
 sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at 
 an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel 
 swords are the most prized ; and nest, the sword of Ferrara steel. The 
 Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated 
 artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrcj} 
 Ferrara,s. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 
 3724. 
 
 SYCAMOEE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The 
 date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. 
 In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary 
 queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she 
 planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have 
 spnung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 
 
 SYDNE5f, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port 
 Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally 
 intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of 
 the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. 
 The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it 
 has a legislative council, which was first held July 13, 1829. See New South 
 Wales; Convicts, tf-c. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had 
 synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others 
 to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- 
 gogues. There are in London six synagogues. 
 
 SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by 
 Christian princes; but the pope 'ultimately usurped this power, one of his 
 legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation 
 only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the 
 last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but 
 by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1538. 
 
 6YN0D OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to 
 which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in 
 Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, 
 and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. 
 — Aitzema. 
 
 SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c.—Eusebius. 749 b. c— Univ. Hist. 
 Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was 
 slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with 
 /many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, 
 Aug. 6, 1757. 
 
 SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particiilars are gleaned 
 from Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved 
 in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (mmzcA 
 see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after ths battle 
 of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidte) founded the celebrated city 
 of Antioch. 
 
 Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- 
 queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 
 
 jEra of the Seleucidoe (which see) - 312 
 
 Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death 
 ofAntigonus - - - - 301 
 
 City of Antioch founded - - 299 
 
 Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in 
 love with his fathe.s' queen, Straion- 
 ice, he pines away nearly to death , 
 but the secret being discovered, she 
 is divorced by the father and married 
 by the son.' - - - b. c. 297 
 
 * This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of T>nvsic 
 Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly with Herophilus), had observed, than wnec 
 
608 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [ STB 
 
 SYRIA, continued. 
 
 Battle of CyropaBdion - -B.C. 281 
 
 Seleucus ia I'ouUy assassinated ty Ce- 
 
 raunua. — Lenglet. 
 Ar.tioclius defeats the Gauls, and takes 
 
 the name of Soter, or Saviour 
 Rei?n of Antiochus II., surnamed by the 
 
 M'ilesians Theos, or God ! - - 261 
 
 Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance 
 
 ■with Smyrna and Magnesia* 
 Reign of Seleucus HI., surnamed Ce- 
 
 raunus, or Thunder - 
 Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus 
 
 III. IS signally defeated 
 Antioclius' conquest of Judea - 
 V-'ar with the Romans begins • 
 Rcign of Antiochus IV,, who assumes 
 
 the title of TheMs-Epiphanes, or the 
 
 Illustrious God! 
 He sends Appolonms into Judea ; Jeru- 
 salem is taken; the tem-ple pillaged; 
 
 40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 
 
 40.000 more sold as slaves 
 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son 
 
 SRleucus with her own hand 
 Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, 
 
 whom she attempts to poison ; but he 
 
 compels his mother to swallow the 
 
 deadly draught herself 
 Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and 
 
 of Grypus at Amioch 
 Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, wlio en- 
 ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus 
 
 Asiatichus, about 
 
 280 
 275 
 
 - 343 
 e- 
 
 - 226 
 
 217 
 204 
 192 
 
 175 
 
 170 
 124 
 
 123 
 111 
 
 Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 
 
 [This conquest is made by the Fatimite 
 
 caliphs who rule in Egypt.] 
 Revolt of the emirs of Dan;ascus - 1067 
 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - -1068 
 
 The Crusades from Europe commence 
 
 (see article Crusades} ■ ■ 1095 
 
 [The Christians ultimately conquer that 
 
 part of Syria called the Holy Land. — 
 
 See Jerusalem] 
 
 Noureddin conquers Syria -. a.d. 116t 
 
 Saladin puts an end to the j^ower of the 
 
 Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 
 
 The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 125f 
 
 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who 
 
 expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 
 
 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1408 
 
 Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 
 
 After the conquest by Selira, Syria con- 
 tinued m possession of the Turks till 
 the invasion of Egypt by the French. 
 
 July 1, l,9y 
 
 Bonaparte defeats the Mameluk-is with 
 great lotis - - - Aug. 6, 17;<3 
 
 He overruns the country, and takes Ga- 
 za and Jaffa .... 1795 
 
 Siege of Acre - March 6 tD Ma/ 27, 17 Jii 
 
 Bonaparte returns to France from E- 
 gypt - - - - Aug. 23, 1799 
 
 Egypt is evacuated by the French army 
 
 Sept. 10, 1801 
 
 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A "re, 
 and overruns the whole of Syria, I83i-32 
 
 Ibraham Pacha, his son, defeats tlie ar- 
 my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 
 
 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow 
 with various success.] 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- 
 my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1833 
 
 The Tuikish fleet arrives at Alexandria 
 and places itself at the disposal of 
 Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839 
 
 The Five Powers propose to the Porte 
 to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 
 
 16, 1.839 
 
 Death of the celebrated lady Hester 
 Stanhope - . .• . June 23, 1840 
 
 Treaty of London (not signed by offend- 
 ed France) - - July 15, 1840 
 
 Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, 1S40 
 
 Fall of Beyrout (see SeyrottO Oct. 10 1840 
 
 Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 1840 
 
 After much ex])ostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- 
 tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the prchalic of Egypt 
 hereditary 'n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish 
 fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at 
 London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This 
 result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its 3< utinu- 
 ance among the great powers of Euro]>e. 
 
 ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame, 
 his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She v/as of his own age. and of exceeding beauty. 
 Oil discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which 
 was the foundation of his great fame. He informed tr.e king that his heir must die, as he languished 
 under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, ■' is the object of his love 7" ^' My wife," 
 answered the physician. "Then resign her to him," said the king. " But if " said Erasistratus 
 "it were ihe queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another'!' 
 " Yes/' replied Seleucus, " I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to save 
 my sen's life." "Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, "for the object of his love i» Stra 
 tenice !"— Biog-. Diet. 
 
 • This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Osfuid. I 
 was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II. 
 
IHE . DICTIONARY OF DATES. 609 
 
 TAHITI. The Frencli, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otakeite. 
 
 TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies undei 
 sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French 
 army, amounting to 47.000, commanded by marslials Victor and Sebastiani, 
 July 27 and 28, 1809. 
 
 TALMUD. There are, two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality 
 of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The 
 one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second 
 century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were 
 collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimoo- 
 ides in the twelfth century. 
 
 1 AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of 
 Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- 
 tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter 
 had destined for his adversary if he had been the' victor. Bajazet dashed 
 his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself 1403. — Chalcon- 
 dila's Hist. Turk. 
 
 TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in- 
 troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising 
 orange-trees. It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first 
 brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- 
 ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, eb seq. 
 
 TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence 
 its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
 tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. 
 — Guicciardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- 
 vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William 
 Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir 
 Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of 
 tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early 
 instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also 
 in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
 the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Baijeux Tapestry. 
 
 TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum suppoited 
 against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is 
 greatly celebi-ated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. c 
 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentinies had oifered to their 
 ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 800,000 pri- 
 soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. 
 
 TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar 
 race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. 
 It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- 
 manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and 
 the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of 
 Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The 
 first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis 
 Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
 Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it 
 was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered 
 Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and 
 founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, 
 till the close of the eighteenth century. 
 
 TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various namea^ 
 26* 
 
610 THE world's progress. [tiu 
 
 in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. 
 " In the raigne of king Edward the Third 07ily three taverns were allowed 
 in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- 
 street." — Sir Henry Spelmmi. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in 
 the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his 
 dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. 
 Quickly, and the scene of sir John FalstafF's merriment. — Shakspeare, 
 Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- 
 lished in 1480 : this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by 
 an act of Edward TI., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 
 in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 8 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in 
 Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 8 in 
 Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 
 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
 
 TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- 
 lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, 
 about 55L English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
 which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious? that his subjects 
 styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b ;. — D' Eon's His- 
 toirc des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by 
 William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet sul-^iidies in kind, as 
 in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till 
 the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British 
 colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act 
 repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- 
 ment, &c. 
 
 TE DE UM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, 
 beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee, God. It 
 is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, 
 about A. D. 390 ; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp 
 and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a 
 great victory or for a bounteous harvest. 
 
 TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. 
 Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from 
 Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from 
 thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India 
 Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715 
 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- 
 struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, 
 and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. 
 
 TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTV IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 lbs. 24,133,000 I 1825. - lbs. 27.803,668 
 
 25,414,000 1830. - - 30,544,404 
 
 - 26,368.000 1835. • - 44,360,550 
 
 25,662,474 I 1840. - - 38,068,555 
 
 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,000Z. annually. 
 Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every 
 year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons, 
 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- 
 land, is about 22 000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
 Britain is 30 000,000. — Evidence in the House of Conuno7is, 1830. The first 
 tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East 
 India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United 
 States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was S4,278,463 ; while that of coflfea 
 was $9,102,872. 
 
 1726. 
 
 lbs. 700,000 
 
 1805. 
 
 1766. - 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 1810. 
 
 1792. 
 
 - -> - 13,185,000 
 
 1815. 
 
 1800. - 
 
 23,723,000 
 
 1820. 
 
tbm] dictionary or dates. 611 
 
 TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, abotvt 1768. 
 The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but tha 
 first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor* 
 thumberland at Sion. 
 
 TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- 
 strumeats used by the ancients for communicating information pyrs^^s, 
 because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the 
 moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when 
 ■^he plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a 
 telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. 
 M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about 
 this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument M'as applied to useful 
 purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. 
 Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was 
 erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- 
 concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, bv varying the 
 combinations of two revolving crosses ; and also to spell any particular 
 words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegraph. 
 
 TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. 
 Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes ex- 
 actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, 
 of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- 
 cidental discovery made by his children, 1590—1609. Galileo imitated 
 their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of 
 which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's 
 moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and 
 wei-e improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by 
 Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by 
 More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- 
 tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000^. in 1802 ; but the Herschel telescope, 
 made 1789 — 1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- 
 meter, 8^ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See 
 Herschel Telescope. 
 
 I'EMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that 
 the first 4reat public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this 
 country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the 
 most prominent of th« first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt 
 of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The 
 exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total 
 abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general 
 habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various 
 names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from 
 various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with 
 spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent 
 in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the 
 Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has 
 administered the '-total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his 
 countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In (Ger- 
 many there were 800 temperance societies in 1846. 
 
 IT.MPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in 
 A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The temjilars were numerous 
 in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- 
 pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon 
 other orders, in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, 
 and it suffl-red great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 
 
612 THE world's progress. [te\» 
 
 Jn the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed 
 in England, and finally in 1340. 
 
 TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house 
 of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased 
 by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They ara 
 called the Inner and Middle Temple. 
 
 TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusebius. 
 The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. 
 The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUoniiis. For tem- 
 ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 
 B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by 
 Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d. 
 70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built 
 of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 b.c. 
 A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmseonidse, about 518 b. c— 
 Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 
 B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it, 
 employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a.d. 260. — The Temple of 
 Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w, th 
 her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
 from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, 
 is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — The heathen 
 temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the 
 Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. 
 
 TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- 
 ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga 
 river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the 
 Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent 
 contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North 
 Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
 1796. Population in 1790, 35.691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 
 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. 
 
 TESr ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili- 
 tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of 
 the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
 &c., was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. 
 
 TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri 
 made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They 
 were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made 
 prisoners, 101 b. c. See Civibri. 
 
 TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy 
 Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in 
 the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Chri*tian 
 army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The 
 order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III., a. d. 1191. See 
 Prussia, &c. 
 
 TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
 the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, 
 were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
 where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, 
 as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- 
 wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French king, 
 Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the ho'ises 
 of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. 
 
the] dictionary of dates. 613 
 
 TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- 
 cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction 
 with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- 
 public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first di^^ 
 agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant 
 from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indepet 
 dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican 
 president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the 
 independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), 
 after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery. Feb. 20, 
 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an« 
 nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] 
 
 THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication 
 between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most 
 extraordiiiary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was 
 begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption 
 took place, May 18. 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen 
 perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width 
 is 35 feet; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, 
 about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the 
 bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot 
 passengers, March 25, 1843. 
 
 I'HANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a 
 nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most 
 properly, an oflScer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called 
 thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- 
 quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland 
 by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 
 
 THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the 
 first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres 
 were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There 
 was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were 
 assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of "Vesu- 
 vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by 
 Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England 
 was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of 
 Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before 
 that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- 
 mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room. Is. 
 — Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frcia 
 Drmy-lane ; it runs thus : "By his Majestic, his company of Comedians at 
 the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov- 
 rovs Lievtenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The 
 play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened 
 in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States 
 was the acting of Otway"s Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- 
 tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company 
 acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was io 
 New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia 
 soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New 
 York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. 
 
 THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- 
 tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to 
 Jupiter. Ifi the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, 
 and upon ajiy emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 
 
614 THE world's progress. [ Tua 
 
 gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes wab ruined by Cam, 
 byses, king of Persia" and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. 
 — Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called 
 Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Bmotia. Thebes waa 
 called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- 
 brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 e. c. It was dismantled by 
 the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Tlmcydides. 
 
 THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death 
 at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- 
 ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could 
 redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- 
 tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very 
 severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's 
 acts, 9 and 10 George IV. 
 
 THEISTS. Tire sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660, and 
 they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- 
 ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that 
 their religion was better because older and more simple than that which waa 
 given by God to the Hebrews. 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- 
 ver, founded 1808. 
 
 THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to severa! 
 scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 
 A. D. 1609. — Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Fulgenho. Invent- 
 ed by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented 
 about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of 
 construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years 
 subsequently. 
 
 THERMOPYL^, Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the 
 defile of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three 
 days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- 
 cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, 
 thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their 
 _ country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 
 ' heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- 
 sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and 
 insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with 
 their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the 
 hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c— Vossius de Grac. Hist. 
 
 THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being 
 the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king 
 of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
 whom his subjects were ''ailed Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all 
 Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their 
 origin, as the Achaeans, the ^tolians. the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The 
 two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the 
 deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. 
 See them severally. 
 
 rHRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and 
 Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it 
 so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 b. c. By- 
 zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Ccmstantinople 
 was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet H., a. d 1463. - 
 Priestley. 
 
TLt] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 615 
 
 THRASHING-MACfflNES. The flail was the only instrument formerlj in use. 
 The Romans used a machine called the tribuhwi, a sledge loaded with stonea 
 or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted 
 in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 
 1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. 
 
 THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car- 
 thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No 
 less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken 
 prisoners ; or, according to Livj^, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
 Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es- 
 cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius. 
 
 THUMB-SC} OW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the 
 first stage of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England 
 also. Th' Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered bj'' it before the 
 privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly 
 resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a 
 present by the council King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it 
 on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, 
 "Hold ! hold! doctor; another turn would make me confess any thing." 
 
 THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero 
 worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly 
 by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over 
 the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is 
 said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which 
 was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and 
 Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, 
 has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovls, or Jupiter's day. 
 
 TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- 
 donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 
 about 79 B. c. ; and Csesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic 
 War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
 A. D. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved 
 for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove 
 universal gravitation, about 1683. 
 
 TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- 
 sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monai'ch one-half of his terri- 
 tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- 
 vation of Napoleon's three brothers. Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones 
 of Naples. Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 
 19 following. 
 
 TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, 
 and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry 
 IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the 
 suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in 
 France in 1560. — Voltaire'' s Gen. Hist. 
 
 TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000 
 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand 
 on an acre ; in peace, 32 000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship 
 consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres 
 in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per 
 annum. — Alhiut. England imports about 800 000 loads of timber annually, 
 exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c., together with about 8,000,- 
 000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 
 
616 THE world's progress. [ TOl 
 
 TIME-MEASTJRE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. .;. Early au- 
 thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each 
 twelve inches long ; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- 
 vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being f 
 great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, 
 sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, 
 Watches, &c. 
 
 TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 
 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them 
 commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- 
 mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- 
 mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- 
 ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- 
 ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the 
 stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. 
 Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall 
 into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest 
 sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, 
 which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in 
 Europe, a. d. 1240. — Andersoii. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; 
 in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons 
 of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 
 400,000^. 
 
 TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 
 B. c.—Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were 
 given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — WickUffe. "I will not put the 
 title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right 
 certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- 
 ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, 
 is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. 
 Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to 
 expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had 
 caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Bwni's Eccles. Law. Tithes were 
 first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, 
 A. D. M^L.—Hennfs Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by 
 Charlemagne, about 800. — Renault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran 
 councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. 
 
 TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles 
 swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege" 
 conferred upon him, 1399. The title of " Excellent Grace" was conferred 
 upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of "Most High and Mighty 
 Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. 
 had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last 
 were absorbed in the title of "Majesty," being that with which Francis I. 
 of France addressed Heni'y at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field 
 of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
 " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred," 
 or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of 
 Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, 
 about 1463. 
 
 TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tahac%mn. This plant received its name from Tabacco, 
 a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, 
 one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It wa« 
 first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- 
 
top] dictionary op dates. 617 
 
 iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 
 1565, by sir Johij Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake 
 are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured 
 only for exportation for some years. — Stoive's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- 
 tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast 
 against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be Cs. lOd. 
 per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II. 
 An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation 
 was aUow'ed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the 
 excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to 
 tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- 
 land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ixeland be purchased 
 in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England 
 'n 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
 millions of pounds. — Chafi. of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached 
 to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is 
 grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'ae 
 southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was S'7, 551,122. 
 Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United 
 States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for 
 smoking. Several works have been published on the evil eflects and bad 
 taste of this weed. 
 
 TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. .642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- 
 taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was 
 ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse 
 in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 
 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was 
 once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and 
 was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. 
 
 TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the 
 first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The 
 dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- 
 tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of 
 queen Anne's reign. 
 
 TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d, 
 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for 
 every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes 
 were used in 1663. 
 
 TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, 
 commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1346. The first granted to 
 the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cmiingham's Hist. 
 Taxes. 
 
 TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so 
 called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on 
 foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by 
 amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- 
 taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 
 lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- 
 holders, his share produced him 3000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,116,- 
 244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798.— Haydn. 
 
 TOPLITZ, Battle op. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austriana 
 and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, 
 August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a 
 considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a tripk 
 
618 THE world's progress. |_Tor 
 
 alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty ol 
 Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. 
 rORTURE. It lias disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. 
 It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
 used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in 
 England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1690. 
 The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order 
 of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it liad not been practised there some time 
 before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gustavus III., 1786. It 
 yet continues in other countries. 
 
 TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be 
 derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- 
 lector of tithes and tastes. — Encyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- 
 heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, 
 into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated 
 the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives; 
 while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe. 
 The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- 
 paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot {which 
 see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- 
 ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; 
 and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our 
 revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, 
 at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, 
 while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs. 
 
 TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by 
 land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of 
 ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise 
 the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord 
 Hood, who took possession both of tlie town and sljipping in the name of 
 Louis XVII. , under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- 
 tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French 
 forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated 
 by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised 
 towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. 
 
 TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- 
 tablished here to extiri^ate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- 
 ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- 
 nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to 
 the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. 
 
 TOULOUSE, Battle of. The final battle between the British Peninsular army 
 under lord Wellington and the Fi-ench — one of the most bloody that had 
 been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of 
 the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult, 
 whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours light- 
 ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British 
 forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the 
 allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that 
 of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte 
 had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was 
 aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, 
 such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- 
 tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show 
 
row] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 619 
 
 their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner, 
 " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility 
 both of liorse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d 
 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 
 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance 
 in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when the 
 taste for them declined in England. Henry H. of France, in a tilt with the 
 count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused 
 the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from 
 this eve'nt abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry '\f 
 fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament toot 
 place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many 
 of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour 
 being the ' Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- 
 tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. 
 
 rOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
 by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
 in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- 
 neral Labourdonnaye. Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austriana 
 and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, 
 May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, 
 when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- 
 pieces, May 6, 1794. 
 
 TOURS, Battle op. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that 
 which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, 
 and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We 
 are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as 
 well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan ; October 10, 
 A. D. 732. 
 
 TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of 
 Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
 Athens, built 550 e. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- 
 ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be 
 reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the onl}^ struc- 
 tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, 
 except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
 These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing 
 towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above 
 the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these 
 productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet 
 high. 
 
 TOWER OP LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more 
 than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first 
 maiked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and 
 corupleted by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, 
 and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, 
 and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- 
 built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly 
 repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are 
 the Armorj', Jewel-cflSce, and various other divisions and buildings of 
 peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, 
 and many murders See England. 
 
 TOWTON. Battle op. This gieat battle is supposed to be the most fierce and 
 bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between 
 the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 
 
620 THE world's progress. f TRA 
 
 of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects 
 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
 slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower • 
 his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. 
 
 TRAFALGAR, Battle op, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng- 
 land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against 
 the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve 
 and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and 
 fifteen Spanish vessels, ah of thehne ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships 
 After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- 
 mirals Avere taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. 
 But the hero of England lost his Ufe in this memorable battle ; and admiral 
 Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and 
 his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every 
 man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. 
 
 TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first 
 tragic poet at Athens, 836 b.-c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the 
 first gained by ^schylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- 
 cles, 470 B. c.—Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c.~Ibid. Another by 
 Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama ; Plays ; Theatres. 
 
 TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor 
 Trajan, and executed by ApoUodorus. This column, which still exists at 
 Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 
 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the 
 emperor. 
 
 TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth 
 century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went 
 farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- 
 longing life, A. D. 1483. — Henault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion 
 upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five 
 persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited 
 the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an Enghsh 
 physician, who died in 1691. practised in this way. — Friend'' s Hist, of Phys. 
 Transfusion again attampted in Fra'nce, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- 
 tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were 
 ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment 
 for fighter offences than those adjudged death was much earher. England 
 is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- 
 tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- 
 portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1711.— PkUlips. More 
 recently, the reverend Dr. HaUoran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was 
 transported for forging a frank, (10^. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first 
 transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the 
 settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished 
 with death until 1834:, when an act passed making the offence punishable 
 by transportation for life. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about 
 A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It 
 was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the 
 doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- 
 tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation'' 
 was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequen* 
 times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the 
 coiLncil of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Cavers Hist. Lit. 
 
rRE J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 621 
 
 TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart- 
 ment of Orne, famed in the daj's of superstition for their austerity of dis- 
 cipHne, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with ■ 
 rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 6i English and Irish Trappists were 
 shipped by the French govt^-nment at Painbceuf, Nov. 19, and were landed 
 from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established 
 themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain 
 there the extreme rigor of their order. 
 
 RAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage 
 English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money 
 there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license 
 for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1685. — Rapin. 
 
 rREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise 
 water for the irrigation of the fields. The fi"ead-mill lately introduced into 
 the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is 
 the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton 
 jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. 
 
 TREASON. See His;h Treason. It wa« punished in EngJand only by banish- 
 ment till after Henry I. — Baker's Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward 
 III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict. 1695. 
 The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment 
 was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive 
 Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason 
 which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three 
 ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; 
 jind an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so 
 declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. 
 
 TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any 
 . foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was 
 with the Flemings, 1 Edward. 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
 1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of 
 Europe will be foimd described in their respective places : the following 
 forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; Leafrues, &c. 
 
 Abo, peace of - 
 
 ■ 1743 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 . - 1668 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace 
 
 3f . - 1748 
 
 Akermann, peace of 
 
 . - 1826 
 
 Alt Radstadt 
 
 - 1706 
 
 America, peace with 
 
 • - 1783 
 
 Amiens, peace of 
 
 - 1802 
 
 Armed Neutrality - 
 
 - . 1800 
 
 Arras, treaty of 
 
 - 14.35 
 
 Arras, ditto - 
 
 - - 1482 
 
 Augsburgh, league of 
 
 • 1686 
 
 Baden, peace of 
 
 • • 1714 
 
 Barrier treaty 
 
 - 1715 
 
 Basle, peace of 
 
 ■ - 1795 
 
 Bassein, India 
 
 . 1802 
 
 Bayonne, treaty of • 
 
 - - 1808 
 
 Belgium, treaty of Lone 
 
 ion . - 1839 
 
 Belgrade, peace of • 
 
 . - 17.39 
 
 Berlin, peace of 
 
 - 1742 
 
 Berlin decree 
 
 - - 1806 
 
 Berlin convention 
 
 - 1808 
 
 Breda, peace of 
 
 - - 1667 
 
 Bretigny, peace of 
 
 - 1360 
 
 Bucharest, treaty of 
 
 . - 1812 
 
 Cambray, league of 
 
 . 1508 
 
 Cambray, peace of 
 
 - - 1529 
 
 Campo-Formio, treaty o 
 
 f - - 1797 
 
 Corlowltz, peace of 
 
 • • 1699 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of - 
 
 - 181i 
 
 Cateau-Canibresis, peace of - - 155S 
 
 Chaumont, treaty of • 
 
 - 1814 
 
 Cliunar, India 
 
 • • 1781 
 
 Cintra, convention of - 
 
 - 1808 
 
 Closterseven, convention ol 
 
 • • 17.57 
 
 Coalition, first, against France - 179S 
 
 Coalition, second, ditto 
 Coalition, third, ditto - 
 Coalition, fourth, ditto 
 
 . - 1799 
 
 - 1805 
 
 - • 1806 
 
 Coalition, fifth, ditto 
 
 - 180S 
 
 Coalition, sixth, ditto 
 
 - - 1813 
 
 Concordat 
 
 - 1801 
 
 Conflans, treaty of 
 
 . - 1465 
 
 Constantinople, peace of 
 
 - 1712 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of 
 
 . -1833 
 
 Copenhagen, peace of 
 
 - 1660 
 
 Cressy 
 
 - -1544 
 
 Dresden 
 
 - 1745 
 
 Family compact 
 
 • - 1761 
 
 Fontainebleau, peace of 
 
 - 1679 
 
 Fontainebleau, treaty of 
 
 • • 1785 
 
 Fontainebleau, concordat at 
 
 - 1813 
 
 Friedwald, treaty of 
 
 • - 1551 
 
 Fuessen, peace of 
 
 - 1745 
 
 Ghent, pacification of 
 
 . - 1578 
 
 Ghent, peace o*" America) 
 
 . 1814 
 
 Golden Bull 
 
 . -135« 
 
622 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [TEl 
 
 TREATIES, continued. 
 
 
 Grand Alliance 
 
 1689 
 
 Greece, treaty of London • 
 
 .1829 
 
 Hague, treaty of the 
 
 1659 
 
 Hague, treaty of the 
 
 . 1669 
 
 Halle, treaty of 
 
 1610 
 
 Hamburgh, peace of 
 
 1762 
 
 Hanover treaty - 
 
 1725 
 
 Holland, peace with 
 
 • 1784 
 
 Holy Alliance - 
 
 1815 
 
 Hubertsberg, peace of 
 
 1763 
 
 Interim .... 
 
 1548 
 
 Kiel, treaty of ' - 
 
 1814 
 
 Laybach, congress of . 
 
 1721 
 
 League 
 
 1570 
 
 Leipsic, alliance of 
 
 1631 
 
 Leoben, peace of - 
 
 1797 
 
 Lisbon, peace of 
 
 1668 
 
 liOndon, treaty of (Greece) 
 
 1829 
 
 London, convention of (TurJcey) 
 
 1840 
 
 Lubeck, peace of - 
 
 1629 
 
 Luneville, peace of 
 
 1801 
 
 Madrid, treaty of 
 
 1526 
 
 Methuen treaty - 
 
 1703 
 
 Milan decree - - ,. . 
 
 1807 
 
 Munster, peace of 
 Nantes, edict of . 
 
 1648 
 
 1598 
 
 Naumberg, treaty of 
 
 1554 
 
 Nice, treaty of . - . 
 
 1518 
 
 Nimeguen, peace of 
 
 1678 
 
 Noyon, treaty of - 
 
 1516 
 
 Nuremberg, treaty of . 
 
 1532 
 
 Olivia, peace of - 
 
 1660 
 
 Paris, peace of (see Paris) 
 
 1763 
 
 Paris, treaty of - 
 
 1796 
 
 Paris, peace of (Sweden) 
 
 1810 
 
 Paris, capitulation of 
 
 1814 
 
 Paris, treaty of . 
 
 1814 
 
 Pans, peace of - - - 
 
 1815 
 
 Paris, treaty of . 
 
 1817 
 
 Partition, first treaty 
 
 1698 
 
 Partition, second treaty . 
 
 1700 
 
 Passarowitz, peace of 
 
 1718 
 
 Passau, treaty of 
 
 1552 
 
 Petersburgh, peace of 
 
 1762 
 
 Petersbul-gh, treaty of • 
 
 1772 
 
 Petersburgh, treaty of 
 
 1805 
 
 Petersburgh, treaty of - 
 
 1810 
 
 Peterswalden, convention of 
 
 1813 
 
 Pilnitz, convention if - 
 
 1791 
 
 Poland, partition of - 
 
 1795 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 
 1439 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 
 1713 
 
 Prague, peace of 
 
 1653 
 
 Presburg, peace of - 
 
 1805 
 
 Public good, league for the 
 
 1464 
 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the 
 Quadruple Alliance 
 Radstadt, peace of - 
 Radstadt, congress of 
 Ratisbon, peace of - • 
 
 Ratisbon, treaty of • • 
 
 Religion, peace of - 
 Rhine, Confederation of the 
 Ryswick, peace of - 
 St. Germain's, peace of 
 St. Germain-en- 1, aye 
 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain 
 
 France .... 
 Seville, peace of 
 Siorod, peace of . 
 Smalcald, league of - 
 Spain, pacification of (London) 
 Stettin, peace of 
 Stockholm 
 Stockholm, peace of 
 Stockholm, treaty of - 
 Stockholm, treaty of 
 Temeswar, truce of 
 Teschen, peace of . 
 Teusin, peace of 
 Tilsit, peace of 
 Tolentino, treaty of 
 Toplitz, treaty of - 
 Triple Alliance - 
 Triple Alliance of the Hague 
 Troppau, congress of . 
 Troyes, treaty of 
 Turkmauchay, peace of 
 Ulm, peace of 
 Utretht, union of 
 Utrecht, peace of • 
 Valencay, treaty of 
 Verona, congress of 
 Versailles, peace of 
 Vienna, treaty of - 
 Vienna, treaty of alliance 
 Vienna, definitive peace 
 Vienna, peace of 
 Vienna, treaty of, March 23 
 Vienna, treaty of, May 31 
 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 . 
 Vossem, peace of 
 Warsaw, treaty of - 
 Warsaw, alliance of 
 Westminster, peace of 
 Westminster (with Holland) 
 Westphalia, peace of 
 Wilna, treaty of - 
 Worms, edict of 
 Wurtzburg, treaty of . 
 
 TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES.— Some of the most important 
 
 with 
 
 Alliance with France - Feb, 6. 1779 
 
 Treaty of Paris (independence secured) 
 
 Sept. 3, 1783 
 Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 1785 
 Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain 
 
 (Jay's) 1794 
 
 Treaty with the Six Nations and other 
 
 Indian tribes - . - . 1794 
 
 Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and 
 
 Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 
 
 Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by 
 
 J. Q. Adams) .... 1799 
 Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- 
 
 Ukk Henry &c. Sept. 30, 1800 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe 
 and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame- 
 rican government 
 
 Treaty t)f Ghent, with Great Britain, 
 signed by J. Q. Adams, Gallatin, and 
 H. Clay, for the ^ ■ Ued States, clos- 
 ing the " war of 1812," Lut leaving 
 the original dispute much as before - 
 
 Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 
 
 Treaty with the Choctaws and Chere- 
 kees . . - . . 
 
 Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 
 
 Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &Q. 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- 
 ing American citizens for spohatiOM 
 
 1659 
 
 1718 
 1714 
 1797 
 1630 
 
 1806 
 1555 
 1806 
 1697 
 1570 
 i67S 
 
 1795 
 1792 
 1613 
 1529 
 1834 
 1570 
 1630 
 1719 
 1724 
 1813 
 1664 
 1779 
 1595 
 1807 
 1793 
 1813 
 1717 
 1668 
 1820 
 1420 
 1828 
 1620 
 1579 
 1713 
 1813 
 1822 
 1783 
 1725 
 1731 
 1737 
 1809 
 1815 
 1815 
 1815 
 1673 
 1768 
 1683 
 1674 
 1716 
 1648 
 1561 
 1521 
 1610 
 
 i8oe 
 
 1814 
 1S15 
 
 1816 
 iS23 
 192S 
 
TRlJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 
 
 623 
 
 TREATIES, conl'mned. 
 
 during the war with Napoleon 
 
 Nov. 13, 1S26 
 Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829 
 Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 
 
 Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 
 Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 
 
 Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 
 
 Treaty with Russia (commercial) 
 
 Dec. 18, 1832 
 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
 the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- 
 ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. 
 Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 
 to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 
 
 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. 
 
 Gushing ; ratified by the se; ate 
 
 Jan. 16, 1848 
 
 Treaty of peace witl Mexico, signed at 
 Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ; 
 ratified by the senate (with modifica- 
 tions) ; ratified at Q.ueretaro by Ame- 
 rican commissioners Sevier and Clii 
 ford, and Mexican minister Rosas 
 
 May 30, 184? 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
 Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between 
 North and South America; signed 
 at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer 
 and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 
 
 Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. 
 
 Cedars on -Lebanon, 800 years. 
 
 Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 
 800 years. 
 
 Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. 
 
 Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. 
 
 [For proofs and details see the article re- 
 ferred to.] 
 
 TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al- 
 manac for 1838, p. 102, are, 
 
 The Wallace oak at EUerslie, Scotland, 
 
 700 years. 
 (Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 
 
 years.) 
 Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene- 
 
 seo. New York, 500 years. 
 Yew trees at Fountam's Abbey, England, 
 
 1,280 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 
 
 2,500 years. 
 
 TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic 
 church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- 
 citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. 
 The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- 
 tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 15^3, when the last 
 council was held. * 
 
 TRIALS. Alfred is said to have beeh the contriver of trial by jury; but there 
 is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at 
 Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a 
 list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, bj' the fact that the descendants of 
 one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name 
 and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips. 
 
 TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribimi Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first 
 chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the 
 time the people, after a quayrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- 
 cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was 
 soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. 
 Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the 
 ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. 
 
 TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken 
 from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it 
 from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the 
 line, and a military force imder command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom 
 the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three 
 Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- 
 land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
 occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. 
 
 TTIINITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by 
 all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophilus, 
 bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used 
 the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. Hia 
 Dejence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Walkins 
 
624 THE world's progress. fXRt 
 
 An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, bj Jolin de Matha and Felis 
 de Valois. Tlie Trinity fraternity, originally of lifteen persons, was insti- 
 tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penaU 
 ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 
 1813. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between 
 the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the 
 Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was knowa 
 as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. 
 
 1 riUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after 
 they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with greal 
 magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two 
 sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled 
 the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, 
 accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation, 
 
 TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state 
 with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
 pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their different 
 pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, 
 B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Csesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the 
 expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- 
 rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through 
 whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his 
 colleagues, and after«he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in 
 Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See 
 Rome. 
 
 TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, 
 and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by 
 several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout 
 Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in 
 their steps, greatlj' improving the taste and temper of the times. To the 
 troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. 
 
 TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and 
 more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came 
 hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the 
 daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus 
 built a city, and named it, after himself Dardania : Troas, the second in 
 Buccession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes- 
 sor, converted it into Ilium. 
 
 Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 
 
 nor. — Blair ■ ■ B.C. 1546 Reign of Priam or Podarces - - \9SA 
 
 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, 
 
 Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the 
 
 the city of Dardania 
 Reign of Ericthonius 
 Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- 
 
 ple are called Trojans 
 The rape of Ganymede 
 Ilus, son of Troas, reigns 
 Reign of Laomedon ■ - 
 
 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ; He 
 
 sione delivered from the sea-monster. 
 
 — Blair, Usher 
 
 1480 sacking of Troy.— iJomej-'s Iliad, 
 1449 book xxiv., line 964, Papers e^.it. ■ VAA 
 
 Commencement of the invasion of the 
 1374 Greeks to recover Helen - • llSf( 
 
 1341 Troy taken and burned in the night of 
 1314 the llth of .lune, i. e. 23d of the 
 1260 month Thargelion.— Parz'aw Mar- 
 bles. 408 years before the first 
 Olympiad. — Apollodorus - - 1184 
 
 1225 I .SIneas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet ■ 1183 
 
 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about 
 thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, 
 and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic exp©- 
 
nJN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 625 
 
 dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo waa 
 nearly in ruina.— Priestley. 
 TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in 
 Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from 
 Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It 
 was first adopted at Troj'es, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used 
 to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was e."*- ' 
 tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. 
 
 TROYES Treaty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it 
 was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles 
 VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should 
 inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by 
 the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was 
 finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. 
 
 TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- 
 pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the 
 time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then 
 shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. — 
 Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
 Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time 
 of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by 
 Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by 
 Moreland, 1671. 
 
 TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from 7V 
 isco, or Tiw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. 
 Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. 
 See Week Days. 
 
 rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by 
 Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- 
 tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the 
 scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly 
 those of 1789 and 1848. 
 
 IXTLIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always 
 been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- 
 merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of 
 Alcmaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639. 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold 
 for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, 
 sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant 
 and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was 
 carried to England from America, about 1663. 
 
 TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by 
 Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage 
 of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its 
 waters, a. d. 1606. 
 
 TUNIS and TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The 
 territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and 
 were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 b. c, 
 Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African kings 
 till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was 
 expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under 
 Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 
 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was 
 first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey 
 refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 
 27 
 
626 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [tui 
 
 TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw« 
 parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The 
 sash of the Turk's turban is white linen; that of the Persian-*, red woollen. 
 These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king 
 of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color, 
 t' distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. 
 
 ITJRIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated 
 their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French 
 republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong x-laces and 
 arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
 island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French wei-e driven out by the Austrians 
 and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered 
 to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- 
 ed it to the king of Sardinia. 
 
 TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars , but by 
 reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they 
 became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of 
 many races of men. 
 
 Birlh of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca 
 
 (see Mecca) - • - ad. 571 
 
 His imposture commenced (see Maho- 
 
 7neta7iis7n) .... 604 
 The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 
 
 Flight to Medina (see Medina) - 622 
 
 ^ra of the Hegira (see Hegira) - 622 
 
 Death of Mahomet - - - 631 
 
 Holy wars begni (see Crusades) ■ 1095 
 The Turkish empire first formed under 
 
 Othman at Bythmia - - - 1298 
 
 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and 
 
 take Adrianople - - - 1360 
 
 Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a 
 guard composed of Cliristian slaves 
 bred Mahometans - - - 1362 
 
 Bajazetl. overruns the provinces of the 
 
 Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. 
 
 He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is 
 at length taken by Tamerlane (see 
 Tamerlane) .... 1403 
 The Turks invading Hungary, are re- 
 pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 
 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
 der Mahomet II., which ends the 
 Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 
 Greece made subject to the Mahome- 
 tans (see Greece) - ■ ■ 1458 
 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and 
 take Otranto, which diffuses terror 
 throughout Europe - - - 1480 
 Selim I. raised to the throne by the .Ja- 
 nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- 
 thers, and their sons - - - 1512 
 He takes the islands of the Archipelago 
 
 from the Christians - - - 1514 
 
 He overruns Syria - - - 1515 
 
 Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 
 
 Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 
 
 Rhodes taken from the knights of St. 
 
 John, who go to Malta - - 1522 
 
 Solyman II., with 250,000 men, is repuls- 
 ed before Vienna - - - 1529 
 Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 
 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an 
 end to the fears of Europe from Turk- 
 ish power (see Lejyanto) - - 1571 
 Amurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- 
 gles his bvo brothers - - - 1574 
 
 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians 
 
 during this reign] • 
 The Turks driven out of Persia by the 
 
 famous Schah Abbas - - A. D. 1585 
 
 Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - - 1595 
 
 Great fire in Constantinople - - 1606 
 
 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles 
 
 hfs father and four brothers - - 1624 
 
 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take 
 
 the city of Bagdad - - • 1639 
 
 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken 
 
 after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 
 
 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but 
 
 relieved by John of Poland - -1683 
 
 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 
 Peace of Carlovitz - - -1699 
 
 Mustapha III. deposed - - - 1703 
 
 The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 
 
 Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Rus- 
 sia relinquishes Azoff - _ - 1739 
 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; 
 the English and Russian fleets defeat 
 the Turkish .... 1770 
 The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 
 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- 
 sia and Austria (begun in 1737), the 
 Turks having lost more than 200,000 
 men. — Ashe.] 
 War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 
 Passage and repassage of the Darda- 
 nelles effected by *he British fleet, but 
 with great loss < 'ee Dardanelles) 
 
 Feb. 19, 1807 
 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- 
 dered, and Mustapha IV. called to 
 the throne - - May 29, 1811/ 
 
 Treaty of Bucharest (ickich see) May 
 
 28, .813 
 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- 
 turning from Mecca, destroyed by a 
 pestilential wind in the deserts of 
 Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 
 Subjection of the Wachabees - - 1819 
 
 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares 
 
 himself independent - - - 1830 
 
 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia 
 
 March 6, 1821 
 The Greek Patriarch put to death at 
 Constantinople • • April 23, ' 83 
 
ruaj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 657 
 
 TURKEY, continue i. 
 
 Horrible massarre at Scio; the most 
 dreadful in rmdern liistory (see note 
 to Greece') ■ - - April 23, 1822 
 
 Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 
 
 New Mahometan army announced to be 
 organized - - - May 29, 1S26 
 
 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- 
 stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 
 
 Firman of the s-Ltan abolishing the Ja- 
 nizaries .... 1S26 
 
 Fire at Consts icniople ; 6000 houses re- 
 duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 
 
 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet 
 destroyed by the fleets of England, 
 Frap'-e, and Russia (see Navarino) 
 
 Oct. 20. 1827 
 
 Banishment of 132 French, ] 20 English, 
 and 85 Russian settlers, from the 
 Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 
 
 War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 
 
 The emperor Nicholas takes the field 
 against the Turks - May 20, 1828 
 
 The Russian emperor arrives before 
 Varna .... Aug. 5, 1828 
 
 Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 
 
 Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1823 
 
 The sultan leaves his capital for the 
 camp, bearing with him the sacred 
 standard - - - Sept. 26, 1828 
 
 Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. 1, 1828 
 
 Suirender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 
 
 Russians retreat from t efore Schumla, 
 
 October 16, 1823 
 
 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to 
 the French - - - Oct. iiO, 1828 
 
 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians 
 
 Nov. 10, 182S 
 
 Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa 
 near Schumla - - June 11, 1S29 
 
 Adrianople is entered bv the Russian 
 troops - - - Aug. 20, 182S 
 
 Armistice between the Russian and 
 Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1S19 
 
 Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 182£ 
 
 Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 1830 
 
 .St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- 
 cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 
 
 He defeats the army of u. e sultan in Sy- 
 ria, with great loss - - Ji',ly 30. 1832 
 
 A series of successes brings the ar ny of 
 Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues 
 of Constantinople, and the sultan has 
 recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 
 
 A Russian force enters the Turkish ca- 
 pital .... April 3, 1833 
 
 Treaty with Russia, ofiensiv c ^nd de- 
 fensive - - ■ July S, 1833 
 
 Office of grand vizier abolished by the 
 sultan - - - March 30, 1838 
 
 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 
 
 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug *, 1849 
 
 1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 
 1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 
 1359 Amurath I., his son ; assassinated. 
 1388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. 
 1397 Isa Belis ; killed by his brother. 
 1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 
 1410 Musa ; strangled by his brother. 
 1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1451 Mahomet 11. ; left the empire to his 
 
 two sons. 
 1481 C(? -tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by 
 
 his father. 
 1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of 
 
 his brother. 
 1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 
 1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 
 1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 
 1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 
 1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother. 
 1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew, 
 1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, 
 
 TtTRKISH EMPERORS. 
 
 and his uncle restored. 
 
 1622 Mustapha I. j again deposed and suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson. 
 
 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 
 1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, 
 
 succeeded by his son. 
 1655 .Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by 
 
 his brother. 
 1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his br(v 
 
 ther. 
 1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 
 1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet 
 
 IV., (leposed and succeeded by his 
 
 brother. 
 1703 Aclimet III. ; deposed. 
 1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother. 
 1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 
 1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his br» 
 
 ther. 
 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. 
 1789 Selim HI. 
 
 1807 Mustapha IV. 
 
 1808 Mah. Khan II. 
 1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. 
 
 TURKEYS .4ND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a, d. 1524, and 
 to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- 
 ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- 
 ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives 
 neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond 
 controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met 
 with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- 
 ing larger do not differ from ours. — Smyth. 
 
 TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom 
 articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious ^ases 
 
628 THE world's progress. f tyb 
 
 enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cahinets of 
 the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for 
 turnery in England are, many of yiem, wonderful in their machinery ; and 
 in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war 
 are now i)roduced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi 
 oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. 
 
 ITIRNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- 
 wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1653.— 
 Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. 
 
 niSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. *It came 
 into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 
 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his 
 dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tie title of king 
 of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- 
 wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; 
 but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grana- iuke Leopold IT 
 (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. 
 
 Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 
 began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 
 
 Grand-duke grants a national militia. 
 
 The grand-duke granted a liberal con- 
 stitution ... - Feb. 1848 
 
 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 
 
 The grand-duke flees from Florence 
 
 The chambers meet. 
 
 Provisional government proclaimed, 
 
 Feb. 9, 1»19 
 
 Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- 
 can troops - - - May 10, 1841 
 
 The grand-duke re-enters Florence and 
 resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation 
 of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epip/iany. The custom of drawing king 
 and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on 
 the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece 
 of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as 
 king. 
 
 TYLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to 
 the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of 
 one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suflS- 
 cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), 
 the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 
 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where 
 the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and 
 again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the 
 mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of 
 the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader 
 awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- 
 persed, 1381. 
 
 TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
 1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from 
 before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, 572 B. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed 
 to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
 by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the islani 
 to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. g. 
 — Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human criraea 
 were the v^iege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by 
 Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the 
 flames, — Phillips. 
 
 TYRE, Era op. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Ky- 
 perberetgeus The month was the same as those used in the Grecian er*, 
 and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sul> 
 
UNI ] DICTIONARY OF DATBS. 629 
 
 tract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 126, and 
 the remainder will be the year before Christ. 
 
 U. 
 
 CBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- 
 many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to 
 be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1640. 
 
 [JKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia ani 
 Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west 
 side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- 
 ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the 
 treaty of Partition in 1795. 
 
 ULM, Peace of, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from 
 it previously). July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great 
 battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under gen- 
 eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- 
 tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower 
 of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the 
 confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. 
 
 JMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to 
 carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- 
 las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- 
 las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who 
 visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince 
 of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ot 
 soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
 a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- 
 tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said 
 that the first person who used an vtmbrella in the streets of London was 
 the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* 
 
 UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their 
 feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole 
 body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high 
 priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed the vessels 
 of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were 
 anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme 
 unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received 
 auction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as 
 extreme unction. See Anointing. 
 
 UNIFORMS. Militarj uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- 
 
 * For a long while it was noi usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- 
 minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for e.Ytraordinary 
 occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. 
 The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in 
 fear of rain, borrowed the umbrtllafrom Willis's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to 
 the maid's pattens" As late as 1778. one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, 
 inicrms us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not 
 with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman! why don't you get a 
 coach?' " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, 
 vyere clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther 
 information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and 
 gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold jver a lady if it rained. 
 between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit I is arm one day 
 from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persistea 
 for three months, till they took notice of thi's novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and the* 
 the English. Now it is beco ve a great trade in London." — New Monthly Magazine. 
 
630 THE world's progress. [ JNI 
 
 ■ ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards 
 adopted. 
 
 UNIFORMITY, Act or. An Act of Uniformity pas.sed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But 
 the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles 
 [I., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all 
 clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of 
 worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards oi 
 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their 
 lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their 
 numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. 
 
 UNION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united 
 by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 
 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, 
 but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In 
 the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- 
 cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- 
 standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union 
 was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- 
 terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- 
 ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year. 
 
 UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- 
 ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British 
 parliament, July 2, 1800. 
 
 UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and 
 worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the 
 Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned 
 man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- 
 tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a 
 tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, 
 proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to 
 arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract 
 his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
 into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- 
 tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation 
 of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, 
 especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- 
 fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and 
 eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British 
 realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new 
 imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- 
 lin. See Union. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- 
 ish yoke, a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, 
 at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- 
 cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- 
 therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht., 
 Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Gueldeiiand, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 
 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of 
 Orange as their stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as 
 the "Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by 
 the appellation of the " Seven United Provinces." Their independence was 
 acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was 
 crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated 
 
TOlJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 631 
 
 July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed 
 Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- 
 Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium. 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. See America; and the separate States, 
 Maine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con. 
 sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 
 1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of 
 Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775 
 See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July \ 
 1776. The title of " United States " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776. 
 Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, 
 Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great 
 Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at 
 Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty 
 of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also 
 Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports, NoMonal Debt, Treaties, Po- 
 pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States 
 are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this 
 vol., page 122, et. seq.~\ 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects 
 of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and 
 celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted 
 the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, 
 he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon 
 which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity 
 of hell torments, involved this doctrine. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from 
 the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- 
 versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and 
 Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- 
 lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal universities in Europe : 
 
 Aberdeen founded 
 
 - 1494 
 
 Dublin - 
 
 . 
 
 1591 
 
 Abo, Finland 
 
 -1640 
 
 Edinburgh, founded by .Tames VI. 
 
 1582 
 
 Aix, 1409 ; re-established 
 
 - 1603 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlar^ 
 
 ed - - 
 
 1390 
 
 Alba Julia, Transylvania - 
 
 - 1629 
 
 Florence, Italy ; enlarged 
 
 
 1438 
 
 Altorf, Franconia 
 
 - 1581 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
 
 
 1506 
 
 Andrew's, St., Scotland 
 
 - 1411 
 
 Fribourg, Germany 
 
 
 1460 
 
 Angers, chiefly law 
 
 -1398 
 
 Geneva 
 
 
 1365 
 
 Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged 
 
 - 1364 
 
 Glasgow - 
 
 
 1450 
 
 Avignon. France 
 
 -1388 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 
 1734 
 
 Bamberg 
 
 .1585 
 
 Granada, Spain - 
 
 
 1537 
 
 Baale, Switzerland 
 
 -1458 
 
 Gripswald - 
 
 
 1547 
 
 Berlin .... 
 
 - 1812 
 
 Groningen, Friesland • 
 
 
 1614 
 
 Besancon, Burgundy - 
 
 -1540 
 
 Halle, Saxony 
 
 
 1694 
 
 Bologna, Italy 
 
 - 423 
 
 Heidelberg 
 
 
 1346 
 
 Bruges, French Flanders 
 
 - 1665 
 
 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria 
 
 
 1.573 
 
 Caen, Normandy 
 
 -1417 
 
 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 
 
 
 1548 
 
 Cambridge, began, 626 — according 
 
 to 
 
 Kiel, Holstein 
 
 
 1665 
 
 others, 900. See Cambridge. 
 
 
 King's College, London 
 
 
 1829 
 
 Cambridge, New England, projected 
 
 -1630 
 
 Konigsberg, Prussia 
 
 
 1544 
 
 Cologne, in Germany, re-faunded 
 
 -1389 
 
 Leipsic, Saxony • 
 
 
 140S 
 
 Compostella, Spain 
 
 -1517 
 
 Leyden, Holland 
 
 
 1575 
 
 Coimbra, Portugal 
 
 • 1301 
 
 Lima, in Peru - 
 
 
 1614 
 
 Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged 
 
 -1539 
 
 Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coiitibra 
 
 1391 
 
 Cordova, Spain - 
 
 - 968 
 
 London University 
 
 
 1826 
 
 Cracow, Poland, 700 ; enlarged 
 
 - 1402 
 
 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; 
 
 enlarged 
 
 1427 
 
 Dijon, France 
 
 -1722 
 
 ^ Lyons, France - 
 
 . 
 
 830 
 
 Dillingin, Swabia • 
 
 -1565 
 
 Mechlin, Flanders - 
 
 . 
 
 1440 
 
 Dole, Burgundy - 
 
 -1426 
 
 Mentz 
 
 . 
 
 1482 
 
 Douay, French Inlanders . 
 
 • 1562 
 
 Montpelier - 
 
 . 
 
 1196 
 
 Ilresden, Si.xony 
 
 ■1694 
 
 Moscow - 
 
 • 
 
 • 175< 
 
632 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [tra 
 
 16S! 
 
 • -mi 
 
 ■ 1531 
 
 • 138? 
 
 - 1517 
 
 • 125S 
 
 - 153S 
 
 • 15ir 
 
 • 147; 
 
 -147? 
 
 Saltzburg .... 
 
 Saragossa, Arragon . - = 
 
 Seville 
 
 Sienna 
 
 Siguenza, Spain • 
 Sorbonne, Paris 
 Strasburg .... 
 Toledo, Spain .... 
 Treves, Germany 
 Tubingen, Wirtemberg • 
 
 Turin 1403 
 
 llpsal, Sweden 1477 
 
 Utrecht, Holland 1636 
 
 Valence, Dauphine 1475 
 
 Valencia in the thirteenth century. 
 Valladolid - - - • - • 134t 
 
 Venice 1592 
 
 Vienna 1236 
 
 Wirtemberg - - ... 1502 
 
 Wittenberg ... • - re02 
 
 Wurtzburg - . - -1403 
 
 HMVERSITIES, continued. 
 
 Munster 1491 
 
 Naples 1216 
 
 Orleans, France 1312 
 
 Oxford (see Oxford) - - • • 886 
 
 Paderborn 1592 
 
 Padua, Italy 1179 
 
 Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 
 Paris, 792 ; renovated - • - -1100 
 
 Parma 1599 
 
 • Pavia, 791 ; enlarged - - - , - 1361 
 
 Perpignan 1349 
 
 Perugia, Italy 13U7 
 
 Petersburgh 1747 
 
 Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged ... - 1552 
 
 Poictiers 1430 
 
 Prague 1348 
 
 Rheims, 1145; enlarged - • • -1560 
 Rome Sapienza - - . - - 1303 
 Rostock, Mecklenburgh - ■ - - 1419 
 
 Salamanca 1240 
 
 Salerno ...... .1233 
 
 ITNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. 
 
 UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irvin;i,s chapel, in 
 London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, 
 by holding forth in what was denominated the ' Unknown Tongue." She 
 was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and 
 commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the 
 same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the 
 whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females 
 screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to 
 the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, 
 much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- 
 sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, n(?t on Sundays only, but 
 as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- 
 fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — 
 Ann. Register. 
 
 fRANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by 
 whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. 
 The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious 
 discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is 
 asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the 
 planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. 
 
 USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given 
 for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 65. 8d. per 
 annum for lOOZ., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. 
 Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest 
 of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished 
 and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest 
 was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- 
 beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623. when the word in- 
 terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 
 1714. See Interest. 
 
 U [RECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began 
 here (see United Provinces'), a. d. 15 '9. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, 
 which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of 
 Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- 
 ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were 
 the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the 
 
'al] dictionary of dates. 633 
 
 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement 
 of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction 
 for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the 
 Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795; 
 
 ?ACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner.. He 
 made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from 
 the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to 
 & healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. .Tenner subsequently published the resuH 
 to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- 
 duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of 
 vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,OOOZ. for the dis- 
 covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the 
 promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded 
 Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously 
 to 1816. 
 
 VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return 
 to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry 
 VIIL, 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of 
 the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIIL, 1535 ; and a third time convicted, 
 death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a 
 slave for two years. Vagi-ants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring 
 the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabetli, 1571. The milder 
 statutes were those of 17 George 11. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws 
 against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and. operate unequally as 
 respects the character of the offender. 
 
 VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and 
 was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 
 1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the 
 French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- 
 mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, Siege op. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, 
 when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 
 1793. It was retaken, together with Cond6, by the French, on capitulation, 
 the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. 
 — 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions 
 of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast 
 quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. 
 
 VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VH. 
 of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, oq 
 agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- 
 cember 8, 1813. 
 
 VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it ii 
 called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of 
 the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient 
 date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- 
 dom under Claudius II. at Rome, a. d. 271. It is said that on this day 
 the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the custom of 
 young paople choosing Valentines or particular, friends on the feast of 
 Valentine. 
 
 FALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions 
 of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopria 
 27* 
 
634 THE world's progress. [veb 
 
 forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and 
 goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called ^ones, or Ages. He 
 taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms ; to 
 these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- 
 ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others 
 practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- 
 tiousness. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipmau 
 under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
 of anj' navigable communication between the North Pacific and North 
 Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command 
 it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an 
 account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and 
 died in 1798. 
 
 V aNDALS. The Vandal nations began thuir ravages in tAem unj and Gaul, 
 A. D 406-414. Their kingdo)n in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded 
 and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took 
 Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in ttirn by the 
 Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread 
 devastation wherever they appeared. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN'S land. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. 
 It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was 
 deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- 
 ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- 
 went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. 
 
 VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced 
 by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- 
 man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold 
 with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day 
 the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where 
 the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sover- 
 eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property; and private boors, who 
 belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England, 
 a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee 
 Vassalage ^^ias abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 
 1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. 
 
 VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, 
 said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, 
 is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- 
 tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," 
 was first used by Voltaire, 1748. 
 
 VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some 
 huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
 above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to 
 give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a 
 congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- 
 arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 
 1830. See Colombia. 
 
 VENI, VIDI, VICI. — " I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- 
 tence formed the whole of Cesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he 
 vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela 
 Battle of. 
 
 VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was mad« 
 a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 b. c. Marcellus con- 
 
VERJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 635 
 
 qoered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 b. c. Ths 
 islands on vhich the city is built b«gan to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- 
 ians, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- 
 OU8 nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the 
 morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- 
 ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was 
 first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was 
 not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. Tho 
 ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted bj 
 pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the 
 discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gavf 
 it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- 
 ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austiia, and the 
 rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 
 1797. This disijosition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the 
 whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned 
 under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 
 1830. 
 
 Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- 
 tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is 
 again in the power of Austria, 
 
 Aug. 22, 1849 
 
 Venice declares herself an independent 
 republic - - Aug. 18, 1848 
 
 Provisional government decrees an as- 
 sembly with full powers to be elected 
 by universal sutfrage, 1 to every 1,500 
 inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 
 
 VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- 
 triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of 
 their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- 
 nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various 
 ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the 
 last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose 
 experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 
 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever 
 appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. 
 
 VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 
 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or 
 rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- 
 vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 
 1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, 
 to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook^s Voyages. 
 The diurwal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This 
 planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. 
 
 VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- 
 setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 
 1764: claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament 
 in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into 
 the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in 
 that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. 
 Claims of New-York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state 
 admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589; in 1810. 
 217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948. 
 
 VERSAILLES, Palace op. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a 
 small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a 
 hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent 
 palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kinga 
 of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it 
 to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 
 
636 THE world's progeess. [vm 
 
 to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated ct tons Jn 
 gloires de France ; and freely opened to the public. 
 
 nilRSAILLES, Peace of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- 
 tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- 
 mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive 
 treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain 
 Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and 
 Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. 
 Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. 
 
 VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use foi 
 grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey 
 translated part of Virgil's JEneid into blank verse, whith is the first composi- 
 tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the 
 other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse 
 previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the 
 ottava rivia, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
 Pacry Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian 
 language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into 
 Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French 
 chansons. — Metropolitan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of 
 blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. 
 
 VRSTA. The planet Vesta (ths ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- 
 men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. — 
 Annual Register. 
 
 VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual 
 fire, consecrated to her worship. This ofiice was very ancient, as the mother 
 of Romulus was one of the vestals, ^neas is supposed to have first chosen 
 the Vestals. Numa, in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- 
 quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the 
 expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care 
 of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from 
 the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that 
 presented themselves as candidates for the oflftce, twenty virgins were 
 selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. 
 The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. 
 The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- 
 tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92.—Bibliot/ieque Uni- 
 verselle. 
 
 VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it 
 emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and 
 the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the burning 
 lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of 
 those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout 
 Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not 
 
 • only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were 
 suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished 
 in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it : this 
 eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered 
 in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that 
 time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by 
 fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and 
 loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons and 
 a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most 
 dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The 
 violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, when 
 
VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 637 
 
 Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed 
 over 6000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town oi 
 Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, 
 and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been 
 several eruptions since. 
 
 VETOES OP THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can 
 celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by 
 Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, five 
 times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam- vessels in the 
 navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds 
 of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Februarj 
 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 18-46 
 French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, J 846. 
 
 VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca,- 
 pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city 
 in 1136. and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. 
 of England. 40,000/.. in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the 
 Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the 
 siege with the loss of 70 000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 
 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who 
 totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the 
 city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by 
 the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, 
 following. They again captured it. May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once 
 more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same 
 year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 
 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Aiistria and Hungary. 
 See next articles. 
 
 VLENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the 
 emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to 
 each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively 
 possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force 
 to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing 
 the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- 
 matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king 
 of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- 
 ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain 
 acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the 
 emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed 
 to giiarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; 
 signed Nov. 18, 1738. 
 
 VIENNA, Peace of, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) 
 I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, 
 and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
 to France under the title of the lUyrian Provinces, and engaging tc adhere 
 to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, 
 October 14, 1809. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna betwpeji Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by 
 the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. Th* 
 treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one part, 
 *nd Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing t« 
 
638 THE world's progress. f VI» 
 
 the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the 
 house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes 
 Swedish Pomerania and Riigen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenhurg, 
 June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, 
 June 8, 1815. 
 VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hajd labor 
 being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to 
 the vill or lordship ; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat> 
 tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this 
 kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties 
 to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Stoive's Chroii. 
 
 VLMEIRA, Battle op,, between the British, under sir Arthtr Wellesley, and 
 the whole of tiae French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal 
 Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 
 1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under 
 his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- 
 milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- 
 ant career. 
 
 VINCENT'S, St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763. 
 the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English! 
 The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward 
 side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
 ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this 
 was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island 
 by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French 
 landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which 
 was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffriei 
 mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 
 
 VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, 
 in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, 
 vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are 
 aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- 
 neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The 
 vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The 
 vine and siigar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in 
 England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-coiu't palace is an old and 
 celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes, 
 and Wine* 
 
 VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds 
 of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- 
 tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- 
 tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they 
 might dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their 
 repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of 
 this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy.' 
 It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our 
 Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking, 
 
 * The following is a tradition in relation to the vine : — When Adam planted the first vine, and 
 ^efl it, Satan approached it, and said, " Lovely plant ! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking 
 three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood has 
 been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its 
 influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you beco>r.e furious, and 
 rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reason sinks, and, like tht 
 hog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe. 
 
TIE J DICTIONARY OP DATES, 639 
 
 There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for 
 drinking till diluted. 
 nOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, 
 so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The 
 viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very 
 much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- 
 duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin 
 was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lengtet. The 
 fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of 
 St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. 
 
 HRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
 churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according 
 to their belief August 15, a. d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a 
 feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the 
 Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to 
 Gregory XL, 1372. A distinguished writer says : " The Indian incarnate 
 god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, 
 and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It 
 appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and 
 was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising 
 from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. 
 The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William 
 Jones. 
 
 \7RGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the 
 decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the 
 place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the 
 daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacitj^ and with the authority of 
 judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
 friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from 
 the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- 
 quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged itinto Virginia's breast, 
 exclaiming, "This is all, my daughter ! lean give thee, to preserve thee 
 from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius 
 ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- 
 tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they 
 immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- 
 self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, 
 another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed 
 himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to 
 death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. 
 
 VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," 
 having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first 
 white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen 
 Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- 
 ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his 
 attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- 
 nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and 
 named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the 
 Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- 
 tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established 
 the Church of England by law, 1662; took an eai'ly-and prominent part in 
 the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- 
 wallis, at Yorktown, October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United State! 
 adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- 
 dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 
 
640 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WAG 
 
 Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and many 
 distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,622; 
 in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. 
 
 VISIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointea 
 in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately 
 under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- 
 tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into 
 his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in 
 his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. 
 
 VTTTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the 
 annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
 manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar- 
 shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his 
 baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of 
 France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, WeUington to».i Jourd&n's 
 only remaining gun ! 
 
 VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 
 volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of 
 Mount Etna are recorded as early as 784 b. c. by authentic historians. See 
 Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. 
 The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- 
 count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see Iceland. In Mexico, 
 a, plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height 
 by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro 
 broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red 
 water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared 
 in one of the Azore islands. May 1, 1808. 
 
 VOLUS^TEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of 
 the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large 
 army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans, 
 raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. 
 Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, 
 it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- 
 teers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the 
 United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war. Congress authorized 
 the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, 
 but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. 
 
 VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order 
 of Necho, pharoah of Egypt, when some Phcenician pilots sailed from 
 Egypt down the Arabic Gulf round what is now called the Cape of Good 
 Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along 
 the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
 about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the 
 world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
 under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Phihppine Is- 
 land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery we« 
 the end of the eighteenth century. See Circuvmiocigators, and Aorf'i- WesU 
 Passage. 
 
 W. 
 
 IV AGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first 
 fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one 
 pemiy a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylera, and other coverers ot 
 lioxises, had not more than M. per day (about 9^. of our money) ; and their 
 
WAL J DICTIOJfARY OF DATES. 641 
 
 servants l^d. — Vinvv's Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 14H, the wages 
 of a baiiift' of husbandry was 23s. 4rf. per annum, and clothing of the price 
 of 65. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothii.g 
 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 40d. ; woman-servant, 10s., 
 clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, 
 only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, 
 rough mason, brickla3^er, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, 
 was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a day, Mithout meat and 
 drink ; or with meat and drink M. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abato 
 Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. Tho 
 following were the 
 
 WAGES OP HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 s. d 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 J 
 
 In 1350 
 
 per diem. 
 
 
 
 In 16SS 
 
 per diem. 
 
 S 
 
 In 17aS 
 
 per diem. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 In 1460 
 
 ditto 
 
 ic 
 
 In 1716 
 
 ditto 
 
 9 
 
 In 1794 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 In 1568 
 
 ditto 
 
 4 
 
 In 1740 
 
 ditto 
 
 10 
 
 In 1800 
 
 ditto 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 In 1632 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 C 
 
 In 1760 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 
 
 In 1840 
 
 ditto 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 WAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in vvhii^h the 
 latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The 
 slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the 
 French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This 
 battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty 
 of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the 
 kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- 
 peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia 
 to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
 Spain. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry 
 VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkista 
 fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, 
 seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but the earl of Warwick es- 
 poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and 
 the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. 
 This battle was fought December 31, 1460. 
 
 NVAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- 
 ticular saint ; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, aid 
 was continued among the Saxons. — Whitalcer. Women were hired among 
 the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carina. The 
 Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their 
 frie^nds. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might 
 lie inactive. 
 
 WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Fope 
 Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies 
 of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the CathoHc bishops 
 were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and 
 the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. 
 One of the monkf the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf having been as- 
 sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to 
 maxh into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at 
 the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the 
 whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued 
 with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition Was spared , the coun- 
 try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was 
 the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman wa" constituted first inqui- 
 sitor-general, 1208. 
 
642 THE world's progress [wah 
 
 WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vorti^em was 
 elected king of South Britain, and he invited. over the Saxons to defend his 
 country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for 
 reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they 
 made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons 
 retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- 
 cessible mountains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
 qiiered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. 
 entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by 
 the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not 
 entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought 
 to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him 
 prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has 
 borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England 
 by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain. 
 
 WALES, PRINCE op. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of 
 Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284.. Im- 
 mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cuief 
 tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his 
 arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn" literally in English, 
 "This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king." 
 These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians 
 . assert, to " Ich Dien" which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince 
 of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this 
 prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 
 12,^1 .—Myvvrian Archceology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different 
 account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien" see the article under that 
 head. 
 
 WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the 
 cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of 
 Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries 
 revolted from Phihp, \b&&.— Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were 
 well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by 
 queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in 
 this part of England. — Pardon. 
 
 WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, 
 and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, 
 on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill 
 on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on 
 the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 
 1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors 
 for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. 
 
 WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- 
 sonage :— His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When 
 they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck 
 him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- 
 ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in- 
 deed going ; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, 
 and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every 
 hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he 
 returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, 
 being about thirty j-ears of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity 
 of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the 
 death and resurrection of Christ. — Calmet's Hist, of the Bibk. 
 
war] 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 
 
 643 
 
 WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- 
 ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 
 3563 B. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed 
 into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed 
 by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded 
 in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The longest 
 siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the 
 Plataeans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning 
 of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have 
 perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- 
 man species as now inhabit our whole earth. 
 
 WARS, Civil, op Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great 
 Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons 
 against Henry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of tho 
 White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. 
 The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against 
 Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 
 1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty 
 rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 
 1798. 
 
 WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England 
 was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy 
 being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of 
 France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English 
 province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with 
 France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, 
 Poictiers, and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the 
 reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It 
 was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests 
 of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years 
 of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. 
 
 FOREIGN WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONdlTEST. 
 
 War with Scotland 
 
 I0G8 
 
 Peace 1092 
 
 War with Scotland, 1542 
 
 K 
 
 France, 
 
 1116 
 
 " 1118 
 
 
 Scotland, 1547 
 
 U 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1138 
 
 " 1139 
 
 
 France, 1549 
 
 » 
 
 France, 
 
 1161 
 
 1186 
 
 
 France, 1557 
 
 t( 
 
 France, 
 
 1194 
 
 " 1195 
 
 
 Scotland, 1557 
 
 a 
 
 France, 
 
 1201 
 
 1216 
 
 
 France, 1562 
 
 (• 
 
 France, 
 
 1224 
 
 1234 
 
 
 Spain, 1588 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1294 
 
 1299 
 
 
 Spain, 1624 
 
 li 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1296 
 
 " 1323 
 
 
 France, 1627 
 
 u 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1327 
 
 " 1328 
 
 
 Holland, 1651 
 
 It 
 
 France, 
 
 1339 
 
 " 1360 
 
 
 Spain, 1655 
 
 Si 
 
 France, 
 
 1368 
 
 1420 
 
 
 France, 1666 
 
 it 
 
 France, 
 
 1422 
 
 » 1471 
 
 
 Denmark, 1666 
 
 « 
 
 France, 
 
 1492 
 
 " same year 
 
 
 Holland, 1666 
 
 t( 
 
 France, 
 
 1512 
 
 « 1514 
 
 
 Algiers, 1669 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1522 
 
 » 1527 
 
 
 Holland, 1672 
 
 « 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1522 
 
 " 1542 
 
 
 France, 1689 
 
 Peace. 
 
 1546 
 
 1550 
 1650 
 1559 
 1560 
 1564 
 1604 
 1629 
 1629 
 1654 
 1660 
 1668 
 1668 
 1668 
 1671 
 1674 
 1697 
 
 The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, Fiance, 
 and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of 
 Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded this last war. 
 
 THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 War of the Siiccession, commenced May 4, 
 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 
 
 War with Spain Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- 
 cluded 1721. 
 
 War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739. 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30, 1748. 
 
 War with France'i-March 31, 1744. Closed 
 
 also on April 30, 1748. 
 War ; the Seven years' war, June 9, 1756, 
 
 Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
 War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General 
 
 peace of Feb. 10, i7fiS 
 
644 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ W41I 
 
 WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain 
 
 War with the United States, July 14, 1774. 
 
 Peace of Paris, Nov, 30, 1782. 
 War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of 
 
 Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. 
 War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed 
 
 same time, Jan 20, 1783. 
 War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace 
 
 signed Sept. 2, 1783. 
 
 continued. 
 
 War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peacs 
 of Amiens, March 27, 1802. 
 
 War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- 
 nally closed, June 18, 1815. 
 
 War with the United States, June 18, 1812. 
 Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 
 
 For the wars with India and China, see th;«e 
 countries respectively. 
 
 Ijq the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes 
 with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, 
 and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 
 1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling; in the war of the 
 Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the 
 Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the 
 war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the war against Bona- 
 parte, 1159 millions; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years 
 (from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 
 millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained 
 by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six 
 hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their 
 allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penir- 
 sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and th.« 
 inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. 
 The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted 
 to one million two hundred thousand. 
 
 WAR, Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com- 
 menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1776. See Battles. Ended 
 by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135193,700. 
 
 WAR, The, op 1812, between the United States and Great Britain: 
 
 First difficultjf respecting the search of 
 American vessels - - - 1806 
 
 Chesapeake United States frigate fired 
 on 1807 
 
 Non-intercourse act passed - ■ 1809 
 
 United States frigate President, engag- 
 ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt 
 
 May 16, 1811 
 
 President Madison's war message to 
 congress • - - June 1, 1812 
 
 War declared - - - Jime 19, 1812 
 
 Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman- 
 der-in-chief. 
 [See Battles and Naval Battles.] 
 The war opposed in New England, and 
 levies of troops refused by Mass., 
 Conn., and R. I. 
 Treaty of peace ratified • Feb. 17, 1815 
 
 VAR AGAINST Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States, 
 1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels 
 and " conquered a peace," July 4, 
 
 WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of 
 Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate 
 of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] 
 
 American army of occupation, (3500) 
 under Gen. Taylor took post on the 
 Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, 
 
 March 28, 1846 
 
 First collision — a reconnoitring party 
 of 70 from American army under Col. 
 Thornton, fired upon anti taken pri- 
 soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 
 
 Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at 
 Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 
 wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and 
 355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846 
 
 Bill passed both houses of Congress U. 
 S.. declaring that war with Mexico 
 
 already existed, by act of that power, 
 and authorizing 50,000 volunteers 
 
 May 12, :84« 
 
 Monterey taken by Com. Sloat, July 6, i847 
 Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney 
 
 Aug. 18. 1846 
 
 Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded 
 by Com. Stockton - - Aug. 19, 1846 
 
 Battle of Montei-ey, 4700 Americans 
 under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under 
 Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A- 
 merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, 
 Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1841 
 
WAR ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 645 
 
 WAR WITH MEXICO, continued. 
 
 Stevenson's California regiment sailed 
 from New-York - - Sept. 26, 1846 
 
 Tobasco bombarded by com. Perry, 
 
 Oct. 25, 1846 
 
 Tampico occupied by com. Connor, 
 
 Nov. 14, 1846 
 
 Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- 
 teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari- 
 to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 
 wounded. Amei-ican loss 6 wounded. 
 
 Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted " 
 Californians, at San Gabriel, &c. 
 
 Jan. 8, 1847 
 
 Majoi Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major 
 Gaines, and SO men, taken prisoners 
 by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, 
 
 Jan. 23, 1847 
 
 Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- 
 ico, American governor Bent and five 
 otliers murdered - ■ Jan 14, 1847 
 
 1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans 
 defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847 
 
 Battle of Buena Vis!.-! : Americans 4759 
 mostly volunteers, ander gen. T-iylor 
 and gen. Wnol ; and Mexicans 22,000 
 under Santa Anna; latter defeated and 
 loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri- 
 can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded, 
 
 Feb. 22-23, 1847 
 
 Battle of Sacramento ; American col. 
 Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 
 Mexicans under Herridea, latter loss 
 300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri- 
 soners ; American loss, 1 killed and 8 
 woundtd - - - Feb. 28, 1847 
 
 Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott 
 and com. Perry ; American loss 65 
 killed and wounded - March 29, 1847 
 
 Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, 
 
 April 2, 1847 
 
 Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500 
 under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- 
 icans under Santa Anna, 5 generals 
 and 3000 men, taken prisoners by 
 Scott: American loss 250, Mexican 
 350. 
 
 Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847 
 
 Battles of Contreras and Churubueico, 
 American gen. Smith drives the Mexi- 
 cans from tliese fortified posts towards 
 Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound- 
 ed ; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 184 
 
 Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the 
 Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced 
 
 Sept. 7, 1843 
 
 Battle of Molino del Rey ; American 
 gen. Worth carried the fortifications 
 defended by 14,000 Mexicans under 
 Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil- 
 led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000, 
 
 Sept. 8, iOtt 
 
 Battle of ChepiuUepec, a height near 
 Mexico, carried by American gene- 
 rals Worth, Q.uitman, and Pillow, 
 (under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862 
 
 Sept. 12-13, 1847 
 
 This was followed by the surrender of 
 the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847 
 
 Col. Childs with 400 men and 1800 
 sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at 
 Puebia, but compelled the Mexicans 
 to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847 
 
 Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex- 
 ico for protecting public property in 
 the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 
 
 City of Huamantla captured by Ame- 
 rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa 
 Anna. American loss, 24 killed and 
 wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 
 
 Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap- 
 tured by American frigate Congress, 
 and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847 
 
 A tax levied upon the states of Mexico, 
 and duties ifec. laid to the amount of 
 about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 
 
 Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, 
 
 Feb. 18, 1848 
 
 Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, 
 by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. 
 Clifford, for the United States, and 
 the foreign Mexican minister, Signor 
 De la Rosa - - - May 30, 1848 
 
 American troops finally withdrawn 
 from the city of Mexico, • June 12, 1848 
 
 WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this 
 city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. 
 It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the 
 empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles 
 to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex- 
 pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 
 pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in 
 July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year. 
 It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article. 
 Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony 
 in August, 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813, 
 and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice- 
 roy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See 
 Poland. 
 
 WARSAW, Battles of. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with 
 the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow, the Russian general, after 
 the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all 
 ages and conditions, ia cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the 
 
646 THE world's progress. [ WAt 
 
 surrenier was very bloody ; of 26,000 men, more than 10,000 were killed 
 nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fmy of the 
 merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
 sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb, 
 20, 1831. Battle ©f Warsaw, when, after two days' hard tighting:, the city 
 capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of 
 the Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was 
 fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. 
 
 W ARSAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria 
 and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted 
 in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed 
 March 31, 1688. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 
 24, 1768. 
 
 W ASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first 
 made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was 
 opened for the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late 
 war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the 
 President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the te'oops not 
 sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon 
 afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow 
 ing. See United Slates. 
 
 WASHINGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad- 
 dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti- 
 tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ; 
 died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19, 
 1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848; 
 oration by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner- 
 stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. 
 
 WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a. d. 
 1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch 
 about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by 
 Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first 
 who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small 
 table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in 
 1577. — Hume. Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so called) have 
 had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy- 
 gens by the Dutcj. Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that Dr. 
 Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have produced what" 
 is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ; 
 as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one uf the 
 double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., "Rob. Hooke in- 
 ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented 
 by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved 
 1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him 
 the reward of 20,000Z., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches 
 and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See 
 Clocks. 
 
 V^^ATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water 
 (as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the 
 original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — Stanley It is the 
 universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their \Nines with 
 much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wina 
 in sumnier. — Madame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed 
 
«i^ATj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 647 
 
 with the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenglet. " Honest water is too weak 
 to be a sinner ; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare. 
 
 WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time 
 independently of the sunshine, were depsydrce. or water-clocks. These were 
 most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom 
 through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour , 
 after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in- 
 vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendir 
 cular gnomon gave hours of difierent length at the various seasons of the 
 year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used; and 
 Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning 
 of a taper as a measure of time. 
 
 WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general 
 of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients 
 parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in- 
 vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet 
 Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
 
 WATER TOFANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poisou sc 
 freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofana, fron 
 the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vial'.. 
 She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but ua 
 being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. 
 Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly 
 executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and sonae 
 persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appearr^d 
 to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their hus- 
 bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, 
 and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists 
 have not agi-eed about its real composition. A proclamation of the pope de- 
 scribed it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a 
 solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed 
 to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two 
 brothers; and she with many others was executed, and the prejjarers burnt, 
 alive. — Phillips. 
 
 WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and 
 the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the 
 French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the 
 British and allies under the duke of WeUington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon 
 attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num- 
 bers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about 
 nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. 
 The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu- 
 cher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. 
 On both sides the carnage was immense ; but that of the French was double 
 the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army^ 
 and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of thret'i 
 great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdicatior 
 followed. See Bonaparte and France. 
 
 WATER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, 
 the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl- 
 winds over the land.— Z?r. Franklin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatz 
 mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and 
 many other villages ; a prodigious nimiber of houses were destroyed, and 
 many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanfle.sk, n'-'ar Kil 
 
648 TiiE world's progress, [web 
 
 Jarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, and destroyed 
 his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves- 
 tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4, 
 1831. 
 WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and 
 wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, 
 candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Cmidlcberry. 
 Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu- 
 lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing 
 wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree 
 Ligustrum lucidum, was brought from China before 1794. 
 
 WE. The common language of kings is zve, which plural style was begun with 
 king John, a. d. 1199.— Coke's Insbit. Before this time sovereigns used the 
 singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French 
 kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henaidt. It is now the style royal 
 of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu- 
 ral, indicating that what they wiite proceeds from a plurality of pens. 
 
 WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of 
 property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the 
 poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the 
 country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances 
 of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinarj'. The mighti- 
 est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches 
 amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed. 
 — ALhenceus. Csecilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 
 oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 
 8 B. c. — Univ. Hist. 
 
 WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from 
 the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in 
 Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally 
 spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient 
 nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to 
 Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca- 
 pac. In most easterr countries, the employment of weaving is still per- 
 formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
 woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd- 
 ridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious 
 women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Lmke 
 viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmet's 
 Dictionary, under the word Vestments. 
 
 V "EAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where 
 they manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove o( 
 great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers, 
 linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches- 
 ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse- 
 cution, 1567. 
 
 WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced bj 
 Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this 
 waro employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the 
 superi( r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. 
 
 tVEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call- 
 ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given 
 to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwaj'ds 
 corrupted to Wednesday. See next article. 
 
WES] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 649 
 
 WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, 
 who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks, 
 the first the common one of seven days, the second of years, which was 
 seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was 
 the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon :— 
 Latin. English. Saxon. Presided over by 
 
 Dies Saturni, Saturday, Sateme's day, Saturn. 
 
 Dies Solis, Sunday, Sun's day, Tlie sun. 
 
 Dies Lunae, Monday, Moon's day, Tiie moon. 
 
 Dies Martis, Tuesday, Tiw's day, Mars. 
 
 Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, Woden's day, Mercury. 
 
 Dies .lovis, Tiiursday, Tiior's day, Jupiter. 
 
 Dies Veneris, Friday, Friga's day, Venus. 
 
 IVEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and- the stamping of gold and silver 
 money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et &eq. — Arunde- 
 lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the 
 lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was 
 originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, ^ d. 972. Stand- 
 ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng- 
 land by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighing- 
 machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed 
 by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between 
 buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward II.. 1309. — Stowe. The first statute, 
 directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532. — 
 Philosophical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of 
 3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa- 
 tor, as the standard of measure ; and the kilogramme, equal t(3 2,255 pounds 
 avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was 
 founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his 
 brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society 
 for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an 
 association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed 
 upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley 
 went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. 
 On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered 
 many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious 
 meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he 
 was united with Mr. Whitefleld ; but differences arising on account of the 
 doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated 
 according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his 
 labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, 
 Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his 
 influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. 
 
 WTEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first laud he 
 made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th 
 and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively. 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and 
 Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western 
 portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the 
 Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and ' Ravenna, deposed 
 Augustulus, and assumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended 
 the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. See 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the mirac» 
 lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que» 
 28 
 
650 THE world's progress. [wbj 
 
 tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present 
 edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance 
 the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His- 
 torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the 
 sixth century, and ascribed to Sehert the honor of erecting it. This church 
 becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be- 
 tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope 
 Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for tlie inauguration ol 
 the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent 
 and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., 
 and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo- 
 nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles 
 were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The 
 west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard 
 III. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the 
 magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was 
 laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1641 ; 
 and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. 
 
 WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of EngUsh ar- 
 chitecture, first built by Wihiam Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and 
 here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit- 
 suntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when 
 the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,Q00.Siowe. 
 The courts of law were established here by king John.— Idem. Westmin- 
 fiter-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
 by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a 
 general repair in 1802. 
 
 WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax- 
 ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; 
 and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of 
 Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of 
 conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
 the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed 
 king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned 
 in 1813. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, Peace or, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between 
 France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against 
 France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was 
 first recognised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some 
 other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala- 
 tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and 
 the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc- 
 tober 24, 1648. 
 
 WHALE FISHERY op the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 
 650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,— cost, S20 000,000 ; manned by 
 17,500 officers and seamen. 'Commercial history furnishes no parallel to 
 this whahng fleet— it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — 
 Speech of Mr. Grinnell. 
 
 WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 
 1790 to 1838, was 10.283 471 bushels— average, 209,666 bushels per annum. 
 In 1845 the amount exported was valued at ^5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350 644. 
 This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased 
 by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. 
 
 WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took 
 
wil] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 651 
 
 their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in the 
 Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of 
 their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of 
 it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was 
 moderated, and about' the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following 
 and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen 
 They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in 
 London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to 
 this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. 
 
 ^''HITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kentj 
 before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch- 
 bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
 to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIIL of 
 cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the 
 court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence 
 to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, 
 Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
 written : — 
 
 " The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
 
 At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
 
 More clung about the barge : fish under water 
 
 Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
 
 I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
 
 Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
 
 For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd. 
 
 She had come by water, had she come by land." 
 
 In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet- 
 ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall bj^ James I., 
 according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall 
 Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a 
 chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 
 and 1833. 
 
 IVHITSUNTIDE. ■ The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to 
 commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles : in the pri- 
 mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear 
 white garments on Whi Sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls 
 in May and sometimes m June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after 
 Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday ; it is said to 
 have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called 
 Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- 
 paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing 
 on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and 
 other evils. 
 
 WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffe, a professor of divinity 
 in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the 
 English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho- 
 rity of the pops, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of 
 the church, in 1377. Wicklitfe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's 
 son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res- 
 cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death. Dec. 
 31, 1384, in his 60th jesLT.— Mortimer. 
 
 WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it 
 feu Grecquois. because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was 
 first u*ed, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Hello- 
 polls. — Nouv. Diet. See article Greek Fire. 
 
652 THE world's progress. [wih 
 
 ATILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th numbtn* of a paper 
 styled the North Briton, pubHshed by John "Wilkes, an alderman of London. 
 He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis- 
 tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a 
 use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the 
 earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower. 
 His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; 
 but he obtained ill, 000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure 
 of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's 
 Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene 
 poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out- 
 lawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October 
 1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor; but was over- 
 looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. 
 
 WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See 
 Ge7iesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b.' c. There aro 
 many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this 
 power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in 
 three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person 
 who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath- 
 ing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to En- 
 glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
 respecting the feudal system ; which were taken oflT by the statute of Henry 
 VIII., 1541. — Blacksto7ie's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on 
 record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard H., 1399. Edward the 
 Confessor made a will, 1066. 
 
 WIND- MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to 
 be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to 
 the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe 
 by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in 
 the crusades. — Baker^ Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and 
 Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch- 
 man, in 1638. when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 
 
 WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi- 
 dent from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
 so early as the third century, if not before, though the fashion was not in- 
 troduced until it was done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were 
 used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In 
 England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ; 
 about 275,000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win- 
 dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to 
 defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William 
 m., 1695. 
 
 WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally 
 built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs 
 who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born 
 here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the 
 west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di- 
 rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. 
 Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed 
 every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen- 
 ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to 
 this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV. 
 
 WINES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abbe Lcnglet. Ihe art of 
 
Wrrr] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 653 
 
 making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching 
 Noung, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought 
 from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the 
 wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour 
 clianged water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — John ii. 3, 10. 
 " The conscious waters saw their God. and blush'd." — Addison. 
 
 No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet. 
 Spirits of wine were kno^vn to the alchymists. — Idem. Concerning tlie ac- 
 quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured 
 that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; 
 but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered 
 by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in 
 A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention 
 of ' wine for the king " so early as 1249 ; and we are even sent to a much 
 earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price 
 was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes con- 
 demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels 
 of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the Sth of Henry VI., 1427. 
 — Sfowe's Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on 
 June 17. 1*490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passetl 
 April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons .of all kinds cf 
 wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4,306,528 gallons. In 38S"0 
 were imported 6,879,558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, we'« 
 imported 9.909,056 gallons, of which 7.000,486 were for home consumption. 
 —Pari. Ret. 
 
 WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nurember,^, 
 A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. 
 The first wire-mill in En;^land was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Mortimer. 
 The astonishing ductility whicli is one of the distinguishing qualities of 
 gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces 
 of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually 
 drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 
 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of 
 gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above 
 one-eighth of an inch long.— Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy- 
 linder of silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so 
 perfectly does it cover tlie silver, that even a microscope does not discover 
 any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle. 
 
 W^IRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu- 
 lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reign- 
 ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed 
 by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau 
 made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg mar- 
 ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. 
 This state obtained new acquisition^ in territory in 1802 and 1805. The 
 elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, 
 1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of hjs army in Rus- 
 sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king 
 granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848. 
 
 WnSCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the 
 North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad- 
 miited into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30,945: 
 chiefly emigrants from the northe -n and middle states. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced by th' 
 
654 THE world's progress. [ wn 
 
 church of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjectea 
 to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands ol 
 cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were 
 drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did 
 not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re 
 served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene- 
 va, in three mont'hs, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of 
 Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one 
 sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in 
 Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt 
 at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and 
 ignorant. At Lindheira, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu..ition 
 of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. 
 Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be- 
 witched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor womea 
 were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges 
 of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully 
 in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wartzburg in 1749, 
 At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched, 
 and i-endered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
 burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — ^?mz.. Reg. Five women were condemned to death by 
 the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION m ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked 
 laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which 
 death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the 
 public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted 
 declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
 33 Henry VIIL, 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James. 1603. Bar- 
 rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years 
 at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan 
 of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc. 
 Sir Matthe,w Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand 
 were executed in England under the long parliament. Northamptonshire 
 and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any 
 other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 
 1705, while *he Spectator was in coarse of publication in London, and five 
 others seveL years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged 
 nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were 
 burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per- 
 sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. 
 even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub- 
 lished his Dialogues of Dccfnonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in 
 London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws 
 
 • All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his Drzmonologie ; and parlia- 
 ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death wae 
 jnliicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation orconjurationof any 
 evil or wicke-J spirit — shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up 
 any dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor 
 eise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, (fee, whereby any person shall bo killed, wasted, consumed, 
 pined, or lamed." This being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence o( 
 witchcraft; hence Shakspeaie gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions 
 ft place where, he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evil 
 spirits, andabjuring witches became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employment to tha 
 clerjy of all denominations. Witch-finders existed, too, as public officers; and, besides the publij 
 execu'.ions, which disgraced every assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular re 
 Mntment. — Phillips. 
 
woo J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 655 
 
 against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant persoa, 
 attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Sur- 
 rey for the practice of witchcraft, they were i-epealed, 10 George IL, 1736.— 
 
 Viner's Abridgment. 
 
 WITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was 
 the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- 
 nifled the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A 
 witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means 
 to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman 
 conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. 
 
 WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were 
 demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 
 A. D. 961, by which step they were totalty destroyed. — Carte. Edward I. 
 issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- 
 land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many centuries after 
 their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found 
 there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was 
 made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 
 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they 
 follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first 
 in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure 
 was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of 
 twelve months following one another, wliich they denominated Lycabas, that 
 is. the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluclie. 
 
 WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been 
 considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and 
 were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the 
 northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- 
 pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought 
 with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards 
 females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the 
 polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of 
 chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ; 
 and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's 
 first sight of Eve : 
 
 " He laid him down and slept— and from his side 
 A woman in her magic beauty rose ; 
 Dazzled a.id charmed, he called that woman ' bride.' 
 And his first sleep became his last repose."— Besser, trantlated by Bowring. 
 
 The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that 
 state : Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 
 Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, 
 Molifere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woma7i ; as she is, ana 
 as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- 
 lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : 
 
 " Die when you will, you need not wear, 
 At heaven's court, a form more fair f 
 
 Than beauty at your birth has given ; '" 
 
 Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, 
 The voice we hear, and you will be 
 
 An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. 
 
 WOOD-CUTS, OR WOGD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. 
 The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to 
 Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the 
 article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Bronghl 
 
656 THE world's progress. [ won 
 
 to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and 
 more recently by Cruikshank, and others. 
 
 WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the " Report of the t/Om- 
 mittee of the Highland Society." proves, from indisputable records, that 
 from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of 
 Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the 
 finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- 
 facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the 
 emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- 
 tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of 
 it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This 
 was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331. — 
 Rymefs Fadera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of 
 English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 
 1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. 
 
 WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in 
 all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. 
 Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- 
 sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- 
 fore A. D. 1200. and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward 
 III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See 
 preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — 
 Camden^ No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 
 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. 
 Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth 
 begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. • 
 British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged 
 to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
 feit hi., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved 
 in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 
 11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- 
 cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged 
 by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, 
 than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers. 
 
 aUANTITY AND DECLARED VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED PROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL- 
 LOWING YEARS : — 
 
 Quantity. 
 Pieces - 
 Yards - - 
 Declared value 
 
 1800. 
 1,022,838 
 4,213,677 
 jE3,914,661 
 
 1825. 
 
 1,741,983 
 
 7,798.610 
 
 ;e6,194,926 
 
 1830. 
 
 1,747,036 
 
 5,561,877 
 
 jE4,608,592 
 
 1840. 
 
 2,143,796 
 
 8,170,642 
 
 £5,921,116 
 
 WORCESTER, Battle of, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army 
 and the forces of the parliament the latter commanded by Cromwell. A 
 large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate 
 Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city 
 were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed 
 or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his 
 Clowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- 
 soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 
 3, 1651. 
 
 WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was 
 created. September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention tho 
 year 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 
 19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was 
 created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- 
 tus, about 640 b. c. The first geographical table and map of the world was 
 
WOR j 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 657 
 
 made by Anaximander, about 560 e. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras 
 and his system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- 
 culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgatedj 
 A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth 
 is taken as a plane, 1556. -The notion of the magnetism of the earth started 
 by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. 
 
 WORMS, Diet op. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin I.uther 
 was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther 
 was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a 
 league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, 
 that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- 
 ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
 of its houses, I wo\ild go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, 
 six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- 
 lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, 
 April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, 
 and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him 
 to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and 
 his triumph was afterwards complete. 
 
 WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been 
 the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Coft of the 
 Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the 
 Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious 
 worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the 
 causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and 
 evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by 
 dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, 
 and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, 
 and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations, 
 whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant 
 states. — Sherlock. 
 
 WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at th« 
 period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- 
 dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and 
 there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- 
 ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after 
 Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. 
 Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their 
 great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- 
 lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was 
 afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly 
 superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our 
 present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence 
 of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- 
 markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood, 
 Edinburgh, 1881,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places 
 of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : — 
 
 " To our traislfriendis, the Lairds ofArn- and so committis vow to tlTe protection of 
 tilly and Kitivaid. God. From, Edinburgh, the xii of August 
 
 " Traist friends, after maist harty com- 1560. 
 mendacion, we pray youfaill not to pass " Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei 
 incontinent to the kyrk of Dunkeld, and tak ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be onj 
 doun the haill images thereof and bring 
 furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- 
 pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris, 
 and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- 
 ments ofidolctrye. And this ye faill not to 
 do, as ze will io us singular empleseur ; 
 
 28* 
 
 ways hurt or broken either glassin wark 
 
 or iron wark. 
 
 ■' Ar. Ergyll, 
 '■James Stewar* 
 
 " RUTHVEN." 
 
658 
 
 THE WOJtILD'S progress. 
 
 [ WRj 
 
 WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtainad its 
 name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in 
 which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- 
 sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking 
 knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. 
 
 WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a 
 few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. 
 When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- 
 bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, 
 utterly regardless of the sufferers. — PkiUips. The loss of merchant and 
 other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, 
 was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a, 
 year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were 
 totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss 
 varies ; but it is always many hundreds. 
 
 SOME OP THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. 
 
 Of the T/nmderer, 74 guns; Stirling 
 Castle, 64 ; Phcsnix, 44 ; La Bianc/te, 
 42 ; Laurel, 28 j Andromeda, 28 ; 
 Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; 
 Barbadoes, L'i; Cameleon, li; En- 
 deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ; 
 British vessels of war, all lost uithe 
 same storm, in the West Indies, in 
 
 October, 1780 
 
 Of the Royal George, capsized in Ports- 
 mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 
 persons perished - June 28, 1782 
 
 Of the steamer Home, from New Yorlv 
 to Charleston ; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 
 
 Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull 
 to Dundee ; 38 persons drowned. 
 Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- 
 ling and her father, 15 persons were 
 saved. See Forfarshire • Sept. 5, 1838 
 
 Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, asiA St. 
 Andrew, packet ships, in a great gale 
 off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 
 
 Of the Poland from New York to 
 Havre, struck by lightning. May 16, 1840 
 
 Of the President steamer, from New 
 York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- 
 sengers on board: sailed on March 
 
 days afterwards, and has never since 
 been heard of - March 13, 1841 
 
 Of the Peacock, one of the United States 
 exploring expedition, at the mouth 
 of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- 
 day and smooth water - July 18, 1841 
 
 Of the Missouri United States steam- 
 frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 
 
 Of the United States schooner Shark, 
 wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846 
 
 Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship. 
 This stupendous vessel grounded m 
 Dundrum bay, on the east coast of 
 Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846 
 
 Of the United States sloop of v?ar Bos- 
 ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 
 
 Of the United States brig So77iers, cap- 
 sized in a squall, olf Vera Cruz ; 39 
 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 
 
 Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; 
 about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 
 
 Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston, 
 burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, 
 
 Aug. 24, 1848 
 
 Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run 
 down at sea by steamer Europa; 134 
 lives lost - - June 27, 1849 
 
 See Fires, and Steam Vessels. 
 
 11, encountered a terrific storm two 
 It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- 
 ally lost ; 360 are annuallj^ rendered imfit for service ; and 1100 experience 
 serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary 
 wear and tear. 
 
 WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The 
 most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
 hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
 and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have wriU 
 ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- 
 phics, 2112 B. c.^Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latina 
 hy Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — Thucydides. 
 Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters 
 into Greece. — Vosslus. The commandments were written on two tables of 
 stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, 
 and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- 
 rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who 
 slight good penmanship, ^s below the notice of a scholar, by reminding 
 
ilek] dictionary of dates. 659 
 
 them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr 
 professor Person by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones bj 
 the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." — Dh, 
 Parr. 
 
 X. 
 
 XAJVTHUS, Siege of, by tlie Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, 
 and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able 
 to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the 
 loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- 
 dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror 
 wished to spare them, but though he ofiered rewards to his soldiers if they 
 brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, 
 much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch, 
 
 XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the 
 memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in 
 ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after 
 whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat ; 
 but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia 
 into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous 
 nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, 
 and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over 
 toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the. boldest and best-con- 
 ducted exploit on record ; 401 b. c. — Vossiu.t. 
 
 XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREt:CE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring 
 of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of 
 servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some 
 historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have 
 co.:isisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1.700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the 
 mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at 
 Thermopylje, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- 
 ished that such a handful of men should oppose his i^rogress, ordered some 
 of his soldiei'S to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- 
 sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the 
 courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base 
 Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the 
 mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- 
 mopylte {which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 
 480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experieticed new disasters. 
 His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to 
 Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 
 300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and 
 pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. 
 
 XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, 
 the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It was 
 formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels ot 
 fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side 
 towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were 
 placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in 
 the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great 
 strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast- 
 bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the lattei 
 was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 
 
660 THE world's progress. L YEi 
 
 beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore 
 to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Y. 
 
 FEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the 
 year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c; and it was 
 corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Caesar, 45 b. c. See Calen- 
 dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 6 hours, 
 48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return 
 of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- 
 erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and stiJl 
 partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews 
 dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- 
 nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- 
 tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians 
 and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the 
 Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. 
 of France, in 1654, published an arrSt, the last article of which ordered the 
 year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written 
 on and from January 1. See Neio Style, &c. 
 
 YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar 
 months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- 
 deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added 
 another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. 
 But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first 
 month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; 
 and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews 
 afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. 
 
 YEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was 
 Charles III., emperor of Germany: he added ''In the year of our Lord " to 
 his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by 
 the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from tlie birth of the 
 Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. 
 
 YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the 
 Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is tliat space of time at the end 
 whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they 
 set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. 
 Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The 
 ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the 
 world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies, 
 and go through a second course of being. 
 
 YEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this 
 year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and 
 have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was 
 called the Jubilee Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven, 
 and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original familiei 
 all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. 
 
 f F/AR, Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia 
 and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent 
 traveller: — 
 
 June 23, Sriow melts. I July 25, Plants !n flower. 
 
 July 1, Snow gone. ! Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. 
 
 July 9, Field quite green. 1 Aug. 10, Plants shed their ieed. 
 
 July 17 Plants at full growth. | Aug. 18, Snow. 
 
rOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 661 
 
 The snow the i continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Aur 
 gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out 
 of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are 
 together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks* 
 duration in these countries. 
 
 IfEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes 
 and. fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner 
 does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the 
 Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- 
 ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise u 
 legal space of time. 
 
 FELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 
 1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that 
 disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 
 670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the 
 inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 
 40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia 
 was nearl}'- desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 
 1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- 
 lity was great, and 50,000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand 
 died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore 
 suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- 
 vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 
 1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was 
 very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at 
 Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, 
 and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less 
 every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of 
 the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it 
 proved fatal to many thousands. 
 
 FOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised 
 by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards 
 inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglet, 
 Dufresnotj. 
 
 FORK. The Eboracuvi of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of 
 England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also 
 Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 
 274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York 
 received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the 
 British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix 
 of lord has been granted. 
 
 YORK, Archbishopric op, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, 
 it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity 
 was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment 
 was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former 
 were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should bs 
 restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. d. 
 622. _ York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for 
 a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and 
 Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- 
 tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew 
 their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose 
 between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre- 
 gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them wai 
 
662 THE world's progress. [ ZAR 
 
 first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome 
 by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York 
 was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles 
 himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome 
 eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve 
 lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. 
 It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609Z. 195. 2d. pei 
 annum. — Bcatson. 
 
 YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at different 
 periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again 
 been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- 
 pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king 
 of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 
 1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch- 
 bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands, 
 and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were 
 promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was 
 completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, 
 and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; 
 the damage estimated at 60,000/., was repaired in 1832. 
 
 YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS op the HOUSES of. The first battle be- 
 tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22. 1455. The last 
 was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, 
 or While Roses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red 
 Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty 
 great battles were fought with different success, and half the country was 
 depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobihty exterminated. See 
 Roses. 
 
 YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri 
 tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans 
 and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
 This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. 
 
 YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- 
 dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. 
 
 ZAMA, Battle of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the 
 time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- 
 sive of the fate of Carlshage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was 
 granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost 
 but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed 
 and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; 
 B. c. 202. 
 
 ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- 
 public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole 
 group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio {ivhick see), 
 October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and 
 were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, 
 in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding 
 year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together Avith 
 Ragusa, August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 
 1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were 
 put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified at 
 
las'] DICTIONARY OF DATES. ■ 663 
 
 Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5, 
 1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 
 22, 1817. 
 
 ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught 
 that water by baptism was of no eflScacy, and that it was necessary to be 
 baptized witli fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at 
 one time very numerous. — Aske. 
 
 ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ije, you, and yoitrs. The letter z was retained in 
 Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of 
 queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were 
 printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d. 1543. 
 
 ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- 
 versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the 
 natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time 
 of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was 
 seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to 
 make part of a southern continent, tlH 1770. when it was circumnavigated 
 by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by 
 the strait. The introduction of jDotatoes into New Zealand has saved many 
 lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, 
 under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of 
 the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted 
 several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 
 1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. 
 
 ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Ctesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
 son of Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous 
 dispatch to the senate of Rmiie, in three words : " Veni, vidi, vici ''' — " 1 
 came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. 
 This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, whert 
 he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province 
 of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c. — 
 Swe. CcBS. 
 
 ZELICHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the 
 most desperate and bloody battles lought by the Poles in their late struggle 
 for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by 
 general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his 
 flying army, April 6, 1831. 
 
 ZENO, Sect of, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from 
 a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- 
 rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way 
 of eminence, Si-o«, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school 
 of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended 
 the schools of various masters, and among others he ofiered himself as a 
 disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I ara 
 no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is 
 to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 
 312 B. c. 
 
 ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the 
 moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- 
 ticed by European writers as early as a. d. ]231; though the method of 
 extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years 
 after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate. Craven, 
 Yoi'kshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly aftei 
 
664 THE world's progress. f ZUh 
 
 the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Li- 
 thography 
 
 ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, 
 and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 
 560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos, 
 to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones. 
 The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- 
 imander. — Pliny. 
 
 ZOE, Reign op. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- 
 stantino IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the 
 throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- 
 phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, 
 and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the 
 name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, 
 the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname 
 of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em- 
 presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty 
 years of age, took for her third husband Constantino X., who succeeded to 
 the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes, 
 viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves, 
 or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or 
 insects ; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science ol 
 zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom 
 was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris. May 13, 1832. The Zoological 
 Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was charterec 
 March 27, 1829. 
 
 ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, 
 while he oflSciated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and 
 its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the 
 papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem- 
 blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the 
 second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin- 
 glius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a 
 skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. 
 The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name 
 and also Sacramentarians. 
 
 ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which 
 this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This 
 was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, 
 in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk 
 sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger 
 of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
 lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French 
 were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were 
 defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded 
 Sept. U, 1799. See Switzerland. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is 
 divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn 
 chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists ; the second those who 
 treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- 
 sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, 
 his came will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- 
 ductinns appertain. The HebrcAvs having, almost without exception, treated 
 on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. 
 
 The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could 
 be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the 
 time when each author has flourished. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 [The words in italics oetween parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persona- 
 they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, tiia 
 Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name. Rabbi Moses ben 
 Maimon. J ^m Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bai 
 Abraham.] 
 
 «. c. 
 
 1500 Moses, 1572—1452. 
 
 Phinehas, supposed author of the book of 
 Joshua. 
 [100 David, 1085—10815. 
 1000 Solomon, 1033—975. 
 fiOO Jonah, d. 761. 
 
 Amos. 
 
 Hosea. 
 
 Joel. 
 
 Obadiah. 
 
 Micah. 
 
 Isaiah, d. 681. 
 
 Nahum. 
 700 Habakkuk. 
 
 Zephanialu 
 
 Jeremiah. 
 500 Baruch. 
 
 Ezekiel. 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 Zechariah. 
 
 Haggai. 
 600 Ezra. 
 
 Nehemiah, d. 430 
 
 Malachi. 
 300 Jesua, eor of Sirach. 
 
 100 Nechoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab- 
 bahir,' the illustrious book. The most 
 ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. 
 
 Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase 
 of the Bible. 
 A. D. 
 
 Onkelos, 'Targum.' 
 
 Josephus, b. 35. 
 100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has Deen m- 
 correctly attributed to him. 
 
 ShimeonbenJochai(i2Q!sA6{). The 'Zohar,' 
 a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary 
 on the Pentateuch is usually attributed 
 to him, but was composed by his dis- 
 ciples. 
 
 Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the 
 World.' 
 
 Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- 
 ings of the fathers. Ethics. 
 
 ElieEcr, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings ol 
 Eliezer, a History of the World. 
 
 Judah Hakkadosh, 'Mishna,' the oral tradi- 
 tions of the .Fews, which, with th« 
 Gemara or Commentary, constitutes th« 
 Babylonian Talmud. 
 
666 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 Raf, eupposed author of the 'Siphra,' a 
 commentary on Leviticus, and of the 
 'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers 
 and Deuteronomy. 
 300 Ushaya, ' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary 
 on the Mishna. 
 
 Author of the 'Mechilta,' a Commentary 
 on Exodus. 
 
 Jochanan, 'Talmud of Jerusalem.' 
 300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen- 
 taries on the Bible. 
 400 Rabasha, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen- 
 tary on the Mishna. 
 
 Martemar, continued the ' Gemara.' 
 500 Abina, corr.pleted the ' Gemara.' 
 800 Simeon Hsjara, ' Great decisions,' jurid. 
 
 Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium 
 of the preceding. 
 980 Saadik Gaon, ' Philosopher's Stone,' 'Book 
 of Faith,' ' Grammar,' &c. 
 
 Sherira, 'The Book of Answers,' history. 
 1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. 
 
 Joseph Ching, Grammarian. 
 
 Judah Barzelloni, 'Rights of Women,' ju- 
 ridic. 
 
 Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium 
 of Hebrew History.' 
 
 Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1030. Grammarian. 
 
 Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 
 1100 Alphes, d. 1103. 'Compendium of the 
 Talmud.' 
 
 Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee 
 Lexicon.' 
 
 Solomon Jarchi (Raslii), Grammarian, d. 
 1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' 
 
 Joseph ben Meir {Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- 
 mentary on Talmud.' 
 
 Jnda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- 
 phical. 
 
 Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 
 mentaries on the Bible. 
 
 Tam. d. 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book 
 of Righteousness. 
 
 Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), d. 1171. 
 ' Commentary on the Talmud.' 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela, <;. 1173. 'Travels.' 
 
 Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- 
 logy. 
 
 Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. 
 
 Moses Kimhi, GramiTiarian. 
 
 David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. 
 
 Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), d. ] 199. Cab- 
 balist. 
 
 Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist. 
 
 Moses ben Maimon {Rambam), 1131-1205. 
 Yad Hazaka,' the ='.';ong hand, a very 
 celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, 
 &c. (This author is better known by 
 his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 
 USiO Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. 
 
 Eliakim, Ceremonies. 
 
 Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. 
 
 Eliezer Miggarmisa, Eihics, Commentaries. 
 
 Asher, Compendia of Talmud. 
 
 Perez Haccohen {Haraph), Cabbalist. 
 
 Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260. 
 'Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 
 Cerema lies, &c. 
 
 Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Pioc«pi« 
 ' Compendium of Talmud.' 
 
 Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs are 
 Fables.' 
 
 Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' 
 
 Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.- 
 
 Moses Aben Tyl)on, Translator of Mathe 
 matical and Philosophical works froa 
 the Greek and Arabic. 
 
 Solomon ben Adras {Rashba). Theology. 
 
 Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimoiiides.' 
 
 Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason foi 
 the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' 
 
 Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 
 1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' 
 
 Isaac Israeli, ' Foundation of the World,' 
 History. 
 
 Judah, son of Benjamin, Ritual. 
 
 Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' 
 
 Isaac Dura, 'On Forbidden and Permitted 
 Food.' 
 
 Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' 
 
 Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' 
 
 Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a 
 Ritual of much authority. 
 
 David Abudraham, astronomy. 
 
 Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag), d. 1370. ' Com- 
 mentary on the Law.' 
 
 Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. 
 
 Isaac ben Sheshat QRibash), ' Questions 
 and Answers on Various Subjects.' 
 
 Moses Haccohen, ' Help of Faith.' 
 
 Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work 
 against Christianity. 
 
 Jom Tof bar Abraham (^Ritba), Commen- 
 tary on Maimonides.' 
 
 Cliasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord. 
 Ethics and Theology. 
 
 Simeon bar Zemach, '"Shield of the Fathers ' 
 1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. 
 
 Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher, — 
 ' Foundation of Faith.' 
 
 Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* 
 on the Law.' 
 
 Joshua Levita, 'Introd. to the Talmud.' 
 
 David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' 
 
 Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. 
 
 Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' 
 
 Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. 
 
 Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' 
 
 Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 
 1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- 
 mentary. 
 
 Isaac Varro, 'Explanations of the Bible.' 
 
 Elias Levi, Grammar. 
 
 Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the Jews.' 
 
 Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.' 
 
 Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred aniJ 
 Jewish History. 
 
 Moses Iserle, Astrology. 
 
 Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' 
 
 Azarias Edomseus, History and Philology. 
 
 Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' Histoiy and 
 Chronology. 
 
 Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. 
 
 David Gans, History. 
 1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 
 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy 
 
 AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. 
 
 L. r. 
 
 St. Mctithew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. 
 St., Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 
 
 667 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 IMAGINArlON 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AMD SClBNTII'ia 
 
 B.C. 
 
 B. 0. 
 
 
 B. C. 
 
 ^JO Homer, ' Iliad,' * Odyssey,' 
 &c. 
 Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' 
 &c. 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 Tyrtseus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 Archilochus, Satires, Ele- 
 
 
 
 
 
 gies (fragments). 
 
 
 
 
 
 ©K) AlcEeus, Lyrics (fragments). 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 Sapplio, Lyrics (fragments). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Solon, d. 558. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Epimenides. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ste&ichorus, 033-553 Lyrics 
 
 
 
 
 
 (fragments). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ments.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anacreon, Lyrics. 
 
 
 
 
 Pythagoras, Philosophy. 
 
 500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics. 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. 
 
 ^schylus, 525-456, Trage- 
 
 
 
 
 Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso 
 
 dies. 
 
 
 Gorgias, 
 
 Orations (frgts.) 
 
 phy. 
 
 Pindar, 518-439, Odes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baccliylides, Lyrics. 
 
 
 
 
 Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo 
 
 
 
 Hecataei 
 
 s, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) 
 
 sophy. 
 
 Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- 
 dies. 
 
 
 Herodot 
 
 us, d. 484, History, 
 des, 471^91, Histo- 
 
 
 
 Thucydi 
 
 
 Euripides, 480^86, Trage- 
 
 
 ry of Peloponnesian War. 
 
 
 dies. 
 
 
 Antipho 
 
 ri, Orations. 
 
 
 Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- 
 
 
 Andorides, Orations. 
 
 Socrates, 468-399, Philoso 
 
 dies. 
 
 
 Lysias, ^ 
 
 58-378, Orations. 
 
 phy. 
 
 400 
 
 400 Ctesias, 
 
 History (fragm'ts.) 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 Xenophon, 444-359, History, 
 
 
 
 
 Philos 
 
 ophy, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 Isseus, Orations. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi' 
 
 
 
 Isocrates 
 
 , 536-338, Orations. 
 
 cine. 
 
 
 
 Dinarch 
 
 tis, Orations. 
 
 Democritus, 450-357, Phil* 
 
 
 
 Lycurgus, Orations. 
 
 sophy. 
 
 
 
 Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- 
 
 Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. 
 
 Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) 
 
 
 tions. 
 
 
 Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- 
 
 Menander, 242-291, Come- 
 
 
 JEschines, 389-314, Orations. 
 
 phy. Criticism. 
 
 dies (fragments.) * 
 
 
 
 
 TheoDhrastus,d. 288, Ethics 
 Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso. 
 phy. 
 
 300 Bion, Idyls. 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 300 Euclid, Geometry. 
 
 Z'ento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 Moschus, Idyls. 
 
 
 
 
 Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Callimachus, Hymns and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Epigrams. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Theocritus, Idyls. 
 
 
 Manetho, History(fragm'ts.) 
 
 
 Aratus, Poem on Astrono- 
 
 
 
 
 Apollonius, Conic Sectoas. 
 
 my. 
 Cleanthea, Hymns. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- 
 
 
 
 
 Archimedes, d. 212, ' Spher* 
 
 nautics.' 
 
 
 
 
 and Cylinder,' &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 
 
668 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IHASINATIOM. 
 
 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 
 
 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 100 
 
 lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- 
 nonides, a novel. 
 
 Lacian, Dialogues. 
 Oppian, Poems on Hunting 
 
 and Fishing. 
 Athenaeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- 
 
 sophistae, anecdotes. 
 
 euo 
 
 800 
 
 Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon 
 and Leucippe,' novel. 
 
 Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab- 
 rocome,' novel. 
 
 200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal 
 History. 
 Apollodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' 
 
 Mythology. 
 
 100 Conon, Mythology. 
 
 Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. 
 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus, 
 'Roman Antiquities.' 
 
 Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- 
 ography 1 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, General 
 History. 
 
 Strabo, Geography. 
 
 Pausanias, Description of 
 
 Greece. 
 Plutarch, Biography, Morals 
 
 &c. 
 Dion Chrysostom, Orations. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 100 jElian, d. 140. Varieties. 
 Appian, History. 
 Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. 
 
 Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- 
 ander.' 
 
 200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, 
 'Lives of Philosophers.' 
 
 Philostratus, d. 244, Life of 
 Apollonius. 
 
 Dion Cassius, History of 
 Rome. 
 
 Herodian, History of Rome 
 
 Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of 
 Pythagoras, Philosophy. 
 
 300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 
 tical History. 
 
 Liabanius, Orations and 
 Epistles. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND BCIINTiPia 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 Dioscorides, Botany and M»> 
 dicine. 
 
 Epictetus, ' Enchiridion,' 
 Philosophy. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 100 
 
 Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- 
 logy. 
 Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. 
 Galen, 103-193, Medicine. 
 
 Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the 
 Resurrection.' 
 
 Phavorinus, Lexicon. 
 
 Hermogenes, d. 161, Rhe- 
 toric. 
 
 Polyaenus, Strategy. 
 
 M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi* 
 losophy. 
 
 Nephsstion, ' On Metres.' 
 
 Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. 
 
 Julius PoUuXj 'Onomasti- 
 con,' Rhetoric. 
 
 200 
 
 Ammonius, Philosophy, 
 Origen, d. 254, Theology 
 Hesychius, Lexicon, 
 lamblichus, Philosophy. 
 Longinus, d. 273, 'On th« 
 Sublime.' 
 
 300 
 
 Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. 
 Athanasius, 298-371, Theo 
 
 logy. 
 Greg. Nazianzen, 318-389^ 
 
 Theology. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. GREEK. 
 
 669 
 
 iMAaraATioN. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECCfcATIVB AND SCIBNTIPia 
 
 aoo 
 
 300 
 
 Eunapius, ' Lives of Philo- 
 sophers.' 
 
 Gregory Nyssaeus, d. 396 
 
 Theology. 
 Cyril, 315-386, Theology. 
 Diophantus, Mathematics. 
 
 30C AristsETietHs, 'Erotic Let- 
 ters.' 
 
 Ileliodorus, ' Theagenes & 
 Charicleea,' novel. 
 
 Chariton, ' Chaereus and 
 Calirrhoe,' novel. 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 Chrysostom 354-40", Th» 
 ology. 
 
 400 Longus, 'Daphnis and 
 Chloe,' novel. 
 
 Nonnus, ' Conquest of India 
 by Bacchus.' 
 
 Stobaeus, ' Literary Collec- 
 tions.' 
 
 Quintus Smymaeus (com- 
 monly called) Calabar, 
 ' Contin. of Homer.' 
 
 Musaeus. Poem of Hero and 
 Leander 1 
 
 Eumathius, 'Ismenseus & 
 > Ismensea,' novel. 
 
 Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape 
 
 of Helen.' 
 Tryphindorus, Poem on 
 
 ' Destruction of Troy.' 
 
 400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- 
 tles. 
 
 Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman 
 Emperors.' 
 
 Socrates, 3S9-i46, Ecclesi- 
 astical History. 
 
 Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias- 
 tical History. 
 
 Tiieodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- 
 astical History. 
 
 400 Nemesius, ' Nature of 
 Man,' Philosophy. 
 
 Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. 
 Proclus, d. 445, Theology. 
 
 Proclus, d. 500, Platonist 
 
 eoo 
 
 50D Steptianus, Geography. 
 
 Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign 
 of .Justinian.' 
 
 Olympiodorus, ' Hist, of 
 Honorius.' 
 
 Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- 
 graphy. 
 
 Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist 
 
 Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 
 
 500 Simplicius, ' CommentB on 
 Aristotle.' 
 Tribonianus, Jurist 
 
 600 
 
 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 
 Theophanes, Byzant.Hist. 
 
 Theophylactus Simocatta, 
 Byzantine History. 
 
 600 
 
 Philoponus, Grammarian. 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 Damascenus, d 750, The- 
 ology. 
 
 goo 
 
 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 
 Syncellus, History. 
 
 John Malalas, History. 
 
 800 Theodorus Studites, TBQ- 
 826, Sermons. 
 Photius, d. 891, 'BiWIo 
 theca.' 
 
 900 
 
 900 
 
 Leontius, History. 
 Genesiiis, History. 
 
 900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' OnChrw 
 tian Faith.' 
 
670 
 
 rHE world's proghess. 
 
 IMAGIHATION. 
 
 1000 
 
 llGO 
 
 C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- 
 danthe and Dosicles,' 
 novel. 
 
 1200 
 
 1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1310, 
 Poems. 
 
 Maximus Planudes, Anth- 
 
 ologjr. 
 Leo Pilatus, Literature. 
 
 1400 
 
 900 Const. Porphyroffenneta, 
 905-959, Hist. Serections. 
 Sim. MetaphrasteS, Lives 
 of Saints. 
 
 SPECULAIMVE AND SCIEnTIMC 
 
 1000 George Cedrenus, History. 1000 
 
 John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, 
 
 Ahridg. of Dion Cassius. 
 
 John Scylitza, History. 
 
 Theophylactus, Theology. 
 Michael Psellus, Mathema 
 tics. 
 
 1100 iUOO Euthymius_ Zygabenus, 
 
 Nicephorus Bryennius, d.^ Theology." 
 
 1137, Byzant. Affairs. 
 Anna Comnena, Reign of I 
 
 her father Alexius. 
 
 Const. Manasses, History. 
 Zonaras, History of Ro- 
 mans, History of Jews. 
 
 Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, 
 
 History. 
 John Tzetzes, History in 
 
 Verse. 
 Cinnamus, History. 
 
 1200 Joel, History. 
 
 Michael Glycas, History. 
 George Acropolita, Hist. 
 Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. 
 George Pachymer, Hist. 
 
 Suidas, Lexicon. 
 Eustathias, Commentarim 
 on Homer. 
 
 Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary 
 on Lycophron. 
 
 1200 
 
 Nicephorus Blemmidas, 
 Theology. 
 
 1300 Theod, Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 
 History. j 
 
 Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- 
 clesiastical History. 
 
 Niceph. Gregoras, History. 
 
 John Cantacuzenus, Hist. 
 George Codinus, Hist. 
 Michael Ducas, History. 
 
 1400 
 
 Demet. Pamperes, Tales. 
 MaruUus Tarchoniota d. 
 1500, Poems. 
 
 1600 
 
 Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. 
 
 Origin of Turks. 
 Laonicus Chalcondyles, 
 
 History of Turks. 
 George Phranza, History. 
 
 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 
 1415, Grammar. 
 
 Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, 
 d. 1450, Philosophy. 
 
 Eman. Moscopulus, Notej 
 on Hesiod. 
 
 Bessarion, 1395-1472, The- 
 ology. 
 
 Geo. of Trebizond, 1396- 
 146S, Aristotelian. 
 
 John Argyrophilus, Arist* 
 telian. 
 
 1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 
 I 1453-1513, Philolo^. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 
 
 671 
 
 niAOINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECtJLATIVE AND SCIENTIHO. 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The 
 ology. 
 
 1700 Kallinikus, Poems. 
 
 Nicholas Caradza, Trans- 
 lation of Voltaire. 
 
 1700 
 
 Alexander Maurocordato, 
 
 History of the Jews. 
 Meletius, Geography. 
 
 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. 
 
 Marcus Tharboures, M». 
 chanics. 
 
 1700 
 
 Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat- 
 ural Philosophy. 
 
 1700 
 
 Ducas, Translation of Thu- 
 cydides. 
 
 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. 
 
 1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 
 
 Christopulus, Anacreon- 
 tics, Opera. 
 
 Calvos, Lyrics. 
 
 Ilarion, Translation of So- 
 phocles. 
 
 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 
 Hist, of Wallachia, &c. 
 Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. 
 Perrevos, History of Suli 
 
 and Parga. 
 Gr. Denmetrius, Geography. 
 
 1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics. 
 
 Coray, Commentaries, LeX' 
 
 icon. 
 Cumas, Dictionary. 
 Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. 
 
 LATIN AND ITALIAN. 
 
 [The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal 
 use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the 
 modern languages began to appear. 
 
 As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged 
 all authors who wrote in Latin under the saine head; but about the sixth century they will be 
 found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which 
 they wrote.] 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTiy'.O 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. 0. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). 
 
 
 
 P. Terentius, Comedies. 
 
 
 M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 
 
 100 
 
 100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 
 
 100 Varro, 115-23, De Re Rusti- 
 
 
 33, Letters. 
 
 ca Lingua Latina. 
 Vitruvius, Architecture. 
 Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fafrti 
 
 Capilolini. 
 
 T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- 
 
 M. 1 Cicero, 107^3, Orator 
 
 
 rum Natura. 
 
 and Philosopher. 
 
 
 Catullus, 86-40, Lyrics. 
 
 Julius Caesar, 98^6, Com- 
 mentaries. 
 
 Ilirtius Pansa, Gallic War. 
 
 C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur- 
 tliine War.' 
 
 Corn. Nepos, Biography. 
 
 
 P. Virgilius, 70-19, Eneid. 
 
 
 
 Q,. Horatius, 63-S, Odes, Sat- 
 
 
 
 ires. 
 
 
 
 Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. 
 
 T. Livius, 59 b. c— 19 a. d.. 
 
 
 A. TibuUus, 43 b. c— 17 
 
 History of Rome. 
 
 
 A. D., Elegies. 
 
 
 
 Ovid, 43 B. c— 17 A. d., Me- 
 
 
 
 tamorph. Fasti, <fec. 
 
 
 
 Hyginus, Poeticon Astro- 
 
 
 
 nomicon. 
 
 
 
672 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IHAOINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPKCULATIVE AND SCIGKTUId 
 
 A.. t>. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 
 Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 
 A. D., Hist, of Rome. 
 
 Pomp. Mela, Geography. 
 
 Valerius Maximus, Anec- 
 dotes of Great Men. 
 
 
 
 Phasdrus, Fables. 
 
 
 C. Celsus, De Medicina. 
 
 
 Quintus Curtius, History of 
 Alexander. 
 
 Columella, Agriculture. 
 
 Persius. 34-62, Satires. 
 
 L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philot 
 
 I,ucan, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.' 
 
 
 opher. Tragic Poet. 
 
 Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- 
 
 
 Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat 
 
 tyricon. 
 
 
 ral History. 
 
 Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- 
 
 
 Quintilian Criticism. 
 
 tics. 
 Silius Italicus, ' Punic 
 
 
 
 War.' 
 
 * 
 
 
 Sulpicia, Satires, <fec. 
 
 
 
 Statius, d. 99, 'Tlrebais,' 
 
 
 
 ' Achilleis.' 
 
 
 
 Martial. 29-104, Epigrams. 
 
 
 
 Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pliny the Younger, 61-113, 
 
 
 
 Epistles. 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 Tacitus, History. 
 
 100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. 
 
 
 Suetonius, Biography. 
 
 Frontmus, Strategy. 
 
 
 Florus, History of Rome. 
 
 Terentianus Maurus, De Ar 
 
 
 Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- 
 
 te Metrica. 
 
 L. Apuleuis, Golden Ass. 
 
 ticce. 
 C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. 
 
 
 
 Justin, History. 
 
 Pompei. Festus, Grammar. 
 
 «>W 
 
 200 
 
 200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. 
 
 Tertullian,d. 220, 'Apologj 
 
 for Christianity.' 
 Minutius Felix, Dialogue in 
 
 favor of Christianity. 
 Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- 
 
 digiis.' 
 Censorinus, 'De Die Na 
 
 tali.' 
 Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nemesianus, Cynegetica. 
 
 
 
 Jul. Calpurnius, Eclogues. 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 300 EI Spartianus, History. 
 
 300 Arnobius, ' Adversus gen. 
 
 
 Jul. CapitolinUs, History, 
 
 tes.' 
 
 
 Ml. Lampridus, History. 
 
 Lactantius, d. 325, Defenc* 
 
 
 Vul. Galllcanus, History. 
 
 ofOhristianity.' 
 
 
 Trebellius, PoUio, History 
 
 
 Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel 
 
 F. Vopiscus, History. 
 
 M\. Donatus, Grammar. 
 
 m Verse. 
 
 Aureliu.s Victor, History. 
 
 F. Maternus, Astronomy 
 Theology. 
 
 M. Victorinus, Hymns. 
 
 
 
 
 Ambrosius, Theology. 
 
 
 F. Eutropius, History of 
 
 
 Festus Avienus, Geographi- 
 
 Rome. 
 
 
 cal Poem. 
 
 Amm. Marcellinus, History 
 
 Jerom. 329—420, Version of 
 
 D. M. Auaonius, Idyls. 
 
 of Rome. 
 
 Bible. 
 
 Rulinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti- 
 cal History. 
 
 T. Vegetius RenatuS; De R« 
 Militari. 
 
 A. T. Macrobiua, Satur- 
 
 
 Augustin, 354—430, Thaol 
 
 nalia. 
 
 
 ogy- 
 
 ■ymmachus, Epistles. 
 
 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 
 
 673 
 
 IMAOINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEHTIWO 
 
 300 C, Claiidianus, Poems. 
 
 .300 
 
 300 
 
 A. PrudentiuB Clemens, 
 
 
 
 Christian Poems. 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 
 Sulpiiius, Severus, d. 420, 
 Sacred History. 
 
 400 
 
 Sedulius, Poetical Life of 
 
 Orosius, Hist, of World. 
 
 
 Christ. 
 
 
 
 Martianus Capella, De Nup- 
 
 
 
 tius Phil, et Merc. 
 
 
 
 Btulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on 
 
 
 
 Martin of Tours. 
 
 
 
 Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Victorius, History of Church 
 in Africa. 
 
 
 Ennodius, d. 521, Christian 
 
 Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 
 
 500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 
 
 500 Priscianus, Grambiar. 
 
 sopher. 
 
 tory. 
 
 Fulgentius, 468-533, The- 
 ology. 
 
 Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, 
 Christian Era. 
 
 Non. Marcellus, Grammar. 
 
 Arator, 490-556, Acts of 
 
 
 
 Apostles in Verse. 
 
 Jomandes, Hist, of Goths. 
 Evagrius, Eccl. History. 
 
 
 600 
 
 600 Secundus, d. 615, History 
 of Lombards. 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 Cresconius, Collection 
 
 
 Paul Warnefrid. History 
 
 Canons, Verses. 
 
 
 of Lombards. 
 
 
 800 
 
 800 Erchempert, History of 
 Lombards. 
 Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 
 900 Luitprand, History of his 
 Times. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 * 
 
 1000 Papias, Grammar. 
 
 Lanfranc, d. 1089, fheol. 
 
 1100 Donlzo, Latin Poc'ry. 
 
 1100 
 
 1100 
 
 
 Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 
 
 Gratian, Canonist. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Campanus, Mathematics. 
 
 Ciullod' Alcamo, Sioiliar 
 
 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1S49, 
 
 1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law 
 
 Guido of Oolonna, Poetry, 
 
 History. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 
 
 History. 
 
 
 1274, Theoloey. 
 
 Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, 
 
 
 Bonaventura. Scholastic. 
 
 'IlTesora.' 
 
 
 
 Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, 
 
 
 
 Poems, 
 John XXII., Poem on Me- 
 
 Marco Polo, Travels. 
 
 
 dicine. 
 
 
 G. Durand, Law. 
 
 
 G. de Voragine, d. 1298, 
 Legends of Saints. 
 
 Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1* < 
 
 
 Astrology, Physics. 
 
 
 
 Torregiano Rustechelll, 
 
 
 
 Commentaries. 
 
 29 
 
674 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FAOT. 
 
 SPECITLATIVE AND BCIENTIFIOi 
 
 1300 Danto, 1205-1321, La Di- 
 
 1300 Dine Compagni, 1265-1323, 
 
 1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. 
 
 viaa Commedia, Vita 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Arn. Villanovan, d. 1313, 
 
 Nova, Ooiivito, &c. 
 
 Giovanni and M. Villani, 
 
 Alchemy. 
 
 F. Barberino, 1264-1348, 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Petraroa, 1304-13T4, Son- 
 
 
 G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca- 
 
 nets, Epic, Literature. 
 
 
 nons. 
 
 Boocacio, 1313-1375, ' 11- 
 
 
 BartoUis, Law. 
 
 Deoamerone,' Poems and 
 
 < 
 
 Domenico Cavaica, Ascetic 
 
 various works in Latin 
 
 Ferreti, 1356-1429, History 
 
 and Trauslat. of Lives 
 
 and Italian. 
 
 of his Times. 
 
 of Saints. 
 
 UOO 
 
 1400 Leonardo Bruni, History 
 
 1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. 
 
 
 of Florence. 
 
 Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. 
 
 A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471, 
 
 
 
 ' Hermaphroditus.' 
 
 Guarino, 1870-1460, Trans- 
 
 
 Poggio, 1330-1459, Litera- 
 
 lation of Plutarch. 
 
 
 ture. 
 
 
 Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, 
 
 Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, 
 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Literature. 
 
 B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- 
 
 Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460. 
 
 D. Burcliiello, Sonnets. 
 
 tory of Holy War. 
 
 Baraterius, Law. 
 
 
 Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463, 
 
 Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396- 
 
 
 History of Venice, &c. 
 
 1479, Orientalist. 
 
 
 Mn. Sylvius, 1400-1464, 
 
 Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, 
 
 
 History, Poetry, &c. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 
 Beccat, Panormita, 1393- 
 
 
 
 1471, Biograpliy. 
 
 
 Pulei, 1432-1487, ' Mor- 
 
 Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, 
 
 
 gan te Masgiore.' 
 
 Lives of Popes. 
 
 
 Traiic. PiiUelphus, 1398- 
 
 F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, 
 
 
 1481, Poetry and Etliies. 
 
 Bio<<raphy. 
 
 
 Loren. de Medici, d. 1492, 
 
 Pomp. Lsetus, 1425-1495, 
 
 
 Poetry, Literature. 
 
 Lives of CiBsars, &c. 
 
 
 Angelo Poliziano, 1454- 
 
 Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- 
 
 
 1494, Poetry, Drama. 
 
 graphy. 
 
 Pico de Mirandola, 1463- 
 
 Marsilius Ficinus, 1433- 
 
 G. Pontano, 1426-1563, 
 
 1494, Metaphysics. 
 
 1499, Translat. Plato. 
 
 Wars of Ferdinand I. 
 Bonfinias, d. 1502, History 
 of Hungary. 
 
 Luca di Burgo, Mathem., 
 
 mo 
 
 1500 K. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 
 
 1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, 
 
 
 tory. 
 
 Anatomy. 
 L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, 
 
 G. Euccellai, 1475-1526, 
 
 , 
 
 'Treatise on Painting,' 
 
 'Le Api.' 
 
 Giambullari, 1495 - 1555, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Alexander ab Alexandre, 
 
 History of Europe. 
 
 G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 
 
 1461-1523, Bies Geni- 
 
 
 A. Acchillini, 1472-1512, 
 
 tales. 
 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 M. Boiardo, 'Orlando In- 
 
 
 B. Castiglione, 1478-1529, 
 
 namorato.' 
 
 
 'The Courtier.' 
 
 Sanazaro, 1453-1530, Ar- 
 
 
 
 cadia. 
 
 
 
 B'A-1 i, d. 1530, Satires, 
 
 
 
 Burlesque, and Orlando 
 
 
 
 Innamorato. 
 
 Slachiavelli, 1482-1528, His- 
 
 
 Ariosto, 1474-1533, 'Or- 
 
 tory of Florence, &c. 
 
 
 lando Furioso,' Satires, 
 Comedies. 
 F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po- 
 
 
 
 Guicciardinl, 1482 - 1540, 
 
 G. Fracastoro, 1483-1583, 
 
 ems. 
 
 History of Italy. 
 
 Medicine and Latin 
 
 
 Bembo, 1470-1547, History 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Trissino, 1478-1550, ' Italy 
 
 of Venice. 
 
 And. Alciato, 149^1550, 
 
 Delivered Epic, Trage- 
 
 L.Alberti,c«. 1552, History 
 
 Law. 
 
 dy. 
 
 of Bologna. 
 
 Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 
 
 675 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIOi 
 
 1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 F. Commandido,1509-1575, 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d. 
 
 biography. 
 
 Angelo Caninio, d. 1667 
 
 1564, Poems. 
 
 B. Varcbi, 1503-1566, His- 
 
 Orientalist. 
 
 Giovanni delta Casa, 1503- 
 
 tory of bis Times. 
 
 
 1556, 11 Galateo, &c. 
 
 Segne, 1499-1559, History 
 
 
 G. Angiiillara, b. 1517, Tra- 
 gedy. 
 L. DolcR. 150S-1568, Trage- 
 
 of Homer. 
 
 
 
 
 dy, Epic, History. 
 
 
 And. Vesalio, 1514-15^1, 
 Anatomy. ^ 
 
 Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, 
 
 
 'Amadis,' Sonnets, and 
 
 G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives 
 
 Falopius, 1533-1563,Medi- 
 
 Letters, 
 
 of Painters, &c. 
 
 cine. 
 
 Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, 
 
 Sperone Speroni,1500-15S8, 
 
 Eustacbi, d. 1576, Do, • 
 
 Tragedy. 
 
 tn-ations. 
 
 P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574, 
 
 
 S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, 
 
 Commentaries. 
 
 
 History of Florence. 
 
 Cardano, 1501-1576, Ma- 
 
 A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, 
 
 G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- 
 
 thematics. 
 
 Comedies. 
 
 tory of his Times. 
 
 P. Lancolloti, 1511-1591, 
 
 Torq. Tasso, 1544r-1595, 
 
 B. Davanzati. 1529-1606, 
 
 Law. 
 
 ' Gerusalemme Liberata,' 
 
 Hist. Eng. Eeformation. 
 
 
 Sonnets, Drama, &c. 
 
 C. Barouius, 1533-1607, Ec- 
 
 
 G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- 
 
 clesiastical Annals. 
 
 
 gedy. 
 
 P. Paruta, 1540-1598, His- 
 
 
 Guarini, 153S - 1613, '11 
 
 tory of Venice. 
 
 
 Pastor Fido.' 
 
 Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 
 
 
 
 scription of Muscovy, 
 
 Andrea Csesalpino, 1519- 
 
 
 &o. 
 
 1603, Botany. 
 
 Ottavio Einuccini, Opera. 
 
 P. E. Sarpl, 1552-1683, His- 
 
 U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605, 
 
 F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605, 
 
 tory of Coiin. of Trent. 
 
 Natural History, 
 
 'La Croee Kacquistata.' 
 
 
 Orazio Torsellino, 1545- 
 
 Oraz. Vecebi, Comic Opera 
 
 
 1609, Grammar. 
 
 G. B. Marini, 1569-1625, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 C. Acliillini, 1577-1640, 
 
 E. C. Davila, 1576-1681, 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Hist. Civil Wars France. 
 
 
 A. Tassoni, 1561-1635, 
 
 
 
 'Sechchia Eapita.' 
 
 
 
 1600 G. Chiabrera, 1553-1637, 
 
 1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 
 
 1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, 
 
 Poems, Epic, Lyric, &c. 
 
 History Civil "Wars of 
 
 Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 
 Flanders, and Letters. 
 
 Bellarmino, 1543-1621, Po- 
 lemics, 
 
 Galileo,1564-1642, Astron. 
 
 T. A. Campanella, 1568- 
 1693, Philosophy. 
 
 Zappl. 1667-1719, Poems. 
 
 D. BartoH, History of the 
 
 L. Vanini,15S5-1619, The- 
 
 
 Jesuits in the East In- 
 
 ology. 
 
 
 dies, &c., 1608-1685. 
 
 B. Castelli, d. 1644, Ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do. 
 
 Fabio Colonna, 1S67-1047, 
 Botany, &c. 
 
 Laur.Lippi, 1606-1664, Co- 
 
 
 
 mic Poems. 
 
 
 Forricelli, 1608-1647. 
 
 Salvator Eosaj 1615-1673, 
 
 P. della Valle, 1586-1653, 
 
 
 Satires. 
 
 Travels. 
 
 
 C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, 
 
 F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 of Wars of Flanders. 
 
 
 Francisco de Lemene, 1639 
 
 G. B. Nani, 1615-1671, His- 
 
 F. Eedi, 1626-1697, Nat 
 
 -1704, Poems. 
 
 tory of Venice. 
 
 ural Hist. & Literatura 
 
 A. Guidi, 1050-1712, Lyric 
 
 Oderio Eainaldi, Ecclesias- 
 
 M. Malpighi, 1633-1694 
 
 Poems. 
 
 tical Annals. 
 
 Anatomy. 
 
676 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1600 Ben. Menzini, 1646-1704 
 Art of Poetry, Satires. 
 V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Fo 
 
 A. Marchetti, 163a-1714, 
 Poems, Philosophy. 
 
 1600 Sforza Pallevicino, 1607- 
 1667, History of Coun- 
 cil of Trent, &c. 
 
 BPBCITLATrVE AND SCIENTIFICI 
 
 1600 V. Viviani4621-1703, Ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 A.Magliabeochi,168S-1714 
 Literature. 
 
 P. Scgner, 1624-1694, As- 
 cetic and Sermons. 
 
 G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, 
 Mathematics, Astron. 
 
 D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, 
 Mathematics. 
 
 1700 N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, 
 
 Eicciardetto. 
 Q. M. Oi-escembini, 1663- 
 
 172S, Poetry. 
 Apostolo Zcno, 1669-1750, 
 
 Operas. 
 S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra^ 
 
 gedy. Comedy, and An^ 
 
 tiquities. 
 
 M. Metastaslo, 1693-1T82, 
 Dramas, Operas, 
 
 Gt. Baretti, 1716-1789, Mis- 
 cellaneous. 
 C. Goazi, Dramas, &o. 
 
 0. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- 
 medies. 
 
 C. I. Frugoni, 1692-1768, 
 Poems. 
 
 G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- 
 tires, Odes, but chiefly 
 prose — L'Osservatore, 
 Venito, &c. 
 
 V. Alfleri, 1749-1803, Tra- 
 gedies, &0. 
 
 1700 
 
 L. Muratori, 1672-1750, 
 Annals of Itality. 
 
 B. Giannone, 1680-1748, 
 History of Naples. 
 
 F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, 
 History of the Valteline, 
 
 B. Buonamici, 1710-1761 
 History. 
 
 A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- 
 graphy. 
 
 G. Tirabosehi, 1731-1794, 
 Hist, of Italian Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Denina, History of Italian 
 Revolutions, and many 
 other works, chiefly hiS' 
 orlcaL 
 
 1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me^ 
 
 dicine. 
 G. V. Gravina, 1664-1718, 
 
 Law. 
 G. B. Vico, 1670-1744, 
 
 Philosophy of History. 
 
 G. Cassini, 1677-1756, As- 
 tronomy. 
 
 G. Morgagni, 1681-1711, 
 Anatomy. 
 
 A. Genovesi, 1712-1769, 
 
 Metaphysics. 
 F. Algarotti, 1712-1764, 
 
 'Newtonianism." 
 G.E.Boscowi8h,1711-1787, 
 
 Mathematics, Philology. 
 F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, 
 
 Philosophy. 
 C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, 
 
 'Crimes & Punishments.' 
 
 L. Spallanzanl, 1729-1799, 
 Natural History. 
 
 L. Galvani, 1737-1798, 
 
 Galvanism. 
 Volta, 1745-1827, Do. 
 G. Filangieri, 1751-1798^ 
 
 Legislation. 
 
 1900 Pindemonte, Poems. 
 Monti, Poems. 
 Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- 
 ems. 
 
 I. da Ponto,Poem3, Operas. 
 
 Manzoni, Tragedies, Po- 
 ems, and one novel — I 
 Promissi Sposi. 
 
 Silvio Pellico, Tragedies, 
 &o. 
 
 G. B. Niccolo, Tragedies, 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 
 
 Botta, History of Italy,&o. 
 
 CoUetta, History of Na- 
 ples. 
 Conti, Universal History, 
 
 &0. 
 
 Scarpa, Anatomy. 
 
 M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli- 
 tical Economy. 
 
 Eomagnosi,Polit Science. 
 
 Galluppi, Metaphysics. 
 
 Eosraini, Do. 
 
 Costa, Metaphysics, hl» 
 torical and critical 
 
 Cesari, Philology. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ^BRITISH. 
 
 677 
 
 BRITISH, &c. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 k. D 
 
 oOU 
 
 A. D. 
 
 50O Gildas, Conquest of Britain 
 
 500 Caedmon, Saxon Poems. 
 
 Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po- 
 ems. 
 
 7(iO 
 
 900 Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po- 
 ems, Translations, &c. 
 
 OOO Nennius, Origin of Britons 
 
 700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo- 
 ry of England. 
 
 Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, 
 History of England. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFIQ 
 
 A. D. 
 
 500 
 
 700 
 
 Alcuin, d. 804, Theology 
 History, Poetry. 
 
 800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 833, 'Oi 
 the Nature of Things.' 
 
 900 
 
 900 Ethelwerd, History of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 Ingulphus, 1030— 1109, His- 
 tory of Croyland. 
 Eadmer, Chronicle. 
 
 1000 
 
 Layamon, Saxon Poetry. 
 Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- 
 
 rum. 
 Walter Mapes, Satires, 
 
 So.,gg. 
 Jos. of Exeter, Trqj. War 
 
 War of Antioch, Epics. 
 
 1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075—1132, 
 History of England. 
 
 Florence of Worcester, d. 
 1118, Chron. of England. 
 
 GeoflVy of Monmouth", His- 
 tory of Britain. 
 
 William of Malmsbury, d. 
 1143, Hist, of Britain. 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon, 
 Chronicles of England. 
 
 Simeon of Durham, Chron- 
 icles of England. 
 
 John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 
 ' Life of Becket,' &c. 
 
 G. Cambrensis, Conq. of 
 Ireland, Itin. of Wales. 
 
 Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, 
 Chron, of England. 
 
 1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of 
 England. 
 Gervase of Canterbury, 
 History of England. 
 
 Roger of Wendover, Hist, 
 of England. 
 
 Matthew Paris, d. 1259, 
 HiatOKV of Gnglaud. 
 
 Robert Pulleyn, d USUy 
 Theology. 
 
 Richard of St. Victor, d. 
 1173, Theology. 
 
 Ralph Glanville, CoUectio* 
 of Laws. 
 
 1200 
 
 Alex. Necklam, d. VSH, 
 Theology. 
 
 Robert Grostests, Natural 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Alexander Hales, d. 1243| 
 
 Aristotelian. 
 John Peckham, Theology. 
 John Holiwood, d. 1^8 
 
 Astron., Mathematics. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 IMAOIHATIOM. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AMD SCIENTIPIC 
 
 Robert of Glocester, Chron- 
 
 William Rishanger, His- 
 
 Roger Bacon, 1214—1292 
 
 icle in verse. 
 
 tory of England. 
 
 Chemistry, Opiics, ifec. 
 
 T. Lermont, the Rhymer, 
 
 
 Rich. Middleton, Theology 
 
 Sir Tristem, Romance. 
 
 
 
 lae 
 
 1300 
 
 1300 Albricus. Theology. 
 
 Duns Scotus, d. 1308, Phil- 
 osophy. 
 
 Walter Burleigh, Philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 Gilb. Anglicus, Medicine. 
 
 AJam Davie, Metr. Ro- 
 
 Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328, 
 
 R. Aungervile, 1281—1345, 
 
 mance, Life of Alex. 
 
 Hist. Physic, Theology. 
 Richard of Chichester, 
 
 Philobibiion. 
 
 Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 J. WiclifTe, 1^4-1384, 
 
 Historical Poems. 
 
 Ralph Higden, d. 1360, 
 
 Theology, Translation of 
 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 Bible. 
 
 
 Plenry Knighton, d. 1370, 
 
 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 
 
 Matthew of Westminster, 
 
 
 John Barbour, 1326-1396, 
 
 'Flowers of History.' 
 
 
 ' The Bruce.' 
 
 John Maundeville, d. 1372, 
 
 H. de Bracton, Law. 
 
 R. Langlande, ' Pierce 
 
 Travels. 
 
 
 Plowman,' a Satire. 
 
 John Fordun, Chron. of 
 
 
 Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400, 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 
 ' Canterbury Tales,' &c. 
 
 
 
 John Gower, d. 1402, Ele- 
 
 
 
 gies, Romances, &c. 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 
 Chron. of Scotland. 
 
 1400 
 
 John Lydgate, 1380-1440, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 T. Walsmgham, d. 1440, 
 History of Normandy. 
 
 
 Jamef? I. of Scotland, 1395- 
 
 
 John Fortescue, Laws oJ 
 
 1437, 'King's Quhair,' 
 &c. 
 Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir 
 
 
 England. 
 
 
 
 W. Wallace.' 
 
 John Hardyng, Chron. of 
 
 Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Law. 
 
 
 Lord Berners, Trans, of 
 
 
 
 Froissart. 
 
 
 Stephen Hawes, ' Passe- 
 
 W. Caxton, Translations. 
 
 
 tyme of Pleasure.' 
 
 
 
 John Skelton, d. 1529, 
 
 Douglas of Glastonbury, 
 
 
 Satires, Odes. 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 
 1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 
 
 1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron. 
 
 1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524 
 
 'Thistle and Rose.' 
 
 of England and France. 
 
 Philology, Medicine. 
 
 Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, 
 
 
 
 Trans. Virgil. 
 
 
 
 Thomas More, 1480-1535, 
 
 
 Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- 
 
 ' Utopia.' 
 
 
 bandry. 
 
 Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, 
 
 
 
 Sonnets. 
 
 T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of 
 
 
 John Heywood, d. 15G5, 
 
 Houses of York and Lan- 
 
 Thomas Elyot, Philology. 
 
 Drama. 
 
 caster. 
 
 H. Latimer, 1475—1555, 
 
 Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, 
 
 John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 lish Antiquities. 
 
 
 Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, 
 
 W. Cavendish, 1505—1557, 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 'Life of Wolsey.' 
 
 
 
 J. Ball, 1495-1563, 'Lives 
 
 Roger Ascham, 1515— 156t 
 
 
 of British Writers.' 
 
 ' The Schoolmaster.' 
 
 
 Ralph Holling,shed,d. 1581, 
 
 Thomas Wilson, d. 1581 
 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Logic and Rhetoric. 
 
 
 Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582, 
 
 Thomas Tusser, d. 15S0, 
 
 
 History of Scotland. 
 
 Husbandry. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ^BRITISH. 
 
 679 
 
 IMAOINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEWTIPia 
 
 Philip Sidney, 1554—1586, 
 
 J. Fox, 1517-1587, Bock 
 
 
 'Arcadia.' 
 
 of Martyrs. 
 
 
 Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, 
 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 
 Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598, 
 
 
 
 'Faery Queen." 
 
 
 J. Jewel, 1522-1570, Di- 
 
 W. Shakspeare, 1564— 
 
 
 vinity. 
 
 1616, Drama. 
 
 N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612, 
 
 R. Hooker, 1553—1600, E-3- 
 
 John Lylie, 1550—1600, 
 
 Biography. 
 
 clesiastical Polity. 
 
 'Euphues.' 
 
 John Stowe, 1527—1605, 
 
 W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, 
 
 
 Chronicles, Topography. 
 
 ' On the Loadstone,' 
 
 
 Sir T. North, Translations 
 
 L. Andrews, 1565—1626, 
 
 Joliu Fletcher, 1576—1625, 
 
 of Plutarch. 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 
 F. Beaumont, 1586—1615, 
 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 
 600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 
 
 1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. 
 
 1600 Edward Coke, .550-1631, 
 
 Epigrams. 
 
 of Kings, Bishops, &c. 
 
 Law. 
 
 Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639, 
 
 Richard Knolles, d. 1610, 
 
 John Napier, 1550 — 1617 
 
 Poet. 
 
 History of the Turks. 
 Wm. Camden, 1551—1623, 
 
 Antiquities. 
 R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, 
 
 Naval Histories. 
 W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, 
 
 History of the World. 
 Samuel Daniel, 1567—1619, 
 
 History of England. 
 John Hayward, d. 1627, 
 
 Logarithms. 
 
 J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. 
 
 English History. 
 
 
 Ben Jonson, 1574—1637, 
 
 J. Speed, 1555-1629, Hist. 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 Robert Burtcr, 1576- i63£', 
 
 P. Massenger, 1585—1639, 
 
 Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, 
 
 ' Anat. of Melancholy.' 
 
 Drama. 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Francis Bacon, 1560—1626, 
 
 J. Harrington, 1561—1612, 
 
 R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, 
 
 Philosophy, History. 
 
 Trans. Ariosto. 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, 
 
 E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. 
 
 S. Purchas, 1577-1628, 
 
 Circulation of Blood. 
 
 Tasso. 
 
 Collection of Voyages. 
 
 
 M. Drayton, 1563—1631, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 G. Sandys, 1577—1643, 
 
 Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, 
 
 John Selden, 1584—1654,, 
 
 Tran.slations, Poems. 
 
 Travels in the East. 
 
 Antiquities, Law, Hist. 
 
 J. Daniel, 1562—1619, 
 
 E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581— 
 
 J. Harrington, 1611—167/; 
 
 Poems. 
 
 1648, History of Henry 
 
 'Oceana.' 
 
 W. Drummond, 1585-1649, 
 
 VIII. 
 
 James Usher, 1580—1656 
 
 Poems. 
 
 R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. 
 
 Divinity, Sermons, Hist 
 
 Johr. Donne, 1573 -1SG2, 
 
 of Eugiand. 
 
 Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679 
 
 Satires, Essays. 
 
 
 Metaphysics 
 
 Geo. Wither, 1588—1667, 
 
 
 W. Dugdale, 1605-1686, 
 
 Satires. 
 
 Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, 
 
 Antiquities, History. 
 
 James Shirley, 1594—1666, 
 
 History, Biography. 
 Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- 
 
 W. Chillingworth, 1602- 
 
 Drama. 
 
 1644, Theology. 
 
 Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1641, 
 
 tory of Rebellion. 
 
 Isaac Barrow, 1630—1677 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Thomas May, d. 1650, His- 
 
 Divinity, Mathematics. 
 
 John Denham, 1615—1668, 
 
 tory of Parliament. 
 
 J. Pearson, 1612—1680, 
 
 Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. 
 
 Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, 
 
 Biography. 
 B. Whitlocke, 1605-1676, 
 
 Brian Walton, 1600—1661 
 
 Hudibras. 
 
 Polyglot Bible 
 
 John Milton, 1608—1674, 
 
 History. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, 
 
 ' Paradise Lost.' 
 
 Mrs. Hutchmson, Biogra- 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 Edm. Waller, 1605—1687, 
 
 phy. 
 
 Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 W. Prynne, 1660—1667, 
 
 ' Discourse on Govern- 
 
 A. Cowley, 1618-1667, 
 
 History, Politics. 
 
 ment.' 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 Thos. Browne, 1605—1682 
 
 A. Maxwell 1620-1678, 
 
 
 ' On Vulgar Emrs.' 
 
 Ftiems. 
 
 
 Edmund Castell, d. 1685 
 
 Lexicon Heptag'otton, 
 R. Cudworth, 1617-158^ 
 Metapl'/sica.' 
 
680 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION*. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBHTIFIO 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, 
 
 'Sylva.' 
 H. More, 1614-1687, Thft 
 
 ology. 
 T. Sydenham, 1624—1689, 
 
 Rochester, 1648—1680, 
 
 Wm. Temple, 1629—1710, 
 
 Satires. 
 
 Memoirs, &c. 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Roscommon, 1633—1684, 
 
 
 W. Sherlock, d 1689, Di 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 vinity. 
 
 N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. 
 
 
 J. Tillotson, 1630—1694, 
 
 John Bunyan, 162S-1688, 
 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress.' 
 
 
 Archbishop Leightjn, 
 
 John Dryden, 1631—1701, 
 
 
 1613-1684, Divinity. 
 
 Tragedy, Satire, ' Virgil.' 
 
 
 R. Baxter, 1615—1691, 
 
 Thos. Otway, 1651-1680, 
 
 
 'Saint's Everlasting 
 
 Tragedy. 
 
 R. Brady, d. 1700, History 
 
 Rest.' 
 
 
 of England. 
 
 R. Boyle, 1627—1691, 
 Theology, Chemistry. 
 
 '.TOO John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 
 
 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 
 
 1700 
 
 ' The Choice.' 
 
 Foedera. 
 
 John Ray, 162fe— 1705, Bot 
 any. Natural History. 
 
 John Locke, 1632—1704, 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 R. South, 1633-1716, Di- 
 vinity. 
 
 John Philips, 1676-r03, 
 
 
 
 'Splendid Shilling.' 
 
 
 
 Thos. Parnell, 1679-1718, 
 
 S. Ockley, 1678—1720, 
 
 
 'The Hermit.' 
 
 Oriental History. 
 
 Isaac Newton, 1642—1719 
 
 Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, 
 
 Thos. Hearne, 1678—1735, 
 
 ' Principia.' 
 
 Oom«dies. 
 
 History and Antiquities. 
 
 J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, 
 
 
 John Strype, 1643-1737, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 
 Eccl. History, Biog. 
 
 R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Ph . • 
 
 
 Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, 
 
 osophy. 
 
 
 ' History of his Times.' 
 
 B. de Mandeville, 1670— 
 
 Matthew Prior, 1664-1721, 
 
 L. Echard, 1671—1730, 
 
 1733, ' Fab. of the Bres. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 History of Ensland. 
 
 Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, 
 
 K. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, 
 
 Thos. Carte, 1686—1754, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Essays. Politics. 
 
 History of England. 
 
 Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, 
 
 Daniel Defoe, 1660—1731, 
 
 John Potter, 1674—1747, 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 ' Robinson Crusoe.' &c. 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 
 Jos. Addison, 1672—1719, 
 
 SirW. Petty, 1623-1682, 
 
 
 'Spectator,' 'Cato.' &c. 
 
 Statistics. 
 
 
 Nich. Rowe, 1673—1718, 
 
 
 
 Tragedy. 
 
 
 
 J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- 
 
 
 
 edy. 
 
 
 A. Clark, 1690-1742, Dt 
 
 W. Congreve, 1672—1728, 
 
 
 vinity, Philosophy. 
 
 Comedy. 
 
 
 D. Waterland, 1683-1740, 
 
 John Gay, 1688-1732, 
 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 'Beggar's Opera,' Fab. 
 
 Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, 
 
 R. Bentley, 1661—1740, 
 
 M. W. Montague, 1690— 
 
 History of Rome. 
 
 Divinity, Philology. ' 
 
 1762. Letters. 
 
 C. Middleton, 1683-1750, 
 
 A. Baxter, 1687-1750, Met 
 
 Robert Blair, 1699—1746, 
 
 Life of Cicero, &c. 
 
 aphysics. 
 
 ' The Grave.' 
 
 
 Lord Bolinaibroke, 1672— 
 
 S. Richardson, 1689-1761, 
 
 
 1751, Politics, Literatur* 
 
 'Oarissa,' ' Pamela,' &C. 
 
 
 G. Berkeley, 16S4— 1753, 
 
 Metaphysics, Ethics. 
 P. Doddridge, 1701-1751 
 
 Divinity. 
 Jas. Bradley, 1692-1762, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 F. Hutcheson, 1694-1747, 
 
 Mcral Phil jsophy. 
 
 D. Garrick, 1716-1779, 
 
 
 T. Sherlock, 1678-1761, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 S. Foote, 1720—1771, 
 
 
 C. Maclaurin, 1696~17fe, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH, 
 
 681 
 
 (MAOINATION. 
 
 I7U0 R. Rodsley, 1703—1764, 
 
 Drama. 
 Jona. Swift, 1667—1745, 
 
 Satires, Tales, &c 
 1. Watts, 1674—1748, 
 
 Hymns. 
 Edw. Younff, 1681—1765, 
 
 ' Night Thoushts.' 
 Alex. Pope, 1688—1744, 
 
 Poetry. 
 W. Somerville, 1692—1743, 
 
 ' Tlie Chase.' 
 Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758, 
 
 ' The Gentle Shepherd.' 
 Rich'd Savage, 1098-1743, 
 
 Poems. 
 Jas. Thomson, 1700—1748, 
 
 'Seasons.' 
 John Dyer, 1700—1758, 
 
 Poems. 
 H. Fielding, 1707—1754, 
 
 'Tom Jones,' &c. 
 James Hammond, 1710 — 
 
 1742, Elegies. 
 Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768, 
 
 ' Tristram Shandy.' 
 W. Shenstone, 1714—1763, 
 
 Pastorals, &c. 
 W. Collins, 1720—1756, 
 
 Odes. 
 H. Brooke, 1706—1783, 
 
 ' Fool of Quality.' 
 M. Akenside, 1721—1770, 
 
 'Pleasures of Imagina- 
 tion.' 
 Thos. Gray, 1716—1771, 
 
 Odes, Elegies. 
 T. SmoUet, 1720—1771, 
 
 Novels. 
 R. Glover, 1712—1789, ' Le- 
 
 onidas.' 
 
 0. Goldsmith, 1731—1774, 
 ' Traveller,' ' Vicar of 
 Wakefield.' 
 
 W. Mason, 1725—1797, Po- 
 ems, Biography. 
 T. Chatterton, 1752—1770- 
 
 Poems. 
 Ar. Murphy, 1727—1805, 
 
 Drama. 
 Wm. Cowper, 1731—1800, 
 
 Poems. 
 R.Cumberland, 1732—1811, 
 
 Drama. 
 Eras. Darwin, 17K— 1802, 
 
 ' Botanic Garden.' 
 James Beattie, 1735—1803, 
 
 Poems. 
 R. Ferguson, 1750—1774 
 
 Poems. 
 Geo. Colman, 1733—1794, 
 
 Comedies. 
 J. Wolcot (Peter Pindar), 
 
 1738—1619, Com. Po- 
 ems. 
 Jas. Macpherson, 1738— 
 
 1796, ' Ossian's Poems.' 
 Eobert Burns, 1759—1796, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 1. Home, d. 1808, Drama, 
 
 29* 
 
 1700 John Swinton, 1703—1767, 
 History, Antiquity. 
 
 Lord Lyttleton, 1709—1778, 
 History, Poems, Divin- 
 ity. 
 
 James Granger, d. 1776, 
 Biog. Hist, of England. 
 
 Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784, 
 Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. 
 
 Jonas Hanway, 1712—1786, 
 Travels in the East. 
 
 John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- 
 nology. 
 
 David Hume, 1711—1776, 
 History of England, 
 Essays, &c. 
 
 W. Robertson, 1721—1793, 
 Hist, of Charles V., &c. 
 
 Thomas Warton, 1728— 
 1790, History of England, 
 Poetry, Poems. 
 
 H. Walpole, d. 1797, 'His- 
 toric Doubts,' ' Royal 
 and Noble Authors.' 
 
 J. Moore, 1730—1802, 
 ' Views of Society and 
 Manners.' 
 
 James Bruce, 1730—1794, 
 Travels. 
 
 W. Gilpin, 1724—1804, Bio- 
 graphy, Divinity. 
 
 E. Gibbon, 1737—1794, 
 Decline and Fall of Ro- 
 man Empire. 
 
 J. Whitaker, 173.5—1808, 
 Hist, of Manchester, <fec, 
 
 Edmd. Burke, 1730—1797, 
 Oratory. 
 
 J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio- 
 graphy. 
 
 J. Milner 1744—1797, 
 Church History. 
 
 Joseph Strutt, 1748—1802. 
 Chronology, Antiquities. 
 
 SPECtJLATIVE AND SCIBNTIPIO 
 
 1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 16&i— 
 
 1773, Letters. 
 Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, 
 
 Cyclopaedia. 
 B. Hoadley, 1676—1761, 
 
 Polemics 
 Bishop Butler, 1692—1753, 
 
 Divmity. 
 
 J. W esley, i703— 1791, Tl- 
 
 vinity. 
 
 D. Hartley, 1704-1757, 
 ' Observations on Man ' 
 
 Soame Jenyns, 1704— 1?87, 
 Theology. 
 
 W. Warburton, 1709—1779, 
 Theology, Criticwn. 
 
 J. Jortin, 1698-17/0, Di- 
 vinity, Criticism, 
 
 LordKaimes, 1696-1782, 
 Elements of Cniicism. 
 
 R. Lowth. 1710—1787, Di- 
 vinity, Philoloffy. 
 
 W. Blackstone, 17)'.3— 1780, 
 Laws of England. 
 " Junius." 
 
 Adam Smith, 1723—1790, 
 ' Wealth of Nations.' 
 
 J. Harris, 1709—1780, Phi- 
 lology. 
 
 John Hunter, 1728—1793, 
 Medicine. 
 
 F. Balguy, 1716—1795 Di- 
 vinity. 
 
 T. Reid, 1710—1796, Meta- 
 physics. 
 Sir J." Reynolds, 1723— 1792, 
 
 Art. 
 
 S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo- 
 logy. 
 
 Jos. Priestley, 1733—1804 
 Metaphysics, Chemistry 
 
 Hugh Blair, 1719—1800. 
 Sermons. 
 
 J.Horne Tooke, 1736—1818 
 Philology. 
 
 Wm. Jones, 1747—1794, 
 Orientalist. 
 
 R. Price, 1723—1791, Meta- 
 physics, Divinity. 
 
 Wm. Paley, 1743—1805, 
 Theology. 
 
 Ricd. Porson, 1759—1808, 
 Philology. 
 
 Ths, Beddoes, 1760—1808 
 Medicine. 
 
682 
 
 THE WOKLd's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1700 
 
 Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751— 
 la'.e, Drama. 
 
 Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823, 
 Novels. 
 
 im Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 
 ' Farmer's Boy.' 
 Mrs. Barbauld, Poems, 
 Tales. 
 
 Lord Byron, 1788—1824, 
 
 Poems. 
 John Keats, Poems. 
 P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, 
 
 Poems. 
 R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, 
 
 Drama. 
 Miss Austin, Novels. 
 Wm. Godwin, 1755 — 1836, 
 
 Novels, Metaphysics. 
 Walter Scott, 1771—1832, 
 
 Novels, Poems. 
 
 Robt. Pollok, 1798—1627, 
 
 'Course of Time.' 
 Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, 'The 
 
 Borough,' &c. 
 Fanny Burney, — 1840, 
 
 Novels. 
 Wm. Beckford, 1760— J 844, 
 
 Novels. 
 Thos. Haines Baily, 1797— 
 
 1839. Lyrics. 
 Thos. Hamilton, 1789— 
 
 1842, Novels, Travels. 
 Felicia Hemans, 1794— 
 
 1835, Poems. 
 Barbara Hofland, Novels. 
 Jas. Hogg, —1835, Po- 
 ems and Tales. 
 Theo. E. Hook, 1788—1841, 
 
 Novels. 
 Thos. Hood, Poems, No- 
 Hannah More, 1744—1833, 
 
 Poems, Tales. 
 Jane Porter, —1849, 
 
 Novels. 
 S. T. Coleridge, —1834, 
 
 Poems. 
 Wm. Wordsworth, — 
 
 1850, Poems. 
 Robt. Southey, —1843, 
 
 Poems. 
 Marg. Blessington. — 
 
 18-49, Novels. 
 Chas. Lamb, 1775—1834, 
 
 Poems. Essays. 
 Thos. H. Lister, 1801—1842, 
 
 }Io>els. 
 
 Charles Burney, d. 1841, 
 ' History of Music. 
 
 SPECULATIVE j^T> SSIBHTIPID 
 
 N. Maskelyne d. 1811 
 
 Astronomy. 
 G. L. Staunton, d. 1801 
 
 Chinese Code. 
 W. Herschell, 1738—1822 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808, 
 Biography. 
 
 E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, 
 
 1 ravels. 
 C. J. Fox, d. 1806, History. 
 
 W. Mitford, History ol 
 Greece'. 
 
 R. Heber, Travels, &c. 
 Major Rennel, Geography. 
 Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831, 
 
 Life of Leo X., &c. 
 Walter Scott, —1832, 
 
 History, Biography. 
 
 Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766 — 
 1832. Hist, of England 
 
 Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825, 
 Political Annals. 
 
 Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori- 
 ental Hist, and Travels. 
 
 Jas. Mill, —1830, Hist. 
 British India. 
 
 Robt. Morrison, —1834, 
 Travels, Philology. 
 
 Jas. Grahame, History of 
 United States. 
 
 John Gillies, 1747—1836, 
 History of Greece. 
 
 Basil Hall, 1788—1844, 
 Travels and Voyages. 
 
 Wm. Hone, —1842, 
 
 Every Day Book. 
 
 R. & J. Lander, 1834, 
 Travels in Africa, 
 
 Arthur Young, 1741— I820j 
 
 Agriculture. 
 A. Rees, 1743—1825, Cycio 
 
 psedia. 
 Joseph Banks, 1743—1820, 
 
 Natural Historv. 
 Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo- 
 
 logy. 
 D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi- 
 
 cal Econo-^y. 
 
 C. Hutton, a. 1823, Matho 
 matics. 
 
 John Playfiair, d. 1819. 
 P. Elmsley, Philology. 
 T. Wollaston, Chemistry. 
 Thomas Young, Hierogly- 
 phics, &c. 
 T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity. 
 
 D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta- 
 physics. 
 
 Vicessimus Knox, 1752— 
 
 1821, Essays. 
 Malthus, Polit. Economy. . 
 Wm. Hazlit, Critic and 
 
 Essayist. 
 Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849, 
 
 Essays, Criticism. 
 Archbish. Magee, d. 1831, 
 
 Divinity. 
 Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Jer. Bentham, d. 1832, 
 
 ' Principles of Legisla- 
 tion.' 
 Adam Clarke, 1763—183'^, 
 
 Divinity, Criticism. 
 Arch. Alison, 1757—1839, 
 
 Essays on Taste. 
 Francis BaiJy, 1774— 1844j 
 
 Astronomy &c. 
 Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837, 
 
 Theology. 
 Herbert Marsh, 1758—1839 
 
 Theolo.iy. 
 Thos. Mitchell, 1783—1845, 
 
 Classic. Critic. 
 Robert Mudie, 1777—1842, 
 
 Scient. Miscellanies. 
 SirE. Brydges, 1762—1837, 
 
 Miscellanies. 
 Wm. Cobbett, —1835, 
 
 Politics, &c. 
 J. Dalton, - 1844, Che- 
 mist. 
 J. F. Daniell, —1845, 
 
 Chemist. 
 Sydney Smith, —1845, 
 
 Theology, Essays. 
 Chas. Bonnycastle, — 
 
 1840, Mathematics. 
 Thos. Chalmers, Theology 
 
 and PjI itical CponoKy 
 
LITERAUy CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 
 
 683 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773-1834, 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 John Leslie, —183^ 
 
 Ethics. 
 
 
 Mathematician. 
 
 L. E. Landon Maclean, 
 
 Southey, 1774—1843, Bio- 
 
 J. C. Loudon, 17a3— lS4a 
 
 1804—1838, Novels and 
 
 graphy. 
 
 Botany. Agricul., Archit. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844, 
 
 John Bell, 1763—1825, 
 
 Wm. Maginn, 1793—1842, 
 
 Travels. 
 
 Anatomy & Physiology, 
 
 Poems, 
 
 Arch. Alison, History of 
 
 Olinthus Gregory, 1774— 
 
 Marryatt, —1847, Nov- 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1841, Mathematics and 
 
 els. 
 
 Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842, 
 
 Religion. 
 
 John Gait, 1779—1839, 
 
 History of Rome. 
 
 Robert Hall, 1764—1831, 
 
 Novels. 
 
 Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770— 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Wm. H. Ireland, Shaks. 
 
 1842, Archceology. 
 
 Sir Chas. Bell. 1781—1824, 
 
 Forgeries. 
 
 Thos. McCrie, 1772-1835, 
 
 Anatomy and Physio- 
 
 Lady Morgan, — 184-, 
 
 Life ol Knox. 
 
 I'gy- 
 
 Novels. 
 
 Sir .John Malcohii, History 
 
 
 Jas. Morier, 1780— 
 
 Persia and India. 
 
 
 Novels. 
 
 I. D'Israeli, 1766-1848, Cu- 
 
 
 Thos. Campbell, 1777— 
 
 riosities of Literature. 
 
 
 1844, Poems. 
 
 Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Voy- 
 
 
 Thos. Banim, 1800—1842, 
 
 ages and Travels. 
 
 
 Novels. 
 
 
 
 Henry F. Gary, 1772-1844, 
 
 
 
 Trans. Dante, &c. 
 
 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT, 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 800 
 
 800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of 
 Charlemagne, Amials, 
 
 800 
 
 Walafrid Strabo, d. 840, 
 
 
 Rabanus Maurus, 776—856, 
 
 Poems, Theology. 
 
 Nithard, d 853, History ot 
 Wars of France, 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Gottschalk, d. 869, 'On 
 Predestination.' 
 
 Otfried, Harmony of Gos- 
 
 
 
 pels in rhyme. 
 
 
 
 910 
 
 900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 
 
 900 
 
 Hroswitha, Let. Comedies, 
 
 
 Batherius, d. 974. Thaoio 
 
 Notger, Trans, of Psalms, 
 
 Witikind, Hist, of Saxons. 
 
 gy, Grammar, 
 
 LGOO 
 
 1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 
 
 1000 
 
 Witpo, 'Praise of Henry 
 III,,' Biography, 
 
 ol Saxon Emperors. 
 
 
 
 -. 
 
 
 Hermannus Contractus, 
 
 
 \t illerain, Francic Poems, 
 
 Universal History. 
 
 Mar. Scotus, 1028—1086, 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi- 
 astical History. 
 
 Lambert, General History. 
 
 Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron. 
 
 Kosmas, 1045—1126, Histo- 
 ry of Bohemia. 
 
 
 ilOO 
 
 1100 Berthold Cnnstantiensis, 
 Universal History. 
 Otio, d. 1158, Chronicle. 
 
 1100 Mangold, Thsology. 
 
 Henry of Veldeck, Minne- 
 
 Helmold, d. 1170, Chron, 
 
 
 singer, 
 
 of Slavi. 
 
 
684 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTWM 
 
 laX) Gunther, Poems. 
 
 1200 
 
 Arnold of Lubeck, Chro- 
 nicle of Slavi. 
 
 1200 
 
 Frederic 11., U96— 1254, 
 
 
 Epko of Repgow, ' Saxoc 
 
 'De Arte Venandi.' 
 
 
 Mirror,' (Law). 
 John Semeca, Law. 
 Alb. Magnus, 1193— 128a, 
 
 Natural Philosophy. 
 
 Freydank, Poems. 
 
 
 
 1300 Riidger of Manesse, Collec- 
 
 1300 
 
 1300 
 
 tion of Ballads. 
 
 
 
 Henry Frauenlob, Songs. 
 
 
 
 Boner, Fables. 
 
 Henrich von Rebdorf, 
 
 Chronicle. 
 Heinrich von Hervorden, 
 
 Chronicle. 
 Jacob von Konigshofen, 
 
 Chronicle. 
 
 John Tauler, Sermons. 
 
 
 John Schildberger, History 
 
 Jonn Husg, 13S&--1415 
 
 
 of Timour. 
 
 Theology. 
 
 I4(X) 
 
 1400 Gobelin Persona, General 
 
 1400 
 
 Felix Hammerlein, Satires. 
 
 History. 
 
 
 
 Windeck, Life of Sigis- 
 
 John von Gmiinden, Astro- 
 
 
 mund. 
 
 nomy. 
 
 
 John Stadweg, Chronicle. 
 
 
 Hans von Rosenplut, 
 
 Peter von Andlo, de Im- 
 
 Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423- 
 
 Poems. 
 
 perio Romano. 
 
 1461, Theory of Planet*. 
 Regiomontanus, 1436—1476 
 Astron., Mathemat. 
 
 
 » 
 
 Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat 
 Thomas k Kempis, 1380— 
 
 Heinrich von Alkmaar. 
 
 
 1471, Theology. 
 
 ' Reinke de Voss.' 
 
 Mar. Behhaim. Geography. 
 
 Gabriel Brie, d. 1495 The- 
 
 
 Breydenbach, Topogy. 
 
 ology. 
 
 
 Conrad Botho, Chronicle. 
 
 John Geyler, 1445—1510, 
 
 Conrad Celtes, 1459—1508. 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Latin Poems, History of 
 
 
 John Trithemius, 1462— 
 
 Nuremburg. 
 
 
 151 6, Nat. Philosophy. 
 
 Thos. Miirner, 1475—1536, 
 
 
 Reuchlin, 1454-1522, Phil. 
 
 'Rogues' Guild.' 
 
 
 ology. 
 
 L&OO 
 
 1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 
 
 1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452- 
 1528, Theol., Poems. 
 
 
 biography. 
 
 
 Griinbeck, Lives of Em- 
 
 
 
 perors. 
 
 
 Melc. Pfinzing, 1481-1535, 
 
 Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His- 
 
 Holoander, d. 1531, Law. 
 
 ' Tiieuerdank.' 
 
 tory of Saxons, &c. 
 
 Corn. Agrippa, 1486—1535 
 
 
 B. Pirkheimer, 1480—1530, 
 
 Physics, Theology. 
 
 
 History, Poetry. 
 
 M. Luther, 1483-1546, 
 
 
 John Aventin, 1466—1534, 
 
 Theology. 
 
 
 Anals of Bavaria. 
 
 Zwingle, 1484—1531, Th» 
 
 ology. 
 Melancthon, 1497—1560, 
 
 G!areanu& (H. L.) 1488— 
 
 Con. Peutinger, 1465—1547, 
 
 1563, Classics. 
 
 History and Geography. 
 
 Theology. 
 
 
 John Carion, 1499—1538, 
 
 Paracelsus, 1493—1541, 
 
 
 Comp. of History. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Joac. Camerarius, 1500— 
 1574, Philology. 
 
 
 John Sleidan, 1506—1556, 
 
 Conrad Gesner, 1516— 1565i 
 
 
 Universal History. 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Hans Sachs, 1494—1574, 
 
 G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- 
 
 Basil Faber, 1520—1576, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 vetic Chronicle. 
 
 Thes. Erud. Schol. 
 
 John Fischart, 1511—1581, 
 
 Gerard Mercator, 1512— 
 
 Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586 
 
 Satires. 
 
 1594, Geography. 
 
 Theology. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 
 
 685 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 IBOO G. Fabricius, 1516—1571, 
 Lat. Pms. Topography. 
 
 Rollenhasen, 1542—1609, 
 
 Froschmiiusler. 
 Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613, 
 
 Latin Poems. 
 
 Martin Opitz, 1597—1639, 
 
 Poems. 
 James Balde, 1603—1668, 
 
 Poems. 
 A. Gryphius, 1616—1664, 
 
 Tragedies. 
 
 Paul Fleming, 1609—1640, 
 Poems. 
 
 Lohenstein, 1638—1683, 
 Poems. 
 
 1500 Simon Scharil, 1535—1573, 
 CoUec. German Hist. 
 
 John Pistorius, 1544—1607, 
 CoUec. German Hist. 
 
 Marq. Freher, 1565—1614, 
 Hist. Germy. & France. 
 
 P. Cluvier, 1580—1623, 
 
 Geography. 
 M. Goldast, 1576—1635, 
 
 History. 
 
 G. Calixtus, 1586—1656, 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 Olearius, 1604—1685, 
 Travels. 
 
 S. von Puffendorf, 1631— 
 1694, History, Law. 
 
 D. G. Morhoff, 1639—1691 
 Biography, History. 
 
 SPECUIATIVE ANB SCIENTIPIO 
 
 15C0 Wm.Xylander, 1532— 1576i 
 
 Philology. 
 Wesenbeck, 1531—1586, 
 
 Law. 
 Fred. Sylterg, 1531—1596 
 
 PhiloIo?y. 
 Theod. Beza, 1519—1609, 
 
 Theology, Philology. 
 
 C. Rittcrhuis, 1560—1618, | 
 Law. 
 
 i'OO C. Gryphius, 1649—1706, 
 Poems, Hist, Philology. 
 
 Von Canitz, 1654—1699, 
 Poems. 
 
 Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems. 
 
 Liecov, Satires. 
 
 J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766, 
 
 Poems, Tras., Criticism. 
 Hagedorn, 1708—1754, 
 
 Fables. 
 Haller, 1708—1777, 'The 
 
 Alps.' 
 J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, 
 
 Drama. 
 E. O. Kleist, 1715—1759, 
 
 Idylls. 
 Gellert, 1715—1769, Fables, 
 Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir. 
 
 H. Meibomius, 1638—1700,' 
 History. 
 
 C. Cellarius, 1638—1707, 
 Geography, Antiq. 
 
 C. Frankenstein, 1661— 
 1717, History, Biog. 
 
 J. Arnold, 1665—1714, Ec- 
 clesiastical History. 
 
 J. G. von Eccard, 1670— 
 1730, General History. 
 
 J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736, 
 Bibliography. 
 
 H. Freyer, Gen. History. 
 B. G. Struve, 1671—1738, 
 
 History of Germany. 
 J. L. Mosheim, 1695—1755, 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, 
 Natural History. 
 J. Buxtorf, 155-5—1621, 
 
 Philology. 
 John Kepler, 157i— id31 
 Astronomy. 
 
 B. von Helmont, 1577— 
 1644, Chemistry. 
 
 C, Scioppius, 1576—1649, 
 Ars Critica, 
 
 •John Bayer, Uranometria. 
 
 G. Banli, 1587-1658, Phil- 
 ology. 
 
 Sol. Glass, 1593—1656, 
 Philol. Sacra. 
 
 Otio Guerike, 1602—1686, 
 Air-Pump, &c. 
 
 Her. Conring, 1606-1681. 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702, 
 Numismatology. 
 
 John Schilter, d. 1705, An- 
 tiquities. 
 
 1700 Ludolph, 1649—1711, Phil- 
 oloffy. 
 
 Leibtiitz, 1646—1716, Ma- 
 thematics, Metaphysics. 
 
 C. Thomasius, 1655—1728, 
 Law. 
 
 F. Budajus, 1667—1729, 
 Divinity. 
 
 G. E. Stahl, 16^0-1734, 
 Chemistry. 
 
 F. Hoffman, 1660—1742, 
 Medicine. 
 J. Bernouilli, 1667—1747, 
 
 Mathematics. 
 B. Hederick, 1675—1748, 
 Philology. 
 
 A. F. Bnschi..g, 1724- 
 Geography. 
 
 J. M. Gessner, 1691—1761 
 
 Philology. 
 A. G. Baumgarten, 1714— 
 
 1751, Ethics, Metarii. 
 J. J. Gessner, 1707— UST, 
 
 Numismatology. 
 G. F. Meyer, 1711-1777, 
 
 Philosophy. 
 F. W. von Gleicken, 1714- 
 
 1783, Nat. History. 
 J. Winkelmann, 1718—1768 
 
 Antiquity. 
 ■1793 Leon. Euler, 1707—1783, 
 
 I Mathematics 
 
686 
 
 THR world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBK FlVir, 
 
 1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songa. 
 
 1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 
 
 1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730- 
 
 
 Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 
 
 1780, Sermons. 
 
 
 tical History. 
 
 J. A. E. Gotze, 1731—1786, 
 
 Klopstock, 1724—1803,, 
 'The Messiah.' 
 
 
 Entomology. 
 Im. Kant, 1724—1304. 
 
 Zacharice, 1727—1777, 
 
 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 Comic Poems. 
 
 
 
 C. F. Weisse, Drama. 
 
 
 
 1. G. Zimmerman. 1728 — 
 
 
 
 1795, ' On Solitude.' 
 
 
 
 Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. 
 
 
 
 Ramler, 1725—1798. Odes. 
 
 
 
 Dusch, 1727—1788, Poems. 
 
 
 
 G. E. Lessing, 1729—1781, 
 
 
 
 Drama, Fables. 
 
 
 
 S. Gessner, 1730—1788, 
 
 
 
 'Dealh of Abel.' 
 
 
 
 Wielaiid, 1733-1813, Ro- 
 
 C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. 
 
 
 mances, Poems. 
 
 
 
 Pfeffel, 1736—1809, Fables. 
 
 
 Semler, d. 1791, Thfology 
 
 G. A. Burger, 1748—1794, 
 
 J. W. von Archenholz, 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 1745-1812, ' Seven Years' 
 
 
 I. H. Voss, 1751-1826, 
 
 War.' 
 
 Putter, Law of Nations. 
 
 Novels. 
 
 
 
 F. Schiller, 1750-1805, 
 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 Scurokh. d. 1808, Eccle- 
 
 Adelung, d. 1807, Phil- 
 
 Kotzebue, 1761—1819, 
 
 siastical History. 
 
 ology. 
 
 Drama. 
 
 Forster, d. 1798, Geogra- 
 
 Lavater 1741—1801, Phy 
 
 Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama, 
 
 phy. 
 
 siognomy. 
 
 Tales, Poems. 
 
 A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1809, 
 History. 
 
 Werner, Geology. 
 
 imO F. Schlegel, 1773-1829, 
 
 1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni- 
 
 1800 Herder, 1741—1803, Philo- 
 
 Novels, Poetry, Hist..&c. 
 
 versal History. 
 
 sophy of History. 
 
 Ernst Schultze, 1787—1817, 
 
 J. G. Eichhom, d. 1827, 
 
 Fichte, d. 1819, Metaphy. 
 
 Elegies. 
 
 History. 
 
 sics. 
 
 E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822, 
 
 
 F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, Me- 
 
 Tales. 
 
 
 taphysics. 
 
 A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760— 
 
 Heeren, History. 
 
 Blumenbach, Physiology. 
 
 1831, Tales. 
 
 
 Schelling, Metaphysics. 
 
 Komer, Poems. 
 
 
 Thaer, —1828, Agri- 
 
 c till lire. 
 Rosonmuller, — 1855, 
 
 Theology, Criticism. 
 
 
 Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. 
 
 Gail, -1829, Philology 
 
 
 B. G. Niebuhr, History. 
 
 Griesbach, — 181? , Phi 
 
 lology. 
 Grotefend, —1836, Phi. 
 
 L. von Amim, —1831, 
 
 
 lology. 
 
 Poems, Novels 
 
 SchiJll, —1833, History. 
 
 H. .1. Klaproth, 1784-1835, 
 Philology. 
 
 F. Passow, — ia33. Phi- 
 lology. 
 
 
 C. O. Muller, —1840, 
 
 Hegel, —1831, Meta- 
 
 
 History, Archaeology. 
 
 plivsics. 
 
 F.Accum, —1838, Che- 
 mistry. 
 
 Mohs, —1839, Mirera- 
 
 ichooenhauer, —1838, 
 
 
 logy. 
 
 Wrvels. 
 
 
 
 
 F. Rotteck, —1849, His- 
 
 G. A. Fawt, —1841, Pit 
 
 
 tory. 
 
 lolosy. 
 
 
 H. Hase, —1842, His- 
 
 E. Bekker, Philology. 
 
 
 tory, Antiquities. 
 
 Buttmann, —1841, Phi 
 
 lology. 
 C. T. Follen, -1849 
 
 Theology, Essays. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FREN;;H. 
 
 687 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 tsoo 
 
 Tieck, Poems, Novels. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIESTIPIC 
 
 ISOO Augt. Neander, 1850, 
 
 1800 Olbers, —1840, Astro- 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 noiny. 
 
 J. L. C.Heeren, —1842, 
 
 
 History. 
 
 Hahnemann, — 1843, 
 
 H. Berghaus, Geography. 
 
 Homceopathy. 
 
 A. von Humboldt, Travels, 
 
 A. W. Schlegel, —1845) 
 
 History. 
 
 Criticism, Essays. 
 
 Humboldt, Science. 
 Liebig, Chemistry. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENriFIC. 
 
 oOi) Venan. Fortunatus, Latin 
 Poetry. 
 
 500 
 
 Gregory of Tours, 554—595, 
 History. 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 600 Marculfe, ' Chartae Re- 
 gales,' &c. 
 
 600 
 
 rai 
 
 700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 
 800 
 
 Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 
 
 700 
 
 800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns, 
 Theology. 
 
 Servatus Lupus, d. 862, 
 Epistles. 
 
 Hincmar, d. 882, Epistles. 
 Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.' 
 
 800 
 
 Agpbard, d. 840, Theology 
 
 Paschasius Radbert, 'Tran- 
 substantiation.' 
 
 SOO 
 
 Adalberon, d. 1030, PDetry. 
 
 900 Flodoard, 896—966, Chron. 
 Dudon, History of Norman 
 Conquest in France. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 Fulbert, d. 1029, EpiBtles. 
 
 1000 Almoin, d. 1008, History of 
 France. 
 
 1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry, 
 Mathematics, &c. 
 Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, 
 and Astronomy. 
 
 Berengarius, d. 1088, Theo- 
 logy. 
 
 :ioo 
 
 Wm. of Poictiers, 1071— 
 1126, First Troubadour. 
 
 Hlldebert, 1067-1133, Po- 
 etry. 
 
 Bechada, Norman Poetry, 
 ' Gestes de Godefroi.' 
 
 1100 Guibert, 1058-1124, Histo- 
 ry of First Crusade. 
 
 Pierre Theutbode, History 
 of Crusades. 
 
 Marbodseus, d. 1123, Bio- 
 graphy. 
 
 Suger, 1082—1152, Life of 
 Louis le Gros. 
 
 1000 Anselm, 1033-1109, Scho- 
 lastic. 
 
 Pierre Abelard, 1079—1142, 
 Theology. 
 
 Bernard of Clairvaux 
 
 1091-1 15S. Mystic 
 
688 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPB 
 
 3ULATIVE AND SGlENTIFIfl 
 
 1100 
 
 1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097— 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 
 1140, Geography, Histo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ry, and Theology. 
 
 
 Peter Lombardus, d. 116t 
 
 Geoffroi Gal mar, Anglo- 
 
 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Norm. Chron. in verse. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rob. Wace, 'Roman de 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rou.' 
 
 
 
 
 Alain de I'Isle, d. 19fB 
 Theology, Ethics. 
 
 Fouque, a Troubadour. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alexander of Bernai, Poet- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ry, Fables. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 
 
 1200 
 
 
 John .Slgidius, Poem on 
 
 
 Geoffrey de Villehardouin, 
 
 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 
 Conq. of Constantinople. 
 
 
 
 William le Breton, 'Deeds 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Philip,' in verse. 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. Gautier, 'Alexandrieda.' 
 
 
 Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- 
 tory of France in verse. 
 
 
 Vincentius of Beauvaia, 
 Encyclopaedia. 
 
 William de Lorris, 'Roman 
 
 
 W. Rubruquis, Traveller. 
 
 
 Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271, 
 
 de la Rose.' 
 
 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Jean de Meun, Contin. of 
 
 
 Jean de Joinville, 1260— 
 
 
 
 ' Roman de la Rose.' 
 
 
 1318, Hist, of Louis IX. 
 
 
 
 Estsve de Bezier, Last 
 
 
 
 
 
 Troubadour. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 
 
 1300 
 
 
 1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. 
 
 man Chronicles. 
 
 
 
 
 John of Paris, d. 1306, The- 
 ology. 
 W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. 
 W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. 
 
 Philippe of Vitri, Transla- 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of Ovid. 
 
 
 John Froissart, 1337—1402, 
 Chronicles. 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 1400 
 
 
 1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350-1425, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 John Gerson, 1363—1429, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scholastic. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Raymund de Sebunda, d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1432, Theology. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Henry of Balma, d 1439, 
 
 Alain Chartier, d. 1458, 
 
 
 
 
 Mystic. 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corbeil, Satire. 
 
 
 
 
 
 D'Auvergne, d. 14-58, Po- 
 
 
 
 
 James Lefevie, 1436— i537, 
 
 ems. 
 
 
 
 
 Theology. 
 Wm. Budaeus, 1467—1540, 
 
 Clement Marot, 1463—1525, 
 
 
 Philip de Comines, 1445 — 
 
 
 Jurist. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 1509, Hist, of his Times. 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1500 
 
 
 150f 
 
 J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558, 
 
 Philology. 
 Du Bois, 1478-1555, Ai:at. 
 
 F. Rabelais, 1483-15&3, 
 
 
 Guill. du Bellay, d.'lZi^, 
 
 
 
 Satires. 
 
 
 History of his Times. 
 
 
 Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559, 
 
 J. du Bellay, 1492-:5C0, 
 
 
 
 
 Philology. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 P.Ramus,]515— 1572,Logic 
 Seb. Castellio, 1515- 1563; 
 
 Steph. Joddlu, 1532-1573, 
 
 
 
 
 Philology. 
 
 Odes, Trage-'ies, &c. 
 
 
 Jaques Amyot, 1514—1593, 
 Translations. 
 
 
 Jas. Cujacius, 1520—1590 
 
 Law. 
 Larabinus, 1516—157^ 
 
 Commentaries. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — FRENCH. 
 
 689 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585, 
 
 Poems, Criticisms. 
 
 Rlich. Je Montaigne, 1533— 
 
 1592, Essays. 
 
 Fran. Malherbe, 1556— 1628. 
 Odes. 
 
 1600 M. Reignier, 1573—1613, 
 
 Satires. 
 
 J. Chapelain, 1595—1674, 
 La Pucelle.' 
 
 P. ComeiUe, 1606—1684, 
 Drama. 
 
 St. Evremond, 1613—1703, 
 Literature. 
 
 Rochefoucault, 1603—1680, 
 
 Reflections. Memoirs. 
 Moliere, 1620-1G73, Drama, 
 La Fontaine, 1621—1695, 
 
 Fables, Tales. 
 Segrais, 1634—1701, Idyls. 
 T. Corneille, 1625—1709, 
 
 Drama. 
 M. de Sevign6, 1626—1694, 
 
 Letter's. 
 J. Racine, 1639—1699, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. 
 
 17)0 Regnard, 16-17-1709, 
 Comedies. 
 Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. 
 of Arabian Nights. 
 
 Fenelon, 1651—1715, 'Tele- 
 
 machus,' &c. 
 Deshoulieres, 1638—1694, 
 
 Elegiss. 
 
 J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609, 
 History, Criticism, &c, 
 
 J. A. ae riiou, 155J— 1617, 
 History of France. 
 
 1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, 
 History of France. 
 An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, 
 Collections of Histories. 
 
 Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo- 
 
 graphia Sacra.' 
 Henry Spondanus, 1568 — 
 
 1643, History. 
 S. Guicheron, 1607—1664, 
 
 Hist, of Hoiise of Savoy. 
 Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 Adr. Valesius, 1607— WJS, 
 ' Deeds of the Franksj, ' 
 
 L. Moreri, 1643-1680, 
 Historical Dictionary. 
 
 Tillcmont, 1637—1698, Ec- 
 clesiastical History. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIPIO. 
 
 1700 
 
 J. Marsollier, 1647—17^4, 
 History, various. 
 
 Fleury, 16.53-1733, Eccle- 
 siastical History. 
 
 G. Daniel, 1649—1728, His- 
 tory of France. 
 
 Vatincourt, 16c3— 1730, 
 Biography. 
 
 1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528—1590, 
 Philology. 
 
 F. Vieta, 1540—1603, Al- 
 gebra. 
 
 Pierre Charon, 1513—1603, 
 Theology. 
 
 Isaac Casaubon, 155^ 
 1604, Philology. 
 
 1600 
 
 C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, 
 
 History and Criticism. 
 Dennis Petau, 1583-1652, 
 
 Chi. Biology. 
 P. Gassendi, 1592—1655, 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Des Cartesj 1596 1650, 
 
 Metaphysics, Ma;hem. 
 
 B. Pascal, 1623—1662, 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 D'Herbelot, 1626—1695, 
 
 Orientalist. 
 Cassini, 1625-1712, Astroa 
 
 Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phj 
 Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, 
 
 Sermons. 
 La Bruyere, 1636-1696, 
 
 ' Characters.' 
 Malbranche, 1633-1715, 
 
 ' Search after Truth.' 
 
 1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, 
 Dictionary. 
 Hardouin, 1646 1729, 
 
 Criticism. 
 And. Dacier, 1651-1722. 
 
 Philology. 
 Anne Dacier, 1651-1723 
 Philology. 
 
 Tonmefort, 1656-1708, 
 
 Botany. 
 Fontenelle, 1657-1T56, 
 
 ' Plurality of Worlds, 
 
 Ac. 
 Montfaucon 1655-1741, 
 
 Antiquities. 
 Masslllon, 1663-1742, 
 
 Sermons. 
 
690 
 
 THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPEOtrtATIVB AND 80IENTIFIS 
 
 iroo 
 
 1700 Vertot, 1655—1735. History. 
 Paul Rapin, 1661—1725, 
 
 History of England. 
 Bossuet, 1662-1704, His- 
 
 1700 
 
 J. B. Rousseau, 1671—1741, 
 
 tory, Sermons. 
 
 
 Odes. 
 
 C. RoUin, 1661—1741, 
 
 
 Crebillon, 1674—1762, 
 
 Ancient History, Educa- 
 
 Folard, 1669-1752, Stra 
 
 Tragedies. 
 
 tion. 
 
 tegy. 
 
 Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747, 
 
 
 Saurin, 1677-173Q, Sei- 
 
 'Gil Bias.' 
 
 
 mons. 
 
 P. N. Destouches, 1680— 
 
 
 
 1754, Comedies. 
 
 
 
 J. B. Grecoun, 1683—1743, 
 
 
 
 Odes, Tales, &c. 
 
 
 
 Marivaux, 16S8— 1763, 
 
 
 Montesquieu, 1698—1755, 
 
 Novels. 
 
 C. I. F. H^nault, 1685-1770, 
 
 ' Esprit des Loix.' 
 
 Voltaire, 1695-1773, Tra- 
 
 History. 
 
 Reaumul-, 16g3— 1757 
 
 gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. 
 
 Natural History. 
 Houbigant, 1686—1783, 
 
 
 
 Criticism, Philology. 
 
 
 C. Villaret, 1715—1766, 
 
 Girard, d. 1748, 'Synony- 
 
 
 History of France. 
 
 mes.' 
 
 
 L. P. Anquetil, 1723—1808, 
 
 History. 
 Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, 
 
 
 J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778, 
 
 BulTon, 1707-1788, Natural 
 
 ' Emile,' ' Heloise,' i&c. 
 
 Recueil d'Historiens. 
 
 History. 
 
 Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En- 
 
 A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin 
 
 De Brosses, 1709—1777, 
 
 cyclopedic,' Novels. 
 
 of Laws, Arts, &c.' 
 
 Philology, History. 
 
 Bernis, 1715— 1794, Poems. 
 
 Lai-cher, 1726-1812, Trans. 
 
 
 Fa van, d. 1762, Comic 
 
 of Herodotus. 
 
 
 Operas. 
 
 Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient 
 
 
 Louis Racine, d. 1763, 
 
 History. 
 Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Helvctius, 1715-1771, 
 
 3. J. Banhelemy, 1716-1795, 
 
 tical History. 
 
 ' De I'Esprit.' 
 
 ' Anacharsis.' 
 
 D'Aubenton, 1716—1799, 
 
 Marmontel, 1719—1799, 
 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Tales. 
 
 
 N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law 
 
 Cresset, d. 1777, Elegies., 
 
 
 of Nations.' 
 
 Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. 
 
 J, De Guignes, 1721—1800, 
 
 D'Alembert, d. 1783, 'En- 
 
 
 ni'itory of the Huns. 
 
 cyclopedie.' 
 
 
 D /Vnville, 1702—1782, 
 
 La Grange, Mathematics. 
 
 
 Geography. « 
 
 
 
 G.Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist, 
 of East and West Indies. 
 C. F. X. Millet, 1726—1785, 
 History. 
 
 Bailly, 1736-1793, Hist 
 
 Astronomy. 
 Lavoisier, 1743—1794, 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Montucla, 1725—1799, 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Turgot, Polit. Economy. 
 
 F'orian, 1755 -1794, Tales. 
 
 
 Mirabeau, Politics. 
 
 Beaumarchais, d. 1799, 
 
 
 Fourcrol, d. 1809, Chem. 
 
 Comedies. 
 
 
 J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astjon. 
 
 180) B. St. Pierre, 'Paul and 
 
 1800 Slsmondi, History and 
 
 1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels, 
 
 Virginia.' 
 
 Political Science. 
 
 Philology, &c. 
 
 Madme. de Genlis, Novels. 
 
 Barante, History. 
 
 Haiiy, d. 1822, Cr^stallo 
 
 
 Augustin Thierry, History 
 
 graphy. 
 
 Mdme. Cottin, 1772-^807, 
 
 Am'edei Thierry, History. 
 
 La Place, d. 1827, Maths- 
 
 Tales. 
 
 Guizot, History. 
 
 matics 
 
 Delille, d. 1813, 'L'Homme 
 
 Thiers, History. 
 
 Guyton Morveau, Chem. 
 
 des Champs.' &c. 
 
 
 Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. His< 
 
 Madame de Stael, 1768— 
 
 Denon, d. 1825, Travels in 
 
 Dumont, Legislation. 
 
 1817, ' Corinne,' &c. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 P. L. Courier, Politics. 
 
 H. de Balzac, 1799-1S50, 
 
 J. p. F. Ancillon, 1767— 
 
 J. F. Audoin, 1797-1841, 
 
 Novels. 
 
 1837, Histoiy. 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 J J. Boissaid, 1743-1831, 
 
 Louis E. Bignon, — 1841, 
 
 J. E. D. Esquirol, 1772- 
 
 Fables. 
 
 History. 
 
 1840, on Insanuy. 
 Chas. Fourier, 1772-1837 
 
 
 J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840, 
 
 
 Edu:ation. 
 
 Socialism. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
 
 691 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 
 
 1800 C. Delavigna, Tragedies, 
 
 1800 Mad. J unci, 17S4-1839, 
 
 1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796—1842, 
 
 and Poems. 
 
 Biography. 
 
 Metaphysics 
 
 Victor Husro, Tragedies, 
 
 A. L. G. Laboi-de, —1842, 
 
 A. L. de J ussiou, 1748-1836, 
 
 Poems, and Romances. 
 
 Travels. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 A. de Lamartine, Poems, 
 
 Las Cases, —1842, Biog- 
 
 S. F. Lacroix, 1/65—1843, 
 
 History, and Travels. 
 
 raphy. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Mad. Dudevant (George 
 
 J. Michaud, —1839, His- 
 
 I,amarck, — 1829, Natural 
 
 Sand), Novels. 
 
 tory. 
 
 History. 
 
 A. Dumas, Poems, Plays, 
 
 Bourrienne, — 1834 ' Life 
 
 Legendre, 1753-1833, Ma 
 
 and Romances, 
 
 of Napoleon.' 
 
 thematics. 
 
 
 A. Coille, —1838, Voyage 
 
 Louis, —1837, Surgery. 
 
 
 k Tembuctou, &c. 
 
 Broussais, —1838, Medt- 
 
 
 Champollion le Jeune, 
 
 cine, Physiol. 
 
 
 1832, Antiq. Egypt. 
 
 Chaptal, —1832, Chem- 
 
 
 J. P. A. Remusat, —1832, 
 
 istry. 
 
 
 Philology, Antiqitities. 
 
 Say, Polit. Economy. 
 
 SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
 
 P. is prefixed for Portuguese. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 500 Anian, Law. 
 
 Fulgentius Ferrandus, 
 
 Canon Law. 
 Martin, d. 580, Ethics. 
 
 600 
 
 600 John of Biclair, d. 620 
 Chronicle. 
 Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de 
 Goth. 
 
 600 
 
 Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemica 
 
 800 
 
 800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 
 ology. 
 Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. 
 
 800 
 
 P. iiOO Egaz Monez, Songs. 
 
 P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, 
 
 Songs. 
 
 1100 
 
 1100 
 
 1200 
 
 G3nzal3 Berceo, Rhymes. 
 
 1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245, 
 History of Spain. 
 
 1200 
 
 R. de Penafort, 1175-1275, 
 
 Decretals. 
 Alphonso X., d. 1284, 
 Astronomy, Alchemy. 
 . Raimund Luilo, 1238— 
 1315, Theology, Chem- 
 istry, &c. 
 
 1300 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- 
 mances. 
 
 1300 
 
 1350 
 
 1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 
 
 Virgil and Dante. 
 E. de Villena, 1434, Moral 
 
 Drama. 
 Juan de Mena, 1412—1456 
 
 Poems. 
 L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 
 
 1400 
 
 J. de Torquemada, d. 1468^ 
 Seimons, Criticism. 
 
692 
 
 THE world's Progress, 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. 
 
 Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral 
 Drama. 
 
 1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 
 Torres Naharro, Comedy. 
 Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- 
 nets. 
 P Ber. Rlbeyro, Eclogues, 
 Garcilaso de la Vega, 
 1503—1536, Poems. 
 P. San de Miranda, 1495—1558, 
 Lyrics. 
 Juan de la Cueva, Art of 
 Poetry. 
 p. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, 
 Comedy. 
 J. de Montemayor, 1520 — 
 
 1561, Romance. 
 Ant. Ferreira, 1528—1569, 
 Elegies. 
 
 Diego do Mendoza, d. \SIb, 
 
 Poems, History. 
 Camoens, 1524— 1579, 'The 
 
 Lusiad.' 
 Luis de Leon, 1527—1591, 
 
 Lyric Poems. 
 Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578, 
 
 Classical Poems. 
 Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- 
 mances. Pastorals, «&c. 
 P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, 
 
 Epigrams, Pastorals. 
 C. de Castiilejo, d. 1596, 
 
 Romantic Poems. 
 A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600, 
 
 ' Araucana.' 
 Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589, 
 
 Tragedy. 
 L. de Argensola, 1565 — 
 
 1613, Tragedy, History. 
 Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. 
 Cervantes, 1549—1616, 
 
 ' Don Quixote.' 
 
 1400 R. de Zamora. 1407—1470, 
 History of Spain. 
 Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of 
 Ferdinand and Isabena. 
 
 ' QPECni.ATIVE AND SOIENTrPIO. 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 
 
 Bart, de Argensola, 1566 — 
 
 1631, Tragedy, History. 
 F. Quevedo, 1570—1645, 
 
 Tales, Satires. 
 L. Congora, 1585—1638, 
 
 Poems. 
 Lope de Vega, 1562—1635, 
 
 Drama. 
 J. P. de Montalvan, d. 1639, 
 Tragedy. 
 
 M. de Madrigal, Romances. 
 Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. 
 
 1649, Pastoral Poeras. 
 
 Damian Goez, History, 
 Travels. 
 
 Joao de Barros, d. 1570, 
 ' Hist. Portugu. in India.' 
 
 A. Zarate, 'Djscov. of 
 Peru.' 
 
 A. de Morales, 1513—1590, 
 History of Spain. 
 
 J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist. 
 
 of the West Indies. 
 Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1530, 
 
 Lives of the Popes. 
 Luis Marmol, Description 
 
 of Africa • 
 Jeron. Zurita, 1513—1580, 
 
 History of Arragon. 
 Estevan Garibay, History 
 
 of Spain.' 
 
 Juan Mariana, 1537—1624, 
 
 Hist., Chronology, &c. 
 Blanca, History of Spain. 
 
 J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of 
 China. 
 
 1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565— 
 1625, History of Spain. 
 
 A. de Meneses, d. 1617, 
 History of Augustines. 
 
 P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of 
 John III. 
 
 B. lie Brito, 1570—1617, 
 History of Portugal. 
 
 A. de Andrada, d. 1633, 
 Travels in Thibet and 
 Cathay. 
 Pru. de Sandoval, History 
 Jayrae Bleda, History of 
 Moors in Spain. 
 
 Fras. Ximenez, 1437—1517, 
 Polyglot Bible. 
 
 1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533, 
 
 Ethics. 
 J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540, 
 Philosophy, Theology. 
 
 Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544, 
 Ethics, Epistles. 
 P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law. 
 
 Ant Agostlno, 1516—1586, 
 Theology, Law. 
 
 S. des Brosses, 1523—1600, 
 
 Grammar. 
 D. de Andrada, 1528— 153t 
 
 rheolosy. 
 Luis Molina, 1535—1600, 
 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 J. Guevara, 1541—1628, 
 Publicist. 
 
 J. Va verda. Anatomy, 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
 
 693 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPEOULATIVB AND SOIBSTIMO. 
 
 '6f« L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 
 
 
 'El Diablo Coxiielo.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vic. Espinel, 1545-1634, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elegies. 
 
 P. 
 
 C. Acuna, 1597— 1641, 'De. 
 
 scrip, of River Amazon. 
 E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, 
 
 History of Etliiopia. 
 
 
 
 Calderon, 1601—1667, 
 
 P. 
 
 J. F. de Andrada, 1597— 
 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 1657, Life of .lohn de 
 
 
 
 L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. 
 
 
 Castro, Comic Poetry. 
 
 
 P 
 
 A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, 
 Sonnets. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Matheo Ribeiro, Romance. 
 
 M. de Villegas, I.'595— 1669, 
 Anacreontics. 
 
 P. 
 
 Nic. Antonio. 1617-1672, 
 Bibliotlieca Hispanica. 
 
 Alb. Coelho. '/. 1658, 
 ' Wars of Brazil.' 
 
 
 P. 
 
 F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 R. de Macedo, d. 1682, 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Viol, do Ceo, 1601—1693, 
 Poems. 
 
 
 Ant. deSoIis, 1611— 1686, 
 Hist, of Conq. Mexico. 
 
 
 P. 
 
 F. da Castanheira, Novel. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son- 
 nets. 
 
 
 
 
 irOO Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 
 
 1700 J. Fftrreras, 1652—1735, 
 
 1700 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 History of Spain. 
 
 
 
 Ant. de Zamora. Comedy. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Xav. de Meneses, 1673 — 
 1743, ' Henriqueide,' 
 Epic Poem. 
 
 Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, 
 
 
 
 Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Criti 
 
 cism. 
 A. Ulloa, 1716—1795, Matlv 
 
 
 Art of Poetry. 
 
 P. 
 P. 
 
 Barbosa Maehado, Diction- 
 ary of Learned Men. 
 
 Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist. 
 of Castilian Poetry. 
 
 Figoeireda, Eccl. History. 
 
 ematician. 
 
 
 Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fables, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 A. de Barros Pereira, 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Manoel da Coste, Poems. 
 V. Garcia de la Huerta, 
 Tragedy. 
 
 
 Munoz, Hist, of America. 
 
 
 P. 
 
 P. Correo Garcao Lyric 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 Ruiz, Botany. 
 
 Pavon, Flora Peruvians. 
 
 
 Leon de Arroyal, Odes. 
 
 
 Cavanilles, Annals. 
 
 P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, 
 
 P. 
 
 Paulino de Vascon;ellos, 
 Sonnets. 
 
 
 
 Natural Philosophy. 
 Felix de Azara, Zoology. 
 J. N. de Azara, 1731— laW 
 
 
 Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. 
 
 
 
 P.. 
 
 Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. 
 
 
 
 Antiquity. 
 
 1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811, 
 
 1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 
 
 1800 
 
 
 ' Agrarian Law.' 
 
 
 Inquisition. 
 
 
 r. 
 
 Tol. da Almeida, Satires. 
 Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828, 
 
 Comedies. 
 M. Garcia de Villanuera, 
 
 ' On the Theatre.' 
 1. H. Davila, General Li'- 
 
 •ratuie. 
 
 
 Jose Antonio Conde, His- 
 tory of Moors in Spain. 
 
 
694 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 DUTCH. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235— 
 130O, Poems, ' Rymby- 
 bel.' 
 Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 
 
 1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 
 Chronicles. 
 Heij. van Holland, Poems. 
 Claes Willems, Poems. 
 
 1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. 
 
 Dirk van Munster, ' Chris- 
 tian Mirror.' 
 
 Lambert, Goetman, 'Mir 
 ror of Youth.' 
 
 1500 
 
 A. Byns, Religious Poems 
 Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and 
 
 Prose. 
 J. Secundus, 1511—1536, 
 
 Amatory Poems. 
 Divk Koornhert, 1522— 
 
 1590, Transl. Homer. 
 P. van Marnix, Odes, 
 
 Songs. 
 R. Visscher, Epigrams. 
 Hendrick Spieghel, Didac 
 
 tic Poems. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND BCIESTIPIC 
 
 Gerard Groot, Theology. 
 
 1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, 1400 
 Chronicles of Brabant. 
 P. vander Heyden, 1393 — ■ 
 1473, Chronicles. 
 
 S. Pighius, 1520—1604, 
 'Roman Annals.' 
 
 A. Schott, 1.5.52—1629, His- 
 tory of Spain. 
 
 1600 G. Brederode, 1585—1637, 
 
 Comedies, &c. 
 D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586— 
 
 1625, Religious Poems. 
 Daniel Heins, 1580—1655, 
 
 Poems, Philology. 
 J. Cats, 1577—1660, Drama. 
 P. C. Hooft, 1587—1647, 
 
 Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of 
 
 the Netherlands. 
 G. van Baerle (Barlaeus), 
 
 1584—1648, Latin Poems. 
 Just van Vondel, 1587 — 
 
 1679, Tragedies. 
 M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. 
 Jaa van Heems'cerk, 'Ar- 
 
 J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, 
 Epigrams. 
 
 1600 
 
 H. de Groot (Grotius), 
 1583—1645, Hist., Theol 
 ogy. Poetry, &c. 
 
 J. W. Gransfoet, Theo. 
 
 Rud. Agricola, 1442—1485, 
 Philosophy, Hist., &c. 
 
 1500 Erasmus, 1467—1536, The- 
 ology. Literature, &c 
 
 J. Heurnius, 1543—1601, 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Justus Lipsius, 1547—1606, 
 Philology. 
 
 Sim. ntevinus, d. 1633, 
 Hydrostatics, Matliem. 
 
 H. Erpenius, 1584-1624, 
 O-rientalist. 
 
 1600 
 
 J. Golius, 1596-1667, «»r» 
 
 entalist. 
 Voetius, 1589-1676. 
 
 Polemics. 
 Beverwyk, 1594— l&i7> 
 
 Medicine. 
 Diemerbroek, 1609—1674, 
 
 Anatomy. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 
 
 69f 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687, 
 
 
 J. F. Gronovius, 1611— 
 
 Episrams. 
 
 
 1671, Philology. 
 
 Jer. Decker, 1610—1966, 
 
 
 J. Leusden, 1614—1699, 
 
 Elegies. 
 
 
 Philology. 
 
 D. Jonckdjs, d. 1651, Ama- 
 
 
 
 tory Poems. 
 
 
 
 Nicholas Heins, 1620—1681, 
 
 
 F. Burman, 1623—1679, 
 
 Poems, Philology. 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone 
 
 
 Chr. Huygens, 1629—1695, 
 
 of Wit.' 
 
 
 Mathem., Mechanics. 
 
 Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- 
 
 
 B. Spinoza, 1632—1677, 
 
 grams. 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Reinier Anslo, 1622—1669, 
 
 
 
 ' Plague of Naples.' 
 
 Get. Brandt, 1626-1685, 
 Hist, of Reformation. 
 
 Cau, Collect, of Batavian 
 History. 
 
 
 
 J. G. Grsvius, 1632—1703, 
 
 Swammerdam, 1637—1680, 
 
 
 Roman Antiquities. 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 
 J. Perizonius, 1631—1715, 
 
 A. Leuwenhoek, 1632 — 
 
 
 History. 
 
 1723, Natural History. 
 
 700 P. Francius, 1645—1704, 
 
 1700 
 
 1700 F. Ruysch, 1639-1731, 
 
 Latin Poetry. 
 
 
 Anat. 
 
 J. A. Vander Goes, 1647— 
 
 
 
 1648, Drama. 
 
 J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, 
 
 
 
 Greek Antiquities. 
 
 G. Bidloo, 1649—1713, 
 
 
 P. Bondam, Collection of 
 
 Anat. 
 
 
 Batavian History. 
 
 C. Vitringa,' 1659—1722, 
 
 
 Simon Styl, History of 
 
 Theolosy. 
 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Binkersclioek, 1663-1743, 
 
 Law. 
 H. Boerhaave, 1668—1738, 
 
 Medicine. 
 Hemsterhuis, 1685—1766, 
 
 Philology. 
 
 A. Schultens, 1686—1750, 
 Philology. 
 
 Gravesande, 1688—1742, 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Chr. Ilecht, 1696-1748, 
 
 Philolosry. 
 
 B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771, 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Oudendorp, 1696—1761, 
 
 Philolo,gy. 
 W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768, 
 
 Law. 
 D. Gaubius, 1705—1780, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 
 
 Hoogeveen, 1712—1794, 
 
 
 
 Philology. 
 
 Eliz. Wolff, Novels. 
 
 
 G. van Swieten, 1700— 
 
 Loosjes, Novels. 
 
 
 1772, Medicine. 
 P. Camper-, 1722—1789, 
 
 Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes. 
 
 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Klein, Lyrics. 
 
 
 D. Ruhnken, 1723— 17S6, 
 
 Van Alphen, Odes. 
 
 
 Philology. 
 Valckenaer, Philology. 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 D. Wyttenfcach, d. 1808, 
 
 Ilincopen, Odes. 
 
 
 Philology. 
 
 Helmers, d. 1831, Poems 
 
 
 
 Nieuwland, Poems. 
 Borger, Odes. 
 
 
 
 Te Water, History. 
 
 
 
 Engelberts, Ancient Hist. 
 
 
 HildeiJyk. Dramas, Odes, 
 
 of Netherlands. 
 
 Van Kami len, Statistics 
 
 &c 
 
 
 
696 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIFIO 
 
 Tollens, Poems. 
 
 Da Costa, Sacred Poems. 
 
 Wilderbosch, Odes. 
 
 Kluits, Hist, of Holland. 
 Westendorp, History. 
 Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. 
 
 De Jonge, Antiquities. 
 Hamaker, Orientalist. 
 Vander Palm, Literature. 
 
 SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. 
 
 S., Sweden; D., Denmark; Ic, Iceland. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIPia 
 
 Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 
 
 900 
 
 900 
 
 Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 
 
 Ic. Saemund, 6. 1156, The 
 
 Elder Bdda. 
 
 1100 
 
 Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice- 
 land. 
 
 D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 
 
 1204, Hist, of Northern 
 Nations. 
 
 D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark. 
 
 uno 
 
 D. Sunesen, Jurist. 
 D. Axel, Theology. 
 
 Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson,d. 1241, 
 Younger Edda, Hist. 
 of Norway. 
 
 Ic. Suerron, Tales. 
 
 1200 
 
 D. Sturla Thoridsen, History 
 of Norway. 
 
 1200 
 
 1400 
 
 1400 
 
 S. Eric Olai, History of Goths 
 and Swedes. 
 
 1400 
 
 S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 149), 
 
 Instruction to Kings and 
 Princes. 
 
 two 
 
 1500 
 
 S. John Magnus, d. 1.544, 
 
 Hist, of Sweden. 
 S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of 
 
 Northern Nations. 
 S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599, 
 
 History North of Europe. 
 Ic. Am. Jonas, 1545—1640, 
 
 Hist, of Iceland, &c. 
 
 1500 
 
 D. Tycho Brahe, 1546—1601,' 
 
 Astronomy. 
 D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy 
 
 1600 
 
 ®>. Anders Arrebo, h. 1587, 
 Religious Poetry. 
 
 D. Anders Bording, h. 1619, 
 
 Poems. 
 g. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem, 
 
 'Hercules.' 
 
 1600 
 
 D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591—1640, 
 Danish Hist. 
 
 1600 
 
 S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, 
 
 Orientalist. 
 D. G. Bartholine, 1585—1629 
 
 Anatomy, Theology. 
 D. Oie Worm, 1588—1654, Ab 
 
 tiquitios, Philo. 
 
LITERAR'S CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICET^AND. 697 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, 6. 1631. 
 Hymns. 
 
 L. Holberg, 1684—1754. 
 
 Drama, Saiire, Hist. 
 Ch. Falster, 1690— 
 
 1752, Satirist. 
 
 D. 
 
 OlofDalin, 1708—1763, 
 Poetry, History. 
 
 Sneedorf, 1734—1764, 
 Poems. 
 
 Ic. Torfa3us, 1639—1720, Hist, 
 of Norway. 
 
 D. 
 
 Tallin, Lyrics. 
 
 1). 
 
 John Ewald, 1743— 
 
 
 1781, Tragedy, Lyrics. 
 
 D. 
 
 J. H. Wessel, Humor- 
 
 
 ous Poems. 
 
 S. 
 
 Bellerman, 1741—1796, 
 
 
 Lvrics. 
 
 D. 
 
 H. tode, 1736-1806, 
 
 
 Dramas, Fables. 
 
 D. 
 
 Samsoe, 1759-1796, 
 
 
 Tragedies. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758, 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 S. 
 
 S. Elffstrom, d. 1810, 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 1700 
 
 John Penngskiold, 1654 — 
 
 1720, History. 
 Arne Magnussen, b. 1663, 
 CoIIec. Hist. 
 D. Albert Thura, Hist. 
 D. Hans Gram, d. 1748, His- 
 tory. 
 
 Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. 
 Danish History. 
 
 Pontoppidan. d. 1764, Ori- 
 gines Havnienses. 
 
 Lagerbring, d. 1781, His- 
 tory. 
 
 P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798, 
 Hist, of Denmark. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO 
 
 S. Ol. Rudbeck, 1630—1702, 
 Botany, Anat., &c. 
 
 Ic. 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819, 
 
 Transl. Milton 
 D. C. L. Sander, Dramas, 
 
 1700 
 
 D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635— 170S 
 Phys., Mathem.- 
 
 Linnaeus, 1707—1778, 
 Botany. 
 
 S. Wallerius, d. 1785, 
 
 Mineralogy. 
 D. Oeder, Flor^ Danica. 
 S. Ihre, Dictionary. 
 
 1800 
 
 D. 
 
 Jens. Baggesen, d. 
 
 
 1826, Lyrics. 
 
 D. 
 
 Oehlenschlager. 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 D. 
 
 B. S. Ingermann, 
 
 
 Lyrics. 
 
 S 
 
 Atterbone, Poems. 
 
 ^J 
 
 Tegiier, Romances, &c 
 
 i 
 
 ¥. Bremer Novels. 
 
 30 
 
 Malte Brun, d. 1826, Geog- 
 raphy, in French. 
 
 S. Thorild Travels. 
 
 S. Afzelius, Iceland Records. 
 
 S. Hallenberg, History. 
 
 S. Granberg, Statistics. 
 
 S. Blexell, Topography. 
 
 1800 
 
 S. Berzelius, Chemistry. 
 
 D. Rask, Orientalist. 
 
 S. Wodderstadt, 'OnYelloi! 
 Fever.' 
 
 S. Liliegren. Northern An- 
 tiquities. 
 
 S. Norberg, Orientalist. 
 J. F. Blumenb.ich, 
 1840, Naturalist. 
 
698 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 POLISH. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIESTIFiO 
 
 I2U0 
 
 1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 
 
 History of Poland. 
 Boguplialus, d. 1253, 
 
 Chronicle of Poland. 
 Martin Polonus, d. 1278, 
 
 Chronicle of Popes and 
 
 Emperors. ^ 
 
 1200 
 
 Vitellio, Optics. 
 
 J400 
 
 1400 Dlu^lossus, 1415—1480, 
 HKtory of Poland. 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 Kochanowski, 1530—1584, 
 
 1500 
 
 Cawalezewski, Chronicles. 
 Bielski, Chronicles. 
 
 Stryjkowski, Chron. of Po- 
 land and Russia. 
 
 1500 
 
 N. Copernicus, 1472—1543, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 Lucas Gornicki, Ethics. 
 Rey of Naglowic, 1515— 
 
 1568, Ethics. 
 
 1600 
 
 Sarbiewski, 1595—1640, 
 Latin Poetry. 
 
 1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637, 
 Ecclesiastical Annals. 
 
 Lubienetski, 1623—1675, 
 History of Reformation. 
 
 1600 
 
 John Maccov, d. 1644, The. 
 
 ology. 
 Przipcov, 1590—1670, The- 
 
 ology. 
 
 1700 
 
 Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po- 
 etry and History. 
 
 1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland. 
 Mizler, Do. 
 
 1700 
 
 ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman- 
 ces. 
 Boguslawski, Drama. 
 Bronikowski, Novels. 
 Bernatowicz, Novels. 
 Bulgarin, Novels. 
 Mickiewicz, Poems. 
 Odyniec, Urama. 
 
 1800 
 
 Lach Szmyma, Travels. 
 Potocki, Travels. 
 
 1300 
 
 Linda, Lexicoa 
 
 RUSSIAN. 
 
 [The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. A lmOB» 
 rW books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly 
 differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the 
 other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-oflice in Russia was established 
 in 1553.] 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 moo 
 
 Nestorof Kiew, 1056—1115, 
 C ronicles of Russia. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SC1EN.TIPI0 
 
 1000 YaroBlaf, Code cf Laws. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — RUSSIAN. 
 
 699 
 
 MfAaiNATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPEOULATIVB AND SCIESi rlFIC. 
 
 1100 
 
 The Expedition of Ighor, a 
 celebrated Poem, author 
 Unknown. 
 
 1100 Theodosius,d. 1120, Annals. 
 Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro- 
 nicles of Russia. 
 
 Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, 
 Chronicles of Russia. 
 
 HOC 
 
 I2tlO 
 
 1200 Johr of Novgorod, History 
 of Russia. 
 
 1200 
 
 [The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia 
 from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit oi 
 knowledge wliich a close connection witli the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 
 
 Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, 
 Spiritual Dramas^ 
 
 1700 
 
 Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- 
 rical Poems. 
 
 Lomonosoff, 1711— 17C5, 
 Poetry, History, Science. 
 
 Tredianoffski, Poems. 
 
 Popofski, Transl. Pope. 
 
 Sumarokoff, 1718—1777, 
 Drama. 
 
 KheraskofT, 1733—1807, 
 'The Russiad.' 
 
 Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. 
 the Iliad. 
 
 Petroff. 1736—1799, Transl. 
 the Eneid. 
 
 Kniajnin, 1742—1794, 
 Drama. 
 
 J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784, 
 Fables. 
 
 Klushin, Comedies. 
 
 Ephimieff, Comedies. 
 
 Ablesimoff, Operas. 
 
 G. R. Der.iavin, 1743—1816, 
 Lyric Poetry. 
 
 H. Bogdanovitch, 1743- 
 1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. 
 
 Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- 
 dies, Tales. 
 
 Nicnleff, Tragedies, 
 
 1800 MaikofT, Comic Poems. 
 DmitriefT, Lyrics, Fables. 
 Ozeroff, d. 1816. Tragedies. 
 P. Sumarokoff, Poems. 
 
 Tales. 
 V. A. Jukofski, 6. 1783, 
 
 Poems. 
 Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. 
 BatiushkofT, Transl. Tibul- 
 
 lus. 
 Gneditch, Transl. Iliad 
 
 Odes. 
 Kryloff, Fables. 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws. 
 
 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The- 
 ology, Spiritual Dramas. 
 
 1700 KhilkofT, History of Russia. 
 V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, 
 Chronicles of Russia. 
 
 CherbatolF, History. 
 GolikofT, History. 
 
 IMuravieff, 1757—1816, His- 
 tory, Didactics. 
 Euge'nius, History, 
 
 1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History 
 of Russia. 
 Kachenofski, History. 
 G. Glinka, History. 
 
 Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis- 
 covery. 
 
 Gretch, History of Russian 
 Literature. 
 
 Tindcowski, Journey to 
 China. 
 
 1700 Theophanes, Seimona. 
 
 Plato, 1737-1812, Sermona, 
 
 P. S. Pallas, 1741—1811, 
 Natural History. 
 
 1800 ShishkofT, CriticisiD, 
 
 Augustm, Sermons. 
 
roo 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 
 P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. 
 
 IHAGINi.TION. 
 
 60C Mahomet, Koran. 
 
 Lebid, 622—757, Poems. 
 Zohair, Poems. 
 
 Kais E- Ameri, or Amrul- 
 kais. Poems. 
 
 700 
 
 Abuti Massab, Poems. 
 Abuno\vas,762 — 810, Poems. 
 Kehashi, Poems. 
 Acu Obeid, d. 838, Fables. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND S0<BKT7F 9 
 
 600 
 
 700 Jafar. Chemistry. 
 
 Abu Hanifah, 699—767, Tho- 
 ology. 
 
 Muham. ben Omar, History. 
 
 Aharun, Medicine. 
 
 800 
 
 A.Temain, 804—84.5, Poems, 
 
 Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. 
 
 Abu Mohammed Abdallah. 
 Literature. 
 
 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 
 
 Almotanabbi, d. 955, 
 Poems 
 
 Wahab, Travels. 
 Abuzeid, Travels. 
 L Kotaibah, d. 889, History. 
 Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. 
 Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, 
 Translations from Greek. 
 
 Asmai, 740—830, Theology. 
 
 Kendi, Philosophy. 
 
 J. ben Serapion, Medicine. 
 
 Almamon, Astronomical 
 Tables. 
 
 Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. 
 
 Alfragan, Astronomy. 
 
 Nasir Khosru, Metaphys. 
 
 Albumazar, 805 — 885, Ma- 
 thematics, Astronomy. 
 
 Bochari, 810—870, ' The 
 Sahih,' Traditions. 
 
 Geber, Chemistry. 
 
 P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 
 
 'Shah Nameh,' Epic 
 Poem. 
 
 Abul Ola, 973—1057, 
 Poems. 
 
 Said ben Batrik, 876—937, 
 
 General History. 
 Eutychius, History. 
 Massudi, d. 957, History 
 
 and Geography. 
 
 Ibn Haukal, Geography. 
 
 1000 Almuyadad, History of 
 Saracens in Sicily. 
 
 900 Albategni, Astronomy. 
 Rases, d. 922, Medicine. 
 Ben Musa, Mathematics. 
 Azophi, Astronomy. 
 
 Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 1000 Achmet, Treatise on 
 
 Dreams. 
 Ibn Mesua, Medicine. - 
 Avicenna, 980-1038, 
 
 Philosophy, Medicine 
 
 Abulcasis, Medicine. 
 Jelaleddin, Correctior oi 
 
 Calendar. 
 Arzachel, Astronomy. 
 
LITEEAEY CHEONOLOaT— ABABIAN, PERSlAiT, AOT) TURKISH. 701 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 3PECTILATIVE AND SCIENTITIO, 
 
 !100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 
 
 Hairi, 1054—1121, Moral 
 Poema. 
 
 P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems. 
 P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems. 
 P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. 
 Jaafar ebn Tofail, d. 1198, 
 ' Hai ben Tokdan,' a 
 Novel. 
 I. Elfaredli,(«.1234, Poems. 
 
 1100 
 
 Algazel, Antiquities, &c. 
 Ben Idris, 6, 1099, Geog. 
 
 tlOO Gazali, 1058— 1112, Aristo- 
 teUan Philosophy. 
 
 Alhazin. Optics. 
 
 Tabrlzl, d. 1136, Commen- 
 taries. 
 
 Alchabit, Optics. Astron. 
 A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. 
 
 Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 1200 
 
 P. Saadi, 1193—1291, ' Gulis- 
 tan,' 'Bostan.' 
 
 Elfaragi, Poems. 
 
 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 
 AbdoUattf, Topography of 
 
 Egypt. 
 Abuldem, (Z.1244, History. 
 El Harawi, Travels. 
 
 Abulfarage, 1226—1286, 
 Universal History. 
 
 Elmacin, d. 1802, History 
 of Saracens. 
 
 P. Fadlallah, History of Mo- 
 guls. 
 
 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. 
 
 Caswin d. 1274, Natural 
 
 History. 
 Beithar, d. 1246, Botanj', 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 P, Nasireddin, 1201—1273, 
 Astronomy. 
 
 1300 
 
 P. Hafix, d. 1395, Odes. 
 
 1300 Abnlfeda, 1273—1333, 
 Geography, History. 
 Novairi, d.l331, Universal 
 
 History. 
 Mohammed IbnBatuta, 
 
 Travels. 
 Ibn al VVardi, d. 1358, 
 
 GeogTaphy. 
 Abu Shameh,6.1299, Hist. 
 P. Turan Shah, d.l377. Hist. 
 Jafei, d. 1868, Biography. 
 
 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran, 
 
 FirvTzabadi, 1329—1414, 
 ' The Camoos.' 
 
 140C 
 
 I'. Jand, d. 1486, Poems. 
 
 P. 1400 Ali Tezdi Sherifeddin, 
 Life of Tamerlane. 
 Makrizi, 1367—1438, Hist. 
 
 Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of 
 Timur. 
 
 Baccai,^.1480, Biography. 
 P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond, 
 Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474 
 T. Baber, d. 1530, Autobio- 
 graphy. 
 
 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Ulug Beg, 1393—1444, 
 Astronomy,Chronology. 
 
 Babacushi, d. 1481, 
 Politics. 
 
 
 1500 Alhassan, Description of 
 Africa. 
 
 Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- 
 verpal History. 
 
 IS'^l 
 
 ^bacushi, d. 1566, Morala, 
 
702 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROfJUESS. 
 
 IMAQINAT.SN. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFI'S 
 
 IGOO 
 
 1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. 
 Abulgazi, 1605—1663, Hist. 
 
 of Tartars. 
 T. Haji Klialifeh, d. 1675, 
 
 History. 
 
 P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi,Metaph. 
 Moham. Hossain, ' Boriiani 
 Kata,' Dictionary. 
 
 iroc 
 
 P. 1700 Gliolam Hussein, An- 
 nals of Hindostan. 
 
 1700 Gliolam All, Grammar. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SOIBNTIPIO, 
 
 ISOO 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, 
 Sermons, &c. 
 
 
 Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist. 
 
 John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol. 
 
 
 of Massachusetts. 
 
 Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, 
 Sermons, 'Magnalia,'&c. 
 
 1700 John Adams, 1705-1740, 
 
 1700 Inc. Mather, 1723, ' History 
 
 1700 Benj. Colman, d. 1747, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 of War with Indians.' 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Benj. Church, 1739-1776, 
 
 Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist. 
 
 Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 of New England. 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Wni. Livingston, 1723 — 
 
 
 Samuel Davies, d. 1761, 
 
 1790, Poems. 
 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 John Trumbull, 1750-1831, 
 
 
 John Clayton, d. 1773, 
 
 'McFinsal,' &c. 
 
 
 Botany. , 
 
 Joel BarTow, 1755—1812, 
 
 Cadwallader Golden, 1688- 
 
 
 ' The Columbiad.' 
 
 1776, History of the Five 
 Nations of Indians. 
 
 
 John Blair Linn, 1777— 
 
 John Bartram, d. 1777, 
 
 
 1804, Poems. 
 
 Botany, Travels. 
 
 
 
 Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, 
 
 Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, 
 
 
 Hist, of Massachusetts. 
 
 Theology. 
 Benjamin Franklin, 1706— 
 
 T. D wight, Conquest of Ca- 
 
 
 1790,Natural Philosophy, 
 
 naan, &c. 
 
 
 Politics, &c. 
 Jas. Otis, d. 1783, PoHtics. 
 John Hancock, 1793, 
 
 Politics. 
 John Witherspoon, d. 1794, 
 
 Theolosv, Politics. 
 Patrick Henry, d. 1796, 
 
 
 David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, 
 
 Politics. 
 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Samuel Adams, 1803, 
 
 
 Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- 
 
 Politics. 
 
 
 tory of N. Hampshire, 
 
 Samuel Hopkins, 1721- 
 
 
 Amer. Biog. &c. 
 
 1803, Theology. 
 
 
 Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist. 
 
 Fisher Ames, d. 1806, 
 
 
 of Massachusetts Bay.' 
 
 Politics. 
 
 
 Isaac Backus, 1806, Church 
 
 
 
 History of N. England. 
 
 
 1800 Chas. B. Brown, d. 1810, 
 
 1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 
 
 1800 Thos. Paine, 1737— 180a 
 
 Novels. 
 
 of Maine. 
 
 Politics, 'Age of Reason,' 
 
 Robt. Treat Paine, 1773— 
 
 
 ' Rights of Mitn,' &c. 
 
 1811, 'Invention of Let- 
 
 David Ramsay, d. 1812, 
 
 Jos. S. Buckminster, d 
 
 ters,' 'Tlie Ruling Pas- 
 
 ' Life of Washington,' 
 
 1812, Theology. 
 
 •ion, and other Poems. 
 
 'American Revolution,' 
 
 Alex. Hamilton, 1757- 
 
 
 'Universal History.' 
 
 1804, Politics. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY V. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 703 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 180) Paul Allen, 1775—1826, 
 ' Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist. 
 of Ata Re vol.] 
 
 '.SPECULATIVE AND BCIENTIPIC. 
 
 i 
 
 1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813, 
 'American Ornitholosv.' 
 
 Hugh Williamson, d. 1818, 
 Hist, of N. Carolina. 
 
 Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, 
 Botany. 
 
 3. G. C. Brainard, d. 1826, 
 Poenp 
 
 Wm. "Wirt, 1772—1834, 
 ' British Spy.' 
 
 Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, 
 
 Poeifis. 
 J. Q. Adams, 1767—1847, 
 
 Poems. 
 Washington Allston, 1779- 
 
 1843, Painter, Poet, and 
 
 Novelist. 
 Timothy Flint, 1780—1840 
 
 Novels. 
 Jas. A. Hill house, 17S9— 
 
 1841, Poems. 
 Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840, 
 
 Poems, Miscellan., Polit 
 R. H. Wilde, 1789— 184T, 
 
 Poems, Researches -on 
 
 Tasso, &c. 
 
 B. A. Foe, 1811-1849,Poen-3, 
 
 Tales. 
 J. F. Cooper, 1789—1851, 
 
 Novels, &c. 
 
 Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, 
 
 Botany, Travels. 
 Jedediah Morse, d. 1826, 
 
 Geog., Statistics, &c. 
 
 Nathl. H. Carter, 1788— 
 1830, 'Letters from Eu- 
 rope.' 
 
 Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 
 18-30, Travels in Europe, 
 Lectures on Literature, 
 &c. 
 
 John D. Godman, d. 1830, 
 Anatomy, Natural Hist., 
 &c. 
 
 John Marshall, 1755—1835, 
 Life of Washington, &c. 
 
 Jno. Armstrong, 1758-1843, 
 'War of 1812.' 
 
 Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, 
 Annals of America. 
 
 Timothy Flint, 1780—1340, 
 Hist, of Mississ. VaUey. 
 
 A.S.Mackenzie, -1849, 
 Travels in Spain, &:. 
 
 Gouvemeur Morris, 1752- 
 
 1816, Politics. 
 Timothy Dwight, 17C2— 
 
 1817, ' Theology Explain- 
 ed and Defended.' 
 Levi Frisbie, 1784- 1822, 
 
 Moral Philosophy. 
 Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, 
 
 Law, Politics. 
 Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835, 
 
 Law 
 W. E. Channing, 1780— 
 
 1842, Sermons, Critrcism. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, 174.3— 
 
 1826, Potidcs, Philos. 
 John Adams. 1735— 182G, 
 
 Polil^s. 
 John M. Mason, D. D. 
 
 1770—1829, Divinity, 
 
 Sermons, &c. 
 John H. Hobart, D. D., 
 1776-1830, Sermons, &c, 
 Jos. Story, 1779—1845, 
 
 Law. 
 Henry Wheaton, 1782- 
 
 1848, Law. History. 
 Edw. Livingston, 1764— 
 
 1836, Criminal Code, &c. 
 David Hosack, 1769—1835, 
 
 Medicine. 
 Jas. Madison, 1751—1836, 
 Politics. 
 
 Alex. H. Everett, 1790— 
 
 1847, Essays. 
 R. H'arlan, :796— 1843, 
 
 Natural History. 
 James Kent, 1763—1847, 
 
 Comment, on Am. Law, 
 Hugh S. Legate, 1797— 
 
 1843, Miscellanies. 
 Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me- 
 
 taphysics. 
 Albert Gallatin, 17C1-1S19, 
 
 Ethnology, Pliilolcgy. 
 J. C. Calhoun, 1782- ISSi 
 
 Politics, Speeches, 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER EABULOUS PERSONS, 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 HEROES AND HEROINES OP ANTIQUITY. 
 
 Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. 
 
 Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. 
 
 Abrela'nus, a surname of Jupiter. 
 
 A'bron, a very v6luptuous Grecian. 
 
 Aby'la, a famous mountain in Africa. 
 
 Acan'lha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 
 
 Acas'tus, the name of a famous hunter. 
 
 Ace'tua, one of the priests of Bacchus. 
 
 Achafmnies, the first king of Persia. 
 
 Acha'tes, a trusty friend of jEiieas. 
 
 Ach'eron, a son ol'Titan and Terra, changed into 
 a river of hell for assisting the Titans in their 
 war against Jupiter. 
 
 Achii'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and 
 Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- 
 ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in- 
 vulnerable in every part except his right 
 heel, by which she held him; alter signaliz- 
 ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, 
 as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by 
 Paris with an arrow. 
 
 Acid'alia and Arma'la, names of Venus. 
 
 Acida'lus, a famous fountain of Bceotia. 
 
 A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, 
 because he rivalled him in the affections of 
 Galetea. 
 
 Ac'mon, a famous king of the Titans. 
 
 Ac'ratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. 
 
 A -'icBon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally 
 discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned 
 into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. 
 
 AdmeHus a king of Thessaly. 
 
 Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and 
 Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by 
 Venus and Proserpine. 
 
 i-dras'iea, the goddess Nemesis. 
 
 E'acus, one of the infernal judges. 
 
 jE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. 
 
 ^ge'us, a king of Attica, giving name to the 
 jEgean sea by drowning himself in it. 
 
 JEgi'na, a particular favorite of Jupiter. 
 
 JE'gis, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. 
 
 JS'gle. one of the three Hesperides. 
 
 J^.'gon, a wrestler famous for strength. 
 
 jEgyp'tus, son of Neptune and Lybia. 
 
 Ml'lo, one of the three Harpies. 
 
 Mne'as, son of Anchises and Venus. 
 
 jSo'Ius, the god of the winda 
 
 AHo'us, one of the four horses of th» aoo. 
 
 jEscuia'nus, a Roman god of richea. 
 
 jEscula'pius, the god of phy.5i>i 
 
 ^thal'ides, a son of mercury. 
 
 M'thon, one of the four horses of the sun. 
 
 Mfnaus, a title of Vulcan. 
 
 JDtoHos, a son of Endymion aud Diana. 
 
 Aga?7iem'non, a brother of MenelauSj chosen 
 
 captain-general of the Greeks cu t^4 j^ege 
 
 of Troy. 
 Aganip'pe, daughter of the river Permessus, 
 
 which flows from mount Helicon. 
 Age'nor, the first king of Argos. 
 Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry. 
 Agelas'tus and Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. 
 Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. 
 AJjax, one of the most distinguished princes and 
 
 heroes at the siege of Troy. 
 AUni'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. 
 Alci'des, a title of Hercules. 
 Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra. 
 Alci'oneiis, a giant slain by Hercules. 
 Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. 
 Alc?nehia, the wife of Amphitryon. 
 Aiec'tn, one of the three Furies. 
 AlecHrijon^ or Gal' lus, a favorite of Mars. 
 Al'mus, and Aluvi'nus, titles of Jupiter. 
 Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. 
 Alcb'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter. 
 AmaUhce.'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. 
 Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. 
 Ambro'sia, the food of the gods. 
 Am'mon, a title of Jupiter. 
 Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and HypermKestr* 
 
 a very famous augur. 
 Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penel'>iJe. 
 Amphi'on, a famous musician. 
 Amphitri'te, the wife of Neptune. 
 Amyntor, a king of Epirus. 
 Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution. 
 Anccahcs, a king of Arcadia. 
 Andro'geus, the son of Minos. 
 Androin'ache, the wife of Hector. 
 Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cas- 
 
 siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty 
 
 with the Nereides, was by them bound to a 
 
 rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea 
 
 monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and 
 
 married her. 
 Ange'rona, the goddess of silence. 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ElO 
 
 705 
 
 An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. 
 
 Anta'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; lie 
 was squeezed to death b)^ Hercules. 
 
 Anfteros. one of the names of Cupid. 
 
 Anteverha, a goddess of women in labor. 
 
 Ari'thia, and Argi'va, titles of Juno. 
 
 An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. 
 
 AonHdts, a name of tha Muses. 
 
 Apatuiria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus. 
 
 A'pis, son of Jupiier and Niobe, called also, 
 Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the 
 Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines ; 
 after his death they worshipped him in the 
 form of an ox, a symbol of liusbandry. 
 
 Ajuch'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva 
 into a spider, lor presuming to vie with her 
 at spinning. 
 
 Arethu'sa, the daughter of Neretis. 
 
 Argenti'nus, and ^scula'nus, gods of wealth. 
 
 Ar'go, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- 
 panions to Colchis, and reported to have been 
 the first man-of-war. 
 
 Ar'gonauts, the companions of Jason. 
 
 Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- 
 dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the 
 ship Argo. 
 
 Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, 
 gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him 
 out of the Cretan labyrinth : bemg after- 
 wards deserted by him, she was married to 
 Bacchus, and made his piiesMss. 
 
 Arimas'p? a warlike people of Scylhia. 
 
 Ari'on, a .yric poet of Methymna. 
 
 Arislcb'us, son of Apollo and Cyrene. 
 
 Aristome'nes, a cruel Titan. 
 
 Artstoph'anes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a 
 town of Rhodes. 
 
 Arte'ims. ".he Delphic sybil ; also Diana. 
 
 Asde'pia festivals of jEsculapius. 
 
 Asco'lia, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. 
 
 Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus. 
 
 Asti-apoi'us, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter. 
 
 AstrcB'a, the goddess of justice. 
 
 Astrol'ogus, a title of Hercules. ' 
 
 Asty'anax, the only son of Hector. 
 
 Astypaltb'a, daughter of Phoenix. 
 
 A'te, the goddess of revenge. 
 
 Atlan'tes, a savage paople of Ethiopia. 
 
 At'las, a king of Mauritania. 
 
 At'ropos, one of the three Fates. 
 
 Aver'nus, a lake on the borders of heu 
 
 Averrunc'us. a god of the Romans. 
 
 Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable oi 3000 
 oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- 
 cules cleansed it in one day. 
 
 A'vistuper, a title of Priapus. 
 
 Au'rea, a name of Fortuna. 
 
 Auro'ra, the goddess of morning. 
 
 Auio'leon, a general of the Crotonians. 
 
 Autum'nus, the ^od of fruits. 
 
 B 
 
 Bac'chus, the god of wine. 
 
 Bap'ta, the goddess of shame 
 
 Barba'ta, a title of Venus and Fortuna. 
 
 Bas'sareus. a title of Bacchus. 
 
 Bat'tus, a herdsman, turned by Mercury into a 
 loadstone. 
 
 Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband 
 Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, 
 travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- 
 fused 
 
 30* 
 
 Bellero'phon, son of Glaucus, klig »f Ephyra. 
 
 who underwent numberless hi.rdshlps fdi 
 
 refusing an intimacy with Sthenoboea, tha 
 
 wife of Prostus, king of Argos. 
 Bello'na, the goddess of war. 
 BerecynHhia Ma'ler, a title of Cybele. 
 Bereni'cs, a Grecian lady, who was the only 
 
 person of her sex permitted to see the CMym- 
 
 pic games. 
 Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. 
 Bib'Ua, the wife of Duillius, who first instituted 
 
 a triumph for naval victory. 
 Bi'ceps. and Bi'frons, names of Janua. 
 Bisul'lor, a name of Mars. 
 Bi'thon, a remarkably strong Grecian. 
 BoWna, a nymph rendered immortal for >ief 
 
 modesty and resistance of Apoilo. 
 Bo<na De'a^ a title of Cybele. and Fortuna. 
 Bo'mis Da'nion, a title of Priapus. 
 Bo'reas, son of jEstraeus and Heribeia, generally 
 
 put for the north wind. 
 Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna. 
 Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and 
 
 Terra : the poets feign him to have had a 
 
 hundred arms and fifty heads. 
 Brihno, and Bu'baslis, names of Hecate. 
 Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter, 
 
 given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr- 
 
 nessus, a city of Troas, by the Greeks. 
 Bron'les, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. 
 Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himseH' 
 
 into mount JElna., on account of his du- 
 
 formity. 
 Bruma'lia, feasts of Bacchus. 
 Bubo'na, the goddess of oxen. 
 Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel 
 
 tyrant ; he was slain by Har"ules. 
 Byb'lis, the daughter of Miletus. 
 
 Cabm-ini, priests of Ceres. 
 
 Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. 
 
 Ca'brus^ a god of the PhaselitBB. 
 
 Ca'cus, a son of Vulcan. 
 
 Cad'mus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who, 
 searching in vain for his sister, built the uity 
 of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of tha 
 Greek alphabet. 
 
 Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. 
 
 CcB'ca, and Conserva'trix, titles of Fortuna. 
 
 Cmc'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan. 
 
 CcB'neas, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 Cal'chas, a famous Greek soothsayer. 
 
 Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon. 
 
 CaUi'ope, the muse of heroic poetiy. 
 
 Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, whi3 
 reigned in the island of Ogygia, where sha 
 entertained and became enamored of Ulys- 
 ses, on his return from Troy. 
 
 Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. 
 
 Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of tht 
 Medes and Persians. 
 
 CanuB'na, and Carna, goddess of infants. 
 
 Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. 
 
 Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. 
 
 Car'dua, a household goddess. 
 
 CaTmen'ta, a name of Themis. 
 
 Car'na, a Roman goddess. 
 
 Carya'tis, a title of Diana. 
 
 Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to 
 starve their parents to death when 70 yearr 
 old, and to train up dogs for war. 
 
706 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 CassaiOdra, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. 
 
 CastaUides, the Muses, from the fountain Cas- 
 talius, at the foot of Parnassus. 
 
 Cas'tor, son of .Jupiter and Leda, between whom 
 and his brotlier Pollux immortality was al- 
 ternately shared. 
 
 Ca'tius, a tutelar god to grown persons. 
 
 Ce'crops, the first king of Athens. 
 
 Cela'no, one of the three Harpies. 
 
 Cen'taurs, children of Ixion, half men, half 
 horses, inhabiting Thessaly. 
 
 Cepha'lus, the son of Mercury and Hersa. 
 
 C&pheus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia. 
 
 Kjerau'nius, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 Oei'herus, a dog with three heads and necks, 
 who guarded the gitss of hell. 
 
 Certa'Ua, festivals in honor of Ceres. 
 
 Ce'res, the goddess of agriculture. 
 
 Ce'rus, or /s'e'rus, the god of opportunity. 
 
 Chal'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan. 
 
 Char'ites, a name of the Graces. 
 
 Cha'ron, the ferryman of hell. 
 
 Chi'mera, a strange monster of Lycia, which 
 was killed by Bellerophon. 
 
 Chi'ron, the preceptor of Achilles. 
 
 Chro'mis, a cruel son of Hercules 
 
 Chrysao'rius, a surname of Jupiter. 
 
 Ckry'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. 
 
 Cir'ce, a famous enchantress. 
 
 Cir'rha, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence 
 the winds issued which caused a divine rage, 
 and produced oracular responses. 
 
 Cithafrides, a title of the Muses. 
 
 Clau'sina, a name of Venus. 
 
 Clau'shis, or Ctu'sius, a name of Janus. 
 
 Uleo'medes, a famous wrestler. 
 
 Cli'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- 
 troness ol heroic poets. 
 
 CloH/io, one of the three Fates. 
 
 Clytemnes'lra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, 
 killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her 
 adu>;tery with .^gisthus. 
 
 Coci/'tus, a liver of hell, flowing from Styx. 
 
 CoUi'na, the goddess of hills. 
 
 Compita'lia, games of the household gods. 
 
 Co'mus, the god of festivals and merriment. 
 
 Concor'dia, the goddess of peace. 
 
 Conserva'tor, and Ctis'tos, titles of Jupiter. 
 
 Con'sus, a title of Neptune. 
 
 Corti'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. 
 
 Coryban'tes, and Cufe'tes, 'iriests o''' Cvbele. 
 
 Cre'on, a king of Thebes. 
 
 Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo. 
 
 Crinis'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change 
 himself into any shape. 
 
 Croe'sus, a rich king of Lydia. 
 
 Cro'nia, festivals in honor of Saturn. 
 
 Ctes'ibus, a famous Athenian parasite. 
 
 Ou'nia, the goddess of new-born infants. 
 
 Vu'pid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, 
 smiles, &c. 
 
 Ojf'clops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye 
 in the middle of their forehead. 
 
 Cyb'ele, the wife of Saturn. 
 
 Cychius, a king of Liguria ; also a son of Nep- 
 tune, who was invulnerable. 
 
 Cylle'nius, and Camil'lus, names of Mercury, 
 
 Cynoceph'ah, a people of India, said to have 
 heads resembling those jf dogs. 
 
 Cyn'thia, and Cyn'tkius, Diana, and Apollo. 
 
 Ch/pariBsa>'a,SL title of Minerva. 
 
 Cyp'ria, Cythere a, titles of Venus. * 
 
 DcBda'lion, the son ol jUcifer. 
 
 JDwd'alus, an artificer of Athens ^^ ho formed the 
 Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, 
 a.xe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts and 
 sails for ships. 
 
 Da'mon, the sincere friend of Pythias. 
 
 Dahnon, Bo'nus, Dithyram'bus, and Dionya'- 
 ius, titles of Bacchus. 
 
 Da'nae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos 
 seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden 
 shower. 
 
 Dana'ides, or Be'lides, the fifty daughters Jif 
 Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except 
 Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, the sons 
 of their uncle jEgyptus, on the marriage 
 night : they were therefore condemned to 
 draw water out of a deep well with sieves, 
 so that their labor was without end or suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Daph'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 
 
 Darda'nus, the founder of Troy. 
 
 Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an 
 account of the Trojan war. 
 
 De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus. 
 
 Dec'ima, a title of Lachesis. 
 
 Deian'ira, the wife of Hercules. 
 
 Deida'mia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of 
 Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, 
 while he lay concealed in woman's apparel 
 in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to 
 the Trojan war. 
 
 Deiape'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno. 
 
 Deipk'obe, the Cumean sybil. 
 
 Deiphhbus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 De'lia, Del'ius, Diana and Apollo. 
 
 De'las, the island where Apollo was bom. 
 
 DeVphi, a city of Phocis, lamous for a temple 
 and an oracle of Apollo. 
 
 Del'phicus, Didyvia-'us, titles of Apollo. 
 
 Dem'ades, an Athenian orator. 
 
 Deribices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who 
 punished all crimes with death. 
 
 Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes 
 saly, who, with his wile Pyrrha, was pre- 
 served iVom the general deluge, and re-peo 
 pled the world. 
 
 Dever'ra, the goddess of breeding women. 
 
 Diag'oras, a Rhodian, who died for joy, because 
 his three sons had on the same day gained 
 prizes at the Olympic games. 
 
 Dia'na, the goddess of hunting, &c. 
 
 Di'do, daughter of Belus, the founder and queen 
 of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have 
 burnt herself through despair, because .^ne- 
 as left her. 
 
 Di'es, and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter. 
 
 Diri'dyine, Dindyme'ne, titles of Cybele. 
 
 Diom'edes, a king of .flitoUa, who gained creal 
 reputation at Troy, and, accompanied bj 
 Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; aba, t 
 tyrant of Thrace. 
 
 Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses. 
 
 Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. \ 
 
 Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. 
 
 Di'rch, a title of the Furies. 
 
 Dis, a title of Pluto. 
 
 Discor'dia, the goddess of contention. 
 
 Domidu'ca, a title of Juno. 
 
 Domidu'cus, and Donii'tius, nuptial gods. 
 
 DomHna, a title of Proserpine. 
 
 Dry'ades, nymphs of the woods and fonaUt 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 
 
 707 
 
 Echi'on, a companion of Cadmus, 
 
 Ee'ho, daughter of Aer and Tellus, who pined 
 away for love of Narcissus. 
 
 Edoit'ixies, priestesses of Bacchus. 
 
 Edu'ca, a goddess of new born infants. 
 
 Ege'ria, a title sf Juno ; also a goddess. 
 
 EiecHra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
 temnestra. who instigated Orestes to revenge 
 their father's death on their mother and her 
 adulterer jEgisthus. 
 
 E'leus, and Eleuthe'rise, titles of Bacchus. 
 
 Ei&usin'ia, leasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- 
 pine. 
 
 Elo'ides, nymphs of Bacchus. 
 
 Einpu'scB, a name of the Gorgons. 
 
 Enaym'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso- 
 lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a 
 sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited him by night 
 in a cave of mount Latmus. 
 
 Enia'lius, a title of Mars. 
 
 En'yo, the same as Bellona. 
 
 Epe'us, the artist of the Trojan horse. 
 
 Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who 
 besieged Thebes, a second time. 
 
 Epilcb'nea, sacrifices to Bacchus. 
 
 Epistro'phia, and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. 
 
 Epizeph'rii, a people of Locris, who punished 
 those with death that drank more wine than 
 physicians prescribed. 
 
 Era'lo, tiie muse of love-poetry. 
 
 Er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox; 
 a river of hell. 
 
 Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated 
 
 Eriothohiius, a king of Athens, who, being lame 
 and very deformed in his feet, invented 
 coaches to conceal his lameness. 
 
 Erin'nys, a common name of the furies. 
 
 E'ros, one of the names of Cupid. 
 
 Eros'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his 
 name, set fire to the celebrated temple of 
 Diana at Ep'hesus. 
 
 Ete'odes, and Poly'nices, sons of CEdipus, who 
 violently haled, and at last killed each other. 
 
 Evad'ne. daughter of Mars and Thebe, who 
 threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- 
 band Cataneus, from affection. 
 
 Euc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du- 
 plicity, and dissimulation. 
 
 JEumen'ides, a nan.e o ' the Furies. 
 
 Evmhros'yne, one of the three Graces. 
 
 Euro'pa, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, 
 was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white 
 bull, into Crete. 
 
 Eury'ale, one of the three Gorgons. 
 
 Euryd'ice, the wife of Orpheus. 
 
 E'urymio'iis, an infernal deity. 
 
 Euter'pe, un muse presiding over music. 
 
 Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler. 
 
 F 
 
 Fab'ula, the goddess of lies. 
 
 Fahuli'nus, a god of infants. 
 
 Fa'ma, the goddess of report, &c. 
 
 Pas'cinum, a title of Priapus. 
 
 Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. 
 Clothes, Lachesis, and Atropos, intrusted 
 with the lives of mortals, &c. 
 
 Fau'na, and Fat'ua, names of Cybele. 
 
 Fau'nus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and la- 
 ther of the Fauns, rural gods. 
 
 Feb'rua, Flor'ida. Fluo'nia. titles of Juno. 
 
 Feb'rua, a goddess of purification. 
 
 Feb'ruus, a title of Pluto. 
 
 Fel.i'citas, the goddess of happiness. 
 
 Fer'culus, a household god. 
 
 Fere'tn'us, and Fulmina'ior, titles of Jupiter, 
 
 Fero'nia, a goddess of woods. 
 
 Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons. 
 
 Fid'ius, the god of treaties. 
 
 FlamHnes, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c. 
 
 F/o'ra, the goddess of flowers. 
 
 Fiuvia'les, or Potamides, nymphs of rivers. 
 
 For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers. 
 
 Fortu'na, or For'tune, the goddess of happineeta, 
 &c., said to be blind. 
 
 Fu'ries, or Eunien'ides, the three daughters o1 
 - Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, MegKra. 
 and Tisiphone, with hair composed of snakes 
 and armed with whips, chains, <fcc. 
 
 €t 
 
 Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion- 
 ately beloved by Polyphemus. 
 
 Gal'ii, castrated priests of Cybele. 
 
 Gal'his, or Alac'irion, a favorite of Mars, aw' 
 changed by him into a cock. 
 
 Game'Ua, a title of Juno. 
 
 Gan'ges, a famous river of India. 
 
 Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. 
 
 Gelasi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles. 
 
 Gelo'ni, a people of Scythia, who used to painl 
 themselves in order to appear more terrible 
 to their enemies. 
 
 Ge'nii, guardian angels. 
 
 Ge'nhisl a name of Priapus. 
 
 Ger'yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with 
 human flesh, and was therefore killed by 
 Hercules. 
 
 Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva. 
 
 Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating 
 a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus, 
 who exchanged his arms of gold for the bra- 
 zen ones of Diomede. 
 
 Gtjos'sis, a name of Ariadne. 
 
 Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of 
 Phrygia, remarkable for tyingaknotof cordS 
 on whicti the empire of Asia depended, in so 
 very intricate a manner, that Alexander the 
 Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. 
 
 Gor'iro7is, the three daughters of Phorcys and 
 Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who 
 could change into stone those whom they 
 looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin- 
 cipal of them. 
 
 Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas. 
 
 Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, tfio 
 daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; atten- 
 dants on Venus and the Muses. 
 
 Gradi'vus, a title of Mars. 
 
 Gy'ges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of. 
 Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so 
 incensed her that she slew Candaules, and 
 married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by 
 means of a ring could render himself inn- 
 sible. 
 
 H 
 
 Jffa'des, a title of Pluto. 
 
 Hamaxo'bii, a people of Scythia, who lived in 
 
 carts, and removed from place to place at 
 
 necessity required. 
 
708 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 Harmo'nis, a fiimoua artist of Troy. 
 
 ■Harpal'yca, a very beautiful maid of Argos. 
 
 Har'pies, three monsters, Aello, Celoeno, and 
 Ocypete, with the faces of virgins, bodies of 
 vultures, and hands armed with monstrous 
 claws. 
 
 Harpoc'rates, the Egyptian god of silence. 
 
 He'oe, the goddess ot youth. 
 
 He'brus, a river in Thrace. 
 
 He'calms, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. 
 
 Hec'ate, Diana's name in hell. 
 
 Ilec'lor, a son oi' Priam and Hecuba, and the 
 most valiant of all the Trojans, 
 
 Hec'uba, the wife of Priam. 
 
 Bege'sius^ a philosopher of Cyrene, who de- 
 scribed the miseries of life with such a 
 gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors 
 killed themselves through despair. 
 
 Hel'ena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti- 
 ful womar, in the world, who, running away 
 with Paris, occasioned the Trojan vvar. 
 
 Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 HelHcon, a famous mountain of Bceotia, dedi- 
 cated to Apollo and the Muses. 
 
 Hera'ia, sacritices to Juno. 
 
 Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re- 
 markable for his numerous exploits and 
 dangerous enterprises. 
 
 Heribe'ia, the wife of Astreus. 
 
 Her'mcB, statutes of Mercury. 
 
 Her'mes, a name of Mercury. 
 
 HeTmi'one, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- 
 ried to Cadmus; also a daughter of Mene- 
 laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 
 
 Ue'ro, a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, 
 priestess of Venus ; Leander, of Abydos, 
 loved her so tenderly that he swam over the 
 Hellespont every night to see her ; but being 
 at length unfortunately drowned, she threw 
 herself into the sea, through despair. 
 
 Herod'otus, a very famous historian of Halicar- 
 nassus. 
 
 Heroph'ila, the Erythrsan sybil. 
 
 Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. 
 
 Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star. 
 
 Hesiperides, the daughters of Hesperus ; J3gle, 
 Arethusa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar- 
 den bearing golden apples, watched by a 
 dragon, wliich Hercules slew, and bore away 
 the fruit. 
 
 He'sus, a name of Mars among the Gauls. 
 
 Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis. 
 
 Hippocam'pi, Neptune's horses. 
 
 Sip'pocrene, a fountain at the botton' if mount 
 Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. 
 
 Hippol'ytus, the son of Theseus and Antiope or 
 Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his 
 stepmother Phffidro. At the request of 
 Diana, jEsculapius restored him to life, 
 after he had been thrown from his chariot, 
 antl dragged through the woods till he was 
 Ufrn in pieces. 
 
 Hippo'na, the goddess of horses and stables. 
 
 Eiatc'ria, the goddess of history. 
 
 HorMn'sis, a name of Venus. 
 
 Ho'rM.s, a title of the sun. 
 
 HostiWna, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Hy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
 iEthra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- 
 thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They 
 were changed by Jupiter into seven stars. 
 
 Uy'bla, a mountain iii Sicily, universally famous 
 for its thyme and bees. 
 
 ffy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heada, or « 
 some say nine, others fifty, killed by Ilercu 
 les in the lake Lerna. 
 
 HygeHa, the goddess of health. 
 
 HyUlus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire. 
 
 Hy'inen, the god of marriage. 
 
 Hype'rion, a son of Coelus and Terra. 
 
 Hypsip'yle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- 
 ished for preserving her father when all the 
 othei- men of the island were murdered by 
 their kindred. 
 
 lac'chus, a name of Bacchus. 
 
 lan'the, the beautiful wife of Iphi.s. 
 
 lape'tits, a son of Ctslem and Tejra. 
 
 lar'bas, a cruel king of Mauritania. 
 
 Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, havmg re- 
 ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went 
 into Attica, to show men the use of it; but, 
 making some shepherds drunk, they thought 
 he had given them poison, and therefore 
 threw him into a well. 
 
 Ica'rus, the son of Daedalus, who, flying with his 
 father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring 
 too high, melted the wax of his wings, and 
 fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian 
 sea. 
 
 Pda, a mountain near Troy. 
 
 Idcb'a Mater, a name of Cybele. 
 
 Jdoi'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele. 
 
 Ida'iia, a name of Venus. 
 
 Id'mon, a famous soothsayer. 
 
 Idu'thea, Jupiter's nurse. 
 
 lli'one, the eldest dau°:hter of Priam. 
 
 llis'sus, a river in Attica. 
 
 I'lus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom 
 Troy was called Ilium. 
 
 Tmpera'tor, a name of Jupiter. 
 
 In'achis and I'ses, names of lo. 
 
 Vno, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and 
 wife of Athainas. 
 
 Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women. 
 
 Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of J uno. 
 
 In'uits, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan. 
 
 I'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- 
 ter into a white heifer ; but afterwards re- 
 suming her former shape, was worshipped 
 as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the 
 name of Isis. 
 
 Iph'iclus, the twin brother of Hercules. 
 
 Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
 temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready 
 to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, 
 was, by that goddess, transformed into a 
 white hart, carried to Tauris, and made har 
 priestess. 
 
 rphis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself 
 for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas. 
 
 Iph'itus, son of Pra.xonides, who institute 
 Olympic games to Hercules. 
 
 Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno'B 
 favorite companion, and her messenger on 
 affairs of discord, &c. 
 
 Ptys, the son of Tereus and Prbgne, murdered 
 and served up by his mother at a banquet 
 before Tereus, in revenge for his having vio- 
 lated her sister Philomela. 
 
 IxVon, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened in 
 hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, 
 for boasting that he had lain with Juno. 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 
 
 703 
 
 ianHtoT, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus. 
 
 /u'nus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and 
 Creusa. 
 
 Ja'son, a Tiiessalian prince, son of .Eson, who 
 by Medea's help brought away the golden 
 fleece from Colchis. 
 
 /o'casta, the d.iughter of Creon, who unwittingly 
 married her own son, Oedipus. 
 
 Ju'no, the sister and wife of Jupiter. 
 
 Ju'no, Inferina, a name of Proserpine. 
 
 Juno'neis, guardian angels of women. 
 
 Ju>picer, a son of Saturn and Ops— the supreme 
 deity of the heathen. 
 
 Ju'piter S'ectin'dus, a name of Neptune. 
 
 Ju'iiter Tei'tius, Inferhms, or Sty'gius, seve- 
 ral appellations given to Pluto. 
 
 Juven'ta, a goddess of youth. 
 
 La'chesis, one of the three Fates. 
 Lacin'ia, and Lucil'ia, titles of Juno. 
 Lactu'ra, or LaclucVna^ a goddess of corn. 
 Lasirig'ones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted 
 
 and ate the companions of Ulysses. 
 LaHus, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by 
 
 his own son, Q^.dipus. 
 La'mice,., a name of the Gorgons. 
 Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of 
 
 Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by 
 
 serpents for opposing the reception of the 
 
 wooden horse into Troy. 
 La'pis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. 
 La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped 
 
 as household gods. 
 Latera'nus, a household god. 
 Laver'na, a goddess of thieves. 
 Lean'der, see Hero. 
 Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- 
 
 darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a 
 
 swan. 
 Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, &c. 
 Le'ncB, priestesses of Bacchus. 
 Ltr'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra 
 
 killed there by Hercules. 
 Le'the, a river of hell, whose waters caused a 
 
 total forgetfulness of things past. 
 I/'va'ncu, a goddess of new born infants. 
 Libiti'na, the goddess of funerals. 
 Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. 
 Luben'tia, the goddess of pleasure. 
 Lu'cifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the 
 
 morning star. 
 Lii'na, Diana's name in heaven. 
 Lupe,calia, feasts in honor of Pan. 
 Lyper'ci, priests of Pan. 
 Lycu'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter 
 
 into a wolf. 
 
 M 
 
 Ma'ia, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned in to 
 
 a star to avoid Juno's rage. 
 Manaeenc'ta, a goddess of women in labor. 
 Manlwra, a goddess of com. 
 Mantur^na, and Mehta, nuptial goddesses. 
 Mari'na, Mel'anis, Mer'elrix, Migoni'tis, and 
 
 dlur'cia, titles of Venus. 
 Mars, the god of war. 
 
 MausoHus, a king of Caria, who had a most 
 magnificent tomb erected to him by his wifo 
 
 Artemisia. 
 
 Mede'a, daughter of Mies, king of Colchis, a 
 famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob 
 tain the golden fleece. 
 
 Meditri'na, a goddess of grown peiBons. 
 
 Medu'sa, the chief of the three Gorgons. 
 
 Megcb'ra, one of the three Furies. 
 
 Megalen'sia, festivals in honor of Cybele. 
 
 Megu'ra, the wile of Hercules. 
 
 Meiani'ra, a name of Venus. 
 
 Me'lia, nymphs of the fields. 
 
 Me'lius, a name of Hercules. 
 
 yielo'na, the goddess of honey. 
 
 Melpom'ene, the muse of tragedy. 
 
 Mein'non, a king of Abydos. 
 
 Menala'us, a famous Centaur. 
 
 Menela'us, the husband of Helena. 
 
 Men'tha, a mistress of Pluto. 
 
 Men'tor, the governor of Telemachus. 
 
 Mer'cury, the messenger of the gods, inventor ol 
 letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise, 
 and robbers. 
 
 Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. 
 
 Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac- 
 chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had^he power 
 given him of turning whatever he touched 
 into gold. 
 
 Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. 
 
 MiinaVlones, attendants on Bacchus. 
 
 Minerlva, the goddess of wisdom. 
 
 Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraoitJi- 
 nary justice, a judge of hell. 
 
 Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. 
 
 Min'yoi, a name of the Argonauts. 
 
 Mneinos'y7ie, the goddess of memory. 
 
 Mo'mus, the god of raillery, wit, &c. 
 
 Mone'la, a title of Juno. 
 
 Mor'pheus, the god of sleep, dreams, &c. 
 
 Mors, the goddess of death. 
 
 Mul'ciber, a title of Vulcan. 
 
 Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
 syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of 
 all the sciences, presidents of musicians and 
 poets, and governesses of the feasts of the 
 gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- 
 pom.ene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, 
 and Urania. 
 
 Mu'ia, the goddess of silence. 
 
 N 
 
 Nania, the goddess of funeral songs. 
 
 Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. 
 
 Narcis'sus. a very beautiful youth, who, falling 
 in love with his own sliadow m the water, 
 pined away into a daflbdil. 
 
 Na'tio, and Nundihia, goddess of infants. 
 
 Namafa, a country of El is, famed for a terribi* 
 lion killed there by Hercules. 
 
 Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge. 
 
 Nep'lune, the god of the sea. 
 
 Ne'reides, sea nymphs. 
 
 Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. 
 
 Niceph'oTus, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 AVnus, the first king of the Assyrians. 
 
 Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- 
 phion, who, jjreferring herself to Latona, 
 had her 14 children killed by Diana am 
 Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. 
 
 No'mius, a name of Apollo. 
 
710 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 (fox, the most ancient ot the deities j she was 
 even reckoned older than Chaos. 
 
 Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. 
 
 OccaUor, the god of harrowing. 
 
 Oce'anus, an ancient sea god. 
 
 Ocyp'ele, one of the three Harpies. 
 
 CEd'ipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of 
 Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, 
 unwittingly killed his father, married his 
 mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out 
 his eyes. 
 
 Om'phale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- 
 cules was so enamored, that she made him 
 submit to spinning and otlier unbecoming 
 offices. 
 
 Optr'tus, a name of Pluto. 
 
 Opi'gena, a name of .Juno. 
 
 Ops, a name of Cybele. 
 
 Orbo'na, a goddess of grown persona. 
 
 Ores'tes, the son of Agamemnon. 
 
 Ori'on, a great and mighty hunter. 
 
 Or'pheus, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had 
 great skill in music, and was torn in pieces 
 by the Meenades, for disliking the company 
 of women after the death of his wife Eury- 
 dice. 
 
 Oryihi'a, a queen of the Amazons. 
 
 Osi'ris, see Apis. 
 
 Pac'tolus, a river of Lydia, with golden sands 
 and medical waters. 
 
 Ptz'an, and Pha'bus, names of Apollo. 
 
 Pa'les, the goddess of shepherds. 
 
 Palil'ia, feasts in honor of Pales. 
 
 Pallu'dium, a statue of Minerva, which the 
 Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that 
 their city could not be taken whilst that re- 
 mained in it. 
 
 Pal'las, and Py'lotis, names of Minerva. 
 
 Pan, the god of shepherds. 
 
 Pando'ra, the first woman made by Vulcan, and 
 endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- 
 ter gave her a box containing all manner of 
 evils, war, famine, &c., wilh hope at the 
 bottom. 
 
 Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. 
 
 Pa'phia, a title of Venus. 
 
 Par'ccb, a name of the Fates. 
 
 Par'is, or Al'exander, son of Priam and He- 
 cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away 
 with Helena, and occasioned the Trojaii 
 war. 
 
 Farnas'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for 
 a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite 
 residence of the Muses. 
 
 Par'tunda, a nuptial goddess. 
 
 Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. 
 
 Pat'areus, a title of Apollo. 
 
 Pateli'na, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Fatula'ciiis, a natne of Janus. 
 
 Patule'his, a name of Jupiter. 
 
 PavenHia, and Poli'na, goddesses of infanta. 
 
 Peg'asus, a winged horse belonging to Apollo 
 and the Muses. 
 
 PeWnia, a goddess of grown persons. 
 
 Pena'teg >mall statues or household goda. 
 
 Penel'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for b*l 
 chastity aitd fidelity during the long absenci 
 of Ulysses. 
 
 Per'seus, son of Jupiter and Danae, who per- 
 forn^ed many extraordmary exploits by 
 means of Medusa's head. 
 
 Phmcasia'ni, ancient god.'^ of Greec-s. 
 
 Pha'eton, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene; wh« 
 asked the guidance of his father's cliaiiot 
 for one day, as a proof of his divine descent ; 
 out unable to manage the horses, set the 
 world on fire, and was iheiefore struck by 
 Jupiter with a thunderbolt into tlie river Po. 
 
 PhaVlica, feasts of Bacchus. 
 
 Pliilam'mon, a skilful musician. 
 
 Pailo?ne'la, daughter of Pandion, king of Athena, 
 who was ravished by her brother-in-law, 
 Tereus, and was changed into a nightih- 
 gale. 
 
 P/nn'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- 
 gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, 
 but was recompensed with the knowledge 
 of futurity; also a king of Th;-ace, turned 
 into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- 
 dusa's head. 
 
 Phleg'ethun, a boiling river of hell. 
 
 PhWgon, one of the four horses of Sol. 
 
 Phleg>y(z, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by 
 Neptune, on account of their piracies anil 
 other crimes. 
 
 Phcb'bas, the priestess of Apollo. 
 
 PhcB'bus, a title of Apollo. 
 
 PhcB'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falseiy aiv 
 cused of having attempted the iionorofone 
 of his father's concubines, was condemned 
 to have his eyes torn out; but was cured by 
 Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege 
 of Troy. 
 
 Picumhius, a rural god. 
 
 Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womei*. 
 
 Phi'dus, a mountain in Thessaly. 
 
 Pi'tho, a goddess of eloquence. 
 
 Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
 Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, 
 Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they were 
 changed into stars. 
 
 Plu'to, the god of hell. 
 
 Plu'tus, the god of riches. 
 
 PolHux. See Castor. 
 
 Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler. 
 
 Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. 
 
 Polyhyin'nia, the muse of rhetoric. 
 
 Pohjphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- 
 tune, with but one eye in the middle of hu 
 forehead. 
 
 Poino'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn. 
 
 Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. 
 
 Probnesti'na, a naine of Fortuna. 
 
 Prcbs'tes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. 
 
 Praxit'eles, a famous statuary. 
 
 Pri<am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, 
 Hector, &c. ; lie was tlie las', king of Troy. 
 
 Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and 
 sister of Philomela ; she was turned into a 
 swallow. 
 
 Prome'theus, son of lapetus, who animate(i a 
 man that he had formed of clay, with fire, 
 which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole 
 from heaven, and was therefore chained by 
 Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vultur* 
 continually preying upon his liver. 
 
 Propy'l(Ba, a name of Hecate. 
 
 Pns'erpine, the wife of Pluto 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 
 
 711 
 
 ProHeua, a sea god, who could transform himself 
 into any shape. 
 
 Psy'che, a goddess of pleasure. 
 
 Pyl'ades, the constant friend of Orestes. 
 
 Pyr'amus, and This'be, two lovers of Babylon, 
 who killed themselves with the same sword, 
 and occasioned the turning the berries of the 
 mulberry-tree, under which they died, from 
 white to red. 
 
 PrycB'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. 
 
 Pyr'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his 
 cruelty at the siege of Troy. 
 
 Py'thon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud 
 of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in 
 memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. 
 
 Pythonis'sa, the priestess of Apollo. 
 
 0- 
 
 Qitad'rifrons, a title of Janus. 
 Qui'es, a goddess of grown persons. 
 Quieta'lis, and Quie'tus, names of Pluto. 
 Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas. 
 
 R 
 
 Rect'us, a title of Bacchus. 
 
 Re' dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. 
 
 Regi'na, a title of Juno. 
 
 Rhadanian'thus, one of the three infernal 
 
 judges. 
 Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. 
 Rhe'a-syl'via, the mother of Romulus. 
 Robi'gus, a god of corn. 
 Rom'ulus, the first king of Rome. 
 Rumi'na, a goddess of new-born infants. 
 Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. 
 Rtisi'na, a rural deity. 
 
 S 
 
 Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. 
 
 Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. 
 
 Saljnone'us, a king of Elis, struck by a thunder- 
 bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. 
 
 Sa'lus, the goddess of health 
 
 Sanc'us, a god ot the Sabines 
 
 Saior, and SoiTi'tur, rural gods. 
 
 Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. 
 
 Satur'nus, or Sal'um, the son of Coelus and 
 Terra. 
 
 Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- 
 sters, half men, half goats. 
 
 Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. 
 
 Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn. 
 
 Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. 
 
 Sen'ta, a goddess of married women. 
 
 Sera'pis. S«e Apis. 
 
 Sili'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- 
 chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, 
 and was drunk every day. 
 
 Si'tnis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. 
 
 Sis'yphus, the son of jEolus, killed by Theseus, 
 and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone 
 up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and 
 numerous robberies. 
 
 Sol, a name of Apollo. 
 
 Som'nus, the god of sleep. 
 
 Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, 
 who destroyed hersi^lf because CEdipus 
 Bolved the enigma she proposed. 
 
 Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. 
 
 Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice ia reported to 
 
 have been as strong and as loud astnevoicei 
 
 of 50 men together. 
 Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. 
 Styx, a river of hell. 
 Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. 
 Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. 
 Sylva'nus, a god of woods and foreets. 
 Sy'rens, sea monsters 
 
 T 
 
 Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. 
 
 Tanta'lits, a king of Paphlagonia, who, seir- 
 ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelop*. 
 to try the divinity of the gods was plunged 
 to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to 
 everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- 
 ment for his barbarity and impiety. 
 
 Tarta'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. 
 
 Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupitei 
 carried away Europa. 
 
 Telchihies, priests of Cybele. 
 
 Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses. 
 
 Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, th« 
 resort of the gods. 
 
 Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. 
 
 Terpsicho're, the muse of music, &c. 
 
 Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. 
 
 ThaHia, the muse of comedy. 
 
 The'mis, the daughter of Caelum and Terra, tlib 
 goddess of laws, oracles, &c. 
 
 Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. 
 
 The'lis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- 
 dess of the sea. 
 
 Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. 
 
 Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. 
 
 Tisipk'one, one of the three Furies. 
 
 Ti'lan, son of Coelum and Terra, and the elder 
 brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. 
 
 Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. 
 
 Tri'tonia, a name of Minerva. 
 
 Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding oiii 
 a siege often years against the Greeks, but 
 they at last captured and destroyed it. 
 
 TuteWna, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. 
 
 U 
 
 Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king 
 of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence 
 was eminently serviceable to the Greeks u 
 the Trojan war. 
 
 TJnxHa, a title of Juno. 
 
 Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. 
 
 V 
 
 Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. 
 Vagiia'nus, a god of little infants. 
 VaUonia, a goddess of valleys. 
 VenVlia, a wife of Neptune. 
 Ve'nus, the goddess ol' love, and beauty. 
 Vergil'lm, a name of the Pleiades. 
 Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. 
 Vertum'nua, the god of spring. 
 
712 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 Ves'ta, the goddess of fire. 
 
 Via'les, deities of the highways. 
 
 Vibil'ia, the goddess of wanderers. 
 
 VirgTTien'sis, a nuptial goddess. 
 
 Vir'go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. 
 
 VirUis, and Visca'ta, titles of Fortune. 
 
 Viri'ptaca, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- 
 conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, 
 at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the 
 married couple repaired after a quarrel, and 
 returned together friendly. 
 
 Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. 
 
 Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. 
 
 Sim'tktu, one of the horses of Achillea, born of 
 
 the harpy CeloenD, a river neEi Troy, caU<4 
 
 also Scamander. 
 
 Z 
 
 Za'greus, a title of Bacchus. 
 
 Zeph'yrus, son of jEolus and Aurora WiiO pas 
 
 sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is pul 
 
 for the west wind. 
 Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, 
 
 who accompanied the Argonauts, anil dror« 
 
 the Harpies from Thrace. 
 Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very esptlt 
 
 in music. ^ 
 
 Ze'ua, a title of Jupiter. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. 
 II. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1883 years 
 
 I. ANCIENT CHEONOLOGY. 
 
 DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 
 
 I. From the Creation, 
 to the Deluge, 
 
 B. 0. 
 
 2348. 
 
 2. From the Deluge, 
 
 to the Call of Abraham, 
 
 3 From the Call of Abraham, 
 to the Exode from Egypt, 
 
 i From the Exode, 
 
 to the Kingdom of Saul, 
 
 5 From Saul, 
 
 to the Captivity of Israel, 
 
 6 From the Captivity, 
 
 to Alexander the Great, 
 
 7. From Alexander, 
 
 2348 
 
 1921 427vears. 
 
 1921 
 1491. 
 
 ..1656 years The Antediluvian Period. 
 
 ..The Dispersion Period. 
 
 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 
 
 396 y eara The Theocratic Period. 
 
 507 years. The Monarchical Period. 
 
 258 years. . ... The Persian Perioa. 
 
 to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years. The Grecian Period. 
 
 146 years The Roman Period. 
 
 1491 
 
 1095. 
 
 1095 
 
 588. 
 
 330. 
 330 
 
 S From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 
 to the Birth of Christ, , 
 
 ' From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned B a- 
 BEFORE CHRIST. Thei/ are then changed to a. o.—the Year of our Lord. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 FIEST PEKIOD— (M« A7itediluvian)—1G56 yem^s. 
 
 B.C. 
 4004 
 
 8S75 
 8S74 
 3769 
 
 8679 
 8609 
 8544 
 8SS2 
 8317 
 3180 
 3074 
 3017 
 294S 
 246S 
 2848 
 
 THE CEEATION OF THE WOELT)— (^6&;'ew Pentateuch.)* 
 
 The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour. 
 
 The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman — a husbandman. 
 
 The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 
 
 Seth born, the thii-d son of Adam. 
 Enos born. 
 
 ('ainan bom. 
 
 Mahalaleel born. 
 
 Jared " 
 
 Enoch " 
 
 Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) 
 
 Lamech " 
 
 Death of Adam, aged 930 years. 
 
 Enoch translated. 
 
 Noah born. 
 
 The building of the .irk CDmmenced. 
 
 THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 8154 
 
 B. C] 
 
 Enoch born, the first son of Oain.t 
 
 Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He In 
 
 troduces the use of weights and measures. — Jo 
 
 sephus. Tytler. 
 Irad. 
 
 Mehujael. 
 Methusael. 
 Lamech — polygamy introduced. 
 
 Jabal, 
 
 The first to 
 build a Tent 
 for habita- 
 tion, and to 
 use cattle for 
 purposes of 
 
 Jubal, 
 He invent- 
 ed the Harp 
 and the (3r- 
 gra?!, or wind 
 
 Tubul-cain, 
 He discover. 
 ed the mode 
 of preparing 
 and using 
 
 andstringedjiron, brassi 
 instruments and other 
 
 husbandry, lof music. 'Metals. 
 
 Naamah.. 
 
 She intio- 
 duced the 
 artsof(Spi78- 
 ning and 
 Weamiig. 
 
 * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- 
 maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700; the Septuagint, 5ST2; Josephus, 4658; 
 the Talmudists, 5344; Scaliger, 3950 ; Petavius, 39S4; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named 
 enumerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and re" 
 molest date of which is no less than 8268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and ia 
 here adopted as the most generally received standard. 
 
 t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-haod column, 
 are, however, contemporary with those in the other column. 
 
 They 
 
 Remaeks. — The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed 
 since the birth of Christ. Of the progress ol knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing 
 Is known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, caulking, and the use of pitch, or 
 paint, of measures by cubit, etc., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in theii 
 adaptation to the use of man, other arts, and a considerable advance in science and the mechan- 
 ical powers. 
 
 The Tabular Views are continued across two pages at the same time; so thai 
 contempokakt events in diffekent nations may be seen at a glance 
 
716 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 SECOND V^^lOU— [Dispersion of Mankina.y 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 Progress op Society and the Arts. 
 
 2347 
 
 2247 
 
 Z&i 
 
 Wine made by Noah from the grape. 
 
 Bricks made, and cement used to nnite them. 
 Confusion of Languages at Babel. 
 
 Astronomical observations begun at Babylon. 
 
 2100 
 
 2095 
 
 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed 
 through the earth : those of Shem probably 
 in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet \ 
 Europe. 
 
 2347. The curse pronounced upon the desceiid- 
 ants of Ham. 
 
 2247. The building of Babel.* 
 
 2245. BABYLON founded by Ninurod, son o( 
 Cush, and Grandson of Ham. 
 
 NINEVEH founded by Ashur, soa oJ 
 Shem. 
 
 Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 
 
 Sculpture and Painting employed to com- 
 memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. 
 
 Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science 
 of Geometry begin- to be cultivated. 
 
 1998 
 
 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of 
 Husbandry, and the method of making 
 Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 
 
 1996. Abraham bora. 
 
 1921. The call of Abranaia. 
 
 * The cnronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placei 
 «abel 531 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 7T6 b. o, 
 —the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates. 
 
THE world's PilOGRESS. 
 
 427 years.— The Deluge to Abraham. 
 
 717 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY.— (/n this period traditional and uncertain.) 
 
 Europe. 
 
 2207 CHINA. The first imperial 
 dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi 
 (who is perhaps Noah him- 
 self) is mentioned as the iirst 
 Chinese monarch. 
 
 2124 Belus reigns in BABYLON. — 
 [Some suppose Belus to be 
 the Nimrod of Scripture. If 
 BO, there is a discrepancy of 
 121 years beiween the sacred 
 and profane chronologies.] 
 The origin of the kingdoms 
 of Babylon and Nineveh, and 
 of the Assyrian empire, is 
 variously staled by the chron- 
 ologists. See Sacred Hist.] 
 
 2069 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in 
 
 Nineveh. 
 2059 He establishes the ASSYRIAN 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 2188. Misraim (Menes), the son 
 of Ham, builds Memphis, in 
 EGYPT, and begins the E- 
 gyptian monarchy. 
 
 2111. THEBES founded by 
 Busiris. 
 
 2100. Osymandyas, the first 
 warlike king, passes into 
 Asia, and conquers Bactria. 
 
 2085. Egypt conquered by the 
 shepherd kings of Phenicia, 
 who hold it 2t)0 years. 
 
 2089. SICYON, the first king- 
 dom of GREECE, foundet! 
 by Egialus, or Inachus. 
 
 2048. A colony of Pheniciant 
 
 land in Ireland. (7) 
 2042. Uranus arrives in Greece 
 
 Semiramis enlarges and embel 
 lishes Babylon^ and makes it 
 tjie seat of empire. [By others 
 placed 2107 b. c] 
 
 1975 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- 
 opia, and India. 
 
 !l938 LakeMoeris-construcled.] 
 
 1937iThe Arabs seize Nineveh. (1) 
 
 Revolt of the Titani 
 War of the Gianto 
 
718 THE world's progress. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD — {The Abrahamic or Patriarchal.)- 
 
 1920 
 
 1891 
 
 1822 
 
 Prookess op Society and the Arts. 
 
 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 
 
 Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 
 
 Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 15?8 
 1582 
 
 1580 
 
 II-.06 
 
 Atlas, the astronomer. 
 
 The chronology of the Arundelian marbles 
 
 begins. 
 The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. 
 
 Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. 
 Book of Job written about this time. (?) 
 
 Thejlute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 
 Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams 
 
 and draws prognostics from omens. 
 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry 
 
 1921. Abraham called. 
 
 1920. —goes into Egypt. 
 
 1912. — delivers Lot from captivity, and re 
 
 ceiveslhe blessing of Melchizedec. 
 1909. Ishmael born. 
 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. 
 
 God renews his covenant witli Abraham. 
 1896. Isaac born. 
 
 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in 
 
 sacrifice. 
 1856. Isaac married. 
 
 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 
 
 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 
 
 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 
 17>:i9. His name changed to Israel. 
 
 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 
 
 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 
 
 1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt 
 
 1702. End of the seven years' famine. 
 
 1699. Death of Jacob. 
 
 1635. Deatli of Joseph. 
 
 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt 
 1574. Aaron born. 
 1571. Moses born. 
 
 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 
 1513. The supposed era of Job. 
 
 1491. God appears to Moses m a buming bush 
 at Horeb, .nnd sends him to Egypt to dielivei 
 the Israel iius. 
 
 The Ten Plagues in Egypt 
 Institution of the Passover. 
 The EXODUS of the Israelites ftoia 
 Egypt 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) 
 
 719 
 
 PROFANE ni'&'TOKY .—{Still fabulous or uncertain.) 
 
 1766 
 
 Africa. 
 
 China. The 2d Imperial dy. 
 nasty begins. 
 
 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 
 
 1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns 
 in Egypt. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1856. Inachus, the Phenician 
 plants a colony in ARGOS. 
 
 1807. Phoronci'o reigns ic 
 Argos. 
 
 1764. Ogyges reijpia m Bceotia. 
 
 1707. Apis, king ol Argos. 
 
 1732. The Ogygean Deluge in 
 Attica. 
 
 1711. The city of Argos built 
 by Argus, the son of Niobe. 
 
 1710. A colony of Arcndians 
 emigrate into Italy under 
 CEnotrus.— CEnotria after- 
 wards called Magna Grecia. 
 
 1641. Criasus succeeds 
 father, Argus. 
 
 hi 
 
 1556. ATHENS founded l,v 
 
 Cecrops. 
 
 1552. Triopas. king of Argog 
 The kingdom divided, Poly- 
 caon reigning in Jlessenia. 
 
 1546. TROY founded by Sea 
 mander. 
 
 1529. Deluge of Deucalion u\ 
 Thessaly. 
 
 1520. Corinth founded. 
 
 1516. Sparta founded, and th« 
 kingdom of Laconia, or La 
 cedemon. 
 
 1507. The Areopagus establish- 
 ed in Athens. 
 
 1506. Crotopas succeeds to thi" 
 throne of Argos. 
 
 1504. Deucalion arrives in At 
 tica. 
 
 The kingdom of Messe 
 nia co'Tiinenced by Polycaon 
 
 1493. THEBES in Bceotia, 
 founded by Cadmus, a Phe 
 nician, who introduce th« 
 alphabet intj Greece. 
 
720 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 FOUKTH PERIOD.— (TAe Mosaic or T/ieocratic.)— 
 
 1490 
 
 U86 
 
 1453 
 
 1370 
 1356 
 
 Pkooress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 
 Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. 
 
 The fabulous or traditionary Hermes-Tris- 
 megislus placed about this period. 
 
 Bacchus, god of wine. 
 
 Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. 
 Apollo, god of music and poetry. 
 
 Bucklers used in single combat invented by 
 
 Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. 
 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- 
 
 pus. 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 1284 
 126; 
 1263 
 
 1240 
 
 Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled 
 
 m music. 
 The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the 
 
 council of Amphictyons. 
 Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the 
 
 first naval expedition on record. 
 
 Musceus, a poet. 
 
 The axe wedge, toimble and lever, also masts 
 and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of 
 Athens. 
 
 Ihe game oi Backgammon invented by Pala- 
 m jdes of Greece , 
 
 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt 
 The law given at Mount Sinai. 
 
 1471. Rebellion ofKorahjDathan, and Abiram 
 
 1453. Aaron dies. 
 
 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and diea 
 
 1451. Israelites enter Canaan urder Joshua. 
 
 1443. Joshua dies. 
 
 1405. Othniel judges Israel. 
 
 1390. The tribe of Benjamin f Imost est net. 
 
 1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 
 1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 
 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an 
 
 ox goad. 
 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan. 
 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- 
 
 ites— Sisera killed by Jael. 
 
 1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantea, 
 1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats t'ns Mi 
 dianites. 
 
 1209. Abimelech judges Israel 
 1206. Tola judges Israel. 
 
 1183. Jair, judge of laraal. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 721 
 
 396 years. — Moses to Saul. 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY.— (S-ZtiZ uncertain.^ 
 
 430' Dardanus, kng of Troy, builds 
 Dardania. 
 
 1449 
 
 1413 
 
 1374 
 1314 
 
 1260 
 1259 
 
 1252 
 1240 
 
 1225 
 1222 
 
 1220 
 1215 
 
 1104 
 
 1184 
 
 1183 
 1182 
 
 Ericthonlus reigns in Troy. 
 
 Cuehanrishathaim, kiiig of 
 Mesopotamia. (See Scrip- 
 
 Teucer, king of Troy. 
 
 Troas, king of Troy. 
 Ilus, son of Troas, founder of 
 Ilium. 
 
 Laomedon, king of Troy. 
 Plienicia: TYRE founded. 
 
 Second Assyrian Dynasty : 
 
 Mithreaus or Ninus II. 
 Troy taken by the Argonauts. 
 
 Hercules arrives in Phrygia. 
 Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 
 les, first king of LYDIA. 
 Priam, king of Troy. 
 Tautanas, king of Assyria. 
 
 The TRO.JAN WAR begins. 
 Troy taken, 403 years before 
 
 the 1st Olympiad. 
 Teutaeus, king of Assyria. 
 Trojans migrate into Italy. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 1491. Pharaoh and his army 
 drowned in the Red Sea. 
 
 1485. Egyptus reigns, and 
 gives name to the country. 
 
 1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt 
 
 1233. Carti'.age founded by the 
 Tyrians 
 
 31 
 
 Sthenelus reigns it. Argas. 
 
 1474. Danaus usurps the king' 
 Qom of Argos. 
 
 1463. Damnouii invade he- 
 land. 
 
 1457. The kingdom of Mycene 
 begins under Perseus, late 
 king of Argos. 
 
 1453. Olympic games first ce- 
 lebrated at Elis. 
 
 1438. Pandion begins to reign 
 at Athens. 
 
 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 
 
 1397. CORINTH becomes a 
 kingdom under Sisyphus. 
 
 1383. Ceres arrives in Atticii. 
 
 1376. The Isthmian games in- 
 stituted. 
 
 1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- 
 troduced. 
 
 1283. jEgeus reigns in Attica. 
 
 1266. CEdipus, king of Thebes. 
 
 1263. The Argonautic Expe- 
 dition. 
 
 1257. Theseus unites the cities 
 of Attica under one govern- 
 ment. 
 
 1243. The Arcadians conducted 
 by Evander into Italy. — Mu- 
 sseus, a poet. 
 
 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 
 
 1^5. First Theban War.— 
 Euristhenes and Procl&s 
 kings of Lacedemon. 
 
 1222. Hercules celeb.ates the 
 Olympic Games. 
 
 1216. War of the Epigonii, or 
 2d Theban War. 
 
 1213. Helen carried off by 
 Theseus, is recoveroJ by 
 Castor and Pollux, and mar- 
 ries Menelaus. 
 
 1204. Helen elopes with P)rii3. 
 11S2. iEneas lands in Italy. 
 1176. Salamis founded by 
 
 Teucer. 
 1170. Epirus: Pyrrhus Wsoi*- 
 
 tolpmus. 
 
722 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Fourth Period. — {The Mosaic or Theocratic^- 
 
 1115 
 
 1100 
 
 Progress op Society and the Arts. 
 
 Mariner's compass said to be known in 
 China. C?) 
 
 A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- 
 ing 40,000 cliaracters, completed by Pa-out- 
 she. (7) 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines ant. 
 
 Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a 
 
 portion of Israel. 
 1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and 
 
 becomes judge of a part of Israel. 
 
 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the 
 jawbone of an ass. 
 
 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 
 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 
 
 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 
 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO^ 
 NARCHY.— Saul anointed king of leiraeL 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul. 
 
 723 
 
 PROFANE m&TOKY .—{Still fabulous or uncertain.) 
 
 1141 
 1139 
 
 1109 
 
 Temple of Ephesus burnt by 
 
 the Amazons. 
 Thinseus, king of Assyria. 
 
 China :— 3d dynasty;— Tchcoo. 
 
 Dercylus, king of Assyria. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1152. Alba-Longa built bj 
 Ascanius. 
 
 1124. .aSolian migration. 
 
 THEBES, the Capital o1 
 Boeotia, founded. 
 
 1104. Return of the Heraclid®. 
 —End of the kingdam of 
 Mycene. 
 
724 
 
 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 FIFTH PERIOD.— (TAe Monarchical)- 
 
 Progress op Society and the Arts. 
 
 1015 
 
 MU108 gives his taws to CYete, 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 1095. Saul, King of Israel. 
 
 1085. David bom. 
 
 1062. David kills Goliath. 
 
 1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron 
 over Judah ; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- 
 naim, over eleven tribes. 
 
 1048. Ishbosheth slain, 
 over all Israel. 
 
 David made king 
 
 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- 
 ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions *o 
 the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, 'lo 
 the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 
 
 1036. Solomon bom. 
 
 1023 Revolt and death of Absalom. 
 
 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 
 
 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of 
 David. 
 
 1016. David dies. 
 
 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the 
 temple. 
 
 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S 
 TEMPLE. 
 
 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- 
 nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, 
 via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- 
 tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad- 
 mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and 
 other cities. 
 
 985. He is seduced into idolatry by hia wivea 
 975. — dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. 
 
 Judah. 
 
 975. Rehoboam, king. 
 971. Shishak plunders 
 
 the temple. 
 958. Abijah, king. 
 955. Asa, king. 
 954. 
 953 
 
 Israel. 
 Jeroboam, king. 
 
 Nadab, king. 
 Baashafking. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. 
 
 725 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY. 
 
 1014 
 
 The Ionian emigrants settle 
 in Asia Mnior. 
 
 Alliance between Solomon and 
 Hiram, king of Tyre. 
 
 Samos built 
 
 1088. End of the kingdom ol 
 
 Sicyon. 
 1070. Heremon, from GaUiclei. 
 
 conquers Ireland. 
 1069. Codrus devotes himsel 
 
 for Athens. 
 1060. Athens governed bj 
 
 Archons. 
 
 Alliance between Solomon and 
 Pharaoh. 
 
 986. Utica built. 
 
 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- 
 ture, and supposed Sesos- 
 tris,) king of Egypt. 
 
 971 
 
 Shlsliak plunders Jerusalem. 
 
 976. Capy» 
 Longa. 
 
 reigna in % hi 
 
726 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.) 
 
 Progress op Society and the Arts. 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 937 
 
 786 
 T76 
 772 
 
 721 
 
 710 
 
 685 
 680 
 
 Breastplates invented by Jason. 
 
 Homer'' s poems brought into Greece. 
 Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta, 
 Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of 
 Argos. 
 
 Prophecies of Jonah. 
 
 Carpets in use for tents. 
 
 The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels 
 
 with three banks of oars. 
 First recorded Olympiad and beginning of 
 
 authentic chronology in Greece. 
 Sculpture first mentioned in profane history — 
 
 an Egyptian art. 
 
 ri 10 first eclipse of the m,oon observed by the 
 Chaldeans at Babylon. 
 
 The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 
 into India. 
 
 Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 
 12 months instead of 10 as before. 
 
 Augurs instituted by Numa. 
 
 Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- 
 tiBuSj and Evander, poets. 
 
 Chess invented 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 942. Asa defeats Ze- 
 rah, king of Ethio- 
 pia, with a million 
 of men. 
 
 941. — makes a league 
 with Benhadad, king 
 
 Israel. 
 
 of Syria. 
 
 930. Elah, king. 
 
 929. Zirari, king 
 
 Omri, king. 
 
 918. A.iab, king. 
 
 914. 
 king. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, 
 
 8. Jehoshaphat aS' 
 
 sists Ahab. 
 894. War with Moab. 
 889. Jehoram, king. 
 
 907. Benhadad, king oi 
 Syria, besieges Sa- 
 maria, but is re- 
 pulsed. 
 
 897. Ahaziah, king. 
 896. Jehoram, king. 
 895. Elijah translated. 
 
 884. Ahaziah, king. ©4. Jehu, king. 
 Athaliah, queen ; 
 usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king. 
 878. Jehoash, king. 
 
 The Prophet Jo- 841. Jehoash, king. 
 
 nah. 
 
 839. Amaziah, king. 
 810. Azariah, king. 
 
 758. Jotham, king. 
 742. Ahaz,king. 
 
 825. Jeroboam, king. 
 
 784. Interregnum. 
 
 773. Zachanah, king. 
 Shalium, king. 
 
 772. Menahem, king. 
 
 770. Pul invades Is- 
 rael, and is bribed 
 to depart with 1000 
 talents. 
 
 762. Pekahiah, king. 
 
 759. Pekah, king. 
 Interregnum. 
 Hoshea, king. 
 
 721. CAPTIVITY OF 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 717. Hezekiah, king. 
 
 712. Sennacherib in- 
 vades Judah. 
 
 711. His army (185,- 
 000) destroyed by a 
 pestilence. 
 
 696. Manasseh, king. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 5(^1 yeais. -Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 
 
 727 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY. 
 
 9?i, Homer bom. (?) 
 
 820 
 797 
 
 767 
 
 761 
 
 747 
 
 m 
 
 680 
 
 Jonah preaches to the Nine- 
 vites. 
 
 Arbaces, king of Assyria. — 
 
 Media revolts. 
 Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA 
 
 Pul, kiag of Nineveh. 
 
 Sardanapalus, king of Nine- 
 veh. 
 
 Media subjected to Assyria. 
 
 Alyattes, king of Lydia. 
 
 ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— 
 Assyrian empire destroyed. 
 — Meles, king of Lydia. 
 
 Pharnaces, king of Cappado- 
 cia. 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- 
 ria and part of Israel. 
 
 Candaules, king of Lydia. 
 
 Shahnanezer king of Nine- 
 veh, takes Samaria, and car- 
 ries the Ten Tribes into 
 captivity 
 
 Gyges usurps the throne of 
 Lydia. 
 
 Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 
 
 MEDIA becomes a kingdom 
 under Dejoces. 
 
 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. 
 
 Babylon and Nmeveh under 
 Esarbaddon. 
 
 69. Dido arrives in Africa 
 and builds Byrsa. 
 
 825. The dynasty of the Ta- 
 nites in Egypt ; begins with 
 Peterbastes. 
 
 781. The dynasty of the Saites 
 in Egypt. 
 
 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 
 
 935. Bacchus, king of Csriath 
 
 916. Calpetus, king of Alba. 
 
 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 
 
 895. Tiberinus drowned in th^ 
 river Albula, which is thenca 
 called the Tiber. 
 
 864. Romulus, Kmg of Alba 
 Longa. 
 
 845. Aventinus, king of Albd 
 
 814. The kingdom of MACE 
 DON founded by Caranus. 
 aOS. Procas, king of Alba. 
 794. Numitor, " " 
 
 794. Amulius, " " 
 
 Olam Fodla, king in Ire- 
 land. (7) 
 
 769. Syracuse founded by 
 Archias of Corinth. 
 
 753. BUILDING OF ROME 
 
 Catania founded by a co- 
 lony from Chalcis. 
 
 747. Union of Romans and 
 Sabines. 
 
 743. 1st Messinian War. 
 
 716. Romulus murdered by the 
 
 senators. 
 715. Numa Pompilius. 
 713. Gela in Sicily founded. 
 
 703. Corcyra built by the Co 
 rinthiars. 
 
 685. 2d Messinian War 
 
 ^ 
 
728 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.)— 
 
 660 
 
 651 
 
 640 
 
 629 
 621 
 
 SIO 
 
 S06 
 
 Progress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 Attempt to discover the primitive language of 
 mankind ; InterpreteTs instituted by Psam- 
 meticus ; children educated in the language 
 and manners of Greece. 
 
 Se-Matsien's history of China begins. 
 
 The Spnerical form of the earth and the true 
 cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, 
 who discovers the electricity of amber. 
 
 Periander encourages learning at Corinth. 
 
 Draco frames hia bloody code of laws al 
 Athens. 
 
 Pharaoh-Necho oegins a canal between the 
 Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 
 120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 
 out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through 
 the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the 
 third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus 
 circumnavigating Africa. 
 
 Sappho, Alcceus, Pittacus, Bins, Chilo, My 
 son, Anacharsis, jEsop, Ilychis, Theognis, 
 Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmus (of 
 Miletus), flourish at this time. 
 
 601 Thales' prediction of a Bolar eclipse accom 
 plished.— (See Asia.) 
 i 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 677. Mai.asseh carried to BaLylon, ie altar- 
 wards restored. 
 
 640. Animon, king of Ju. iah. 
 
 641. Josiah. king of Judah. 
 
 Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh-No- 
 cho. 
 
 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Jehoiakim, kmg. 
 
 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM b> 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that 
 
 of Draco. 
 The Pythian Games at Delphi. 
 
 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three monttea, 
 and is carried captive to Bahylon. 
 Zedekiah, king. 
 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea., 
 
 8. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed. 
 JERUSALEM DESTROYED -the tern 
 
 pie burnt. 
 Obadiah prophesies. 
 
xiE world's progress. 
 
 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 
 
 729 
 
 676 
 
 647 
 
 634 
 63i 
 
 626 
 
 624 
 
 E3V 
 £96 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Ardysus n., king of Lydia. 
 Holofemes, Assyrian general. 
 
 Phraortes, king of Media. 
 
 Saracus, king of Babylon and 
 
 Nineveh. 
 Phraortes conquers Persia, 
 
 Armenia, &c. 
 
 Cyaxares, king of Media. 
 Sadyattes, king of Lydia. 
 
 Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- 
 racus. 
 
 The Scythians invade Lydia 
 and Media. 
 
 Alyattes II., king of Lydia. 
 
 Nineveh a second time destroy- 
 ed. 
 
 Nabopolassar, king of Baby- 
 lon. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 660. Psammeticus, king of 
 Egypt. — Memphis becomes 
 the capital of the kingdom. 
 
 Pharaoh-Necho defeated by 
 Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- 
 sium, on the Euphrates. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 
 bylon. 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's 
 dream. 
 
 A solar eclipse predicted by 
 Thales — separates the Medes 
 and Lydians in battle. {New- 
 ton's Chron., 5S5.) 
 
 B Irth of Cyrus. 
 
 Astyages of Media drives out 
 the Scythians. 
 
 31^ 
 
 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 
 
 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, kLig of 
 Egypt. 
 
 678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma- 
 
 cedon. 
 672. TuUus Hostilius, king o1 
 
 Rome. 
 66S. Messina in Sicily founde.l 
 665. Alba destroyed. 
 664. Sea fight " between the 
 
 Corinthians and Corcyreans. 
 
 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 
 
 640. Ancus Martins —The port 
 of Ostia built. — The Latins 
 conquered by the Romans. — 
 
 Philip, 1st king of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 629. Periander rules at Co 
 rinth. 
 
 616. Tarquinius Pnscus, king 
 of Rome. 
 
 602. .^ropus, king of ,)f are- 
 don, conquers lilyriik. 
 
 594. Solon, Archor of Atlie 
 
730 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 SIXTH PERIOD.— (TAe Persian.)- 
 
 *.o Progress of Society. 
 
 E78 
 
 668 
 
 562 
 
 640 
 
 535 
 
 Money coined a\ Rome by Ser- 
 »/us TuUius. 
 
 Depoenus and Scyllis open a 
 school oi statuary at A thens. 
 
 Naucrates given to the G reeks 
 by Egypt as a factory. 
 
 Egypt posse,g3es 20,OOU inha- 
 bited cities. 
 
 First comedy acted at Athens 
 on a cart, by Susarion and 
 Dolon. 
 
 Dials invented by Anaximan 
 der of Miletus. 
 
 Anaximenes, Cieobulus. 
 
 The Corinthian order of ar- 
 chitecture invented by Cali 
 machus. 
 
 Zoroaster, the Persian Pliilo 
 sopher. 
 
 Simonides, Anacreon, poets. 
 
 Thespis performs the 
 tTLgedy at Athens. 
 
 first 
 
 559. Handwriting on the wall 
 at Belshazzar's feast. 
 
 Learning encouraged at Ath 
 ens. — First public library 
 founded. 
 
 Confucius the Chinese philo- 
 sopher. 
 The Daric issued by Darius. 
 
 536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re 
 TURN of the Jews. 
 Joshua, Zerubbabel. 
 
 535. Rebuilding of the tern 
 pie begins 
 
 Zechariah, Haggai. 
 
 582. Nebuchadnezzar myaQ©' 
 Elam — takes Susa. 
 
 572. Tyre taken by Nebuoiad 
 nezz'ar. 
 
 569. Nebuchadnezzar losu^ 
 his reason is deposed. 
 New Tyre founded. 
 
 562. CrcBsus, king of Lydia. 
 
 Solon and .aisop at his court. 
 561. Evil-Merodach, king o< 
 
 Babylon. 
 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzar 
 
 killed in the night. 
 
 Cyaxares H. (Darius) 
 
 king of Media. 
 
 Cyrus the Persian assists 
 
 him. 
 Asia Minor subjected to Croe 
 
 sus. 
 
 546. Sardis taken oy Cyrus.— 
 Crcesus made prisoner. — 
 The Lydian Kingdom end- 
 ed. 
 
 538. BABYLON TAKEN by 
 Cyrus. 
 
 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE 
 founded by CYRUS, com- 
 posed of Assyria, Media and 
 Persia. 
 
 529. Cambyses, king of Per- 
 sia. 
 
 522. Darius Hystiwp.'W, itsjif 
 of Persia. 
 
 516. Dedication of the second 
 tp.rnnle 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander the Great. 
 
 731 
 
 581 
 
 571 
 5C9 
 
 636 
 
 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. 
 
 Apries taken prisoner, and 
 sti-angled in his palace. 
 
 Amasis, king — connection be- 
 tween Greece and Egypt. 
 
 Pyiliagoras visits Egypt. 
 
 Psammenitus, last king of 
 Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- 
 byses, who defeats the 
 Egyptians at Pelusium, and 
 lakes Memphis. 
 
 Egypt becomes a Persian 
 Province. 
 
 585. DeathofPeriander, tyrant 
 
 of Corinth. 
 582. Corinth becomes a repub- 
 
 560. Pisistratus, tyrant ol Ath- 
 ens. 
 
 549. Temple of Apollo at 
 Delphi burnt by the Pisis- 
 tratidae. 
 
 547. Amyntas, king of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 539. The Phocians emigrate to 
 Gaul and build Massilia 
 (now Marseilles). 
 
 527. Pisistratus dies. 
 
 522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- 
 
 mos. 
 514. Hipparchns killed. 
 
 510. The Pisistratidse expelled. 
 — Democracy established at 
 Athens — Statues erected to 
 Harmodius and Aristogiton, 
 leaders in the revolution. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 578. Servius TuUius, king c? 
 Rome. 
 
 567. Conquest of the Etruriati 
 
 by Rome. 
 565. First census of Rome ; 
 84,700 citizens. 
 
 534. Tarquinius SuperbuB, 
 kins of Rome. 
 
 530. Cadiz built by the Car- 
 thaginians (near the ancieni 
 Tarshish). 
 
732 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Sixth Period. — {The Persian.V 
 
 507 
 
 500 
 
 Abolition of the Regal Govern- 
 ment, and establishment of 
 Republic at Rome. 
 
 Heraclittis, Theano, Prota- 
 goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- 
 phers. — Corinna, poetess. 
 
 The Phcenician letters carried 
 to Ireland from Spain. 
 
 Pythagoras teaches the doc- 
 trine of celestial motions. 
 
 The temple of Minerva built. 
 
 483 
 479 
 
 4T7 
 
 473 
 
 4T1 
 468 
 
 Progress of Society. 
 
 The Etrurians excel in music, 
 the drama and architecture. 
 
 jEschylus, Pindar, poets. 
 
 Simonides, of Cos, obtains the 
 prize at Olympia, for teach- 
 mg a system oi Mnemonics, 
 which he had invented. 
 
 Empirics instituted by Acron, 
 
 •Jmp 
 of Agrigentum. 
 
 Thucydides born. 
 
 Sophocles, the tragic, and 
 Plato, the comic poet. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 483. Joachim, High Priest. 
 
 jgf Voyage of the Carthaginians 
 to Britain for tin 
 
 458, Esther. 
 
 457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem 
 
 collects the Jewish Scrip 
 
 tures : and 
 453. —writes the Chronicles. 
 
 508. Darius conquers India 
 
 500. The lonians revolt from 
 Persia and burn Sardis. 
 
 490. Darius sends an army of 
 500,000 men mto Greece. 
 
 487. Artabazes, king of Pon- 
 tus. 
 ;6. Xerxes, king of Peraia. 
 
 481. The expedition of Xerxes 
 
 into Greece. 
 480. The family of Archean^ 
 
 actes, from Mytilene, settle 
 
 in Bosphorus (now Circas- 
 
 sia.) 
 
 478. Death of Confucius. — 
 China distracted by internal 
 wars. 
 
 466. Persians defeated by sea 
 
 and land. 
 465. Xerxes assassinated. 
 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima 
 
 nus,) king of Persia. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 733 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 
 
 Egypt revolts— is subdued by 
 Xerxes. 
 
 Hamilcar killed in battle. 
 
 505. Lacedemonian War. 
 504. Lemnos taken by Milti- 
 ades. 
 
 EoME AND Italy. 
 
 509. The Tarqums expelled 
 
 fiom Rome. 
 Brutus and Collatinus 
 
 first Consuls oi' Rome. 
 
 507. Second census of Rome, 
 
 130,909 citizens. 
 The Capitol finished.— Wai , 
 
 against the Tarquins and ! 
 
 their ally Porsouna. 
 
 497. Alexander 1st, king of 
 Macedon. 
 
 Hippocrates, tyrant of 
 Gela. 
 
 490. Invasion of the Persians 
 under Datis and Artapher- 
 nes. 
 
 Battle of MARATHON. 
 
 489. Miltiades imprisoned. 
 4S4. Herodotus born. 
 483. Aristides banished. 
 
 498. Titus Lartiw fiiBt Dicta 
 lor. 
 
 Tribunes of the people. 
 496. Posthumius, Dictator. 
 
 491. Coriolanus /a^^ished. 
 
 a At the request of 1,U 
 mother, Coriolanus with- 
 draws the Volsci fVotn Ron.e. 
 
 485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracufie. 
 
 483. Quaestors appointed. 
 
 460|Ei;ypt, under Inarus, revolt! 
 from Persia. 
 
 465 A 11 Egypt reduced by Megaby- 
 
 480. Battle of Thermopylae. 
 Athens burnt by Xerxes. 
 Battle of Salamis. 
 479. Mardonius a second time 
 takes Athens. 
 
 Defeat of the Persians at 
 Platea and Mycale on the 
 same day. 
 
 (?) 
 476. Themistocles rebuilds 
 Athens.— The Piraeus built. 
 
 470. Cimon son of Miltiades.— 
 Themistocles banished.— 
 The kingdom of the Odrysae 
 extends over the most of 
 Thrace. 
 
 466. The Persians twice de- 
 feated at the Eurymedon by 
 Cimon. 
 
 465. 3d Messinian War. 
 
 461. Ostracism of Cimon.— 461. Earthquake at Rome. 
 
 Pericles rises to great 
 
 power. 
 459. Athens assumes to be the 
 
 head of Greece. 
 456. Cimon recalled. 456. Cincinnatus DiCatH 
 
 30. The Carthaginians de- 
 feated by Gelon. 
 
 479. Syracuse governed Hy 
 Hiero. 
 
 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 
 
 467. Thrasybulus succeeds 
 Hiero, and is expelled foi 
 his cruelty. 
 
 Democracy in Syracuse. 
 
734 
 
 THE world's progress, 
 
 The Sixth Period. — {TJie Fersicm.)-~ 
 
 B.o Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 450 
 
 145 
 
 434 
 
 432 
 
 414 
 
 413 
 
 The Britong inflict punish- 
 ment of death by drowning 
 in a quagmire. 
 
 Umpedoeles, Parmenides, 
 Aristippus, and Antis- 
 theiies, philosophers. — 
 Phidias the finest sculp- 
 tor of antiquity. — Suri- 
 pides, gains the first prize 
 in tragedy. 
 
 The Ballering Ram invented 
 by Arternones. 
 
 Aristophanes, prince of an- 
 cient comedy. 
 
 Meton begins his lunar cycle. 
 
 Socrates, the greatest of hea- 
 then moralists. 
 
 Hippocrates, of Cos, the father 
 ot inedicine. 
 
 Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- 
 rians. 
 
 Democritus, the laughing phi- 
 losoplier. 
 
 An eclipse of the sun causes 
 the defeat of the Athenians 
 at Syracuse 
 
 Thucydides' history ends and 
 Xenophon's begins. 
 
 445. Walls of Jerusalem built 
 by Nehemiah. 
 
 Sect of Samaritans, 
 
 449. Persians defeated at Sa 
 lamis in Cyprjjs. 
 Peace with Greece. 
 
 438. Spartacus takes poBga» 
 sion of the Bosphorus. 
 
 426. Xerxes 11. k. of Persia, 
 424. Darius II. k. of Persia. 
 
 404. Artaxerxes H. (IKu^OJiwn.; 
 king of Persia. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 735 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued. 
 
 414 
 
 454. Perdiccas,Il.,kingof Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 449. Cimon dies. 
 
 448. First Sacred War. 
 447. Athenians defeated at Che- 
 ronoea. 
 
 440. Pericles takes Samos. 
 
 437. Amphipolis planted by 
 
 Athenians. 
 436. Corinth at war with Cor- 
 
 cyra. 
 
 Amyrtseus, king of Egypt, 
 shakes off the yoke of Per- 
 sia. 
 
 407 
 
 The Carthaginians send 300,- 
 000 men into Sicily. 
 
 432. Revolt of Potidaea from 
 the Athenian confederacy. 
 
 431. The Peloponnesian War. 
 Invasion of Attica. 
 
 430. The Plague at Athens. 
 
 429. Pericles dies, having gov- 
 erned Athens 40 years. 
 
 425. An earthquake separates 
 
 the peninsula of Euboea 
 
 from the main land. 
 424. Exile of Thucydides. 
 
 Campaign of Brasidas in 
 
 Thrace. 
 420. The 9Uth Olympiad. 
 
 Aicibiades etfects a treaty 
 
 between the Athenians and 
 
 Argives. 
 416. Nicias, general of the 
 
 Athenians. 
 
 War in Sicily . 
 413. The Athenians alarmed by 
 
 an eclipse. — Their army in 
 
 Sicily destroyeil. 
 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- 
 don. 
 411. Athens governed by the 
 
 400.— Alliance of Sparta 
 
 with Persia. 
 411. Aicibiades at the court of 
 
 Tissaphernes. 
 410. Aicibiades defeats the 
 
 Spartans. 
 
 408. Capture of Byzantium. 
 
 405. Ly Sander defeats the 
 Athenians, 404.takesAlhen8, 
 and establishes the 30 ty- 
 rants. 
 
 End of the Peloponnesian 
 War. 
 
 Death of Aicibiades. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 451. Decemviri— the laws * 
 the 12 tables. 
 
 Virginia killed by hei 
 father. 
 
 446. Syracuse reduces Agri- 
 
 gentum. 
 445. Military Tribunes. 
 444. Office of Censor insti' 
 
 tuted. 
 440. Famine in Rome. 
 
 437. The Veii defeated. 
 
 434. War with the Tuscano. 
 
 433. The temple of Apollo d* 
 
 dicated. 
 431. The Equi and Vo.eci d» 
 
 feated. 
 
736 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 TJie Sixth Period. — {The Persian.y— 
 
 ■.«. Phogrbss of Society, etc. 
 
 380 
 
 Catapultm invented by Diony- 
 sius. 
 
 Cynics, sect of philosophers 
 founded by Antisthenes. 
 
 Plato, the philosopher. 
 Philoxenes, the poet 
 
 Treatise on conic sections by 
 Aristcbus. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 377 I Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates 
 and Iscbus, orators. 
 
 A celestial globe brought into 
 Greece from Egypt. 
 
 Philippics of Demosthenes. 
 
 Commerce of Rhodes with 
 Africa and Byzantium 
 
 366. Jeshua slam by Johan- 
 nan in the inner court of the 
 temple, for which a heavy 
 fine is laid on the daily sacri- 
 fices. 
 
 401. Cyrus the younger da- 
 feated.— Retreat ofthe 10,000 
 under Xenophon. 
 
 400. The city of Delhi founi 
 
 ed. 
 
 387. The Greek cities of Asia 
 tributary to Persia. 
 
 383 BITHYNIA becomes a 
 
 kingdom. 
 
 Mithridates 1st, king at 
 PONTUS. 
 
 ■362. Ariobarzanes king of Pon- 
 
 tus. — Revolt of the Persian 
 governor in Asia Minor. 
 361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- 
 erxes III. king of Persia. 
 
 360. CAPPADOOIA becomef 
 a kingdom under Ariaratbts 1 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Akxander. — (Continued.) 
 
 737 
 
 379 
 
 362 
 
 401. Thrasybulus expels the 
 30 tyrants. 
 
 Death of Socrates. 
 
 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 
 395. Corinthian War begun. — 
 Battle of Coronea. 
 
 The Carthaginians land in 
 Italy. 
 
 Tachos, king of Egypt. 
 
 Agesilaus, the Spartan, 
 aids the Egyptians. 
 
 Voyages of the Carthaginians 
 under Hanno. 
 
 382. Thebes taken by Phoebi- 
 das. 
 
 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- 
 pides and Epaminondas 
 100th Olympiad. 
 
 377. Spartan fleet defeated at 
 Naxos. 
 
 372. EUice and Bula in the Pe- 
 loponnesus, swallowed up 
 by an earthquake. 
 
 371. Battle of Leuctra. 
 
 Alexander II., king of Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 Predominance of Thebes. 
 
 370. Perdiccas III., king of 
 Macedon. 
 
 364. Pelopidas killed inbattle. 
 
 362. Battle of Mautinea, death 
 of Epaminondas. 
 
 Decline of Gsbcjan 
 Republics. 
 
 360. Philip II., king of Mace- 
 don. defeats the Athenians 
 at Methone. 
 
 The Macedonian phalanx. 
 War of the <tllies against 
 Athens. 
 
 358. Philip takes Amphipolis 
 
 and loses his right eye by an 
 
 arrow from Astor. 
 357. The 2d Sacred War. 
 356. Philip conquers Thrace 
 
 and Illyria. 
 
 The Temple of Diana at 
 
 Ephesus burnt. 
 
 A L E X A N D E R " the 
 
 Great" born. 
 
 Rome and Italy. 
 
 400. Siege of Veii begun. 
 397. Lake Alba draic^d 
 
 391. Camillus, Dictator, takes 
 Veii, after a siege of ten 
 years. 
 
 390. Rome taken and burnt by 
 the Gauls, under Brennus 
 — The Capitol besieged. — 
 Camillus delivers his coun- 
 try. 
 
 386. Damon and Pythias. 
 
 384. M. Manlius Capitolinua 
 thrown from the Tarpei-'in 
 rock. 
 
 379. The Volsci defeat t*i 
 Romans. 
 
 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- 
 beian consul. 
 
 Camillus, the fifth time 
 Dictator. 
 
 371. The curule magistrates 
 appointed. 
 
 362. Curtius leaps into a gul< 
 in the Forum. 
 
 357. Dionysius, the youogei 
 expellaj from Syracuse. 
 
738 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 SEVENTH PEKIO.D.— (r^€ Grecmn}- 
 
 B.c Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 336 
 
 336 
 
 $S 
 
 330 
 
 Aristotle, the logician and phi- 
 losopher, founder of the Pe- 
 ripatetics ; yEschines, ora- 
 tor. 
 
 Demosthenes ; Icetas, of Syra- 
 cuse. 
 
 The Lyceum built in Attica. 
 
 Alexander spares the house of 
 
 Pindar. 
 The revolution of eclipses first 
 
 calculated by Calippus, the 
 
 Athenian. 
 
 Caustic painting or the art 
 of burning colors into wood 
 or ivory, invented by Gau- 
 sias, a painter of Sicyon. 
 
 The voyage of Nearchus from 
 
 the Indus lo the Euphrates. 
 Apelles, the painter ; Calis- 
 
 thenes, philosopher. 
 Menander, the inventor of the 
 
 new comedy. 
 Lysistratus invents moulds 
 
 from which to cast wax 
 
 figures. 
 
 First work on mechanics, writ- 
 ten by Aristotle. — Diving 
 Bell first mentioned. 
 
 Alexander enters Jerusa- 
 lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the 
 High Priest, clad in his 
 robes, he declares he had 
 seen him in a vision, invit- 
 ing him to Asia, and pro- 
 mising him the Persian em- 
 pire. He goes to the Tem- 
 ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- 
 vah, and departs. 
 
 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 
 Jews into Eypt. 
 Onias L 
 
 336. Mithridates IL, kirg ol 
 Pontus. 
 
 334. Battle of the Granicus. 
 333. Battle of issMS. — Parthia, 
 
 Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana, 
 
 and Asia Minor, conquered 
 
 by Alexander. 
 332. Tyre subdued after seven 
 
 months' sieg». 
 
 Damascus taken. — Gaza 
 
 surrenders. 
 331. Battle of Arbela.— The 
 
 Persian army totally defeat- 
 ed. 
 3.30. CONaUEST of the PER ■ 
 
 SIAN EMPIRE. 
 329. Thalestris, queen of tl« 
 
 Amazons, visits Alexander, 
 
 with a train of 300 women. 
 328. Alexander extends his 
 
 conquest to the Ganges. 
 323. Alexander dies at Baby 
 
 Ion. 
 322. Petdiccas takes Cap pa 
 
 docia. 
 
 320. Eumenes lefealed by , 
 tigonus. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 739 
 
 184 years. — Alexander to tlie Fall of Greece. 
 
 Ui 
 
 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, 
 and pillages its temples. 
 
 Greece— Maoedon. 
 
 340 
 
 332 
 
 The Carthaginians defeated by 
 Timoleoa. 
 
 Egypt conquered by Alexan- 
 der. 
 
 Alexandria built. 
 
 823 1 Ptolemy L (Soter, son of I,a- 
 gtts.) 
 
 353. The Phocians defeated by 
 Philip. 
 
 348. End of the Sacred War. 
 Philip takes Olynthus. 
 
 346. Philip admiir.ed to the 
 Amphictyonic Council. 
 
 345. Duras buried by an earth- 
 quake. 
 
 343. Thrace tributary to Mace- 
 don. 
 
 Aristotle appointed tutor 
 to Alexander. 
 
 341. Philip makes war upon 
 
 Athens. 
 
 340. —lays siege to Byzantium. 
 Timoleon recovers Syra- 
 cuse, expels Dionysius, the 
 tyrant, and defeats the Car- 
 thaginians at Agri^entum. 
 
 338. Philip defeats the Greeks 
 at Chevonea. 
 
 336. Philip is murdered by 
 Pausanias. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., sur- 
 named the Great. — He rava- 
 ges Greece, destroys Thebes, 
 sparing the house of Pindar. 
 
 335. — is chosen generalissimo 
 f Greece against Persia. 
 
 334. — invades Persia, and after 
 several great battles (see 
 " Asia ") subdues the Per 
 sian empire and Egypt, and 
 marches into India. 
 
 330. .ffischines, the orator, 
 banished. 
 
 325. Demosthenes banished. 
 
 323. Death of Alexander. — 
 The Grecian cities revolt 
 from Macedon. — Demosthe- 
 nes recalled. 
 
 322. The Greeks defeated by 
 sea and land near Cranon. 
 Death of Deiiiosthenes. 
 
 321. Antipater, regent. 
 
 319. Polysperchon succeeds 
 Antipatei', and proclaims 
 liberty to the Grecian cities- 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 354. Dion put to death, ano 
 Syracuse usurped by ty- 
 rants. 
 
 345. Twelve cities ir Caini a- 
 nia buried by an earth lUflke. 
 
 343. Samnian War, whisn con- 
 tinues 53 years. 
 
 340. P. Decius devotes him- 
 self for his country.* 
 
 All Campania js subdued. 
 
 332. The Caledonian mo- 
 narchy (Scotland) foun(^ 
 by Fergus I. 
 
 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictates. 
 
 321. The Samnites make th« 
 Romans pass under the yoke. 
 
 320. The Samnites defeated a) 
 Luceria. 
 
740 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)- 
 
 t. a. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews 
 
 317 
 
 310 
 
 aoo 
 
 293 
 
 290 
 
 985 
 
 Commerce of Macedon with 
 India, througii Egypt. 
 
 The Appian Way constructed. 
 — The Gnomon invented to 
 measure altitudes. 
 
 Aquedttcts aad baths in Rome. 
 
 311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo. 
 nus. 
 
 Euclid, of Alexandria, the 
 celebrated mathematician. — 
 Zeno, founder of the Stoics ; 
 — Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; 
 Epicurus, of the Epicu- 
 reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- 
 nes, philosopher. 
 
 The great Chinese Wall built. 
 
 The iirst sun-dial erected at 
 Rome by Papirius Cursor, 
 and the time first divided 
 into hours. 
 
 Fabius introduces painting at 
 Rome. 
 
 The Colossus of Rhodes 
 built by Chares, of Lindus. 
 
 Theocrites, the father of pas- 
 toral poetry. 
 
 Dionysius, the astronomer at 
 Alexandria, begins his era. 
 He found the solar year to 
 consi.^t of 365 days, 5 hours, 
 and 49 minutes. 
 
 I'he Septuagint translation of 
 the Old Testament, begun at 
 Alexandria, by order of Pto- 
 lemy Phiiidelphus. 
 
 301. Judea under the domi- 
 nion of the Ptolemies. 
 
 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator 
 
 311. Seleucus Nicator retakea 
 
 Babylon. 
 
 Era of the Seleucido. 
 310. Eumeles usurps the 
 
 throne of Bosphorus, putting 
 
 to death all his brothers. 
 
 After a reign of six years, ia 
 
 murdered. 
 
 305. War in India, agaiiat 
 Sandrocottus. 
 
 301. Battle of Ipsus.—kadg'i- 
 nus killed. 
 
 ALEXANDER'S EM 
 PIRE DIVIDED in four 
 parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
 Cassander. Lysimachus. 
 
 Mithridates III., king ol 
 Pontus. 
 
 291. Seleucus founds Antjoch 
 Edessa, and Laodicea. 
 
 284. The sect of the Sadduceea. 
 
 285. The Scythians invad* 
 Bosphorus. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 741 
 
 184 years. — (Continued. 
 
 307 
 
 306 
 
 Agathocles is defeated by the 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 Peace between Sicily and Car- 
 thage. 
 
 318. Phocion put to death by 
 the Athenians. 
 
 317. Cassander assumes 
 the government of Macedon. 
 Demetrius Phalerius gov- 
 erns Athens. 
 
 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, 
 and founds Cassandria. 
 
 312. Epirus: Py rrhus II,, 
 the greatest hero of his time. 
 
 306. Democracy established at 
 Athens by Demetrius. 
 
 304. Athenians repulsed from 
 Rhodes. 
 
 303. De^netrius Poliorceies, 
 general of the Grecian States. 
 
 300. Rest'-'ration of Democracy 
 at Athens. 
 
 291. Death of Cassander.— 
 Alexander and Antipater 
 succeed. 
 
 296. Siege of Athens, by De- 
 metrius. 
 
 294. Demetrius murders Alex- 
 ander, rand seizes the throne 
 of Macedon. 
 
 287. Athens revolts from De- 
 metrius. 
 
 286. Py rrhus expelled from 
 MacedoTS, 
 
 284. The Achaean Republic. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 317. Syracuse and Sieily UBUip 
 ed by Agathocles. 
 
 312. War with the Etruscans. 
 
 310. The Carthaginians defeat 
 Agathocles, and besiege Sy- 
 racuse. 
 
 308. Fabius Maximuf 
 defeats the Samnites. 
 
 303. Establishment of th« 
 Tribus Urbance,. 
 
 300. First Plebeian High Priest. 
 
 290. End of the Samnite War. 
 
 286. Law of Hortensius, by 
 which the decrees of the 
 people had the force of thoM 
 of the senate. 
 
742 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 The Seventh Period. — [The Grecian. 
 
 B.C. Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 The Pharos built at Alexan- 
 dria, the first light-house on 
 record. 
 
 Philetseriis, of Pergamus, pa- 
 tron of the arts, especially 
 Architecture. 
 
 Alexandria, the resort of the 
 learned, and centre of trade. 
 
 Chariots armed with scythes, 
 and fortified camps, in use. 
 
 276 
 
 First society of critics formed. 
 
 267 
 266 
 
 256 
 
 255 
 
 Ptolemy makes a :anal from 
 
 the Nile to the Red Sea. 
 Silver money first coined. 
 
 The Parian Chronicle com 
 
 posed. 
 Gladiators first exhibited at 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Berosus, the historian of Ba- 
 bylon. 
 
 The armillary sphere invented 
 by Erastoslhenes, who made 
 the first attempt to deterraiie 
 the length of a degree. 
 
 Greece instructs the Romans 
 in the arts and sciences. 
 
 248. Onias II., high priest. 
 
 •282. The kingdom of PER- 
 GAMUS founded by Phile. 
 tairus. * 
 
 281. Lysimachus defeated and 
 killed by Seleucus. — Anilo- 
 chus Soter succeeds Seleu- 
 cus. 
 
 266. Ariobarzanes III, king of 
 Pontus. 
 
 262. Antiochus Soter dehate(3 
 at Sardis. 
 
 256. Kingdom of PARI HIA 
 
 founded by Arsaces. 
 255. The fourth iraperia. dy 
 nasty of China begins 
 
 252. Mithridates IV., bes'ftged 
 in his capital by the GatdJa- 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 743 
 
 3S3 
 
 269 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus king of 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Egypt first sends ambassadors 
 to Rome. 
 
 gj: Regulus invades Africa, and is 
 defeated by Xantippus, a 
 Spartan general. 
 
 !^: 
 
 MtAslIus defeats Asdrubal. 
 
 283. Lysimachia destroyed by 283. The Gauls and Siryt, 
 an earthquake. rians swbdued. 
 
 Rome, eto. 
 
 281. Lysimachus defeated and 
 slain by Seleucus. 
 
 The Achffian League of 
 12 states, under Aratus, of 
 Sicyon. 
 
 279. Irrruption of the Gauls 
 
 under Brennus. 
 
 8. — they are defeated near 
 
 Delphi. 
 277. Antigonus Gonatus, king 
 
 of Macedon. 
 
 274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- 
 don, defeats Antigonus, and 
 is proclaimed king. 
 
 272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 
 and Argos — is slain, and An- 
 tigonus is restored. 
 
 268. Athens taken by Antigo- 
 nus Gonatus. 
 
 Second incursion of the 
 Gauls into Macedon. 
 
 255. Antigonus liberates 
 Athens. 
 
 Athens joins the Achaean 
 league. 
 
 251. Sicyon joins the Achasan 
 league. 
 
 250. The Romans begin to re- 
 sort to Greece for improve- 
 ment in knowledge. — Par- 
 thia revolts from Macedon 
 
 281. The Tarentine Wax. 
 
 280. The Tarentines seek the 
 alliance of Pyrrhus, who 
 conquers the Romans al 
 Pandosia, and at 
 
 279 — Asculum. 
 
 278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- 
 hus. 
 
 275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, 
 and compels him to leave 
 Italy. 
 
 272. Fall of Tarentum. 
 
 266. Rome mistress of all Italy : 
 census of the city 292,224. 
 
 264. The first PUNIC WAR. 
 — Appius Claudius drives 
 Hiero from Syracuse. 
 
 260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- 
 tory over the Carthaginian 
 fleet. 
 
 256. Regulus gains an* 
 ther victory. 
 
 255. The Lacedemonians as- 
 sisting Carthage. — Xantip- 
 pus defeats Regulus, and 
 takes him prisoner. 
 
 254. Palermo besieged by the 
 Romans. — About this time 
 the Huns are first heard o£ 
 governed by Teuman. 
 
 249. Naval fight at Drapanum 
 
7U 
 
 THE WORLB'S progress. 
 
 The Seventh Period. — ( The Grecian.)- 
 
 240 
 
 233 
 
 ;i25 
 
 224 
 
 219 
 
 Pbooress op Society, etc, 
 
 Agrarianism attempted in 
 Sparta, but is put down. 
 
 Comedies first acted at Rome 
 those of Livius Andronicus. 
 
 The original MSS. of Mschy- 
 lus, Euripides and Sopho- 
 cles, lent by the Athenians 
 to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 
 talents. 
 
 FaJbius Ptctor, the first Roman 
 historian. 
 
 AppoUonius Rkodius, poet. — 
 Chrysippus, Stoic philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 Archimedes, the mathemati- 
 cian, demonstrates the pro- 
 perties of the lever, and 
 other mechanical powers, 
 also the art of measuring 
 solids and surfaces,and conic 
 sections — constructs a.plane- 
 tarium. 
 
 The art of Surgery introduced. 
 An eclipse of the moon ob- 
 served in Asis Minor. 
 
 237. Simon II., High Priest, 
 
 246. Antiochus II. poisoned bj 
 his wife. 
 
 241. Attains I., king of Pifgi 
 mus. 
 
 3. Seleucus III., k. of Syria. 
 
 224. The Colossus of Rh^dei 
 thrown down. 
 
 213. Chi Horg Ti destroys th« 
 records of tlie Chinese em- 
 pire. 
 
 211. Antiochua th« 
 Great, king of Syria. 
 
THE world's progress, 
 
 745 
 
 !84 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 247 Hamilcar Barcas, general of 
 the Carthaginians. 
 
 246 
 
 23S 
 237 
 
 5«7 
 
 Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy- 
 ria. 
 
 End of the Libyan War. 
 Hamilcar with Hannibal, pass- 
 es into Spain. 
 
 Carthagena m Spain, built by 
 Asdrubal. 
 
 221 
 
 219 
 
 Ptolemv Philopater, king of 
 Egypt. 
 
 Conquests of Hannibal, 
 the Carthaginian, ii Spain; 
 He crosses the Alps. 
 
 243. Corinth taken by Aratus. 
 
 212. Demetrius H., of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 241. Agis, king of Sparta, put 
 to death for attempting to es- 
 tablish an Agrarian law. 
 
 240. Cleanthus, the Stoic, 
 starves himself. 
 
 232. Philip III., of Macedon. 
 
 228. Roman ambassadors first 
 appear at Athens and Co- 
 rinth. 
 
 The fortress of the Athe- 
 naeum built. 
 
 226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- 
 ta, defeats the Achaeans. 
 Lyscades killed. — The Agra- 
 rian law restored. 
 
 225. The Romans send another 
 embassy to Greece. They 
 are admitted to a share in 
 the Isthmian games, and 
 granted the freedom of Ath- 
 ens. 
 
 223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- 
 polis. 
 222. Battle of Sellasia. 
 
 220. The S o c i a 1 W a i 
 
 — Philip, of Macedon, as- 
 sists the Achaeans. — Cleome- 
 nes dies in Eyypt. — Age.si- 
 polis and Lycurgus ele'cted 
 kings of Sparta. 
 218. Acanania ceded to Philip. 
 
 215. Aratus poisoned at 
 214. First Macedonian War, 
 
 211. Alliance of Philip with 
 Hannibal. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- 
 mans at Lilibceum. 
 
 241. End of 
 War. 
 
 ;he first P ii J 
 
 231. Sardinia and Corsica cwi 
 quered by Rome. 
 
 225. The Gauls repulsed in 
 
 Italy. 
 
 224. The Romans first cross 
 
 the Po. 
 223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n - 
 
 t i a and Cremona. 
 222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu- 
 
 ria (Genoa) conquered by 
 
 Rome. 
 
 219. Hannibal takes Sagun- 
 tum, and crosses the Alps. 
 
 218. The Second P u n i a 
 War .—The Romans de- 
 feated by Hannibal at T i - 
 c i n i s and T r e b i a . 
 
 217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated 
 t Thrasymene. 
 
 216. Varro at C a n n se to- 
 totally defeated by Hannibal. 
 Fabius Maximus 
 Dictator. 
 
 212. Syracuse and Sicily con- 
 quered by M a r c e 1 1 u 8 . 
 — Archimedes killed. 
 
 211. The Carthaginians driver 
 from Capua. 
 
 32 
 
746 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 The Seventh Period.— {The Grecian.)-^ 
 
 B.C. Proqress of Societt, etc. 
 
 Ennius, of Calabria, poet 
 Sotion, of Alexandria. £ 
 grammarian. 
 
 JOT, Plautus, of Urnbria. the co 
 mic poet ; Appolloniiis. of 
 Perga, mathematician; Ze 
 710, of Tarsus, the philoso 
 pher. 
 Gold coined at Rome. 
 
 202 The art of printing in China. 
 
 Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 
 
 Alexandria. 
 Caius Lelius, the Roman 
 
 orator. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 206, The dynasty of H a fl b 
 China. 
 
 198 
 
 ISS 
 
 Books, with leaves of vellum, 
 introduced by Attains, king 
 of Fergamusj in lieu of rolls. 
 
 203. .lUDBA CONaUERED ■JY 
 
 Antiochus the Great. 
 
 201. Onias III., High Priest. 
 
 200 .Jesus, the son of Sirach, 
 writes Ecdesiasticus. 
 
 198. The Jews assist Antio 
 chus in expelling Scopas and 
 the Egyptian troops from 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 First mention of a Senate or 
 Sanhedrim. 
 
 183 
 
 iSO 
 
 A total eclip&i of the sun at 
 
 Rome. 
 Asiatic luxuries brought to 
 
 Rome. 
 
 A comet visible 80 days. 
 Bion and Moschus, comic 
 poets. 
 
 Statius CcBcilius, comic poet. 
 
 197. Euraenes, king of Perga- 
 
 mus. 
 196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, 
 
 who seizes the Thracian 
 
 Chersonese. 
 
 192. Syria at war with Rome. 
 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats 
 Antiochus at Magnesia. 
 
 187. Antiochus killed in the 
 temple of Jupiter Bclus.— 
 Syria becomes a 
 Roman province. 
 
 186. The city of Artaxata (in 
 Armenia) built. 
 
 185. Seleucus IV., king of Sy- 
 ria. 
 
 183. Pharnaces I., king of Fob 
 tus, conquers S i n o p e , 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 7t7 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 210. Scipio takes New 
 
 
 
 208. Battleof Lamia, near Elis. 
 
 Cartilage, and conquers As- 
 
 
 
 — Philip, of Macedon, de- 
 
 drubal. 
 
 
 
 feats the iEtolians. 
 
 207. Nero and Livy defeat Aa. 
 drubal at Metaurus— Asdru 
 bal killed. 
 
 
 
 206. Battle of Mantinea : 
 
 206. The Carthaginians driven 
 
 
 
 P h i 1 p ce m e n , the Prae- 
 
 out of Spain. 
 
 A)5 
 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of 
 
 tor of Achaia, defeats the 
 
 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Spartans. 
 
 
 224 
 
 The Roman general Scipio be- 
 
 
 204. Scipio carries the wai 
 
 
 sieges Utica, and takes in 
 
 
 into Africa. 
 
 
 one day the camps of Asdru- 
 
 
 
 
 bal and Syphax. 
 
 
 
 
 Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- 
 
 
 
 
 ba poisoned by Masinissa. 
 
 
 
 ^02 
 
 Hannibal defeated at Z a m a . 
 —End of the 2d Punic War. 
 
 200. The Rhodians defeat tl'.e 
 Macedonian fleet near Chios. 
 —Siege of Aljydos. — Second 
 Macedonian VVar begins. 
 
 201. Scipio carries Syphax n 
 triumph to Rome. 
 
 J 99 
 
 Treaty of Carthage with Ma- 
 sinissa, king of Numidia. 
 
 
 
 198 
 
 Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 
 
 19S. The Achseans and Spar- 
 
 
 
 sions. 
 
 tans join the Romans against 
 Macedon. 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 197. Philip m. defeated at Cy- 
 
 197. Flaminius victorioiis in 
 
 
 
 nocephalfe by the Romans, 
 
 Macedon. 
 
 
 
 under Flaminius. 
 
 
 
 
 195. Flaminius, the Roman, 
 
 195. C a t in Spain. 
 
 
 
 quarrels with Nabis, king of 
 
 
 193 
 
 Masinissa harasses the Cartha- 
 ginians, and injures their 
 commerce. 
 
 Sparta. ■ 
 
 
 
 
 19''. War with Antiochus, of 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 Syria, who is totally defeat- 
 
 
 189. Epirus declared free by 
 
 ed by L. C. Scipio, and 
 
 
 
 the Romans. 
 
 
 
 
 188. Philopoemen abrogatas 
 
 188. Syria is made a Roman 
 
 
 
 the laws of Lycurgus in 
 
 province. 
 
 
 
 Sparta. 
 
 187. Scipio Africanua banish- 
 ed from Rome. 
 
 
 
 183. Philopcemen defeated and 
 
 183. Cato, the elder, censot 
 
 
 killed by Dinocrates, king of 
 
 
 
 
 Messinia. 
 
 181. Plague at Rome. 
 
 180 
 
 Ptolemy Ptilometer, king of 
 
 
 ISO. Death of -Scipio African 
 
 
 Egypt 
 
 
 nus. 
 
 
 
 179. Numa's "lOoks foun.i in a 
 
 
 
 
 stone coffin at Rome. 
 
r48 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Tlie Seventh Period. — {The Grecian. 
 
 «. 0. 
 
 PaooREBS OP Society, etc. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 
 
 175. Jason obtains the high 
 
 priesthood by corruption. 
 
 
 
 
 172. Jason defeated by Mene- 
 
 172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha 
 
 
 
 lau3. 
 
 nes) king of Syria. 
 171 —declares war against Pto- 
 lemy Philomater. 
 
 175 
 
 Paper invented in China. 
 
 170. Jerusalem and the temple 
 
 170. An irruption of Tartan 
 
 209 
 
 PoLybius, liistorian of Greece 
 
 plundered by Antiochus 
 
 into China. 
 
 
 and Rome. 
 
 Epiphanes, who attempts to 
 
 
 
 Tlie comedies of Terence per- 
 
 abolish the Jewish religion. 
 
 
 
 formed. 
 
 and commits great cruelties. 
 
 
 168 
 
 An eclipse of the moon, which 
 was predicted by Q. S. Gal- 
 lus. 
 
 
 
 167 
 
 The first library opened at 
 
 167. Matthias, High Priest. 
 
 
 
 Rome, consisting of books 
 
 
 166. Prusias, kirgof lithynia. 
 
 
 brouglit from Macedon. 
 
 
 
 
 The Roman treasury is so ricli 
 
 165. Judas Maccabeus ex- 
 
 
 
 that the citizens pay no 
 
 pels the Syrians, and puri- 
 
 
 
 taxes. 
 
 fies the temple. 
 
 
 162 
 
 Hipparchus of Nice -fixes the 
 first degree of longitude and 
 
 
 
 
 latitude at Ferro, whose 
 
 
 164. Antiochus Epiphanes 
 
 
 most western point was 
 
 
 died. 
 
 
 made the first general meri- 
 
 
 162. Demetrius Soter, king ol 
 Syria. 
 
 Mithridates Philopater, 
 king of Cappadocia. 
 
 
 dian—lays the Ibundation of 
 
 
 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 
 161 
 
 Philosophers and rhetoricians 
 banished from Rome. 
 
 161. Judas kills Nicanor — is 
 
 
 succeeded by Jonathan. 
 
 
 
 First treaty with the Ro- 
 
 
 
 
 mans. 
 
 
 
 
 158. Jonathan compels the Bac- 
 
 
 
 
 chides to withdraw — is mur- 
 
 
 159 
 
 The clepsydra or leater clock 
 
 dered by Tryphon. 
 
 
 
 invented by Scipio Nascia. 
 
 
 157. Mithridates V., king oi 
 Pontus. 
 
 153. Ariarathes VII., king o 
 Cappadocia. 
 
 16U 
 
 Hipparchus. of Rhodes, astro- 
 
 150. Jews take Joppa. 
 
 150. Alexander Bala kills Oe 
 
 
 nomer. — Aristarchus, of 
 
 
 metrius,and takes the thiona 
 
 
 Alexandria, grammarian. 
 
 
 149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kil< 
 
 
 
 
 ed by his son Nicomedo* 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 749 
 
 174 Ca'3 e «mbasay to Carthage, 
 
 155 Embassy of Diogenes, 
 Carniades, and Critolaus to 
 Rome. 
 
 152 jMissinissa defeats the Cartha- 152. Andriscus usurping the 
 
 15] 
 
 U6 
 
 gmians. 
 Joint reign of Philomater and 
 Physcon in Egypt. 
 
 RCiMS, ETC. 
 
 178. Perseus, king of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 171. Third Macedonian War. 
 
 168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- 
 na, by Paulus EmiHus. — 
 Macedon becomes a Ro- 
 man Province. 
 
 165. Romans enter Achaia. 
 
 170. Tiberius and C a i b« 
 Gracchus. 
 
 167. Census 327,0^ 
 
 CARTHAGE TAKEIH 
 
 destroyed. 
 
 and 
 
 government of Macedon, is 
 conquered by Metellus. 
 
 147. Metelhis defeats the Acli- 
 aeans in Greece. 
 
 146. Corinth taken and de- 
 stroyed by Mummnis. — 
 GREEC;E becomes a RO- 
 MAN PROVINCE under 
 the name of Achaia. 
 
 155. Romans unsucceaaful la 
 Spain. 
 
 151. Defeat of Galba. 
 
 49. Third Punic War. 
 
 Conquest of Carthage anii 
 of Corinth. 
 
 Greece annexed to th« 
 Roman empire. 
 
750 
 
 THE WOULD's progress. 
 
 EIGHTH PERIOD.— (TAe Roman.)- 
 
 m 
 
 M3 
 
 133 
 
 Prooress of Society, etc. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Alexandria, the centre of com- 
 merce. 
 
 Ilipparchus begins his new 
 cycle of the moon. 
 
 Toothed wheels applied to the 
 clepsydra by Ctesibius. 
 
 Learning and lear7ied men. 
 liberally patronized by Ptol- 
 emy Physcon. 
 
 Diodorus and Satyms, peri- 
 patetics ; Nicander. physi- 
 cian and poet ; Lucius Ac- 
 cius, tragic poet ; Arislobu- 
 lus, the Jewish peripatetic. 
 
 Equestrian order, a distinct 
 class. 
 
 Revival of learning in China. 
 
 142. Simon, High Priest. 
 
 120 
 
 116 
 
 110 
 
 The theory of eclipses known 
 to the Chinese. 
 
 L. Coelius Antipater, histo 
 rian ; Lucillius, the first 
 Roman satirist ; ApoUodo- 
 rus, of Athens, chronologist ; 
 Castor, of Rhodes, chrono- 
 losist; Anthemon, philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 First sumptuary laio at Rome. 
 
 135. End of the Apocrypha.— 
 Jerusalem besieged by An 
 tiochus IV. 
 
 130. John Hyrcanus delivers 
 Judea from the Syrian yoke : 
 — reduces Samaria and Idu- 
 mea. 
 
 137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetea, 
 king of Syria. 
 
 134. Antiochus invades Judea 
 
 130. Antiochus IV. defeated 
 
 and killed in a war with Par- 
 
 thia. 
 129. Demetrius II. (Nicator) 
 
 regains Syria. 
 123. Mithridates the Great 
 
 kir.g of Pontus. 
 
 lOS. Hyrcanus destroys Sama 
 ria. 
 
 107. — succeeded by his son 
 AristobuluSj who first as- 
 sumes the title of king. 
 
 10-5. Alexander Janneus a1 
 war with Egypt— takes Ga- 
 za. — Rebellion excited by 
 the Pharisees. 
 
 lU. IMithridates conquers Scy- 
 thia, Bosphorus, Col ■■his 
 
 &c. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1 46 yea7-s. — Fall of Greece to tlie Christian Era. 
 
 751 
 
 n. c. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Empirb. 
 
 146 
 145 
 
 Commeixe of tlie world cen- 
 tres at Alexandria. 
 
 Ptolemy Puyscon becomes 
 sole king of Egypt by the 
 death of Priiiornater. 
 
 In the East. 
 
 In Europe. 
 
 141. Numantian War. 
 
 140. The Picts from the noria 
 
 of England settle in th": south 
 
 of Scotland. 
 
 135. Servile ^ar in Sioilf. , 
 
 
 
 133. Pergamus, a Roman 
 Pro vince. 
 
 133. Nu.-naritia destroyed by 
 Scipio : Spain eecomek a 
 Roman Province. 
 
 Death of Tiberius Grac- 
 chus. 
 
 128 
 123 
 118 
 
 Ptolemy Physcon driven from 
 his throne for his cruelty. 
 
 Pestilence in Egypt. 
 
 Car;,hage rebuilt. 
 
 Death of Micipsa, king of 
 Numidia, and the assassina- 
 tion of Iliempsal by Jugur- 
 tha. 
 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 
 Egypt. 
 
 Jugurthiiie War. 
 
 118. Dalmatia, a Roman 
 Province. 
 
 123. Tribunate of C a i u a 
 Gracchus. 
 
 116 
 112 
 
 
 113. First great migration of 
 the German nations. 
 
 107 
 
 Alexander I. , king of Egypt. 
 
 
 109. War of the Teutoni ani 
 Cimbri. 
 
 135 
 
 Jugurtha is defeated and sur- 
 renders N umidia to the Ro- 
 
 ■ 
 
 105. Numidia. becomes a Ro- 
 man province by tlie defeat 
 of Jugurtha. 
 
 104 The Teuinni defeat 80,(XX! 
 Romans on 'he banks of th.o 
 Rhone. 
 
 102. M a r i u s victorious 
 over ihe Teutoni and Ambro- 
 nes at Aqua; Sextae. 
 
 101. Marius and Catullus de- 
 feat the Cimbri. 
 
 100. Marius buys his sixth con- 
 sulate. 
 
 Banishment of Metelliia 
 
752 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 The Eighth Period. — {The Roman.)- 
 
 B.o Pbooress op Socibty, etc. 
 
 Libraries of Athene sent to 
 Rome by Syiia. 
 
 Decline of Agriadture in 
 Italy ; corn supplied from 
 the provinces. 
 
 Posidonius calculates the 
 height of the atmosphere to 
 be about 800 stadia. 
 
 Zeno, of Sidon,the Epicurean ; 
 ApelUcon of Athena ; Alex- 
 ander Polyphisfor.ihe gram- 
 marian ; Photius GaUus, 
 rhetorician ; Q. Valerius 
 Aniias, Roman liistorian ; 
 Q. Hortensiiis^ orator. 
 
 The rjierry tree brought to 
 Europe from Asia by Lu- 
 culius. — TereiUius Varro 
 writes three books on agri- 
 culture. 
 
 The Romans possess gold 
 mines in Asia Minor, Mace- 
 donia, Sardinia and Graul ; 
 and productive silver mines 
 in Spain. 
 
 The first water mill described 
 near a dwelling of Mithri- 
 dates. 
 
 W Ebony introduced at Rome by 
 I Pompey. 
 
 Vikramaditya king of Ozeno, 
 in Lidia, patron of literature 
 — at his court flourish A7ne- 
 ra Sin/ca, Ifixicogranher; 
 Vararuchi, grammarian • 
 Kalidasa, poet. 
 
 79. Alexandra, widow of ,Tan- 
 neus, governs Judea. 
 
 70. Hyrcanus '11, High Priest, 
 deposed by his brother Aris- 
 toliulus. 
 
 67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus 
 appeal to Pompey, who en- 
 ters Judea and takes .lerusa- 
 lem, and restores Hyrcanus 
 to the priesthood. 
 
 63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- 
 VINCE. 
 
 98. China sti'. submits to tha 
 H a n dynasty ; S e m a t • 
 z i n , Emperor. 
 
 97. Milhridates conquers Cap- 
 padocia. 
 
 95. Cappadocia declared free 
 by Rome. — Ariobarzanea 
 elected king. 
 
 94. Antiochus, king of Syriaj 
 defeated ty Seleucus. 
 
 93. Tigranes, king of Arme- 
 nia. 
 
 9. Pontus at war with Romo. 
 
 86. Mithridates takes Bytlii- 
 nia and several Roman pro- 
 vinces. 
 
 83. Tigranes made king of 
 Syria. 
 
 75. By the death of Nicome- 
 des Bythinia becomes h 
 Drovince. 
 
 70. Damascu-3 possessed by 
 
 the Romans. 
 60. Mithridaies and Tigranes 
 
 defeated by Lucullus. 
 66. Milhridates defeated by 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 65. Antiochus XII. defeated 
 by Pompey. — The race of 
 the Seleucidae becomes ex- 
 tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., 
 king of Cappadocia. — An 
 earthquake in Bosphorua 
 lays in ruins several towns. 
 
 64. Dejotarus, kingof Galatia, 
 seizes Armenia Minor. 
 
 '53. Pharmaces, king of Pontui. 
 
THE M'ORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 753 
 
 146 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 S2 
 
 By the death of Ptolemy 
 Apion, Cyrene becomes a 
 Roman province. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Reyolt in Upper Egypt. — 
 
 Thebss destroyed. 
 Alexander II., king of Egypt. 
 
 Ptolemy 
 Egypt. 
 
 Auletes, king of 
 
 In Asia and Africa. 
 
 97. Annexation of Cyrene. 
 
 89. Mithridatic War; Sylla 
 commands the Roman army. 
 
 88. The Athenians seek as- 
 sistance from Mithridates 
 against Rome. ' 
 
 86. Athens, reduced by famine, 
 is taken by Sylla. 
 
 83. Second Mithridatic War. 
 82. Sylla plunders the temple 
 of belphi. 
 
 79. P o m p e y defeats Dc- 
 mitius in Africa. 
 
 75. Bythinia a Roman 
 Province. 
 
 74. Third Mithridatic War 
 under LucuUus. 
 
 66. Metellus subdues Crete. 
 P n t u s becomes a 
 Roman P r o. v i n c e . 
 . Syria, a Roman 
 Province. 
 
 In Europe. 
 
 99. L u s i t a n i a conquered 
 by Dolabella, and becomes 
 a Roman province. — Birth 
 of Julius Caesar. 
 
 91. Social War in Italy. 
 
 8- Sylla defeating the 
 Marsi and Pelighi, puts an 
 end to tire Social War. 
 
 Civil War between Ma- 
 rius and Sylla. 
 
 82. Sylla defeats Marius, atid 
 is evented perpetual dictatcc 
 
 SO. JULIUS CESAR'S Fir«t 
 
 Campaign. 
 
 77. Sertorius revolts in Spam 
 and defeats Metellus and 
 Pompey. 
 
 73. War of Spartacus, the gla 
 diator. 
 
 71. Spartacus defeated by Cras 
 
 sus. 
 
 70. Pompey and Cras 
 
 sus Consuls. 
 69. Census 450,090. 
 
 65. M. T. Cicero, CodsuL 
 
 63. Cataline's Conspl- 
 ( racy delected and sup 
 I pressed by Cicero. 
 
 32* 
 
754 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 The Eighth Period. — {The RoJitan.)- 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 62 
 
 Magnificent houses of the 
 nobles ; marble theatre of 
 Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- 
 tators. 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Cicero, statesman and orator ; 
 Salhist, historian; Lucre- 
 tius and Catullus, poets ; 
 Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhe- 
 torician ; Aristomedes, of 
 Crete, grammarian ; Andro- 
 nicus, of Rhodes, peripate- 
 tic philosopher. 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 Iron chain cables used by the 
 Veneti. 
 
 
 
 
 
 53. Crassus plunders the tem- 
 
 53. Parthian War.~The Fe- 
 
 
 
 ple of 10,000 talents. 
 
 mans defeated. — Crasw* 
 slain. 
 
 eo 
 
 A water mill on the Tiber at 
 Rome. 
 
 48. Antipater, the Idumean, is 
 made lieutenant in Judea by 
 Caesar. 
 
 49. The era of Antioch. 
 
 47 
 
 The Alexandrian library (400,- 
 
 
 47. Battle of Zela.— Phaa/ 
 
 
 000 vols.) burnt. 
 
 
 conquered by Caesar. 
 
 46 
 
 The year of confusion — so 
 called because the calendar 
 was altered by Sosigenes. 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 CcBsar reforms the Calendar, 
 by introducing the solar in- 
 stead of the lunar year. — 
 First Julian year. — Vitru- 
 
 
 
 
 vius, the greatest Roman ar- 
 chitect. 
 Cornelius Nepos, historian ; 
 
 
 44. A comet seen in China. 
 
 i3 
 
 43, Judea oppressed by Cras- 
 
 
 
 Dio-ioTUS Siculus, histo- 
 
 sus. 
 
 
 
 riaa, 
 
 Malichus poisons Arti- 
 pater. 
 40. Herod the Great, son of 
 
 
 
 
 Antipater, defeats his rival. 
 
 39. The Parthians, under Pai 
 
 
 
 Antigonus, and Parcorus, 
 
 corns, defeated by VentI 
 
 
 
 the Parthian— lakes Jerusa- 
 
 dius. 
 
 
 
 lem—marries Mariamne — is 
 
 Darius, king of Pontuei. 
 
 
 
 made king by the Romans. 
 
 38. Ariobarzanes dethroned by 
 Marc Antony. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 755 
 
 146 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 68 
 
 46 
 
 Ptuiemy goes to Rome, Bere- 
 lice leigns in his absence. 
 
 The African War. — Scipio 
 a •! Juba defeated at Thap- 
 sv.s-— Cato kills liimself at 
 lijca. — Ptolemy Dionysius 
 drowned in the Nile. 
 
 Caesar rebuilds Carthajre. 
 
 Cleopatra poisons her brother 
 aj a reigns alone 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 
 53. Crassus defeated and killed 
 in Parthia. 
 
 48. Thessaly becomes the seat 
 of war. — The Athenians de- 
 clare for Caesar against Pom- 
 pey. 
 
 Battle of PharsaJia: — Pom- 
 pey, defeated^ by Caesar, flees 
 into Egypt, and is slain there. 
 
 47. Caesar takes Alexandria, 
 and conquers Egypt. — Cae- 
 sar victorious at Zela, in 
 Asia. 
 
 45. Corinth rebuilt by Cassar. 
 
 West. 
 
 60. First Triumvirate ;— 
 Pompey, Crassus, and .TuliuJ" 
 Caesar. 
 
 Sciold, first king of Den- 
 mark. — Boh a fierce son 
 of Odin. 
 
 58. Clodius procures the ban 
 ishment of Cicero. — The 
 Helvetii defeated by Julius 
 Caesar. 
 
 57. Cicero recaliec. — S a 1 • 
 lust expelled from the 
 senate. — Gylf, king of Swe- 
 den. 
 
 55. Cassar passes the 
 Rhine, defeats the Ger- 
 mans and Gauls, and In 
 VADEs Britain. 
 
 54. Caesar's second invasion 
 of Britain. 
 
 52. Pompey, sole consul. 
 
 51. Caesar completes the con- 
 quest of Gaul, which be- 
 comes a Roman province. 
 
 49. Caesar passes the 
 Rubicon, and in sixty 
 days makes himself master 
 of Italy — marches into Spain 
 and forces Pompey's troops 
 to surrender. 
 
 48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 
 
 45. Cassar perpetual 
 dictator — he subdues 
 the two sons of Pompey, an d 
 acquires the sole power. 
 
 44. Caesar assassinated in the 
 Senate House. 
 
 43. Second Triumvirate: — 
 Octavius Caesar, Marc An- 
 tony, and Lepidue. — Cicero 
 proscribed and murdered. 
 
 42. The Battle of Philippi :— 
 Antony and Octavius defeaJ 
 Brutus and Cassius. 
 
756 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Tlie Eighth Fei-iod. — {The Raman.)- 
 
 B. 0. PRoaREsa OP Society, etc. 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 Golden age of Roman litera- 
 ture. 
 
 The revenue, of the empire 
 amounts to about 40 milhons 
 sterling. — First standing ar- 
 my in Rome. — Direct trade 
 of Rome witlr India. — Silk 
 and linen manu, 
 in the empire. 
 
 Temple of .Janus at Rome 
 closed — there being now a 
 general peace. 
 
 Treasures of Egyptian art 
 brought to Rome.— The Pan- 
 theon built. 
 
 Horace, Virgil, Tibullus, 
 Propertius, poets; Varrus 
 and Tucca, critics ; Livy, 
 historian ; Ma-xenas, minis- 
 ter of Augustus, patron of 
 literature: Straho, geogra- 
 pher; JSmilius Macer, of 
 Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war- 
 rior, and patron of the arts. 
 
 Worship of Isis at Rome. 
 
 Pantomimic dances intro- 
 duced on the Roman stage. 
 
 Aqueducts constructed by 
 Agrippa. 
 
 Dedications of byiks first in- 
 troduced. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 30. Ilerod kills Mariamnc^ 
 
 19. The Temple rebuilt by 
 Herod— he also builds Cy- 
 pron, Antipatris, Pharsselis, 
 and the tower of Phasael in 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 The legions distributed over 
 the provinces in fi.xed camps, 
 whicli soon grew into cities 
 — among them were Bo?in 
 and Mayence. 
 
 The calendar corrected by 
 
 Augustus. 
 Dionysius, of Halicarnassus 
 historian ; and Dionysius. 
 geographer. 
 
 BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- 
 fore the Vulgar Era, 
 3. Archelaus succeeds Herod 
 with the title of Ethnarch. 
 
 5. Cyrenius taxes Judea. 
 
 34. Antony likes possessijE 
 of Armenia, which a«comea 
 a Roman province — leaji 
 an inglorious e-xpt^iitior 
 against Parthia. 
 
 29. E p h e s u s , next to 
 Ale.xandria, the chief place 
 of trade in the Roman era 
 pire. 
 
 20. Porus, king of India, soli 
 cits an alliance with Rome. 
 Parthians defeated by Ti 
 berius. 
 
 14. Polemon conquers Sew 
 
 porus. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 757 
 
 146 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 S.C. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 
 
 East. 
 
 West. 
 
 36 
 
 Cleoj itra obtains from An- 
 
 
 36. Sextus Pompey defeated 
 
 
 tony a grant of Phoenicia, 
 
 
 in Sicily. 
 
 
 Cyrene and Cyprus. 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 —receives all Asia from the 
 
 
 
 
 Mediterranean to the Indus. 
 
 
 32. Antony quarrels with Oo" 
 
 31 
 
 deopatra and Marc Antony 
 deleated by Octavius, at 
 Actium. 
 
 
 tavius. 
 31. By the BATTLE OF AC- 
 TIUM Octavius acquirai 
 the empire. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Alexandria taken by Octavius. 
 — Antony and Cleopatra de- 
 stroy themselves. 
 
 Egypt becomes a Ro- 
 man province. 
 
 
 30. THE REPUBLIC BE 
 COMES A MONARCHY. 
 
 29. Octaviue's 3 days triumph 
 at Rome. 
 
 Temple of Janus shut 
 Rome contains 4,101,017 
 citizens. 
 27. The titles of Augustus and 
 Emperor conferred on Octa- 
 vius for 10 years. 
 
 23. Agrippa in Spain. 
 
 
 
 21. Athens finally subjected ',o 
 
 22. Conspiracy of Muresna. 
 21. Augustus visits Greece 
 
 
 
 Rome. 
 
 and Asia. 
 
 
 
 20. CXCth Olympiad. 
 
 < 
 
 16. LoUius defeated by the 
 Germans. 
 
 15. Caniabria, Austria, Rhce- 
 bla, Vindelencia and Mcesia 
 become Roman provinces- 
 being conquered by Dru 
 sus. 
 
 13. Augustus assumes the 
 title of Pontifex Maximus. 
 
 12. Pannonia, conquered bj 
 Tiberius, becomes a Ro- 
 man province. 
 
 11. Germany subdued ov Ger 
 manicus. 
 
 
 
 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 
 
 
 
 
 5. Q. Varrus appointed gcv- 
 
 
 
 
 emor of Syria, and Cyre- 
 
 
 
 
 nius governor of Judea. 
 
 4. Cymbeline, IdngofBritfLn. 
 
PART II. 
 
 MODERN CHRONOLOGY, 
 
 FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 L From the Christian Era 
 
 to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 
 
 Epochas or Periods. 
 
 Period of the Ten Perseeutian; o 
 
 " Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 i 
 
 in. 
 
 Flight of Mahomet, 
 
 622 < 
 
 Christians. 
 " Northern Invasions. 
 
 " Justinian and Belisariua. 
 
 " CrowningofCharlemagneat Rome, " 800 ( " Saracen Ev^tre. 
 
 " New Western Empire. 
 " The Crusades. 
 
 " Battle of Hastings, 
 
 " Founding of the Turkish Empire, 
 
 1066 i 
 
 1299 S 
 
 VII. 
 
 vm 
 
 IX, 
 
 Kl 
 
 " Taking of Constantinople, 
 
 " Edict of Nantes, 
 
 " Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 
 Battle of Waterloo, 
 
 present time (1883.) 
 
 14!53S 
 1598$ 
 1718 I 
 1815 ( 
 
 Tamerlane, Wickliffe, and Hubs 
 
 "he Reformation 
 and Inventions. 
 
 The Reformation; Discozeriet 
 ' tnve 
 
 " The English Comm,onwealt\ 
 and Wars of Louis XIV. 
 
 " American and French Rtzo'.v 
 tions. 
 
 ( " European Revolutwni, Latere^ 
 S ture and the Arts. 
 
760 THE world's progress. ' 
 
 MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st.— {The Teji Pf.rsecutions.)- 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 26 
 
 %) 
 
 43 
 
 Celsus the physician; Phadrus, the fabu- 
 list ; VeUius Paterculus, Romaa histo- 
 rian. 
 
 The BIRTH OF CHRIST :— (see p. 44.) 
 
 Herod Aiitipas being at this time letrarc'o 
 of Galilee. 
 
 8. Christ reasons with the doctots. 
 
 The Druids in Germany. 
 
 Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 
 Seneca, moral philosopher. 
 
 Valerius Maximus, historian. 
 
 Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called 
 the "Trumpet of the World." 
 
 A census being taken by Claudius, the em- 
 peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome 
 are found to amount to 6,9011,000.— (C/nii'. 
 Hisl.)— [Move than three times the number 
 of London at present. 1 
 
 Columella, born in Spam ; left twelve books 
 on husbandry. 
 
 25. Pontius Pilate, gorenior of Judea. 
 
 26. John the Baptist begins h'is ministry. 
 
 27. Christ baptized by John 
 
 23. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew 
 called. , 
 
 29, Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and 
 two." 
 
 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- 
 day, April 3, at 3 P. ftl. ; Resurrection, 
 Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, 
 May 4. 
 
 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 
 
 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 
 
 39. St. MattJiew writes his gospel. 
 
 40. Tlie disciples first called Christians at 
 Antioch. 
 
 41. Herod's persecution; St. Peter imprisoned 
 
 44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death ol 
 St. James. 
 
 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 
 
 50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athen 
 
 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 
 
 55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Csesa- 
 rea. 
 
 57. — pleads before Felix. 
 59. —pleads before Festus, and appeals to 
 Casar. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 761 
 
 806 years.— From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 Caius Csesar makes peace with the Parthians. 
 
 26 
 
 Germanicus conquers Cappadccia, 
 Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. 
 
 Thrace becomes a Roman province. 
 
 West. 
 
 Tibeiius returns to Rome. 
 
 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. 
 
 — Caius Cas-sar dies. 
 6. Q,. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- 
 erns Lower Germany lilie a Roman pr9 
 vince. 
 9. Tlie Germans, under .ArwiOTfwi, defeat and 
 kill Varrus. 
 Ovid is banished to Tomos. 
 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and ia 
 succeeded bv 
 
 -Tiberius. 
 
 J9. The Jews banished from Rome. — Tha 
 
 Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 
 21 . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by Sre. 
 
 26. Tiberius retires to Caprsea. 
 
 3L Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 
 
 33. Conquest of Mauritania. 
 S7. Tiberius dies, aged 78. 
 
 -Caligula. 
 
 (noted for his profligacy and folly.) 
 41. Caligula assassinated by Chereaa. 
 
 C 1 a u d i u s #1 
 
 succeeds to the throne. 
 43, — invades Britain with his general, Plao- 
 tius. 
 
 45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 
 48. Census of 'the city, 6,900,000. 
 
 51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con- 
 quered and brought to Rome. 
 
 Nero ,^g 
 
 a proiligate and bloody tyrant 
 
 55. — poisons Britanicus. 
 
 56. Rotterdam built. 
 
 59. Nero's mother, Agnppina, put to (laatb by 
 his order. 
 
762 
 
 TliF world's progress. [Modem : Perwd I. — 306 vcari 
 
 64 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Nerc's golden palace built ; of great extent, 
 injosing fields, &c. The buildings in 
 Rome more regular after the fire. 
 
 Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural 
 history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Per- 
 sius, satirist. 
 
 Josep/iits, the Jewish historian. 
 
 The Coliseum of Vespasian. 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 59. Paui is shipwrecked on the Isia.-icl 9* 
 Melita (Malta). 
 
 60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 
 
 63. Paul set at liberty. 
 
 64. The first persecution of Christian* by 
 
 Nero. 
 
 63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travelai 
 through the greater part of the known 
 world. 
 
 66. Pope Linus.* 
 
 The Jews at war with the Romans, and 
 Paul beheaded. 
 St. Peter crucified. 
 
 67. The Jews massacred by Florus. — Josephua, 
 governor of Galilee. 
 
 Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliej. 
 i. Vespasian invades Judea. 
 
 70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by TUnm 
 
 77. Pope St. Cletus 
 
 The Capitol rebuilt. 
 Circumnavigatiiia of Scotland. 
 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of 
 Titus ; the .j'-oup ol' the Laocoon. 
 
 Quintillian, orator; Valerius Flaccus, poet 
 Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Py- 
 thagorean philosopher; Epictetus, stoic 
 Dio Chrysosto7n, Greek rhetorician and phi 
 losopher ; Philo By'Jius ; Ignatius and Pa- 
 pias, two of the fathers of the church. 
 
 Tacitus, historian ; Juvenal, satirist ; Sta- 
 tius, poet; Aid. Geliius, Latin gramma- 
 rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; 
 the younger Pliny. 
 
 The Ulpian library; Public schools in all 
 the provinces ; jurisprudence flourishes ; 
 the city adorned with the Forum; Pillar 
 of Trajan, and baths; bridge built over 
 tne Danube. 
 
 83. Pope Anacletus. 
 
 95. Second persecution of the Cluiatia&i by 
 
 Domitian. 
 
 St. John writes hia Gospel and Apoca- 
 lypse, and is banished to the isle of Fatmos 
 
 96. Pope Evaristus. 
 
 97. Timothy stoned. 
 
 St. John returns from exile. 
 
 98. Christian assemblies prohibitedby rraJoB 
 
 * The word Pope is used in accordanca 
 with the Roman Catholic usa^e, though th« 
 name was not adopted by their Pontiffs tilJ 
 several centuries after. 
 
— Christian Era to Constantijie.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 763 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 61) 
 
 65 
 
 East. 
 
 Corbuli subdues Armenia. 
 
 Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by 
 Neio. 
 
 Judea subdued and .Jerusalem destroyed by 
 
 Tiius. 
 Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, 
 
 Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. 
 Revolt of the Parlhians. 
 
 West. 
 
 61. Revolt of the Britons untler queen Boo- 
 dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- 
 feated by Suetonius, poisons herself. 
 
 64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses tha 
 Christians of the crime. 
 
 — persecutes the Christians — Seneca, lot 
 cian, and others put to death. 
 
 ■ G al ba,' 
 
 reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 
 
 ■ O th o ,* 
 
 (2 months) defeated and killed by 
 
 ■ V i t e 1 1 i u s , ' 
 
 who is defeated by the army of 
 
 70.- 
 
 • Vespasian. 
 
 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying 
 one day. 
 
 9. Titus, ^ ' . - 
 
 (beneficent.) 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii destroy >.d 
 by an irruption of Vesuvius. 
 0. Julius Agricola, conqueror and govern oi 
 of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 
 
 -D o m i t i a n , ^g 
 ( a cruel tyrant.) 
 
 86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, 
 defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a 
 yearly tribute. 
 
 88! Capitoline and secular games. 
 War with Dacia 15 years. 
 
 96 Domitian put to death by Stephaaus. 
 
 N e r V a , 
 
 (well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) 
 
 -Trajan,' 
 
 (a frreat sovereign and a warror.) 
 The Roman Empire at its grea'w*'!. extent 
 J. Severus, general in Britain 
 
764 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Modern: Period I. — 806 years, 
 
 \m 
 
 Pkogrbss op Society, etc. 
 
 The Just credible hist^i-ian among the 
 Chinese. 
 
 132 
 
 The great buildings of Palmyra.- 
 
 the Sun at Baatbec. 
 The Roman mosaics. 
 
 -Temple of 
 
 Jurispr^idence improved by the publishment 
 of Adrian's perpetual code. 
 
 Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer 
 and geographer — Arrian., Appian, Maxi- 
 mus, Lysius and Pausanius, Greek histo 
 rians ; Liician, a satirical writer ; Uerino- 
 genes, rhetorician of Tarsus. 
 
 16(3 Tschang Heng, the Chinese astronomer 
 
 169 ' Ualen, Greek physician ; Athceneus, a gram- 
 marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo- 
 rian. 
 
 The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 100. St. John dies at Ephesus, ast. 94. 
 
 107. Third persecution of ihe Christiana tej 
 
 Trajan. 
 lOi, St. Ignatius devouied by wild beasts. 
 Pope Alexander I. 
 
 118. Fourth persecution of the Christiana djp 
 Adrian. 
 
 119. Pope Sixtusl. 
 
 126. Qtiadratus, bishop of Athens. 
 
 127. Pope Telesphorus. 
 
 130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- 
 mites. 
 
 134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges 
 three Gods. 
 
 135. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers 
 
 139. Pope Hygenus. 
 
 142. Popp Pius I. 
 
 Heresy of Valentine. 
 
 150, Pope Anioetus. 
 
 Canon of Scripture fixed about this lime 
 
 154. Justiti Martyr publishes his apology fy 
 
 the Christians. 
 
 162. PopeSoter. 
 
 167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in &aia 
 
 171. Pope Eleutherus. 
 177. The Christians persecuted at lijtta 
 TiieophHus, Tatian, and Monianaa. 
 
 185. Pope Victor I. 
 St. IrencBiia. 
 
— Cfirisfian Era. to Constantine.'] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 765 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 ia2 
 
 \ii 
 
 120 
 
 Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his 
 account of the Christians. — Great victories 
 of Trajan, 
 
 Trajan's expeditioi against the Parthians. 
 
 Seizure of Ctesiphon. 
 
 Armenia Major again governed by its own 
 Icings dependent upon Rome. 
 
 Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 
 earthquake. 
 
 Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. 
 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of 
 
 jElia Capitolina, and erects there a temple 
 
 to Jupiter. 
 The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war 
 
 of five years.— The Jews banished from 
 
 Judea. 
 
 160 
 
 168 
 
 Embassy sent by Antoninus to China. 
 
 War witL the Parthians, lasts 3 years. 
 
 Wext. 
 
 100. The Huns emigrate westwar 1. 
 
 101. Trajan reduces Dacia. 
 
 115. Massacre of the Greeks and Roreaaw tfj 
 the Jews of Cyrene. 
 
 117.- 
 
 ■Adrian. 
 
 120. — makes e progress through all tha 
 
 121. provinces-visits Britain, builds there 
 a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith. — A 
 wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 
 
 138. — Antoninus Pius, ^§ • — 
 
 (eminent for his virtues and love ol peace.) 
 
 140. LoUius Urbicus extends the Roman do- 
 minion in Britain, and erects a second ram- 
 part, called the Wall of Anloninus. 
 
 14.5. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, 
 and Dacians. 
 
 146. — introduces the worship of Serapis lata 
 Rome. 
 
 152. — stops the persecution of the Christiana. 
 
 161.— Marcus Aurelius, ^g (Aa' »■ 
 ninus,) 
 (the stoic philosopher.) 
 Escape of the thundering legion. 
 158. Plague over the whole known world 
 
 169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 
 
 180. The emperor dies at Sirmium; sta 
 ceeded by 
 
 C o m m o d u s , "^'S 
 
 (profligate and cruel;) m'Aas peace 
 
 with the Germans. 
 GOTHS in Dacia. 
 
766 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Modern : Period /.— 806 yean 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAI.. 
 
 Papmian, the greatest civil lawyer of anti' 
 quity — fulius Africanus, chronologer. 
 
 Caracalla grants the right of Roman, citizen- 
 ship to all the provinces, that they may be- 
 come liable to the taxes, inheritances, &c. 
 
 197. Pope Zephynnus. 
 
 202. Fifth persecution of the Christians undei 
 Seveins.—Teriullian, an able defender o( 
 Christianity.— C/eTOews, of Alexandria, and 
 Minutius Felix, C. F.* 
 
 217. Pope Calixtus I. 
 
 The Sepiuagint found in a cask. 
 
 235 
 
 049 
 
 Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla- 
 
 tonic philosophy at Alexandria. 
 Dio Cassius, Greek historian. 
 
 Censorius, a critic and grammarian. 
 
 Herodian, Greek historian. 
 Longinus, philosopher and iritic 
 
 228. Pope Urban i. 
 2-34. Pope Pontianus. 
 
 235. Anterus. 
 
 Origen, C. F. 
 
 Sixth persecution of the Christians, under 
 Maximinus, in which Leonidas, JretcBus, 
 Victor, Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar- 
 tyred. 
 
 244. Gregory Thaumaturgus,a.nA Dion^tnu 
 of Alexandria, C. F. 
 
 250. Pope St. Cornelius. 
 
 Seventh persecution of the CnrisUaos. 
 
 Christian Father. 
 
-—Christian Era to Constantine.'] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 •67 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 189 
 
 Ea3t. 
 The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 
 
 223 
 
 226 
 
 PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Artax- 
 erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasidae). 
 
 Parthia tributary to Persia. 
 
 Goidian lefeats the Persians under Sapor 
 
 West. 
 
 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light 
 ning. 
 
 191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 
 
 192. Commodus assassinated by Martia an* 
 Laetus. 
 
 193.- 
 
 Pertinax. 
 
 proclaimed by the Praetunan guards — 
 murdered after a reign of 3 muinhs.— The 
 empire bought by Didius Juliamis, who 
 is put to death by order of the senate. 
 
 Septimus S e v e r u s ,^^ 
 
 (geveni.s ,viih vigor.) 
 — defeats his comietitors, Niger and Albi- 
 nus. 
 194. — besieges Byzantium, 
 202. — persecutes the Christians. 
 20S — his sons Caracalla anil Ge a go to Bri- 
 tain, where 50,000 Roman tmops died of 
 plague. 
 
 The wall of Severus between the Forth 
 and the Clyde built. 
 
 211. Severus dies at York, in Britain. 
 
 Caracalla and Geta. ^^ 
 
 Caracalla murders Geta. 
 
 212. — visits the provinces along the Danubt 
 — Wars with the Catii and Alemanni. 
 
 217. Caracalla is assassinated. 
 
 M a c r i n u s , ^g 
 
 put to death by the sijldiers. 
 
 218. Heliogahalus, ^g 
 
 (a monster of vice and cruelty.) 
 
 222.- Alexander Severus ,^J 
 
 (a beneficent and enlightened prince. ) 
 The Romans agree to pay an annual tri- 
 bute to the Goths, to prevent them from 
 molesting the empire. 
 226. The victory of Severus over the Persians 
 at Tadmor. 
 
 235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of tha 
 army ; succeeded by 
 BI a X i m i n u s , A,— 
 
 who defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians. 
 
 236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops 
 near Aquilea. 
 
 — Balbinus and G o r d i a n , ^^ — 
 241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his 
 
 tory ; they invade Gaul. 
 244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum. 
 Gordian put to death by 
 
 Philip ,^g (the Arabian,^- ■ 
 
 who makes makes peace with Sapor. 
 247. The secular games restored. 
 
 ai9. 
 
 T) e c i u : 
 
 I persecutes the Chnsiians. 
 
 250. —slain by the Goths, who i.ivade th« 
 I empire by crossing the Danube. 
 
768 
 
 THE world's progress. [Modern : Period /.— 306 ijeari 
 
 270 
 
 276 
 
 277 
 
 Prooress op Society, etc. 
 
 Plotinus. 
 
 Odin in Scandinavia. 
 
 Paulus, a Roman poet. 
 
 Longinus at the court of Zenobia. 
 
 Rome surrounded with a wall. 
 Longinus dies. 
 
 Porphyry^ the Greek philosopher and opposer 
 
 of Christianity. 
 Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra- 
 
 cian Franks in tis Mediterranean and 
 
 Northern Seas. 
 
 Diocletian's Oriental form of government— 
 
 the monarchy considered hereditary — nohii- 
 
 nation of Ccesars as co-rulers. 
 Diocletian's batlis, containing 3,000 benches 
 
 of white marble, while the walls were 
 
 adorned with paintings. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 25L St Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.— Mo- 
 nastic life originates about this tune. 
 
 Dispute between the churches of Rom« 
 and Africa about baptism. 
 
 259. Pope Dionysius. 
 
 262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, dei ies tha 
 divinity of Jesus Christ 
 
 ■269. Pope Felix L 
 
 272, Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 
 
 274. Pope Eutychianes. 
 
 Manes originates the heresy of the Maiil- 
 chaeans — rejects all thesacramenis ; refws w 
 allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 
 
 283. Pope Caius. 
 
 The Jewish Talmud ard Targuni oas 
 posed. 
 Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reh 
 gious ceremonies multiplied.— Pagan rites 
 imitated by the Christians. 
 
 236. Hierax, chief of the iyzera.T!ans; asserte 
 that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and 
 denies the resurrection. 
 
— Christian Era to Constantine.'] 
 
 THE tVORLD'b PROGRESS. 
 
 769 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 260 
 261 
 
 264 
 
 269 
 273 
 
 East. 
 
 IIUNS 01 the Caspian Sea. 
 
 The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 
 Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman 
 
 arms. 
 The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
 Sapor, the Persian, takes Aiitioch, Tarsus and 
 
 CaBsarea. 
 
 Odenatus, king of Palmyra — he is succeeded 
 
 by his wife. 
 Z en b i a, who reigns with the titles of 
 
 'Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' 
 
 Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, 
 
 and Asia Minor. 
 Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 
 
 destroys her magnificent capital, and carries 
 
 iter to Rome. 
 
 defeats an army of 320,00U Goths. 
 269. — dies at Sirmium. 
 
 The Persians tefeated by Probua 
 
 33 
 
 251.- 
 
 Gallus 
 
 purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con- 
 federacy of the Franks between the Rhin» 
 and Elbe. 
 
 —a great pestilence prevails in the empire 
 
 253.- 
 254.- 
 
 E m 1 1 1 a n u s . 
 Valerian, 
 
 is successful against the Germans a\iJ 
 
 Goths. 
 256-69. Four great piratical expeditions if iha 
 
 Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 
 259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and 
 
 flayed alive by the Persians. 
 
 ■ G a 1 1 i e n u s . 
 
 Period of the 30 tyrants. 
 The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 
 264. Alliance with Odenatus. 
 
 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Gotha 
 and Scythians. 
 
 268. Gallienus kiUed at Milan. 
 
 -Claudius II 
 
 270.- 
 
 - Aurelian, ^^ 
 
 (a great warrior.) 
 271. — defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 
 
 273 — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- 
 ance, and takes queen Zenobia pvisoner. 
 
 274. Fi-ance, Spain, and Britain reduced to 
 obedience. 
 
 The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. — 
 Dacia given up to the barbarians. 
 
 275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 
 An interregnum of 6 months. 
 
 Tacitus, 
 
 (a descendant of the historian,) 
 reigns with wisdom 6 months. 
 
 277." 
 
 P r o b u s , 
 
 (a v^arlike prince.) 
 — obtains several victories over the barba- 
 rians.— The Franks permitted by Probus to 
 settle in Gaul. 
 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. 
 
 C a r u s 
 
 killed by lightning. 
 
 Carinus and Numerianus,' 
 
 (effeminate and cruel.) 
 288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. 
 
 Diocletian 
 
 sends ambassadors to China. 
 "The Era of Diocletian," or of "the 
 martvrs," Ausust 29. 
 287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigns 
 7 years. The empire attacked by the rorih- 
 em barbarians, and several provinces 
 usurped by tyrants. — Maximianus, a col- 
 league of the Emperor. 
 
770 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Modern: Period I. — 306 years. 
 
 PaoQRBSS OP Society, etc. 
 
 The Gregorian code. 
 
 304 
 
 31? 
 
 Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elius, 
 Spartianus, and Vopiscus, historians ; Tie- 
 bellius Polio. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 
 Pope Marcellinus 
 
 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
 30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted 
 'Vom idolatry. 
 
 The prmtorian guard broken up by Constan- 
 tlne. 
 
 MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 years — 
 
 306. Persecution of the Chiistians stopped hv 
 Constantius. 
 
 310. Pope Eusebius. 
 Arius excommunicated. 
 
 311. Pope Malchiades. 
 
 314. Pope Sylvester I. 
 
 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantina 
 the Great. 
 
 Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine 
 the Great.— Celebrated dome of St Sophia : 
 the, splendor of the court so great that it 
 cost more than the legions. 
 
 Constantinople becomes the seat of art and 
 literature. 
 
 340 Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed 
 have flourished about this lime. 
 
 357 
 
 Eutropius and Marcellinus, historians ; Jam- 
 iiicui and Eunapius, Greek historian. 
 
 325. The Council of Nice (from .June 19th, 
 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, 
 who condemn Arianism. —Eusebius, bishop 
 of Caesarea, C. P., and ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian. — Lactantius, Athanasius, Arius, 
 Eplu-ai.ma.nd Basil, C. F., flourish in the 
 reign of Constantine. 
 
 .335, Pope Marcus. 
 337. Pope Julius. 
 
 Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, 
 
 the cross reverenced, and incense used by 
 
 the Christians. 
 
 .341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by 
 Frumaintius. 
 
 356. Pope Felix II. 
 
 .S';. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, ci 
 Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F-— 
 Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthage,— 
 Cvn7, bishop of Jemsalem.— Monasteries it; 
 Thebais. 
 
— Cliristian Era to Consiantine.\ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 771 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Narsis, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- 
 potdinia, and Assyria. 
 
 Alexandria taken by Diocletian. 
 
 Hormiadas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. 
 
 From Constantine to Odoacer. 
 
 325 
 
 328 
 
 333 
 334 
 
 33- 
 
 3iO 
 350 
 354 
 
 The first general council a Nice. 
 
 The seat of government removed to Constan- 
 tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on 
 May 11th, 330. 
 
 Great famine and pestilence in Syria. 
 Revolt of Sarmatian -slaves, 30U,000 are dis- 
 persed over llie empire. 
 Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, 
 
 Constantius, Constans,and Constantine 
 
 291. The Franks make themselves masters oi 
 
 Batavia and Flanders. 
 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. ' 
 
 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 
 
 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em 
 pire to 
 
 Constantius and Galerius. 
 
 306. — Constantine the Great, ^§ ~ 
 
 (first Christian emperor.) 
 Licinius, Maximian, and Maxentius, his 
 three colleagues. 
 Constantine defeats the Franks. 
 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 
 314. Civil war wiih Licinius. 
 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 321. — appoints the observance of Sunday. 
 
 322. — defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- 
 comes sole emperor. 
 
 325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and 
 assemblies. 
 
 331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- 
 ples to be destroyed. 
 
 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 
 
 earthquake. 
 Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 
 
 extensive empire. 
 Gallus put to death by Constantius. 
 
 Constantius dies at Tarsus. 
 
 A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE 
 extending from the lower Danube to the con- 
 fines of Persia. 
 
 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and 
 
 killed by. Constans at Aqullea. 
 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 
 
 357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at 
 Strasburg. 
 
 361. — Julian, the Apostate, 
 
 attempts in vain to rebuild the temple 
 at Jerusalem. 
 363. — is slain in a war with the Persians. 
 
 Jovian. 
 
 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of 
 Valentinian and Valens, under whom the 
 EMPIRE is DIVIDED : 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE, 
 extending from the Caledonian ramparts 
 to the fo? of Mount Atlas. 
 
772 THE world's progress. [Modern: Period //.— 170 yean 
 
 k.a. Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 380 
 
 412 
 
 133 
 
 Aureliua Victor, author of lives of celebrated 
 Romans. 
 
 Pntdentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 
 Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- 
 maticians. 
 
 Claudian, Latin poet. 
 
 Macrobtus, Platonic philosopher. 
 
 Theodosius establishes public schools, and at- 
 tempts the restoration of learning. 
 
 Tl 9 Theodoaian code published. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 373. The Bible translatea into the Gothic laa 
 guage. 
 
 379. The prerogatives of the Roman See muck 
 
 enlarged. 
 381. The second general Council of Ccos'van- 
 
 tinople. 
 
 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate 
 for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 
 
 385. Pope Syricius. 
 
 392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan 
 tinople ; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan ; 
 St. Jerome, St. Martin, and St. Augustine, 
 ' Christian Fathers.' 
 
 Image toorship. — The Christian hier- 
 archy begins. 
 
 401. Pope Innocent L 
 
 412. C!/n7, bishop of Alexandria ; /strfore and 
 Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosiua. 
 a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and 
 Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi- 
 nal sin, &c. 
 
 416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the 
 African bishops. 
 
 417. Pope Zozimus. 
 
 418. Pope Boniface \. 
 
 422. Pope Celestine I. ■ 
 
 429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ac 
 knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ 
 
 431. Third general Council at Ephesua. 
 
 432. Pope Sixtus III. 
 
 St. Patrick preaches the Gospel ia Ire 
 land. 
 435. Nestorianism prevails in the East 
 
 440. Pope Leo 1. (the Great). 
 
 443. T\ie Manichman' books burned at Roma 
 415. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. 
 
—i<\orti Constantine to Odoacer.] 
 
 THE world's PKOGRESS. 
 
 773 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 364 
 
 376 
 
 378 
 
 379 
 
 388 
 392 
 394 
 
 395 
 iOS 
 
 414 
 420 
 
 HUNG AR ST, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by 
 the Huns, from wliom it is named. — Tlie 
 Roths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by 
 VaJens lo settle in Thrace. 
 
 Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near 
 Adrianople. 
 
 Theodosius the Great,^^ 
 
 a zealous supporter of Christianity. 
 
 Theodosius defeats Maxiraus, the tyrant of the 
 western empire. 
 
 Western Empire. 
 
 364. Valentinian I. ^g 
 
 elected by the army. 
 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are d& 
 feated by Theodosius. 
 
 G r a t i a n 
 
 gains a victory over the Germans ; suc- 
 ceeds to the eastern empire on the death ol 
 Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor 
 — Gratian killed at Lyons. 
 
 379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandma> 
 via, and defeat the Vandals. 
 
 383.- 
 
 ■Valentinian II. 
 
 ■is dispossessed by Maxiraus, but is re- 
 stored by Theodosius ; makes Treves hia 
 capital. 
 384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a 
 Gaul, commander of the army. 
 
 Theodo sius 
 
 becomes sole emperor of the East and West. 
 
 Complete down fall of Paganism. 
 
 Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. 
 
 Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. 
 
 A r c a d i u s . 
 
 -Theodosiua 1 1 .^M — 
 a child ; Athenius, minister. 
 
 Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 
 
 Persian War. 
 
 Armenia divided between the Persians and 
 
 Romans. 
 A great part of Constantinople destroya.! by 
 
 fire. 
 
 Pannonia, Dalmatia and Voricum gained 'rom 
 the western empire. 
 
 H o n o r i u s , 
 
 401. Europe overrun by the V^IGOTHS. 
 
 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 
 
 406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, 
 
 Gaul, &c. 
 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths 
 
 under Alaric. 
 412 Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 
 
 413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 
 
 414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- 
 louse. 
 
 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by 
 
 the Goths. 
 420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their 
 
 first king, on the lower Rhine. 
 
 424. — Valentinian 1 11.^^ 
 
 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 
 
 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 
 
 428. jEtius, the Roman general, defeated bj 
 the Franks and Goths. 
 
 Franks :—Clodion, king, extends his rrn 
 quests to the river Somme. 
 
 43.3. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," fornw 
 an immense empire from China to the At- 
 lantic. 
 
 437. .S;tius defeats the Goths. 
 
 439. The kingdom of the Vandals in 
 Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who 
 takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 
 
 441. The Roman territories invaded fcy the 
 Huns, Persians and Saxons. 
 
 445. The famous embassy from Britain, sou- 
 citing aid against the Picts. 
 
774- 
 
 THE world's progress. [Modern : Period II. —170 yea"} 
 
 Proorbss op Society, etc. 
 
 Zozimus and Olympiodorus, Greek histo- 
 rians. 
 
 168 
 
 iTi 
 
 The principle established that every accused 
 person siiall be tried by his peers, or equals. 
 
 Legislation of the Visigoths in Spam — Erie 
 being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- 
 narchy. 
 
 The tottering empire of the west was finally 
 overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the 
 great event which precedes the 7iuddle or 
 '■'■dark ages." The form of the old 
 Roman government remained — the senate, 
 the consuls, &c. — but Italy, rava,2;ed by a 
 succession of wars, plagues, famines, and 
 every form of public tyran"v and domestic 
 slavery, was nearly a desert 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 447. Eutychf.s assorts the existence of onlj 
 one nature in Jesus Christ. 
 
 449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa ; and Eusebius, 
 bishop of Doryleum, deposed 
 
 450. Sozomen and Theoaoret, ecclesiastjcal 
 historians. 
 
 451. The fourth general Council atCl^altedoa, 
 at which Eutycheanism and NestorianisiB 
 are solemnly condemned 
 
 451. Pope Hilarius. 
 465. Pope Simplicius. 
 
 Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Cou- 
 stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- 
 salem — all striving for the supremacy.— 
 The church now begins to assume e, politft 
 cal aspect. 
 
— From Constantijie to Odoacer.'\ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 775 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 M a r c i a n / 
 
 157 
 
 a Thracian, refuses to jjay the annual 
 tribute to the Huns. 
 
 Leo I . , (the Thracian,) ^^ 
 
 first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 
 War with the Goths. 
 
 Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is received 
 from them as a hostage. 
 
 Western Empire. 
 
 448. Franks :— Merovoeus 1st, king of the Me- 
 rovingians. 
 
 .ffitius defeats the Huns. 
 
 451. The arrival of the Saxon* 
 in Britain, under Hengi-st and Horaa. 
 
 452. The city of VENICE founded. 
 455. Valentinian assassinated by 
 
 -Petronius Maximus. ^g — ~ 
 
 A V i t u s . ^S 
 
 Z e n o . 
 
 a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- 
 racies. 
 Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, 
 
 and invades the empire. He ravages 
 
 Thrace. 
 
 - M a j o r 1 a n . 
 
 458. Franks :— Childeric I., conquers as fai 
 as the Loire and takes Paris. 
 
 461.- 
 467.- 
 
 ■Severus.W 
 
 A t h e n 1 u s . 
 
 (The last three emperors slain by 
 Riodmer.) 
 468- Spain :— The Visigoths, under Eric, eata 
 blish their kingdom. 
 
 472. O 1 y b i u s . ^ _ 
 
 Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 473.- 
 
 Glycerius.^ 
 
 474. Julius Nepos. ^g 
 
 475. — Romulus Au^ustulus. ^g 
 476. ROME taken by Ot)OACER, king oJ 
 the Herulii : 
 
 END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 
 1228 years after the building of Rome ; and 
 commencement of the kingdor.a cf Italy un- 
 der Odoacer. 
 
r76 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS 
 
 MODERN : PERIOD IH.— 146 v-^an 
 
 «36 
 
 498 
 
 601 
 
 en 
 
 513 
 
 ei4 
 
 616 
 
 529 
 
 630 
 631 
 
 633 
 
 638 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Rise of the feudal system in France, under 
 Clovis. 
 
 Theodoric introduces the architecture of 
 Greece to improve the buildings of Italy 
 
 Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- 
 bylon. 
 
 Burgundian laws published, beino; a collec- 
 tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- 
 gundians. 
 
 The Salic law established in France. 
 
 Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 
 
 Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 The Christian Era proposed aiid introduced 
 by Dionysius, a monk. 
 
 The schools of Athens suppressed. 
 
 The fables of Pilpay translated into Peraian. 
 Chess introduced into Persia from India. 
 
 Justinian's pandects and code of laws. 
 
 Architecture : the church of St Sophia I uilt 
 
 at Constantinople. 
 Proelua, a learned Platonisi. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 483. Pope Felix HI. 
 
 excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 484. Christians persecuted by Huneric, tmg 
 of the Vandals. 
 
 492. Pope Ge.asius L 
 le Roman Pi 
 496. CTiristianity introduced into France. 
 
 494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his auprt 
 
 macy. 
 
 .. Chr 
 
 513. Christianity embraced by the Persiar 
 king, Carbades. 
 
 514. Pope Hormisdas. 
 
 519. The orthodox bishops restored by Jurtin 
 
 523. Pope .John I. 
 
 525. The Arian bishops deposed. 
 
 526. Pope Felix IV. 
 
 Extreme Unction introduced. 
 
 529. The Order of Benedictine monks ir 
 stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 
 
 530. Pope Boniface II. 
 
 533. Pope John II. 
 
 535. Pope Agapetus. 
 
 536. " Sylvester I. 
 
 Separation of the Armenians frim the Oie«t 
 
 church. 
 533. Po[ e Vigilius. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 777 
 
 — Onnacer ti MaJwmeL [The " Middle or Dark Ages''' begin 'here.\ 
 
 4S0 
 481 
 
 6a2 
 507 
 
 511 
 
 514 
 
 £18 
 
 518- 
 565 
 
 529 
 
 g32 
 
 634 
 
 535 
 536 
 
 537 
 B88 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the 
 
 greater part of Constantinople. 
 Zeao makes Theodoric general and consul 
 
 Anastasius I. 
 
 The Green and Blue factions. 
 
 The emperor's persecution of the Catho 
 lies, ana protection of the Manichasans, oc 
 casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianua. 
 
 The empire ravaged and the imperial army 
 destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. 
 
 Long walls built to protect Constantinople 
 from tlie Bulgarians. 
 
 A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 
 killed. 
 
 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose 
 fleet is consumed by the burning glass of 
 Proclus. 
 
 Anastasius killed by lightning. 
 
 -Justin I . 
 
 a peasant of Dalmatia. 
 Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire 
 
 ■Justinian I.,^ 
 
 celebrated for his code of laws and the 
 
 victories of his generals, Belisarius 
 
 and Narses. 
 
 Belisarius defeats the Persians under Ohos- 
 
 roea. 
 
 —quells 1 conspiracy in Constantinople. 
 
 — defeats the Vandals in Africa. 
 — subdues Sicily. 
 — takes Naples. 
 
 —takes Rome, defeats the Ostroeroths in 
 
 Italy. 
 — the Huns in Thrace, and 
 
 Edrope, generally. 
 
 481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,^ 
 of the French monarchy. 
 
 fuunJei 
 
 484, Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in SpaJa, 
 
 485. France : — Battle of Roiasona 
 gained by Clovis. 
 
 487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by PrinoB 
 
 Arthur and Ambrosius. 
 490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. 
 
 Britain : — kingdom of Sussex. 
 491. France : — Clovis subdues Thuringia. 
 
 493. Italy :— c onquered by Theo- 
 d o r i c , king of the Ostrogoths. — Odoa- 
 cer put to death. 
 
 499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with 
 Theodoric in Italy. 
 
 500. Burgundy becomes hia tributary. 
 
 507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 
 
 510. France : — Clovis makes Paris his capital 
 
 511. France: — Clovis dies. 
 
 -Childebert I. 
 
 512. The HERULII settle in Thiace. 
 
 516. The Christian Era adopted. 
 
 517. Getae ravages Illyricum, Macedon, Ac. 
 
 519. Britain:— Prince Arthur defeated at 
 Charford by Cerdie, who begins the third 
 Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 
 
 522. Spain :— Amalaric, (he first Gothic king, 
 who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- 
 tal, Seville. 
 
 530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 
 
 531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 
 
 532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber*. 
 
 536. Vitiges, kmg of the Ostogroths, surT«» 
 ders his possessions in Gaul to the FrM»«<> 
 king. 
 
 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 
 
 33* 
 
778 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Modern : Period III. — 146 yean 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 555 
 559 
 
 586 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Th3 manufacture of siik introduced from 
 (Jhina by the monks. 
 
 Procopius, a Roman Historian — the last of the 
 classic writers. 
 
 The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit- 
 ed by the Wittenagemnt. 
 
 Three orders ; the ?wb!e, the free, and the 
 servile. — Trial by ordeal. 
 
 Christianity introduced among the Picts by 
 Columbi. 
 
 The old Roman municipal system in Italy 
 overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards 
 — and the feudal system established. 
 
 Written laws compiled among the nations of 
 German origin— first by the Visigoths in 
 Spain. 
 
 Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- 
 tecture of churches, with much grotesque 
 sculpture. 
 
 The Latin language ceases to be spoken in 
 Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in 
 Spain. 
 
 The origin ofjiefs. 
 
 The Roman Catholic faith established in 
 Spain. 
 
 Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- 
 tory. 
 
 Bretwalda, king of England, converted to 
 
 Christianity. 
 Agathus, a Grecian historian. 
 Gildas, the first British historian. 
 Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian.— Cass/ocZo- 
 
 rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 
 
 Theodoric. 
 The Saxons, having conquered England, it 
 
 relapsed, in a great me.isure, into the state 
 
 of barbarism, from which it had been par 
 
 tiiUy raised by 'lie Romans. 
 
 5iO. The Monothelites, who acknowledijed 
 but one will in Jesus Christ. 
 
 552. The Fifth general Council at Constant! 
 
 nople 
 555. Pope Pelagius I. 
 
 557. The church of St. Germain de Prea, buili 
 
 at Paris. 
 
 560. Pope John III. 
 
 The Tritheists acknowledge three Goda, 
 and deny the resurrection. 
 
 573. Pope Benedict I. 
 
 575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. 
 Great increase of miracles. 
 
 578. Pope Pelagius II. 
 
 590. P(ipe Gregory I. called The Great. 
 
 The doctrine of purgatory first taught.- 
 Mass introduced. 
 
 598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 
 
 604. Pope Sabianus, or Sahinian. 
 
 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head 
 of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni 
 versal Bishop assumed. 
 
 The Waldenses refuse submission to 
 Rome 
 
— Prom Odoacer to Mahomet. '\ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 770 
 
 540 
 
 542 
 54S 
 549 
 
 552 
 
 551 
 
 558 
 
 561 
 562 
 563 
 
 565 
 
 574 
 576 
 57S 
 
 570- 
 500 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Viliges at Ravenna. —North Africa, Cor- 
 sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern 
 empire. 
 
 Plague at Constantinople — during three 
 months Irom 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. 
 
 The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The 
 Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. 
 
 Siege of Petra. 
 
 Narses defeats and kills Totila. 
 Italy governed by Greek exarchs. 
 
 A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 
 and lasting nearly 50 years. 
 
 Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 
 
 " restored:— he quells a conspiracy. 
 Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly 
 
 destroyed. 
 Justinian dies. 
 
 Justin II. 
 
 Belisarius dies in prison. 
 
 The TURKS first mentioned in history.— 
 They send embassies to Justin, and form 
 an alliance. 
 
 Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. 
 
 Tiberius 11.^^ 
 
 DOS 
 
 Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his 
 reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 
 almost to the Caspian Sea. 
 
 The Avars flourish under Baian — invade the 
 Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, 
 Poland, and Prussia. 
 
 — P h c a s, ^^ — a centurion, elected king 
 The empire invaded by the Persians. 
 
 EUKOPE, GENERALLY. 
 
 539. Ilaly: War, famine, and pestilence. 
 
 The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 
 
 542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in 
 Cornwall. 
 
 550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first 
 duke and legislator. His brother, Zecli, 
 first duke of Bohemia. 
 
 The Greeks form settlements on tea 
 Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 
 
 556. Civil wars in France. 
 
 558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . @ 
 
 559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar- 
 city commences. 
 
 560. Britain :— the kingdom of Northumbria, 
 formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. 
 — Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues meet ol 
 the Saxon kings. 
 
 56L France :— C h a r i b e r t I . ^g 
 
 565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 
 
 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under 
 Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 
 
 571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 
 
 575. " East Anglia formed into a king- 
 dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- 
 gin of the name England. 
 
 583. Spam :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi- 
 goths. 
 
 France :— C 1 o t a i r e II. ^^ 
 
 586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founoed. 
 Spain :— Recared, king. 
 
 588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 
 
 589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 
 
 591. Britain :— Eihelbert, king of Kent, gains 
 
 the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda 
 
 III. 
 
 Xtaly : — the Lombards, under Authans, 
 
 successtul against the Greeks and Franks. 
 .595. Istria, BoTiemia, and Poland invaded by 
 
 the Sclavonians. 
 
 596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgur dy. 
 
 597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. 
 Augustine. 
 
 600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 
 
 607. Britain :— Supremacy of the Popf 
 knowledged. 
 
780 
 
 THE world's PPi,ogr,ESS. [Modern : Period III. — HQyemi 
 
 616 
 
 ei7 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 632 
 
 036 
 
 The aristocracy acquire great power in 
 France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 
 of the palace. 
 
 Rites and superstitions increase in all Europe. 
 —Relics sought for, and worshipped.— Z,2to- 
 nies addressed to the Virgin.— The burning 
 of candles by da.y.— Exorcisms, &c. 
 
 Hereditary Jiefs. — Aristocratic class. 
 
 Sccundus, historian of the Lombards. 
 Elhelbert publishes the first code of laws in 
 England. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and 
 pliilosopher. 
 
 Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta- 
 blished in the East. In the Caliphs were 
 united the liighest spiritual and regal autho- 
 rity. 
 
 Christianity introduced into China. 
 
 In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- 
 cal architecture ; circular arches intro- 
 duced; churches built at Canterbury, Glas- 
 tonbury, St. Alban.?, Winchester, <fec. 
 
 In civil architecture, forts and castles— Conis- 
 borough Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown 
 in Derbyshire, &c. 
 
 University of Cambridge foimded. 
 
 Some of the monasteries of Europe continue 
 ti) be the repositories of learning and the 
 arts. 
 
 del bacy if the clergy enjoined. 
 
 606. Pope Boniface III. 
 
 607. Pope Boniface IV. 
 
 The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to Ooa 
 the Virgin, and the Saints. 
 609. The Christians massacred by the Jevrz •> 
 Antioch. 
 
 618. Pope Boniface V. 
 
 MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 j/(jars, 
 
 625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for 
 splendid cathedrals and processions. 
 Monks and monasteries increase. 
 
 Africa and Asia, with the churches ol 
 Jerus>;lem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to 
 the Christiac- world by the progress of Mo- 
 hammedanism. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 640. Pope Severinua. 
 640. Pope John IV. 
 
 642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title 
 
 of " Sovereign Pontiff." 
 644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of 
 the clergy. 
 
 Separation between the Greek and 
 Roman churches. 
 
 654. Pope Eugenius. 
 
 657. Pope Vitalian. He established Ilia imj 
 versal use of the Latin language it Shi 
 service of the church. 
 
 672. Pope Adeodatu& 
 
— From Odoacer to Mahomet.^ 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 rsi 
 
 K.D. 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 
 
 604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by 
 
 
 
 Eihelbert, king c Kent. 
 
 610 
 
 Ueraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, 
 and makes himself king. 
 
 
 fil2 
 
 MAHOMET publishea his Koran. 
 
 612. Britam:— Ethelfritn, king ot Nontium 
 
 
 Svna ravaged by the Arabs. 
 
 bria. deleats the Britons, and destroys th« 
 
 C14 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 
 
 monastery of Bangor. 
 615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 
 617. Britain: — St. Peter's (now Wesiminste 
 
 618 
 
 Constantinople taken and pillaged by the 
 
 Abbey) founded by Sabert, king ol Kent. 
 
 
 Avari. 
 
 Britain:— Bretwald IV. 
 
 
 
 
 -From Mahomet to Charlemagne. 
 
 [Dark Ages, continued. \ 
 
 632 
 
 633 
 634 
 
 636 
 
 641 
 642 
 
 647 
 
 653 
 
 668 
 670 
 6''3 
 
 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 
 
 The HEGIRA ; or Mahomet's Flight from 
 
 Mecca to Medina. 
 Era of the Mahometans. 
 Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- 
 
 roes. 
 
 Death of Mahomet. 
 
 Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the 
 Saracens. 
 
 Omar, caliph. 
 
 " takes .Terusalem, which is held 
 
 by the Saracens 463 years. 
 Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys 
 
 another famous library. 
 
 Constantine III 
 
 C onstana II 
 
 (11 years of age.) 
 
 The Saracens become masters of Africa and 
 Cyprus. 
 
 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the 
 
 Colossus. 
 Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 
 
 Caliphs. 
 
 The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by 
 agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 
 
 Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the 
 Treasury. 
 
 Mjawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 
 tal. 
 
 Constantine IV. ^ginvades Sicily. 
 
 Grand Cairo founded. 
 
 Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, 
 whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of 
 Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- 
 chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a 
 yearly tribute. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 628. France :--Dagobert I. ^g He 
 
 builds the church of St. Deny, the burial 
 
 place of the French kings. 
 631. Samo, a merchant of France, makes 
 
 himself king of Bohemia. 
 633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embraces 
 
 Christianity. 
 
 634. Britain :— Bretwald VI. 
 
 638. France — C 1 o v i s II .^g^5 years old. 
 The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 yean 
 old,) being king of Austrasia. 
 
 642. Britain :— Bretwald VII. 
 
 644. Britain: — The University of Cambridg« 
 founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 
 
 650. Britain : — Mercia converted to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 656. France : — C lotaire III. ^M 
 
 660. France : — C h 1 1 d e ri c II. 
 
 663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald. duke 
 of Beneveniura. 
 
 672. The Saracens driven from Spain, bf 
 Wamba kiLg ot the Goths. 
 
782 
 
 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Modern : Period IV. 178 ijean 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 074 
 
 687 
 
 691 
 697 
 
 Stone buildings and glass come into use in 
 England. 
 
 The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of 
 Gilling founded. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 
 and power, by the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 In France, the Tezitonic language supersedes 
 .the Latin. — National assemblies established, 
 though confined to the aristocracy. 
 
 In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 
 
 the Mohammedan. 
 Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 
 
 Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 
 The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 676. Pope Domnus. 
 
 The popes become indeper ienl of the 
 Greek emperor. 
 
 679. Pope Agatho. 
 
 630. The si.xih general Council at Constantino- 
 ple, called by the emperor Constantine,wtM 
 presides. 
 
 682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of ja 
 vestiture. 
 
 6S4. Pope Benedict H. 
 
 mo. 
 
 u 
 
 John V. 
 
 686. 
 
 " 
 
 Conon. 
 
 687. 
 
 " 
 
 Sergius 
 
 696 A king first elected in Poland, 
 
 Adhelin, the first British writer in prose and 
 
 iforse. 
 Sclavonian republics in Bohemia. 
 
 Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 
 man nations and other people in the north 
 of Europe ; but almost exterminated in 
 Africa, by the progress of Mohammedan- 
 ism. 
 
 709 
 
 716 
 
 718 
 
 701. Pope John Vr. 
 
 704. The first provmce i^iven to the pope. 
 
 705. Pope John VII. 
 
 708. " Sissinius (20 days). 
 708. " Constantine. 
 
 Tie art of making paper brought from Sa 
 
 nunrcand by the Arabs. 
 George Si/ncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 
 Glastfinbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. 
 
 711. Custom of kissing the Pope's fo^t intr» 
 duced. 
 
 714. Pope Gregory 11. 
 
 Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pro- 
 cure the assassination of the Pope. Thi 
 Romans defend nim. 
 
— 5^X0711 Mahomet to Charlemagne. \ 
 
 THE world's PUOGRESS. 
 
 783 
 
 «83 
 
 684 
 
 685 
 
 695 
 697 
 
 705 
 
 711 
 
 /13 
 
 1\\ 
 
 716 
 
 Eabtern Empire, Asia, &c. 
 
 The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. 
 Yezid, caliph of the Saracens. 
 
 Moawiah 11., caliph. 
 Abdallah, caliph. 
 
 Justinian II. 
 
 Abdulmelek, caliph. He discondnues the 
 tribute to the Greek emperor 
 
 Justinian II. deposed, and his nose cut off by 
 
 Leonitius, who is also deposed by 
 
 Absimerus Tiberius. 
 
 Armenia and the provinces between the Black 
 and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- 
 melek. 
 
 Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa 
 coinpletely subjugated. 
 
 Justinian II. restored. 
 
 Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. 
 
 Africa subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes. 
 who reigns under the name of Philippicus.' 
 
 -Anastasius II.*i 
 
 Theodosius III. ^g pro- 
 claimed by the revolted army of Anastasius. 
 
 — Leo III., (the Isaurian.) ' 
 of a shoemaker. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 673. France :— T h i e r r y I . ^ 
 
 675. Spain : — Wamba gains a naval victory 
 over the Arabs, who attempt to invade hia 
 kingdom. 
 
 682. Spain: — Wamba abdicates and tuna 
 monk. 
 
 690. France :— P epin d'Heristel ,^^ 
 mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia, 
 Qefeats Thierry, and becomes king. 
 
 691. France :— C 1 o v i s III .^ 
 
 695. " — C h i 1 d e b e r t II .^ 
 
 698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective 
 monarchy established. 
 
 Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge. 
 
 700. Britain : — Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. 
 
 France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- 
 vence become separate dukedoms. 
 
 705. Britain :— Alfred the Wise, in' North- 
 unabria. 
 
 710. Spain : — Roderic, king, 
 last of the Goths.) 
 
 (the 
 
 711. France : — Dagobert Il.^g- ^— 
 
 713. Spain conquered by tha 
 Saracens under Muca. By th€ mar- 
 riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the'vvidow 
 of the Gothic king, the two nations are 
 united in interest. 
 
 714. France : — Charles Martel, duke of Aus- 
 trasia. 
 
 715. France :— C h i 1 d e r i c II. ^g . 
 
 716. Britain :— Eihelbald, king of Mercia. 
 
 718. Spain : — Pelagius founds the kingdoia ( 
 Asturias. 
 
 720. France :— T h i e r r y II .^ -.. 
 
784 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Moder7i: Period IV. — 178 years 
 
 731 
 
 73£' 
 740 
 
 742 
 
 748 
 
 757 
 760 
 
 Prosress op Society, etc. 
 
 Increasing 
 power, 
 spiritual 
 
 and 
 
 temporal 
 
 of tiie 
 
 Popes. 
 
 Dark 
 
 period 
 
 of 
 
 European 
 
 iieruLure. 
 
 Winifred, an An?lo-Saxon, preactiea tiie gos- 
 pel to Uie Prisons. 
 
 The venerable Bede dies— a grammarian, phi- 
 losoplier, historian, and theiilogian. 
 
 The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- 
 courage learning. 
 
 Predegaire, a French historian. 
 
 Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic, 
 for believing in the existence of antipodes. 
 
 An orsan sent by Conatantine to France. 
 
 John "of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- 
 tic [jhilosophy. 
 
 Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory 
 of Tours. 
 
 The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, 
 Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 
 sidae caliphs. 
 
 Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character- 
 ized the age preceding Charlemagne. 
 
 /83 
 
 785 
 
 788 
 793 
 
 rw 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 726. Image worship being forbidden by tha 
 emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 
 
 727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 
 
 728. Leo orders the pope to be seized. 
 
 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. 
 The 'Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 
 
 731. Pope Gregory III. 
 
 736. The images throughout the empire de- 
 stroyed by order of the emperor. 
 Monks persecuted. 
 741. Pope Zachary 
 
 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king ol 
 
 France, by a papal decree. 
 752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- 
 
 bards, assisted by Pepin. 
 
 754. _he journeys to Pepin to implore his 
 protection. 
 
 755. Commencement of the Pope's 
 temporal power under the auspices 
 of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- 
 archate of Ravenna. 
 
 757. Pope Paul I. 
 
 768. Stephen IV. 
 
 769. Council of the Lateran. 
 
 770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by tha 
 emperor. 
 
 772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- 
 tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 
 
 The first palm-tree planted in Spain. 
 
 Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the 
 caliph Harounal Raschid. 
 
 Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. 
 Foundation of schools in monasteries and 
 
 cathedrals, by (.'harlemagne. 
 The Gregorian chant. 
 The Synod of FrankforU 
 George, the m nik. 
 
 770. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- 
 lemagne, for the support of the clergy, 
 churches, schools, and the poor. 
 
 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 787. The seventh general Council at Nice, in 
 which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was 
 condemned. 
 
 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagnp for 
 
 confirmation. 
 
 Masses said for money 
 
■^From Mahomet to Charlemagne.] 
 
 THE world's pkogress. 785 
 
 741 
 740 
 
 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 
 
 The Arabs invest Constantinople by land witli 
 ldO,000 men, and by sea with 1800 ships. 
 The city is saved by the Greek fire — the 
 Ai'ab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. 
 
 The Greek possessions in Italy are lost ir cor- 
 seqtience of the edict i irbiddmg image wor- 
 ship. 
 
 Constantine V. (Copronymus). 
 
 The Arabs defeated by Constantine.— Rhodes, 
 Cyprus, and Antioch captm'ed. 
 
 ?62 
 766 
 
 781 
 
 786 
 786 
 
 788 
 793 
 
 Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdae! and makes 
 
 it his capital. 
 Asia Minor ravaged by the Turks. 
 
 Great victory over the Bulgarians. 
 Leo ir.W 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 725. France : — Charles Martel crosses th* 
 Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 
 
 727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the 
 tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- 
 lege at Rome. 
 
 732. France :— Charles Martel gains a gre«t 
 victory over the Saracens near Tours. 
 
 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- 
 covered by the Pope. 
 
 742. France :— C h il d e r i c 111. W 
 
 752. France :— End of the Merovingian line 
 of French kings. 
 
 -Pepin le Bref, 
 
 Constantine VI. (Poiphyrogenetus).^g 
 Irene (Queen inother) restores image worship. 
 The empire is invaded by H a r o u n a 1 
 
 R a s c h i d , caliph of Basdad. 
 Constantine imprisons his reotker, Irene, for 
 
 her cruelty. 
 
 Irene ^§ puts him to death, 
 
 and assumes the s)le power. 
 — proposes to marry Charlemagne 
 — IS dethroned by Nicephoi us. 
 The Saracens ravage Thrace. 
 
 first of the Carlovingian line. 
 753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large 
 army against the Lombards. 
 Italy : — Ravenna a dukedom. 
 
 756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate . 
 Abderhama. 
 
 761. Spain : — Froila, grandson of Pelagius, 
 builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of liis 
 kingdom. 
 
 768. France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles 
 the Great, reigns with his brother. Carlo- 
 man, until 771. 
 
 774. Charlemaene invades Italy ; defeats 
 Didier, king ~bf Lombardy, and annexes 
 Italv to his empire. 
 
 End of the Lombard king- 
 dom. 
 778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated 
 I at Roncesvalles. 
 
 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, 
 and the Saxons. 
 
 Charlemagne conquers the Avari. 
 — attempts to unite the Rhine and the 
 Danube. 
 
 787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of the 
 Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikiiiga. 
 
 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. 
 Sweden conquered by Iva Viafama 
 
786 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 PERIOD. Y.—The Middle Ages— 2m yean 
 
 .0. 
 
 PROaRESs OP Society. 
 
 Agriculture and horticul- 
 ture encouraged by Charle- 
 magne ; both flourish in 
 Spain under the caliphs. 
 
 Gold mines worked in Spain. 
 
 801 Paul Ware/redus (Diaconus) 
 tlie historian. 
 
 806 Haroun al Raschid, courting 
 his alliance, presents Charle- 
 magne with a. striking clock. 
 This clock was adorned with 
 automaton figures, which 
 moved and played on va- 
 rious musical instruments. 
 
 Fine Arabian breed of horses 
 introduced into Spain. 
 804 Alcuin, of York, a pupil of 
 BeJe, forms schools at Tours 
 —patronized by Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 Transient revival of learning 
 
 under Charlemagne. 
 Eginhard, historian, secre- 
 tary to Charlemagne. 
 813 The reign of Mamun (caliph) 
 is regarded as the Augustine 
 age of Arabian literature 
 
 800. The Pope separates from 
 the Eastern Empire, and 
 becomes supreme Bishop of 
 the Western. 
 
 Charlemagne reforms the 
 church. 
 
 Many bishoprics founded. 
 — Great increase of monastic 
 institutions. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 New Western Empire. 
 
 813 Insurrection at Rome 
 against the pope. 
 
 816. Pope Stephen V. 
 
 817. " Paschal I. 
 
 The College of Cardinals 
 founded. 
 
 00. NEW EMPIRE of the 
 WEST founded by Charle- 
 magne, who is crowned as 
 Rome, by the pope, king of 
 Italy, Germany, and France 
 
 802. Charlemagne receives ar 
 emliassy from Nicephorus 
 and from Haroun al Ras- 
 chid. 
 
 36. Charlemagne di- 
 vides the empire be- 
 tween his three sons. 
 
 08. First descent of the NOR 
 MANS upon France. 
 
 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 
 28. 
 
 814. L o u i s I . ^M 
 
 (Debonaire) an inguTrious 
 and turbulent reign. 
 
 817. Louis divides the empire 
 
 between his three sons. 
 820. Invasion of the Normans. 
 
 St. Mark's Church at Venice 
 
 built. 
 Turpin, archbishop, to whom 
 
 is attributed the famous 
 
 "Z>e ViLa Caro'i Magni et 
 
 Rolandi." 
 
 824. Pope Eugenius II. 
 
 Christianity in Denmark 
 and Sweden. 
 
 827. Pope Valentine. 
 
 828. " Gregory IV. 
 Missionaries sent from 
 
 France to Sweden. 
 
 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 
 monk of Corbey, father of 
 the doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation. This doctrine 
 disowned by the English 
 Church. 
 
 Ratrainus and Scotus Eri- 
 gena, theologians, holding 
 much the same opinions as 
 Luther. 
 
 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of 
 Louis, associated in the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 340. — L o t h a i r e .^M — 
 841. —defeated by his brothers, 
 
 Louis and Charles, in the 
 
 battle of Fonttnoy. 
 
 Division of the empire. 
 
 France:— Charles I.^g 
 (the Bald). 
 
 Ger. :— L o u i s I . ^S 
 
 — surnamed the Ger- 
 
 Italy :— L o t h a i r e ^S 
 with imperial dignity. 
 
 The Normans plunder 
 Rouen, and advance to Paris 
 
THE world's progress. 
 (a. D. 800-106t).^ — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 
 
 787 
 
 802 
 803 
 
 811 
 
 S13 
 
 816 
 
 821 
 
 822 
 
 829 
 
 «Ht2 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 — N icephorus .^g — 
 
 The Saracens ravage Asia 
 
 Minor, capture Cyprus, and 
 
 compel Nicephorus to pay a 
 
 tribute. 
 
 — Michael I . ^^ 
 
 (Caropaltes) ; at war with 
 the Bulgari. 
 
 g (the 
 
 Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. 
 ravage the empire. 
 
 — Michael 11.^^ 
 
 (Balbus or the Stammerer). 
 Constantinople besieged by 
 the Saracens. The Bulga- 
 rians raise the siege. Tlie 
 Saracens obtain possession 
 of Crete, cind name it Can- 
 dia. 
 
 — ^T h e p h i 1 u s . ^g — 
 
 — Michael III. 
 (the Drunkard). 
 
 England. 
 
 813. Egbert, king of Wessex, 
 defeats the Britons. 
 
 827. The seven king- 
 doms of the Hep- 
 tarchy united by Eg- 
 bert, icing of Wessex, 
 under the name of ENG- 
 LAND, or the Land of the 
 Angles. 
 
 E g b e r t . ^ 
 
 Invasion of the Danes. 
 
 38. — E t h e 1 W o 1 f , ^— 
 a weak prince. 
 
 Scotland .-—Kenneth, king 
 of the Scots, defeats and ex- 
 tirpates the Picts, and be- 
 comes sole monarch. 
 
 The Danes return, and 
 ravage the country unmo- 
 lested, and burn the city of 
 London. 
 
 Ethelwolf makes a pilgri 
 mage to Rome. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 801. DENMARK becomw < 
 kingdom under Gotricua 
 
 818. AI Mamun (caliph) a pa- 
 tron of learning. 
 
 820. First dismemberment of 
 the Arabian monarchy. The 
 dynasty of the Taherites 
 founded at Khorassan. 
 
 826. The Danish prince, Ha- 
 rold, is baptized at Ingel- 
 heim. 
 
 833. Motassim, caliph. He 
 builds Saumora, which he 
 makes the seat cf govern- 
 ment. 
 
788 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 yean. 
 
 A.D. Progress op Society. 
 
 The aristocratic Feudal sys- 
 tem in all its power. Here- 
 ditary nobility, which, with 
 the clergy, waa the domi- 
 nant order in the state. 
 
 The barons independent of 
 the king. Gradual intro- 
 duction of the Roman and 
 zsmmon law. 
 
 872 
 
 First inclosure of lands at 
 Spalding, where Richard de 
 Rules does much to improve 
 agriculture. 
 
 Clocks brought to Constanti- 
 nople from Venice. 
 
 The Faroe Isles, and Iceland 
 discovered in this century. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 844. Pope Sergius III. (Bucca 
 Porci). 
 
 Ignatius, patriarch of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Persecution of the Chris- 
 tians in Spain. 
 847. Pope Leo IV. 
 
 850. Christianity propagated 
 by Aiischarius in Denmark 
 and Sweden. 
 
 855. Pope Benedict III. 
 
 858. Pope Nicholas I. 
 
 First coronation of a pope. 
 
 859. Eulogius, archbishop of 
 Cordova, martyred. 
 
 860. The schism of the Greeks 
 begins. 
 
 864. The Bible translated into 
 Slavonian. 
 
 867. Pope Adrian II. 
 
 8th Council at Constan 
 tinople. — Photius, patriarch 
 of Constantinople, deposed. 
 
 872. Pope John VIII. 
 
 France, Spain, Germany. 
 
 855. Lothario retires to a mo 
 nastery and dies. 
 
 New division of the em- 
 pire at Mersen. 
 
 16. Germ. : — Louis II.^s 
 has Italy with the im- 
 perial dignity. 
 
 — establishes his court at 
 Pavia. 
 858. France invaded by Louia 
 the German, who is finally 
 compelled to retire. 
 
 58. Lorraine annexed to 
 France. 
 
 1 877. Fr. :— L o u i s II .® — 
 (the Stammerer). 
 
 9. L o u i s III. and 
 
 882. Pope Martin II. 
 
 884. " Adrian III. 
 
 885. « Stephen VI. 
 
 C&rloman ^g 
 
 reign jointly. 
 
 884. France :— C h a r 1 e s@ 
 the Fat, an usurper. 
 
 885. Pans besieged by the 
 Normans ; gallantly defend 
 ed by archbishop Goslin. 
 
 886. Charles makes a disgrace- 
 ful peace with the Normans. 
 
 887. Germany : — A mold, 
 
 emperor, ^g (the im- 
 perial dignity transferred 
 from France to Germany). 
 
 888. France :— E u d e s W — 
 
— Charlemagne to William /.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 789 
 
 844 
 
 S&l 
 
 867 
 868 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Decline of the Caliphate be- 
 gins. — Jews and Christians 
 persecuted. — Frequent wars 
 between the Greelcs and Sa- 
 racens. 
 
 B a z i 1 I . ^ 
 
 (the Macedonian), defeats 
 the Saracens. 
 
 Crete and the Sicilies reco- 
 vered from the Arabs. 
 
 Basil commences the Mace- 
 donian dynasty. 
 Publication of the Basilica. 
 
 Leo VI 
 
 (the philosop'iet 
 
 849. Alfred the Great, born. 
 
 852. Ethelwolf defeats the 
 Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 
 
 857. Ethel bald and Ethel- 
 be r t ^g— reign jointly : — 
 increase the influence of the 
 clergy. 
 
 8G6. — E t h e 1 r e d .^ 
 
 867. The Danes conquer Nor- 
 thumberland. 
 
 872. Alfred the Great] 
 defeats the Danes. 
 
 879. Alfred abandoned by his 
 subjects, retires to the Isle of 
 Athelney, but soon draws 
 together his friends and con- 
 quers the Danes. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 845. The Normans plundei 
 Hamburg, and penetrate into 
 Germany. 
 
 846. The Saracens destroy the 
 Venetian fleet, and besiege 
 Rome. 
 
 849. —defeated by the Pope's 
 
 allies. 
 851. Sardinia and Corsica ra 
 
 vaged by the Saracens. 
 
 856. The coasts of Ho-and 
 plundered by the Normans. 
 
 860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- 
 ed from Odin.) unites Jut- 
 land and the Danish Isles, 
 and becomes king of Den- 
 mark. 
 
 861. Iceland discovered by the 
 Normans. 
 
 862. RUSSIA : — Ruric, first 
 grand Prince, builds the city 
 of Lagoda. 
 
 868. Esypt throws off its de- 
 pendence on the caliphs, un- 
 der Ahmed. 
 
 874. Iceland, a republic, found 
 ed by the Normans. 
 
 875. NORWAY : — Harold 
 Harfrage, first king. 
 
 866. The Scythians seise Cre- 
 atia. 
 
 889. Hungary: — Arpad layi 
 the foundation of the king- 
 dom. 
 
790 THE world's progress. [Period v.— {a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years 
 
 4.D. Progress op Society. 
 
 915 
 
 929 
 
 933 
 
 939 
 
 Oxford University found- 
 ed. — Alfred the Gi-eat esta- 
 blishes a regular militia 
 and navy, and the mode of 
 trial by jury ; institules_/'a;rs 
 and markets. — Johannes 
 Scotiis Erigena, a learned 
 philosophical writer. 
 
 England divided into coun- 
 ties, hundreds, and tilhings. 
 The county courts, held 
 monthly, become the great 
 safeguard of the civil rights 
 of Englishmen. 
 
 Hired troops substituted for 
 the feudal. 
 
 The University of Cam- 
 bridge founded. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon monarchy 
 rises into importance. 
 
 Azophi, Arabian astronomer. 
 
 Printing invented among the 
 Chinese 0) 
 
 Cordova, in Spain, becomes 
 the seat of Arab learning, 
 science, industry, and com- 
 merce. Its celebrated schools 
 of geometry.astronomy, che- 
 mistry and medicine, toge- 
 ther with its equally cele- 
 brated poets and philoso- 
 phers, render it famous 
 throughout the world. 
 
 Luitprand, the historian. 
 
 Mints established in Kent or 
 Weasex. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 891. Pope Formosus. 
 896. " Boniface VI. 
 " Stephen VII. 
 18. " John IX. 
 
 Veneration for saints and 
 a passion for relics prevail. 
 
 900. Pope Benedict IV. 
 903. " Leo V. 
 905. " Sergius III. 
 
 912. The Normans in France 
 embrace Christianity. 
 
 914. Pope John X. 
 
 921. The Bohemians embrace 
 Christianity. 
 
 928. Pope Leo VI 
 
 929. " Stephen VIII. 
 Eudes, monk of Cluni. 
 
 931. Pope John XI. 
 
 Mere children elevated to 
 the highest offices in the 
 church. 
 
 936. Pope Leo VII. 
 
 939. 
 
 Stephen IX. 
 
 943. Pope Martin III. 
 
 France, Germany, &c. 
 
 890. Arnold, emperor of Ger 
 many, takes Rome. 
 
 98.Fr. :— Charles III. ^ 
 (the Simple). 
 
 99. Ger. :— L o u i 3 III.^ 
 Invasion of the Hunga- 
 rians. 
 
 Contests between the no- 
 bles and bishops 
 
 9 1 2. France ;— R obert,duke 
 
 of Normandy. 
 
 The Normans, under 
 R 1 1 o , establish them- 
 selves in Normandy. 
 
 Ger. :— Conrad I.^f 
 
 (the empire becomes 
 
 elective). 
 
 919 Ger. :— Henry I.^— 
 (the Fowler), fiifst ol the 
 Saxon line. 
 
 921. France :— Robert L de- 
 feated and killed by hia 
 brother at Soissons. 
 
 923. France :— Rudolph elect- 
 ed duke. 
 
 Italy: — Hugo, count of 
 Provence, oppresses the aris- 
 tocracy, who call to their aid 
 Berenger. 
 
 France : — Civil wars. 
 
 929. " —Charles dies a 
 prisoner at Peronne. 
 
 936. Ger. :— O t h o I , 
 (the Great). 
 
 Fr. :— L o u i s \\ 
 
 (the Stranger). 
 
 940. Burgundy, a fief tlH 
 empire. 
 
— Charlemagne to William I.\ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 791 
 
 890 
 897 
 
 SOI 
 
 910 
 
 (07 
 
 Easteum Empire. 
 
 Southern Italy subject to the 
 
 Greek empire. 
 War with the Bulgarians, 
 
 Lombards, and Saracens — 
 
 the latter take the island of 
 
 Samos. 
 
 Russian expedition under 
 Oleg, against Constantino- 
 ple. 
 
 -Constantine VII.^^- 
 asoociates his four sons, so 
 that there are five emperors. 
 
 Constantinople besieged by the 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 Romanus, general of the fleet, 
 usurps the empire, with his 
 three sons, Christopher, Ste- 
 phen, and 
 
 -Constantine VIII. ^^- 
 
 Romanus gains a naval victory 
 over the Russians, who, led 
 by Igor, enter the Black 
 Sea with 10,000 ships or ca- 
 nosa, 
 
 *iiil Naples annexed to the empire. 
 
 B45 
 
 The empress Helen usurps the 
 throne. 
 
 891. Invasion of the Danes. 
 The first land tax. 
 
 901. E d w a r d^ 
 
 (the Elder), the first who 
 takes the title of " Rex An- 
 glorum." 
 
 War with the Danes. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 924. —A t h e 1 s t a n . W— 
 
 934. —by the victory of Bru- 
 nanburgh, he becomes king 
 of all Britain. 
 
 940. — E d m u n d 1 .' 
 brother of Athelstan. 
 
 900. Scotland : — Constantini 
 III. 
 
 901. Italy:— The republics 
 of Venice ancf Genoa 
 founded. 
 
 908. The race of Fatimites in 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 910. Spain: — Kingdom of Leon 
 founded by Garcia. 
 
 912. Spain :— Abderrahman III, 
 the greatest Arab prince ol 
 Spain— builds the splendid 
 city and palace of Zehra. 
 
 914. Spain :— Ordogno II., king 
 of Oviedo, makes Leon hia 
 capital. 
 
 Commencement of the 
 heroic age in Spain. 
 
 921. 
 
 Poland :— Lesko IV. 
 " — Zemormysl. 
 
 923. Spain :- 
 Leon. 
 
 924. " - 
 927. " - 
 
 -Fruela, king of 
 
 -Alphonzo IV. 
 -Ramiro II. 
 
 930. Denmark :— Harold VI., 
 firs' Christian king. 
 
 932. Arnolf of Bavaria, de- 
 feated near Verona. 
 
 933. Norway :— Eric, kmg— 
 his cruelty leads the people 
 to revolt. 
 
 940. Spain :— Ramiro, king oi 
 Leon, defeats the Moors, uft- 
 der Abderrahman, in the bab 
 tie of Simaacus. 
 
792 THE world's progress. [Period r.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 
 
 A.B. Progress op Society. 
 
 »11 
 
 961 
 
 The mercantile character 
 raised by a law of Aihelsian, 
 that a mercliaiU who made 
 three voyages over the high 
 seas with a ship and cargo 
 of his own, should enjoy the 
 rank and privileges of a 
 thane. 
 
 The figures of arithmetic 
 brought into Kurope ley the 
 Saracens. 
 
 Silver mines in the Hartz 
 Mountains. 
 
 Manufactories of linens and 
 woollens in Flanders, which 
 becomes the seat of western 
 commerce. 
 
 ECCLESIA.STICAt.. 
 
 Geber, Arabian astronomer. 
 Suidas, grammarian and lexi- 
 cographer. 
 Rhazes, Arabian physician. 
 
 The Saxon fleet, consisting of 
 360 sail, in three squadrons, 
 makes the circuit of the 
 island, under the command 
 of king Edgar. 
 
 France, Germany, &o. 
 
 945. Pope Agapetus II. 
 
 973 
 
 955 Baptism of Olga, and con- 
 version of Russia to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 956. Pope John XII. 
 
 Quarrel with the emper- 
 ors respecting investiture. 
 
 959. St. Dunstan, archbishop 
 of Cantei-bury, attempts to 
 reform the church— enforc- 
 ing clerical celibacy. 
 
 The influence of the 
 monks greatly increased. 
 
 963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by 
 Roman citizens. 
 
 96i. Benedict V. elected by a 
 
 council. 
 965. JohnXIII. 
 Poland receives Christianity 
 
 under Miecislus. 
 
 972. Pope Benedict VI. 
 
 973. Boniface VII. : deposed 
 and banished for his crimes. 
 
 974. Domnus II. 
 
 975. Benedict VII. 
 
 950. Germany :— Bohemia be 
 
 comes tributary to Otho. 
 
 953. The Hungarians sub- 
 dued. 
 
 954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.^^ 
 —confers the dukedoms of 
 Burgundy and Aquitaine on 
 Hugh the Great. 
 
 957. Germany: — Otho defeats* 
 the Slavonians in Saxony. 
 
 Abba, monk and astronomer. 
 
 Albirunius, Arabian geogra- 
 pher. 
 
 Greenland discovered by the 
 Norweffians. 
 
 Almoin, historian. 
 
 984. Pope John XIV. 
 986. " John XV. 
 
 Dublin much frequented for 
 ^rade, also many places on 989. Christianity propagated 
 - - - in Russia by Waldimir— 
 
 they hold to the Greek 
 church. 
 
 964. Italy tmited to the empire 
 of Germany. 
 
 Tuscany becomes a duke- 
 dom. 
 
 973. Ger. :— O t h o 11.^ 
 subdues the Bohemians. 
 
 979. Otho at war with Lu 
 thaire. 
 
 983. —Otho III, 
 (3 years of age). 
 
 986. Fr. :— L o u i g \ _ 
 ("the Slothful,") lastoftha 
 Carlovingian race. 
 
 988. Fr. : H •.? g h Capet,l„ 
 —founder of the third c4 
 Capelian line of Frenci 
 kings. 
 
— Charlemagne to William I.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 793 
 
 959 
 
 963 
 
 9C7 
 969 
 
 975 
 
 B3C 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Constantine III. retires into a 
 cloister. 
 
 — ^R o m a n u s Il.^g — 
 poisoned by his wife, Tlieo- 
 phano. 
 
 — N icephoru'3 II. ^^ — 
 
 — he recovers Cyprus and An- 
 tioch from the Saracens. 
 
 — is murdered by 
 
 ohn Zimisces .^m — 
 
 Basil and Constantine 
 
 vin. w — 
 
 Apu.ia and Calabria recover- 
 ed and united to the empire. 
 
 England, &c. 
 
 946. E 1 d r e d^ 
 
 governed by Dunstan, abbot 
 of Glastonbury. 
 952. Scotland:— Malcolm I., 
 king. 
 
 955. Scotland :—Indulf, king 
 
 955. E d w y W 
 
 insulted by Dunstan, and 
 deposed — his queen, Elgiva, 
 put to death. 
 
 959.- 
 
 -E d ff a r 
 
 marries the beautiful El- 
 frida, after the violent death 
 of Athelwold, her lover. 
 960. Scotland :— Duff, king. 
 Wolves expelled from 
 England and Wales, in con- 
 sequence of a reward being 
 offered for the purpose by 
 the king. 
 
 Violent disputes between 
 the monks and the clergy. 
 
 975. E d w a r d W 
 
 (the martyr), murdered by 
 his stepmother, Elfrida. 
 
 978. — Ethelred II.,W- 
 (" the Unready.")— Dunstan 
 still minister.— The people 
 become discontented. 
 
 85. Danish invasion, under 
 Sweyn. 
 
 The king purchases their 
 retreat. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 950. sjpain :— Ordono III. kjn| 
 of Leon. 
 
 955. Spain : — Sancho I., king 
 of Leon. 
 
 958. Italy :- War between thi 
 Normans and Saracens. 
 
 961. Candia recovered from 
 
 the Saracens. 
 
 962. Poland: — Miecislas esta- 
 blishes Christianity. 
 
 967. Spain: — Ramironi.,king 
 of Leon. 
 
 968. The Northmen devastate 
 Galicia, but are defeated and 
 almost exterminated. 
 
 973. Hungary:— St. Stephen, 
 iirst hereditary king, extends 
 the kingdom eastward ; gives 
 it a constitution and written 
 laws 
 
 976. Spain : — Hixem, caliph 
 of Cordova. 
 
 Almansor, regent, obtains 
 many victories over the 
 Christians. 
 
 0. Russia : — Waldimir I , 
 marries Anna, sister of the 
 emperor Basil II. 
 
 983. Italy :— Venice distracted 
 by violent commotions. 
 
 985. Sweyn L, or SwenOj king 
 of Denmark, invades Eng- 
 land. 
 
 34 
 
794 THE world's progress. [Period v.— {a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 
 
 k.B. PaooRESs OF Society. 
 
 Venice and Genoa carry on a 
 flourishing trade between 
 Asia *nd Western Europe. 
 
 Stephe.i, duke of Hunga- 
 ry, propagates Cliristianity 
 among liis subjects. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1(XK 
 
 !Q24 
 
 Paper made of cotton rags. 
 
 Spain, the seat of Arabian and 
 Jewish learning. 
 
 Churches first built in the 
 Gothic style. 
 
 Foundation of the House of 
 Wisdom at Cairo. 
 
 The French language first be- 
 gins to be written. 
 
 Leo, the grammarian. 
 
 The arts faintly revive in Italy 
 — paintings in fresco and 
 mosaic. 
 
 Literature, the arts and sci- 
 ences,and commerce flourish 
 at Ghizni. 
 
 Musical scale, consisting of six 
 notes, invented by Guido 
 Aretino. 
 
 Avicenna, a famous Arabian 
 chemist and physician. 
 
 Glaber Rad, historian. 
 
 Campanes, of Navarro, astro- 
 nomer. 
 
 Hermannus Contractus, monk 
 and mathematician. 
 
 993. First canonization of 
 saints. 
 
 996. Pope Gregory V. 
 
 997. " John XVI. 
 
 999. Pope Sylvester II. 
 
 Hungary a fief of the 
 Romi.sh church. 
 
 1003. Pope John XVIII, 
 
 1009. Pope Sergius. 
 1012. " Benedict VIII. 
 
 Persecution of the Albi- 
 genses in Languedoc. 
 
 France, Germany, &e. 
 
 996. Fr. : -R o b e r t II . , W 
 — (the Wise,) succeeds Ms 
 father Hugh. 
 
 998. — is excommunicated Uy 
 the pope for marrying hia 
 cousin Bertha. 
 
 1002.Ger. :— Henry II. >1^ 
 — (duke of Bavaria). 
 
 Italy : — Ardoin, margrave 
 of I vrea, 'Elected king. 
 
 1004. Italy :— Henry invited by 
 the German party — Ardoin 
 loses most of Italy and re- 
 signs. — Pavia burnt in a 
 quarrel between the troops 
 and people. 
 
 1015. Germany:— The empe- 
 ror receives an annual tri- 
 bute from Poland. 
 
 1024. Pope John XIX. He 
 gained his election by bribe- 
 ry. He was not of the clergy, 
 but consul and senator of 
 Rome. 
 
 1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten 
 years old). 
 
 " Peace of God," pub- 
 lished by the bishops. 
 
 1024. Ger. :-Conrad II. W 
 
 —(the Salic,) first of the 
 Franconian line. 
 
 1025. Expedition into Italy. 
 
 1029. War with the Poles. 
 1031. Fr.:— Her ry I.W— 
 
 1032. Burgundy annexed a 
 the empire. 
 
— Charlemagne to William /.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 795 
 
 1000 
 
 1018 
 
 1J28 
 
 1031 
 
 1034 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Basil drives the Bulgarians 
 from Tiiessaly. 
 
 Bulgaria again reducsd to a 
 Grecian province. 
 
 — Rom an us II I ..^^ 
 (Argyrus). 
 
 — expels the Saracens from 
 
 Syria, 
 —poisoned by his wife Zoe 
 
 —Michael IV. 
 
 England, &c. 
 
 994. Scotland : — Constantine 
 IV. slain by 
 
 995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 
 
 1002. Dreadful massacre of 
 all the Danes in England — 
 upon which Sweyn lands a 
 large armament, and brings 
 war and all us miseries upon 
 the country. 
 
 1003. Scotland:— Malcolm II., 
 an able, renowned prince. 
 
 1012. An annual tribute pro- 
 mised to the Danes. 
 
 1013. The Danes, under Sweyn, 
 become masters of England. 
 
 1016.— Edmund 11.,^ 
 (Ironsides.) fights six bauies 
 with Canute, king of Den- 
 mark, with whom he finally 
 divides the kingdom. 
 
 1016. Canute @ 
 
 the Great, patronizes litera- 
 ture and the church. 
 
 1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru 
 sole monarch. 
 
 1031. Canute penetrates into 
 Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 
 
 1032. —performs a pilgrimage 
 to Rome. 
 
 1034. Scotl'd :— Duncan, king. 
 
 1035. — H a r o 1 d I . , W— 
 (Harefoot,) cruel ana un- 
 popular — ruled by Earl 
 Godwin. 
 
 Thb World, elsewhere. 
 
 . Norway : — Olaf I. 
 Christianity introduced. 
 997'. Drontheim founded. 
 
 Mahmud Sultan ofGhiz- 
 ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- 
 bul, and part of India to hii 
 dominions; patronizes litera- 
 ture. 
 998. Spam :— Division of the 
 Mohammedan kingdom of 
 Cordova. 
 1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) 
 king of Navarre, takes the 
 title of emperor. 
 1000. Savoy :— independent un- 
 der Bervald, its first count. 
 
 Poland : — Boleslas I., 
 (the Lion-hearted). 
 
 1006. Pestilence in Europe for 
 
 three years. 
 1012. Spain :— Suleiman, ca- 
 
 liph. 
 
 1014. Denmark :— Harold III., 
 
 king. 
 
 1015. Norway :— Olaf n. 
 
 1016. Denmark :— Canute II., 
 (the Great). 
 
 1019. Norway conquered by 
 
 Canute. 
 
 Venice, Genoa, and Pisa 
 
 rise into importance. 
 1026. Poland :— Miecislas n. 
 
 103S. Spain :— Ramiro I king 
 
 of Arragon. 
 1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile, 
 
 in right of his wife succeed! 
 
 to Leon ; successful against 
 
 the Mohammedans. 
 103b. Denmark : — Hardica- 
 
 nute III. 
 1037. Norway :— Magnus L 
 
 (the GoriH\ 
 
796 THE world's PROGRESS. [Period V.—!, a. D ^00-1 06Q.)—2QQ years. 
 
 4..D. PaoaRESS OF Society, etc. 
 
 1055 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Ferdusi, the Persian Homer. 
 Franco, matliernatician. 
 George Cedrenus, historian. 
 
 Michael Psellus, a celebrated 
 Greek philosopher and his- 
 torian. 
 
 English parents prohibited by 
 law from selling their chil- 
 dren. 
 
 First age of scholastic pLilcsc 
 phy. 
 
 1038. The Pope, for his scan- 
 dalous conduct, driven from 
 Rome, but re-established by 
 the emperor, Conrad. 
 
 1044. —again driven from the 
 throne, and succeeded by 
 Sylvester III. After three 
 months Benedict is restored 
 by the Counts of Tusculum. 
 But finding (he people will 
 not tolerate his crimes, he 
 sells the papal chair to Gre- 
 gory. 
 
 —deposed for simony, by 
 a council called by Henry 
 III. 
 
 1046. Pope Clement 11. 
 
 1048. Damascus II., 23 days. 
 " Leo IX., the first who 
 kept a regular army. 
 
 1053. — is defeated and taken 
 prisoner by the Normans. 
 
 1054. The papal chair vacant 
 one year. 
 
 Excommunication of the 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 and the Greeks. 
 
 1055. Pope Victor II. 
 
 Hildebrand, the real 
 head of the church from the 
 time of Leo IX. The church 
 improving in piety and dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 1057. Pope Stephen IX. 
 
 1053. Nicholas .n. 
 
 Benedict X., (antipope). 
 
 The election of pope 
 transferred to a conclave of 
 cardinals. 
 1059. Quarrel between the 
 popes and the German em- 
 perors, respecting investi- 
 tures and nomination to the 
 Holy See. 
 
 1061. Pope Alexander II. 
 
 1062. Berenger, a celebrated 
 French ecclesiastic. 
 
 Alexander forbids the 
 massacre of the Jews. 
 
 1066. Alexander deposes Ha 
 rold, and gives England to 
 William the Conqueror, 
 duke of Normandy. 
 
 Fran(;b, Germany. &c. 
 
 1039. Ger. :-H e n r y 1 11.^ 
 — defeats the Bohemians 
 and Hungarians — claims tha 
 right of nominating to the 
 papal chair. 
 
 1046. France :— Dispute be- 
 tween William the Con- 
 queror and William of 
 Arques, for the duchy oJ 
 
 Normandy. 
 
 1053. Germany : — Henry III. 
 
 causes his son, Henry, to ba 
 proclaimed king of the Ro- 
 mans. This ti:le was ap- 
 plied, for several centuries, 
 to the king's eldest son. 
 
 Ger. :-Henry IV.^^ 
 — (the Great), aged six years, 
 under the tutelage of hia 
 mother. 
 1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, 
 becomes a vassal of tha 
 pope. 
 
 1060 Fr.:— Philip I W 
 
•^Charlemasne to William l.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PUOGRESS. 
 
 797 
 
 L.D. 
 
 1038 
 1011 
 
 1042 
 1012 
 
 1054 
 1054 
 1056 
 1057 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Earthquakes and famine at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 — M i c h a e 1 V . 
 (Calaphales). 
 
 -Zoe&Theodora 
 
 -Cons tan tine X. , 
 
 (Monomarchus). 
 First invasion of the Seljuk 
 
 Turks. 
 The Russians invade Thrace 
 
 with 100,000 men, and are 
 
 repeatedly defeated by the 
 
 Greeks. 
 
 Theodora , WW 
 
 the last of Macedonian dy- 
 nasty. 
 
 The Greek church becomes 
 independent. 
 
 Michael VI.,® 
 
 (Stra iotichus). 
 
 1 s a a c^M 
 
 (Comnenus). 
 
 -Constantino XI. 
 — (Ducas). 
 
 England, &c. 
 
 1039. -Hardicanute.f^- 
 Scot'd. :— Macbeth mur- 
 ders Duncan, and usurps the 
 throne. 
 
 The Saxon line restored 
 under ^.^ 
 
 1042. E d w a r d^ 
 
 (the Confessor). The coun- 
 try prospers under his mild 
 sway. 
 
 1051. Rebellion of Earl God- 
 win and his sons. 
 
 William, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, visits Edward. 
 
 1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. 
 
 Earl Godwin dies. 
 
 The Welch and the Irish 
 several times invade Eng- 
 land, but are repressed by 
 Harold, son of Godwin. 
 
 1054. Macbeth defeated and 
 killed at Langfanan, by 
 Siward, earl of Norttmm- 
 berland. 
 
 1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 
 
 Tub World, elsewhere. 
 
 1042. Denmark : — Magnus, 
 (the Good,) of Norway, king. 
 
 1066. —Harold II., ^ 
 elected king ; killed at the 
 BATTLE of HASTINGS 
 
 — WILLIAM 1 ,W- 
 duke of Normandy, styled 
 " the Conqueror." 
 
 End of the Anglo- 
 Saxon dynasty. 
 
 Edsar Atheling flies to 
 Scotland. 
 
 1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Es- 
 tritson, or Suenon H. 
 
 1050. The Pisans and Genoese 
 take Sardinia and Corsica 
 from the Saracens. 
 
 1055. The Turks reduce Bag- 
 dad, and overturn the em- 
 pire of the caliphs. 
 
 1059. Sweden: — Inseldua or 
 Inso I., the first Christian 
 king. 
 
 1060. Robert Guiscard, the 
 Nonnan, is created by the 
 pope, duke of Apulia. 
 
 1062. 70,000 Europeans are , 
 killed, or made prisoners by 
 the Turks in Palestine. 
 
 1065. Jerusalem taken by ths 
 Saracens. 
 
 1065. Castile and Leoa;— A^ 
 phonzo, kir g. 
 
798 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD. Yl.— The Middle Jg-es.— (Continued.)- 
 
 A.B. PiiooRESs OF Society, etc. 
 
 1062 
 
 1073 
 
 1084 
 
 1090 
 
 Feudal System introduced in 
 England by the Normans. 
 
 Surnames first used amon§ 
 the English nobility. 
 
 Knights errant in Spain. 
 
 Xngulphus, historian, secre- 
 taiy to William the Con- 
 queror. 
 
 Marianus Scotics. 
 Booksellers first heard of. 
 
 London Qiidge and Westmin- 
 ster HalJ t>uKs 
 
 Lanfranc, archbisfcijp of Can- 
 terbury. 
 
 Doomsday Book rompjled by 
 order of Williaiu ,t\4 Con- 
 queror. 
 
 William of Spires, mathesne- 
 
 tician. 
 A rigid police established in 
 
 England. — The curfew. 
 Norman French taught in all 
 
 the schools, and made use of 
 
 in all legal proceedmgs. 
 Literature patronized in the 
 
 East by Melek Shah. 
 
 Fortress of Newcastle and of 
 Carlisle built. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Popery at the height 
 of its power, claiming 
 supreme dominion, tem- 
 poral and spiritual, over 
 all the states of Christen- 
 dom. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain 
 
 1066. William, Duke of Nor- 
 mandy, claims the crown of 
 England, and makes wa' 
 upon Harold to obtain it 
 
 1071. Philip engages in a 
 war with Robert, count of 
 
 Holland. 
 
 1072. Henry IV. of Germany, 
 summoned befjire the pope, 
 for selling the investiture oj 
 bishops. Treats the man- 
 (late with contempt. 
 
 1073. — summoned again by 
 Gregory VU. 
 
 1073. Pope GregoryVII 
 
 (Hildebrand,) who attempts 
 to free all the clergy from 
 the civil jurisdiction. He 
 quarrels with the emperor, 
 
 1074. Simony and celibacy 
 forbidden. 
 
 1075. The pope sends legates 
 to the various courts of EU' 
 rope. 
 
 1076. — sends an ambassador to 
 to depose the pope— is excom inunicated by Gregory. Goes 
 iDarefbot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and Icisses 
 his feet. 
 
 1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by 
 the Empress Matilda. 
 
 1076. Spain :— The Cid. 
 
 1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- 
 emperor. Rudolph dies in 
 1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- 
 grades Gregory for his in triguesagainst him, and makes 
 an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be 
 elected. The war continues till 
 
 1084, when Henry triumphs 
 over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085. 
 
 lOr'4. The order of the Carthu- 
 iians instituted by Bruno. 
 
 ICSft Pope Victor HL 
 
 " Urban IL 
 
 1085. Spain :— Toledo taken 
 from the Moors, by Don 
 Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by 
 Raymond, count of Tou- 
 louse. 
 
 1086. Spain:— The battle ol 
 Zalaca. 
 
 1087. France : — War with 
 England : Robert, duke of 
 Normandy, opposes Wil- 
 liam Rufus. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 1066-1299. — William the Conqueror to Othman I. 
 
 799 
 
 1071 
 
 U)74 
 
 1078 
 
 1081 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Eudocia.^H — 
 
 She marries 
 
 Romanus III., ^g 
 
 (Diogenes.) He valiantly 
 but vainly opposes the 
 Turks — is defeated and 
 taken prisoner by Alp Ars- 
 lan, Emir of Omrah . 
 
 Michael VII.,@ 
 
 (Parapinaces). 
 
 Andronicus I.^g — - — 
 
 -Constantine XII. 
 
 Syria and Palestine suMued 
 by Meiek Shah. 
 
 Nicephorus, ^^ 
 
 (Botoniates). 
 
 — Alexius I.^g (Com- 
 
 nenus). The empire in- 
 vaded by Robert Guiscard, 
 the Norman, who defeats 
 Alexius at Durazzo. 
 
 After the capture of Jerusa- 
 lem, hy the Turks, the Chris- 
 tian pilgrims are insulted, 
 robbed and oppressed, which 
 gives rise to the crusades. 
 — Great struggle between 
 Christianity and Mohamme- 
 danism. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1066. —William I.,W 
 
 " THE Conqueror," first of 
 the Norman line. 
 
 1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of 
 the Saxon line, takes refuge 
 in Scotland. His sister, 
 Margaret, marries Malcolm 
 III. 
 
 1070. The feudal system in- 
 troduced by the king. All 
 the offices of the government 
 placed in the hands of Nor- 
 mans. The Norman lan- 
 guage introduced. 
 
 Malcolm III. of Scotland, 
 ravages Durham. 
 
 1072. Peace between the Nor- 
 mans and the Scots 
 
 1076. Robert, the king's son, 
 raises a rebellion in Nor- 
 mandy. 
 
 10S7. William invades France, 
 and is killed at Mantes. 
 
 1087. —William II. ,W 
 (Rufus). 
 
 Revolt of the Norman 
 nobles. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1067. Poland : — Boleslas O 
 — he conquers Russia. 
 
 1068. Poland :— Romanus Di» 
 genes. 
 
 1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 
 
 1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, 
 (Emir,) extends his domin- 
 ions from (he Jaxartes to the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. 
 
 Palestine invaded and 
 subdued by Melek Shah.— 
 Jerusalem taken. 
 
 1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 
 
 1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- 
 shop of Cracow, murdered. 
 The king excommunicated 
 and dethroned. 
 
 1079. Poland :— Uladislas I. 
 
 1083. Italy : — Rome taken 
 after a siege of two years, 
 by Henry IV. 
 
 1084. BOHEMIA erected into 
 a kingdom by the empereor 
 Henrv IV. 
 
 1090. Sicily conquered by 
 Roger the Norman, after a 
 war of thirty years witl it! 
 masters, the Saracens. 
 
800 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.- 
 
 1U96 
 
 1099 
 
 UOO 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany & Spain 
 
 1093. Conrad, son of the em- 
 peror, rebels. 
 
 The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 
 
 1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. 
 — of i>Javarre and Arragon. 
 
 The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the sountriea of 
 Christendom. i i 
 
 I The Council op Clermont. 
 
 The FIRST CRUSADE ;— Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, wu 
 out with a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start. 
 
 The chieftains of the first crusade were, 
 
 I.Godfrey of Bcuillor 
 or Boulogne. 
 
 2. Hughof Vermandois. 
 
 3. R o b e r t of Normandy 
 
 4. Robert of Flanders. 
 
 5. Stephen of Chartros. 
 
 6. Raymond of Toulouse. 
 
 7. IJohemond. 
 
 8. Tancred. 
 600,000 warriors, 100,003 
 
 cavalry. 
 
 Nathan Ben Jechiel, learnej 
 Jew. 
 
 Knights of St. John insti^ 
 tuted. 
 
 Anna Comnena, daughter of 
 Alexius I., Eastern emperor, 
 historian. 
 
 William of Poitou, first trou- 
 badour. 
 
 1099. Pope Paschal 11. 
 
 Abelard, French scholastic. 
 Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo- 
 rian. 
 
 The Knights Templars. 
 
 Tograi, Hairi, and Abdallah 
 Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. 
 
 Scholastic Philosophy attains 
 its highest pomt by the 
 writings of Peter Abelard. 
 
 Peter, the Lombard, (master 
 of sentences). 
 
 1118. Pope Gelasius II. 
 
 1119. " Calistus II. 
 
 1123. First Lateran, or ninth 
 general council. 
 
 1124. Honoiius II. 
 
 1104. Spain :— Alfonzo I., king 
 of Navarre and Arragon. 
 
 1106. Ger.:— Henry V.^ 
 — maintains the right of in- 
 vestiture. 
 
 1108. Fr.:— Louis VJ. ,^ 
 — I,e Gros. Abbe Sugar, 
 minister. 
 
 1109. Germany :— Henry en- 
 ters Italy, takes the pope 
 prisoner, and compels him 
 to crown him. 
 
 1114. Henry V. marries Ma 
 tilda, of England. 
 
 1118. Spain:— A.'fcnso I eap. 
 tures Saragossa. 
 
 1120. Rivalry between Eng- 
 land and France com- 
 mences. 
 
 1125. Germany :—Lothair« 
 
 I l.^g opposed by Fre- 
 deric, and Conrad, duke o< 
 Suabia. 
 
i066-1229.— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 801 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1099 
 
 1101 
 
 1109 
 
 iin 
 
 1118 
 
 Order, learning, and com 
 merce revive. 
 
 By the courage and talents of 
 the Comneni, the empire is 
 feared or respected by the 
 nations of Asia and Europe. 
 
 Invasion by the crusaders : 
 great numbers pass through 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Battle of Dorylaeum, which 
 secures the march of ttie 
 crusaders through Asia Mi- 
 nor. 
 
 Acre taken by the crusaders. 
 
 Trlpolis taken by crusaders. 
 
 Berytus and Sidon taken by the 
 crusaders. 
 
 .John I., ^M (Comne- 
 
 nus),a noble prince ; reforms 
 the manners of his people. 
 
 Tyre taken by the crusaders. 
 
 1093. Scotland .-—Malcolm III. 
 invades England, and is 
 slain near Alnwick Castle by 
 Roger de Mowbray. 
 
 1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, 
 
 king. 
 
 William again invades 
 Normandy. 
 
 Sct'd. : — Duncan usurps 
 the crown. 
 
 William quarrels with 
 Anselm, archbishop of Can 
 terbury. 
 
 1098. Scotland :— Edgar puts 
 out Donald's eyes and de- 
 thrones him. 
 
 1100. William 11. accidentally 
 shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. 
 
 — H e n r y I . ,^S — 
 
 (Beauclerc,) grants the Eng- 
 lish a charter, and marries 
 Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting 
 the Norman and Saxon in- 
 terests. 
 
 1101. Robert, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, invades England. 
 
 1106. Henry invades Norman- 
 dy ; takes Robert prisoner 
 at the battle of Tinchebrai. 
 
 Scotland : — Alexander I. 
 
 1107. Henry quarrels with An- 
 selm. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1120. Shipwreck and death of 
 Prince William and 140 no- 
 blemen. 
 
 1124. Insurrection in Norman- 
 dy suppressed. 
 
 Scotland :— David I. pro- 
 motes civilization. 
 
 1095. Hungary :—CoIon>«i_ 
 
 1096. Egypt : — Mustali, tha 
 eighth Fatimite caliph. Ha 
 takes Jerusalem. 
 
 1097. Baldwin founds the 
 principality of Edessa. 
 
 1099. Jerusalem taken by the 
 crusaders, under Godfrey 
 who is elected king. 
 
 1102. Poland :—Boleslas III 
 
 1 105. Denm ark : — Nicholas 
 
 1106. Italy : — Venice, Genoa, 
 and Pisa greatly enrichea 
 by the crusades. 
 
 1109. Norway :—Seguttt's ex 
 pedition to Palestine. 
 
 1117. Persia:— SanjarsubduM 
 Khorasan and Samarkand. 
 
 1119. War between Pisa and 
 Genoa. 
 
 1120. Italy : — Rise of th« 
 house of Guelph. 
 
 Zengi, governor of M 
 sul, a great prince 
 
 34* 
 
802 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VI.~The Middle Ages.— 
 
 Proorbss op Society, etc. 
 
 Aristotle's logic comes into 
 repute. 
 
 1137 
 
 1140 
 
 1150 
 
 1155 
 
 1528 
 
 Pandects of the Roman law, 
 (Justinian,) discovered at 
 Amalli, and the studu of the 
 civil law revived. 
 
 Gratian collects the canon law. 
 
 William of Malmsbury, Eng- 
 lish historian. 
 
 Vacarius teaches civil law at 
 Oxford. 
 
 Otho, bishop of Friesengen, 
 historian, introduces the pe- 
 ripatetic philosophy into 
 Germany. 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, 
 travels from Spain to India, 
 by Constantinople, and re- 
 turns through Egypt. 
 
 The magnetic needle known 
 
 in Italy. 
 Siiidas. lexicograplter. 
 Eben Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish 
 
 historian. 
 
 Arnold, of Brescia, condemn- 
 ed anil burnt. 
 
 Eustathius, co-pmentator on 
 Homer and Dionysius Per. 
 
 Bank of Vtnir.e established.— 
 Fairs at Leipsic. 
 
 London eintains 40,000 inha- 
 bitants 
 
 Poem of the Oid. 
 
 College? :f theology, philoso- 
 phy and law at Paris. 
 
 English commerce confined to 
 the exportation of wool. — A 
 woollen manufactoi-y esta- 
 blished at Worsted, and soon 
 atter at Norwich. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1127. — makes war against 
 Roger, king of Sicily. 
 
 1130. Innocent 11. and Anacle- 
 tus, rival popes. 
 
 1137. A pretended Messiah in 
 
 France. 
 1133. —another in Persia. 
 
 1139. Second Laferan, or tenth 
 general council. 
 
 France, Germany &S?au». 
 
 1112. Spain- — Alfonzo VIL, 
 king, Leon and Castile. 
 
 1134. Spain :— Garcia IV., king 
 of Navarre. 
 
 Ramiro II.,kingof Arra- 
 gon. 
 
 1135. Lothaire m Italy — cap- 
 ture of Amalfi. 
 
 1137. Fr. :-Loui3 VII. ^ 
 
 — (le Jeune). 
 113S. Germany : — H o i s e 
 
 of S u a b i a : 
 
 — Conrad I.^g 
 
 1139. Portugal becomes a king- 
 dom. — Henry of Besancon, 
 king. 
 1141. Germany and Italy.— 
 Dissensions of the G u e J f s 
 and G h i b e 1 i n e s . 
 
 1143. Pope Celestin H. 
 
 1 144. " Lucius II. 
 
 1145. " Eugenius III. 
 
 1147.TheSecondCrusade excited by St. Bernard, 
 and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- 
 deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. 
 
 1149. France : — Louis divorces 
 his queen, Eleanor, who 
 marries Henry of Anjou, af- 
 terwards king of England ; 
 thus Guienne and Poitbu are 
 lost to France. 
 
 11.50. Spain :— Sancho V., king 
 ot Navarre. 
 
 1152. Germany and Italy : — 
 
 1153. Pope Anastasius IV. 
 
 1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- 
 lishman, Nicholas Breaks- 
 peare). 
 
 11.59. Pope Alexander III. 
 Victor IV., antipope. 
 1160. Order of the Carmelites 
 instituted. 
 
 The W aide nses and 
 Albigenses begin to ap- 
 peal* 
 1164. Pascal III., antipope. 
 
 1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa. 
 
 1168. "Jalistus III., antipope. 
 
 Frederic I., 
 (Barbarossa). 
 
 1157. Spain : — Castile and 
 Leon divided under Ferdi- 
 nand II. and Sancho II. 
 
 1158. Germany:— The empe- 
 ror Frederic receives the 
 title of king of Bohemia at 
 the diet ofRatisbon: — con- 
 quers Poland, and makes i1 
 tributary. 
 
 1162. Frederic destroys Milan 
 Spain: — Alfonir. D, 
 king of Arragon. 
 
1066-1229.— Continued.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 803 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1143 
 
 1148 
 
 1155 
 1156 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 —Manuel Commenua. ^^ — 
 
 Edessa being retaken by the 
 Turks, gives rise to the 
 Becond crusade. 
 
 The Normans, under Roger, 
 arrive before Constantino 
 pie ; are repulsed by Manuel 
 
 The Greeks reduce Apulia 
 and Calabria. 
 
 Manuel forms the desien of 
 conquering Italy and the 
 western empire, but fails. 
 
 Kelso, Melrose, and Holy 
 rood house founded. 
 1127. Matilda, the king's 
 daughter, marries Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet. 
 
 1135. Stephen^— 
 
 of Blois. 
 
 1136. Matilda asserts her right 
 to the throne ; 
 
 David, king of Scotland, 
 assists her. 
 1138. —is defeated in the " bat- 
 tle of the Standard." 
 
 1141. Stephen made prisoner 
 at the battle of Lincoln. 
 
 Civil war : Stephen and 
 Matilda. 
 
 1149. Henry Plantagenet in^ 
 vades England. 
 
 1154. —Henry II. 
 (Plantagenet). 
 
 1158- Thomas a Becket intro- 
 duced to the king's notice by 
 Theobold, archbishop of 
 Canterbury — becomes chan- 
 cellor and preceptor of the 
 prince. 
 
 1159. Becket sent as ambassa- 
 dor to France. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald 1 
 1133. " Magnus L 
 
 1162. — made archbishop of 
 
 Canterbury — opposes the 
 
 king. 
 1164. —resists the constitutions 
 
 of Clarendon — flies to 
 
 France. 
 1166. Scotland :— William. 
 
 1139. PORTUGAL becomes a 
 kingdom, under Alfonso I.^^ 
 
 Sweden : — Suercher IL 
 
 1147. Russia : — the city ol 
 Moscow founded. 
 
 1150. Denmark : — The coasts 
 
 infested with pirates. 
 1150. Sweden:— Eric X 
 
 1157. Denmark ; Waldemar I. 
 
 1158. Venice a great maritime 
 power. 
 
 1162. Sweden :— Charles VH, 
 
 1167. Italy :— League of the 
 Italian cities to presem 
 their liberties. 
 
804 TiiE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 
 
 1175 
 1177 
 
 1178 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Foundation of the military 
 order of Santiago. 
 
 Circuit Judges appointed in 
 England, 
 
 1178. /nnocent III., antipope. 
 
 The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy 
 of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks 
 during his visitation. 
 
 The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They 
 circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- 
 runners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- 
 ral Council, and severely per secuted. 
 
 1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- 
 venth General Council. 
 
 Robert Wace, first French 
 poet. Translation of his 
 Hist, des Rois d' Angleterre, 
 by Layamon, the first Eng- 
 lish composition. 
 
 1189 
 1190 
 
 John Tzetes, Greek gramma- 
 rian. 
 
 Maimonides, of Cordova, one 
 of the most learned of the 
 
 Henry, of Huntington, and 
 William, of Newbury, his- 
 torians. 
 
 Rainulph de Glanville makes 
 a digest of laws and customs 
 of England. 
 
 Dreadful massacre of the Jews 
 at the coronation of Richard 
 I. 
 
 Teutonic order instituted. 
 
 Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author 
 of a /iife of Saladin, in Ara- 
 bic. 
 
 1196 
 
 The Jews become the princi- 
 pal bankers of the world. 
 
 Order of the Holy Trinity in- 1198. Pope Innocent HI. 
 stituted in Germany. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain. 
 
 1170. France :— The Walden- 
 ses. They derived theil 
 name from Peter Waldo, a 
 merchant of Lyons. 
 
 1174. Frederick's fourth expe 
 dition into Italy. 
 
 1176. Frederick defeated at thi 
 battle of Legnano. 
 
 1178. Henry, the Lion, duk« 
 of Saxony, deposed, and 
 Saxony divided. 
 
 1181. Pope Lucius III. 
 
 1185. Pope Urban III. 
 
 1187. Pope Gregory Vni. 
 1187. " Clement III. 
 
 1180. Fr.:— Philip II., 1 
 (Auguste). 
 
 1183. The Peace of Constance 
 re-establishes the independ- 
 ence of Italian republics. 
 
 1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX. 
 king of Leon. 
 
 1190. Third Crusade led by Philip Augustus, o( 
 France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- 
 rossa. 
 
 ]190.Ger.:— Henry VI. 
 
 1191. Pope Celestine IH. 
 
 emperor and king o'" 
 and the Sicilies. 
 
 1196. Richard CcEur de Lion 
 seized and retained in cap 
 tivity. 
 
 1198. Philip, of Suabia, and 
 Otho, of Saxony, dispute the 
 crown; the former sup- 
 ported by the Ghibelines, 
 and the latter by the Guelfa 
 
1066-1299— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 805 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1180 
 
 1183 
 
 1185 
 
 -Alexius II.' 
 
 ■ Andronicus I. 
 
 -Isaac 11. 
 
 1190 
 
 1195 
 
 (Angelas). 
 
 The empire invaded by the 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 Iconiuni taken by Frederick 
 Barbarossa, but afterwards 
 restored. 
 
 —Alexius Angelus,^ 
 usurper tmd tyrant. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1170. Becket returns to Eng- 
 land, and is murdered at the 
 altar. 
 
 1172. Henry conquers 
 Ireland. 
 
 1174. Treaty of Falaise, in 
 whic^ William agrees to do 
 homage for Scotland. 
 
 Henry makes a pilgri- 
 mage to the shrine of Becket. 
 
 1189.— Richard I.^^ 
 
 (Coeur de Lion). He en- 
 gages in the third crusade. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1171. Egypt :—Saladin, sul 
 tan. 
 
 — He extends his domi- 
 nions in Egypt, and con- 
 quers Syria, Assyria, Meso- 
 potamia, and Arabia. 
 
 1174. Poland :— Miecislaua m. 
 
 1175. Portugal— a fief of the 
 Holy See. 
 
 1178. Poland:— Casimir, (th« 
 Just' 
 
 1182. Denmark :— Canute. 
 
 1183. Saladin takes Aleppo, 
 and deposes the sultan of 
 Mosul. 
 
 1185. Portugal :—S3ncho I. 
 
 1186. Saladin directs all his 
 efforts against the crusaders. 
 
 1187. —gains the victory o 
 Tiberias, and takes Jerusa- 
 lem, which leads to 
 
 1190. The third crusade. 
 
 1191. Kingdom of Cyprus 
 
 founded. 
 1191. Acre taken by the cru- 
 
 saders. 
 
 4 1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon ; but, 
 
 ^ abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of tniM 
 
 years. 
 
 1193. John attempts to seize 
 the crown in the absence of 
 Richard. 
 
 1193. Saladin dies. 
 
806 THE world's progress. [Period VI.~The Middle Ages.— 
 
 A.S. 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany & Spaim 
 
 
 The power of ihe pope supre 
 
 me — Rome mistress of the 
 
 world, and kingeher vassa]* 
 
 J200 
 
 The University of Bologna 
 contains 10,000 students. 
 
 1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France. 
 
 1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and 
 Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They take 
 
 12C3 
 
 Ville Hardouin, historian. 
 Saxo Grammaticus,histona.n. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce. 
 
 
 
 
 Normandy reunited to 
 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 1206 
 
 University of Paris founded. 
 
 
 
 [209 
 
 The order of Franciscan fri 
 
 ars instituted. 
 
 
 
 The works of Aristotle, im- 
 
 Bitter persecution of the 
 
 
 
 ported from Constantinople, 
 
 Albigenses. 
 
 1210. Germany :— Otho placed 
 
 
 condemned by the council 
 
 
 under the ban of the pope. 
 
 
 of Paris. 
 
 
 1212. — F rederickll.^ 
 
 
 Period of the Troubadours in 
 
 
 Spain :— The Christiana 
 
 
 France ; the Minstrels in 
 
 The doctrine of transub- 
 
 gain the battle of Navas de 
 
 
 England; and the Minne- 
 
 stamiation and auricular 
 
 Tolosa. 
 
 
 singers in Germany. 
 
 confession established. 
 
 
 
 
 1215. Fourth Lateran, and 
 
 1215. Otho loses the battle of 
 
 
 
 twelfth General Council 
 
 Bovines. 
 
 
 
 against the Albigenses, and 
 
 
 
 
 all heretics. 
 
 
 
 
 1216. Pope Honorius III. 
 
 
 
 
 1217. The fifth crusade by 
 
 1217. Spain*— Ferdir and, king 
 
 
 
 Andrew 11., king of Hun- 
 
 of Castile. 
 
 
 
 gary. 
 
 
 ia22 
 
 University of Padua founded. 
 Stephen Langton, archbishop 
 
 
 1223. Fr.: Louis V. .1.^ 
 
 (The Lion). 
 
 Crusade against the Al- 
 bigenses. 
 
 
 of Canterbury. 
 
 1227. Pope Gregory IX. 
 
 1226. Fr. : L u s X ^ 
 (Saint). 
 
 1227. Germany :— Crusade ot 
 • the emperor after being ex 
 
 
 
 1229. The Inquisition at Tou- 
 
 communicated. 
 
 
 
 loiKe. 
 
 1230. Spain : — Castile and 
 
 
 ■_ 
 
 The Scriptures forbid- 
 
 Leon united by Ferdinand 
 
 
 
 den to all laymen. 
 
 111., who tates Cordova Se- 
 ville. Cddiz, lie. from the 
 Moors. 
 
1066-1299.— Continued.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 807 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1304 
 
 1206 
 
 1221 
 
 1228 
 
 123"/ 
 
 Alexius IV. T^ 
 
 The crusaders plunder Con- 
 stantinople. 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders. 
 
 -Henry II. 
 
 ■ Peter 
 
 — John of Brienne,^g' 
 
 king of Jerusalem, and em- 
 peror. 
 
 -Baldwin II. 1 
 
 England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere- 
 
 Richard, returning home 
 in disguise, through Ger- 
 many, is imprisoned. Is 
 ransomed by his subjects for 
 10,000 marks. 
 
 — declares war against 
 France. 
 1199. Richard c'ies. 
 
 1200. John,' 
 
 (Lackland, ) 
 
 I2OI. Prince Arthur supported 
 by France. 
 
 1207. The kingdom laid under 
 an interdict. 
 
 1208. John excommunicated. 
 London obtains the right 
 
 to elect its own Lord Mayor. 
 
 1213. The pope declares John 
 a usurper. John submits to 
 hold his crown as a vassal of 
 the pope. 
 
 1214. Scotland : — Alexander II. 
 
 1215. Magna Charta signed at 
 Runnymede. 
 
 1216.— Henry IIl.^ 
 
 (4th Plantagenet.) 
 
 Earl of Pembroke, pro- 
 tector. 
 
 1224. Henry's province of 
 Poitou seized by the king of 
 France. 
 
 1229. First expedition of Henry 
 into France for the recovery 
 of his estates. 
 
 1233. First discovery of cfal 
 at Newcastle. 
 
 1202. Denmark : — Wall *mar 
 
 n. 
 
 Poland : — Lesco, (the 
 white). 
 
 Livonia : — Institution ol 
 the order of short swords to 
 conquer the Prussians. 
 
 1206. Genghis Khan 
 subdues the north of China 
 
 1210. Italy :— First war of Ve- 
 nice and Genoa. 
 
 1213. Russia :— Jurje IL 
 
 1214. Frederick cedes to Den- 
 mark all the provinces be- 
 yond the Elbe and Eiser. 
 
 1216. Tartary :— Overrun by 
 the hordes of Genghis Khan. 
 
 1217. Norway :—Haco V. 
 
 1222. Two Greek kingdoms in 
 Asia, Nice and Trebizond. 
 
 John Ducas, emperor of 
 Nice. 
 
 Hungary : — Charter of 
 Andrew II. Foundation of 
 the national liberty. 
 
 1234. Italy :— War of the Lom- 
 bard cities with Frederick of 
 Germany. 
 
 1236. Dreadful invasion of 
 Europe by the Mongols, un 
 der hatu Khan. 
 
808 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.- 
 
 k.o. Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 1247 
 
 1249 
 126U 
 
 1261 
 
 1261 
 
 Robert, of Gloucester, the first 
 English writer in rhyme. 
 
 First war fleet in Spain at the 
 conquest of Seville. 
 
 Foundation of the Alhambra 
 near Granada. 
 
 St. Edmund, of Canterbury, 
 dies. 
 
 The University of Salaman- 
 ca founded. 
 
 Silk manufactory in Lucca ; 
 woollen in Milan and Tus- 
 cany. 
 
 Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
 physician, and naturalist. 
 
 Rubruquis travels among the 
 Mongols. 
 
 Private war and judicial com- 
 bats suppressed in France 
 by the laws of St. Louis. 
 
 Parliament in England. 
 
 The monastic orders, by their 
 wealth, rigid discipline, 
 and popular influence, be- 
 come powerful aids to pon- 
 tifical ambition. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1241. Pope Celestine IV. 
 
 1243. Pope Innocent IV. 
 
 Continual struggles with 
 the emperor Frederic. 
 
 Sect of the Flagellants. 
 
 1254. Pope Alexander IV. 
 
 The Jews every where 
 persecuted. 
 
 1261. Pope Urban IV. 
 
 The popes claim the 
 right of presenting to every 
 benefice in the world. 
 
 France, Germany & Spain. 
 
 1238. Germany : — Frederic 
 again excommunicated. 
 
 1243. The Hanseatic 
 
 1 e a g u e — the claief towns 
 are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns- 
 wick, and Dantzic. 
 
 1246. Henry of Thuringia set 
 up for emperor by the pope, 
 and 
 
 1247. William, of Holland. 
 
 1248. France : — Louis sets out 
 on the seventh crusade. 
 
 1250. Germany: 
 
 Conrad IV. ^— 
 
 1252, Spain: — Alfonso X.- 
 king of Castile and Leon. 
 
 1261. France :— Burgundy faJJa 
 
 to the crown. 
 
 1265. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do- 
 minion of Italy, and places Charles of Anjou on the tiurona 
 of Naples. ^ 
 
 1265. Pope Clement IV. 
 
 1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator 
 
 1268. Pragmatic sanction- 
 foundation of the liberties ol 
 the Galilean church. 
 
 1268. No pope for about three 
 years. 
 
 1271. Pope Gregory X. 
 
 1270. France :— Louis IX. seta 
 out on the eighth and last 
 crusade, and dies befor* 
 Tunis — succeeded by 
 
 — Philip III.^ — 
 (The Hardy). 
 
1066-1299.— Continued.] 
 
 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. 
 
 809 
 
 1260 
 1261 
 
 .3£8 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 — ^Michael Palseologus.^^- 
 — recovers Constantinople. 
 
 The Mongols in Asia Minor. 
 
 The Mongols take Antioch. 
 
 England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere, 
 
 12iO. Richard, earl of Corn- 
 wall, heads the sixth cru- 
 sade, and redeems Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 1312. Second expedition into 
 France— defeated and com- 
 pelled to makepeace. 
 
 1246. Henry marries Eleanor, 
 of Provence. 
 
 1249. Scot. : Alexander EI. 
 
 — Repulses Haco, king 
 of Norway — obtains the 
 Scottish Isles. 
 
 1258. Famous parliament at 
 
 Oxford. Simon d e 
 
 M o n t f o r t . 
 
 1259. Peace with France. 
 
 1265. First regular parlia- 
 ment. — Civil war — the king 
 made prisoner at Lewes — is 
 released, and gains the bat- 
 tle of Evesham. 
 
 1270. Prince Edward joins the 
 eighth crusade. 
 
 1241. Denmark :— Eric VI 
 
 1249. The Hanse towns cap 
 ture Copenhagen. 
 
 1250. Egypt ;— The Mame- 
 lukes rule — take Damas- 
 cus and Aleppo. 
 
 1255. Nice : — Theodore Lasca- 
 ris, emperor. 
 
 1256. Hulaku enters Persia, 
 becomes sultan — takes Bag- 
 dad, and puts an end to 
 the caliphate. 
 
 1258. Italy :— Dreadful naval 
 war between Venice and 
 Genoa. 
 
 1259. China :—Kublai Khan 
 builds Pekin, and makes it 
 his capital. 
 
 1261. Norway: — Iceland sub 
 jected. 
 
 Italy : — Charles I. 
 
 1262. — becomes a papal fief. 
 Greenland tributary to 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Norway :- 
 
 Magnus II. ^g 
 
 1265. Abaka Khan of Persia. 
 
 1266 Magnus, of Norway, 
 cedes to Scotland the He 
 brides and the Isle of Mao. 
 
 1270. Hungary: 
 
 Stephen V' 
 
810 
 
 THE WORi.U'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.' 
 
 A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 1272 
 
 1273 
 
 1276 
 
 1279 
 
 1285 
 
 Marco Polo travels in tho 
 East as far as Pekin. 
 
 First patent of nobility grant- 
 ed to his goldsmith by the 
 kii/R of France. This was 
 desjpneJ as an attack upon 
 the feudal barons, and all 
 the landed and hereditary 
 aristocracy. 
 
 Literature and science flourish 
 in Spain, under Alfonzo, the 
 learned. 
 
 Chivalry and the tournaments 
 introduced into Sweden. 
 
 University of Lisbon founded. 
 
 Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the 
 most learned man of the 
 middle ages. 
 
 Institution of the three great 
 courts of law in England. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany, &Sfaui 
 
 1272. Languedoc falls to the 
 crown. 
 
 1273. Ger. :— Rodolph^ 
 
 founds the house ol 
 Hapsburg. 
 
 1274. I4th General Council at Lyons; first reunion at 
 the Eastern and Western Churches. 
 
 1276. Pope Intwcent V., 4 mos. 
 " Adrian V., 1 mo. 
 " John XXI., 8 moa. 
 
 1277. Nicholas IIL, enriching 
 his family at the expense of 
 the church — he introduces 
 Nepotism. 
 
 1281. Pope Martin IV. 
 
 1285. Pope Honoriua IV. 
 
 1288. Pope Nicholas IV. 
 
 Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, ana 
 improves and embellishes Rome. 
 
 Albert, the mathematician, and 
 Prcvenjal poet. 
 
 1276 France at war with Cas- 
 tile. 
 
 1283. Germany Rode .ph 
 
 makes his son, Albert, duk# 
 of Austria. 
 
 1285. Fr.:— Philip IV. 
 (the Fair.) 
 
 1286. Spain :— Alfonzo 13 
 king of Arragon. 
 
1066-1299.— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 811 
 
 A..D. Eastern Empire. 
 
 Uffa Andionicaa, 
 
 (the Elder.) 
 
 '874 
 
 Union with the Latin church. 
 
 L277 
 
 1281 
 
 Persecution of the Greeks. 
 
 Othman establishes an inde 
 pendent rule, as chief of 
 400 families, in the north of 
 Af'a Minor. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1272. — Edward l.S 
 
 1276, War between England 
 and Wales. 
 
 1283. Edward has a son born 
 at Caernarvon, from which 
 the title. Prince of Wales, 
 descends to the eldest son of 
 the king. 
 
 Scotland :— Robert Brucs and 
 John Balliol contend fo.- the 
 crown. 
 
 1289. Last payment of tiibjLte 
 to the pope. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1272 Hungary :- 
 
 — Vladislas VI.' 
 
 1276. Sweden : — Magnus L 
 
 Russia : — Hanseatic set- 
 tlement at Novogorod. 
 
 1279. China :-Kublia Khan 
 subdues the southern king- 
 dom, and becomes the Great 
 Khan. 
 
 China visited by Marco 
 Polo. ^ 
 
 1279. Poland :— Lesco II. W— 
 
 Portugal ; — Dennis,'!^ 
 -the father of his coun- 
 
 1279. 
 try. 
 
 1280. Norway :— Eric II.®— 
 
 1282. Sicilian vespers. 
 1282. Denmark : — Parhamenl 
 at Wurtemburg. 
 First Handveste. 
 
 12S6. Denmark :— Eric VI.) 
 
 1289. The Mongols mvade 
 Hungary and Poland. 
 
 1290. Hungary : —Andrew III 
 
 the Venetian. 
 
 Poland : Wenceslaa, 
 
 king of Bohemia, takes Cra- 
 cow, and becomes duke o 
 Lesser Poland. 
 
812 
 
 THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period VI.- -The Middle Ages.— 
 
 1299 
 
 Pkogress op Society, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
 physician, and naturalist. 
 
 John Holywood, of England 
 astronomer. 
 
 Richard Middleton. 
 
 Cimabue, ihe first of modern 
 painters at Florence. 
 
 Arnolf dt Lapo, the father of 
 modern Italian architecture. 
 
 1292. Celestine V.— he abdi- 
 cates. 
 
 1292. The papal chair vacant 
 two years and three months. 
 Institution of the order 
 of the Celestines. 
 
 1294. Pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 1295. Struggles with France. 
 
 France, Germany & Spain 
 
 1291. Germany: 
 
 — Adolphus ,^^ — 
 of Nassau. 
 
 Spain: — James 11. k. of 
 Arragon. 
 
 1297. Canonization of Louis 
 LX. 
 
 The Inf luetic e of the 
 crusades was great 
 
 expanding the 
 
 mind of Eur op e — r e ■ 
 fining the general 
 manners — exciting 
 a spirit of geogra- 
 phical research and 
 adv entur e — a nd pro- 
 moting improvement 
 in the arts and sci- 
 ences — thus under mining instead of 
 strengthening^ the 
 First letters of marque grant- power of p apalRome, 
 ed by Edward III. against by advancing libe- 
 the Portuguese. r al ideas and free- 
 
 dom, of thought. 
 
 1295. Spain : - FerdinanJ IV. 
 in Castile ai d Leon. 
 
 Philip successfully in- 
 vades Flanders. 
 
 1298. Germany : — Adolphus 
 deposed by a Diet, which 
 elects 
 
 — Albert I.W — ■ 
 son of Rodo; ph.— Adolphus 
 slain in the struggle which 
 ensues. 
 
1066-1299.— Continued.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 813 
 
 1291 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Capture of Acre by the Ma- 
 melukes — end of th« king- 
 dom of Jerusalem. 
 
 The Mongols drive the last 
 sultan of Iconium from his 
 throne. 
 
 The Genoese obtain the trade 
 of the Black Sea, and rise to 
 great power 
 
 England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 
 
 129? 
 
 Othman mvades Nicomedia, 
 and establishes the Ottoman 
 
 1291. Edward decides the 
 Scottish dispute in favor of 
 Baliol. 
 
 1292. A piratical warfare be- 
 tween England and France. 
 —Philip gets possession of 
 Guienne. 
 
 1296. Ball 1 defeated; 
 mits to Edward. 
 
 1297. Scotland :— S i r Wil- 
 liam Wallace . — S i r 
 William Douglas, 
 Robert Bruce, and 
 other chiefs head a rebellion 
 against the English. 
 
 1299. — they are defeated at 
 Falkirk by king Edward I. 
 
 1292. Hungary: — The pope 
 sets up Charles Martel, 
 crown prince oi Naples, m 
 king. 
 
 1294. China:— Tymu) ?han 
 
 1295. Poland: 
 
 — Premislas II. 
 
 1296. Poland:— Less II. W— 
 
 1299. Foundation of the 
 OTTOMAN or TURKISH 
 EMPIRE m Bythinia, utt 
 der Othman I. 
 
814 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD Yll.—Tke Middle Ages— 1299 to 1453.— 
 
 k.D. Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 302 
 
 1303 
 
 1305 
 
 1307 
 
 ;aw 
 
 1310 
 1311 
 
 University at Lyons founded 
 — Rapid advances in civili- 
 zation. — Revival of ancient 
 learning. — Improvements in 
 the arts and sciences — and 
 progress of liberty. 
 
 The Mariner's Com- 
 pass invented at Naples, 
 by Gioia, native of Amain. 
 
 University at Avignon. 
 
 Z> a n Z e , (he father of modern 
 Italian poetry, flourishes 
 
 Amid the struggles of the 
 Guelfs and Ghibelines, 
 Italy becomes the cradle of 
 modern literature and im- 
 proving civilization. 
 
 University at Orleans. 
 
 University at Perugia. 
 
 University at Coimbra. 
 
 Knights of St. John at 
 Rhodes. 
 
 Ord^r of Knights Templar 
 abolished. — The barons in 
 England extort from Ed- 
 ward II. a reformation of 
 abuses. Parliaments are to 
 be held every year, and to 
 appoint to all imfnrtunt 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain 
 
 1302. First convocation of iha 
 States-general in France. 
 
 Guienne restored to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1304. France at war with 
 
 Flanders. 
 
 Germany:— The Swiss 
 tovyns rise into importance 
 — oppressed by the House of 
 Hapsburg. 
 
 1303. Pope Boniface VIII. 
 Council of Paris. 
 Bull unam sanctum. 
 Pope Benedict XI. 
 Vacancy in the papal 
 chair nearly eleven mon;hs. 
 — The papal power de- 
 clines. 
 
 1305. Pope Clement V. 
 
 Seat of the popes transferred to Arlg- 
 non . 
 1306. Persecution of the Jews 
 in France. 
 
 Germany • — R u d o If 
 
 1311. General Council at Vien- 
 na. 
 
 Another vacancy in the 
 papal chair of more than 
 two years. 
 
 1316. Pope .lohn XXH. 
 
 Taxes imposed upon all 
 the countries of Europe, to 
 enrich the treasury of the 
 church. 
 
 of Austria-' 
 
 the 
 
 1307. Persecution of 
 Knights Temp'ar. 
 
 Ger. : — William Tell 
 shoots Gesler. 
 
 1308. Germany : H e n r y 
 
 of Luxemburg. ^^ 
 
 General insurrection in 
 Swilzerland. 
 
 1309. Spain:— Ferdinand IV 
 takes Gibraltar. 
 
 1311. Lyons united to France. 
 
 1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XL 
 of Castile and Leon. 
 
 1314. Fr. :— Loui9 X.^- 
 (Hutin.) 
 
 Ger. : — Louis of Bava- 
 ria, and Frederick of A us 
 tria, contend for the crown. 
 
 131.5. Fr. :— Edict for the en- 
 franchisement of slaves. 
 
 Battle of Morga:ten--lhe 
 Austrians defeated by tha 
 Swiss. 
 
 1316. Fr. :-Philip V.W- 
 (the Long.) He succee 5 bj 
 virtue of the S^Iique .aw 
 now first establishea. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 154 years. — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. 
 
 815 
 
 1303 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 War cf the Catalans, under 
 Roger de Flor. 
 
 Othman increases his posses- 
 sions ; abandons the pasto- 
 ral life, and fortifies towns 
 and castles. 
 
 Enoland & Scotland. 
 
 1303. Edward invades Scot- 
 land. Wallace betrayed 
 
 and beheaded. — Scotland 
 submits. 
 
 Edward recovers Gui 
 enne. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1310 
 
 The Knights of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, established at 
 Rb3dea. 
 
 1306. Scotland : — R o b e r t 
 Bruce proclaimed king 
 — is obliged to flee ; but, 
 Edward dying, resumes his 
 position. 
 
 1307. Eng. : E d w a r d 11 . ^ 
 
 Scot. : — Bruce strength- 
 ens himself by repeated ad- 
 va.Mages and prudent con- 
 du:.. 
 
 1314. Edward invades Scot- 
 land, and is defeated at the 
 Battle of Bannock- 
 b u rn- 
 
 The Scots invade Eng- 
 land and Ireland. 
 
 1301. Hungary : — Andrew, the 
 
 Venetian. ^^ 
 
 E.vtinction of the hous* 
 of Arpad. 
 
 — Wenceslas III. of BO' 
 
 1304. ^Otto v.. of BaTE 
 
 1305. Polar d :— Vladislas IV., 
 in Little Poland, and 
 
 Duke Henry, of Glogau, 
 in Great Poland. 
 
 Russia subject to the 
 Khan of Tartary. 
 
 1307. Switzerland: 
 
 W m . T e U escapes from 
 Gesler : 
 
 SWISS Republics 
 founded, Nov. 7. 
 
 1308. Hungary :— Carobert, of 
 
 Anjou.^§ 
 
 1309. Poland united into one 
 monarchy under Vladislas 
 IV. 
 
 Naples : — Robert, the 
 Good. He aspires to the 
 dominion of Italy. 
 
 1310. Italy :— The Council of 
 Ten established at Venice. 
 
 1313. Italjr ;— Matteo Visco.nti. 
 
 1314. Tunis made tributary to 
 Spain. 
 
 1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord 
 of Lucca and Pisa. 
 
 1317. Robert, the Good, asena- 
 tor of Rome, and 
 
 1318. —lord of Genoa. 
 
 1319. Final establishmen. of 
 the oligarchy at Venica 
 
816 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 
 
 1321 
 
 1323 
 
 • 325 
 1326 
 
 1331 
 
 1335 
 
 1337 
 1310 
 
 1315 
 1347 
 
 1350 
 
 L356 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Dante, dies. 
 
 John de Muris introduces 
 notes of different length into 
 music — and the method of 
 distinguishing them. 
 
 Romance poetry of the middle 
 ages flourishes. 
 
 Mayronis commences the cele- 
 brated disputations in the 
 Sorbonne. 
 
 Clock constructed on mathe- 
 matical principles, by Rich- 
 ard Valiglort. 
 
 Linna, a monk, and astrono- 
 mer of Oxford, constructs a 
 map of the northern seas. 
 
 Thomas,of Bradwardine, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Giotto, a shepherd boy, the 
 first who drew portraits 
 from life. 
 
 Greek literature revives. — 
 Barlaam teaches Petrarch. 
 — Leontfus lectures on Ho- 
 mer at Florence. 
 
 First comet, whose course has 
 been accurately described. 
 
 GUNPOWDER in use at 
 
 the battle of Cressy. 
 Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo- 
 rentine painter. 
 
 First bank at Genoa. 
 
 ECCLESIASIICAI,. 
 
 1324. Contest of the popes 
 with Louis of Bavaria. 
 
 1328. Crusade preached again*; 
 Louis, who sets up Nicholas 
 V, as anti-pope. 
 
 1331. Pope Benedict XXL 
 
 1339. Struggles in Rome be- 
 tween the Colonna and the 
 Ursini. 
 
 1342. Pope Clement VL 
 
 Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri 
 bunes. 
 
 Manufactures improve in 
 England. — Cormnerce in- 
 creases. 
 
 Bartolus and Baldus, cele- 
 brated iurists 
 
 Merino sheep introduced into 
 Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- 
 gon. 
 
 Sir John Mandeville's Tra- 
 vels, the first English book 
 in prose. 
 
 1352. Pope Innocent VI 
 
 1354. Rienzi killed.— Albemoz, 
 cardinal legate, restores the 
 papal dominion. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain. 
 
 1322. France : — C h a r I e 
 
 I V.^— (the Fair.) 
 
 Germany :— Frederic, if 
 J* Bstria defeated and taken 
 prisoner. 
 1324. Germany : — Louis ex- 
 communicated by John XII 
 — appeals to a general coun 
 cil. 
 
 1328. France :— P h i 11 p V I 
 of Valois.^P— — 
 
 1332. France :— The Fleminga 
 revolt and acknowledge Ed- 
 ward 111. as king ol France. 
 
 1338. France :- War with Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Germany : — Declaration 
 of the Diet of Frankfort, 
 that the pope had no tempo- 
 ral power in the empire. 
 
 Louis sides with the 
 English against France. 
 
 1346. France: — Normandy 
 overrun by Edward, with 
 his son, the Black Prince.— 
 French defeated at Cressy. 
 
 Germany : — C h a r 1 ej 
 IV., king of Bohemia. 
 
 The empire offered to 
 Edward III., who declines. 
 
 1350. France : — J o h n ,^a* — 
 (the Good.) 
 
 1355. Germany : —Promulg*' 
 tion of the golden Bull. 
 
 1356. France :— King John de- 
 feated and taken prisoner a" 
 Poitiers.— Charles the dau 
 phin regent. 
 
 Insurrection in Pans. 
 
 1360. France:— John regnliw 
 his liberty — cedes mucn te^ 
 ritory to England 
 
1299-1453— 154 7/ear5.— Continued.] the world's trogress. 
 
 81' 
 
 1320 
 
 1326 
 
 1328 
 
 1341 
 
 1348 
 
 1355 
 
 Eastern Empire 
 
 Disputes and civil war be- 
 tween the emperor and his 
 son, Michael. 
 
 Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, 
 makes Prusa his capital. 
 
 Andronicus, ^^ 
 
 (the younger.) 
 
 — John Cantacuzene. 
 
 War with the Genoese, defeat 
 of the Greeks and Venetians. 
 
 -John Palaeologus. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1322. Lancaster executed. 
 
 1323. Conspiracy against the 
 kin?. 
 
 1327. Peace between Scotland 
 and England. — The inde- 
 pendence of Scotland ac- 
 knowledged. 
 
 — E dward III .^§ — 
 1329. Scotland ;— David 11. 
 
 1332. Edward invades Scot- 
 land. — Balliol crowned, but 
 soon expelled. 
 
 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. 
 — Balliol restored — does ho- 
 mage to Edward. 
 
 1338. Struggle for the French 
 crown,which lasts 120 years. 
 
 1340. The victory of Helvoet 
 Sluys — gives spirit to the 
 English navy. 
 
 "David, of Scotland, in- 
 vades Englajid. 
 
 1346. Battle of Cress y. 
 
 1M7. Siege and capture of 
 -Calais. . 
 
 1350. Viciory over the Spanish 
 fleet. — Parliament divided 
 into two chambers, lords 
 spiritual and temporal. 
 
 1356. Edward, the 
 Black Prince, 
 
 gains the battle of 
 Poitiers. — John made 
 prisoner.— Two years' truce. 
 — Edward again invades 
 Scotland^is obliged to re- 
 treat. 
 1358. — again invades France. 
 
 13S0 Amurath 1., Sultan of the I36C. Peace of Bretigni. 
 Turks. 1 
 
 35 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1320. Russia : — The grand 
 duchy of Wladimir confer- 
 red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 
 
 1326. Tartarv . — Tamer- 
 lane born at Kesh. 
 
 1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis, 
 emperor of Germany. 
 
 1333. Poland : — Casimii ihfl 
 
 ft 
 Great. ^» 
 
 1339. Italy : — Simon Bocane- 
 gra, doge of Genoa. 
 
 1340. Denmark : — Waldemar 
 IV. restorer of the kingdom 
 
 1342. Hungary: — Louis the 
 Great. 
 
 1343. Italy : Commercial 
 
 treaty between Venice and 
 the sultan of Egypt and 
 Syria. 
 
 1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the 
 last of the Tribunes, rules 
 at Rome. 
 
 1350. Italy : — Naval war be- 
 tween Venice and Genoa. 
 
 1353. Establishment of the Ot- 
 tomans in Europe. 
 
 1354. Italy : — Rienzi killed— 
 papal flower restored. 
 
 1356. First war between Hur- 
 gary and Venice. 
 
 1359. Hungary : — Con;]ue,^t ol 
 the principalities lying co 
 the Danube. 
 
818 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 
 
 A.D. Proqress op Society, etc. 
 
 1364 
 
 i365 
 
 VM\ 
 
 1383 
 
 1386 
 
 1392 
 
 Petrarch and Boccacio. 
 
 Charles V. founds a college of 
 medicine and astrology at 
 Paris. 
 
 Foundation of the University 
 vf Vienna. 
 
 Geof. Chauc er, fat her 
 of English poetry. 
 
 \402 
 
 Mysteries played in France. 
 
 Wickliffe's translation of the 
 Bible. 
 
 University of Heidelberg 
 
 founded. 
 Froissart'i Chronicles. 
 John Van Eyck, invented oil 
 
 painting — founder of the 
 
 Flemish, school. 
 
 The first mill in Germany for 
 the manufacture of linen 
 paper. 
 
 Chaucer's Astrolabe written. 
 
 Revival of Greek literature in 
 
 lialy. 
 
 Chaucer dies. 
 
 John Gomer, English poet. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig- 
 non — beautifies the city of 
 Rome — presents the right 
 arm of Thomas Aquinas to 
 Charles V. of France, as an 
 object of worship. 
 
 1370. Pope Gregory IX. 
 
 1378. " Schism of the West :" 
 Pope Urban VI. ac- 
 knowledged in the empire 
 and England. 
 
 Clement VII. acknow- 
 ledsred in France, Spain, and 
 Scotland. 
 
 1389. Pope Boniface IX. at 
 Rome. 
 
 1391. The English clergy for- 
 bidden to cross the sea for 
 benefices. 
 
 1394 Vope Benedict XIII. 
 
 France. Germany & Spain 
 
 1364. Fr.:— Charles V. 
 (the Wise.) 
 
 [365. War with Navarre- -bat 
 tie of Amoy. 
 
 1378. Germany: — Wences- 
 las, (king of Bohemia), 
 emperor. 
 
 1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^ 
 (the Maniac). 
 
 1382. Battle of Rosbecq — tha 
 Flemings defeated — Arte- 
 velde killed. 
 
 1386. France : — Fruitless at- 
 tempt to invade England. 
 
 1392. —Charles seized witb 
 madness. 
 
 1394. Germany :— The emper- 
 or imprisoned by the people 
 of Prague. 
 
 1400. Ger. :— R o b e r t ,1 
 (Coun: Palatine), 
 
1299-1453,— 15J:?/ear5.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 
 
 819 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1373 1 Treaty with Murad, the Otto- 
 uiaii emperor. 
 
 1389 
 1391 
 
 1396 
 
 1402 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks. 
 
 ■ Manuel II. 
 
 1362. The Black Prince aids 
 Peter the Cruel, of Castile, 
 to recover his throne. 
 
 1369. A new war with France ; 
 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 1371. Scotland :— Robert II.— 
 
 the House of Stuart. 
 1376. Death of the Black 
 
 Prince. 
 
 1377.— Richard II. ®— 
 First Speaker of the House 
 of Commons. 
 
 1378. Fruitless invasion of 
 France. 
 
 Insurrection of Wat Ty- 
 ler. 
 
 1382. The king marries Anne, 
 daughter of Charles IV. 
 
 1384. The Scots, assisted by 
 France, invade England. 
 
 1385. The English bum Edin- 
 burgh. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1362. Italy : — War betwtet 
 Pisa and Florence. 
 
 1369. Tartary : — Tamerlane 
 makes Samarcand the capi- 
 tal of his new empire. 
 
 1370. Poland :— Extinction ol 
 the royal race of Piasts. 
 
 emperor. 
 
 Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- 
 raond, of Hungary, defeated 
 by Bajazet I. 
 
 Bajazet defeated and made 
 ^)risoner by Tamerlane, at 
 the battle of Angora. 
 
 1388. Battle of Otterboume. 
 
 1390, Scotland : Robert III. 
 Persecution of the Wick- 
 "lifites. 
 
 1398. Henry, of Lancaster, 
 banished. 
 
 House of Lancas- 
 
 1399. —Henry IV.^ — 
 Richard II. deposed. 
 
 1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen 
 
 dower, and 
 1 1403. of the Percys, who are 
 
 defeated at the battle of 
 I Shrewsbury. 
 
 1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me- 
 dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 1380. Russia :—Diraitri Ivano- 
 
 vitsch victorious over the 
 Tartars, near the Don. 
 1382. The Tartars sack Mos 
 cow. 
 
 1384. Persia : — Invaded by 
 Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. 
 — Pyramids of human heads. 
 
 1-385. War between Austria 
 and Switzerland. 
 
 1386. Battle of Sempach :— 
 the Austi'ians defeated. 
 
 1387. Denmark &, Norway :— 
 
 Margaret, ^ the Semi- 
 
 ramis of the north. 
 1391. Italy :— Pisa falls imder 
 the yoke of the Visconli. 
 
 1395. Tamerlane overruns 
 Kipchak and Russia 
 
 1397. Union of Calmar, form- 
 ing Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Norway into a single mo- 
 narchy. 
 
 1399. Invasion of India bj 
 Tamerlane. 
 
820 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period VII. -The Middle Ages.— 
 
 <L.D. Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 1407 
 
 ;.409 
 
 1420 
 
 1423 
 
 1425 
 
 1430 
 
 1434 
 
 Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish 
 historian. 
 
 University of Leipsic found- 
 ed. 
 
 Thomas a Kempis. 
 John Huss. 
 Jerome, of Prague. 
 
 First Portuguese colonies on 
 the coast of Africa, Madei- 
 ra, &c. 
 
 George of Peurbach, astrono- 
 mer at Vienna. 
 
 Peter d'Ailly, theologian. 
 
 The arts promoted in Italy by 
 Cosmo de Medici. 
 
 England increases her trade 
 with the Mediterranean. 
 
 Michael Walhgemuth, Ger- 
 man painter, (teacher of 
 Durer). 
 
 Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter, 
 
 INVENTION OP PRINT- 
 ING at Mayence. 
 
 John Mtlller Regiomontanus. 
 German astronomer and 
 mathematician. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1404. Pope Innocent VII. 
 1406. " Gregory XII. 
 
 1409. The councilt)f Pisa de- 
 poses Gregory and Bene- 
 dict, and elects Alexander 
 V. ;— neither will yield, so 
 that there are three popes at 
 once. 
 
 1410. Pope John XXIII. 
 
 1414. Council of Constance. 
 
 1416. John Huss, and Jerome, 
 of Prague, burnt by the 
 Council of Constance. 
 
 1417. Pope Martin V. 
 
 1429. Pope Clement VIII. at 
 
 Avignon, resigns, and ends 
 the "Schism of the West." 
 
 1431. Pope Eugenius IV. 
 Couticil of Basle. 
 
 France, Germatsiy, & Spain. 
 
 1407. France : — Murder o( 
 Louis, Duke of Orleans. 
 
 Spain: — John II., king 
 of Castile. 
 
 1410. Spain : —Ferdinand, king 
 of Arragon. — Yuseef III., 
 king of Granada. 
 
 1410. Fr. :— Civil war between 
 the parties of Orleans and 
 Burgundy. . 
 
 Germany : — Death of 
 Robert. 
 
 1411. S i g i s m u n d , (king 
 
 of Hungary),^g empe- 
 ror. 
 1413. France: — The French 
 defeated by Henry V., of 
 England, at Agincourt. 
 
 1416. Spain :— Alfonzo V., king 
 of Arragon and Sicily. 
 
 1419. Sigismund succeeds to 
 the Bohemian crown. 
 
 1422. France :— Death of Char 
 les VI — Henry VI. pro- 
 claimed at Paris king of 
 France and England. 
 
 — Charles VII.^ — 
 at Poitiers. 
 
 1427. Orleans besieged by tha 
 English. 
 
 1429. —saved by J o a n of 
 Arc. 
 
 Charles crowned at 
 Rheims ; makes a vain at- 
 tempt to gain Paris. 
 
 1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- 
 soner and burnt as a witch. 
 
 1431. Germany : — Sigismund 
 visits Italy, and is crowned 
 emperor by Pope Eugeniue 
 IV. 
 
 1435. Peace of Arras, between 
 France and Burgundy. 
 
 1436. France :— Recovery of 
 Paris. 
 
 1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, estab'ishes the liber 
 ties of the French church. 
 
1299-1453 :-154 7/cg/-5.-Continued ] THE world's PROGRESS. 
 
 821 
 
 1403 
 
 1413 
 
 1425 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Solyinan I., Sultan of the 
 Turks. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 Mohammea L, Sultan of tba 
 Turks. 
 
 Amuratli II. 
 Turks. 
 
 Sultan of the 
 
 peror. 
 
 1406. Scotland :— James I. 
 
 1413. —Henry V .^ — 
 
 1414. — claims the French 
 crown. 
 
 1415. — gains the battle 
 of Agincourt. 
 
 1420. Treaty of Troyes.-Henry 
 marries Catharine, daughter 
 of Charles VI., and is de- 
 clared heir to the French 
 crown. 
 
 1422. Death of Henry V. 
 
 —Henry V I .^— 
 
 1424. The Duke of Bedford 
 defeats the French at Ver- 
 neuil. 
 
 1427. —besieges Orleans. 
 
 1429. The siege raised by the 
 Maid of Orleans. 
 
 14LB 
 
 Ihe emperor visits Italy to 
 obtain help against the 
 Turks — submits to the pope. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1406. Italy. -Pisa corquered 
 by Floret ce.— Subjugation 
 01' Padua and Verona by 
 Venice. 
 
 1412. Italy:— Sack of Rome 
 by Ladislas, king of Naples. 
 Denmark, Norway, &c. : 
 
 Eric VII., of Pomerania.^^ 
 1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by 
 
 the Portuguese. 
 1419. Bohemia :— Hussite war. 
 
 1420. Discovery of Madeira 
 by the Portuguese. 
 
 1424. Bohemia :-Death of John 
 Ziska, the Hussite leader. 
 
 Italy : — Warof the Duke 
 of Milan against Florence. 
 
 1429. Florence:— Cosmo di 
 Medici, patron of the 
 arts and sciences. 
 
 431. -she is taken prisoner 1431. Italy :-Second war ol 
 and burnt. Venice and Milan. 
 
 1435. Death of the Duke of 
 Bedford, followed by the 
 loss of all the English pos- 
 sessions in France, except 
 
 1436. War with Scotland. 
 
 1437. Scotland :— James 11. 
 
 1434. Poland :— Vladislas lU. 
 
 1436. Italy :— Third war be- 
 tween Venice and Milan. 
 
 1437. Portugal :— Expedition 
 into Africa. 
 
 1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V., 
 
822 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VII.~The Middle Ages. - 
 
 1444 
 
 J 446 
 
 V147 
 
 1448 
 
 .460 
 
 PaooRESs OF Society, etc. 
 
 Leonardo da Vincij sculptor, 
 architect, and painter — dis- 
 covers perspective. 
 
 Pet. Perugino, founder of the 
 Roman school of painting, 
 teacher of Raphael. 
 
 Library of the Vatican, found- 
 ed. 
 
 The Azores discovered. 
 Alain Chartica. French poet. 
 
 Flourishing period of Flaii- 
 ders' trade. — All European 
 nations have warehouses at 
 Bruges and Ghent. — Book 
 trade at Mayence. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1447. Pope Nicholas V. 
 
 1448. Concordat of Aschaffen- 
 berg, by which the liberties 
 of the German church are 
 compromised. 
 
 France, Germany & Spain. 
 
 1438. Germany : — House 
 of Austria: 
 
 — Albert II. W — 
 (Icing of Bohemia andHun- 
 gary.) 
 
 1440. Ger. :-Frederic III. 
 
 France :— The dauphin, 
 (Louis XI.), rebels— but js 
 pardoned. 
 
 1444. — establishment of the 
 companies of Archers, the 
 first national standing army. 
 
 1446. Germany : — War with 
 Hungary, for refusing to 
 give up the young prince, 
 Vladislas. 
 
 1451. Expedition of Frederic 
 to Rome. 
 
 1453. Austria made an hersdi- 
 tary duchy by Frederic. 
 
 End of the Freuoh UMi 
 English wars. 
 
1299-1453.— 154 yea) J.— Continued.] THE world's PROGRESS. 823 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1448 
 
 1401 
 
 Insurrectitti of Scandeberg — 
 victory over ihe. Turks near 
 Nissa. 
 
 Battle of VarRa — Vladislas, 
 . king of Poland, defeated and 
 tilled by the 'J 'arks. 
 
 — Constantine XIT. ^g 
 
 (Palaeologus,) the last of the 
 Greek emperors. 
 
 Mohammed II., Sultan of the 
 
 Turks. 
 
 Siege and capture 
 of Constantinople 
 by the Turks: 
 
 END OF THE EAST- 
 ERN EMPIRE. 
 
 England <fe Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1444. Truce with France.— 
 Marriage of Henry to Mar- 
 garet, of Anjou. 
 
 1447. Gloucester arrested for 
 treason — dies suddenly. 
 
 1450. Insurrection of Jack 
 Cade— calling himself Mor- 
 timer. 
 
 Civil Wars of 
 ''the Roses:'' 
 
 Richard, duke of York, 
 claims the throne. 
 
 Scotland :— Struggles be- 
 tween the king and arisco- 
 cracy for power. 
 
 1440. Hungary : — "^-'.adislsi 
 chosen kmg.^^— - 
 
 1441. Italy:— Peace of Marti 
 nego. 
 
 1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon, 
 unites the crown oi the Two 
 Sicilies. 
 
 1445. Poland : CasimirlV.^g' 
 
 1446. Tartary : — Tllugh Be?, 
 oaron of ;i.str >noni .- ai-") 
 ge( grap I f. 
 
 1448. Denmark :— Christian L 
 
 of Odenburg.^S 
 
 Sweden :— Charles VIII.^ 
 
 1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor- 
 za, duke of Milan. 
 
 Norway : Christian 
 
 crowned at Drontheim.^^ 
 
 Delhi:— Behol Lodi en- 
 larses the kingdom. 
 14.53. " Poland ; —Confi,' -/nation 
 of the national liberl-y IQ th« 
 Diet of Petr kan. 
 
824 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD Vlll.— 1453-1698.- 
 
 146C 
 
 I4&1 
 
 i466 
 
 1470 
 
 1471 
 
 1473 
 
 1476 
 
 »477 
 
 im 
 
 1434 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Philip de Comines, French 
 historian. 
 
 Wood engraving invented. 
 
 Post- Offices in France and 
 
 England. 
 
 Faust dies at Paris, whither 
 AS journeys twice to sell his 
 Latin Bible. 
 
 Beerhard invents the pedal to 
 the organ. 
 
 Printing in England—Cax- 
 ton. 
 
 Printed Tnusical notes. 
 
 Hungary : — Mathias patroni- 
 zes literature and the arts. 
 
 Large library at Olen— 300 
 copyists of manuscripts. 
 
 German ballads — war songs of 
 Veil Weber. 
 
 Watches first made at Nurem- 
 
 burg. 
 Mikrond and Rondemir, great 
 
 Persian historians. 
 
 Lady Juliana Berners, one of 
 the earliest female writers 
 of England. 
 
 Hans Holbein, painter. 
 
 Franchino Gafurid, teacher in 
 the first public school of 
 viusic at Milan. 
 
 Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- 
 sical genius of his age. 
 
 1455. Battle of 
 St. Albans. 
 
 House 
 of York: 
 1461. — Ed- 
 ward IV. 
 
 ^^— gains 
 the battle of 
 Towton. 
 
 1469.Warwick 
 banished. 
 
 1471. Battle of 
 
 Barnet : 
 
 Warwic k 
 slain.— Hen- 
 ry VI. dies in 
 the Tower. 
 
 1483. Ed- 
 ward V . 
 
 Richard, 
 Protector. — 
 The king & 
 his brother 
 murdered in 
 the Tower. 
 
 — R i c h - 
 ard III. 
 
 1485. -Henry, 
 earl of Rich- 
 mond, lands 
 at Mil ford 
 Haven. 
 
 Battle 
 of B o 
 worth 
 Field: 
 
 Richard 
 
 defeated and 
 slain. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1460. 
 III. 
 
 James 
 
 France. 
 
 1479. War with 
 
 England . — 
 Conspiracy 
 of the no- 
 bles ; — they 
 take the king 
 prisoner. 
 
 1461. Louis 
 
 Civil war. — 1 
 — Peace of 
 Conflans. 
 
 Spain and 
 Portugal. 
 
 1 175. War be- 
 tween Louis 
 and Charles 
 of Burgun- 
 dy, 
 
 1476. — who is 
 defeated at 
 Granson and 
 Moral, and 
 
 1477. — slain at 
 Nancy. — - 
 Artois and. 
 Burgundy 
 united to the 
 
 French 
 crown. 
 
 1483.-Char- 
 les VlII. 
 
 1454. Spain: — 
 Henry IV. of 
 
 Castile. ^S 
 
 1469. Marriage 
 ofFerdinand, 
 of Arragon, 
 with Isabel- 
 la, of Caa- 
 tile. 
 
 1479. Union 
 of Castile 
 and Arra- 
 gon under 
 
 Ferdinand 
 1 1 . and Isa- 
 bella. 
 
 1480.TheIn- 
 
 q u i si t ion . 
 — X i m e 
 n e s , bishoj 
 of Toledo. 
 
 1481. Port. :— 
 
 John n.^ 
 
 1484. First au 
 da-fe a! Se 
 ville 
 
THE world's PROCKESS. 
 
 825 
 
 Dthman to the Edict of Nantes. 
 
 U62 
 
 The emperor besieged in his 
 court at Vienna— delivered 
 by G. Podiebrad, of liohe- 
 Eoia. 
 
 1469 
 
 147/ 
 
 Invasions of the Turks. 
 
 University of Ingoldstodt. 
 
 Marriage of Maximilian and 
 Maria of Burgundy. 
 
 1455. Turk? re- 
 pulsed at Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 1454. Struggle 
 between Cos- 
 mod da Me- 
 dici and the 
 aristocracy. 
 
 1458. The 
 French rule 
 in Genoa. 
 
 Pope Pi- 
 us 11. 
 
 1463. War of 
 Venice with the Turks, 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1464. Pietrode 
 Medici at 
 Florence. 
 
 Pope Paul 
 II. 
 
 1466. Galeaz- 
 zo, duke of 
 Milan. 
 
 1469. L o r e n - 
 z o d e Me- 
 dici, suc- 
 ceeds Pietro. 
 
 1471. Sixtus 
 IV. pope. 
 
 Power of 
 the Medici 
 increases. 
 
 Learning 
 flourishes. 
 
 1478. Conspi- 
 racy of the 
 Pazzi at Flo- 
 rence. —Giu- 
 lio, brother 
 of Lorenzo 
 de Medici, 
 slain. 
 
 1484. Innocent 
 VIII., pope. 
 
 1464. War with 
 Hungary. 
 
 of Burgu.i 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1454. Poland :— War with tha 
 Teutonic Order. 
 
 1458. Hungary 
 
 Mathioe 
 
 1479. Fruitless 
 attempt upon 
 
 Corvin,^K' .-.■lakes his 
 
 country lormidable to fjil 
 neighbors^ 
 
 1462. Russia:— Ivan I.^- - 
 the Great — takes the title »1 
 Czar. 
 
 1466. Peace of Thorn. — East 
 Prussia a fief of Poland. — 
 West Prussia ceded to Po- 
 land. 
 
 1468. Uzun Hasan, master ot 
 all Persia. 
 
 1470. — forms an alliance with 
 the Venetians and the duke 
 
 dy against the Turks— con- 
 quers Bagdad. 
 
 1472. Russia : — Ivan marries 
 Sophia, niece of the Greek 
 emperor. 
 
 1474. — shakes oflT the Tartat 
 yoke, and captures Novo- 
 gorod. 
 
 1477. Hungary — War with 
 Frederic III. 
 
 1481. Denmaik :— John,^§^— 
 partially acknowledged in 
 Sweden. 
 
 488. Hungary ;- 
 takes Vienna. 
 
 -Mathias 
 
 35^ 
 
826 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period VIII.-- 
 
 1490 
 
 149: 
 
 Progress op Society, eic. 
 
 Martini Behaim, (Nurem- 
 burg,) publishes a map of 
 the world. 
 
 DISCOVERY OF 
 AMERICA. 
 
 First printing press at Copen- 
 hagen. 
 
 The second voyage of Colum- 
 bus.— A Spanish colony al 
 Hispaniola. 
 
 1497 The discoveries of John and 
 -8 Sebastian Cabot. 
 
 Third voyage of Columbus. 
 He discovers Trinidad and 
 the Continent. 
 
 Lisbon, the great seat of trade. 
 — Venice declines. 
 
 Maritime .enterprises greatly 
 extended. 
 
 Sir Thomas Morels Utopia, 
 published. 
 
 Nicholas Machiavelli, states- 
 man and historian. 
 I49y Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. 
 15U,;! Fourth voyage of Columbus. 
 
 Raphael, Michael Angelo, Ti- 
 tian, Corregio, painters. 
 
 St. Peter's, and other magni- 
 ficent churches built. 
 
 »515 The cele' rated tapestry, after 
 Raphael ;— Cartoons woven 
 in the Netherlands. 
 
 L CTTi/SiJ, Erasmus, 
 
 M e 1 a n t h o a , and other 
 reformers. 
 
 Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- 
 man drama. 
 
 Copernicus, discovers 
 the true system of the Uni- 
 verse—his great work, De 
 Orbium Coelestium Revolu- 
 tionibus. 
 
 1522 
 
 First complete circumnavi- 
 gation of the globe, by Ma- 
 gellan 
 
 House of 
 Tudor:— 
 — H e n r y VII 
 
 1136. Imposture of 
 Lambert Symnel. 
 The Star Cham- 
 ber established. 
 
 1493. Perkin War- 
 beck, pretends to 
 be Richard, duke 
 of York — defeated 
 on Blackheath. 
 
 1497. Cabot makes 
 discoveries in A- 
 mei'ica. 
 
 1499. Earl of 
 Warwick, last 
 of the Plantage- 
 nets, executed. 
 
 1509. — 
 VIII 
 
 -Henry 
 
 Scot- 
 land. 
 
 1487 : — 
 
 James 
 
 IV. 
 
 joins the League 
 of Cambray. 
 
 1513. Invasion of the 
 Scots. — Battle of 
 Flodden — the king 
 and chief Scots 
 killed. 
 
 151.5. W I 8 e y , 
 chancellorand car- 
 dinal. 
 
 1520. The Emperor 
 visits England. — 
 Meeting of Henry 
 and Francis at the 
 "Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold." 
 
 1521. The Reformed 
 doctrines opposed 
 by Henry, in his 
 book I n the Seven 
 Sacrahients — he 
 receives the title 
 of " Defender of 
 the Faith." 
 
 1.503. : — 
 James 
 marries 
 Marga- 
 ret, of 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1513.:- 
 
 James 
 
 V. 
 
 1491. Bretag- 
 ne united to 
 the crown 
 by the king's 
 marriage 
 with Anne. 
 
 1494. Invasion 
 of Italy. 
 
 1499. in- 
 vades Italy 
 — conquers 
 the Milanese 
 Duchy. 
 
 1500. Trealy 
 with Ferdi- 
 nand, of Ara- 
 gon, for the 
 conquest and 
 partition of 
 Naples. 
 
 1510. The 
 Council of 
 Tours, to 
 support the 
 king against 
 the" Holy 
 League. 
 
 1515.— Fran- 
 cis l.^g — 
 — invades 
 
 Italy— victory 
 of Marigna- 
 no^ Genoa 
 and Milan 
 submit. 
 
 1516. Concor- 
 dat with the 
 pope, instead 
 of pragma- 
 tic sanction. 
 
 1521. First war 
 with Char- 
 les V. 
 
 Spain anb 
 Portugal. 
 
 1492. Con 
 quest o . 
 Granada, 
 by Gonzala 
 de Cordova. 
 
 Discovery 
 o f Ameri- 
 ca, by Co- 
 in m b us . 
 
 1498. Vasco 
 d e G a m a 
 doubles the 
 
 Oi./"^ of 
 
 Good Hope, 
 and reaches 
 India. 
 
 1506. Colum- 
 bus dies at 
 Valladolid. 
 
 1507. Cardinal 
 Ximenes. 
 
 Board of 
 American 
 trade at Se- 
 ville. 
 
 1516.— Char 
 
1453-1598.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 827 
 
 Ms;; 
 
 -Maximilian I .^g — 
 
 1502 
 
 150S 
 
 University of Wittenburj 
 
 Maximilian enters Italy to be 
 crowned by the pope. 
 
 — ^joins the League of Cam 
 bray. 
 
 —divides the empire into ten 
 circles. 
 
 i517 
 1518 
 
 1519 
 1*',) 
 
 Italy. 
 
 COMMKNCBMENT OF 
 THE RSFORMATION, 
 
 Luther summoned before the 
 diet of Augsburg. 
 
 — •Charles V .^^ — 
 of Spain. 
 
 The archduke Ferdinand, mar- 
 ries Anne, sister of Louis — 
 whence the accession of 
 Bohemia and Hungary to 
 the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 \Dietof Worms. 
 
 1492. Pietro II. 
 succeeds his 
 father, Lo- 
 renzo, in Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 Pope Alex- 
 ander VI., 
 (Borgia.) 
 
 1494. Expedi- 
 tion of Char- 
 les VIII. in- 
 to Italy. 
 
 1499. Amerigo 
 Vespucius's 
 voyage to 
 America. 
 
 150U. Partition 
 of Naples 
 between 
 France and 
 Spain. 
 
 1502.Florence: 
 Machiavelli. 
 Secretary oi 
 State. 
 
 1503. Naples 
 
 annexed to 
 
 the Spanish 
 
 Crown. 
 
 Pope Pius 
 
 in. 
 
 Pope Ju 
 lius U. 
 1508. League 
 of Cambray 
 against Ve 
 nice. 
 
 1510. Holy 
 League to 
 expel the 
 French. 
 
 1511. Council 
 of Pisa. 
 
 1513. Pope 
 Leo X . 
 
 (de Medici,) 
 patron of li- 
 terature and 
 arts. 
 
 The build 
 ing of St 
 Peter's com 
 menced. 
 
 1519. Cardinal 
 de Medici 
 holds rule m 
 Florence. 
 
 1522. Pope 
 Adrian VI, 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1493. Wars 
 with Egypt, 
 Hungary, 
 and Venice. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1503. Peace 
 with Venice. 
 
 1505. War with 
 Persia. 
 
 1512. Selim I., 
 
 thrones and 
 
 Euts to death 
 is father 
 
 1514. The Per- 
 sians defeat 
 ed at Kalde 
 roon. — Me 
 sopotamia 
 and Kurdis- 
 tan added to 
 the empire. 
 
 151t). Cairo 
 taken by 
 storm. — Ma- 
 meluke do- 
 minions an- 
 nexed to the 
 empire. 
 
 1520. Soliman, 
 
 W— ('he 
 
 Magnificent.) 
 
 1521.'Belgrade 
 
 taksn by 
 
 Sturm. 
 1522. Rhodes 
 
 capitulates. 
 
 14.38. India :— Sekander Lodi, 
 
 king of Delhi. 
 1492. Poland:— John Albert. 
 
 AMERICA discovered ay Co- 
 lumbus. 
 
 1493. Spanish colony at His 
 paniola. 
 
 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- 
 pucius. — South American 
 coast explored. 
 
 1501. Poland :— Alexander. 
 
 1 502. Ismail Shah Soofi makes 
 himself sole sovert\gn of 
 Persia. 
 
 1506. Poland :—Sigismund I. 
 ^ (the Great.) 
 
 1509. Bohemia :— Louis, '^-. 
 3 years old. 
 
 1510. America : — Settlement 
 at Darien. 
 
 151 1. America : — C u b a con- 
 quered. 
 
 1512. America: — Florida 
 discovered. 
 
 1513. Souih Sea first reached 
 by Balboa. 
 
 1516. Ilungarv and Bohemia: 
 
 -Louis II. W¥ 
 
 India :— Ibrahim 
 
 Lodli. 
 
 1517. 
 
 king ol Delhi 
 1517. America : — First patem 
 
 for importing- Negroes— 
 
 gran led by Spain. 
 15lS. Corsairs in Algiers. 
 1519. MEXICO conquered bj 
 
 the Spaniarr's, u.ider Co» 
 
 tes. 
 
828 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [1 eriod VIIL— 
 
 1530 
 
 1533 
 
 1536 
 
 1537 
 
 1538 
 1539 
 
 1543 
 
 IMS 
 
 Ifi^ 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Xavier plants Christianity in 
 India. 
 
 Ariosto, Italian poet. 
 
 Albert Darer. 
 
 F.fst work on military archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Jorgens invents the spinning 
 
 wheel for spinning flax. 
 Rabelais, French humorist. 
 
 Botanic Gardens at Padua. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola founds the 
 order of the Jesuits. 
 
 Papal bull declaring the Ame- 
 rican natives to be rational 
 beings. 
 
 The diving bell invented. 
 
 Calvin founds the Univer- 
 sity of Geneva. 
 
 Pins first used by Catharine 
 Howard, queen of England. 
 
 John Knox, Scottish Refor- 
 mer. 
 
 A commercial treaty between 
 Portugal and Japan. 
 
 Needles first made. 
 Vasalius's work on Anatomy. 
 
 Revival of Stoicism, by Justus 
 
 Lipsius. 
 Palestrlna, founder of Italian 
 
 church music. 
 
 Giacomo Carisimi. 
 
 Orange trees introduced into 
 Europe. 
 
 Scot- 
 land. 
 
 France. 
 
 1529. Sir Thomas 
 More, Lord Chan- 
 cellor. — Rise of 
 Cranmer, archbi 
 shop of Canter 
 bury. 
 
 1533. The king mar- 
 ries Anne Boleyn. 
 
 1535. Bishop Fisher 
 and Sir Thomas 
 More beheaded. 
 
 Henry excom- 
 municated by the 
 Pope 
 
 1536. — marries Jane 
 Seymour. — Sup- 
 pi-e.ssion of the 
 smaller monaste- 
 
 1-543. Henry invades 
 France — — takes 
 Boulogne. 
 
 1544. French fleet 
 gain a victory over 
 the English,, ofl" 
 the Isle of Wight, 
 
 1547. 
 
 Edward 
 
 VI. "^ 
 
 Somerset invades 
 Scotland — defeats 
 the Scots at Pin- 
 kie. 
 
 Formal esta- 
 blishment of Pro- 
 testantism. 
 
 1.536. : — 
 Spread 
 01 the 
 Refor- 
 mation. 
 Pro- 
 testants 
 persecu- 
 ted. 
 
 1542. : — 
 Mary 
 
 Earl of 
 
 Arran, 
 
 regent. 
 
 1525. Francis 
 defeated and 
 taken pri- 
 soner at Pa- 
 via. 
 
 1527. Second 
 war with 
 Charles V. 
 
 1529. Treaty of 
 Cambray. 
 Great en- 
 couragement 
 given to arts 
 and sciences 
 —The Lou 
 vre com- 
 menced. 
 
 1532. Calvin 
 preaches. 
 Third 
 French war, 
 — Siege of 
 Marseilles. 
 
 Spain ANr> 
 
 PORTUOAL.. 
 
 1538. Truce of 
 Nice— for 10 
 years. 
 
 Attempt to 
 recover pow- 
 er in Italy ; 
 hence the 
 
 1542. Fourth 
 French war. 
 
 1544. Peace of 
 Crespy. 
 France gives 
 up Italy. 
 
 1547. Henry 
 
 ' The fa- 
 mous Catha- 
 rine de 
 Medici, 
 queen. 
 
 1536. Acer IS! 
 tion of Mi 
 Ian. 
 
 1540. Portu- 
 gal : — Lis- 
 bon,the mar 
 ket of th3 
 world. 
 
 1542. Com- 
 mercial trea- 
 ty befween 
 Portugal are? 
 Japan. 
 
14&3-1598.J 
 
 THE world's PRCGRESS. 
 
 829 
 
 .526 
 
 Germany. 
 
 General insurrections of the 
 peasantry, under Thomas 
 Miinzer. 
 
 Charles marries Isabella, of 
 
 Portugal. 
 Death of Frederic, of Saxony. 
 
 The Turks invade Germany. 
 — Diet of Spires. — Luther- 
 ans first called Protestants. 
 
 League of Sraalcald. 
 
 k538 
 
 1543 
 
 1645 
 
 1&46 
 
 ^7 
 
 Congress of Nice between the 
 Emperor, the Pope, and the 
 king of France. 
 
 War m alliance with England 
 against France. 
 
 Diet of Worms. 
 
 War of the Smalcaldista. 
 
 Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- 
 ny 
 
 Ottoman rr. tit i i 
 
 Italy. Empire. Ihb World, elsewheie. 
 
 1523. Clement 
 VII. , pope. 
 
 1526. Spain ac- 
 quii-es the 
 ascendency 
 by the victo- 
 ry of Pavia. 
 
 1527. The Me- 
 dici expelled 
 from Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 1.530. Medici 
 
 restored. 
 
 Charles V. 
 crowned at 
 Bologna. 
 
 1534. Paul III. 
 pope. 
 
 1537. Cosmo 
 de Medici, 
 duke of Tus- 
 cany. 
 
 1540. Investi- 
 ture of Mi- 
 lan confer- 
 red by Char- 
 'es V. on 
 Philip. 
 
 1545. Council 
 of Trent. 
 
 1526. Invasion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 1529. Invasion 
 ofGermany. 
 — Siege of 
 Vienna. 
 
 The Otto- 
 man navy 
 formidable 
 under the 
 command of 
 Barbarossa : 
 
 1535. — who 
 seizes Tu- 
 nis. — The 
 emperor, 
 Churles V., 
 restores the 
 Moorish 
 
 1541. Destruc- 
 tion of an ar- 
 mament, led 
 by Charles 
 V. agaiEsl 
 Algiers. 
 
 1547. The 
 Turks in- 
 vade Persia, 
 and capture 
 Ispahan. 
 
 1523. Sweden : — Revolt under 
 Gustavus Vasa . — The 
 Danes expelled. — Union of 
 Calmar dissolved. 
 
 Denmark and Norway • 
 
 —Frederic I.^^ 
 
 1525. Albert, duke ul Prussia 
 
 1530. Malta givei to the 
 knights of Rhodes 
 
 1532. Union of Norway an^* 
 Denmark. 
 
 1533. Conquest of Pe- 
 ru, by Cortes. 
 
 Russia: — Ivan IV., (the 
 Terrible). 
 
 1536. Cortes discovers Califor- 
 nia. 
 
 1543. First standing array in 
 Sweden. 
 
 1545. South America: — Mine* 
 of Potosi discovered. 
 
 1548. Poland:— SigismundlL 
 ® (A-lg-i8lus). 
 
830 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VIII ^ 
 
 Proqeess op Society, etc. 
 
 Scaliger, Philologist. 
 MontaigrK, French Essayist. 
 
 Cardan, Italian philosopher. 
 
 1558 Sealing wax comes into use 
 in Europe. 
 
 Foundation of Jesuit Colleges 
 in opposition to Protestant 
 Schools. Tlie first at Co- 
 imbra, in Portugal. 
 
 Only two carriages in Paris- 
 horses and litters generally 
 used. 
 
 SnulFfirst brought into France, 
 —Knives first made in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Torquato 
 poets. 
 
 Tasso Guarini, 
 
 Camoens, Portuguese poet. 
 
 Thomas Tallie, English mu- 
 aiciau. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 LAND. 
 
 1549. The Enghsh 
 Ijiturgy comple- 
 ted and e.stablish- 
 ed by act of Par- 
 liament 
 
 1553. Northumber- 
 land intrigues to 
 settle the crown on 
 Lady .Tane Grey, I 
 his daughter-in- j 
 law. 
 
 — Mary .^^ — 
 
 Catholicism re- 
 stored. 
 
 1554. The queen 
 marries Philip, of 
 
 Spain.— Lord Dud- 
 ley and Lady .Tane 
 _Grey executed. 
 
 1555. Bloody perse- 
 cution of Protes- 
 tants. 
 
 1557. War with 
 France to support 
 Spain.— Calais 
 lost. 
 
 1558. — Eliza- 
 beth. ^S 
 
 Cecil, Lord 
 Burleigh, Secreta- 
 tary of State. 
 
 Protestantism 
 established. 
 
 The Puritans 
 begin to rise. 
 
 France. 
 
 Spain amd 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 1552. Fifth war 
 with Char- 
 les V. 
 
 15.57. The 
 
 French defeat- 
 ed at St. 
 
 Quentin. 
 
 1558.— at Gra- 
 velines. 
 
 1559. Peace of 
 
 Chateau — 
 
 Cambresis. 
 
 Philip II 
 
 1557. Portu- 
 : — Sebas^ 
 
 tian. ^M — 
 
 1563. — Mary, queen 
 of Scots, takes re- 
 fuge in England— 
 and is imprisoned. 
 
 1570. Civil wars of 
 the Desmonds in 
 in Ireland. 
 
 1564. Acquisi- 
 tion of the 
 Philippines. 
 
 15C7. Duke ot 
 Alva, gover- 
 nor of ths 
 Netherlands 
 
i453-1598.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1551 
 
 Treaty of Passau secures reli- 
 gious libsrty to the Protes- 
 tants. 
 
 Fruitless siege of Mentz. 
 
 16G4 
 
 Charles abdicates. 
 
 — P erdinand I .^g — 
 
 king of Hungary and iJohe- 
 mia. 
 Coronation by the pope relin- 
 quished. 
 
 -Maximilian II. ^M— 
 
 Ottoman 
 Italy. Empire. The Wjeld, elsewhere. 
 
 1550. 
 III. 
 
 Julius 
 pope. 
 
 1555. Marcel- 
 lusll., pope. 
 Paul IV.. 
 (Carafla) 
 I ope. 
 
 1559. Pius IV. 
 (Medici) 
 pope. 
 
 Peace of 
 Chateau — 
 Cambresis 
 terminates 
 the French 
 wars in Italy. 
 Tranquil- 
 lity for 66 
 years. 
 
 1562. Council 
 of Trent re- 
 assembled. 
 
 1556. Pius v., 
 pope. 
 
 1569. Florence, 
 a grand du- 
 chy. 
 
 Cosmo 
 d e M e d i - 
 c i , declared 
 grand duke 
 of Tuscany, 
 by Pius V. 
 
 1551. Tripoli 
 taken from 
 the Maltese 
 knights. 
 
 1552. Invasion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 1553. War with 
 Persia. 
 
 Building of 
 t he mosque 
 of Solyman- 
 yah, at Con- 
 stantmople. 
 
 1559. Naval 
 victory of 
 Calves, gain- 
 ed by Ura' 
 gut. 
 
 Military 
 power of 
 the Turks at 
 its greatest 
 height, un 
 derSoliman 
 
 1565. Unsuc- 
 cessful siege 
 
 . of Malta. 
 
 1566. Death of 
 Soliman 
 the siege of 
 Sigeth. 
 
 Selim II 
 
 15.53. ^ew Mexico discoTetod 
 by t le Spaniards. 
 
 14&5. India :—Jelaleddin Ak- 
 jar, a patron of science and 
 .iterature, aided by his min- 
 isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh 
 Faizi. 
 
 — raises the Mogul em 
 pire to its greatest splendor. 
 
 1570. 
 I57I. 
 
 War of Venice with 
 
 the Porte. 
 Cypru ) reduced by the 
 , Turks. 
 ; Battle of 
 
 Lepanlo. 
 
 1559. Denmark and Norway 
 
 — Frederic 11.^^ 
 
 Decrease of the influisnce 
 of the Hanse towna. 
 
 1560. Sweden:— Eric XrV.W 
 
 1562. War with Russia and 
 Poland. — An Fngiish am- 
 bassador in PeTsia. 
 
 1564. Cnligny sends a colony 
 of Huguenotp to Florida- 
 destroyed by the Spaniards. 
 
 1568. Prussia: — Albert Frede 
 
 Sweden :- John III. ^M - 
 
 1270. Peace ol Stetm, between 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and 
 
 Sweden. 
 1571 Russia devastated by tha 
 
 khan of Crim Tartary.— 
 
 Moscow burnt. 
 
832 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VnL~< 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 1582 
 
 1588 
 
 Cervantes, author of Don 
 
 Qnixolte. 
 Titian, and Paolo Veronese, 
 
 painters. 
 
 Sir Francis Drake's voyage 
 round the world. 
 
 Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia. 
 
 Gregorian Reformation of the 
 Calendar. 
 
 Greenland discovered by Sir 
 Francis Drake. 
 
 Tobacco first brought lo Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 First newspaper in England. 
 
 Telescopes invented by Jan- 
 sen, a German. 
 
 Tasso, Italian poet. 
 The Carracci, celebrated pain- 
 ters. 
 
 In England -.—Spenser, 
 Shakspbarb, Beau- 
 mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- 
 son. — Napier invents loga- 
 rithms. 
 
 Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 Lope de Vega, dramas and 
 novels. 
 
 Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro- 
 nomers. 
 
 1578. The queen 
 sends help to the 
 revolted Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 138.3. Levant Com- 
 pany chartered. 
 
 1584. Raleigh's co- 
 lony in Virginia. 
 
 1585. War with 
 Spain. 
 
 1586. Sir Philip 
 Sidney killed at 
 Zutphen. 
 
 1587. The Queen of 
 Scots beheaded. 
 
 1588. The Spanish 
 armada destroyed. 
 
 1589. Alliance with 
 Henry II. in aid 
 of Protestantism. 
 — Troops sent to 
 France. 
 
 1593. Att for reli- 
 gious conformity. 
 
 1594. Sir John Haw- 
 kins's Voyages. 
 
 1596. Cadiz taken, 
 and the Spanish 
 fleet burnt, by the 
 earl of Esse.^:. 
 Sir Ruber t Cecil, 
 minister. 
 
 1599. Troubles in 
 Ireland : — Revolt 
 of O'Neill, earl of 
 Tyrone. 
 
 Scot- 
 land. 
 
 1581. :— 
 Gow- 
 rie's 
 conspi- 
 racy 
 against 
 the king. 
 
 1590. :- 
 The 
 king 
 marries 
 Anne, of 
 Den- 
 mark, 
 
 1572. Massacre 
 of St. Bar- 
 tholomew. 
 
 1573. Peace of 
 Rochelle. 
 
 1574. — H e n - 
 
 rylll.^ 
 
 Fifih war 
 
 with the 11 u- 
 
 uenots. 
 157B. The Ca- 
 tholic 
 Leasue. 
 1577. Sixth re- 
 ligious war. 
 
 1588. Revolt of 
 Paris. 
 
 1589. House 
 of Bour- 
 bon: 
 
 — H E N R Y 
 
 159U. Siege of 
 Paris, raised 
 by the Spa- 
 niards. 
 
 1593. Henry 
 abjures Pro- 
 
 testantisni. 
 
 1594. Jesuits 
 banished. 
 
 1595. War wilt. 
 Spain con- 
 tinued. 
 
 1598. Peace jf 
 Vervi iis. 
 
 Ministry of 
 Sully:- 
 re.'sto ration 
 of order. 
 Edict op 
 Nantes 
 — granting 
 tnleraiion ti 
 Proiesiants. 
 
 Spain anb 
 
 I'OUTUOAIfc 
 
 1578. Port. :— 
 
 Henry. ^^- 
 
 1580. Portugal 
 falls undes 
 Spanish do- 
 minioa. 
 
 1588. Defeat o» 
 the Spanish 
 armada. 
 
 15S9. English 
 volunteers 
 under Drake 
 and N orris, 
 repulsed 
 from Lisbon. 
 
 1598. Ph£ p 
 
U53-1598.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 83- 
 
 1676 
 
 — R o d 1 p h II .^ — 
 
 liing of Bohemia and Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 The imperial authority disre- 
 garded by the princes of the 
 empire, ^ho wage war 
 among the tiselves. 
 
 Union of Protestants at Heil- 
 bronn. 
 
 1572. Gregory 
 XIII., pope. 
 
 1573. Cyprus 
 yielded to 
 the Porte ; 
 
 1574. Florence : 
 — Frances Ma- 
 ria succeeds 
 Cosmo. 
 
 1580. Charles 
 Emmanuel, 
 duke of Sa- 
 voy. 
 
 1585. Sixtus 
 v., pope, 
 active and 
 energetic — 
 corrects 
 abuses in 
 the church ; 
 restores the 
 Vatican li- 
 brary. 
 
 1590. Urban 
 VII., pope. 
 
 Greeory 
 XIV., pope 
 
 1591. Innocent 
 IX., pope, 
 two months. 
 
 Clement 
 VIII., pope. 
 
 1592. The Ri- 
 alto and Pi- 
 azza di San 
 Marco built 
 at Venice. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 peace with Ve- 
 nice. 
 1574. — Murad 
 
 1576. War with 
 Persia. 
 
 1580. War with 
 the Druses 
 in Syria. 
 
 1553. First 
 trade with 
 England. 
 
 15S9. Predato- 
 ry incur- 
 sions of the 
 Cossacks. 
 
 Revolt of 
 the Janiza- 
 ries. 
 
 1593. War with 
 the Empire 
 in Hungarv. 
 
 1594. The 
 Grand Vi- 
 zier takes 
 Raab. 
 
 1595. Moham- 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1574 Poland :— Henry, of Va 
 
 1575 Poland :— Stephen Ba- 
 thori.^^ — 
 
 1578. Alliance of Sweden and 
 Poland against Russia. 
 
 1579. Commencement 
 ofthe Republic of 
 HOLLAND, by the union 
 at Utrecht: 
 
 William, Prince 
 of Orange, siadthol- 
 der. 
 
 1584. North America: 
 —First English colony found- 
 ed in Virginia, by Sir W. 
 Raleigh. 
 
 1585. Persia acquires power 
 under Abbas the Great. 
 
 Holland : — Maurice, of 
 Orange, stadtholder. 
 15S6, Battle of Zutphen : death 
 of Sir Philip Sidney. 
 
 1588. Denmark: 
 
 -Christian 
 
 1592. Sweden : — Sigismund, 
 king of Poland. 
 
 India: — Mizam Shah, re- 
 pulsed from Choul, by the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 1594. The Falkland Isles dis- 
 covered by Hawkins. 
 
 1595. The Dutch first in Indii. 
 Sweden ; — The regent a» 
 
 sumes independent autho- 
 rity. 
 
 1598. Russia : —Boris Goda- 
 
 nov,^S begirt a new 
 
 dynasty. 
 
 Sigismund land? in Swe 
 den,lo re-establish his pow- 
 er — but is defeated, and rs 
 turns to Poland. 
 
834 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD IX.— 120 years.- 
 
 iuoa 
 
 iB03 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 iSlO 
 
 1615 
 
 161S 
 1620 
 
 i624 
 
 English East India Compa- 
 ny fourida- 
 
 Ezportation q. English wool 
 prohibited. 
 
 Conference at Hampton Court. 
 
 New Trnnslation of the Bi- 
 ble begun ; {\)n\)\\s\-\f(\ IGU). 
 
 Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- 
 er of electricity, and ol con- 
 ductors and non-conductors. 
 
 Telescopes invented by Gali- 
 leo. 
 
 Coffee at Venice. 
 Tobacco in Virginia. 
 
 Bacon's Inductive Philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 Harvey discovers the cirm'a- 
 tion of the blood. 
 
 Thermometers invented by 
 Drebel. 
 
 Inigo Jones, celebrated archi- 
 tect. 
 
 Martin Opitz, German poet. 
 
 Negro Slavery co -.' menced in 
 Virginia. 
 
 Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 
 
 Massinger, the dramatist. 
 
 Kepler's " Ast:,5nomia Nova 
 Celestis." 
 
 Torricelli invents the barome- 
 ter. 
 
 The Parian marbles brought 
 to England by the earl of 
 Ai mdei. 
 
 Gaxettes first published in 
 Vcnica. 
 
 1604. — Acadia co- 
 lonized by the 
 French. 
 
 1606. — Discovery 
 of Hudson's Bay. 
 
 1607.— E n g 1 i s h 
 settlement at 
 Jamestown, 
 (1st permanent 
 one in N. Ame 
 rica.) 
 
 1608. —Quebec 
 founded. 
 
 1609. — Jesuit mis- 
 sions in Par 
 guay. 
 
 1616.— The Tobac- 
 co plant introdu- 
 ced into Virgi- 
 nia. 
 
 1620.— Negro 
 slaves first im- 
 ported to Virgi- 
 ni.H. 
 
 Emigra- 
 tion of P u 
 r i t a n s to 
 New Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1621. —.John Car- 
 ver, 1st Gover- 
 nor of N. E. 
 
 1624. New Am- 
 sterdam set- 
 'led by the Dutch. 
 
 1627. Boston found- 
 ed. 
 
 1629. Wouter Van 
 Twiller, gover- 
 nor of New Am- 
 sterdam. 
 
 England. 
 
 1601. Earl of Essex be- 
 headed. 
 
 1603. — James I.^^ — 
 Union of the 
 English and 
 Scotch crowns. 
 
 1605. The Gunpowder 
 Plot. 
 
 Franob. 
 
 1612. English factories at 
 Sural. 
 
 16J6. Ministry of Villiers, 
 duke of Buckingham. 
 
 1617. Sir Francis Bacon, 
 lord chancellor. 
 
 1618. Sir W^alter Ra- 
 leigh's unsuccessful 
 voyage to America — 
 he is beheaded on his 
 return. 
 
 1624 Minigtri 
 of Cardira 
 R i c h t; 
 lieu. 
 
 1625.— C h a r 1 e s I.^ 
 
 Buckingham, prime 
 minister. 
 
 1627. War with France, in support o, 
 the Hugue- 
 nots. 
 
 Rochelle 
 
 1629. No parliament for reduced by 
 eleven years. famine — af. 
 
 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of 
 ten moa'.hs. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 1598-1718. — Edict of Nantes to ilie death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 
 
 835 
 
 1613 
 
 1621 
 
 1626 
 
 i625 
 
 1630 
 
 Expul- 
 sion of 
 
 the 
 Moors. 
 
 War of 
 the 
 
 Mont- 
 ferrat 
 succes- 
 sion in 
 Italy. 
 
 Dutch 
 
 war. — 
 Spain 
 sup- 
 ports 
 Austria. 
 Philip 
 
 IV. ^ 
 
 Defeat 
 of Span- 
 fleet off" 
 Lima, 
 by the 
 Dutch. 
 Naval 
 war 
 with 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 Peace 
 with 
 Eng. 
 knd. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 160S. Truce of Co 
 morra, for twenty 
 years, witli the 
 Purte. 
 
 1608. Protestant 
 union, under Pre 
 deric, the elector 
 palatine. 
 
 1610. The Catholic 
 League, under the 
 duke of Bavaria. 
 
 1612. Matthias. 
 
 1615. Truce of Co- 
 morra confirmed. 
 
 1618. The Thirty 
 Years' War 
 begins. 
 
 1619.— Ferdinand 
 
 1620. Victory of the 
 White Mountain, 
 
 near Prague. 
 
 Massacre of 
 Prague.— The Pro- 
 testant religion to- 
 tally suppressed. 
 
 1626. Victory of Til- 
 ly over Christian 
 IV., of Denmark, 
 at Lutter. 
 
 1628.Wallenstein 
 recovers all the 
 shores of the Bal- 
 tic, except Stral- 
 sund. 
 
 1629. Gustavus Adol- 
 phus lands in Ger- 
 many. — Diet of 
 Ratisbon. — Wal- 
 lenstein dismissed, 
 succeeded by "Til- 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 Empire. 
 
 1605. Leo XI. 
 pope. 
 
 Paul V. 
 pope. 
 
 1609.Tuscany 
 — Cosmo II 
 
 Leghorn, 
 
 the empori' 
 
 um of the 
 
 Levant trade 
 
 1618. Conspi- 
 racy of Bsd- 
 mar, the 
 Spanish en- 
 voy, to re- 
 duce Venice 
 under sub- 
 jection to 
 Spain. 
 
 1621. Gregory 
 XV., pope. 
 Tuscany : — 
 Ferdinand II. 
 
 1623. The fa- 
 mous library 
 of the Pala- 
 tine at Hei- 
 delberg, sent 
 to Rome. 
 
 1628. General 
 Italian war 
 on the death 
 of the duke 
 ofMantua. 
 
 1605. Revolt in 
 Syria and 
 Caramania, 
 under the 
 pasha of 
 
 • Aleppo. 
 
 1606. Com- 
 mercial 
 treaty with 
 France and 
 Holland. 
 
 Tobacco 
 first brought 
 to Turkey. 
 
 1617. — Musta- 
 pha l.^M — 
 
 1618. — Osman 
 
 Great Per- 
 sian victory 
 at Shibli. 
 1620 War with 
 Poland, and 
 unsuccess- 
 ful mvasion 
 of Poland. 
 
 1623. Murad 
 
 1625. Truce 
 with the em- 
 pire renew- 
 ed. 
 
 Thb World, elsewhere. 
 
 16(M. Sweden : Charles IX. 1 
 
 1605. India : — Jehangir, sul- 
 tan. 
 
 1609. India : — Arrival of Haw- 
 kins, first English envoy 
 from the East India Com- 
 pany. 
 Sweden : — G u s t a v u s 
 
 A d o 1 p h u s . ^m 
 
 1611. Sweden: — War with 
 Denmark. — Calmar and Ris- 
 by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, 
 minister. — Russia devasta- 
 ted by Poles and Tartars. 
 
 Russia : — Michael Ro- 
 manoff, czar. 
 
 1615. Denmark : — First stand 
 ing army 
 
 1616. India : — Sir Thomas Roe 
 ambassador from James I 
 of England. 
 
 Sweden predominates in 
 the north. 
 1618. The Si/nod of Dort- 
 Arminius condemned. 
 
 Settlement of Tanquebar, 
 in Coromandel. 
 
 1621. Dutch West India Com- 
 pany incorporated. 
 
 1622. Persia : — Ormuz gained 
 from the Portuguese by .he 
 help of the English. 
 
 1625. Netherlands : — He-..ry 
 Frederic. — Breda, taken bj 
 Spitiola. 
 
 1627. Persia :— Shah Soofi I. 
 1629. Peace of Lubeck. 
 
836 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period IX.- 
 
 1630 
 1631 
 
 Lotteries for money first men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Calico first imported into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1638 
 1639 
 1640 
 
 1641 
 
 I5i3 
 
 Edward Coite, the great ju 
 
 rist. 
 Pedro Calderon de la Barca, 
 
 Spanish dramatist. 
 Flourishing period of Jiower 
 
 trade in the Dutch cities 
 
 Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- 
 ters. 
 
 The Jansenists, founded by 
 .Jansenius, bisiiop of Ypres. 
 Printing in America. 
 
 First Swedish manufactories. 
 Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and 
 
 Claude Lorraine, Frencli 
 
 painters. 
 
 Coffee brought to England by 
 Nat. Conopius. 
 
 Conde and Turenne, the great- 
 es-; generals of the age. 
 
 Tlie Dutch sole 
 masters of Bra- 
 zil. 
 1632. Maryland 
 settled by a colo- 
 ny under Lord 
 Baltimore. 
 
 1635. Connecticut 
 settled. — Guada- 
 loupe and Mar- 
 tinique, by the 
 French. 
 
 1637. Maine and 
 New Hampshire 
 colonized. 
 
 Harvard Col 
 lege founded. 
 
 1630. Wentworth, earl of 
 
 Strafford, minister. 
 Laud, archbishop of 
 
 Canterbury. 
 1633. The king visits 
 
 Scotland — is crowned 
 
 at Edinburgh. 
 
 1639. First print- 
 ing office in Ame- 
 rica, at Cam- 
 bridge, by Sam. 
 Green. 
 
 1640. Whole num- 
 ber of emigrants 
 to New England 
 previous to this, 
 21,000. 
 
 1643. Confedera- 
 tion of the colo- 
 nies of New 
 England, for 
 mutual defence. 
 
 1637. Trcs:bles in Scot- 
 land, caused by Char- 
 les's plan to overthrow 
 the Scotch presbyterian 
 church, and enforce 
 episcopacy. 
 
 1639. War with Scotland, 
 
 1640. Parliament assem- 
 bled — dissolved with- 
 out effecting any thin". 
 
 The Scotch invade 
 England— take posses- 
 sion of Newcastle. 
 
 The Long Parlia- 
 ment, Nov. 3. 
 Impeachment of Straf- 
 ford and Laud. 
 
 1641. Strafford beheaded. 
 —Courts of Star Cham- 
 ber and High Commis- 
 sion abolished.— Rebel- 
 lion of Roger Moore in 
 L-eland. —Massacre of 
 Protestants by Irish Ca- 
 tholics. 
 
 1642. C i V i 1 W a r and 
 
 Revolution . 
 
 Rise of Roundheads 
 and Cavaliers, toth of 
 the popular party. — 
 Battle of Edgehill, inde- 
 cisive. 
 
 1643. Royalists victorious 
 at Carlsgrane — defeated 
 at Newbury.— Solemn 
 league and covenant be- 
 tween the Scotch and 
 English parliaments. 
 
 1631. Treaty 
 with Swfr 
 den and ths 
 popular prin- 
 ces against 
 the emper 
 or. 
 
 1635. Alliance 
 with Holland 
 
 against Spain, 
 for the par- 
 tition of the 
 Austrian Ne- 
 therlands. 
 
 1636. Alliance 
 with Sweden 
 against Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 Invasion of 
 Gascony hy 
 the Span 
 iards, and of 
 Picardy, ^yy 
 the Impn- 
 rialists, who 
 threaten Pa- 
 ris. 
 1638. Invasion 
 of Spain, 
 siege of Fon- 
 tarabia. 
 
 1640. Turin ta- 
 ken by the 
 French. 
 
 The first 
 Louis d'ors 
 struck. 
 
 1641. Alliance 
 with Portu- 
 gal against 
 Spain. — Ca- 
 talonia and 
 Rousillon re- 
 volt, and sub- 
 mit to France. 
 
 1642. Cinq 
 Mars and de 
 Thou be- 
 headed. 
 
 1643.- L o tris 
 
 XIV. ^— 
 (the Great.) 
 
 Anne, of 
 Austria, re- 
 gent. 
 
 Victory of 
 Roscroi ovei 
 the Span- 
 iards, by 
 Conde. 
 
 Ministry o 
 Cardinal Ma 
 zarine. 
 
1598-1718.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 837 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 l&IO 
 
 Loss of 
 the Ja- 
 panese 
 trade. 
 
 Portu- 
 gal re- 
 gaiiris 
 her in- 
 depe.i- 
 dence, 
 under 
 John IV. 
 duke ol 
 Bragan- 
 
 1631. Sack of Mag- 
 deburg, by Tilly. 
 — Gustavus Adol- 
 phus takes May- 
 
 1632. Defeat and 
 death of Tilly, at 
 Lech. — Gustavus 
 takes Munich. — 
 Wallenstein again 
 in command. — Bat- 
 tle of Lutzen. — 
 Victory and death 
 of Gustavus Adol- 
 phtis. 
 
 1635.Peace of Prague 
 with Saxony. 
 
 1636. Swedes victo- 
 rious at Wittstock. 
 
 1637. — F erdinand 
 
 Galas successful 
 against the Swedes. 
 
 1638. Bernhard. of 
 Saxe Weimar,' de- 
 feats the Imperial- 
 ists at Bheinfield — 
 takes Brisac. 
 
 1639. Battles of Ol- 
 nitz and Brandiez, 
 gained by the Swe- 
 dish general, Bau- 
 ner. 
 
 164U. Prussia-— Fre- 
 deric William. 
 
 1642. The Swedes de- 
 feat the Austrians 
 at Leipsic. 
 
 1643. —invade Hol- 
 stein, and compel 
 the Dares to desert 
 Austria, 
 
 1631. Peace of 
 Chierasco. — 
 The influ- 
 ence of France 
 increases. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1634.Murad ir 
 vades Per 
 sia — take I 
 Falreeze. 
 
 1636. Peace 
 with Poland 
 renewed. 
 
 1637. Troubles 
 on the Tar- 
 tar frontier ; 
 Azoph taken 
 by the Cos- 
 sacks. 
 
 Bagdad ta- 
 ken by the 
 Turks. 
 All the con- 
 quests of Ab- 
 bas recover- 
 ed. 
 
 1640. Ibrahim. 
 
 1642. Recap- 
 ture of Azoph 
 from the Cos- 
 sacks. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1632. Sweden •. — ChristiEft, 
 
 queen ^^ 
 
 16.32. Sweden : — Oxenistieni^ 
 regent._ 
 
 Russia : — War with Po- 
 land ; twc years' siege o( 
 Smolensko. — Russian ariny 
 capitulates, and the Polish 
 king advances to Moscow. 
 
 1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- 
 vantageous to Russia. 
 
 1639. Holland. —Great na cal 
 victory by Van Tromp,cwex 
 the Spanish fleet IB the 
 Downs. 
 
 1640. India :— Madraa foionded 
 by the English 
 
838 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period IX. — 120 yeat s.— 
 
 Pkooress op Society, etc. 
 
 Des Cartes, French philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 Air guns invented. 
 
 Engraving in mezzctinto, im- 
 proved by Prince Rupert. 
 
 1650 Railroads with wooden rails, l^^OJeltlement of 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1646. Thomas 
 Mayhew, preach- 
 er to the Indians, 
 shipwrecked. 
 
 1647. Peter Stuy- 
 vesant, governor 
 of New Amster- 
 dam. 
 
 1648, Cambridge 
 platform adopt- 
 ed. 
 
 1649. J. Winthrop. 
 governor of Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 near Newcastle. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- 
 ney, English writers. 
 
 Le Seur and Le Brun, French 
 painters. 
 
 A ir pumps invented. 
 
 1555 About this time flourisli Mo- 
 Here, La Fontaine, Cor- 
 neille, Madame de Sevig- 
 ne, liochefoucault, Racine, 
 Boileau, and Pascal, in 
 France. 
 
 Yelatquez and MurVlo, gpao- 
 ish painters. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 1652. John Cotton 
 died. 
 
 1655. E. Winslow 
 died. 
 
 1644. Battle of Marston 
 Moor — royalists defeat- 
 ed. 
 
 1645. Battle of Naseby. 
 
 1646. The king seeks re- 
 fusre in the Scottish 
 camp. 
 
 1647. —is delivered up to 
 parliament for £400,000. 
 
 164S. Cromwell routs the 
 Scotch, under Hamil- 
 ton. The Presbyte- 
 rians expelled from 
 parliament, which re- 
 ceives the name of "the 
 Rump." 
 
 1649. Trial and execution 
 of the king. 
 
 The Commonwealth. 
 
 1650. Cromwell subdues 
 Ireland. 
 
 The Scots proclaim 
 Charles 11. He 
 
 1651. enters England — is 
 defeated at Worcester, 
 and escapes to France. 
 
 1652. Naval war with 
 
 Holland. Blake, 
 
 A s c o u g h , and 
 
 P e n n , English ad 
 mirals. 
 
 1653. Long parliament 
 dissolved by Crom 
 
 well. — " Barebone's par 
 •liament " summoned. 
 
 Oliver Crom 
 WELL, Lord Pro- 
 tector. 
 
 Milton, private secre- 
 tary to Cromwell. 
 
 1654. Peace of Westmin- 
 ster. Alliance with 
 
 Holland. 
 
 1655. War with Spain. — 
 Jamaica conquered by 
 Penn. 
 
 1658. Death of Cromwell. 
 — R i c h a r d Crom- 
 well, Protector. 
 
 Frangb. 
 
 1645. : — Mai 
 shalTuiemio 
 takes Treves 
 
 1648. Factions 
 of the Fron 
 de ; dissen- 
 sions foment- 
 ed by Cardi- 
 nal d e R e t z . 
 
 1649. Court re- 
 moves to St. 
 Germains.- 
 Siege of Pa- 
 ris. 
 
 1650. Conde, 
 Con t i,and 
 L o n g u e - 
 V i 1 1 e , im- 
 prisoned. — 
 Turenne 
 flees to the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 1652. Maza- 
 rine retires 
 10 Sedan. 
 Conde flies 
 to Spain. 
 
 1653. Mazarine 
 enters Paris 
 in triumph. 
 
 1659. Peace'cf 
 the Pyre- 
 nees. — Mar- 
 riage of Lou- 
 is XIV. to 
 Maria The- 
 resa, of Spaia 
 
1598 -1718.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 839 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 k.D PORTU- 
 QAL. 
 
 1644. Invasion of 
 Hungary, by Ra- 
 coezi — ^the empe- 
 ror forced to yield 
 to the demands oj" 
 the protestants. 
 
 1648. Peace op 
 Westpha- 
 lia, signed at 
 Munster, between 
 France, the em- 
 pire, and Sweden. 
 —The principle of 
 a balance of' pow- 
 er in Europe first 
 recognized. 
 
 1644. Innocent 
 X., pope. 
 
 1646. Revolt of 
 Naples, un- 
 der M a s ■ 
 s a n i e 1 1 o , 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1645. War with 
 Venice. 
 Candia, the 
 theatre of 
 war. 
 
 1648. Moham- 
 med IV. 
 
 1650. Moham 
 med Riopri- 
 li, grand vi 
 zier. 
 
 1654 
 
 Brazil 
 recover- 
 ed frcn 
 
 tlie 
 Dutch. 
 War 
 with 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 
 , e o p 3 1 d 
 
 The W orld, elsewhere. 
 
 1644. Naval victory of the 
 Swedes over the Danish 
 fleet. 
 
 1645. Sweden :— Peace of 
 Brbmsebro with Demnark. 
 
 1647. Netherlands : - Wiiliam 
 II. 
 
 China: — The Tartars 
 place a prince of their own 
 on tlie throne— the first o( 
 the present dynasty of Tsing 
 
 1648. Poland :— The Ul^raine 
 Cossacks revolt, and cut the 
 Polish army to pieces. 
 
 — John Cassimir.^^- 
 
 1655. Alexan- 
 derVU., 
 pope. 
 
 1653.Naval de- 
 feat by the 
 Venetians hi 
 the Archipe- 
 
 1657. War with 
 Racoezi, lor 
 aiding Swe- 
 den against 
 Poland. 
 
 1653. Holland : — J o h n d e 
 Witt, Grand Pensionary ; 
 D e R uy te 1 , admiral. 
 
 1654. Defeat and death o) 
 Tromp. 
 
 Sweden :— Christina re- 
 signs.— Charles X., 1st ot 
 
 the House of "Deux Fonts. ^g 
 Poland : — War with Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 1657. Denmark :~War agains: 
 the Swedes, who overrun 
 Denmark, and menace Cg- 
 penhagen. 
 
 1658. De^imark : — Naval vie 
 torv over the Swedes. 
 
 Denmark :— Peace of Ros 
 kilde. 
 
840 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period /A.— 120 wuFs.- 
 
 1662 
 
 1665 
 1666 
 1666 
 
 1667 
 
 Logwood first cut in the bay 
 of Honduras. 
 
 Salvalor Rosa, landscape 
 painter. 
 
 Hmjgensi Dutcri astronomer. 
 
 Persecution of Jansenists in 
 France. 
 
 Chain shot invented by De 
 Witt. 
 
 Canal of Languedoc, from tire 
 Mediterranean to tire Atlan- 
 tic. 
 
 Gobelin tapestry manufactory 
 in Paris. 
 
 i670 
 i671 
 
 1675 
 
 Bayonets invented at Bay- 
 onne. 
 
 Orrery invented. 
 
 Foundation of the Academy 
 of Architecture, and the 
 Hotel des Invalides, at Pa- 
 
 Cassini, Italian astronomer 
 and mathematician. 
 
 D Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- 
 daloue, La Bruyere, Mai- 
 branche, French writers. 
 
 Christopher Wren, architect, 
 commences St. Paul's. 
 
 Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch 
 painter. 
 
 William Temple, historian. 
 
 Butler, Waller, and Dryden, 
 English poets ; Henry 
 More, Leighton, Baxter, 
 Boyle. 
 
 i*fa«sorZ, architect; Giradon, 
 sculptor, ef France. 
 
 1663. Canada made 
 a royal colony. 
 
 1663. Elliot's In- 
 dian Bible prin- 
 ted. 
 
 1664. New York 
 occupied by the 
 English. 
 
 1667. — ceded to 
 them by the 
 peace of Breda 
 
 167i'). Conclu-sionof 
 the ' American 
 treat} ' between 
 England and 
 Spain. 
 
 1675. King Phi 
 lip's War i 
 New England. 
 
 1677. Maine pur- 
 chased by Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 1659. Richard resigns. — 
 Rump parliament call 
 ed, but soon expelled. 
 
 Restoration of 
 the Stuarts. 
 
 1660.— Charles 11.^ 
 Hyde, earl of 
 Clarendon, chancellor 
 and prime minister. 
 166i. New parliament. — 
 Alliance with Portugal. 
 1662. Marriage with Ca- 
 therine, of Portugal. 
 Act ol Uniformity, 
 Dunkirk sold to 
 France. 
 
 1664. War with Holland. 
 
 1665. Naval victory by the 
 duke of York. 
 
 Great Plague in 
 London. 
 
 1665. Great Fire in Lon- 
 don. 
 
 1667. Peace of Breda. — 
 New York ceded to 
 England. 
 
 Banishment of the 
 earl of Clarendon. 
 
 1668. Triple league— Eng- 
 land, Sweden, and Hol- 
 land, against France. 
 
 1670. I'he Cabal min- 
 istry. — Secret treaty 
 with France. 
 
 1672. War with Holland 
 in conjunction with 
 France. 
 
 1673. Ministry of Danby. 
 Test Act passed. 
 
 1674. Peace with Holland. 
 
 1678. The Popish Plot. 
 
 16G1. Death o; 
 Mazarine. 
 Colbert, 
 comptroller- 
 general of 
 finance. 
 
 Lyonne, 
 Le Tellier. 
 
 1662. Disputes 
 
 with the pope. 
 —6000 troops 
 .sent against 
 the Turks in 
 Hungary. 
 
 1664. French 
 East India 
 Company. 
 
 1666. Acade 
 mie des Sci 
 
 encesLouvois 
 
 1667. War with 
 Spain. Lou- 
 is claims 
 Spanish Ne- 
 therlands for 
 his wife — in- 
 vades Bel- 
 gium. 
 
 1668. Peace o 
 Aix la Cha 
 pelle with 
 Spain. 
 
 1672. War with 
 Holland. 
 
 1673. French 
 ambassador 
 at Ispahan. 
 
 1674. The 
 Dutch de- 
 feated at the 
 battles of 
 Sinsheira 
 and Mulhau- 
 sen. — Tu- 
 rerrne rava- 
 ges the Pala 
 tinate. 
 
 1675. Deatli ol 
 Turenne ai 
 Sasbach. 
 
 Infiuenca 
 of Pere la 
 Chaise, the 
 king's con- 
 fessor. 
 
 1677. Victory 
 over the 
 Prince of 
 Orange at 
 Mont-Cassel. 
 
 1678. Peace 
 of Ni me- 
 g u e n with 
 Holland and 
 Spain — re- 
 stores tiai' 
 qulllity to 
 Europe. 
 
1598-1718.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 84J 
 
 lt!61 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Invasion 
 of Por 
 tugual. 
 
 i663 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Emwre. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 IU6? 
 
 1668 
 
 1669 
 
 1673 
 
 Portu- 
 gal : — 
 Revolu- 
 tion at 
 Lisbon. 
 King de- 
 posed, 
 Pedro 
 
 II. <® 
 
 1663. The Diet per- 
 manent at Ratis- 
 bon. 
 
 1664. Montecuculi 
 victorious over the 
 Turks at St. Go- 
 thard. 
 
 1665. The Tyrol uni- 
 ted to Austria. 
 
 1673. War of Austria 
 nnd France. 
 
 167.5. Turenne and 
 Montecuculi op- 
 posed on the 
 Rhine. — Victory 
 of Consarbruck 
 over the French, 
 under Crequi. — 
 Treves taken. 
 
 1676. General revolt 
 of Hungarians un- 
 der Emeric. 
 
 1661. War 
 with Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 1662. Invasion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 1667. Clement 
 
 IX., pope. 
 1669. Candia taken from Ve 
 I nice by Kio 
 prili. 
 
 Peace with the Porte. 
 
 1670. Cosmo 
 III., grand 
 duke of Tus- 
 cany. — War 
 between Ge- 
 noa and Sa- 
 
 voy. 
 
 Clement X., 
 
 pope. 
 1674. Revolt of 
 
 Messina in 
 
 favor of 
 
 France. 
 1676. Messina 
 
 blockaded by 
 
 the Dutch 
 
 and Spanish 
 
 fleets. 
 
 Death of De 
 
 Ruyter. 
 
 Innocent XI. 
 
 pope. 
 
 Death of the 
 
 atheist, Spi- 
 noza 
 
 1672. The Sul- 
 tan invades 
 Poland. 
 
 1673. —defeat, 
 ed by Zo- 
 briski, at 
 Choezira. 
 
 1676. Peace of 
 Zurawno 
 with Poiand. 
 
 1678. First war 
 with Russia, 
 on account 
 of the Cos- 
 sacks. 
 
 1660. Demark : — Peace of Co 
 penhagen. — The Swedei 
 restore Bomholm, and Dron 
 theira. 
 Revolution in Denmark. 
 
 Sweden :— Charles XI. ^8 
 Peace of Oliva. 
 Prussia acknowledged in- 
 dependent. 
 1660. Poland : — Great victory 
 of Marshal John So 
 b 1 e s t i over the Tartars 
 
 1667. Holland : — Peace of Bre- 
 da : loss of New Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 1668. First embassies from 
 Russia to France and Spaui. 
 
 India : — Rise of the Mah- 
 ratta power. — Sevajee takes 
 and sacks Surat. 
 
 1670. Den. :— Christian V. W 
 
 1672. Sea fight between the 
 Dutch fleet, under De Witt 
 and De Ruyter, and the 
 English and French fleets- 
 Dutch defeated. 
 
 Den. :— William III.^ 
 
 1674. Poland : — John Sobies^ 
 
 1675. The Swedes invadt 
 
 Brandenburg. 
 1677. Battle of the I.ijnd, b» 
 
 tween the Swedes anil Panea 
 
 36 
 
842 
 
 THE would' S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period JX— 120 years.- 
 
 1681 
 
 1683 
 
 1686 
 1687 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Bernini, Italian sculptor. 
 
 Museum lor Natural History, 
 at London. 
 
 Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. 
 
 Penny post establislied in Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Kempfer's travels in Japan. 
 
 John Bunyan, " Pilgrim's 
 Progress." 
 
 1693 
 1692 
 
 1692 
 
 1693 
 
 Otto Von Guericks, inven- 
 tor of the air-pwnp and 
 electrical machine, died. 
 
 Telegraphs invented. 
 
 Newton's Principia, publish- 
 ed. 
 
 G. Batt. Lully, from Flo- 
 rence, founder of French 
 opera music. 
 
 Arch. Corelli, celebrated vio- 
 linist and composer at Rome. 
 
 White paper first made in 
 England. 
 
 Leibnitz, German philoso- 
 pher, founds the Academy of 
 Sciences at. Berlin. 
 
 First opera in London. 
 
 Purcell, English musician. 
 
 Bank of England. 
 
 Telescopes, first reflecting 
 one made on the principles 
 of Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 1685. Sir Edmund 
 Andros, 2;overnor 
 of New England. 
 
 168S General sup- 
 pression of char- 
 ter governments. 
 
 1689. Montreal de- 
 stroyed by the 
 Five nations. 
 
 Leisler usurps the 
 government of 
 New York. 
 
 1690. The English 
 settlements of 
 Schenectady, N. 
 York,Casco, Me. 
 
 and Salmon Falls, 
 N. H., destroyed 
 by a party of 
 French. 
 
 Port Royal, No- 
 va Scotia, redu- 
 ced by Sir Wil- 
 liam Phipps. — 
 Expedition against 
 Canada, unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 1691. Schuyler 
 defeats the French 
 
 at La Prairie. 
 
 Witchcraft superstition in New- England. 
 
 John Locke and Sir Isaac 
 
 Newton in England. 
 Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, 
 
 in France. 
 Bank of England. 
 
 Photphorus discovered. 
 
 1692. New Hamp- 
 shire purchased 
 by Allen. 
 
 N. York : Leis- 
 ler e.Tcecuted. 
 
 1693. N. York:— 
 Episcopacy 
 troduced. 
 
 William and 
 Mary's College 
 founded. 
 1697. Kidd's pira 
 cies. 
 
 1699. French colo- 
 ny in Louisiana. 
 — Gold mines in 
 Brazil. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Rise of the names of 
 Whigs and Tories. 
 
 1683. "RyehousePlot." 
 Execution of Lord 
 Russel and Algernon 
 Sydney. 
 
 In this reign the Roy- 
 al Society of London 
 was instituted by Wil- 
 kins, bishop of Chester. 
 —Bombay ceded to 
 England. 
 
 1685. — James II .^M 
 
 Rebellion of Mon- 
 mouth, in England, and 
 Argyle, in Scotland, 
 both defeated and exe- 
 cuted. 
 Judge Jeffries. 
 
 1686. The king favors the 
 Catholics. 
 
 1687. — re-establishes the 
 Court of High Com- 
 mission. 
 
 1688. "Revolution 
 OP 1688."— The Whigs 
 and Tories unite in ap- 
 plying to the Prince of 
 Orange, who lands in 
 England with 15,0U0 
 men — the king flees to 
 France. 
 
 1689.— William III. 
 
 and Mary II .^M — 
 War with France. 
 James II. lands In 
 Ireland— besieges Lon- 
 donderry. 
 
 1690. William in Ireland. 
 — Battle of the Boyne. 
 James deteated, returns 
 to France. 
 
 1691. Limerick taken, and 
 William acknowledged. 
 
 1692. Invasion of Eng- 
 land undertaken by the 
 French in favor of 
 James. — Naval victory 
 by the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1693. Bank of England in- 
 corporated. 
 
 1694. Death of queen 
 Mary. 
 
 1697. General peace 
 
 1 698. First partition treaty, 
 loetween France, Eng- 
 land, and the Empire to 
 dispose of the crown of 
 Spain. 
 
 1699. Visit of Peter the 
 Great. 
 
 1685. Revo- 
 cation of 
 the Edict 
 
 of Nantes. 
 
 1688. War of 
 Spain — the 
 Empire, Hol- 
 land, Savoy, 
 and England 
 against 
 France. 
 
 1689. Grand al- 
 liance against 
 France, head- 
 ed by Wil- 
 liam III. 
 
 1690. Naval 
 victory over 
 the Dutch 
 and English 
 off Dieppe. 
 Victory of 
 Luxemburg, 
 at Fleurus. 
 
 1692. Marshal 
 Luxem- 
 burg de- 
 feats William 
 
 at Steenkirk, 
 and 
 
 1693. —at Ne- 
 uvinden. 
 Institution of 
 the order of 
 St. Louis. 
 
 ofRyswick 
 — between 
 France am 
 the aUies. 
 
698-1718.J 
 
 THE world's PROGEESS. 
 
 843 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 POBTU- 
 
 GAL. 
 
 1680. Great part of 
 Alsace seized by 
 France. 
 
 1683. Turkish war, 
 siege of Vienna by 
 the Turks— victory 
 of th'j Germans 
 and Poles, under 
 Charles, of Lor- 
 raine, and John 
 Sobieski. 
 
 Treaty of the 
 Hague against 
 France. 
 
 1691 
 
 (697 
 
 1686. League of 
 Augsburg against 
 France. 
 
 1686. Buda taken af- 
 ter being held by 
 the Turks 145 
 years. 
 
 1687. Decisive victo- 
 ry of Mohaez : 
 Croatia and Tran- 
 sylvania subdued. 
 
 Joseph I. crown- 
 ed king of Hun- 
 gary. 
 1689. Grand alliance 
 ratified at Vienna. 
 The Palatinate 
 desolated by the 
 French. 
 
 1690 Joseph I. elect- 
 ed king of the Ro- 
 mans by the Diet 
 of Augsburg. — 
 Victori/5s ovei the 
 Turks. 
 
 Revolt 
 of Cata- 
 lonia in 
 favor of 
 France. 
 
 Incur- 
 sion of 
 
 the 
 French 
 
 into 
 Aragon. 
 
 Peaceof Ryswick 
 In- 
 
 tiigues 1697. Victory over 
 for the the Sultan Musta- 
 pha at Zenla, by 
 the Prince Eugene. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1682. War with 
 Austria. 
 
 1683. Total 
 rout before 
 Vienna. 
 
 1684. Alliance of Venice with 
 Poland, and the Empire 
 against the Porte. 
 
 1689. Alexan- 
 der VllL, 
 pope. 
 
 1691. Innocent 
 XII., pope. 
 
 1693. Battle of 
 Marsaglia — 
 the allies in 
 Italy defeat- 
 ed by the 
 Marshal Ca- 
 tinat. 
 
 1686. Russia 
 declares war. 
 1637. Revolu- 
 tion in Con- 
 stantinople, 
 Mohammed 
 dethroned. 
 Solyman 
 
 1689. Defeat at 
 Nisa. 
 
 1690. Musta- 
 pha Kiopri- 
 li drives the 
 Austrians 
 across the 
 Danube — re- 
 covers Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 1691. Ahmud 
 
 Deleat and 
 death of Kio- 
 prili. 
 
 1694. Chio ta- 
 ken by the 
 Venetians. 
 
 1695. Musta- 
 
 pha II. W— 
 
 1696. — leads 
 his own ar- 
 my. — Victo- 
 rv of Olach. 
 
 1G99. Peace of 
 Carlowitz. 
 
 The Otto- 
 man power 
 broken. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock 
 holm. 
 
 1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe 
 
 ter,^S their sister, So 
 
 1 hia, regent. 
 
 1683. Denmark :— The Code o' 
 king Christian publishert. 
 
 1686. India : — The Dftickin con 
 quered. 
 Golconda and Besapore. 
 
 1687. —The English factories 
 in Bengal suppressed— after- 
 wards restored. 
 
 1688. Prussia :— Frederic III 
 
 Russia : — Ivan resigns — 
 Sophia is cnnfined in a con- 
 vent : 
 1689. Peter the 
 
 Great .^^ 
 
 1692. Russia: — First trade 
 with China. 
 
 India : — Height of tl>e Mo- 
 gul power, annual revenue 
 jE32,000,000. 
 
 China: — Great influence 
 of Jesuits. 
 
 1693. Sweden :— The king de- 
 clared absolute. 
 
 1695. Holland : Bombard- 
 ment of Brussels by the 
 French, under Villeroi. 
 
 1696. Poland :— Death 01 So- 
 bieski — succeeded by 
 
 1697. — Frederic Augustus I. 
 Sweden ;— C h a r l e s 
 
 XII .^^-—(15 years old.) 
 
 Russia : — Introduction o) 
 various manufactures — 
 equipment of a fleet, etc. 
 
 1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ^ 
 
 Alliance of Denmark, Rus- 
 sia, and Poland, Eigainst 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 
844 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGKhSS. 
 
 [Period IX.— 120 years.- 
 
 1700 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 irce 
 
 1708 
 
 1709 
 1710 
 
 1713 
 
 1714 
 
 First manufactories in Russia 
 and Denmark 
 
 Fenelon, Bossuet, Masillon, 
 in France. 
 
 National Debt of England 
 commenced. 
 
 Godfrey Kneller English 
 painter. 
 
 First Russian newspaper. — 
 St. Petersburgh founded. 
 
 Flourishing period of French 
 literaiure.— Grea.t splendor 
 in the French court. 
 
 A newspaper in America. 
 
 1715 
 
 1716 
 
 Incorporation of the United 
 British J3ast India Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Prussic acid discovered by 
 Diestaach. 
 
 A post-office in Ainerica. 
 
 The famous bull " Unigeni- 
 tus " against tlie French Jan- 
 senists. 
 
 Rise of commerce in Austria; 
 first manufactories. 
 
 Law's bank at Paris. 
 
 The monastery of Mafra, ' the 
 wonder of Portugal,' built. 
 
 Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- 
 son, fl lurish in England. 
 
 First standing army in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The coffee tree brought from 
 'ava to Surmam. 
 
 1701. Yale College 
 founded. 
 
 1702. Rice inl.i-o- 
 duced into Caro- 
 lina from Mada- 
 gascar. 
 
 1703. Apalachian 
 Indians subdued. 
 
 Maine ravaged 
 by French and 
 Indians. 
 
 1704. Captain 
 Church's expe- 
 dition against the 
 Indians. 
 
 Boston News- 
 Letter, first Ame- 
 rican periodical. 
 1706. Carolina in- 
 vaded by the 
 French and Span- 
 ish. 
 
 1707. Unsuccessful 
 expedition against 
 Port Royal. 
 
 1708.The Saybrook 
 platfor'm, form- 
 ed. 
 
 1709. First paper 
 money in New- 
 Jersey. 
 
 1710. First post- 
 office at New 
 York. 
 
 Fruitless expe- 
 dition against Ca- 
 nada. 
 1713. "Queen 
 Anne's War " 
 closed by the 
 treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1715. Indian war in 
 South Carolina. 
 
 1717. New- Orleans 
 settled by tlie 
 French. 
 
 1700. A British fleet sent 
 to assist Charles XII., 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Foundation of the 
 nationalt debt iu this 
 reign. 
 
 1701. War of the Spanish succession. 
 
 1702. The French invade Holland, .'ji 
 der Bo ufflers— repulsed by Mar! 
 borough. 
 
 A nne .^^ 
 
 1703. Methuen treaty of 
 commerce with Portu- 
 
 1704. Marlborough enters 
 gains the battle of 
 
 Gibraltar taken by 
 Rooke. 
 1706.Tre atyofunion 
 with Scotland. 
 
 Battle of Ramdlies, 
 feated. 
 1707. Victory of Almanza 
 lish and Portuguese. 
 
 The first United 
 Parliament of 
 Great Britain 
 meets. 
 
 1705. Battle of Oudenarde, 
 feated. 
 
 Sardinia and Minor 
 the English. 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt 
 of the Pretender to land 
 in Scotland. 
 1710. Victory of Vendome 
 Dr. Sacheverell's trial. 
 —Collision of Whig 
 and Tory principles. 
 
 1713. Peace of Ut 
 Perpetual separation 
 
 of France and Spain- 
 quires Newfoundland, 
 Hudson's Bay, also Mi 
 braltar. The Rhine is 
 between Germany and 
 
 1714. Factions at court — 
 disgrace of Harley, 
 chancellor of the exche- 
 quer. 
 
 Death of the queen. 
 — H u s e of Hano- 
 ver: — 
 
 G e o r g e I .^g — 
 
 Robert Walpole, pre- 
 mier. 
 
 1715. Insurrection of .la- 
 cobites. — Battles of She- 
 
 rifl'muir and Preston. 
 War against Sweden. 
 
 1718. Quadruple al 
 Emperor, England, Ho 
 France against the desi 
 
 1702-. Revolt o; 
 the Hugue- 
 nots suppress- 
 ed by Mar- 
 shal Villara. 
 Germany, 
 Blenheim. 
 
 Villeroi de- 
 over the Eng. 
 
 — French de- 
 ca captured by 
 
 atVillavicioss 
 
 r e c h t . 
 of the crown» 
 England ac 
 Acaiila, and 
 norca and Gi 
 the boundary 
 France. 
 
 1714. Peace o 
 Radstadt : th« 
 
 Emperor ac 
 knowledges 
 Philip on 
 the cession 
 of Lombcir 
 dy, Naples 
 ai.d Sardinia, 
 
 1715. L o u 1 6 
 
 o( 
 
 XV. 1 
 Duk 
 Orleans re. 
 gent. — Du 
 bois, minis- 
 ter. 
 1 i a n c e : thi 
 Hand, and 
 gns of Spain. 
 
1598-1718.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 845 
 
 1701 Philip 
 
 un 
 
 1706 
 
 1701. Grand alliance 
 between England, 
 the Empire, to pre 
 of France and Spa 
 
 1702. Battles of Stol- 
 hafen, Hochstedt. 
 and Spires, gained 
 by the French. 
 
 ini 
 
 1714 
 
 Charles 
 leaves 
 Spain 01 
 becom 
 ing Em- 
 peror. 
 
 Barcelo- 
 na taken 
 by Ber- 
 wick. 
 Albero- 
 
 ni, 
 prime 
 minis- 
 ter of 
 Spaii;. 
 
 1710. Treaty of the 
 Hague between 
 England. Holland 
 and the Empire. 
 
 1711. — Charles 
 
 Ministry of Count 
 Linzendorf. 
 
 1713. Pragmatic 
 sanction, vesting 
 the succession to 
 Austria in the 
 daughters of Char- 
 les. 
 
 1714. Peace of Ras- 
 tadt and Baden 
 with France. 
 
 of the Hague, 
 Holland, and 
 vent the union 
 in. 
 
 1702. Victory 
 of Luzzace 
 gained by the 
 Fiench over 
 the Impe- 
 rialists. 
 
 1706. French 
 driven from 
 Italy by 
 prince Eu 
 gene. 
 
 1707. All the 
 Spanish pos 
 sessions ir 
 Italy aban 
 doned to the 
 allies. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1703. 
 III. 
 
 Ahmed 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1709. Charles 
 XII. takes 
 refuge at 
 Bender-^ 
 hence war 
 with Russia. 
 
 1714. War of Venice with 
 the Porte. I 
 
 1718. Quadru- 
 ple alliance 
 against Spain. 
 
 1715. Corinth taken by the 
 Turks — the Emperor joins 
 Venice — sie ge of Corfu 
 raised on the news of their 
 
 1716. defeat at 
 the battle of 
 Peterwar- 
 den. 
 
 1717. Defeat of 
 Crusca — loss 
 of Belgrade. 
 
 1718. Peace of Passarowitz, 
 between the Porte, Venice, 
 and Hunga ry. 
 
 1700. Russia :— Peter the Greai 
 invades lugria— defeated bj 
 Charles XII., at Narva. 
 
 War of the Northeria 
 Powers. 
 
 1701. PRUSSIA erected into a 
 kingdom under 
 
 Frederic I.^^— 
 
 Charles XII. invades Po- 
 land—is victorious at Riga. 
 
 1702. —enters Warsaw— takes 
 Cracow. 
 
 1703. Victory of Pultusk - 
 Poland:— The throne de- 
 clared vacant, and 
 
 1704. Stanislas Leetzinski 
 
 elected king.^g 
 
 1706. The Swedes victorious 
 over the Saxons and Rus- 
 sians at Traverstadl. 
 
 1707. Russia :— Revolt of the 
 Cossack Mazeppa. 
 
 1708. Charles invades Russia, 
 crosses the Dnieper, and ia 
 
 1709. defeated at Pultowa. 
 Sweden at wir with Den 
 
 mark. 
 
 Poland :— Frederic Atigi.s- 
 tus re-ascends the throne. 
 
 1712. Victory of the Swedes at 
 Gadebusche. 
 
 1713. Prussia :— Frederic Wil 
 
 liam I.^g 
 
 1714. Russia :— Naval victory 
 over the Swedes.— Aland and 
 Finland conquered. 
 
 1715. Netherlands Barrier 
 
 treaty of Antwerp with Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 Sweden :— Return of Char- 
 les—Prussia and England 
 join the alliance against him. 
 
 1718. Charles XII. invades 
 Norway ; is killed at th« 
 siege of Fredericshall. 
 Sweden ;— Ulrica Eleo 
 
 nora. 
 
846 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 PERIOD X.— 97 years.— 
 
 1721 
 
 725 
 
 1728 
 
 J?29 
 
 1T40 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Cotton Mather, ^'' Magnalia," 
 and Increase Mather, Hist, 
 of War with Indians. 
 
 Inoculation introduced by 
 Lady Montague. Tlie same 
 year introduced into Boston 
 by Dr. Boylston. 
 
 Academy of Sciences at Peters- 
 burg. 
 
 The " Appellants," in France, 
 headed by the Cardinal de 
 Noailles, appeal from the 
 bull '' Unigenitus," to a ge- 
 neral council ; but without 
 effect. 
 
 Behring's Strait discovered. 
 
 Balloons invented by Gusmac. 
 
 In England : I In France : 
 Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous- 
 Young 
 
 seau, Le 
 
 Sage, Rollin, 
 
 Montesquieu. 
 
 Thom,pson, 
 Watts, Lord 
 Bolin^ broke, 
 Doddridge, 
 Chesterfield. 
 
 Halley, astronomer. 
 
 First Lodge of Freemasons in 
 
 Irish linen manufactories, 
 and English steel and cutlery 
 flourish. 
 
 h. Bolberfr, Danish drama- 
 tist. 
 
 1719. First Philadelphia news- 
 paper. 
 
 1721. First New-York news- 
 paper. 
 
 1723. Vermont settled. 
 
 Increase Mather, died. 
 
 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 
 
 1727. Great earthquake in 
 New-England. 
 
 1728. Cotton Mather, died. 
 
 Discovery of diamond 
 mines in Brazil. 
 
 1729. The Carolinas separated. 
 
 1732. Birth of Washington. 
 
 1733. Savannah founded. 
 
 America, at Boston. 
 
 1740. Tennessee first explored. 
 
 1742. Invasion of Florida by 
 Indians and Spaniards — re- 
 pulsed. 
 
 1719. Unsuccessful attempt to 
 invade Scotland by the Span- 
 iards. 
 
 "The South Sea Scheme." 
 
 1720. " Bursting of the South 
 Sea bubble." 
 
 1721. Sir Robert Walpole's 
 ministry continues. 
 
 1725. Lea|t e of Herrenhauser., 
 
 1727. George I. dies at Osna- 
 burg. 
 
 George 1 1 .'^g—— 
 
 1728. Peace of Pardo witn 
 Spain 
 
 1729. treaty of Seville, ba 
 
 1731. Treaty of Vienna witj) 
 Holland and the Empire. 
 
 1739. War with Spain, 
 
 1740. Porto Bello taken by Ad- 
 miral Vernon. — Anson's voy- 
 age round the world, ana 
 capture of the Manilla gsd 
 leon. 
 
THE "WORLD'S PH,OGRESS. 
 
 847 
 
 1718-1816— Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 1722 
 
 1726 
 
 Mi& 
 
 The king assumes 
 iho goveranient. 
 
 Duke de Boiybon, 
 miKister. 
 
 1733 
 
 .734 
 1710 
 
 Consress of Cam- 
 briiy 
 
 becweeii England. 
 Fraacs, Piussia. 
 and H&lland. 
 
 Ministry oi" Cardi- 
 nal F 1 e u r y . 
 
 Congress of Soss- 
 sons dissolved, 
 without effecting 
 any thing. 
 
 tween England, 
 France, and Hol- 
 land. 
 
 War of the Polish 
 succession : 
 France, Spain, 
 and Sardi lia. 
 
 Conquest of Lor- 
 raine. 
 
 War of the Aus- 
 trian succession 
 —Marshals Belle 
 isle and Broglio : 
 
 - -defeated by the 
 allies at Dettin- 
 gcn. 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 1725. :- 
 
 Alliance of Vienna, Spam, 
 
 1734. :— 
 Con 
 quest of 
 Napljs 
 and Sici' 
 !v by 
 Dc-n 
 Cariotf. 
 
 1739. :— 
 War 
 with 
 Eng- 
 land, for 
 infrac- 
 tions of 
 the Asi- 
 emo 
 treaty 
 
 , rtnd Austria. 
 
 1733. War of the Po- 
 lish succession; 
 Austria, Russia, 
 and Denmark. 
 
 173.5. Preliminaries 
 of Vienna:not con- 
 cluded till 173S- 
 
 1740. War of the Aus- 
 trian succession. 
 
 Maria The- 
 resa succeeds to 
 the hei:editary 
 States. 
 
 1741. The French, 
 Saxons, and Bava- 
 rians, overrun Aus- 
 tria, take Prague, 
 and crown Charles 
 
 VI. emperor. ^^ 
 Treaty of Eres- 
 lau with Austria. 
 1743. The French 
 driven across the 
 Rhine. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the 
 Spanish. 
 
 1720. Peace of Stockholm^— Tranquilhty 
 restored in the n^rth. 
 
 Sweden : — The queen abdicates ji 
 favor of her husband. 
 
 1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope. 
 
 Frederic. ^^ 
 
 Peace of Nystadt wnli Russia. 
 Russia: — Peter assumes the title 
 "Emperor of all the Russias." 
 1721. Turkey :— Mahommed Effendi, am- 
 bassador to Paris. 
 1723. China: — Christians expelled. 
 1723. Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici), 
 grand duke of Tuscany. 
 
 1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians 
 attempt to dismember Persia. 
 
 1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope. 
 
 1725. Russia:— Catharine I., widow of 
 
 Peter. ^^ 
 
 1725. Turkey :— Partition treaty for seiz 
 ing the north and west provinces A 
 Persia. 
 
 1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria. 
 
 1726. Turkey :— First printing press 
 brought from Paris to Turkey. 
 
 1727. Russia :— Treaty with China 
 
 1727. Turkey : — Peace of Bagdad. 
 
 1728. Denmark :— Fire at Copenhagen, 
 destroys the public library. 
 
 — colony of Danes in Greenland. 
 
 1730. Denmark :— Christian VI. ^§ 
 
 1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. 
 
 Russia : — Anne.'^g 
 
 1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus 11 ^ 
 The diet elect Stanislaus, but ara 
 
 compelled by the Russian army to e.leot 
 Frederic. 
 
 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- 
 capes to Koningsberg. 
 
 1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- 
 sia bv Nadir Shah. 
 
 1736. -^vvar with Russia and Austria. 
 
 1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, gram 
 duke of Tuscany. 
 
 1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shab 
 who takes and plunders Delhi. 
 
 1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated nea 
 Choezim. 
 
 1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope. 
 Turkey:— The Turks invade Persi 
 
 — are repulsed by A.«hraf 
 -peace of Belgrade. 
 
THE world's PROGREbb, 
 
 [Period X. — 97 ytars. 
 
 im 
 
 Proqress op Society, etc. 
 
 1748 
 ■750 
 1752 
 1753 
 
 iroi 
 
 1764 
 1766 
 
 Frederic the Great makes 
 great improvements in ■miii- 
 tary tactics — introduces^;/- 
 ing horse artillery. 
 
 Durante and Leo, celebrated 
 musiciaiis. 
 
 Handel, and Seb. Bach, musi- 
 cal comjiosers. 
 
 "Indigo first produced in Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian. 
 
 Dr. Franklin's discoveries in 
 electricity. 
 
 England introduces the " New 
 Style " Calendar. 
 
 British Museum founded. 
 
 British. 
 
 
 A Ian Ram- 
 
 Helvetius, Fr 
 
 say, 
 
 Racine, Fr. 
 
 Shenstone, 
 
 Gellert, Ger. 
 
 Gray, 
 
 V/inckle- 
 
 Collins, 
 
 mann, Ger- 
 
 Akenside, 
 
 
 Churchill. 
 
 
 John Rmbrach, sculptor. 
 Hogarth, Wilson, Sj- Joshua 
 
 Reynolds, painters. 
 Potatoes first planted in 
 
 France, by Turgot. 
 Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. 
 
 Wesley ^ Whitefield preach. 
 Philadelphia Medical School, 
 
 first in America. 
 Wallis and Carteret's voyage 
 
 of discovery in the South 
 
 iSSeas. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1745. Louisburg and Cape 
 Breton taken from France 
 by the English. 
 
 1747. David Brainerd and 
 Benjamin Colenuin, died. 
 
 1744. Naval victory over the 
 French and Spanish fleets in 
 the bay of Hieres. 
 
 1745. Scotch rebellion— Char- 
 les Edward lands in Scot- 
 land. 
 
 1746 he is defeated at Cul- 
 loden. 
 1747. Victories over the French 
 olf Belle-isle and Cape 
 Finisterre. 
 
 1749. English settlement in 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 1752. Hostilities be'ween Eng 
 
 1754. Washington's mission to 
 the French. 
 
 1755. Defeat of Braddock. 
 
 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby 
 taken by the French. 
 
 1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- 
 tured. 
 
 1758. Repulse of Abercrombie 
 at Ticonderoga. 
 
 Fort Du Qtiesne taken. 
 
 1759. Invasion of Canada — 
 death of Wolfe — Quebec 
 taken. 
 
 Capture of Niagara, 
 Crown Point, and Ticonde- 
 roga. 
 
 17G3. End of the " Old French 
 
 War." 
 1765." American Stamp Act " 
 
 resisted in Massachusetts 
 
 and Virginia. 
 First Colonial Congress at 
 
 New- York. 
 
 1748. Peace of Aix la 
 mutual restitution of con 
 
 1752. The new style intro- 
 duced ; the year hereafter 
 commences Jan. 1. 
 
 land and France on the bouu 
 
 1756 "Seven Years' 
 Subsidiary alliance with 
 Prussia. 
 
 Ministry of W i 1 1 i a ni 
 Pitt, the elder. 
 17.57. Victory of Plassey, in 
 India. 
 
 1759. Naval victories over the 
 Lagros, and ofl' Brest. 
 
 Surat, in India, taken 
 from the Duicli. 
 
 1760.— George IU.^_ 
 
 1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 
 
 1762. War with Spain. 
 Conquest of Havana, 
 
 Trinidad, and Manilla. 
 
 1763. Peace of Pari* 
 
 1765. Bengal ceded to the East 
 India Company by th« 
 treaty of Allahabad. 
 
1718-1815.J 
 
 THB world's progress. • 
 
 849 
 
 France. 
 
 1744 
 
 1745 
 •746 
 
 1747 
 
 War declared 
 against England 
 and Austria. 
 
 Battle of Fontenoy , 
 allies defeated. 
 
 The French victo- 
 rious by land, 
 but unsuccessful 
 by sea. 
 
 War with Holland. 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1753 
 
 1757 
 1758 
 
 1760 
 17tH 
 
 C h a p e 1 I e 
 quests. 
 
 daries of Nova Sco- 
 tia. 
 
 Influence of Ma- 
 dame de Pompa- 
 dour. 
 
 War. " 
 
 Capture of Minor- 
 ca from the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Invasion of Hano- 
 ver. 
 
 Defeat at Crefeldt. 
 on the Rhine. 
 
 French off Cape 
 
 Attempt to invade 
 Ireland. 
 
 Loss of all Canada. 
 
 The Bourbon Fa- 
 mily Compact. 
 
 Siege and capture 
 of Belleisle, by 
 the English. 
 
 between France, 
 Spain and Eng- 
 1 land. 
 1764 Expulsion of the 
 I Jesuits. 
 
 1745. Charles dies at 
 Munich. 
 
 House of 
 Lorraine: 
 
 — F r a n c i s I . ^^ 
 
 husband ol Maria 
 Theresa 
 
 The World, elsewr.ere. 
 
 1748 
 pelle; 
 the on 
 
 Peace of Aix la Cha- 
 Spain, and Prussia 
 ly gainers by the 
 
 war. 
 17,i6. Seven Years' 
 War of Austria 
 and Prussia. 
 
 Invasion and 
 conquest of Saxo- 
 ny, by Frederic II. 
 Alliance with 
 France. 
 
 1757. Prussians vic- 
 torious at Prague, 
 Rossbach, Lessa, 
 and Breslau. 
 
 The French take 
 Verdun and Bre- 
 men. 
 
 1758. French defeated 
 at Crefeldt, 
 
 1759. and at Minden, 
 Victory at Max- 
 en over the Prus- 
 sians. — Dresden re- 
 taken. 
 
 1760. Great victory 
 at Torgan, by Fre- 
 deric. 
 
 1762. Prussians victo- 
 rious at Freiburg. 
 
 1763. Peace of Hu 
 bertstrug. 
 
 1765. Joseph II 
 
 1740. Prussia : — F rederic II .^g 
 (the Great.) Prussia increases in ii» 
 portance. — War with Austria. 
 
 Russia :— Ivan V. 
 
 1741. Sweden : — War with Russia. 
 Swedes driven out of Finland, 
 
 Russia : — Elizabeth. ^§ 
 
 1743, — Peace of Abo with Sweden. 
 
 1743. Turkey :— War with Persia. 
 — Defeat near Erivan. 
 
 1744. India: — Hostilities between FrencK 
 and English. 
 
 1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French 
 and Spaniards, who take 
 
 1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. 
 
 — Genoa bombarded by the English. 
 
 1746. — French and Spaniards driven froTS 
 Lombardy. 
 
 1746. Denmark :— Frederic V.^J 
 
 1747. Netherlands :— William IV. 
 Persia : — Revolution : Nadir. 
 Shah murdered. 
 
 1751. Holland .-—William V. stadtholdri 
 Denmark ;— Ministry of Count Bewr 
 storfT. 
 
 Sweden: — House of Holstein Gnt- 
 torp : — 
 
 Adolphus Frederic. ^^ 
 
 1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, 
 revolt against Genoa. 
 
 1754. Turkey :— Othman HL 
 
 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- 
 bob of Bengal. 
 
 17.57. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 
 
 1757. Prussia : — Russian invasion. 
 
 1758. — victory of Londorf 
 
 1758. Italy :— Clement Xlll., pope. 
 
 17.59. Prussia :— The king defeated ai 
 
 Kunnersdorf 
 1760. —Battle of Liegnitz. — Berlin taken. 
 India :— Shah Alim II. 
 Siege and capture of Pondicherry, 
 by the English. 
 
 Kingdom of Mysore founded by 
 H y d e r A 1 i . 
 
 1762. Russia: 
 months). 
 
 -Peter III. 
 
 C atharine II .\__ 
 
 1764. Poland :— Stanislaus PoniatowskL 
 
 1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. 
 
 — Establishment of a British empire 
 
 1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duko 
 of Tuscany. ^^^^ 
 
 1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. ^ 
 
 1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egyp* 
 
 revived under Rodvan and A!i Bey. 
 
 36* 
 
850 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 'Period X. — 97 years.— 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 1767 First spinning machine in England. 
 
 IT68 Cook's first voyage of discovery. 
 
 Bruce discovers the source of tiie Nile. 
 
 Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua 
 Reynolds, first president. 
 
 1769 
 1770 
 
 1774 
 1774 
 
 1774 
 
 Letters of Junius. 
 
 Whitefield dies at Newburyport. 
 
 Captain Cook discovers New California. 
 
 The Spinnino-jenny, invented by Robert 
 Arkwright. 
 
 The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt 
 and Bolton. 
 
 In England. 
 
 Goldsmith, 
 
 Warburton, 
 
 Johnson, 
 
 Littleton, 
 
 Lowth, 
 
 Garrick, 
 
 Hume, 
 
 Robertson, 
 
 Blackstone. 
 
 Adam Smith, 
 
 Hoi-ne Tooke, 
 
 Priestley, 
 
 Horsley, 
 
 Burke, 
 
 Pitt, 
 
 Fox, 
 
 Cooper, 
 
 Sheridan, 
 
 McPherson, 
 
 Burns. 
 
 Kaimes, 
 
 Reid. 
 
 France. 
 Voltaire, 
 Rousseau, 
 Diderot, 
 Condillac, 
 Jussien, 
 Lavoisier, 
 •La Harpe, 
 Barth ;le ny, 
 Buffo .. 
 
 Oer. Mosh- 
 
 eim, 
 Zimmerman, 
 Kant, 
 Klopstock, 
 Lessing, 
 Wieland, 
 Herder, 
 Goethe, 
 Schiller, 
 Sw. Linnaeus, 
 It. Metastasio. 
 Rus. Kheras- 
 
 kov, 
 Kostrov. 
 Deerhavin, 
 Bogdanovich, 
 Khemnitzee. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1768. Boston occupied 
 by the British troops. 
 
 1769. Daniel Boone ex- 
 plores Kentucky. 
 
 1772. Hancock, S. 
 ■ Adams, and Pa- 
 trick Henry, 
 promote the revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 1773. Tea destroyed at 
 Boston. 
 
 1774."Continental Con- 
 gress at Philadelphia. 
 
 1775. AMERICAN 
 WAR: 
 
 April 19, Skirmish at 
 
 Lexington. 
 June 17, Battle of Bun- 
 ker's Hill 
 
 Prescott, Put- 
 nam, &War re n. 
 WASHINGTON, 
 commander-in-chief. 
 Montgomery 
 Montreal, and falls at 
 
 1776. The British troops 
 evacuate Boston. 
 
 Moultrie de 
 Sullivan's Island. 
 
 DECLARA- 
 TION OF IN- 
 DEPENDENCE, 
 July 4. 
 
 Americans (Sulli- 
 van) defeated at 
 Flatbush. Aug. 
 
 Battle of White 
 Plains. 
 
 Battle of Trenton, 
 Dec. 26-7. 
 1777. Arrival of Lafay- 
 ette. 
 Capture of Ticon 
 
 1766. American Stamp 
 Act repealed. — New 
 ministry under the 
 Earl of Chatham. 
 
 1767. First vsrar with 
 Hyder AU in My- 
 sore. 
 
 1770. Lord North, 
 prime minister. 
 
 1771. The Falkland 
 Islands ceded by 
 Spain to Great Bri- 
 tain. 
 
 1774. The Boston Port 
 Bill passed. 
 
 1774. Warren Hastings, 
 governor general of 
 India. 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY 
 
 1775. Lord North's 
 " conciliatory mea- 
 sures " rejected by 
 the colonies. 
 
 takes St. Johns and 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 1776. The city of Lon- 
 don remonstrates 
 against "he American 
 war. 
 
 feats the English at 
 
 The British army 
 takes possession o( 
 New-York. 
 
 Hessians hireil for 
 service in America. 
 
 deroga by the British 
 July 5. 
 
I718«1815.j 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 851 
 
 1768 
 
 1769 
 770 
 
 1773 
 
 1774 
 
 Genoa ceJes Corsica to France. 
 
 Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. 
 
 Marriage of the dauphin with 
 Marie Antoinette. 
 
 Madame du Barri rules the 
 king. 
 
 — L o u i s XVI .@ 
 
 Marie Antoinette, queen : — 
 Maurepas, prim? minister. 
 
 Germanv. 
 
 1776 
 
 N e c Ic e r , comptroller-gene- 
 ral. 
 Franklin in Paris. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1772. Joseph 
 II. with the 
 Emperors of 
 Russia and 
 Prussia, dis- 
 member Po- 
 land, divid- 
 ing it be- 
 tween them- 
 selves. 
 
 Discipline of the Ottoman troops in» 
 proved by Baron de Tott. 
 
 1767. Spain : — Jesuits expelled. 
 
 India: — Hyder Ali resists the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1769. Pope Clement XIV. 
 
 The Russian army occupies WaJachia 
 
 and Moldavia. 
 
 1771. Sweden :—GustavuB III.® 
 
 1772. First PartitionofPolanl. 
 
 1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- 
 ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi 
 Hassan. 
 
 Pope Clement abolishes the order of 
 Jesuits. 
 
 1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British 
 governor-general. 
 
 Russia : — Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- 
 scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. 
 
 Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^g — 
 
 1775. Pope Pius VI. 
 
 Spain : — Able ministry of Florida Blan- 
 ca. 
 
 1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. 
 East Indies : — Lord Pigot, governor-j® 
 neral, imprisoned by his own council. 
 
 1777. Portugal :— Maria, qvt 
 
852 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period X. — 97 years.- 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 1731 
 
 1782 
 
 1783 
 
 1784 
 
 1785 
 
 1786 
 
 1787 
 
 Herschel's discovery of the 
 Gfeorgium Sidus. 
 
 Pncssic acid obtained in a se- 
 parate state, by Scheele. 
 
 Air balloon of Montgolfier. 
 
 First Anierican vessel in 
 
 China. 
 Institution for the deaf and 
 
 dumb at Paris, by the Abbe 
 
 de I'Epee. 
 Sunday schools established in 
 
 England, by Robert Raikes. 
 Herschel's Telescopes. 
 
 Stenography, by Taylor. 
 
 Panoramas in London. 
 First spinning machine in 
 France. 
 
 Talma, the celet rated trage- 
 diaj). 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Battles of Bennington, Aug. 16; Brandy wine. Sept 
 11, and Stillwater. 
 
 Philadelphia taken by the English, under Comwal 
 lis. Battle of German town, Oct. 4.— Gates re- 
 ceives B urgoyne' ssur render, Oct. 17. 
 Articles of confederation, 
 
 adopted Nov. 15. 
 1778. Alliance with France. 
 Battle of Monmouth, 
 Washington victorious, June 
 
 Arrival of the French 
 fleet under D'Estaing. 
 Massacre of Wyoming. 
 Savannah taken by the 
 English. 
 1779. Wayne recovers 
 Stoney Point. 
 
 Paul Jones's Victory off Scotland. 
 
 1778. Capture of Pondicherry, 
 in India. 
 
 1780. War with Hyder Ah m 
 India. 
 
 War with Holland. 
 
 1780. Battle near Camden : 
 D e K a 1 b killed. 
 
 Treason of Arnold. 
 
 1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- 
 ed by Morgan. 
 
 Surrender of Cornwallis at York- 
 town, Oct. 17. 
 
 1781. Victory off the Doggei- 
 bank. 
 
 1782. Treaty with Holland, by 
 J. Adams, Jay, Frank- 
 lin, and Laurens. 
 
 1783. PEACE OF VERSA ILLES: 
 
 INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac 
 
 knowledged by Great Bri- 
 
 1784. New- York Chamber ef 
 Commerce founded. 
 
 1784. Pitt, the younger, 
 premier. 
 
 Peace with Tippoo Saib. 
 
 1786. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 
 
 1785. John Adams, 1st ambassador from the United 
 States of America to Great 
 Britain. 
 
 1786. Shay's insurrection in 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 1787. General Convention at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Federal Con- 
 stitution of the 
 United States, adopted. 
 1783. Cotton planted in Geor- 
 
 1789. Georob Wash- 
 ington, first Presi- 
 dent: 
 
 J e f f e r s o n , Ha- 
 milton, Knox, Ran- 
 dolph, and Jay, form 
 the cabinet. 
 
 1791. First United States Bank. 
 
 1792. Kentucky admitted 
 to tlie Union. 
 
 Uo. ted States iUVjj; esta- 
 blishea. 
 
 1783. The king insane.— Deato 
 of Charles Edward, the last 
 pretender. 
 
 Trial of Warren Hast- 
 ings. 
 
 1792, Provision for the p adua. 
 abolition of the sim« fi* 
 
1718-1815.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 85^ 
 
 IJ78 A!liance with America. 
 
 1779 Scheme to invade England 
 I from Normandy. 
 
 178C Rochambeau sent to 
 aid the Americans. 
 
 1781 
 1782 
 
 1783 
 
 Necker resigns. 
 
 Defeat of De Grasse in the 
 West Indies, by Rodney. 
 
 Peace of Versail- 
 les. 
 
 1787 
 
 17S& 
 
 179, 
 1792 
 
 La Perouse's voyage of disco- 
 V9ry. 
 
 Financial difficulties — New- 
 taxation : Colonne, Brlenne, 
 and Necker, ministers suc- 
 cessively. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 begins. — Bastile taken and 
 razed, July 14. — Lafay- 
 ette, commander of the 
 national guards. — M i r a • 
 beau, leading orator. 
 
 Thk World, elsewhere. 
 
 1778. War of the Bavarian 
 succession. — Bavaiia seized 
 by Germany. 
 
 1779. Congress and Peace of 
 Teschen. 
 
 1782. Punishment of death 
 abolished. 
 
 The Pope visits the em- 
 peror, to dissuade him from 
 hostilities against the church. 
 
 1785. 2,000 religious houses 
 suppressed by the emperor. 
 
 1788. The emperor attempts 
 to control the Universities. 
 
 1790. Leopold II . W— 
 Congress of Reichenbach. 
 
 Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. 
 nea. — Lafayette resigns. 
 
 1792.— Francis 11.^ — 
 War with Germany: — The French take Spires, Mentz, 
 and Longwy — Lafayet.te im- 
 France declared a prisoned at Olmutz. 
 
 republic. 
 Girondists and Mountainists. 
 
 1780. Declaration of the arinea 
 neutrality — to protect neu- 
 tral flags from the right ol 
 search claimed by Britain. 
 
 1782. Italy :— Pontine maithes 
 drained. 
 
 India:— Rise of Sindia — 
 Tippoo, Sultan. 
 
 1783. — alliance with the 
 French. 
 
 1786. Prussia — Frederic VV>.1- 
 liam II. 
 
 1787. Russia :— War wj* the 
 Porte. 
 
 1788. Spain :— Charles IV. 
 
 1789. Ottoman Empire:— So- 
 lim II. 
 
 1790. Tuscany : — Ferdinand 
 III. 
 
 1792. Sweden:— Gusta«ssrV 
 
854 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period X. — 97 years.- 
 
 k-n 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Grsat Britain, 
 
 
 Tom Paine, 
 Fisher Ames. 
 
 HannahMore, 
 
 Gainsboro', 
 
 Moreland. 
 
 Bognslawski, 
 Krasiki, Po- 
 lish poets. 
 
 Alfieri, Italian 
 poet. 
 
 Gluck, 
 Haydn, 
 Mozart, 
 Albrechtsber- 
 
 gen, 
 Beethoven. 
 
 1793. Washington re-elected. 
 Neutrality in regard to 
 
 France. 
 
 1794. Commercial treaty with 
 Commencement 
 
 of the n av y— 6 fri- 
 gates built. 
 
 1793. First coalition against 
 France, directed by Eng- 
 land — all Europe, excepl 
 Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- 
 key. 
 
 England. 
 
 British army defeated 
 near Dunkirk. 
 
 1795. War with Holland. 
 
 
 
 1796. Washington resigns. 
 
 
 
 1797. John Adams, 2d 
 president. 
 
 
 n99 
 
 Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 
 tary education. 
 
 Mungo Park's travels in 
 Africa, published. 
 
 Difficulties with France. 
 
 1798. Regular army organized, 
 Washington commander-in- 
 chief. 
 
 1799. Death of Washington. 
 Tennessee becomes 
 
 a State. 
 
 1798. Second coalition agaiiwi 
 France. — Irish rebellion. — 
 Nelson's victory at 
 the Battle of the 
 Nile. 
 
 Wilberforce's motion to 
 abolish the slave trade, lost, 
 87 to 83. 
 
 
 Iron railways in England. 
 Polytechnic school in Paris. 
 
 JT-irst book-fair in New- York, 
 
 1800. Seat of government 
 transferred to Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 1800. Union of Eng- 
 land and Ireland. 
 
 — Malta taken. 
 
 1801 
 1802 
 
 1801. Thomas Jeffer- 
 son, 3d President. 
 
 Exports of United States, 
 $93,0U0,000. 
 
 1802. Ohio joins the Union ; 
 it has 76,000 inhabitants. 
 
 1801. Battle of Alexandria.— 
 Pitt resigns, succeeded by 
 Addington. 
 
 1802. Peace of Amiens. 
 
 
 
 1803. Purchase of Louisi- 
 ana, for $15,000,000. 
 
 U. States frigate Philadel- 
 phia, taken by the Tripoli- 
 tans. 
 
 1803. Successful war in Lidia. 
 
 1K)4 
 
 First Locomotive Steam En- 
 gine used on the Merthyn 
 Tydvil road in Wales. 
 
 1804. Decatur recaptures 
 the Philadelphia. 
 
 Preble bombards Tri- 
 poli. 
 
 Burr kills Hamilton. 
 
 1804. Pitt again premier. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 
 ■ sident : George Clin- 
 ton, of New- York, Vice- 
 President. 
 
 1805. Nelson defeats the 
 French and Spanish fleeU 
 off Trafalgar. 
 
1718-1815.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 855 
 
 1793 
 
 17M 
 
 1795 
 
 1796 
 
 1797 
 
 1798 
 1799 
 
 1801 
 
 iH02 
 
 1803 
 
 1804 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1793. First Coalition 
 against France. 
 
 The king and queen beheaded. 
 Reign of Terror. 
 
 Marat assassinated by Char- 
 lotte Corday. 
 
 Victories of Pichegru and Jourdan —the allies 
 every where driven back. 
 
 Revolution of the 9th Thermi- 
 dor. 
 
 Robespiere guillotined. 
 
 NAPOLEON BONA- 
 PARTE, commander of 
 the army ; quells an insur- 
 rection in Paris. 
 
 War in Italy. 
 
 Battle of Lodi. 
 
 Bonaparte's AustrianCampaig n— H o c h e 
 and M o r e a u ' s cele- 
 brated passage of the Rhine. 
 
 Peace of Campo Formio. 
 
 Bonaparte's expedition to 
 Egypt is defeated by Nelson 
 at Aboukir, Aug. 1. 
 
 The French enter Switzerland 
 under Bernadotte and 
 Jourdan. — Return of Bona- 
 parte. — Revolution of 
 the 18th Brumaire 
 — B onaparte, first 
 consul. 
 
 Battle of Marengo. 
 
 1798. Second Coalition against 
 France. 
 
 — M o r e a u ' 8 victory of 
 Hohenlinden. 
 
 Veace of Lunevile. 
 
 Bonaparte elected president of 
 
 the Itaiian republic. 
 Peace of Amiens. 
 Legion of Honor instituted. 
 
 War with Er?'and. 
 Bank of France. 
 
 Duke D'Enghien shot. 
 
 Bonaparte crowned as NA- 
 POLEON L, Emperor of 
 the French. 
 
 Marshals Soult, Murat, 
 N e y , &c. 
 
 Austrian Campaign, 
 
 Peace of 
 Napoleon Protector of the 
 
 1804. The emperor of Ger- 
 many assumes the title of 
 emperor of AUSTRIA. 
 
 Batttle of AuBter 
 1 i tz. 
 
 Presburg. 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1793. Second Partition of Po- 
 land by Russia and Prussia. 
 
 H a y t i independent re- 
 public, under T o u s s a i n I 
 L'Ouverture. 
 
 1794. Poland ;— Revolt at Cra- 
 cwiV. — K s c i u s k o , g&- 
 neral-in-chief — Russians da- 
 feated at Warsaw. 
 
 1795. Final p a r t i t i o i-i 
 of Poland — extinction 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 Batavian Republic : — Shi- 
 melpennink. 
 
 1796. Russia :— Paul L 
 
 1797. Switzerland:— General 
 Revolution — The Frenrb 
 invade Berne — Helveiijo 
 Republic. 
 
 Prussia :— Frederic Wil- 
 liam III.^- — 
 
 1798. India :— Marquis Weill ^ 
 ley, governor-general. 
 
 1799. Russians, inider S n 
 w a r r o w , defeated neat 
 Milan. 
 
 1800. Armed neutrality of the 
 north. 
 
 Pope Pius VII. 
 Ionian Republic founded 
 
 1801. Russia: Alexander. ^g 
 
 1802. Italian Republic— Bona- 
 parte president. 
 
 1803. India :- 
 War. 
 
 -Great MahrattJ 
 
 1804. Russia ; -W«r with fn 
 
 sia. 
 
856 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period X— 97 years.— 
 
 1806 
 
 1307 
 
 ISOS 
 
 1810 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Planet Juno discovered. 
 Lewis 4' Clas-k's expedition 
 to the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Fulton's first success- 
 ful TRIAL OP Steam- 
 boats. 
 
 General University established 
 by Napoleon, to superintend 
 national education. 
 
 Lithography invented. 
 
 In England : 
 Flaxman, 
 Westmacott, 
 Chantrey, 
 sculptors. 
 
 France : 
 La Grange, 
 Mange, 
 Hauy, 
 Biot. 
 
 B. St. Pierre, 
 poet. 
 
 First steamboat built in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 1812 
 
 1514 
 
 1815 
 
 American Board of Com- 
 missioyiers for Foreign Mis- 
 sions, founded. 
 
 Steam carriages in England. 
 Gas used for ligbting the 
 streets of London. 
 
 Safety lamp invented by Sir 
 Humphrey Davy. 
 
 In England : 
 
 H. K. White, 
 
 Keats, 
 
 Reg. Heber, 
 
 Shelley, 
 
 Crabbe, 
 
 Sir W. Scott, 
 
 Byron, 
 
 Coleridge, 
 
 Lamb, 
 
 Montgomery, 
 
 Hagg. 
 
 France : 
 Mad. de Stael, 
 Mad. de Genlis, 
 Chateaubriand 
 Cuvier. 
 
 Melendez Val- 
 dez, Spanish 
 poet- 
 
 Bilderdyk, 
 Dutch. 
 
 German : 
 W. Schlegel, 
 F Schlegel, 
 Richter, 
 Kotzebue: 
 Weber and 
 Spohr, musi- 
 cal compo- 
 sers. 
 
 Russia : 
 Karamsin, 
 Somnrokor, 
 Draitriev, 
 Krilov. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1807. Embargo on all the 
 ports of the United States. 
 
 Trial of Aaron Burr for 
 treason. 
 
 Slave trade abolished. 
 
 1809. James Madison, 
 
 4th President. 
 
 Embargo repealed ; the 
 non-intercourse act passed. 
 
 1811 
 
 between 
 and the 
 
 Engasement 
 ' President ' 
 ' Little Belt.' 
 
 Indians on the Wabash, 
 defeated by Gov. Harrison. 
 
 Population of the United 
 States, 7,239,903. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1806. Fourth Coalition againsi 
 
 France. 
 
 1807. Bill for the aaolition o< 
 the slave trade, passed. 
 
 1808. The English, undei 
 W e 1 1 e s 1 e y , enter Spaia 
 as allies. 
 
 1809. Fifth Coalition. 
 
 Walcheren expedition. 
 
 1810. War with Sweden. 
 
 IBU George, Prince of Wales, 
 Prince Regent, (the king be- 
 ing insane). 
 
 Population of Great Bri- 
 tain, 12,552,144. 
 
 1812. 
 
 War with Great Britain. 
 
 Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. 
 
 Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 
 The Constitution captures tl-e Guar 
 r i e r : i 
 
 (First check of British Lord L ' 7 e r p o o 1 
 
 naval supremacy.) | premier. 
 
 Wool victorious at Queenstown, 0;t. 12. 
 Captain J o n e s , in the Wasp, captures the Frd .i; 
 Oct. 18. 
 
 The "United States," 
 
 The Constitution, Captain 
 
 Louisiana admitted into 
 the Union. 
 
 1813. Perry's victory 
 on Lake Erie. 
 
 Battle of the Thames: 
 Tecumseh killed. 
 
 1814. City of Washington 
 burnt by the Btf "'sh. 
 
 Captain Decatur, captures the 
 British frigate Macedonian. 
 
 Bainbridge, captures the Bri 
 tish I'rigate Java. 
 
 1813. Sixth Coalition against 
 France^Prussia, Russia, 
 Sweden, Great Britain, and 
 Austria. 
 
 1814. Treaty of Chaumor.t be- 
 tween Austria, Prussia, Rus- 
 sia, and Great Britain. 
 
 Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 
 
 1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; 
 British defeated by General 
 Jackson, Jan. 8. 
 
 War against Algiers de- 
 elared. 
 
 1815. Candy and Almora cap- 
 tured. 
 
 Wellington vie 
 torious at Waterloo, June 18 
 
i718-1815.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 857 
 
 1806 
 
 ISt? 
 
 1808 
 
 180^ 
 
 18.0 
 18H 
 
 1812 
 
 IS13 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Victory of Jena over the Prussians. 
 Berlin decree. 
 
 War with Russia. 
 
 Battle of Friedland. — P e a c e 
 of Tilsit. 
 
 Invasion of Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 French ift Spain defeated at 
 Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- 
 lesley. 
 
 Battle ofWagram- 
 
 Napoleon inarries Maria Lou- 
 ise. — Continental peace ex- 
 cept with Spain. 
 
 Birth of the emperor's son; 
 created king of Rome. 
 
 Soult victorious in Spain — 
 takes Badajos ; is defeated 
 by the English at Albuesa. 
 
 Russian Campaign. 
 
 Battles of Sraolensko and Bo- 
 rodino. 
 
 Moscow entered by Napoleon's 
 army — and burrjd by the 
 Russians. 
 
 Victories of L U't z e n , 
 Bautzen, and Dres- 
 den, over the allies. 
 
 Battle of Leipsic — 
 
 The allies enter Paris. 
 
 Napoleon abdicates, 
 and retires to Elba. 
 
 Hnuse of Bourbon 
 restored: 
 
 Louis XVIII. 
 
 Bonaparte returns from Elba. 
 
 The hundred days. 
 
 Napoleon victorious at Ligny. 
 
 BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 
 
 The allies enter Paris. 
 
 llonaparte banish- 
 ed to St Helena. 
 
 Peace of Vienna. 
 Metternich, minis- 
 ter. 
 
 1812. Austria in alliance with 
 France against Russia. 
 
 1813. War of German inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Austria joins the Coali- 
 tion. 
 
 Bonaparte driven to the 
 Rhine, loses his whole army. 
 
 1815. German League. 
 
 Congress of Vien- 
 na. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1806. Holland:— Louis Napo- 
 leon, king. 
 
 Prussia at war with Franc* 
 in alliance with Russia. 
 
 1807. Ottoman Empire :— Mus 
 tapha IV. 
 
 1808. Spain ;— Ferdinand VII . 
 
 " Joseph NapolearL 
 Naples :— Murat. 
 Denmark :— Frederic VI, 
 Ottoman Empire :— Mah 
 moud II. 
 
 1809. Sweden :— Charles XIII 
 
 1810. South America:— VE- 
 NEZUELA declared inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 1811. NEW GRENADA d» 
 clared independent. 
 
 1812. Invasion op Russia 
 by Napoleon.— BURNING 
 OF MOSCOW. 
 
 K u t o s o f f pursues 
 the retreating French. 
 
 Poland:— Diet of War- 
 saw : the Poles declared a 
 nation by Napoleon. 
 
 1813. South America :— B o 
 1 i V a r drives the Spua 
 iards from Caraccas. 
 
 1814. Union of Holland aiiu 
 Belgium. — Peace of Kiel 
 Sweden, and England. 
 
 Union of Sweden ana 
 Norway as two kingdoms 
 under one monarch. 
 
 1815. Netherlands :— William 
 
 The "Holy Al- 
 liance- '—Russia, Prus- 
 sia, and A uatria. 
 
858 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD XI.— 50 years.- 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 i82£ 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 New com law in England. 
 
 Polytechnic institution at Vi- 
 enna. 
 
 Manufactories introduced into 
 Poland. 
 
 The family of Rothschilds 
 conies into notice at Frank- 
 fort. 
 
 Abolition of the slave trade by 
 the congress of Vienna. 
 
 Second United States Bank 
 chartered for 20 years, capi- 
 tal $35,000,000. 
 
 Public schools established 
 
 throughout Russia. 
 Belzoni penetrates the second 
 
 pyramid of Gheza. 
 
 Abolition of predial bondage 
 in Bavaria and Wirtemberg. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1816. United States Bank in- 
 corporated. 
 
 Indiana admitted. 
 
 1817. .lames Monroe, 
 5th President. 
 
 Mississippi ad- 
 mitted. 
 
 1818. Illinois admitted. 
 War with the Seminoles. 
 
 First passage of the Atlantic by steam, hy the Savannah — 
 New- York to Liverpool. 
 
 Rise of mechanic institutions 
 in England. 
 
 Hieroglyphics deciphered : — 
 Champollion. — Sir William 
 Herschel died. 
 
 Huskisson's/ree fratZe system 
 
 in England. 
 First manufactory in Egypt, 
 
 established by Mehemet Ali. 
 
 Inland navigation of the 
 United States : the great 
 Erie Canal opened. 
 
 Mail-posts in Prussia. — 
 
 Steain navigation on the 
 
 Rhine. 
 General financial panic in 
 
 England. 
 Vast increase of periodical 
 literature in England, France, 
 
 Germany, America, &c. 
 
 Alexander Volta dies, disco- 
 verer of the Voltaic battery. 
 
 1820. Maine admitted. 
 
 1821. Monroe re-elected. 
 Missouri admitted. 
 Slavery compromise. 
 
 1824. Lafayette's visit. 
 Erie canal opened. 
 Protective taiiff. 
 
 1825. J. a Adams, 6th 
 President. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1816. Bombardment of Algiers 
 — The Dey compelled » 
 make peace and abolish 
 slavery. 
 
 1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- 
 dition to Algiers 
 
 1820.- 3 e o r g e IV .^— 
 
 182.3. Canning ministry; 
 The Ashantees in Africa 
 defeated. 
 
 1825. Commercial treaty with 
 Prussia. 
 
 1827. Treaty of London ir 
 favor of Greece. 
 
 1828. Wellington ministry 
 Disturbances in Ireland. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 859 
 
 1816-1866 
 
 France. 
 
 lilS 
 
 lasi 
 
 IS24 
 
 Congress of Aix la Chapelle. 
 — France joins the " Holy 
 Alliance." 
 
 Death of Napoleon at St. He- 
 lena. 
 
 -Charles X , 
 
 mi' 
 
 i?leet sent to Algiera 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 1821. Congress of monarchs 
 at Laybach. — Insurrection 
 in Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 — Alexander Ypsilanti de- 
 feated and carried prisoner 
 to Austria. 
 
 The World, elsewnere. 
 
 1316. Portugal -JohnVl.^ 
 
 in Brazil 
 
 Union of Naples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 1817. Republic of the Ionian 
 Islands. 
 
 India :— The cholera com- 
 mences its ravages. 
 
 1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV. 
 (Bernadotte.) 
 
 India:— The Mahratta 
 power completely over- 
 thrown, and the British suc- 
 ceeds. 
 
 1819. South America:— Re- 
 public of COLOMBIA:— 
 Bolivar, President. 
 
 1821. Ilayti :— B oyer, em- 
 peror. 
 
 South America •— PERU 
 and GUATEMALA inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 1822. BRAZIL declared inde. 
 pendent. 
 
 Mexico : — Iturbide, em- 
 peror. 
 
 Greek Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 Massacre of Scio. 
 
 1823. lialy:— Leo XII., pope, 
 
 1824. Death of Lord Byron at 
 Missolonghi. 
 
 1S25. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a g 
 
 1826. —War with Persia. 
 Greece : — Missolonghi 
 
 taken by the Turks. 
 
 1827. Treaty between Rus3.is 
 and the Porte respecting 
 Greece. 
 
 Greece :— B a 1 1 1 e of 
 N a V a r i n o . 
 
 Portugal :— Maria de Glo- 
 ria, queen. ^g 
 
 —Rebellion in favor of 
 Don Miguel as regent. 
 
 1828. War between Russia 
 and the Porte. 
 
860 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period XI. — 50 yeara- 
 
 PaoQREss OF Society, etc. 
 
 1831 
 kdi2 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 In England : 
 
 Jeremy Ben- 
 tJiam, 
 
 Thomas Chal- 
 mers, 
 
 Thomas Dick, 
 
 W. Kirby, 
 
 Hallam, 
 
 Ungarr], 
 
 Wordsioorth. 
 
 Southey, 
 
 Campbell, 
 
 Moore, 
 
 Leigh Hunt, 
 
 Mrs. Hem,ans, 
 
 Bulwer, 
 
 " Barry Corn- 
 wall." 
 
 Russia : 
 Kuramsin, 
 Somorokov, 
 Dmieiriev, 
 Krilov. 
 
 U. 
 
 N. Webster, 
 
 Irving, 
 
 Cooper, 
 
 Flint, 
 
 Wirt, 
 
 Marshall, 
 
 France : 
 CiLvier, 
 Talma, tragi 
 
 dian, 
 Segiir, 
 La Place, 
 Beranger, 
 Lamartine. 
 
 Germany : 
 Spohr, 
 Mayerbeer, 
 Kotzebue, 
 Gall, 
 Spurzheim. 
 
 Sweden : 
 Tegner, 
 Dahlyren. 
 
 Italy : 
 Rossini, 
 Paganini. 
 
 S. A. 
 
 Wheaton, 
 
 Kent, 
 
 Slory, 
 
 Gallatin, 
 
 Livingston, 
 
 Channing. 
 
 Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railroad opened. 
 
 The two Landei'3 succeed in 
 tracing the Niger from Lake 
 Tchad to the ocean. 
 
 The first newspaper in Con- 
 stantinople. — The Factory 
 Bill in England, limiting the 
 hours of labor for children. 
 
 Reform Bill in England: — 
 Extension of Suffrage. 
 
 Trade unions in England, 
 France, Germany, Switzer- 
 land, &c. 
 
 Girard College, at Philadel- 
 phia, aad the University of 
 New-York, commenced. 
 
 De Tocqueville's History of 
 Democracy in America. 
 
 Inqiiisition abolished in 
 Spain. 
 
 Slavery abolished in the 
 British colonies. 
 
 Boston and Lowell Railroad 
 completed. 
 
 James Smithson, of London, 
 bequeathes .£100,000 to the 
 United States for the esta- 
 blishment of an Institution 
 '•'■for the increase and diffu- 
 sion of knowledge among 
 men." 
 
 The Luxor obelisk erected at 
 Paris. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britaim. 
 
 1829. General Jack- 
 son, 7th President of the 
 United States. 
 
 1830. Treaty between the 
 United States and the Porte. 
 
 1831. The king of the Nether 
 North Eastern Boundary, be 
 
 1832. War with the Winneba- 
 goes and other Indian tribes. 
 —Cholera in New- York. — 
 Nullification in South Caro- 
 lina.— General Jackson's ce- 
 lebrated proclamation. 
 
 1833. General Jackson re-elect- 
 ed to the Presidency. 
 
 Removal of the Depo- 
 sites of the United States 
 from the U. S Bank. 
 
 1834. The President censured 
 by the Senate for removing 
 the Deposites. 
 
 1835. Great Fire in New- York. 
 
 1836. The national debt of the 
 United States being paid, the 
 surplus revenue is divided 
 among the States. 
 
 Treaty with Morocco. 
 1337. The independence of 
 Texas acknowledged, 
 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 3th President. 
 
 1827. Treaty of Londoa Ji 
 favor of Greece. 
 
 1828. The Wellington minis- 
 try. — Disturbances in Ire* 
 land. 
 
 1829. Catholic emancipation. 
 Capiain Ross' voyage to 
 discover a North West pas- 
 sage. 
 
 1830. —William IV.^ 
 Earl Grey, minister. 
 Difficulties with China. 
 
 1831. Lord John R u a - 
 s e 1 ' s Reform Bill intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Cholera first appears in 
 England. 
 
 lands makes his award on the 
 tween the United States and 
 the British provinces. 
 
 1832. Reform Bill passed. 
 
 1833. Captain Ross returns 
 from his voyage of disco- 
 very. 
 
 1834. Sir Robert Peel 
 Premier. — Difficulties is 
 Canada. 
 
 1837. —Victoria 
 
1815-1865.J 
 
 THE world's PROGUESS. 
 
 861 
 
 1^7 
 
 1829 
 
 »830 
 
 18^ 
 
 leSo 
 
 AtrSTRIA, &c. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 A French fleet sent to Algiers. 
 
 Algiers taken. 
 
 Three Days' Revo- 
 lution, July 27, 28, and 
 29. 
 
 Lafayette, commander of the 
 National Guaid. 
 
 Charles X. abdicates. 
 
 — L ouis Philippe I. 
 
 (House of Orleans.)^^ 
 
 Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 . 
 
 Death if Lafayette. 
 
 Insurrection attempted by 
 Louis Napoleon at Stras- 
 burg. 
 
 1833. The Em- 
 peror of Rus- 
 sia visits the 
 Emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 F e r ii - 
 
 nand l.^M 
 
 1829. Italy :— Pius VIII., pope. 
 
 Algiers taken by the French. 
 
 VENEZUELA independent, Qensial 
 P a e z , President. 
 
 1S30. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, and 
 is declared independent in August. 
 
 1830. Polish struggle for nation- 
 ality, begins November 19. 
 
 Brazil :— Revolution ; Don Pedro IL ^5 
 
 1831. Belgium :—L e p o I d I.^g 
 
 The Poles victorious at Prayo. 
 
 Italy :— Gregory XVI., pope. 
 Poland: — Warsaw capitulates to Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded : 
 
 O t h o I .^ 
 
 Poland:— The Insurrection crushed; 
 5000 families sent to Siberia. 
 
 —University of Warsaw abolished. 
 
 1833. Spain :— Isabella.^ 
 
 — Don Carlos claims the throne. 
 Portugal :— A constitutional monarchy. 
 Egypt :— Mehemet Ali acknowledged by 
 the Sultan. 
 
 Mexico:— Santa Aima, President. 
 
 1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France, 
 Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel 
 and Don Carlos. 
 
 1835. The Plague in Egypt. 
 
 1836. Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts tha 
 constitution. 
 
 Texas :— Battle of San Jacinto, Santa 
 Anna taken prisoner. 
 
 China:— A decree to expel all Britisli 
 ard other barbarian merchants. 
 
8o2 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period XI. — 50 yean.— 
 
 1837 
 
 1339 
 
 1840 
 
 1842 
 
 1344 
 
 1^5 
 
 1845 
 (846 
 
 S- F. B. MOHSE takes 
 out a patent for his Elec- 
 tro-magnetic Tele- 
 graph, (invented 1S32 ) 
 
 Suspension of specie payments 
 by the Banks in the United 
 States, in May. 
 
 The Daguerreotype 
 
 invented in Paris. 
 Improvement of the condition 
 
 of the Jews in Russia. 
 An Antarctic Continent disco 
 
 Penny postage system in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Persecution of the Jews at 
 Damascus. 
 
 Wlieatstone's Electric Tele- 
 graph patented in England. 
 
 The Crotm Aqueduct in New- 
 York completed. 
 
 Bain's electro-magnetic Tele- 
 graph patented in London. 
 
 " Antirentism ■* o^oached in 
 the State of New-York. 
 
 A great defection from the Ro- 
 mish church, under the 
 preaching of Range, in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Lord Rosse's Telescope 
 
 Gutta Percha in use. 
 
 Completion of the Thames 
 Tunnel. March 25. 
 
 The Planet Neptune, pre- 
 dicted by Le Verrier, dis- 
 covered by Dr. Galle, of 
 Berlin, Sept. 23. 
 
 1838. The Exploring Expedi- 
 tion sails. 
 
 1839. Disturbances on the 
 " disputed territory," be- 
 tween Maine and New- 
 Brunswick. 
 
 vered by the United States 
 Exploring Expedition. 
 
 1841. W. H. Harrison, 
 
 9th President. 
 
 He dies April 4, just one 
 month after his inaugura- 
 tion. 
 
 John Tyler, sue. 
 ceedshim, as 10th President. 
 
 Congress meets in extra 
 session, May 31. 
 
 Sub- Treasury Act re- 
 pealed, Aug. 9. 
 
 Bankrupt Act passed, 
 August 18. 
 
 1842. The Dorr Insurrection 
 in Rhode Island. 
 
 Treaty between the Uni 
 
 1839. The British take posses 
 sion of Ghuzne. 
 
 1840. The uniform Pennn 
 
 Postage system esta'.iishecf 
 
 Marriage . f Queen Vic- 
 toria to Prince Albert of 
 Saxe Cobourg. 
 
 War with Chii a, to en- 
 force the opium trade. 
 
 War in Syria : — Great 
 Britain taking part with 
 Austria and Turkey. Lord 
 P a ! m e r s t o n ' s foreign 
 policy excites the ill-will oi 
 France. 
 
 1841. ■ The war with China 
 ended : $6,000,000 received 
 as a ransom for Canton 
 
 1844. Texas annexed to 
 the United States. 
 
 Anti-rent riots in New- 
 York. 
 
 1845. Treaty with China. 
 James K. Po.k, 
 
 11th President. 
 
 1846. War with Mexi- 
 c o : 
 
 Hostilities commence on 
 the Rio Grande, April 24. • 
 
 Battle of Palo Alto, 
 Mays. 
 
 Battle of Rasaca de h 
 Palma, May 9. 
 
 ted States and England, settling 
 the north-eastern boundary. 
 
 Treaty of peace with 
 China. 
 
 1843. Great "Repeal" 
 agitation in Ireland. 
 
 The British gain posses- 
 sion of Scinde. 
 
 1844. Daniel O'Connell'a trial 
 and imprisonment— the sen- 
 tence reversed by the Ho usfi 
 of Lords. 
 
 1845. Sir John Franklin sail* 
 in search of the north w mi 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 863 
 
 .838 
 
 1340 
 
 1^2 
 
 1814 
 
 Talleyrand diea. 
 Difficulty with Mexico : cap- 
 ture ol' Sail Juan d'Ulloa. 
 
 Pnnce Louis Napoleon at- 
 tempts a hostile descent on 
 the coast of France, near 
 Boulogne — is taken prisoner, 
 and imprisoned at Ham. 
 
 G u i z e t , minister for ft 
 reign affairs. 
 
 The remains of Napoleon 
 removed from St. Helena, 
 and deposited with great 
 honors at the Invalides, in 
 Paris. 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 The duke of Orleans, heir to 
 the throne, killed by a fall 
 from his carriage. 
 
 The Duke de Nemours ap- 
 pointed Regent, in the event 
 of the king's death. 
 
 Louis Napoleon escapes fnm 
 Ham, May 26. 
 
 1838. New 
 Treaty of 
 commerce 
 with Eng- 
 land, July 3. 
 
 Ferdinand 
 crowned at 
 Milan, Sep- 
 tember 6. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1838. Mexico :— The Castle of San Juaj 
 d'Ulloa taken by the French. 
 
 1839. Peace between France and Mexico. 
 China:— The Opium trade forbidden, 
 Turkey at war with Egvpt. 
 
 India : — Ghuzne taken by li.e British. 
 
 1840. China : — Canton blockaded by the Eng- 
 lish, to compel the renewal of the opitim 
 trade. 
 
 Holland :— William L abdicates : 
 
 William 11.® 
 
 Syria :— St. Jean d'Acre taken by the 
 English, Austrians, and Turks 
 
 1841. China :— Canton capitulates, 86,000,000 
 paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. 
 
 Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- 
 tal, and places himself at the head of the 
 government. 
 
 1842. India : — Insurrection in Afighanistan. 
 
 1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich 
 Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord 
 Geo. Paulet. 
 
 Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- 
 cept a constitution, Sept.. 15. 
 
 The Society Islands seized by a French 
 squadron — restored by the goveniment. 
 
 India: — Scinde annexed to the British 
 empire. 
 1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful 
 insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. 
 
 Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; elected Ju'ie & 
 
 Poland :— Cracow deprived of its aid» 
 pendence, Nov. 16. 
 
864. 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period XI. — 50 yp.ar'y.~ 
 
 Pbooress 3p Society, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1846. The Oregon Trea 
 tling the North- Western Bo 
 
 Commodore Sloat takes 
 possession of California, 
 July 6. 
 
 New Tariff bill passed 
 establishing ad valorem du 
 ties. 
 
 Battle of Monterey, Sep 
 tember 2-3. 
 
 Tampico occupied, No 
 vember 14. 
 
 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
 Feb. 22. 
 
 Battle of Sacramento, 
 Feb. 26. 
 
 Vera Cruz surrenders. 
 March 29. 
 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo 
 April 18. 
 
 Battle of Contreras, Au 
 gust 20. 
 
 Armistice, Aug. 24. 
 Hostilities renewed, Sep, 
 tember 7. 
 
 Battle of Molino del Rey, 
 Sept. 8. 
 
 Battle of Chepultepec, 
 Sep, 12. 
 
 Mexico surren- 
 ders, Sept. 14. 
 
 1848. Troat)^ of Peace with 
 Mexico, signed at Guada- 
 loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. 
 
 The cultivation of the Tea' plant in the United States, 
 commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 Postal convention betw 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 t y with Great Britain, set 
 undary, signed at London, 
 June 18. 
 
 Suspension Bridge at Nia- 
 gara Falls, opened July 29. 
 
 1847. Severe famine in Ire. 
 land. Large supplifs oj 
 food sent from the United 
 
 States. 
 
 The Bogue forts in China 
 taken and destroyed, April 
 26. 
 
 First deposit of Califor- 
 nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. 
 
 Emigration from llurope to America during this year, 
 300,090. 
 
 1848. Civil war in Ireland. 
 
 John Mitchell, tried aud 
 condemned to transporta- 
 tion, May 26. 
 
 een the United States and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act su* 
 pended in Ireland, July 25, 
 
 Smith O'Brien arrested 
 and condemned, Aug. 5. 
 
 Return of Ross'« exp« 
 dition. Nov. 
 
1S15-1865.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 86f 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 IM! 
 
 1S48 
 
 Reform Banquets in Stras- 
 burg, Chanrea, &c. 
 
 Michelet's Lectures interrupt- 
 ed by the ministers, Dec. 
 
 Abd-e]-Kader captured, Dec. 
 22. 
 
 Debate on tlie Reform Bill, 
 Feb, 8. 
 
 Proposed Banquet at Paris, 
 abandoned, Feb- 21. 
 
 Revolution com- 
 menced, Feo. 22. 
 
 Barricades erecied, Feb. 2.3. 
 
 Louis Philippe abdicates and 
 flies, Feb. 24. 
 
 Provisional government esta- 
 blished. 
 
 La marline, Provisional 
 President, Feb. 24. 
 
 French Republic proclaimed, 
 Feb. 26. 
 
 Meeting of the National As- 
 sembly, May 4. 
 
 Bloody Insurrection in Paris, 
 June 23-25. 
 
 Cavaignac, military dictator, 
 June 24. 
 
 Paris in a state of siege. 
 
 New Constitution adopted, 
 Nov. 4. 
 
 LouisNapoleon Bo- 
 naparte, elected Pre- 
 silint, Dec. 10. 
 
 1S47. Austria 
 takes posses- 
 sion of Cra- 
 cow. 
 
 The World, elseoy-here 
 
 1847. Prussia :— Frederic William grants i 
 
 constitution, Feb. S. 
 
 Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2 
 
 Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner 
 to France, Dec. 22. 
 
 1848. Sardinia : — Charles Albert protests 
 against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an 
 army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. 
 
 Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. 
 Sardinia : — Charles Albert proclaims a 
 constitution, Feb. 8. 
 
 Bavaria : — Disturbances on account of 
 Lola Montes — the king abdicates in favor of 
 his son. 
 
 -Maximilian II. 
 
 March iH. 
 
 Charles Albert 
 
 The Ban Jella- 
 chich ap- 
 pointed gov- 
 ernor of 
 Hungary, 
 Oct. 3, 
 
 Insurrection at 
 Vienna, Oct. 
 6. 
 
 1848. The Em- 
 peror leaves 
 the city. The 
 Hungarian 
 army advan- 
 ces within 6 
 miles of Vi- 
 enna, Oct. 11. 
 
 Windisch- 
 gratz ap- 
 pointed com- 
 mander of 
 the imperial 
 army. 
 
 enters Milan, March 23. 
 
 Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-3^t?> 
 stein, March 26. 
 
 Sicily declared independent, April 3. 
 Holland receives a constitution, April 17. 
 
 Poland :— Unsuccessful revolt at .Cra- 
 cow, April 25. 
 
 Sicily :— The Duke of Genoa elected 
 king, July 10. 
 
 India : — Insurrection m Ceylon, Aug. 16. 
 
 Armistice signed between Denmark 
 Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. 
 
 India : — The British make an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt on Moultan. 
 
 Sicily :— Messina bombarded and taken, 
 Sept. 2. 
 
 Hungary :—K OSS uth appointed Pre 
 sident of the Defence Committee, ani DicW 
 tor, Oct. 
 
 37 
 
8GG 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period XI. — 50 years — 
 
 Jl.D. I PrOQRESS op tjOGIETY, eLC. 
 
 1819 A new planet discovered by 
 Gasparis, at Naples. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1849. Zachary Taylor, 
 
 12th President. 
 
 Magnetic Telegrapli lines in use in the United States in 
 1849, 10,000 miles. 
 
 Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, 
 England. 
 
 ^Magnetic Clock, invented by 
 i iS^r. Locke, ai Cincinnati. 
 
 ISBO 
 
 Rail Roads 6,000 " 
 
 Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at 
 the rate of 1000 a day. 
 
 Great agitation on the Slavery 
 Question in the United 
 States Congress. 
 
 The Pekin Monitor, a new- 
 paper, primed in China. 
 
 Tiie Sullan of Turkey, grants 
 permission to the .lews to 
 build a temple on Mount 
 Zion. 
 
 A University founded at Syd- 
 ney, New South Wales. 
 
 Deaths in 1850 : 
 
 n. 3. A. I EUROPE. 
 
 .4. Judson, 'Wordsworth, 
 S. M. Fuller, 'Jeffrey, 
 j M L. Davis. Neander, 
 Zschokke, 
 BerzeliuSj 
 Balzac. 
 
 1850. John C. Calhoun died at 
 Washington. 
 
 Attempted invasion of 
 Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- 
 der Lopez, repulsed at Car- 
 denas, May. 
 
 Death of Gen. Taylor, 
 July 9. 
 
 Millard Fillmore, 
 13th President. 
 
 California ad- 
 mitted, 31st State. 
 
 Texas boundary settled, 
 by the payment of 10,000,000 
 dollars to Texas. 
 
 New-Mexico and Utah 
 admitted as Territories. 
 Bill for the arrest of 
 fugitive slaves passed by Con- 
 gress. 
 Slave trade in the District of 
 Columbia abolished. 
 
 Geeat Britain. 
 
 1849. Moultan, in India, taken 
 Jan. 3. 
 
 1850. The war m I/ahore fin 
 ished, and ih'i Punjaub aai- 
 Mexed to the British crowa 
 
 A British fleet blockades 
 the ports of Greece, to er.- 
 force the alleged claims oi 
 British subjects. 
 
 Sir Robert Peel diea 
 July 2. 
 
 Haynau. "the Austria* 
 butcher," chastised by th« 
 draymen in London, ScpL . 
 
1815-1865.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 867 
 
 \mi 
 
 Louis Philippe dies in Eng- 
 land 
 
 Austria, &C- 
 
 Thb World, tlsewhere. 
 
 The Emperor 
 issues a pro- 
 clamation 
 against ihe 
 city. 
 
 Kossuth with-draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. 
 
 The Imperial 
 
 ists take pos- 
 session 01 Vi- 
 enna, Nov. 
 2. 
 
 Ferdinand ab- 
 dicates, Dec. 
 
 — F r a n c i s 
 
 Joseph 
 
 1849. A new 
 Constitution 
 promulgated 
 March 4. 
 
 Brescia taken 
 by Haynau, 
 March 30. 
 
 Rome :— M a z z i n i ' a proclamation 
 Oct. 29. 
 
 Prussia: — The king prorogues the AS' 
 sembly, Nov. 9. 
 
 — The Burgher Guard of Be-lintrefuse to 
 give up their arms. The city in a state oi 
 siege, Nov. 12. 
 
 Rome : — Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- 
 minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. 
 
 India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur, 
 Nov. 22. 
 
 Rome : — The Pope escapes in disguise, 
 Nov. 24. 
 
 Hungary declared independent, Dec. 
 1849. India : — Moultan taken by the British, 
 Jan. 3. 
 
 Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany 
 flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, 
 Feb. 9. 
 
 Rome : — Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. 
 
 Sicily : — A new Constitution conceded 
 by Naples, March 6. 
 
 Sardinia : — Charles Albert defeated by 
 Radetsky, March 21 — again totally defeated 
 at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the 
 throne in favor of his son, 
 
 Victor Emanuel, ^g 
 
 India : — The Punjaub annexed to me 
 British Empire, March 29. 
 
 Italy : — Insurrection in Genoa, April 1, 
 
 Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, Aprii 
 26. 
 
 Rome :— The French annj- arrives un- 
 der the walls of Rome, April 29. 
 
 Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, 
 June. 
 
 Rome surrender.s^to the French, July 2. 
 Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. 
 
 Rome : — The government placed in tha 
 hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. 
 
 Gorgey traitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. 
 Kossuth escapes into Turkey. 
 Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 
 1850. Rome:— The Pope returns, April. 
 
 Greece disputes the claims of Greal 
 Britain for losses of British subjects: ii 
 forced to submit. 
 
 China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, 
 dies: 
 
 Sie-hing ^^ r.icceedfl. 
 
868 
 
 IHE world's progress. [Period XL- 50 years 
 
 1850 On the subject of the Mobbing 
 of Marshal Hay nan during 
 a visit to a London brewery, 
 notes pass between Austria 
 and Great Britain, termi- 
 nating in a threat of retalia- 
 tion on the part of the latter, 
 Sept.— Nov. 
 
 A Memorial for the annexa- 
 tion of Canada to the U. S. 
 received in five hours the 
 signatures of 300 merchants, 
 landowners, and profes- 
 sional men, in Montreal, 
 Got. 10. 
 
 Woman's Bights Con- 
 vention, held at Worcester, 
 Mass., Oct. 23. 
 
 North- West Passage discov- 
 ered by Capt. McClure (Br. 
 Navy) in the Investigator, 
 Oct. 26. 
 
 The British Consul at Charle* 
 ton calls the attention of 
 the Governor of South Ca- 
 rolina to a law of that State, 
 under which British sea- 
 men (colored) are impris- 
 oned when they enter her 
 ports for trade or in dis- 
 tress, Dec. 
 
 Deaths in 1S50 : 
 
 V. 8. A. 
 
 J. C. Calhoun, Senator, TT. 8, 
 
 Sam. Miller, D.D. 
 
 Z. Taylor, President, U. 8. A. 
 
 1850. Califoknia admitted as 
 a State, Sept. 
 
 Fttgitive Slave Bill 
 passed, Sept. 
 
 DisunionMeetings held at 
 Natchez (many present op- 
 posed to disunion); at Yazoo 
 City (resolutions proposed 
 voted down), Oct. 7; at 
 Nashville (this convention 
 passed resolutions recom- 
 mending a congress of 
 slaveholding States), Nov. 
 19. 
 
 Union Meetings held at 
 Mobile, Dayton, and New 
 York, in Oct. ; at Philadel- 
 phia, and Manchester, N. 
 H., in Nov.; and at Bath, 
 Me., in Dec. 
 
 The Advance and Eescue, 
 American vessels in search 
 of Sir J. Franklin, com- 
 pletely fastened in the ice, 
 Sept. 13. In their northerly 
 irift reach lat. 75° 23', Oct. 1. 
 
 Conventions held to 
 amend the Constitutions of 
 theStatesof Indiana (Oct. 7), 
 Virginia (Oct. 14), Maryland 
 (Nov. 4), New Hampshire 
 (Nov. 6). 
 
 Lopez and others tried at 
 New Orleans for engaging 
 in an expedition against 
 Cuba, Dec. 17. 
 
 Webster replies to Hiilse- 
 mann on the rights of neu- 
 tral nations, Deo. 21. 
 
 1850. Great excitement and 
 agitation in England respect 
 ing a dispute on doctrine be 
 tween the Bishop of Exeter 
 and the Rev. Dr. Gorham, 
 one of his clergy. The Privy 
 Council's decision in favor 
 of the latter afterwards rati 
 fled by the Courts. 
 
 Searches for Sir J. Frank- 
 lin — the North Star returns 
 to Spithead unsuccessful, 
 Sept. 2S. The Prince Albert 
 arrives at Aberdeen with th » 
 intelligence that traces <rf 
 his party had been found nt 
 Cape Eeilly and Beechy 
 Island, at the entrance 1« 
 Wellington Channel, Oct. I. 
 
 Appointment by tl e 
 Pope of several Roman Gi- 
 tholic bishops and arc) - 
 bishops in England, causi a 
 great excitement, and a a 
 indignant letter from Loid 
 J. Eussell, the premier, 
 Nov. 
 
 English forces defoatwl 
 by the Caffres in South 
 Africa, with considerabl* 
 loss, and obliged to retreat 
 to their fort, Dec. 29, 
 
1815-1865.J 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 869 
 
 FftAHOB. 
 
 1850 President creates his uncle 
 Jerome a Marshal of France, 
 Jan. 1. 
 
 800 Soldiers drowned at An- 
 giers by fall of a bridge, 
 Apr. 15. 
 
 French Ambassador recalled 
 from London, in conse- 
 quence ; f a difficulty con- 
 nected with an English 
 claim on Greece, May 16. 
 
 New Electoral Law, restrict- 
 ing the right of suffrage, 
 passed, May 31. 
 
 Arrangement with England 
 on the Greek dispute, June 
 21. 
 
 Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- 
 sident 2,160,000 francs 
 ($405,000) per annum, 
 passed, Juno 24. 
 
 1850. Prussia:— The King takes 
 the oath required by the Con- 
 stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to 
 assassinate him, May 22. 
 
 Treaty signed at Munich 
 between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- 
 ony, and Wurtemburg, to main- 
 tain the German Union, Feb. 27. 
 
 Wurtemburg denounces tlie 
 insidious ambition of the King 
 of Prussia, and announces a 
 league between Wurtemburg, 
 Bavaria, and Saxony, under the 
 sanction of Austi'ia, March 15. | 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws: 
 from the Prussian league, June 
 80. I 
 
 Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2, 
 
 A Congress of Deputies from 1 
 the States included in the Prus- 
 sian ZoUverein opened at Cas- 
 sel, July 12. 
 
 A0STF.IA, etc. 
 
 The Woeld, else'nkeM. 
 
 Prussia refuses to join the 
 restricted Diet of Frankfort, 
 Aug. 25. 
 
 Difficulties occurring in 
 Hesse-Cassel, between the Elec- 
 tor and his people, in regard to 
 the mode of taxation, Austria 
 and Prussia respectively send 
 armies to the Electorate, to take 
 opposite parts in the struggle, 
 Sept.— Nov. 
 
 Austrian ultimjitum deliv- 
 ered at Berlin, directing that 
 Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight 
 days, dissolve the ErfurtLeaguo, 
 and recognize the Diet, etc., re- 
 plied to by the Prussian King's 
 signing the order calling out the 
 whole military force of the mo- 
 narchy, Nov. 6. 
 
 The Russian Ambassador at 
 Vienna announces that the Czar 
 " would consider the continu- 
 ance of the Prussian policy in 
 the Electorate as a casus belli,'''' 
 Nov. 11. 
 
 Treaty of Amnesty an- 
 nounced at Berlin. Dec. 3. 
 
 France protests, and Great 
 Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, 
 against the proposed extension 
 of the Germanic Confederation 
 beyond the Alps, Dec. 
 
 1S50. Denmark : Bloody 
 but indecisive battle ol 
 Idstedt, between the 
 Danes and Schleswig 
 Holsteiners, July 25 
 
 Yucatan : — Battle, 
 near close of the year, 
 between the Whites 
 and Indians; latter vic- 
 torious; 800 White! 
 killed. 
 
870 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period XL — 50 yean.— 
 
 1851 
 
 Jas. Richardson, the African 
 
 traveller, dies at the village 
 of Unqurta, six days distant 
 from Kouka, the capital of 
 Bornou, March 4. 
 
 A Company of Gipsies from 
 England arrive in Cecil 
 county, Maryland, U. S., 
 bringing with them all their 
 wandering habits and pecu- 
 liarities, March. 
 
 According to the evidence 
 of Mr. Bainos before a Com- 
 mittee of the House of Com^ 
 mons, there were in Great 
 Britain 13,193 places of wor- 
 ship dissenting from the 
 tenets of the Established 
 Church, to which may be 
 added Eloman Catholic Cha^ 
 pels, 597, minor sects and 
 Jews, 550; total noncon 
 formist churches, 14,340. 
 
 Exhibition of the Works 
 ol In(i%i,siry of all Nations 
 inaugurated by Queen Vic 
 tori a. May 1. 
 
 Wyld's monster globe 
 erected in London ; em- 
 ployed 800 men nearly 80 
 days in fitting up the inte 
 rior. 
 
 Daguerre, the discoverer of 
 the Dagv,&rrean or Photo- 
 graphia Art, dies, aged 61, 
 July 10. 
 
 The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) 
 Bill passes the British 
 House of Commons, with 
 only verbal protests from 
 the objecting minority, July 
 3; but is refused a second 
 reading in the House of 
 Lords, July 17. 
 
 1S51. General Quitman of 
 Mississippi arrested for al- 
 leged violation of the neu- 
 trality law of 1S18, by set- 
 ting on foot a military ex- 
 pedition against Cuba, lie 
 resigns his ofiice of Gover- 
 nor, Feb. 3. 
 
 Erie Canal Enlargement 
 Bill defeated in the N. T. 
 Senate by the withdrawal or 
 resignation of 12 democratic 
 members, Apr. 16 ; but 
 afterwards passed by a new 
 Legislature. 
 
 Minot's Ledge Light- 
 house, Boston Harbor, car- 
 ried away. It was last seen 
 standing about 3 o'clock, 
 P.M., April 16. 
 
 Arrest of a notorious 
 band of desperadoes in Mi- 
 chigan, Apr. 21. 
 
 Initial point of the Boun- 
 dary between the United 
 States and Mexico establish 
 ed on the right bank of the 
 Rio Grande del Norte, in 32 
 22 north latitude, and 219.4 
 meters from the center of 
 the bed of the river, by the 
 American and Mexican 
 Commissioners, and a mon- 
 ument erected recording 
 the same, April 24. 
 
 President issues a procla- 
 mation, warning all persons 
 within the jurisdiction of 
 the United States not to aid 
 or engiige in any expedition 
 against the Island of Cuba, 
 Apr. 25. 
 
 Convention of Delegates 
 from the Southern Rights 
 Associations of South Caro 
 lina meets at Charleston, 
 May 5; and adjourns after 
 resolving that, " witli or 
 without cooperation, they 
 are for a dissolution of the 
 Union," May 8. 
 
 Erie railroad opened 
 from New York city to 
 Dunkirk, 469 miles, by 
 President Fillmore, Daniel 
 Webster, etc.. May 15, 
 
 Riot, with loss of life, 
 at Hoboken, N. J., between 
 Germans and "short-boy" 
 rowdies from New York, 
 May 26. 
 
 Serious conila:^rations in 
 California. San Francisco 
 alone suffers by them in 
 Mav and June to the amount 
 of $12,000,000. 
 
 1S51. A strong force of Caffrea 
 attacks Fort White, Cape ol 
 Good Hope— repulsed, losg 
 20 killed. The Caffre chief, 
 Hermanns, with a body of 
 Caffres and Hottentots, at- 
 tacks Fort Beaufort, but is 
 repulsed, he and his son 
 killed, his band completely 
 routed. 8,000 Caffres attack 
 the Colonists and their allies 
 near Fort Hare ; driven 
 back with the loss of 100 
 killed, Jan. . Col. Somer- 
 set captures and burns Fort 
 Armstrong, 90 Caffres killed, 
 230 taken prisoners, Feb. 
 23. The Hottentots of the 
 Theopolis Mission Station 
 in Lower Albany, join in 
 the insurrection. May 3J. 
 They are defeated in actions 
 with the English troops on 
 the 3d and 5th of June. 
 
 The Russell Ministry re- 
 sign, Feb. 22; but after- 
 wards resume office, the 
 Earl of Derby not having 
 succeeded in forming a 
 Cabinet. 
 
 The Prohibited Affinity 
 Marriage Bill lost in tlia 
 House of Lords, Fob. 25; 
 Lord Campbell and the !;«- 
 clesiastical Bench votiiag 
 against it. 
 
I815-1865.J 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 871 
 
 Fkanok. 
 
 AusTBiA, etc. 
 
 The "Wokld, elsewhere. 
 
 IS5] 
 
 Ministry lesign, Jan. 8. 
 
 Presidential Dotation Bill 
 proposing an additional 
 grant of 1,800,000 francs, 
 rejected in the Assembly, 
 Feb. 18. 
 
 The Snb-Cominittee of the 
 Assembly appointed by the 
 Committee of Revision to 
 authenticate petitions, re- 
 ports, that up to July 1, the 
 petitions had been signed 
 by 1,123,165 persons, "thus 
 classified : For revision. 
 741,011 ; for revision and 
 prolongation of powers, 
 370,511 ; for prolongation of 
 powers, 12,103 — July 5. 
 
 The question of revision of 
 tho Constitution again ta- 
 ken in the Assembly, when 
 a minority was declared 97 
 less than tho three-fourths 
 required by the Constitu- 
 tion, July 19. 
 
 1851. Denmark : — The Government ol 
 Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Com 
 missioners of the Germanic Confedera 
 tion. Jan. 10. 
 
 The Austrians complete their mili- 
 tary possession of Hamburg, Jan. 81, 
 and the new government Issues its pro- 
 clamation, declaring its resumption ol 
 the seignorial rule of the King of Den- 
 mark, Feb. 2. 
 
 Danish mining operations in Green- 
 land produce large quantities of copper 
 ore, yielding about 60 per cent. 
 The Austrian Government and the Ottoman Porte come to 
 the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- 
 gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not 
 attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among 
 them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. 17. 
 
 Charles L. 
 Brace, an Am- 
 erican, arrested 
 and imprisoned 
 in Hungary, on 
 a charge of 
 "being a mem- 
 ber of the de- 
 mocratic com- 
 m i 1 1 e e, an 
 agent of Uj- 
 hazy and Cretz, 
 and of travel- 
 ing with revo- 
 lutionary writ- 
 ings, to spread 
 revolution,ary 
 movements," 
 May 23. 
 
 Inauguration 
 of Ranch's CO' 
 lossal statue of 
 Frederick the 
 Great at Ber 
 lin, May 81. 
 
 The Ger- 
 manic Diet, in 
 answer to Lord 
 Palmerston's 
 protest against 
 annexing the 
 non-Germanic 
 provinces of 
 Austria to the 
 Germanic Fe- 
 deration, says, 
 "That no fo- 
 reign interfe- 
 rence should be 
 allowed in a 
 purely German 
 question."July 
 17. 
 
 Australia: — Discovery of large gold 
 fields near Bathurst, Feb. 
 
 East Indies : — Fort of the celebrated. 
 
 E irate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by tho 
 panish Government of Manilla, Feh. 
 28. 
 
 Hawaii : — The difficulties between 
 the Hawaiian and French Governments 
 are arranged according to the terms of a 
 "mutual declaration," published at Ho- 
 nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign 
 relations and M. Perrin, the French 
 commissioner, March 25. 
 
 New Granada: — Congress adjourns. 
 It passed a law abolishing slavery in 
 the republic, to take effect January 1, 
 1852. May 29. 
 
 Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel 
 fi, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100 
 miles S. E. of Naples, and other towna 
 in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred 
 within 24 hours. Melfl was separated 
 by a ravine from Mount Volture, upon 
 wliich are many extinct craters. Not 
 less than 3,000 persons are said to hava 
 perished. July 14. 
 
 Ecuador : — Gen. Diego Novoa, Presi- 
 dent of the Republic, seized and put 
 on board a government vessel by Gen. 
 Urbina, who assumes the admin stra 
 tion of the Government J-jly 17. 
 
872 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period XL — 50 yeeart,-^ 
 
 1851 
 
 The lord mayor of London, 
 with several of the alder- 
 men and common council 
 men, the royal commission- 
 ers of the Exposition of In- 
 dustry, etc., and the execu- 
 tive committee of the royal 
 commissioners, leave Eng- 
 land for France, by invita- 
 tion of the prefect of the 
 Seine. They are entertained 
 with dinners, balls, sham 
 fights, and reviews of troops 
 — ^Aug. 1. 
 
 The inauguration of the rail- 
 way between St. Peters- 
 burg and Moscow, in Eus- 
 sia, takes place Sept. 1. 
 
 1851. "Vigilance committee " 
 at San Francisco hang a 
 man for stealing, June 10, 
 and another, July 11. 
 
 Gov. McDougal of Cali- 
 fornia issues his proclama- 
 tion, warning the citizens of 
 the State against " vigi- 
 lance committees," and 
 calls upon all persons to aid 
 in sustaining the law, July 
 21. 
 
 Nicaragua route, be- 
 tween New York and San 
 Francisco, opened, Aug. 12. 
 
 The people of Litchfield 
 county, Connecticut, cele- 
 brate the 2()0th anniversary 
 of its settlement, Aug. 13 
 and 14. 
 
 Great riot in New Or- 
 leans, growing out of the 
 Cuban expedition. Houses 
 of Spanish residents at- 
 tacked. The Spanish con- 
 sul is obliged to ask protec- 
 tion, and'is placed in the 
 city prison for safety, Aug. 
 21. 
 
 Riot, with loss of life, at 
 Christiana, Pa., upon an at 
 tempt to arrest a fugitive 
 slave, Sept. 11. 
 
 U. S. brig Dolphin sails 
 on an expedition to run a 
 line of soundings for tele- 
 graphic purposes across the 
 Atlantic, Oct. 
 
 Cotton-planters' conven- 
 tion (300 members) meets 
 at Macon, Ga. Its object 
 being to prevent fluctua- 
 tions in the price of cotton. 
 Little harmony of views or 
 concord of action manifest- 
 ed. Oct 
 
 XJ. S. steam frigate Mis- 
 sissippi sent to Turkey for 
 Kossuth, receives him on 
 board in the Dardanelles. 
 The French government re- 
 fuses to allow Kossuth to 
 pass through France. The 
 Mississippi proceeds on her 
 voyage with Kossuth's com- 
 panions, reaching New 
 York Nov. 10. 
 
 Kossuth arrives at New 
 York in December. Ova- 
 tions are offered him in the 
 principal cities of the Union. 
 He has an interview with 
 the President, Sept. to Dee. 
 
 1851. "The great aggregate 
 meeting" of Roman Catho- 
 lics, from all parts of the 
 United Kingdom, for the 
 inauguration of the Catho- 
 lic defense association, is 
 held at Dublin, Aug. 19. 
 
 The American yacht 
 " America," at the regatta 
 at Cowes, wins " The cup of 
 all nations," Aug. 22. 
 
 Kossuth airives by Eng 
 lish steamer from Gibraltar, 
 at Southampton, Eng. Ova- 
 tions are offered him in va. 
 rious parts of the country 
 He leaves for the United 
 States, Nov. 
 
 The submarine tele- 
 graph between Dover and 
 Calais completed, Oct. 17. 
 Opened for public use Nov 
 13. 
 
 A for.rth presidency 
 contemplated for British 
 India, and a proposal mad« 
 to remove the seat of go- 
 vernment from Calcutt* 
 to Lahore, Nov. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 R73 
 
 Feanoe. 
 
 3851 
 
 Eevolxttion: L. N. Bonaparte 
 by a coup Wetat seizes the 
 reins of government ; dis- 
 solves the national assem- 
 bly; declares a state of 
 siege ; arrests the principal 
 red-republicans and social- 
 ists; constitutes an entire 
 new ministry. The Presi- 
 dent orders an instant 
 restoration of universal suf- 
 frage; an immediate elec- 
 tion by people and army of 
 a President to hold office 
 for ten years, to be sup- 
 ported by a Council of State 
 and two houses of Legisla- 
 ture. The revolution cre- 
 ates an intense excitement. 
 The vote of the army shows 
 a large majority for L. N. 
 Bonaparte. Eesistance to 
 the usurpation is shown in 
 various parts of France, but 
 the overwhelming power of 
 the army, and a " state of 
 siege," in 33 departments, 
 crushes all opposition. The 
 election, under various con 
 trolling influences, results 
 in the confirmation of L. N. 
 Bonaparte as President for 
 ten years, by a vote of about 
 seven out of eight millions. 
 Doc 1-20. 
 
 37^ 
 
 AuSTEiA, etc. 
 
 1851. Marshal Ea- 
 detzky, by pro- 
 clamation from 
 Monga declares 
 the Lombardo- 
 Venetian kin_ 
 dom to be in a 
 state of siege, 
 July 19. 
 
 By cabinet 
 letterSjtlie Em- 
 peror ofAustria 
 declares that 
 his ministers 
 "are responsi- 
 ble to no other 
 political au- 
 thority than 
 the throne," 
 that " the 
 Eeichstadtisto 
 be considered 
 as the council 
 of the thione," 
 and the minis- 
 ter president is 
 to take " into 
 ripe and seri- 
 ous considera- 
 tion the possi- 
 bility of carry- 
 ing out the 
 Constitution 
 of March 4, 
 1849." Aug. 20. 
 
 Louis Kos- 
 suth and 35 of 
 his country- 
 men sentenced 
 to death in 
 conUimaciam, 
 at Pesth, for 
 not appearing 
 after citation, 
 Sept. 22. 
 
 The ques- 
 tion of the ad- 
 mission of 
 Jews to judi- 
 cial office in 
 Prussia, 
 brought to a 
 partial termi- 
 nation by their 
 permission to 
 study law. Oct. 
 
 The Woklo, ekowhere. 
 
 1S51. Eussia: — Her troops repeatedly de 
 feated by the Circassians. June. 
 
 Nicaragua: — Gen. Munoz, ex-minis^ 
 ter of war, deposes President Pineda, 
 and sends him and most of his cabinet 
 prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects 
 Albaunaz President. The Senate assem- 
 bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro 
 President. Aug. 4. 
 
 "West Indies : — Volcanic eruptions 
 from eight craters in the mountains of 
 Martinique, Aug. 5. 
 
 Cuba : — Expedition against Cuba un- 
 der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from 
 New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West 
 10th ; effects a landing at Cubanos, llth ; 
 Is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken, 
 ■29th, and publicly garoted, Sep. 1. His 
 followers shot or condemned to ten 
 years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse- 
 quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who 
 fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele- 
 brated with great pomp at the Cathedral 
 in Havana. $70,000 are subscribed by 
 the inhabitants of Havana, for the bene- 
 fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9 
 
 Mexico : — General Mariana Arista 
 inaugurated President, Jan. 15 ; CanaJes, 
 Carvajal, and others, issue prommcia- 
 nientos against the general govern- 
 ment. Some fighting follows, with 
 varied success, Sept. — Oct. — Nov, 
 
 Greece:— Lord Palmerston's note to 
 the Greek government produces a great 
 sensation ot Athens. Nov. 
 
 Chili :— Earthquake at Valparaiso— 
 tbe most violent since that of 1822, few 
 lives lost, but great destruction of pro- 
 perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago, 
 suppressed after two hours' street-fight- 
 ing, April 20. Eebels under Cruz &» 
 feated bv Bulnes at Longomilla, Dec. & 
 
874 
 
 THE "world's progress. 
 
 IPeriod XI.-— 50 yean 
 
 PBOGES33 OP SooiETr, etc 
 
 1851 
 
 The town of Lagos, on the 
 coast of Africa, destroyed 
 by an English force, with a 
 loss of thirty killed, and C9 
 wounded, because tlie na- 
 tive chief refused to sign a 
 treaty for the eft'eotual sup- 
 pression of the slave trade 
 in his dominions. The chief 
 is deposed, and another sub- 
 stituted iu his placOj Dee. 
 26-2T. 
 
 Deaths in 1851. 
 
 1852 
 
 United States. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 J. J. AiidU' 
 
 bon, 
 S. Olin, 
 J. F. Oooper, 
 T. U. Gallau- 
 
 det, 
 S. Q. Morton. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 J. Pye Smith, 
 
 Bexley, 
 
 JoannaBaillie, 
 
 Codrington, 
 
 Sheil, 
 
 Lingard, 
 
 Daguerre, 
 
 Soiilt, 
 
 Oersted, 
 
 .Tacobi. 
 
 Immigration into California, 
 U. S., from Asia is so large 
 as to require special Legis- 
 lation—April. 
 
 Gee AT Burr AIM. 
 
 1851. Principal room of the 
 library of Congi'ess destroy- 
 ed by fire, together with 
 paintings, statuary, models, 
 and about 35,000 volumes 
 of books, Dec. 24. 
 
 By joint resolution, the 
 Governor of Georgia is 
 authorised and requested to 
 withdraw the block of mar- 
 ble contributed to theWash- 
 ington monument by the 
 resolution of the General 
 Assembly of Febr'y, 1850, 
 with the inscription, " The 
 Constitution as it is ; the 
 Union as it was," and to 
 cause another to be pre- 
 pared of Georgia marble, 
 with the State arms thereon, 
 and to be sent to the monu 
 ment, Dec. 81. 
 
 Immigration, June 1, 
 1850, to" Dec. 81, 1851, 
 558,000. 
 
 1852. Deputations from the 1852. Lord Granville, by hla 
 
 Bstenslve fires in the Antilles, 
 March 2; California, U. S., 
 June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly 
 destroying two cities;) 
 Canada, (at Montreal) July 
 S. 
 
 various States, in behalf of 
 the Irish exiles, wait upon 
 President Filmore — Jan. 23. 
 The Ohio State House 
 entirely consumed by fire. 
 Some of the papers saved, 
 but a large mass of docu- 
 ments destroyed — Feb. 1. 
 
 Seiior Laborde, the 
 Spanish Consul at New 
 Orleans at the time of the 
 Cuban riots, and who fled 
 the city from fear of vio- 
 lence, arrives at New Or- 
 leans, is saluted, and re- 
 sumes his duties as consul — 
 Feb. 9. 
 
 Gold Medal presented 
 to Henry Clav by citizens of 
 New York. Feb. 10. 
 
 Memoria-1 presented to 
 House of Representatives 
 of California, from 1,218 cit- 
 izens of South Carolina and 
 Florida, asking permission 
 "to colonize a rural district 
 with a population of not 
 loss than 2,000 slaves." Feb. 
 10, 
 
 Homoeopathic College 
 at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed 
 and interior destroyed, in 
 consequence of remains of 
 subjects, taken from the 
 burial-ground, being dis- 
 covered near the College. 
 Feb. 16. 
 
 note to the American mi- 
 nister, in relation to the 
 firing into the A.iierican 
 steamer Prometlieus by the 
 British man-of-war Ex- 
 press, states to Mr. Law- 
 rence, for the information 
 of his government, that 
 her m.ajesty's government 
 entirely disavow the act, 
 and has no hesitation in 
 offering ample apology for 
 that w'hich they consider 
 to have been an infraction 
 of treaty engagements. Jan. 
 10. 
 
 Dr. Rao returns unsuc- 
 cessful from his search for 
 Sir John Franklin, down 
 the McKenzie river, and 
 from its mouth eastward, 
 500 miles. He w.assent out 
 in the sp: ing of 1851 by tr^a 
 Hudson's Bay Oompaiiy, 
 Feb. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 875 
 
 18M 
 
 Fbanob. 
 
 1853 
 
 President Bonaparte orders 
 the confiscation of tlic Or- 
 leans property, Jan. 23. 
 
 AusTEiA, etc. 
 
 1852. The Empe- 
 ror of Russia 
 visits tlie Em- 
 peror of Aus- 
 tria at Vienna, 
 Mays. 
 
 The Wokld, elsewhere. 
 
 1851. China: — Imperial court seriously- 
 alarmed at the progress of the disturb- 
 ance in the Southern provinces. June. 
 A large portion of the Chinese part ol 
 Hong Kong destroyed by iire : from 470 
 to 500 houses destroyed, including all 
 the printing oi^ces and the finest edi- 
 fices and public buildings. Many Uvea 
 lost. Deo. 26"28. 
 
 1852. Argentine Confederation : — General 
 Urqulza, Commander of the liberating 
 army, completes the passage of the 
 Parana with 28,000 men, 50,000 horse, 
 and 50 pieces of artillery, and prepares 
 to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- 
 tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from 
 Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza with 
 80,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troop« 
 of Rosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- 
 sults in the total defeat of Rosas and hts 
 flight to England. During the night, the 
 city Is saved from pillage by detach- 
 ments from the various ships of war of 
 all nations in the harbor, Feb. 8. The 
 allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. 
 
 — Urquiza, Director of the Argentine 
 Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10. 
 
 — The Chamber of Representatives 
 of Buenos Ayres declares the rivei 
 Parana open to the navigation of all na- 
 tion,s, Oct. 13. 
 
 Belgium : — Formation of a new mi- 
 nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party 
 under M. de Bronckcro, Nov. 1. The 
 law against the liberty of the press is 
 adopted in the Chamber of Representa- 
 tives, Dec. 1. 
 
 Cuba:— The police of Havana disco- 
 ver and capture the press of the paper, 
 " The Voice of tlie People," with the 
 materials and forms for the fourth num- 
 ber. The proprietors and employes are 
 arrested, Aug. 28. The barque Curnelia, 
 having cleared at Havana, is brought to 
 and boarded at tlie month of The harbor, 
 and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few 
 days after, the United States mail steam- 
 ship Crescent City is refused permission 
 to land her passengers and mails at Ha- 
 vana, and ordered to quit the port — 
 Captain-General Oaiiedo objecting to the 
 purser of the vessel, Mr. Smith, alleged 
 to be the reporter of false news to the 
 New Tork papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- 
 cent City again enters Havana harbor, 
 with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Canedo 
 refuses to allow passengers or mails to be 
 landed, and forbids all intercourse be- 
 tween the ship and shore. The Captain 
 protests to the Ameriean Consul, an< 
 leaves the harbor. 
 
876 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 {^Period XL — 50 years.-^ 
 
 Proqress op Society, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Bkitain. 
 
 1952 
 
 Great floods in the United 
 States, March, April, Sept., 
 and Dec. ; in England, Nov. 
 and Deo. ; on the conti- 
 nent of Europe, SepL 
 
 Telegrrrphs across the Eng- 
 lish Channel. 
 
 Earthquakes in Cuba August 
 2 and Nov. 26 ; in Manilla 
 and adjacent parts, Sept. 16, 
 Oct. IS; at Acapulco, Dec. 
 4; in the Eastern Archipe- 
 I«!.'o, Nov. 11 and Dec. 21. 
 
 At Sttiflford House, in London, 
 some English ladies, headed 
 by the Duchess of Suther- 
 land, adopt an address to 
 the women of America on 
 the subject of negro slavery. 
 It subsequently receives 
 576,000 signatures. Nov. 
 26. 
 
 Pv/niahment of Death re- 
 Btored in Tuscany. 
 
 Fall in England of the protec- 
 tionist ministry of Lord 
 Derby and Mr. D'Israeli, 
 after an existence of nine 
 months— Dec. 20. 
 
 Deaths in 1852. 
 U. 8. Europe. 
 
 H. Clay, 
 
 S. Nott, 
 M. Stuart, 
 D. Drake, 
 iT. H. Paine, 
 H. Greenough. 
 Amos Law- 
 rence, 
 Milledol&r, 
 J. Vanderlyn, 
 D. Webster, 
 J.L. Kingsley, 
 J. P. Nm-ton. 
 
 Thos. Moore, 
 Schvvartzen- 
 
 berg, 
 Pradier, 
 Wellington, 
 Dr. Mantell, 
 D'Orsay, 
 Lee. 
 
 1S52. Southern Eights conven- 
 tion at Montgomery, Ala., 
 passes resolutions against 
 making resistance to the 
 compromise measures an 
 issue of their party, and 
 against intervention, March 
 5. 
 
 Eiot during election at 
 St. Louis, April 5. 
 
 First national agricultu- 
 ral convention assembles at 
 Washington, D. 0., consist- 
 ing of 151 members, repre- 
 senting 22 States, and the 
 District of Columbia, orga- 
 nised by the choice of 
 Marshal P. Wilder, of Mass., 
 president. June 24. 
 
 Convention for revising 
 the Constitution of Louisi- 
 ana, July 5. 
 
 Kossuth continues to be 
 feted in different cities, and 
 finally quits the country 
 under the name of Alexan- 
 der Smith, July 16. 
 
 Henry Clay dies, June 
 29. Obsequies celebrated 
 at New York with great 
 pomp and magnificence, 
 July 20. 
 
 Great Britain insists upon the convention of 1818, re- 
 specting North American lisheries, being carried out by 
 the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast 
 of New Brunswick, etc. The United States government 
 dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore 
 Perry on board, to the disputed fishing grounds ; some 
 sixty fishing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- 
 formation and advice. July — Aug. 
 
 Commodore McCauley 
 commander of the United 
 States naval forces in the 
 Pacific, by proclamation, 
 withdraws his protection 
 from American vessels pro- 
 ceeding to the Lobos Is- 
 lands for guano, Oct. 18. 
 This difficulty with Peru 
 settled by the withdrawal 
 of American pretensions, 
 Nov. 15. 
 
 1852. Submarine telegraph 
 wires coated with gutla 
 percha, laid across St 
 George's Channel from Ho- 
 lyhead, a distance of eighty 
 miles, completing the com- 
 munication between Lon- 
 don and Dublin. June 1. 
 
 Queen Victoria issues 
 her proclamation against 
 " Roman Catholic ecclesias- 
 tics' wearing the habit of 
 their order, exercising the 
 rites and ceremonies of tne 
 Roman Catholic religion in 
 highways and places ol 
 public resort." June 15. 
 
 Daniel Webster dies, 
 Oct. 24. Funeral solemni- 
 ties celebrated* at Boston 
 with much state, Nov. 15. 
 
 The United States de- 
 clines the tri-partite con- 
 vention respecting Cuba 
 proposed by England and 
 France, Deo. 1. 
 
 Immigration, 875,000. 
 
 Duke of Wellington dJea, 
 Sept. 14. His funeral obse- 
 quies take place in London 
 with great pomp, Nov. 18. 
 
 Fall of the Protectionist 
 ministry of Lord Derby and 
 Mr. D'Israeli, after an exist- 
 ence of nine months, Dec. 
 2a 
 
 By a decree of the Go- 
 vernor General of British 
 India, the province of Pe 
 gu is ann rxed to the Britisk 
 dominions^ Dec 20. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 877 
 
 Fkahoe. 
 
 1868 
 
 President Bonaparte com- 
 mences his tour through 
 Southern France, Sept. 16. 
 Visits the Chateau D'Am- 
 boise, and releases Abd-el- 
 Kader, who had been a 
 prisoner for five years, Oct. 
 10. Eeturns to Paris, ma- 
 king a pompous entry into 
 the city, Oct. 16. 
 
 A decree of the President 
 convokes the Senate for 
 Nov. 4, for the purpose of 
 deliberating on the restora- 
 tion of the empire. Oct. 19 
 
 The Senate decrees the re- 
 establishment of the em- 
 pire, subject to the ratifica- 
 tion of the people, Nov. 7. 
 The vote is taken through- 
 out France and Algeria 
 Nov. 21 and 23; result- 
 7,824,189 in favor of reestab- 
 lishing the empire, against 
 253,145 negative, and 68,826 
 void ballots. 
 
 The Senate goes in a body to 
 St. Cloud, to announce offi- 
 cially the result of the elec- 
 tion to Louis Napoleon, and 
 hall him Emperor, Dec. 1. 
 
 At the Hotel de Vllle, In Paris, 
 Louis Napoleon is publicly 
 proclaimed Empekor op 
 THE Fkench, under the 
 name of Napolbon III, 
 Dec. 2. 
 
 AirsTKiA, etc. 
 
 The Wokld, elsewhere. 
 
 1852. Greece : — Signing of a convention to 
 London by the five powers, England, 
 France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in 
 reference to the affairs of Greece. None 
 but a prince of the Greek religion is 
 hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece, 
 Nov. 18. 
 
 Hawaii: — Eruption of Mauna Loo; 
 lasts several weeks. Feb. 
 
 India:— The Burmese evacuate and 
 burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- 
 der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, 
 Nov. 21. 
 
 Italy : — The Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
 refuses to give audience to an English 
 Protestant deputation in favor of Eosa 
 and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. 
 
 — The punishment of death Is rees- 
 tablished in Tuscany, for treason, crimes 
 against religion, murder, and robbery 
 with violence, Nov. 10. 
 
 — The Pope addresses a letter to thfi 
 King of Sardinia, strongly adverse ti- 
 the bill under consideration In the Pied 
 montese parliament, permitting mar 
 riages without religious ceremonies ; «■ 
 is consequently withdrawn by the mi 
 nlstry, Dec. 20. 
 
 — At Eome, Bishop Ives, of Norftj 
 Carolina, TJ. S., formerly an Ejiiscopa 
 lian, is received into the Catholic 
 Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. 
 
 Liberia :— President Eoberts attacks 
 and gains possession of the native chief 
 Boyer's principal town, Jan 15. 
 A treaty of peav;e between the courts of Vienna and 
 Eome is ratified, stipulating that the former shall main- 
 tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and 
 1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid 
 by the Papal government. Nov. 10. 
 
 Mexico: — Carvajal attacks Camargo 
 and is defeated, Feb. 21. ^ 
 
 The French Count Boulban de Ea 
 ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- 
 nera, Is defeated at Hermosillo, and his 
 expedition completely overthrown, Nov. 
 1. 
 
 Spain: — A priest, aged 63, attacks 
 with a dagger, and wounds the Queen 
 of Spain, on^her return from celebrating 
 at the cathedral a Te Deum for the 
 birth of her child, Feb. 2. He is tried, 
 convicted, degraded from his prie-stly 
 oflice, and suffers death from the gai te, 
 7th. 
 
 — Ninety-five Americans belonging 
 to the Lopez expedition, who had been 
 sent to Spain, arrive at New York, 
 March 13, having been liberated by the 
 Queen. 
 
 —The Cortes dissolved by royal de- 
 cree, for having elected De la Eosa, th« 
 anti-ministerial candidate their presi- 
 dent, Dec. 2. 
 
 1852. TheEmpe 
 ror of Austria 
 visits the King 
 of Prussia at 
 Berlin, Dec. 17, 
 
 Prussia : — 
 The bill for bi- 
 ennial parlia- 
 ments becomes 
 a law, Dec. 23. 
 
878 
 
 THE world's PROGRKSS. [Period XI. — 50 years.-' 
 
 A.D. 
 
 J'soGREsa OP Society, otc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1853 
 
 Finnans accorded to all sub- 
 
 1853. Caloric ship Eiicsson 
 
 1853. Mr. Ingersol, American 
 
 
 jects of tho Porte (not Mus- 
 
 makes her trial trip to the 
 
 envoy, feted at Liverpool 
 
 
 sulmans) conflrmirig their 
 
 Potomac, Jan. 11. 
 
 and Manchester, Jan. 4-7. 
 
 
 religious rights, June 22. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Adverse decision of Na- 
 
 Sandilli and other Caffre 
 
 
 
 poleon, arbiter between the 
 
 chiefs send in their submis- 
 
 
 
 United States and Portugal, 
 
 sion to General Cathcart, 
 
 
 
 in case of the General Arm- 
 
 thereby closing the war, 
 
 
 
 strong, read at Washington. 
 
 Feb. 10. Peace concluded. 
 
 
 
 Jan. IT. 
 
 March 9. 
 
 
 The first Norwegian railway 
 
 
 
 
 opened July 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Franklin Pierce and 
 
 Doncaster church, built 
 
 
 
 William R. King declared 
 
 in 1070, destroyed by fire, 
 
 
 
 duly elected President and 
 
 Feb. 28. 
 
 
 
 Vice-President for four 
 
 
 
 
 years from 4th March next, 
 Feb. 9. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Warlike stores, supposed 
 
 
 
 
 to be for Kossuth, seized. 
 
 
 
 W. E. King sworn in as 
 
 April 14. 
 
 
 
 Vice-President, at Cumbre, 
 
 
 
 
 Island of Cuba, Consul 
 
 
 
 
 Sharkey administering the 
 
 
 
 The American expedition un- 
 
 oath, March 24. 
 
 
 
 der Com. Perry arrives at 
 
 
 Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- 
 
 
 Japan, July 8. On tlie 14th 
 
 
 thoress of " Uncle Tom's 
 
 
 he lands and delivers to the 
 
 
 Cabin," received at Stafford 
 
 
 Imperial commissioners the 
 
 
 House by many of the no- 
 
 
 letter from the American 
 
 Second American Arctic 
 
 bility and statesmen ol 
 
 
 President ; a few days after 
 
 expedition leaves New 
 
 England, May 7. 
 
 
 leaves the island, to return 
 
 York, May 81. 
 
 
 
 in the spring. 
 
 
 Dublin Industrial Exhi- 
 
 
 
 Important amendments 
 
 bition opened. May 12. 
 
 
 
 to the city charter of Now 
 
 
 
 
 York, restraining the power 
 
 
 
 
 of municipal officers in 
 
 
 
 
 money matters, adopted by 
 
 
 
 
 a vote of 36,6T2 in favor. 
 
 The "strike" at Stock- 
 
 
 
 3,351 against, Juno 7. 
 
 port ceases, and 20,000 men 
 resume labor, having ac- 
 complished their object, an 
 advance of ten per cent, in 
 their wages, August 8. Si- 
 
 
 Over 60,000 pHgrims enter 
 
 Crystal Palace at New 
 
 milar strikes occur at Leeds, 
 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, to visit the 
 
 York opened in presonco of 
 
 Kidderminster, and othes 
 
 
 exhibition of the relics, Ju- 
 
 the President of the United 
 
 cities. 
 
 
 ly 17. 
 
 States, otc, July 14. 
 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 879 
 
 1868 
 
 Fbance. 
 
 The Pantheon at Paris re- 
 opened as the Church of 
 St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. 
 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
 at last acknowledge Napo- 
 leon III. Emperor of the 
 French, Jan. 11. 
 
 Marriage of the Emperor and 
 Eugenie de Montijo, Count- 
 ess de Teba, celebrated at 
 Cathedral of Notre Dame, 
 Paris. Amnesty granted 
 to 4,312 political prisoners 
 and exiles, Jan. 80. 
 
 "General St. Priest, and many 
 other legitimisls, secretly 
 arrested in Paris, on the 
 charge of political commu- 
 nication with the Count of 
 Chambord, and some of 
 having sent false intelli- 
 gence to foreign journals, 
 Feb. 6. 
 
 Application Is made by the 
 French government to the 
 English for Napoleon's 
 will, Feb. IT. Subsequent- 
 ly granted. 
 
 Funeral of Mme. Ras,iail at 
 Paris, the occasion of a 
 formidable socialist demon- 
 stration. 40,000 persons 
 march in procession to Pere 
 la Chaise, March 13. 
 
 Fleet sent to Turkish waters, 
 March 20. 
 
 A peace address, signed by 
 4,000 English merchants, 
 bankers and traders, is pre- 
 sented to Napoleon III. at 
 the Tuilleries, by English 
 men, March 28. 
 
 A bill restoring capital pnn 
 ishment for attempts on the 
 life of the Emperor, or to 
 subvert the Imperial go 
 vernment, la passed, May 
 28. 
 
 Austria, etc 
 
 1853. Austria of- 
 fers herself as 
 a mediator be- 
 tween the 
 Turks and 
 Montenegrins, 
 Feb. 1. 
 
 Attempt on 
 the life of Em- 
 peror of Aus- 
 tria at the ram- 
 parts of Vien- 
 na, Feb. 18. 
 
 Baden: — 
 Prof. Gervinns 
 tried for high 
 treason,in pub- 
 lishing his "In- 
 troduction to 
 the History of 
 19th century." 
 Sentence, ten 
 months' jm- 
 prisonmeni, 
 and book to be 
 destroyed, 
 March 5. 
 
 Prussia : — 
 Democratic 
 conspiracy dis- 
 covered at Ber- 
 lin, March 29. 
 
 Austria re- 
 cals her mi;iiS' 
 ter fVom Berne, 
 May 20. 
 
 Tub Wokld, elsewhere. 
 
 1852. Switzeriand :— The Canton of Ticlno 
 suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, 
 and expels all of that order under 65 
 years of ago, Nov. 25. 
 
 Turkey : — War breaks out between 
 the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15. 
 
 1853. Belgium: — A maritime congress as- 
 sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. 
 
 — Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, 
 heir-apparent of the throne, and the 
 Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. 
 
 Can.ida and New Brunswick: — Ga- 
 vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; 
 riots ensue ; military called out ; June 
 6-9. 
 
 — The first sod of the European and 
 North American Railroad turned at St. 
 Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the 
 Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 
 25,000 persons, Sept. 14. 
 
 China :— Nankin taken by the rebels ; 
 Tartar garrison (20,000) massacred; 
 March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. 
 
 Denmark: — Parliament prorogued, 
 and a " fundamental" law issued, by 
 which the government becomes hereaf- 
 ter an absolute one, July 19. 
 
 Hawaii :— Small-pox rages, having 
 carried off since May 1,805 out of a po- 
 pulation of 60,000 persons, Aug. 31. 
 
 Holland : — The first chamber adopts 
 the much-disputed law on religious li- 
 berty, Sept. 8. 
 
 India: — Battle of Donabew, in Bur- 
 mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, 
 March 19. 
 
 Italy : — An insurrection breaks out 
 at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed 
 by Kadetsky, Feb. 6. The property of 
 the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- 
 tered till they can prove they are not 
 implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 
 Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, 
 Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- 
 versies between Austria and both Sar- 
 dinia and Switzerland, follow — Sardinia 
 solemnly protesting, April 16. 
 
 — The Pope prohibits the circulation 
 of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- 
 ons. May 10. 
 
 Guerazzi tried at Florence for high 
 treason, and found guilty, June 11. 
 
 —Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests, 
 Aug. 15. 
 
 — Order signed for immediate release 
 of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9. 
 
 —New church, built for the Wal- 
 denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, 
 Dec. 15. 
 
 Mexico : — Now revolution ; Arista 
 resigns the presidency, Jan. 5. 
 
 — Santa Anna having been elected 
 President, is received in Mexico witb 
 groat enthusiasm, April 17. 
 
8S0 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Feriod XL — 50 years.-" 
 
 1853 
 
 PsOaRESS OP SOCIBTY, etc. 
 
 A great national horse-show 
 at Springfield, Mass, U. S., 
 Oct 19-21. 
 
 The first Presbyterian Chinese 
 church organized at San 
 Francisco, U. S., Nov. 6. 
 
 Duel between Soul6 and 
 De Turgot, American and 
 French ministers to Spain, 
 Dec. 18. 
 
 Cholera prevails In Europe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Several new asteroids discov 
 ered, raising the number to 
 27, between the planets 
 Mars a.id Jupiter. 
 
 Dmths in 1858 : 
 
 U.S. 
 
 O. B. Adams, 
 
 JuniusSmith, 
 W. B. King, 
 B. Bates, 
 Sim. Oreen 
 leaf. 
 
 EUKOPB. 
 
 Arago, 
 Von Buch, 
 D acres, 
 Mrs. Opie, 
 
 Wardlaw. 
 
 Great Beitaik. 
 
 1853. Great heat throughout 
 the country — thermometer 
 every where 100° Fah. 
 Deaths from it in New 
 York city in four days, 400, 
 Aug. 11-14. 
 
 Remaining portion of 
 "Table Kock," at the Falls 
 of Niagara, breaks off, Sept 
 9. 
 
 "Great Eepubllc," ves 
 sel of 4,000 tuns, largest 
 merchantman In the world, 
 launched at East Boston, 
 Mass., Oct. 4. 
 
 Captain Gunnison and 
 party massacred by the 
 Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. 
 
 Inauguration of the 
 Washington aqueduct. 
 President Pierce turns the 
 first turf, Nov. 9. 
 
 A mob of raen and wo- 
 men demolish the railroad 
 track near Erie, Penn., Dec. 
 9, and repeat the outrage, 
 Dec. 27. 
 
 Yellow fever epidemic 
 in the States bordering on 
 Gulf of Mexico, carries off 
 from 12,000 to 15,000 per 
 sons. 
 
 Bedini, the Papal Nun 
 cio, trios to influence the 
 EomanCatbolic laity to give 
 up their church property to 
 the Bishops, but does not 
 succeed. He quits the 
 country ignominiously. 
 
 Immigrstlon, 868,000. 
 
 1853. Naval Review at Spit- 
 head, in presence of th« 
 Queen, Aug. 11. 
 
 Queen Victoria risits 
 
 Ireland, Aug. 29. 
 
 Deputation from th6 
 Protestant Alliance, headed 
 by the Earl of Shaftesbury, 
 waits upon Lord Clarendon, 
 to state the case of Miss 
 Cunningham, arrested at 
 Lucca for distributing Ita- 
 lian Bibles, etc., and to 
 urge the government to 
 procure her immediate li- 
 beration. Sept 23. A depu 
 tation of clergymen anf 
 others, headed by Sir Cul 
 ling Eardley, wait upoi 
 Lord Clarendon and thanfi, 
 him and the governmeni; 
 for the exertions which ha 
 been made, Oct. 27. 
 
 Bronze statue of Sir E »- 
 bert Peel erected in fro «l 
 of the Koyal Infirmary ** 
 Manchester, Oct. 3. 
 
 Captain Inglefield, of the 
 Phoenix, arrives from the 
 Arctic regions, with the 
 news of the discovery of 
 the North-west Passage, on 
 Oct 26, 1850, by Captain 
 McClure of the Investiga- 
 tor, Oct. 7. 
 
 The first stone of a Ro- 
 man Catholic cathedral 
 laid at Shrewsbury, by 
 Bishop Brown— the young 
 Earl of Shrewsbury giving 
 £15,000 towards its erection 
 —Dec. 12. 
 
 The Dublin Exhibition 
 building is formally opened 
 as a winter garden, by the 
 Lord Lieutenant and the 
 Countess St Germain^ 
 Dec. 15. 
 
1816-1865.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 881 
 
 1658 
 
 Fkanok. 
 
 Plot to assassinate the Empe- 
 ror, while on bis way to the 
 Opera Comique, discovered 
 at Paris, July 7. 
 
 Austria, etc. 
 
 A Boman circus of great size 
 discovered at Tours, Aug. 
 81. 
 
 The Dnke de Nemours, on 
 behalf of the entire Orleans 
 House, effects a reconcilia- 
 tion with the Count de 
 Chambord, Nov. 17. 
 
 laauguratlon of the statue of 
 Marshal Ney, on the spot 
 where he was shot, and the 
 anniversary of his execu- 
 tion, Deo. 7. 
 
 Tnii WoELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1S5S. Persia: — Earthquakes destroy Shl« 
 raz, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Tehe- 
 ran, July 11. 
 
 Peru; — Difficulty at Chinch a Islands 
 between Peruvian commandant and 
 American shipmasters, Aug. 17. 
 
 Portugal :— Maria (Queen) dies, Nov. 
 
 1853, AnAustrian 
 war vessel in 
 the port of 
 Smyrna, seizes 
 and attempts 
 to carry off 
 Martin Koszta, 
 a Hungarian 
 refugee, travel- 
 ing under an 
 American pass- 
 port, who 
 claims protec- 
 tion of Ameri- 
 can iiag. An 
 American fri- 
 gate places the 
 Austrian un- ■ 
 der her guns, 
 and Koszta's 
 release is impe- 
 ratively de- 
 manded, June 
 21. 
 
 Austrian go- 
 vernment pro 
 tests against 
 proceedings of 
 Captain In gra- 
 ham at Smyr- 
 na, In a circu 
 lar addressed 
 to the Earojje- 
 an courts, Aug. 
 1, and through 
 Its eqvoy ad- 
 dresses a note 
 to the Ameri- 
 can govern- 
 ment on the 
 same subject, 
 Aug. 29. 
 
 Eastern Affaieb. — "Wab between Ttteket and 
 Etjssia.— Prince Menschikoff sent by the Emperor of Rus- 
 sia with demands which are rejected by the Porte, May 21, 
 June 15. The Russians cross the Pruth, 120,000 strong, 
 June 21-23. — Tlie Porte addresses a protest to the Russian 
 cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July 
 14. The Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated 
 "Vienna note," for the Joint acceptance of Russia and 
 Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts; Turkey re- 
 quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will not ac- 
 cede to, Sept. 14. Military congress at Olmutz, Sept. 20. 
 The note is dropped, Sept. 80. Turkey declares war 
 against Russia, Oct. 3. Hostilities commenced on the 
 Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicliolas in the 
 Black Sea, Oct. 81. Turks defeat Russi."ins at Oltenitza, 
 Nov. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11. 
 The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4, 
 and the Bosphorus, Nov. 15. Turks beaten and massa- 
 cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 30. The Vienna Con- 
 ference continues its efforts to effect an arrangement be- 
 tween the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of 
 the people of Constantinople in favor of war, Dec. 21. 
 Russians uniformly victorious in Asia. The religious fanar 
 ticism of both parlies is aroused. 
 
 10. 
 
 Spain : — New and stringent law 
 against liberty of the press publisl>ed, 
 Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo- 
 ration of her birth-day, orders three 
 screw-frigates to be constructed, to be 
 called after the three queens from whom 
 she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra- 
 gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. 
 
 Switzerland : — Insurrection in Fri- 
 burg by the Jesuit party speodily sup- 
 pressed, April 22. 
 
 Venezuela : — Earthquake at Cumana ; 
 600 persons killed, July 15. 
 
882 
 
 THE world's PROaRESS. 
 
 YPerioa XL — 50 years. 
 
 1854 
 
 Pbogbbss of SooiBTr, etc. 
 
 Deputation of " Friends" pre^ 
 sents to the Emperor of 
 Russia a peace memorial, 
 Feb. 10. 
 
 Complete equality before the 
 law secured to all subjects 
 of the Porte, without dis- 
 tinction of creed, by treaty, 
 March 12. 
 
 Commercial treaty concluded 
 between the United States 
 and Japan, March 23. 
 
 In Turkey, the possessions of 
 the Mosques to be declared 
 the property of the State 
 from March 27. 
 
 The first roAlwoAf Is opened 
 in Brazil, the Emperor and 
 Empress being present at 
 the inauguration, April 80. 
 
 The changes introduced in the 
 Ottoman Empire by the in- 
 fluence of the Allied Pow- 
 ers, amount to a revolution 
 in its social condition. 
 
 Marked increase in the nnm^ 
 bers and prosperity of 
 Christians in Turkey ; Mo- 
 hammedaa population, ex- 
 cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- 
 ing out 
 
 Cross raised In a Catholic 
 bcrying ground belonging 
 to the French, in Turkey, 
 
 United States. 
 
 1854. The steamer San Fran- 
 cisco founders at sea; 240 
 U. S. troops washed over- 
 board ; the rest of 700 res- 
 cued by the Three Bells, 
 Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan. 
 5. 
 
 Astor Library opened 
 for use of the public, in New 
 York city, Jan. 9. 
 
 Outrages on the railroad 
 near Erie, Pa., renewed by 
 mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31 
 
 Skirmishes between U. 
 8. troops and -Apache and 
 Utah Indians, March 5, 30. 
 
 Certain sections of the 
 " Maine Liquor Law" deci- 
 ded to be unconstitutional 
 la Massachusetts, March 13. 
 
 Miss Dix's bill for ame 
 liorating the condition of 
 the indigent insane, vetoed, 
 April 20. 
 
 Great flood in the Con- 
 necticut river, hundreds 
 driven from their dwel- 
 lings. May 1. 
 
 Mass meetings at Bos- 
 ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, 
 N. H., Feb. '27; New York, 
 May 13, against the Ne- 
 braska bill, which, how- 
 ever, becomes a law, May 
 30. 
 
 Riots in Michigan, April 
 17; at Boston, (attempt to 
 rescue a fugitive slave,) 
 May 26 ; at New York and 
 Brooklyn, (papist interfe- 
 rence with street-preach- 
 ing,) May 28, June 4, 11 
 
 San Juan, Nicaragua, 
 bombarded and burnt by 
 the U. 8. sloop-of-war, Cy- 
 ano, July 13. 
 
 1854. Parliament opened by 
 Queen, who expresses a de- 
 sire that exertions for an 
 amicable settlement of the 
 Eastern difficulties shouVi 
 be persevered in, Jan. 81. 
 
 Gee AT Britain. 
 
 The Queen reviews th« 
 fleet on its departure for 
 the Baltic, March 11. 
 
 A day of humiliation 
 and prayer observed, April 
 26. 
 
 Launch of the "Royal 
 Albert," tho Queen chrle- 
 tening the vessel, May 13. 
 
 Crystal Palace at Sj 
 douham opened by tli 
 Queen, June 10. 
 
1815-1866.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 883 
 
 AtrsTKiA, etc. 
 
 1854. Alliance, 
 offensive and 
 defensive, be- 
 tween Austria 
 and Prussia, 
 signed April 
 20. 
 
 The "yVokld, elsewliere. 
 
 1654 
 
 The Emperor and Empress 
 attend the first agricultural 
 exhibition ever held In Pa- 
 ris, June 9l 
 
 The Emperor reviews a di- 
 vision of troops about to 
 proceed to the Baltic, July 
 
 1854. Brazil : — San Salvador destroyed by 
 an earthquake, causing a loss, in lesa 
 than one minute, of 200 lives, and 
 $4,000,000 of property, April 16. 
 
 Canada:— Parliament House at Que- 
 bec burnt, including government library 
 and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1. 
 
 India: — The Ganges Canal, & work 
 of vast magnitude opened, April 8. 
 
 — Day of humiliation and prayer for 
 success of the British arms, observed at 
 Bombay and all over India, by the na- 
 tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. 
 
 Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the 
 country between Florence and Eome, 
 May, 
 
 — Railway from Lusa to Turin Inau- 
 gurated in presence of King and Queen 
 of Sardinia, etc., May 22. 
 
 Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be 
 tween some Frenchmen under Count 
 Eaousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans, 
 July 13. The Count is defeated, taken 
 prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. 
 
 Russia : — An imperial ukase calls out 
 nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por 
 tlon of the Empire, May 9. 
 
 Spain : — Earthquake at Piana, crum- 
 bling down the greatest part of the Al- 
 cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, 
 and causing large chasms in nearly all 
 the streets, Jan. 13. 
 
 — Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- 
 zans demand of the municipal authorities 
 that the price of provisions be reduced, 
 and wages increased, March 81. 
 
 — The insurrection of the people 
 at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the 
 Rivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- 
 tero enters the city, and is received 
 with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,00C 
 defenders of the barricades defile before 
 the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- 
 ing herself on the balcony, July 31. 
 
 — Doiia Maria Christina, the Queen 
 Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- 
 der escort of troops, but against the will 
 of the people. She was indebted to the 
 State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. 
 
 Turkey: — Fire at Constantinople, 
 400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. 
 
 — Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- 
 ings, April 8. 
 
 — Banquet given by the Sultan to 
 Prince Napoleon, May 8. 
 
 — Fire at Varna, destroys ISO houses 
 and vast quantities of military stores, 
 Aug. 10. 
 
884 
 
 THE WORLb's progress. [Period XI. — 50 years. — 
 
 1854 
 
 Pkoorebs of Society, etc. 
 
 The Sultan issues a flrman for 
 the constructiou of a church 
 at Scutari, Sept. 
 
 DeatM in 1864. 
 
 1865 
 
 U.S. 
 
 If. B. Slunt, 
 Jacob Bur- 
 nett, 
 John Davis, 
 Com. Doi07ies, 
 J. Earriny- 
 ton, last sur- 
 vivor of bat- 
 tle of Lex- 
 ington. 
 Mrs. S. Jud- 
 
 S071. 
 
 Bishop Wain- 
 loright. 
 
 EtTEOPK. 
 
 Anglesea, 
 
 Bodisco, 
 
 Cockburn, 
 
 Forbes, 
 
 Jameson, 
 
 Maitland, 
 
 Melloui, 
 
 Montgomery, 
 
 Paixhans, 
 
 Pellico, 
 
 Plunkett, - 
 
 Kubini, 
 
 Schelling, 
 
 Mme. Sontag, 
 
 Mrs. 0. South- 
 
 ey, 
 Talfourd, 
 Wilson, 
 St. Arnaud, 
 Denman, 
 Lockbart. 
 
 ^^Immaculate Conception of 
 the Virgin" proclaimed as a 
 dogma by the pope, Dec. 8, 
 
 United States. 
 
 1865. Panama railroad com- 
 pleted, first train on it Jan, 
 28. 
 
 Financial wawic in California, 
 Feb. 
 
 Suspension Bridge at Niaga- 
 ra first crossed, March 14 
 
 Difficulty In Phila. about 
 slaves of J. H. Wheeler of 
 N. Carolina, July 18. 
 
 Election riot at Louisville, 
 Ky., between Americans 
 and foreigners, Aug. 6. 
 
 Passmore Williamson 
 leased from jail (where he 
 had been three months in 
 the Wheeler slave ca»e), 
 Nov. a 
 
 1854. Grisi and Mario, the two 
 most renowned lyric ar- 
 tists of the old world, arrive 
 at New York, Aug. 19. 
 
 Extensive drought pre- 
 vails several weeks. 
 
 Cholera prevails, June- 
 Nov. ; yellow fever prevails. 
 Aug.-Nov. 
 
 Immigration, about 500,000. 
 
 " Ostend Conference" be- 
 tween Buchanan, Mason, 
 Soul6, Oct 10, 11. 
 
 1855. Southern Commercial 
 Convention at New Orleans, 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 Gkbat Britaih. 
 
 Soul6 quits Madrid Jan. 
 31. 
 
 U. 8. S. Waterwitch flred 
 on, on the Paraguay, Feb. 1. 
 
 U. S. Dist. Court in Wis- 
 consin pronounces the Fu- 
 gitive Slave Law unconsti- 
 tutional, Feb. 3. 
 
 Convention at Lawrtoce, 
 Kansas, Aug. 14. 
 
 Walker (filibuster) takes 
 possession of Granada, Oct. 
 16. 
 
 Kansas : Convention at 
 
 Topeka, Oct 23. 
 
 Law passed for the en- 
 listment of foreigners in the 
 British service, Dea 22. 
 
 1855. Visit of the Emperor 
 and Empress of France, 
 April 16. 
 
 Death- of Lord Raglan, 
 Commander-in-chief at Se- 
 bastopol, June 28. 
 
 The Queen and Prince 
 Albert visit the Emperor 
 Louis Napoleon at Paris, 
 Aug. 18. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 885 
 
 1856. Subscriptions to the 
 French loan of 500 millions 
 of francs amount to 2,000 
 millions of francs, offered 
 by 177,000 persons. 
 
 Death of Don Carlos, 
 claimant of the Spanish 
 throne, March 10. 
 
 Indust'l Exhibition open- 
 ed at Paris, May 15. 
 
 1854. Saxony: — 1854. Venezuela: — Slaves emancipated. 
 The King AprU 25. 
 
 thrown from 
 his carriage at 
 Innspruck, and 
 killed, Aug. 10. 
 
 Eastern ArFArRS. — The Anglo-French fleet enters 
 the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Russians at Citate, 
 Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi- 
 enna Conference, Jan. Russian ambassadors quit Lon- 
 don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb, 7. English and French ambassa- 
 dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and 
 France resolve to summon Russia to evacuate the Prin- 
 cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Russians cross the 
 Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between 
 England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French 
 ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Russia refuses 
 a feply. England and France declare war against Russia, 
 March 28. Counter declaration of war by Russia against 
 England and France, April 12. Convention between 
 England and France, April IS. Odessa bombarded, April 
 22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. 
 Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Russians raise the 
 siege of Silistria, June 2-3, and re-cross the Danube, July 
 7. Russians defeated by Turks at Rutschuk, July 12 and 
 13. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- 
 cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the 
 Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armiesi 
 enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- 
 mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Russians at the Ahna, Sept. 
 20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fira 
 opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Russians repulsed, 
 Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Russians again repulsed. 
 Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 81. 
 
 1855. Russia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. 
 
 — ^The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of 
 Azoph, May 24. 
 
 ~ The allies repulsed in an assault on the outposts of 
 Sebastopol, June 18. 
 
 — Kars invested by the Russians, June 23. 
 
 FALL OF SEBASTOPOL— 
 The Malakhoff carried by the 
 French, Sep. 8. 
 
 Terrific attack of the Rus- 
 sians on Kars repvilsed, Sep. 29. 
 
 Mexico : Sarta Anna 
 abdicates. Aug, 9. Car- 
 rara chosen to cuoceed 
 Mm. 
 
886 
 
 THE world's PEOGEESS. [Period XL— 50 years.- 
 
 Pkogkksb of Societt, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 GeBAT BBITAnf, 
 
 1855 
 
 Deaths in 1855 : 
 
 U.S. 
 
 S. H. Cone, 
 
 Abbott Law- 
 rence, 
 
 Jstn 0. Spen- 
 cer, 
 
 T. K. Beck. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Sir H. Bishop, 
 Silk Bucking- 
 ham, 
 Jos. Hume, 
 Miss Mitford, 
 Nicholas I. 
 "Currer Bell." 
 Sir W.E. Par- 
 ry. 
 Lord Eaglan, 
 Saml. Rogers, 
 Ans. Eoths- 
 
 child. 
 Lord Truro. 
 
 Launch of the stm. Adriatic 
 (the largest yet afloat) at 
 N. T., April T. 
 
 1855. Proclamation against Jilibus- 
 terlsm by President Pierce, Dec. 
 8, 
 
 British Arctic vessel Eesolute 
 found and brought to New London 
 by an American whaler, Dec. 23. 
 
 1S55. Visit of the 
 King of Sardinia to 
 England, Nov. 30. 
 
 Captain McOlure \ 
 receives the re- ^ 
 ward of £5,000 for 
 discovery of " th« 
 N. W. passage,''' 
 and Is knighted 
 Nov 
 
 1856 
 
 Personal Assault on Senator 
 Sumner of Mass., in the U. 
 S. Senate by Brooks of S. 
 Ca., May 22. 
 
 Submarine Telegraph cable 
 laid from Cape Breton to 
 Newfoundland, July 12. 
 
 Burlinghame's acceptance of 
 Brooks's challenge, July 
 21. 
 
 Brooks and Keitt re-elected 
 to Congress from S. C, July 
 28. 
 
 Dudley Observatory inaug. 
 at Albany. Aug. 28. 
 
 Preston S. Brooks, the as- 
 saulter of Sumner, publicly 
 welcomed and presented 
 with a cane, at Columbia, 
 S. C, Aug. 29. 
 
 Charles Sumner received in 
 Boston with public hon- 
 ors, Nov. 3. 
 
 N. Y. and Newfoundland 
 Telegraph line, 1715 miles, 
 opened to St. John's, Nov, 
 10 
 
 1856. N. P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect- 
 ed Speaker of House of Eepresent. 
 of U. S., after a contest of 9 weeks, 
 by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2. 
 
 Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon- 
 sin, Jan. — Fob. 
 
 Mr. Fillmore nominated for Pres't 
 by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 22. 
 
 Free State Legisl. at Topeka, 
 Kansas, elect Eeeder and Lane as 
 delegates to Congress, Feb. 8. 
 
 Kansas Investigation Committee 
 appointed, March 19. 
 
 Padre Vigil recognised as Mlnist. 
 from Nicaragua, May 14. 
 
 President's message announcing 
 difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enlist- 
 ments in the U. S., May 29. 
 
 Buchanan nominated for Pres't 
 by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7. 
 
 Fremont nominated for Pres't by 
 Eepub. Conven. at Phila., June 17. 
 
 H. Eepres. U. S. pass a bill ad' 
 mitting Kansas under Topeka Con., 
 July 8. 
 
 Topeka legislature dispersed by 
 U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, 
 July 4. 
 
 John W. Geary confirmed as Gov. 
 of Kansas, July 31. 
 
 Whitelield and Eeeder both re- 
 jected by H. Eepres. as delegates 
 from Kansas, Aug. 1. 
 
 Extra session of Congress ad- 
 journed Aug. 80. 
 
 Municipal electioii riot at Balti- 
 more, 9 k., Oct. 8. 
 
 U. S. troops in Kajsas arrest and 
 disarm parties of emigrants from N, 
 E., Oct. 10. 
 
 Buchanan elected Pres. Nov. 4 
 
 Brit, fleet bom 
 bard and partiallj 
 destroy Canton 
 China, Oct 28. 
 
1815-1865. 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 887 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1855. Omar Pasha defeats 
 the Eussians at the Ingour, 
 Nov. 5. 
 
 Explosion of 100,000 lbs. 
 of powder at Sebastopol, 
 Nov. 15. 
 
 Surrender of Kars to the 
 Eussians after a famous de- 
 fence by Gen. 'Williams, 
 Nov. 25. 
 
 The World, elsewher*. 
 
 1855. Mexico : — Alvarez re- 
 signs the presidency, and it 
 succeeded by Comonfort, 
 Deo. 
 
 Peace Conference at Paris 
 
 opened Feb. 25. 
 Birth of an heir to the throne, 
 
 March 16. 
 Treaty of Peace with Russiw 
 
 signed at Paris, March 80. 
 
 Destructive floods near Ly- 
 ons, &o., whole villages de 
 stroyed, June. 
 
 1856. Preliminaries of Peace 
 signed at Vienna, Feb. 1. 
 
 The Crimea wholly eva- 
 cuated by the Allies, July 
 12. 
 
 Russia : — Alexander IL 
 crowned emperor, Sept. 7. 
 
 — Railways of 2600 
 miles contracted for by 
 Government. Capital, 1000 
 millions of francs, Oct. 2" 
 
 Naples : — French and 
 English ministers leave, 
 Oct 28. 
 
 1856. Costa Rica : — Sehlessin- 
 ger and Walker's invasion 
 defeated, March 20. 
 
 — Walker defeats 3,000 
 Costa Eicans at Eivas, Ap. 
 11. 
 
 Panama: — Eiot on the 
 Panama E.E., 30 passengers 
 killed, April 15. 
 
 Gunpowder explosion at 
 Salonica, Turkey, 700 *. 
 and w., July 17. 
 
 Earthquake in Egypt 
 Syria, and isles of Med, 
 About 1200 lives lost, and 
 many thousand building* 
 destroyed, Oct. 12. 
 
 Granada, city of, de 
 stroyed by Walker, Not 
 20-25. 
 
THE WOKLd'S progress. [Period XL — 50 years.— 
 
 Pkogeess of Society, etc. 
 
 Unitkd States. 
 
 Beitish Emtibb. 
 
 1856 
 
 Revival of the African Slave 
 Trade i-ecommended by 
 Gov. Adams in S. Ca. 
 
 Arctic discovery ship Reso- 
 lute presented to Queen 
 Victoria by Lieut. Ilart- 
 stene for the U. S. Govern- 
 ment, Dec. 80. 
 
 Dmtha in 1856 : 
 
 1856. Barrier Forts, near Can- 
 ton, Cliina, destroyed by 
 U. S. squadron, for an at- 
 tack on an American boat, 
 Dec. 6. 
 
 Resolution against the 
 Slave Trade passed by H. 
 of Reps. U. S., Dec. 15. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 J. M. Berrien. 
 
 Ogden Hoff- 
 man. 
 
 Com. Morris. 
 
 J. G.Perceval. 
 
 Jno. 0. War- 
 ren. 
 
 J. M. Clayton, 
 U. S. S. 
 
 George Steers, 
 naval archi 
 tect. 
 
 T. Crawford, 
 sculptor. 
 
 Louis M'Lane. 
 
 EUKOPE. 
 
 Jno. Braham, 
 vocalist. 
 
 Sir W. Hamil- 
 ton, meta- 
 physician. 
 
 Von Biela, as- 
 tronomer. 
 
 LVl Ilardinsce. 
 
 Father Mat- 
 thew. 
 
 Hugh Miller. 
 
 Sir Jno. Ross. 
 
 Westmacott. 
 
 Yanell. 
 
 PL Delaroche. 
 
 lesTlGeo. Peabody gives $300,000 
 I to establish a free Literary 
 and Scientific Institute at 
 Baltimore, Feb. 12. 
 
 The Chief-Justice of the U. 
 8. proclaims that negroes 
 have no riglit« which white 
 men are bound to respect, 
 March 6. 
 
 Bred Scot decision" de- 
 nounced by the Legislature 
 of N. Hampshire, June 25. 
 
 The Atlantic Telegraph Ca- 
 ble first joined at sea by 
 the Niagara and Agamem- 
 non, Aug. 5, but breaks 
 Aug. 11. 
 
 Loss of thfl Central America 
 and 450 lives, Sept. 8. 
 
 Mass meetings of unemployed 
 workmen 'in N. Y., Nov. 2 
 and 10. 
 
 Stm. Adriatic starts on first 
 voyage to Liverpool, Nov. 
 88. 
 
 1857. Four members of H. 
 of Representatives of U. S. 
 from N. Y. and Conn, ex- 
 pelled for corrupt conduct, 
 Feb. 19. 
 
 Buchanan inaugxirated 
 President, March 4. 
 
 Lord Napier recognised 
 as British minister, March 
 16. 
 
 The Deed Scot Deci- 
 sion delivered by Chief- 
 Justice Taney, March 6. 
 
 R. J. AValker accepts ap- 
 pointment as Governor of 
 Kane.as, March 26. 
 
 Attempt to arrest Mayor 
 Wood in N. Y. for an as- 
 sault on the Street Com- 
 missioner, June 16. 
 
 General Financial Pa 
 nic begins with suspension 
 ot Ohio Life and Trust Co., 
 Aug. 24. 
 
 Leconipton Con/eeniion, 
 Kansas, meets Sept. 7. 
 
 Suspension of Philad 
 banks, Sept. 25 and 26, foV 
 lowed by general suspen. of 
 banks in Pa., Md., D. C 
 R.I. 
 
 Suspension of N. Y. city 
 banks, Oct. 13-14, and MaS' ' 
 sachusetts banks same day, 
 
 Payments resumed, Deo. 
 12. 
 
 1857. Treaty of Peace with 
 Persia signed March 5. 
 
 Palmerston Ministry out- 
 voted on the Chinese ques- 
 tion, March 6. 
 
 New septennial Parlia- 
 ment meets, April 80. 
 
 The Manchester Art Ex- 
 hibition opened. May 5. 
 
 Bebellion in India begins 
 May 9 ; King of Delhi pro- 
 claimed sovereign of India. 
 
 Havelook defeats the re- 
 bels under Nena Sahib, and 
 recaptures Cawnpore, July 
 13. 
 
 The Emp. and Empress 
 toria, Aug. 6. 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell, the 
 new com. -in-chief, arrive! 
 at Calcutta, Aug. 14. 
 
 De'hi taken after an a» 
 sault of 6 days, Sept 14 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 8S9 
 
 Feanck. 
 
 EuEOPB, elsewhere. "Wokld, elsewhere. 
 
 1857. Austria: — Amnesty to 
 
 Eolitical offenders in Lom- 
 ardy, &&, Jan. 25. 
 
 186T. Mexico: New constitu« 
 tion promulgated, March 11. 
 
 Costa Eica : — Walker sur« 
 renders Klvas, and agrees to 
 leave Nicaragua, May 1. 
 
 Df the French Tisit Queen Vlo- 
 
 Sweden and Norway: — 
 Charles Louis, Prince- 
 Eoyal, made Eegcnt. Sep. 
 26. 
 
 Emperors of France and Eussia meet at Stuttgart, 
 Sept. 25. 
 
 Nicaragua : — Walkei 
 and his men surrender to 
 U. S. ship Wabash, Com, 
 Paulding, Dec. 8. 
 
 38 
 
890 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period JZ— 50 years.— 
 
 Pkoqeebs of Soctett, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Geeat Beitaik. 
 
 Deafho in 185T. 
 
 U. 8. I Europe. 
 
 0. Colton. Beranger. 
 E. K. Kane. C. Bonaparte. 
 W. L. Marcy. J. W. Croker. 
 Thos. J. Rusk. Thos. Dick. 
 Eli Smith. Marshall Hall. 
 
 Earl of Elles- 
 mere. 
 
 Douglas Jer- 
 rold. 
 
 W. Scoresby. 
 
 Eugene Suo. 
 
 And,. Ure. 
 
 Cavaignac. 
 
 Aug. Compte. 
 
 Havelock. 
 
 Chris. Eauch, 
 sculptor. 
 
 1858 Commercial failures in one 
 year, ending Dec. 25, 1857, 
 amount to 5,123 : liabilities, 
 $291,750,000. 
 
 Launch of the monster steam- 
 er Great Eastern at Lon- 
 don, Jan. 31 
 
 Crawford's Monument to 
 Washington, at Richmond, 
 inaugurated, Feb. 2'2 
 
 Extensive and remarkable re- 
 ligious '■'■ remvaV through- 
 out the TJ. S. in February, 
 March, &c. 
 
 Gold mine excitement in 
 Washington and Oregon 
 territory. 
 
 New '•'■Divorce Court'' open- 
 ed in London, May 10. 
 
 Donati's Comet seen in June 
 and July. 
 
 " Vigilance Committee" in 
 N. Orleans, June 3. 
 
 New Prohibitory Liquor 
 Law voted in Maine, June 
 1. 
 
 Turkish Admiral, Mehemet 
 Pacha, and suite leave Bos- 
 ton, after an extended visit 
 in the U. States, July 14. 
 
 A Jew in Brit. ParlioTnent, 
 July 26. 
 
 Atlantic Telegkaph. 
 
 National Teachers' Associa- 
 tion — 1st Ann. Convention 
 at CincinnatL Aug. 11. 
 
 1S57. " Lecompton Constitu- 
 tion" adopted by Conven- 
 tion, Nov. 9. 
 
 Walker resigns as Go- 
 vernor of Kansas, Dec. 15. 
 
 W. Walker reaches N. T. 
 "on parole," and surren- 
 ders to U. S. marshal, Deo, 
 28. 
 
 1858. Mr. Buchanan's "Kan- 
 sas Message" to H. Reps., 
 with Lecompton Constitu- 
 tion, Feb. 2. 
 
 " Anti- Lecompton De- 
 mocratic " meetings in 
 Phila., N. T., &c., Feb. and 
 March. 
 
 Bill to admit Kansas as a 
 State, under Lecompton 
 Const., passes the Senate, 
 March 23. 
 
 The House passes another 
 bill. 
 
 New Free State Conven 
 tion of Kansas, at Leaven- 
 worth, March 25. 
 
 The " English Kansas 
 bill" passed both Houses of 
 Congress, April 80. 
 
 Minnesota State Govern- 
 ment organized at St. Paul, 
 May 23. 
 
 Atlantic Telegraph S.eet 
 laud, June 10. 
 
 The President sends a 
 message announcing peace- 
 able settlement of trouble 
 in Utah, June 10. 
 
 Treaty of Peace and Ami- 
 ty with China, signed at 
 Tien-Tsin, June 13 
 
 185T. EEglish and French 
 ture the city, Dec. 2S-80. 
 
 1858. French and English 
 the Governor, Teh, Jan. 5. 
 
 The Princess-Royal oi 
 England married to the 
 Prince of Prussia, Jan. 25. 
 
 Steamer Great Eastern 
 first floated, Jan. 31. 
 
 Resignation of Palmer- 
 ston's Ministry, and acces- 
 sion of Lord Derby, Feb. 20. 
 
 sails from Plymouth, Eng- 
 
 Eng. steam. Cyclops bom- 
 bards Jeddah, July 25-26. 
 
 Baron Rothschild takes 
 his seat in H. of Commong 
 July 26. 
 
 Queen Victoria and Pr. 
 bourg, Aug. 4. 
 
 News of the completion of Atlantic Telegraph re- 
 ceived with joyful demonstrations, Aug. 5. 
 Magnifl,cent celebration 
 at New York, Sept. 1. 
 
 The English- bill voted 
 on by the people of Kan- 
 sas and rejected, August 
 9. 
 resident Buchanan sent and received, August 16. 
 
 Queen Victoria's message to 
 
 Slaver Echo captured and carrried to Charleston, Au-I 
 gust 27. I 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WOELD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 891 
 
 FKAN3K. 
 
 fleets bombard Canton, and cap- 
 
 troops enter Canton and capture 
 
 Attempt by Orsinl and 
 others to assassinate the 
 Emperor with a hand gre- 
 nade ; 8 persons k. and 156 
 wounded, Jan. 14 
 
 ATbert visit the Knuperor at Cher- 
 
 EiTEOPB, elsewhere. 
 
 1857. Naples : Terrible earth- 
 quak.e,14,000 persons killed. 
 
 The Woeu), slsewher*. 
 
 1868. Mexico: — Revolution, 
 Comonfort gives up the Go- 
 vernment to Juarez ; Zulo- 
 aga proclaimed president by 
 s H. of Eepresentatlves. 
 
 Turkey : — Massacre ot 
 Christians at Jeddah— 45 
 killed, Juno 16. 
 
892 
 
 THE world's progress, \_Ptriod /X— 50 years.— 
 
 A.D. Pkogeess op Society, &c. 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 The N. T. State quarantine 
 
 buildings at Staten Island 
 
 destroyed by the citizens 
 
 as a nuisance, Sept. 1. 
 First overland mail for Ca- 
 lifornia leaves St. Louis, 
 
 Sept. 16. 
 Boston Public (Free) Library- 
 opened, costing $450,000, 
 
 Sept. IT. 
 The " General Admiral" stm. 
 
 frigate, built for Eussian 
 
 government, launched at 
 
 N. Y., Sept. 21. 
 Crystal Palace, N. T., burnt, 
 
 Oct. 5. 
 The yacht Wanderer lands 300 Africans near Brunswick, 
 
 Ga.. Nov. 28. 
 The Grand Jury at Columbia, S. C, refuse to indict the 
 
 slaver "Echo," Nov. 80. 
 First railroad in Egypt. 
 
 Deaths in 1858. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Geeat Beitain. 
 
 1858. TJ. St. stm. Niagara 
 sails from Charleston for 
 Liberia, with rescued slaves 
 of the " Echo," Sept. 20. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 T. H. Benton. 
 
 Kob. Hare. 
 
 H.W. Herbert. 
 
 Freem'nIIunt. 
 
 Com. Periy. 
 
 Gen. Quitman 
 
 Gen. P. F. 
 Smith. 
 
 N. W. Taylor. 
 
 B. F. Butler. 
 
 Parker Cleve- 
 land. 
 
 Wm. Jay. 
 
 EUEOPE. 
 
 E. Brown, bo- 
 tanist. 
 
 Geo. Combo. 
 
 " Eachel." 
 
 Marshall Hall, 
 
 Duchess of 
 Orleans. 
 
 Eeschid Pa- 
 cha. 
 
 Radetsky. 
 
 Ary ScheflFer. 
 
 itobt. Owen. 
 
 Sir W. Eeid. 
 
 Foresti. 
 
 U. S. Agricultural Conven- 
 tion at'Washington, D. C, 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 1859. New Hall of the U. S. 
 Senate first occupied, Jan. 
 4. 
 
 SlideH'sbill, giving $30,000,000 to facilitate the acquisition 
 of Cuba, introduced Jan. 10. 
 
 Mr. McLane recognises the 
 Juarez government in Mex- 
 ico, April 4. 
 
 Sickles kills Key at Washing- 
 ton, for seduction of his 
 wife, Feb. 27 ; he is tried 
 and acquitted, April 26. 
 
 Southern Convention at Vick'sburgh discusses the openin 
 of the Slave Trade, May 11. 
 
 Great fire at Key West. 110 
 
 hous(»; 
 May 16. 
 
 loss $2,750,000, 
 
 TeHegrains— India to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Several slavers captured by 
 U. S. vessels. 
 
 1858. The East India Com- 
 pany ceases to exist, and 
 its vast possessions pass 
 into the hands of the Brit 
 Governmotit, Sept. 1. 
 
 1859. D'Israeli introduces a 
 new Eeform Bill, Feb. 28. 
 
 Lord Lyons, new British 
 minister at Washington, re- 
 ceived, April 12. 
 
 England protests against 
 Austrian menaces of Sardi- 
 nia, April 21. 
 
 Enslish conrt in mottm- 
 ing for the tyrant king of 
 Naples (May). 
 
 New Parliament meets, 
 May 30. J. E. Dennison 
 elected speaker. 
 
 Telegrams to India acce- 
 lerated seven days by cable 
 on the Eed Sea, June 8 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 893 
 
 1868 
 
 France. 
 
 EuKOPK, elsewhere. 
 
 The World, elsewhoTe. 
 
 1859 
 
 The Emperor's Kew-Tear's 
 
 speech to Hubner, Austrian 
 
 minister, causes a war sen 
 
 sation. Jan. 1. 
 Prince ' Napoleon marries 
 
 tlie Princess Clothilde, Jan 
 
 29. 
 French troops reach Turin and Genoa, April 26-80. 
 
 1858. Egypt: — First train 
 on the Suez Eailroad crosses 
 the isthmus in eleven hours, 
 from Suez to Alexandria, 
 Dec. 5. 
 
 Hayti : — Eevolution — 
 Faustin banished — General 
 Jeffrard proclaimed Presi- 
 dent, Dec. 21. 
 
 1859. Austrili demands that 
 Sardinia shall disarm, 
 Ap. 23. England protests 
 against this menace. 
 " Sardinian army on a war 
 footing. 
 
 1859. 3fexico. — Miramon ap- 
 pears before Vera Cruz, 
 March 18-27. 
 
 Peni .-—Earthquake de- 
 stroys part of Quito, March 
 29. 
 
 War declared, in alliance 
 with Sardinia, against Aus 
 tria, May 3, 
 
 Subscriptions for loan of 
 500 million francs exceed 
 four times that sum, from 
 525,000 persons. 
 
 Tuscany ;— Grand Dnke 
 abdicates; his troops fra- 
 ternize with revolutionists, 
 April 27. 
 
 Austria declares WAK 
 AGAINST SARDINIA, 
 and her trooi)s cross the 
 Tieino, April 29. 
 The EmpoTor L. Napoleon arrives at Genoa, May 12. 
 Empress made Eeffent, | 
 Battle ofMontebello : Austrlans defeated, May 20. 
 
 I Garibaldi enters Como, 
 I May 27. 
 Battle of Pailestro : Austrians defeated, May 80. 
 Battle of Magenta : Allies victorious, June 4; and enter 
 M ilan, June 8. 
 
 Naples :— Death of Ferdi- 
 nand II., and accession oi 
 Francis II , May 22. 
 
894 
 
 THE world's PKOGEESS. [Period XL — 50 years.— 
 
 Pbogkess op Sooiett, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Bkitain'. 
 
 1859 
 
 m» 
 
 Eemarkable religious rmi- 
 val in Ireland, June, July, 
 etc. 
 
 Excessive heat in California 
 and in Europe, June-July. 
 
 Wise travels 1200 miles In a 
 balloon from St. Louis to N. 
 York state, July 1. 
 
 Gold images found in Indian 
 graves at Chiriqui, July. 
 
 Cosmopolitan celebration of 
 100th birthday of Schiller, 
 Nov. 10. 
 
 Brilliant meteor seen in N. T. 
 and N. England, Nov. 15. 
 
 i)ea<7i.sml859: 
 
 U. S. ElTBOPE. 
 
 1859. 
 
 French and English in 
 the forts of the Peiho, June 
 Com. Tatnall. 
 Gen. Harney takes possession of the island of San 
 
 J. "W. Alexan- 
 der. 
 W. 0. Bond. 
 Eufus Choate. 
 Bp. Doane. 
 Hoe. Mann. 
 Den. Olmsted. 
 W. H. Pkes- 
 
 COTT. 
 
 Eich. Eush. 
 Goo. Bush. 
 J. T. Mason. 
 Theo. Sedge 
 
 "Wick. 
 Linn Boyd. 
 Washington 
 
 Irving. 
 
 Dr. Abbott. 
 
 T. K. Hervey. 
 
 HUMBOLDT 
 
 Leigh Hunt. 
 
 Jejeebhoy. 
 
 D. Lardner. 
 
 C. E. Leslie. 
 
 Lady Morgan, 
 
 Jos. Sturge. 
 
 De Tocque- 
 vlUe. 
 
 Metternich. 
 
 De Quincey. 
 
 -J. A. James. 
 
 J. P. Niohol. 
 
 Thos. Nuttall. 
 
 I. K. Brunei. 
 
 Carl Eltter. 
 
 Louis Spohr. 
 
 Sir J.Stephen. 
 
 Macaulat. 
 
 Eobert Ste- 
 phenson. 
 
 Juan (now Vancouver's island) July 9. 
 
 Kansas Const. Conven 
 tion meets at Wyandote, 
 July 5. 
 
 Gen. Harney proclaims 
 possession of the island of 
 San Juan for the U. States, 
 July 11. 
 
 Mr. Ward, IT. S. minis- 
 ter, reaches Pekin, July 30. 
 
 Treaty with China rati- 
 fied, Aug. 16. 
 
 J. T. Mason, TJ. S. mi 
 nlster to France, dies at 
 Paris, Oct. 3. 
 
 John Brown's Baid for 
 the liberation of slaves, at 
 Harper's Ferry, Va., Oct, 
 17. 12 of his men and 1 
 marine killed. 2 of his men 
 hung, Deo. 16; and 2 more 
 March 16, 1860. 
 
 Congress assembles, Dec. 
 
 Law passed in Arkansas, Jan. 11860. Pennington of N. Jer- 
 1, to haniish free negroes sey elected speaker of the 
 
 from the state. 
 
 Decree by the Emperor of 
 Austria in favor of rights 
 qfthe Jerws, Jan. 10. 
 
 House of Eepresentatives, 
 after a balloting for nearly 
 two months, Feb. 1. 
 
 Builders' strike begins in 
 London, July 25. 
 
 Captain McClintock re- 
 turns, bringing relics of 
 Franklin's expedition, Sep. 
 21. 
 
 Steamer Eoyal Charter 
 wrecked in British Chan- 
 nel ; 445 persons lost, and 
 £1,000,000 in gold. 
 
 Death of Lord Macaulay 
 Dec. 28. 
 
 1860. Lord Clyde proclaims 
 the rebellion in India as 
 subdued, .Jau. 7. 
 
 Commercial Treaty with 
 den and Lord Cowley and 
 
1815-1865.J 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 895 
 
 1869 Perusia sacked by papal troops, June 20. 
 
 \Battl6 of Sol/crino, June 24. Austrians under the Empe- 
 ror in person defeated by the allies : great loss on both 
 I sides. 
 China repulsed in an attack on] 
 25. They are aided by American I 
 
 I Treaty of Peace signed by the Emperors of France and 
 Austria, at Villafranca, July 11. 
 
 The Emperor returns to St. 
 
 Ciond, July2T. 
 Entrance of "the Army of 
 
 Italy" into Paris, Aug. 14. 
 Political annnesty, Aug. 17. 
 
 Treaty with Japan, ratified 
 at Jeddo, Sept. 22. 
 
 The Emperor advises Victor 
 Emanuel a programme for 
 the Regeneration of Italy, 
 Oct. 20. 
 
 Exchange of ratifications of 
 the Treaty of Zurich, Nov. 
 21 
 
 1859. Tuscany :— Council of 
 State votes in favour of 
 annexation to Sardinia, 
 July 12. 
 
 Conference at Zurich 
 opened, August 8. 
 
 Sardinia : — Cavour dis- 
 missed from the ministry, 
 July 13. 
 
 Tuncany :—Tii(i Nation. 
 Assem. decrees the perma- 
 nent exclusion of the Aus- 
 trian dynasty, Aug. 16. 
 
 Modena : — Farini dicta- 
 tor, opens the Nat. Assem- 
 bly, Aug. 16, aud assumes 
 government of Parma, 
 Aug. 18. 
 
 Rome : — Concordat be- 
 tween the Pope and Spain, 
 Aug. 26. 
 
 Russia : — Schamyl taken 
 prisoner in Caucasia, Sept. I 
 6. i 
 
 Bologna : — Assemb. Nat. 
 under pres. of Minghetti 
 decree independence from 
 the Pope, Sept. 7. 
 
 Sardinia: — The king 
 receives deputations from 
 Modena and Parma, ten^ 
 derins annexation to Sar- 
 dinia,'Sept. 15. 
 
 Bomagna : — Decree of 
 annexation to Sardinia. 
 Oct. T. 
 
 Spain declares war 
 against Morocco, Oct. 22. 
 O'Donnell named com.-in- 
 chief of Spanish army. 
 
 Sardinia .-—Prince Ca- 
 rignan made regent of Eo- 
 magna, Parma, etc., Nov. 6, 
 but declines in favor of 
 Buoncompagni. 
 
 1859. Mexico : — Juarez de- 
 crees the confiscation oj 
 chtcrcli property, July 12. 
 Venezuela : — Civil w&r; 
 downfall of Castro, the Pre- 
 sident, July. 
 
 Costa Rica : — Revolution 
 —fall of Mora, Ang. 14. 
 
 The Emperor's letter to the Pope, advising cession of 
 Eomagna, Dec. 31. 
 
 I860 Treaty with Nicaragua rati- 
 fied, Jan. 11. 
 
 Prance, signed at Paris by E. Cob- 
 tli8 French ministers, Jan. 2-3. 
 
 1S60. Spain:— The Moors 
 defeated at Castellejor, Jan. 
 
 Rome .'^The Pope re- 
 plies to the Emperor, refus- 
 ing to cede the Legations, 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 Sardinia : — Cavour re- 
 called to the premiership, 
 Jan. 15. I 
 
 Buenos Apres .•—Battle 
 with the troops of Argen- 
 tine Confederatioa, Oct. 2a 
 
896 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGKESS. [Period IX. — 50 years.— 
 
 Pkogeess of Society, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Geeat Britain. 
 
 First " Pony Express" reaches Carson Valley in eight and 
 a half days from Missouri ; and news thence hy telegraph 
 reaches San Francisco in nine days from New York. 
 
 1860. The "Covode Com- 
 mittee" (House of Kepre- 
 Eentatives) appointed to ex- 
 amine alleged comiption 
 of the government, March 
 5. 
 
 U. S. corvette Saratoga 
 captures Miramon's vessels 
 at Vera Cruz, March 7. 
 Japanese Embassy arrives at San Francisco, March 23; 
 at Washington, May 14 ; at Baltimore, June 8 ; at Phila- 
 delphia, June 9 ; at New York, June 16. Sails for Ja^ 
 pan, in the U. S. frigate Niagara, June 30. 
 
 IJrJversal Suffrage in Cen- 
 tral Italy. 
 
 1860. French treaty ratified 
 hy 116 majority in the Com- 
 mons, Feb. 24 
 
 Lord J. Eussell proposes a 
 new Reform Bill, March 2, 
 but abandons it, June 11. 
 
 Papal hull against agitators 
 
 and reformers. 
 Fight of Heenan and Sayers 
 
 for the championship of 
 
 England, April II 
 
 Ministers defeated on a 
 bill for repeal of paper duty 
 — passed by the Commons 
 but rejected (89 majority) 
 by the Lords, May 21. 
 
 Eeview of 18,000 volun- 
 teers by the Queen in Hyde 
 Park, June 23. 
 
 Democratic Convention 
 at Charleston, April 23. 
 
 Mr. McLane's treaty with 
 Mexico (Juarrez) rejected 
 by the Senate, May yl. 
 
 National Eepub. Conven- 
 tion at Chicago meets May 
 16, and nominates Abraham 
 Lincoln for President, rind 
 Hannibal Hamlin for Vice- 
 President of U. 8. 
 
 Law of Maryland prohibiting the m,anumission of slaves 
 takes effect, June 1. 
 
 Tornado in Iowa and Il- 
 linois destroys whole vil- 
 lages, June 3. 
 
 Nat. Democratic Conven- 
 tion (adjourned) at Balti- 
 more, June 18, nominates 
 Douglas and Fitzpatriok: 
 a seceding Convention no- 
 minate Breckenridge andl 
 Lane, respectively for Pre- 
 sident and V.-Pres. of U. S.| 
 
 The Great Eastern arrives at New York, from Southampton, June 28. 
 
 Dr. Hayes's Arctic Expedition from Boston, sails July 7. i 
 
 Eemarkable meteor in various northern states, July 20. | 
 
 Visit of the Prince of Wales to British North Ame* 
 rica and the United States. He lar ds at 8t. John's, July 
 24; arrives at Quebec, August 18; Montreal, 24th; 
 Ottawa, Aucnst 31; Niagara, Sepienriber 14; Detroit 
 Sept. 20; Washington, Oct. 
 3; Philadelphia, Oct. 9; 
 New York, Oct. 11 ; Bos- 
 ton, 17th; Portland, 2uth; 
 Plymouth, England, Nov. 
 15. 
 
 Lincoln and Ilamlin 
 elected Pres. and V.-Pres. 
 of the U. S. by the votes of 
 all the northern states ex- 
 cept New Jersey, ■which 
 chose 4 electors for Douglas 
 and 3 for Lincoln, Nov. 6. # 
 
 This election is made the 
 pretext for rebellion and 
 " secession" of the cotton 
 states — S. Carolina leading, 
 and adopting in Convention 
 an ordinance of secession 
 
 W C Preston. II. H Wilson [ from the U. S., Dec. 20. 
 
 Deaths in 1860. 
 
 U. S. 
 
 J. A. Alexan- 
 der. 
 
 W. B. Burton. 
 
 C. A. Good- 
 rich. 
 
 S. G. Good- 
 rich. 
 
 Theo. Parker. 
 
 J. K. PauUl- 
 
 EUEOPE. 
 
 Sir C. Barry. 
 
 Lady Noel 
 Byron. 
 
 G.P.K.James. 
 
 Anna Jame- 
 son. 
 
 JuUien. 
 
 SirW. Nnpier. 
 
 Baden Pow- 
 ell. 
 
 II. H Wilson 
 
1815-1861.] 
 
 THE WOELD's PBOGEESS. 
 
 897 
 
 FbjVncb. 
 
 EtTKOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 IW) 
 
 Thouvenel foreign minister, 
 Jan. 24. 
 
 V TJni'oers^'' ultra-montane 
 journal, suppressed, Jan. 29. 
 
 Diplomatic correspondence of 
 Antonelli, Feb. — March. 
 
 Negotiations respecting an- 
 nexation of Nice and Sa- 
 voy. Treaty for cession to 
 France signed at Turin, 
 March 24 ; but Switzerland 
 protests. 
 
 Nioe votes for annexation to 
 France 24,448 for, and 160 
 againnt. 
 
 Savoy gives 131,744 for and 
 288 against. 
 
 The Emperor refuses an ap- 
 plication from Naples to 
 act as mediator, June 7. 
 
 French troops sent to Syria 
 to punish tbe murderers of 
 Christians, Aug. 6. 
 
 A French iieet placed before 
 Gaeta; for which side is 
 not proclaimed. 
 
 38* 
 
 ISGO. Spain .-—Decisive vic- 
 tory over the Moors at Te- 
 touan, Feb. 4. 
 
 Sardinia : — The army 
 raised to 50,000, Feb. 26. 
 
 Thouvenel with Cavour and 
 
 Buoncompagni resigns as 
 governor of Cent) al Italy, 
 March 8. 
 
 Tuscany : — Eesult of rot 
 ing on annexation to Sardi- 
 nia pub., viz : Fo): 866,571 ; 
 against, 14^925 (for sepa- 
 rate kingdom) 
 
 Austria advertises for 
 new loan, March 24, and 
 protests against Sardinian 
 occupation of Tuscany, &c. 
 
 Spain : — Peace with Mo- 
 rocco ratified, March 29. 
 
 Home : — Papal bull 
 against revolutionists, Mar. 
 29. 
 
 Jievohition in Sicily be- 
 gins at Palermo, Messina, 
 and Catania, April 4. 
 
 Eome:— Antonelli pro- 
 tests against Sardinian an 
 nexation of Eomagna. 
 
 Sicily: — Garibaldi lands 
 at Marsala, with 2,000 
 men, from Genoa, May 10. 
 Proclaims himself dictator 
 on behalf of Victor Ema- 
 nuel, 14th. 
 
 Naples: — Concessions pro 
 claimed to the people, May 
 19. 
 
 — Garibaldi takes Pa^ 
 lermo. May 27. 
 
 — A liberal ministry 
 formed at Naples, June 28, 
 The King gi-.ants new con- 
 stitution and amnesty, J'ne 
 
 Garibaldi's victory at Me 
 lazzo, July 20-21. 
 
 Sicily (excepting the cl 
 tadel of Messina) evacuated 
 by the Neapolitans, July 
 30. 
 
 Garibaldi's troops land in 
 Calabria, Aug. 8. 
 
 — Enters Naples. 
 
 The King of Naples re 
 tires to Gaeta, Sept. , and 
 is besieged there by the 
 troops of Garibaldi and 
 Victor Emauueh 
 
 Garibaldi resigns his 
 power to Victor Emanuel, 
 and retires to Caprera. 
 
 1860. Argentine Confed. Der 
 qui president, Feb. 0. 
 
 Mexico : — Miramon at 
 tacks Vera Cruz, March 7- 
 18. 
 
 Japan : — The Ecgent 
 wounded in a riotous at- 
 tack. 
 
 Mexico : — Zuloaga pro- 
 claims himself president, 
 and denounces Miramon, 
 May 1. 
 
 Asia Minor: — Horr,ble 
 
 massacre of the Christians 
 and Maronites, May. 8,000 
 klUed at Damascus, July 9. 
 
 Honduras: -W. Walker 
 the "filibuster," taken pri- 
 soner and shot, Sept. 12. 
 
 Syria : — Fuad Pasha sent 
 against the Druses, Aug. 5 
 167 Moslems implicated in 
 the massacres are executed 
 at Damascus, Aug. 20. 
 
898 
 
 THE world's PECGI13CS, [Penod XI. — 50 years.- 
 
 PaoGEEss OP Society, 
 
 TTmTED States. 
 
 British Empibe 
 
 1861 
 
 Heresy of " S E C E S- 
 S I O N " or Treason 
 in the United States, 
 
 Deaths in 1861 : Prince 
 Albert, Mrs. Brown- 
 ing', Count Cavour, 
 Czar tory ski, Dr. J. 
 W. r'ranc'is, Geof. 
 St.HiJaire, Pr.Gort- 
 ehakotf, iSTathaniel 
 Lyon, Eug'e Scribe. 
 
 July— First "War Loan 
 of the United States 
 Government, $250- 
 000,000. 
 
 Oct. 1. Commercial 
 treaty bet'n Eranco 
 England and Bel- 
 gium in force. 
 
 Nov. 1. Telegraph be- 
 tween Malta and 
 Alexandria opened 
 
 May 1. International 
 Exhibition at Lod- 
 don. 
 
 1861. This example foUowsd by Mississippi, 
 Jan. 9, Alabama, Jan. II, ^Florida, Jan. 12, 
 Georgia, Jan. 19, Louisiana, Jan. 26. 
 
 Attempt to carry "7irg7.nia, Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, N. Carolina, Missouri, and Arkan- 
 sas lor secession defeated, Jan. — March, 
 1861. Texas carried for secession, but a 
 strong reaction for union follows. Gen. 
 Twiggs surrenders the U. S forces in Tex- 
 as, and the military stores, to the state, 
 Eeb. 
 
 Inauguration of Lincoln, (Eepub.) Presi- 
 dent U. S., March 4. 
 
 WAR of REBELS against U. S. 
 
 April 13. Fort Sumter surrenders to rebels. 
 
 April 15. 75,000 men called for by proclama- 
 tion. 
 
 April 15. Great meeting in New York to 
 support the Government. 
 
 April 19. Attack on Massachusetts troops 
 in Baltimore. 
 
 April 21. Hai-per's Ferry arsenal burned by 
 its garrison. 
 
 April. 25. Virginia secedes. 
 
 May 6. Ai'kansas secedes. 
 
 May 20. North Carolina secedes. 
 
 May 21. Tennessee secedes. 
 
 June 8. The Savannah privateer captured. 
 
 June 10. Big Bethel defeat. 
 
 July 4. Congress meets. 
 
 July 11. Rich Mountain victory. 
 
 July 21. Bull Run defeat. 
 
 Aug. 29. Fort Hatteras taken. 
 
 Oct. 21. Ball's Bluff disaster. 
 
 Nov. 1. McClellan Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 Nov. 7. Port Royal forts taken. 
 
 Nov. 8. Wilkes seizes Slidell and Mason. 
 
 Nov. 30. Jeff. Davis elected President of the 
 Confederate States. 
 
 Dee. 2. Union armies have 660,971 men. 
 
 1802. 
 
 Jan. 1. Mason and Slidell released. 
 
 Jan. 19. Mill Springs defeat. 
 
 Feb. 6. Fort Henry taken. 
 
 Feb. 7. Roanoke taken by Burnside. 
 
 Feb. 16. Fort Donelson taken. 
 
 Feb. 23. Nashville taken. 
 
 March 9. The Cumberland and Congress lost 
 at Hampton Roads. 
 
 March 10. Manassas found evacuated by 
 Rebels and is occupied by Union troops. 
 
 March 11. McClellan takes command ot 
 Army of Potomac. 
 
 March 14. Ncwbern taken by Burnside. 
 
 April 1. Beaufort taken by Burnside. 
 
 April 4. Slavery abolished in D. Columbia. 
 
 April 5. McClellan " besieges " Yorktown. 
 
 April 6. Shiloh defeat— A. S. Johnson kQled. 
 
 April 11. Fort Pulaski taken. 
 
 April ^e. New Orleans taken. 
 
 May 5. Yorktown occupisd by McClellan — 
 Action at Williamsb-aigi. 
 
 May 10. Norfolk taken— the Merrimac 
 burnt— Farhagut ascends the Mississippi 
 —Little Rock takea. 
 
 May 13. Queen's 
 proclamation ot 
 " neutrality " in 
 the American con- 
 flict. 
 
 Nov. 8. Excitement 
 about seizure of 
 Mason and Slidell 
 in British steamer 
 Trent. 
 
 Deo. 23. Death ot 
 Prince Albert. 
 
 April 7. Treaty with 
 U. S. to suppress 
 slave trade. 
 
 May 1. Internation- 
 al Exhibition 
 opened at Lon- 
 don. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 899 
 
 FllANCE. 
 
 EuEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
 IS6I 
 
 1862 
 
 June 10. " Neutrality " in 
 American conflict pro- 
 claimed by the Emperor, 
 
 Oct. 31. Convention with 
 England and Spain for in- 
 tervention in Mexico. 
 
 Jan. 7. French army lands 
 at Vera Cruz. 
 
 18G1. Gaeta surrenders to 
 Victor Emanuel's troops, 
 Feb. 13— The King of Na- 
 ples escapes on board 
 Fi'ench fi-igate. 
 
 End of Bourbon Rule 
 in Italy. 
 
 The Italian Parliament 
 declares Victor Emanuel 
 KING OF ITALY, Feb. 
 1861. 
 " Italy " recognized by Eng' 
 land, March 31, and by 
 France, June 24 
 
 March 28. French victories 
 in Cochin China — six prO' 
 vinces ceded to France. 
 
 April 16. War against Mexi- 
 co declared. 
 
 Oct. IS. William I. crowned 
 King of Prussia. 
 
 Feb. 13. Military revolt in 
 Greece. 
 
 Oct. 2 . Canton restored te 
 the Chinese by the Frendj 
 and English. 
 
900 
 
 THE world's progress. [Feriod XL — 50 years.-^ 
 
 1862 
 
 Peogekss of Society. 
 
 ms 
 
 Deaths in 18()2 : Brodie 
 (surgeon), M. Van 
 Buren, T. Hartwell 
 Home, Sam. Hous- 
 ton, T. J. Jackson, 
 A. Sid. Johnson, 
 Phil. Kearney, Du- 
 chess of Kent, J. 
 Sher. Knowles, Sir 
 James Ross, Joseph 
 Wolff. 
 
 United States. 
 
 September — Internal 
 Rev enue Tax en- 
 forced in the U. S. 
 
 Jan. 2. Abolition of 
 Slavery in the U. 
 S., by proclamation 
 of the Commander- 
 in-Chief. 
 
 Feb. 9. The Geo. Oris- 
 woldjWith food given 
 by New Yorkers for 
 Lancashire opera- 
 ti-^es, arrives at Li- 
 verpool. 
 
 iVlar. 4. JVat. Academy 
 of Arts and Sciences 
 founded by Congress 
 
 June — Q- rant and 
 Speke arrive in Eng- 
 land from Source of 
 the Nile. 
 
 JvJy 13-16. Irish anti- 
 negro and anii-draft 
 riots at New York. 
 
 Deaths in 1863 : R.Hil- 
 dreth. Mar. Lans- 
 downe, Mulready 
 Mrs.TroUope, Arch- 
 bishop Whateley. 
 
 Sept. — Eussian squad- 
 ron entertained at 
 New York. 
 
 Dec. 24. Thackeray 
 dies. 
 
 May 27. Hanover C. H., Va., taken. 
 
 May 31. Eair Oaks battle— indecisive. Co- 
 rinth taken. 
 
 June 6. Memphis taken. 
 
 June 27. Pope takes command of U.S. forces 
 in N. Virginia. 
 
 June 25-30. McClellan's skirmishes on Pen- 
 insula. 
 
 J'ine 26-July 1. Seven days' battles on the 
 hickahominy. 
 
 July— Tariff duties raised— 300,000 more 
 volunteers called for. 
 
 Jjly 17. Emancipation and Confiscation Act 
 cigned by the President. 
 
 July 26. Halleck Commander-in-Chief. 
 U. S. debt $1,222,000,000. 
 
 Aug. 9. Banks defeated at Ced».r Mountain. 
 
 Aug. 16. McClellan retreats frcm Harrison' 
 Landing. 
 
 Aug. 30. Second defeat at Bu", Sun. 
 
 Sept. 5. McClellan agar: Commander-in- 
 Chief. 
 
 Sept. 17. Antietam victory. 
 
 Sept. 18. Harper's Ferry lost. 
 
 Sept. 22. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclama- 
 tion issued. 
 
 Sept. 25. Habeas Corpus suspended. 
 
 Oct. — Premium on gold, 29. 
 
 Oct.— Piracies of the Alabama. 
 
 Nov. 4. Democratic victory in New York 
 elections. 
 
 Nov. 7. Burnside supersedes McClellan. 
 
 Dec. 10-13. Defeat at Fredericksburgh. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Jan. 1. Murfreesboro' victory (Eosecrantz 
 over Bragg). 
 
 Jan. 2. Proclamation of Emancipation is- 
 sued. 
 
 Jan. 26. Hooker supersedes Burnside. 
 
 April 7. Monitors repulsed at Charleston- 
 the Keokuk lost. 
 
 May 2^. ChanoellorsvUle defeat— Jackson 
 killed. 
 
 May 18. Vicksburgh invested by Gbant. 
 
 June 14. Maryland and Pennsylvania in- 
 vaded by Lee. 
 
 June 27. Meade supersedes Hooker. 
 
 July 1-3. Gettysbuegh victory. 
 
 July 4. ViCKSBUKGH occupied. 
 
 July 8. Port Hudson taken. 
 
 July 13-16. Eiots at New York. 
 
 Aug. 7. Sioux war ended by Gen. Pope. 
 
 Aug. 20. Chickamauga defeat. 
 
 Aug. 21. Fort Sumter bombarded. 
 
 Oct. 19. Gkant, Thomas and Sheeman su- 
 persede Eosecrantz in Tennessee. 
 
 Oct. 17. President calls for 300,000 more 
 volunteei's. 
 
 Nov. 23. Chattanooga victory by Sherman 
 and Thomas. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Feb. 1. Draft for 500 000 men ordered. 
 
 Feb. 20. Olustee (Fla.) defeat. 
 
 Feb. 27-March 1. Kilpatrick and Dalghren's 
 raid on Richmond. 
 
 Bbitish Eupibe. 
 
 Mar. 10. Marriage ol 
 Prince of Wales 
 to Alexandra of 
 Denmark. 
 
 Oct. 31. Steam rams 
 built by Laird foi 
 U. S. Rebels seized 
 by Government. 
 
 Oct.— British Con- 
 suls dismissed 
 from Rebel States 
 of U. S. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE -WOKLD'S PEOGKESS, 
 
 901 
 
 I'eance. 
 
 EimoPE, elsewhere. 
 
 WoELD, eLsewhere. 
 
 1862 
 
 June 7. Greece: Insurrec- 
 tion spreads. 
 
 1863 
 
 Oct. 15. Drouyn de L'liuys, 
 Foreign Minister. 
 
 Oct. 30. Mediation proposed 
 in Amer. conflict declined 
 by Russia and Gt. Britain. 
 
 Jan. 9. Mediation of France 
 again oifered to TJ. S. 
 
 Aug. 19. Garibaldi in Sicily, 
 proclaims a Provisional 
 Government. 
 
 Aug. 29. He is ■wounded and 
 taken prisoner by the 
 king's ti'oops. 
 
 Sept. 30. BisaiABCK, Premier 
 of Prussia. 
 
 Oct. 5. Garibaldi and bis fol 
 lowers released under 
 general amnesty, and the 
 state of siege in BicUy 
 aboUshed. 
 
 Jan. 18. Egypt : Ismail, 
 Viceroy ; succeeds Said 
 Pasha. 
 
 March 30. Greece ; George I 
 of Schleswig-Holstein pro- 
 claimed Kin g — England 
 agreeing to give up lonianj 
 Isles to Greece. 
 
 July— Income-Tax BUI 
 passed in Italy. 
 
 Aug. 16. Congress of Ger- 
 man Sovereigns at Frank- 
 fort — " One Federal State' 
 proposed — Russia dissents, 
 
 Nov. 15. Denmark: Chris- 
 tian IX. succeeds Freder- 
 ick VII. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Jan. 21. War of Austria and 
 Prussia against Denmark 
 about Schleswig-Holstein 
 — German troops enter* 
 Holstein. i 
 
902 
 
 THE wokld's rKOQEESS. [Period XI. — 5d years.-^ 
 
 Pboghess of Society, 
 
 United States. 
 
 BaiTisH Empiee. 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 Fell. 29. Peabody fund 
 — dwellings for the 
 poor in London — 
 Eirsfc block opened. 
 
 April 3. Garibaldi's 
 visit to England. 
 
 May 16. Convention 
 between France, 
 Brazil, Italy, Portu- 
 gal, and Spain, fcr 
 We^fcop/i to America 
 
 June — Oct. — Ca ttli\ 
 plague in England. ■ 
 
 Aug. — Abd-el-Kader'j 
 visit to England. 
 
 Deaths in 1864 : Frank. 
 Bache,Josh'a Bates, 
 W. J. Fox, T. C. 
 Grattan, Nathaniel 
 Hawthorne, Edw. 
 Hitchcock, Leonard 
 Horner, Archbishop 
 Hughes, Jasmin 
 (poet),C.M.Kirkland, 
 \V. Savage Landri; 
 John Leech, J. R. 
 Maccullooh, Meyer- 
 beer, "W. Curtis 
 Noyes, Pellisier, Jo- 
 siah Quincy, Edw. 
 Robinson, H. R. 
 Schoolcraft, R. B. 
 Taney, J. G. Totten. 
 
 Slateet Abolished 
 in the U. States. 
 
 Feb. 22. Rebel Con- 
 gress decrees the 
 arming of slaves. 
 
 April 2. Death of Rich- 
 ard Cobden. 
 
 Deailis in 1865 : Bishop 
 Brownell, Adm. Du 
 pont, Val. Mott, 
 Edw. Everett, Mrs 
 Gaskell, Sir W. J 
 Hooker, Kiss 
 (sculpt.), Leopold I., 
 Ab. Lincoln, Dr. 
 Lindley, 
 
 March 2. Gbant succeeds Halleck aa Com- 
 
 mander-in-Chief. 
 May 5-6. Battle of the Wilderness. 
 May 11-12. Battle of Spottsyivania. 
 June 15. Grant bef-ir . Pet<i\,' r^h. 
 June 19. Kearsage sinks t? e Alabama. 
 July 1-13. Maryland again invaded by a 
 
 Rebel raid. 
 July 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta. 
 
 Ga. 
 July 30. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Re- 
 i bfels. 
 
 J'oly 30. Grant's mine at Petersturgh, "Va., 
 [ exploded. 
 July 80. Secretary Chase resigns — Fessenden 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury. 
 i-'ig. 8. Farragut's victory in Mobile Bay. 
 Sept, -McGlellan nominated lor President. 
 
 by Democratic Convention s.t Chicago. 
 F'tpt. 2. AtlPiUa raptured by Sherman. 
 i?-pt. 19. Sheridan's victrry at Winchester. 
 Oct. 19. Cedar Creek defeat made a victory 
 
 by Sheridan. 
 O.'t. 21. Rebel raid at St. Albans, Vt. 
 N..V. 8. Lincoln re-elected President— Mc- 
 
 Clellon resigns his command in army. 
 Nov. 30. Thomas repulses Hood at Nash- 
 ville. 
 D»c. '.5-16. And again totally defeats him 
 
 th.'i-ra. 
 Dec. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and 
 Dec, 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman. 
 Dec. 24-5. Butler and i^orter repulsed at 
 
 Wilmington. 
 18G5. 
 Feb. 1. C 'ingress abolishes slavery Vy ia 
 
 a.mondment to the Constitution. 
 Feb. 3. Lincoln and Seward's interview vrttli 
 
 liebeLs at Fort Monroe. • 
 
 Feb. 18. Lee takes command Rebel armies, 
 
 and ui-°" s arming of negroes. 
 Feb. 22. Wilming-ton captured by Sohofield. 
 Feb. 22. CharlestoTj ■. vaeuatcd by Rebels. 
 April 1, New and higter tariff comes in 
 
 force. 
 April 2. Richmond and Petersbuigh occupied 
 
 by U. S. foi-ces, after thi-ee days' fighting. 
 April 6. Grant's victory at Farmville. 
 April 9. SuEBENDEB OF Lee with his whole 
 
 army. 
 April 12. Mobile taken. 
 April 14. Fort Sumter occupied. 
 April 14. Assassination of President Lin- 
 coln and attack on Seward. 
 April 15. Andeew Johnson sworn in as 
 
 President. 
 April 18. Sherman's convention with John 
 
 ston. 
 April 25. Johnston's surrender. 
 April 26. Booth, the assassin, shot. 
 May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders. 
 May 10. Jeff. Davis captured. 
 May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in Texas. 
 
 END OF THE REBELLION. 
 
 April 24. Euiopeah 
 conference at Lon- 
 don on Schleswig- 
 Holstein question. 
 
 July 10. Palmerston 
 sustained in th? 
 general eleotian. 
 
 Aug. 15. English 
 
 fleet visits Cher- 
 bourg. 
 Aug. 30. French fleet 
 visits Portsmouth. 
 
 Oct. 18. Death of 
 Lord Palmerston. 
 
 March— Fenian out- 
 breaks in Ireland. 
 
 May 6. Reform 
 League meeting 
 in Hyde Park in 
 defiance of Go- 
 vernment. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE TTOELD S mOGKESS. 
 
 903 
 
 1864 
 
 May 22. Death of Marshal 
 
 JPellisier. 
 May 20. Convention between 
 
 France and Japan signed. 
 
 1864. 
 
 March 10. Louis II., King 
 
 of Bavaria. 
 April 18. Duppel taken hy 
 
 Prussians. 
 
 June 1. Ionian Isles made 
 
 over to Greece. 
 July 8. Prussians take Al- 
 
 sen. 
 
 Sept.15. Franco-Italian Con- 
 vention signed — French 
 troops to quit Rome in 
 two years. 
 
 Florence made the capital 
 of Italy — Ptiots at Turin 
 in consequence, Sept. 21- 
 22. 
 
 Oct. 30. Peace between Den- 
 m.ark and the Allies, to 
 whom Schle'swig and Hol- 
 stein are surrendered, 
 Prussia retaining posses- 
 sion of them. 
 
 July 18. China : Nankin taken 
 (" a heap of ruins ") by Gor- 
 don for the Imperialists. 
 
 March 31. Valparaiso bom- 
 barded by Spanish fleet. 
 
 Famine in Bengal and Madras. 
 
 1865. 
 
 May 7. Sayti: Miliiar^ yd 
 Burrection againsi; tielirswrd 
 
THE world's PROGHKRS. 
 
 A.D. PnOGEESS OF SOCIETY. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Gbeat Bbitain. 
 
 186G 
 
 Aug. — Treaty of Com- 
 merce between Italy 
 and Japan. 
 
 Sept. — Several South- 
 ern States pass ordi- 
 nances annulling Se- 
 cession, abolishing 
 slavery, &c. 
 
 Rinder-pest or cattle- 
 plague in England, 
 July, 1865, to Feb., 
 1866. 
 
 Cholera prevails in 
 France, Spain, and 
 Naples. 
 
 Jan. 27. Death of Gib- 
 son, Eng. sculptor. 
 
 July 28. Atlantic 
 Telegbaph success- 
 fully completed ; 
 cable landed at New- 
 foundland and re- 
 portsPEAOE between 
 Prussia andAustria. 
 
 Deaths in 1866 : Mar 
 quis D'Azeglio, 
 Jared Sparks, Wm. 
 Whewell. 
 
 1867. 
 
 April 1. Opening of 
 the Qrea.t Bxpnsiiioti 
 of Industry of all 
 nations at Paris. 
 
 July 1. Awards of the 
 juries in the Great 
 Exposition. 
 
 July — 1800th anniver- 
 sary of St. Peter's 
 martyrdom cele^ 
 brated at Rome. 
 
 May 22. Proclamation opening Kouthern British and Prench 
 
 ports and exceptional amnesty. Governments re- 
 
 June 1. National Fast. scind their recog- 
 
 June 29. Trial of assassins ended. nition ofAmerican 
 
 July 7. They are hung. "Confederates." 
 
 July 29. Prisoners of war released on oath of 
 
 allegiance. October 18. Death of 
 
 July 31. U. S. debt $2,757,253,000. Lord Palmerston. 
 
 August — Rebel privateer Shenandoah de- Oct. — Movements oi 
 
 stroyed about thu'ty vessels. Fenians at Now 
 
 Nov. 2. National thanksgiving. York, Phila., &c. 
 
 Nov. 9. Shenandoah at Liverpool — crew re- October 7. Riots m 
 
 leased. Jamaica ; Gordon, 
 
 Nov. 10. Wirz executed for cruelty to TJ. S. a Baptist minis- 
 prisoners, ter, hanged by 
 1866. Governor Eyre aa 
 May 3. Colorado bill vetoed. a rioter. 
 May 29. Death of Winfield Scott. November 27. Trial 
 June — Resignation of Speed, Att. Gen.; of Fenians at Dub- 
 
 Dennison, P. M. Gen. ; and Harlan, Sec. lin. 
 
 Int. 1866. 
 
 July 28. Congress adjourns, ha-ving passed Jan. 6. Gov. Byre 
 
 Freedmen's Bureau (continuation) bill ; in Jamaica super- 
 Civil Rights bill ; Pacific Railway (su pp.) seded by Storks ; 
 
 bill ", Army bill, and other important hot discussions in 
 
 measures. England as to his 
 
 July — Gkant appointed General-in-Chief ; conduct in Uie 
 
 Sherman, Lieut.-General ; Farragut, Ad- riot. 
 
 miral ; Porter, Vice- Admiral. 
 Aug. 14. "National Union Convention" at 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 Sept. 3. Southern Loyalist Convention at 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 Sept. 6. Corner stone of Douglas Monument 
 
 laid at Chicago by President Johnson. 
 Oct. 6. Elections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, In 
 
 diana, and Iowa result in increased Re 
 
 publican majorities. 
 Nov. — P^epublicans also victorious in Mass., 
 
 N. H., N. Y., N. J., Mich., Minn., Nevada, 
 
 and Mo. In Delaw. and Md. the Demo- 
 crats are successful. 
 Dec. 13. Suffrage given to colored men in 
 
 Dist. Columbia, by act of Congress. 
 1867. 
 Feb. 9. Nebraska admitted into the Union 
 
 as a State. 
 March 2. " Tenure of Oifice " bill passed. 
 March 2. Mililary government for the South- 
 hill passed over the President's veto by 135 
 
 to 48 in the House, and 38 to 10 in the 
 
 Senate. 
 March 1. 40^/* Congress meets. 
 March 23. Supplementary Bill on Military 
 
 Government of the South, passed over 
 
 President's veto — Senate, 40 to 7 ; House, 
 
 114 to 25. 
 Southern States divided into five military 
 
 districts, under 
 Gen. Schofleld, at Richmond; Sickles, at 
 
 Columbia, &c. ; Pope, a,t Montgomery ; 
 
 Ord, at Vicksburgh ; Sheridan, at New 
 
 Orleans. 
 April 10. Treaty for purchase of Russian 
 
 America approved by the Senate. 
 
 1867. 
 
 M.ay 9. Conference 
 at London on the 
 question of Lox- 
 EMBUKG. Treaty 
 signed making the 
 Duchy neutral 
 territory — fortress 
 to be razed. 
 
 July — The Viceroy 
 of Egypt and the 
 Sultan of Turkey 
 visit London. 
 
1S65-1867.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 905 
 
 Fkajstce 
 
 EuBOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1865 
 
 1867 
 
 Sept. 7. 
 ciere. 
 
 Death of Lamori- 
 
 January— Eailway between 
 Boulogne and Calais 
 opened. 
 
 Jan. 19. Emperor decrees 
 greater freedom of discus- 
 sion in Legislature and the 
 Press. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Jan. 15. Death of D'AzegUo, the 
 
 patriot. 
 June 18. Prussia and Italy declare 
 
 Wak against AUSTRIA. 
 June 24. Italians defeated at Cus- 
 
 tozza. 
 June 27-29. Austrians defeated by 
 
 Prussians in three battles won by 
 
 needle guns. 
 July 3. Great Battle of SADOWA ; 
 
 250,000 on each side. Prussians 
 
 victorious ; Austrians lose 44,000 
 
 K^ and W., and 100 guns. 
 Austria cedes Venetia to France^ 
 July 11. Prussians defeat Bavarians 
 
 at Kissengen. 
 July 14. Prussians occupy Frank- 
 fort. 
 July 18. Italian fleet defeated off 
 
 Lizza. 
 July 26. Preliminary treaty of peace 
 
 Prussia requires Hanover, Hesse, 
 
 Nassau and Frankfort. 
 October 3. Treaty of Peace between 
 
 Austria and Italy, signed at 
 
 Vienna. 
 Nov. 5. Venetia proclaimed to be 
 
 part of Kingdom of Italy. 
 Nov. 7. K. Victor Emanuel's public 
 
 entry into Venice. 
 Feb. 18. Hungarian Constitution 
 
 restored by Austrian Emperor. 
 Feb. 24. First parliament of the 
 
 German Confederation opened by 
 
 K. of Prussia. 
 "War in Crete contruued with 
 
 various fortunes. 
 April 4. New ministry in Italy. 
 
 April 1. Great Exposition 
 
 opened by the Emperor. 
 
 Waleswski resigns as Pres. 
 
 of Corps Legis. 
 May. 18. Emperor signs 
 
 Luxemburg treaty. 
 June 6. Attempt on life of the Czar, while riding with the Em- 
 peror, in Paris. 
 The Sultan, Viceroy of Egypt, King of Prussia, Prince of Wales, 
 
 and other notables, also visit the Great Exposition in Paris in 
 
 June and July. , 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
 Sept. 18. Brazil : IJru- 
 
 guayano surrenders 
 
 to the allies. 
 Sept. — Greeks in Crete 
 
 rise in revolt against 
 
 the Turks. 
 Oct. 7. Jamaica riots. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Feb. 5. Mexico: The 
 City ot Mexico 
 evacuated by the 
 French troops. 
 
 May 15. Mexico. 
 Maximilian and his 
 generals captured at 
 Queretaro. 
 
 Egypt declared by the 
 Sultan to be a se- 
 parate sovereignty 
 after June 11, 1867. 
 
 July 1. Execution of 
 Maximilian in 
 Mexico. 
 
 July 1. Cuba: Decree 
 of the Queen of 
 Spain freeing all 
 children of slave 
 parents born aftei 
 this date. 
 
906 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Peogeess of Society. 
 
 1867 
 
 1867 
 
 July — England visited 
 by the Sultan ; first 
 time in history. 
 
 Reform in Etigland. 
 
 Deaths in 3807 : Vic- 
 tor Cousin, Charle; 
 Anthon. 
 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 
 1S68 
 
 Jan. 15. Education con- 
 ference opens at Man- 
 chester, England. 
 
 Feb. 6. A horse-flesh 
 dinner at the Lang- 
 ham hotel, London. 
 
 June 25. Luther mon- 
 ument inaugurated 
 at Worms. 
 
 Sept. 9. Brunei's In 
 ternational Congress 
 of Workmen resolve 
 that arbitration is 
 better than strikes. 
 
 Oct. 5. Papal emissa 
 ries and Greek Pa- 
 triarch of Gonstan 
 tinople disagree as to 
 general council. 
 
 Deaths, 1808 ; Ex-pres. 
 Buchanan ; T h a d . 
 Stevens; ex-sec'y 
 Bates. 
 
 1869 
 
 Jan. 24. Pirst Protes 
 tant meeting for pub 
 lie worship in Madrid 
 
 Apr. 3. Bibles in for 
 eign languages ad- 
 mitted into Spain. 
 
 May 10. Kailway con 
 nection completed in 
 U. S. between Atlan- 
 tic and Pacific. 
 
 July 14. Prench At- 
 lantic telegraphic 
 cable completed. 
 
 Deaths, 1869: W. P. 
 Fessenden ; Admiral 
 Stewart (" Old Iron 
 side ") ; G. Peabody ; 
 Ex -pres. Pierce 
 Gen. Wool ; Ex-sec'y 
 Stanton. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1867 
 
 May 13. Jeff. Davis released on bail. 
 
 July-1. Congress meets in extra special ses- 
 sion, and enacts, over President's veto, a 
 bill to confirm and strengthen the Military 
 Government, passed in March. 
 
 Aug. 10. Jury on trial of Surratt (assassina- 
 tion of Lincoln) disagrees. Surratt dis- 
 charged, Nov. 6, 1868. 
 
 Aug. 12. Seo'y of War Stanton removed, 
 after refusing to resign. Replaced by Sen- 
 ate, Jan. 14-15, 1868. 
 
 Sept. 9. Pres. Johnson proclaims genei-al 
 amnesty. 
 
 Sept. 17. Antietam cemetery dedicated. 
 
 Dec. Treaty for purchase of Danish islands, 
 St. Thomas and St. John, for §7,500,000, 
 signed. 
 
 1868 
 
 Jan. 21. Senate transfers jurisdiction over 
 the Southern States from Johnson to Gen. 
 Grant. 
 
 Feb. 24. House votes to impeach Pres. John- 
 son. 
 
 March 6. Impeachment trial. 
 
 May 21. Republican Convention nominates 
 Grant and Colfax. 
 
 May 29. Senate adjourns, after refusing to 
 impeach Pres. Johnson. 
 
 June 5. Chinese embassy received at Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 July 7. Democratic Convention nominates 
 Seymonr and Blair. 
 
 July 22. Wyoming territory organized. 
 
 Nov. 3. Grant and Colfax elected. 
 
 Dec. 14. House of Representatives denounces 
 repudiation of national debt. 
 
 1869 
 
 Jan. 14. Clarendon and Johnson convention 
 
 on Alabama claims signed. 
 Feb. 6. Nolle prosequi ends prosecution 
 
 against Jeff. Davis. 
 Feb. 21. Fifteenth amendment (negro suf 
 
 frage) passed. 
 March 3 and 15. Schenck bill passes, declaring 
 
 that all national obligations will be paid in 
 
 coin. 
 Apr. J. L. Motley appointed Minister at Lon 
 
 don. 
 Apr. 15. Naturalization treaty with Great 
 
 Britain ratified. 
 June 15. Peace Jubilee at Boston. 
 
 1867 ^ 
 
 July 15. Passage of 
 New R E F o E M 
 Bill, nominally 
 D'Israeli's, really 
 Gladstone's ? 
 
 Sept. 24-27. Pan- 
 Anglican synod at 
 Lambeth. 
 
 British Empire. 
 
 1868 
 
 Jan. 28. 113,674 spe- 
 cial constables 
 sworn in in the 
 United Kingdom, 
 from apprehension 
 of Fenians. 
 
 Feb. 25. Derby min- 
 istry resigns ; D'ls- 
 raoli, premier 29th. 
 
 Sept. 80. Nearly 21,- 
 000 extra deaths 
 from the hot sum- 
 mer. 
 
 Dec. 2. D'Israeli min- 
 istry out ; Glad- 
 stone's succeeds, 
 9th. 
 
 1869 
 
 July 26. Irish Churcll 
 
 disestablishment 
 
 bUl passed. 
 
1867-1877.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 907 
 
 AJ}. 
 
 Fbance. 
 
 EuEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 WOELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1867 
 
 1867 
 
 186T 
 
 1867 
 
 
 July 1. The Emperor dis- 
 
 July. Great excitement in Europe 
 
 Got. 29. Destructiv* 
 
 
 tributes medals of honor 
 
 respecting the death of Maximihan 
 
 hurricane in West 
 
 
 at the Great Exposition. 
 
 in Mexico. 
 
 Indies. 
 
 
 Got. SO. French troops enter 
 
 Russian America sold to the United 
 
 Nov. 1. Furious cy- 
 
 
 Kome. 
 
 States. 
 
 clone in Bengal. 
 
 
 Nov. IS. Pacific speech of 
 
 July 1. Great assemblage of Prelates 
 
 
 
 Emperor on opening Cham- 
 
 of R. C. Church at Rome. 
 
 
 
 bers. 
 
 Aug. 6. Violent outbreak of cholera 
 
 
 
 Dec. 5. Rouher declares (for 
 
 at Albano, Italy. 
 
 
 
 government) that Italy 
 
 Sept. 8. International Peace Congi-ess 
 
 
 
 shall never seize upon 
 
 at Geneva ; broke up 12th, from 
 
 
 
 Rome. 
 
 furious quarrelling of members. 
 
 Sept. 24, Garibaldi arrested while 
 preparing to invade Papal States, 
 and sent to Caprera. 
 
 Oct. 13. Garibaldi escapes from Ca- 
 prei'a ; 26, defeats Pope's troops at 
 Monte Rotondo ; 27, King of Greece 
 marries Grand Duchess Olga ; 3U, 
 French troops enter Rome. 
 
 Nov. 4. Garibaldi beaten and taken 
 at Mentana. 
 
 
 1868 
 
 1868 
 
 1868 
 
 1868 
 
 
 Jan. 1. Army biU, amounts 
 
 March 21. Defeat of papal party at 
 
 Feb. 19. Brazilians 
 
 
 to furnishing an army of 
 
 Vienna on civil marriage bill. 
 
 force the pass of 
 
 
 l,20U,U0O. 
 
 Sept. 29. Queen of Spain flees into 
 
 Humaita against 
 
 
 June 1. New press law, less 
 
 France ; provisional government set 
 
 Paraguayan batte- 
 
 
 stringent. 
 
 up. 
 
 ries. 
 
 
 Aug. 1. Rochefort's ia?iterK<; 
 
 Nov. 24. Croatian deputies sit togeth- 
 
 Apr. 13. Capture of 
 
 
 suppressed ; he escapes to 
 
 er with Hungarian, met for first 
 
 Magdala, Abyssinia, 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 time. 
 
 by British ; death of 
 
 
 
 Dec. 30. Final surrender of revolu- 
 
 King Theodore. 
 
 
 
 tionary Cretan government an- 
 
 May 22. Russians oc- 
 
 
 
 nounced at Constantinople. 
 
 cupy Samarcand. 
 June 25. Paraguayans 
 
 evacuate Humaita, 
 
 after over 2 years' 
 
 siege. 
 Nov. 17. Suez canal 
 
 formally opened. 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1869 
 
 1869 
 
 May 20. Spanish Cortes votes 214 to 
 
 
 
 June 9. Violent election riots 
 
 71 for monarchical government. 
 
 
 
 at Paris. 
 
 June 16. SeiTano chosen regent of 
 
 
 
 June 26. Great increase of 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 
 opposition In Assembly. 
 
 Dec. 8. Vatican Council opent^d at 
 
 \ 
 
 
 July 13. Ministerial respon- 
 
 Rome. 
 
 
 
 fibility introduced by the 
 
 
 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 15. Centenary of birth 
 
 
 
 
 of Napoleon I. ; pensions, 
 
 
 
 
 amnesty, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 10. New constitution 
 
 
 
 
 promulgated. 
 
 
 
908 
 
 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. 
 
 A.D. Peogbess of Society. 
 
 1870 
 
 1870 
 
 Apr. 2. Railway from 
 Calcutta to Bombay 
 opened. 
 
 Apr. 10. Keshub Chun- 
 der Sen conducts re- 
 ligious services in 
 London. 
 
 May 19. English House 
 of Lords rejects bill 
 permitting to marry 
 deceased wife's sis- 
 ter, 77 to 73. 
 
 May 25. Organization 
 of English commit- 
 tee to revise author- 
 ized version of Bible. 
 
 Dec. 25. Mount Cenis 
 tunnel completed. 
 
 Deaths, 1870 : Admi 
 rals Dahlgren and 
 Farragut ; Gen. Lee 
 
 1870 
 
 Jan. 26. Darien canal scheme approved by 
 
 Congress. 
 March. Mr. Revels, first colored member of 
 
 House (from Mississippi), takes his seat ; 
 
 16th, his first speech, for universal amnesty 
 
 and suffrage. 
 April. Fifteenth amendment ratified. 
 J uly. New tariff adopted, to take effect Jan. 
 
 1, 1871. 
 July. Mr. Motley recalled. 
 Oct. 1. Internal taxation begins to be re- 
 duced. 
 Nov. Republican majority in Congress greatly 
 
 reduced by the fall elections. 
 Dec. 5. President Grant's message regrets 
 
 failure of proposal to annex St. Domingo. 
 Dec. 21. G-eneral Schenck Minister to London. 
 Dec. Census makes value of U. S. $31,000,- 
 
 000,000. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1870 
 
 July 19. Neutrality 
 
 in Franco-Prussian 
 
 war proclaimed. 
 Aug.-Nov. Foot and 
 
 mouth disease in 
 
 cattle. 
 
 Bbitish Empibe. 
 
1867-1877.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGEESS. 
 
 909 
 
 1870 
 
 EuEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1870 
 
 Jan. 12. Pope's decree condemning 
 the Fenians. 
 
 May 17. Espartero declines the crown 
 of Spain. 
 
 June 25. Qiieen Isabella of Spain abdi- 
 cates in favor of her son Alfonso. 
 
 July. Vatican Council votes the Pope's 
 infallibility. 
 
 July 30. Austrian government dis- 
 solves the concordat with Rome. 
 
 Sept. 20. Italian troops occupy Rome. 
 
 Oct. 2. Vote of people of Papal States 
 for annexation to Italy, 133,681 
 yeas to 1,507 nays. 
 
 Nov. 16. Prince Amadeo of Italy 
 elected king of Spain by the Cortes ; 
 accepts, Dec. 5. 
 
 Nov. 23. Pope excommunicates all 
 concerned in annexing Rome to 
 Italy. 
 
 Deo. 10. German empire voted at 
 Berlin by the Reichstag ; crown 
 presented to King Wilhelm of Prus- 
 sia at Versailles, 18th. 
 
 Dec. 27. High and damaging flood in 
 the Tiber at Rome. 
 
 Dec. 28. Marshal Prim assassinated at 
 Madrid. 
 
 Dec. 31. King Victor Emmanuel ar 
 rives at Rome. 
 
 1870 
 
 Jan. 3. Liberal ( OUivier) min- 
 istry formed. 
 
 Jan lU. Victor Noir murdered 
 by Prince Pierre Bonaparte. 
 
 Jan. 22. Rochefort fined and 
 imprisoned for libel. 
 
 May 8. Plebiscite on govern- 
 ment amendments to con- 
 stitution, adopted by 5 to 1 
 
 May 14. Riots and banicades 
 in Paris. 
 
 July 2. Orleans family de- 
 mand to return to Prance ; 
 refused by Assembly, 173 to 
 31. 
 
 July. Prince Leopold declines 
 candidacy for Spanish 
 throne ; Prussia refuses 
 guaranties ; 17th, France 
 declares war. 
 
 July 23. Empress regent ; 
 Emperor joins army ; 26th, 
 first skii-mish at Nieder- 
 bronn ; 30th, French re- 
 pulsed at Saarbriick. 
 
 Aug. 2. French take Saar- 
 briick ; 4, Germans de- 
 feat French at Wissem- 
 bourg and Geisberg ; 6, 
 severe defeat of French at 
 Woerth ; 7, state of siege 
 at Paris; 8, French de- 
 feated at Porbach; 
 Bazaine in command at Metz ; 10, new war ministry ; decree for 
 great increase of army ; Strasburg invested by Germans ; 12, 
 Germans pass the Vosges ; 14, Germans gain battle of Courcelles ; 
 16. of Vion villa ; 18, of Gravel otte and Rezonville ; Trochu gov- 
 ernor of Paris ; 23, Bazaine isolated at Metz ; 25, Germans oc- 
 cupy Chalons ; 30, several engagements lost by parts of Mac- 
 Mahon's army retreating north ; 31, they retreat to Sedan ; Aug. 
 31 and Sept. 1, Bazaine repulsed and driven into Metz. 
 
 Sept. 1-2. Battle of Sedan ; surrender of MacMahon's army and 
 Napoleon III. ; Sept. 4, revolution at Paris ; republic declared, 
 and government of defence, Trochu president ; Empress and min- 
 isters flee to Belgium ; 5, Germans occupy Rheims. and 7, St. 
 Dizier ; 9, Germans advancing on Paris ; 15, siege of Paris 
 formed ; Sept. 17, important circular of Favre, confessing that 
 France is in the wrong, and aslring that the war stop ; 16, Bis- 
 marck's circular asserting necessity of material guaranties from 
 France ; 19, Paris completely invested ; 21, Versailles surrenders ; 
 Favre rejiorts failure to agree with Bismarck ; 23, Durnouf gets 
 out of Paris with mails by balloon; levee en masse in French de 
 partments ordered ; 28, Strasburg capitulates ; red republican 
 rising put down at Lyons. 
 
 Oct. 7. Gambetta escapes from Paris by balloon ; 9, organizes a 
 government at Tours ; 7. great sortie from Metz repulsed ; 10, 
 11, red republican attempt to establish the commune at Paris de- 
 feated ; 11, Germans take Oi-leans ; 16, take Soissons ; 21, French 
 sortie from Mont Valerien (Paris) repulsed ; 27, Metz and army 
 surrendered by Bazaine ; 29, Germans take Dijon ; 31, riots in 
 Paris ; commune established for a moment, but dislodged. 
 
 Nov. 4. Germans have taken 11 towns, 3,653 guns, 155 mitrail- 
 leuses, nearly 500,000 chassepots, 90 eagles, about $20,000,000 in 
 money ; hostilities continue in various parts of France ; 24, Ger- 
 mans take Thionville ; 27, take La Fere ; 28, occupy Amiens ; 
 30, great sortie of 120,000 men from Paris ; they retreat, Dec. 3. 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
 1870 
 
 Jan. 15. Salnave shot 
 in Hayti ; Saget pres- 
 ident. 
 
 March 1. Defeat and 
 death of the Para- 
 guayan leader Lopez. 
 
 May 25. Fenian raid 
 into Canada repulsed 
 by volunteers. 
 
 June 21. Mob at Tien- 
 tsin in China; French 
 consul and residents 
 murdered. 
 
910 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 PrOGEESS op SOCIETT. 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 Sapt. 22. Old Catholic 
 meeting at Bonn, a- 
 gainst new dogma of 
 infallibility. 
 
 Dec. 2S. Gradnol slave- 
 emancipation law 
 passed in Brazil. 
 
 Deattis, 1871 : G. Tick- 
 ner ; Alice andPhcebe 
 Gary ; Gen. II. An- 
 derson ; B. Cham- 
 bers ; Schamyl, the 
 Circassian chief; 
 Oiner Pasha; Thal- 
 berg ; Herschel ; Au- 
 ber; G. Grote; Prin- 
 cess Belgiojoso ; Paul 
 de ICock; R. Bent- 
 ley; C. Babbago; Sir 
 B. Murchiaon ; Mar- 
 slial Beuedek ; G. 
 Hudson ("railway 
 king "). 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 Jan. 19. G-reat meeting in New Tork for Ital- 
 ian unity. 
 
 Apr. 6. Keport of commissioners to St. Dom- 
 ingo, in Senate. 
 
 May 20. Treaty for Alabama claims commis- 
 sion, etc., ratified. 
 
 June 4. U. S. army on peace footing of 
 35,284 men. 
 
 June 10. Statue of S. P. B. Morse unveiled in 
 N. Y. 
 
 June 29. Polaris expedition sails for North 
 Pole. 
 
 July 12. Riot in New York, Romanists against 
 Orangemen : 02 Idlled, 117 wounded. 
 
 July 10. First exposure of Tammany Ring in 
 N. Y. Times. 
 
 Oct. Great fires in Minn., Wise, and Mich, 
 forests. 
 
 Oct. 8-9. Great fire at Chicago ; 18,000 build- 
 ings destroyed; $200,000,000 lost. 
 
 Nov. Russian Minister Catacazy dismissed 
 for discourtesy to U. S. authorities. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 Apr. 3. 8th census 
 talren. 
 
 July 20. Purchase of 
 army commissions 
 stopped by royal 
 warrant. 
 
 Sept. 30. South Ken- 
 sington Exhibition 
 closed (open since 
 May 1). 
 
 Bkitish Empibe. 
 
1867-1877.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 911 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 France. 
 
 ExjBOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1870 1870 
 
 Deo. Obstinate fighting by the army of the Loire ; other hostilities ; 
 
 Germans mainly successful ; 11, Gambetta's government nioves 
 
 to Bordeaux. 
 
 1871 
 
 Jan. 1-10. Bombardment of 
 Paris ; hostilities in other 
 parts of France continu- 
 ing ; mostly German suc- 
 cesses; 19, great sortie of 
 100,000 men from Paris 
 repulsed : 23, Trochu re- 
 signs ; 24, Vinoy governor 
 of Paris ; 28, Paris capit- 
 ulates ; SO, Eourbaici's 
 army of 80,000 driven into 
 Switzerland and " in- 
 terned ; " treaty of peace, 
 ceding Alsace and part of 
 Lorraine, and to pay Ger- 
 many ^l,0OO.00O,UU0; pre- 
 liminaries signed Feb. 26. 
 
 Feb. IS. Thiers becomes exe- 
 cutive. 
 
 March 1—3. German troops 
 enter Paris, and remain 48 
 hours. Treaty concluded 
 May 10, ratified by French 
 Assembly, May 18. 
 
 March 18. Insurrection at 
 Paris, and commune estab- 
 lished there ; 20, regular 
 government at Versailles ; 
 28, government of the com- 
 mune proclaimed at Paris. 
 
 April 2. Military operations 
 begin between government 
 and commune ; 4, com- 
 munist insurrection sup- 
 pressed at Marseilles. 
 
 May 14. House of M. Thiers 
 destroyed by commune ; 
 16, column Vendome pulled 
 down; 21, government 
 troops enter Paris and oc- 
 cupy part ; 23-24, Tuileries, 
 Hotel de Ville. etc., burned 
 by communists ; 28, fight- 
 ing ends and communists 
 suppressed ; about one- 
 fourth of Paris burned, 
 and loss of property 
 through commune, $160,- 
 000,001) ; 2'J, decree disarm- 
 ing Paris. 
 
 Sept. 1. Thiers made Presi- 
 dent for 3 years ; 20, Ger- 
 mans evacuating forts 
 around Paris. 
 
 Nov. 28. Communist leaders 
 shot. 
 
 Dec. Said to be sixteen poli- 
 tical parties ; 19, Due d 'Au 
 male and Prince de JoinviUe 
 take scats in the Assembly, 
 
 1871 
 
 Jan. 2. King Amadeo arrives at Ma- 
 drid. 
 
 Feb. 8. Complete amnesty for politi- 
 cal offences in Austria. 
 
 June 16. 25th anniversary of pope- 
 dom of Pius IX. celebrated at Rome. 
 
 Nov. 18. Uniform coinage law en- 
 acted in Germany. 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 June 11. U. S. and 
 French storm Corean 
 strongholds and pun- 
 ish Coreans for iu- 
 Bults. 
 
 Oct. 1. MUitary revolt 
 in city of Mexico ; 
 suppressed with 
 much bloodshed. 
 
 "WoBLD, elsewhere. 
 
912 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 PaoGBEss or Sooietx. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Beitish Empibb. 
 
 1872 
 
 1872 
 
 1872 
 
 1872 
 
 
 Aug. 6. Spain prepares 
 
 Jan. 16. General amnesty bill passed. 
 
 Feb. 29. Arthur O'- 
 
 
 to free slaves in 
 
 June 17. Boston peace jubilee opens. 
 
 Connor presents ar 
 
 
 Porto Rico and 
 
 July 10. Democrats and Liberals join to nom- 
 
 empty pistol at the 
 
 
 Cuba. 
 
 inate Greeley for president. 
 
 Queen. 
 
 
 Aug. 22. International 
 
 Aug. 19. Judge Barnard removed and dis- 
 
 March. Agricultural 
 
 
 statistical congress 
 
 qualified, for corruption in ofBoe. , 
 
 laborers' strike in 
 
 
 at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Sept. Geneva award (Alabama claims) an- 
 
 Warwickshire. 
 
 
 Sept. 8. Australia con- 
 
 nounced. 
 
 June. Strikes in va- 
 
 
 nected by submarine 
 
 Oct. 23. Island of San Juan awarded to U. S. 
 
 rious trades. 
 
 
 telegraph with the 
 
 Nov. 5. Grant re-chosen president. 
 
 Sept. 14. Final Ala- 
 
 
 Indo-European tele- 
 
 
 bama award. 
 
 
 graph system. 
 
 
 Nov. 5. New 4om 
 
 
 Oct. It). Bailvvay op- 
 
 
 mercial treaty 
 
 
 ened from Yokoha- 
 
 
 signed with France. 
 
 
 ma to Yeddo, in Ja- 
 
 
 Nov. 24. Serious ill- 
 
 
 pan. 
 
 
 ness of Prince of 
 
 
 Deaths, 1872: J. Gil- 
 
 
 Wales ; begins to 
 
 
 lott; Due de Per- 
 
 
 recover Dec. 14. 
 
 
 signy ; Abp. Spal- 
 
 
 
 
 ding ; John Poole ; 
 
 
 
 
 J. Mazzini ; Rev. P. 
 
 
 
 
 D. Maurice; Lord 
 
 
 
 
 Balling ; 0. Lever ; 
 
 
 
 
 J. G-. Bennett; Rev. 
 
 
 
 
 N. McLeod ; L. Feu- 
 
 
 
 
 erbach ; Charles XV. 
 
 
 
 
 of Sweden; Mrs. 
 
 
 
 
 Parton ('■ Fanny 
 
 
 
 
 Peru ") ; T. Gautier ■. 
 
 
 
 
 Sir J. Bo wring ; 
 
 
 
 
 Gen. HaUeck ; W. 
 
 
 
 
 H. Seward ; H. Gree- 
 
 
 
 
 ley. 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 1873 
 
 1873 
 
 1873 
 
 
 Jan. 1. European cal- 
 
 Jan. Modoc war begins. 
 
 Jan. Strikes of col- 
 
 
 endar introduced in- 
 
 Feb. Fighting and disturbances in New Or- 
 
 liers ; coal very 
 
 
 to Japan. 
 
 leans. 
 
 scarce. 
 
 
 May 5. Treaty of Great 
 
 March. Credit Mobilier scandal in Congress. 
 
 June-July. Shah of 
 
 
 Britain with Zanzi- 
 
 Apr. 11. Gen. Canby and others murdered by 
 
 Persia visits Eng- 
 
 
 bar to suppress slave 
 
 Modocs. 
 
 land. 
 
 
 trade. 
 
 June. Modocs surrender. 
 
 
 
 Deaths, 1873; Napole- 
 
 Nov. Excitement over execution by Spaniards 
 
 
 
 on III. ; M. P.. Maii- 
 
 of Americans from steamer Virginius. 
 
 
 
 ry ; Rev. T. Guth- 
 
 
 
 
 rie ; C. Enight ; Ba- 
 
 
 
 
 ron Liebig ; W. C. 
 
 
 
 
 Macready ; Dr. Liv- 
 
 
 
 
 ingstone ; A. Man- 
 
 
 
 
 zoni ; F. von Rau- 
 
 
 
 
 mer ; H. Powers ; M. 
 
 
 
 
 Odillon-Barrot ; Duke 
 
 
 
 
 of Brunswick ; Mrs. 
 
 
 
 
 Mundt; Sir E. Land- 
 
 
 
 
 seer; Sir H. Hol- 
 
 
 
 
 land ; V. Ratazzi ; S. 
 
 
 
 
 P. Chase. 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 1874 
 
 1874 
 
 1874 
 
 
 June 22. Telegraph op- 
 
 Feb. Women's whiskey-war ; women try to 
 
 Jan. 23. Duke of 
 
 
 ened between Great 
 
 stop liquor-selling, by prayer, etc., in Ohio 
 
 Edinburgh marriea 
 
 
 Britain and Brazil. 
 
 and N. X. 
 
 Grand Duchess 
 Marie of Russia. 
 
1867-1877.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 913 
 
 1872 
 
 1872 
 
 April 23. Law against the 
 " International " society. 
 
 Sept. Gosremment is estab- 
 lished at Paris. 
 
 Oct. 6. Pilgrimages of 
 some 20,000 persons to 
 Lourdes. 
 
 Nov. 5. New commercial 
 treaty signed with Great 
 Britain. 
 
 1873 
 
 Fkanoe. 
 
 1872 
 
 Jan. Insurrectionary movements be- 
 gin in north of Spain. 
 
 Apr. 1. Tercentenary of Dutch inde- 
 pendence observed. 
 
 May 1. University of Strasbnrg re- 
 opened (closed by French, 1792). 
 
 May 2. Don Carlos enters Spain ; 6, 
 flees back to France. 
 
 June 12. Jesuits expelled from Ger- 
 many. 
 
 July 18. 1000th anniversary of King- 
 dom of Norway celebrated. 
 
 July 31. Extradition treaty signed, 
 Belgium and Great Britain. 
 
 Sept. 30. Revolt in Montenegro. 
 
 Dec. 18. Coinage made uniform in 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 Dec. 31. Diplomatic relations broken 
 ofE between the Pope and Germany. 
 
 1874 
 
 1873 
 
 Feb. Letter of Oomte de 
 Chambord, destroying all 
 hope of Bourbonist fusion. 
 
 March 15. Convention for 
 complete evacuation by 
 Germans on payment of 
 whole indemnity. 
 
 May 24. Thiers and his min 
 istry resign ; 20, MacMahon 
 chosen president by the 
 assembly. 
 
 Aug. 2. Germans have left 
 France, except Verdun ; 5, 
 the Orleanists recognize 
 Comte de Chambord as 
 chief. 
 
 Sept. 5. Last instalment of 
 German indemnity paid ; 
 13, Germans leave Verdun ; 
 16, last Germans leave 
 France. . 
 
 Nov. 20. MacMahon's term 
 made 7 years. 
 
 Dec. 12. Bazaine condemned 
 to death for surrender of 
 Metz ; commuted to 20 
 years' imprisonment. 
 
 1874 
 
 March 16. Imperialist dem- 
 onstration at Chiselhurst, 
 at majority (18 years) of 
 prince imperial. 
 
 39 
 
 EtJEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1873 
 
 March 1. War between 
 Honduras and San 
 Salvador. 
 
 March 26. Attempt to 
 assassinate the Mika- 
 do of Japan. 
 
 July 22. Military re- 
 volt at Lima ; Presi- 
 dent Balta killed. 
 
 Aug. 17. Japanese em- 
 bassy in England. 
 
 1873 
 
 Feb. 9. Extradition treaty signed, 
 Italy and Great Britain. 
 
 Feb. 11. King Amadeo of Spain ab- 
 dicates. 
 
 May 1. International exhibition at 
 Vienna opened. 
 
 Oct. 21. Jesuits expelled from their 
 convents and colleges at Rome. 
 
 1874 
 
 Apr. 13. Revised constitution adopt- 
 
 ed in Switzerland. 
 July 23. Extradition treaty ratified, 
 
 Netherlands and Great Britain. 
 
 WOELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1873 
 
 Feb. 23. Emperor 
 
 Toung-Chi of China 
 
 assumes government. 
 March 25. Netherlands 
 
 declare war against 
 
 Atchinese. 
 
 1874 
 
 Feb. 5. British force 
 under Sir G. Wolse- 
 ley occupies Ooomaa- 
 
914 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 Pkogbess of Sooiett. 
 
 1874 
 
 Aug. International 
 congress at Brussels 
 on laws of war. 
 
 Sept. 15. Internation- 
 al postal congress at 
 Beme ; adopts a sys- 
 tem Oct. 7. 
 
 Deaths, 1874 : Ex-pres. 
 
 ner ; F. Guizot ; 
 
 A. von Rothschild ; 
 
 Chang and E n g 
 
 (Siamese twins) ; 
 
 Dr. D. E. Strauss; 
 
 J. Michelet. 
 1875 
 Jan. Civil registration 
 
 and ci'sol marriage 
 
 adopted by law in 
 
 Germany. 
 May 20. International 
 
 United States. 
 
 1874 
 
 Apr. S2. President Grant vetoes bill for in- 
 convertible jjaper money. 
 
 July. Beecher scandal breaks out. 
 
 Aug. 17. Riots at Austin., Miss., negroes and 
 whites ; so-called negro insurrection also in 
 Aug., at Trenton, Tenn, 
 
 Sept. Centennial of meeting of colonial dele- 
 gates at Philadelphia. 
 
 Fillmore ; C. Sum-^ejit. 18. Gov. Kellogg of La. deposed by a 
 
 rising of whites ; restored by U. S. forces, 
 Oct. 27. Triennial Episcopalian convention ; 
 
 canon against ritualism. 
 Dec. Senate passes biU to resume specie pay^ 
 
 ment Jan. 1, 1879. 
 
 1875 
 
 Feb. 4. Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty 
 
 with Canada. 
 Feb. Civil rights bill (for negroes) passed. 
 Apr. 19. Centenary of Lexington. 
 June 17. Centenary of Bunker Hill, 
 convention at Paris: July 2. Beecher trial ends. Jury disagrees (9 
 for adopting metric! to 3 for Beecher). 
 
 system. 13 nations Sept. 30. First American Cardinal (McClos- 
 represented. | key) received at Rome. 
 
 May 23. P e o p 1 e of Oct. Inflationist defeats in Ohio and Iowa. 
 Switzerland adopt 
 civil marriage by 
 vote. 
 
 Nov. 28. Italian gov- 
 ernment buys the 
 Northern Italian 
 railroads. 
 
 Deaths, 1875 : Ex-pres. 
 Johnson ; A. Helps ; 
 B. Pereu'e; E. Qui- 
 net ; Toung-Chi, em- 
 
 I peror of China. 
 1876' 1876 1876 
 
 Feb. 1. International 
 courts in Egypt be- 
 gin to sit. 
 
 Feb. 6. Turkey replies 
 to Andrassy note, 
 promising reforms, 
 which are decreed 
 14th. 
 
 March 9. Egyptian in- 
 vading force beaten 
 by Abyssinians. 
 
 Oct. 27. Capt. Nares's 
 Arctic expedition re- 
 turns ; reports that 
 North Pole cannot 
 be reached. 
 
 Dec. 21. New penal 
 code adopted for 
 German Empire. 
 
 Deaths, 1876 : Vice- 
 pres. H. Wilson ; P. 
 Deak; Reverdy John- 
 son ; Abdul- Aziz, ex- 
 
 1875 
 
 March 9. Moody and 
 Sankey, the reviv- 
 alists, arrive in 
 London ; sail (on 
 return) Aug. 4. 
 
 Sept. 27. Railway ju- 
 bilee at Darlington. 
 
 Nov.<65. Government 
 purchase of Suez 
 canal shares an- 
 nounced. 
 
 Jan. 1. Centennial year, great demonstrations 
 in Philadelphia. 
 
 March. Minister Schenck resigns in con- 
 sequence of Emma Mine scandal. 
 
 April. Senate rejects R. H. Dana's nomina- 
 tion as minister to England. 
 
 Apr. 14. Lincoln monument, erected by ne- 
 groes, unveiled at Washington. 
 
 May 10. International exhib. opened at Phila. 
 
 June 16. Hayes and Wheeler nominated at 
 Cincinnati. 
 
 June. Winslow released at London ; extradi- 
 tion treaty thus ended. 
 
 June 25. Custer and his command ambushed 
 and destroyed by Sioux. 
 
 June 29. TUden and Hendricks nominated at 
 St. Louis. 
 
 July 9. Hamburg (S. 0.) massacre of negro 
 militiamen by Butler and others. 
 
 Aug. 1. Gen. Belknap, ex-secretary of war, 
 impeached for corruption, but acquitted by 
 35 to 25 in Senate (two-thirds must con- 
 vict), 
 sultan of Turkey ; Aug. 2. Colorado admitted into the Union. 
 Gen. Santa Anna ; Oct. 17. President Grant's proclamation 
 C. Perier ; Cardinal against unlawful combinations to afEeot eleo- 
 AntOJielli. I tions in South. 
 
 Beitish Empies 
 
 1874 
 
 Feb. 21. Gladstone 
 ministry out ; D'ls- 
 raeli succeeds him. 
 
 May 13-21. Visit of 
 Czar of Russia. 
 
 1876 
 
 May 1. Queen pro- 
 
 claimed Emf reaa 
 of India. 
 
1867-1877.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 915 
 
 Fbance. 
 
 EuEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 WOELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1874 1874 
 
 Aug. 31. Vendome column 
 . restored. 
 
 1875 
 
 1876 
 
 1875 
 
 Feb.-March. Constitutional 
 changes in a republican 
 
 ! direction. 
 
 June 23. Destructive floods 
 at Toulouse. 
 
 Dec. Reports on trial of com- 
 mimists shows 9,596 con- 
 victions and 110 death 
 sentences. 
 
 1874 
 
 Dec. 31. Alfonso, son of Queen Isa- 
 ^ beUa, proclaimed King of Spain, 
 enters Madrid and assumes govern- 
 ment, Jan. 14, 1875. 
 
 1875 
 
 Oct. 6. Turkey announces suspension 
 
 of payment on half the interest of 
 
 her pubUc debt. 
 
 1876 
 
 Jan. French revenue for 1875 
 $500,000,000, said to be 
 the largest ever received 
 by any government. 
 
 Feb.-March. Republican ma- 
 jority elected to Chambers 
 
 Nov. 3. France announces 
 her neutrality in the Russo- 
 Turkish war. 
 
 Dec. 12. New ministry under 
 Jules Simon. 
 
 1876 
 
 Jan. 31. Andrassy note presented to 
 Turkey, suggesting reforms. 
 
 March 20. Triumphal entry of Al- 
 fonso into Madrid, the CarUst in 
 surrection being suppressed. 
 
 May 6. Assassination of French and 
 German consuls at Salonica in Tur- 
 key. 
 
 May. Risings in Bulgaria, cruelly 
 put down by Turks. 
 
 May SO. Suitan Abdul- Aziz deposed ; 
 Murad V. succeeds. 
 
 July 9. Turkey repudiates payments 
 on public debt until better times. 
 
 Aug. 31. Sultan Murad deposed ; Ab- 
 dul Hamid II. succeeds. 
 
 Nov. 1 . Six weeks' armistice between 
 Turkey and Servia. 
 
 1874 
 
 Feb. 13, King of Asto 
 antee makes peace. 
 
 Feb. 22. Bishop of Per- 
 nambuco condemned 
 to 4 years' imprison- 
 ment for disobedi- 
 ence to law. 
 
 Feb. 26. Insurrection 
 at Nagasaki, Japan. 
 
 1875 
 
 Apr. 5. Island of Sag- 
 hahen ceded by Ja- 
 pan to Russia. 
 
 May 18. Seven Chilian 
 towns of 30,000 popu- 
 lation, destroyed by 
 an earthquake. 
 
 1876 
 
 Feb. 20. Khokand an- 
 nexed to Russia, as 
 Ferghana. 
 
 July 17. Gen. Canal 
 president of Hayti. 
 
 Oct. 31. Terrible cy- 
 clone in Bengal ; im- 
 mense loss of prop- 
 erty and life. 
 
 Dec. 10. Baez, Presi. 
 dent of St. Domingo. 
 
916 
 
 THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 FBoaBESB 07 Society. 
 
 United States. 
 
 British Emfzbb. 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 Deaths, 1877: Tayler 
 Lewis ; J.. L. Mot- 
 ley ; Gen. Changar- 
 nier ; Dr. Muhlen- 
 berg ; E. L. Daven- 
 port, Gen. Forrest 
 Geo. L. Fox, Henry 
 Peters Gray, Thiers, 
 Brigham Young. 
 
 1878 
 
 1878 
 
 Dec. 17. Gold sells at 
 par in New York 
 City for the first 
 time since Jan. 13. 
 1862. 
 
 Deaths : W. C. Bry- 
 ant, Bayard Tavlor, 
 Geo. H. Lewes, Wm 
 M. Tweed, George 
 Cruikshank, Prin 
 cess Alice, Bp. Du- 
 panloup, Joseph 
 Henry. 
 
 1876 1876 
 
 Nov. 7. Presidential election ; Haj'es and 
 Wheeler chosen by 185, to 184 for Tilden 
 and Hendricks, 
 
 1877 
 
 Jan. tr. S. Government commission report 
 Darien canal practicable. 
 
 Jan. Extradition treaty signed with Spain. 
 
 Jan. 8. Two governors (Nicholls and Kellogg) 
 inaugurated in Louisiana ; Kellogg main- 
 tained by U. S. troops. 
 
 Jan. Fourteen fishing schooners, overdue at 
 Gloucester, Mass., given up for lost with all 
 on board. 
 
 Jan. Moody and Sankey opened meeting in 
 Boston. 
 
 Apr. 10. U. S. troops evacuated South Caro- 
 lina state house ; Gov. Chamberlain has to 
 yield to Hampton. 
 
 Apr. 24. IT. S . troops evacuate state house at 
 New Orleans ; KeUogg government yields to 
 Nicholls. 
 
 June 6. Civil suit against P. B. Sweeney com- 
 promised for $400,000. • 
 
 June 29. Pres. Hayes's letter prescribing 
 that national office-holders must not be 
 managing party officials, nor be assessed for 
 party expenses. 
 
 Jiiy. An.Indian war under chief Joseph breako 
 out in Idaho, 
 
 Oct. 5. Nez Perces Indians under Chief 
 Joseph surrender. 
 
 Oct. 15. Forty-fifth Congress meets in extra 
 session. 
 
 Nov. 23. Halifax Fisheries Commission de- 
 cree that the United States is to pay Great 
 Britain $5,500,000. 
 
 1878 
 
 Jan. 30. Senate ratifies Samoan treaty which 
 gives U. S. naval vessels use of harbor of 
 Pagopago. 
 
 May 17. House of Kepresentatives appoints 
 a (Potter) committee to investigate alleged 
 frauds in presidential election of 1876. 
 
 Nov. 5. Elections favorable to the Demo- 
 crats. 
 
 Southern States visited with yellow fever, 
 causing 20,000 cases of sickness and 7,000 
 deaths 
 
 1877. 
 
 July2-9. Pan-Presby- 
 terian conference 
 at Edinburgh, 
 
 Cleopatra's Needle 
 brought from 
 Egypt and erected 
 in London. 
 
 1878 
 
 June 4. Defensive 
 treaty with Tur- 
 key signed, by 
 which Cyprus is 
 ceded to Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Sept. 3. "Princess 
 Alice " sunk near 
 London ; 600 lives 
 lost. 
 
 Oct. 2. City of Glas- 
 gow Bank, Scot- 
 land, closed witli 
 liabilities of $50,- 
 000,000. 
 
1867-1877.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 917 
 
 1876 
 
 Fbanob. 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 1877 
 
 1878 
 
 Oct. 14. Elections favorable 
 
 to Republicans. 
 Nov. 30. Resignation of the 
 
 De Broglie ministry. 
 Dec. 14. Formation of the 
 
 Duf aure ministry. 
 
 1878 
 
 May 1. International Expo- 
 sition opens at Paris. 
 
 EuEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 Jan. 18. Tnrkey rejects proposals of 
 the European powers. 
 
 Jan. 23. New Turkish constitution 
 proclaimed. 
 
 Apr. 24. Russia declares war against 
 Turke\', and enters Roumania. 
 
 May 21. Jubilee at Rome, 50th anni- 
 versary of Pope's episcopate. 
 
 June. Russians cross the Danube at 
 Galatz ; 25, at Hirsova. 
 
 July 6. Over 120,000 Russians have 
 crossed at Sistova. 
 
 July. The German quarrel with Rome 
 has caused the deposition of 4 bish- 
 ops and 6 archbishops; expulsion 
 of 600 persons (120 priests) from 
 Cologne alone ; vacancy of 476 
 parishes in 7 bishoprics alone. 
 
 Aug 18. Russians defeated at Jah- 
 nilar ; 25, and at Kizil Tape. 
 
 Sept. 3. Russians storm Lovatz ; 
 
 8, Montenegrins capture Nicsic. 
 Nov. 17. Insurrection .along Greek 
 
 frontier. 
 Nov. 18. Russians capture Kars. 
 Dec. 10. Russians capture Plevna. 
 1878 
 Jan. 3. Russians capture Sophia ; 
 
 9, and a Turkish army of 25,000 
 men in Shipka Pass ; 20, and enter 
 Adrianople. 
 
 Jan. 9. King Victor Emanuel of 
 Italy dies, and is succeeded by liis 
 son, King Humbert. 
 
 Jan. 23. King Alfonso of Spain 
 marries Princess Mercedes. 
 
 Feb. 7. Pius IX. dies ; 20, Leo XIII 
 is elected Pope. 
 
 May 11. Attempt to assassinate Em^ 
 peror William of Germany. 
 
 June 2. Another attempt to assas^ 
 sinate Emperor of Germany. 
 
 June 13. Meeting of European Pow- 
 ers at Berlin. 
 
 June 56. Death of Queen Mercedes 
 of Spain. 
 
 July 13. Treaty of Berlin signed by 
 European Powers. 
 
 Aug. Opposition in Bosnia to Aus- 
 trian occupation. 
 
 Oct. 19. Anti-Socialist Bill passed 
 by Germany. 
 
 Oct. 25. Attempt to assassinate King 
 Alfonso of Spain. 
 
 Nov. 17. Attempt to assassinate 
 King Humbert of Italy. 
 
 WosLD, elsewhere. 
 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 Feb. Diaz is in posses- 
 sion of power in 
 Mexico ; ex-president 
 Lerdo escapes to San 
 Francisco. 
 
 May 9. Great earth- 
 quake and tidal wave, 
 coast of Peru; loss, 
 $20,000,000 and 600 
 lives. 
 
 Only railroad in China 
 closed by the Chi- 
 nese government. 
 
 1878 
 
 Jan.-Feb. Famine in 
 Northern China, in 
 which several mill- 
 ions of persons 
 starve to death. 
 
 Feb. 4. An asylum for 
 women and children 
 in Tien-tsin, China, 
 is burned, and near- 
 ly 3,000 lives lost. 
 
 April 11. Tornado at 
 Canton, China, in 
 which 10,000 persons 
 are estimated to be 
 killed. 
 
 Aug. Marquis of 
 Lome is appointed 
 Governor-General of 
 Canada. 
 
 Sept. Protectionists 
 are successful at 
 Canadian elections ; 
 Sir John A. Mac- 
 donald becomes pre- 
 mier; and tariff laws 
 are passed. 
 
 Nov. 21. British troops 
 invade Afghanistan. 
 
918 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGKESS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Peogeess of Society. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Beitish Empiee. 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 
 Jan. 2. Specie pay- 
 ments resumed in 
 
 Mar. 18. Extra session of Forty-sixth Con- 
 
 Mar. 13. Marriage 
 
 
 gress. 
 
 of Duke of Con- 
 
 
 U.S. 
 
 Sept. 29. Maj. Thornburgh and ten soldiers 
 
 naught to Prin- 
 
 
 April 30. Treaty be- 
 
 killed by the Indians in Colorado. 
 
 cess Louise of 
 
 
 tween Great Britain 
 
 Oct. 16. The Apaches kill forty settlers iu 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 
 and Germany for 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 
 
 suppressing slave 
 
 
 
 
 trade. 
 
 
 
 
 May 18. Switzerland 
 
 
 
 
 permits each Canton 
 
 
 
 
 to restore capital 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 punishment. 
 
 
 
 
 July 9. " Jeannette " 
 
 
 
 
 sails from San Fran- 
 
 
 
 
 cisco for Arctic re- 
 
 
 
 
 gions. 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 25. Flogging in 
 the navy abolished 
 
 
 
 
 in the Netherlands. 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 15. Seventh ca- 
 
 
 
 
 ble laid under the 
 
 
 
 Atlantic (Cape Cod 
 
 
 
 to Brest). 
 
 
 
 Deaths : Mme. Je- 
 
 
 
 rome Bonaparte, 
 
 
 
 Von Bulow, R. H. 
 
 
 
 Dana, Gen. Dix, W. 
 
 
 
 
 L. Garrison, Gen. 
 
 
 
 
 Hood, Gen. Hooker, 
 
 
 
 
 Baron Rothschild, 
 
 
 
 
 Gen. Richard Tay- 
 
 
 
 
 lor, 
 
 ■ 
 
 
1877-83 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 919 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 Jan. 30. Marshal Mac Ma- 
 
 iion resigns the presidency 
 
 and Jules Grevy is elected 
 
 in his place. 
 Feb. 2. Resignation of the 
 
 Dufaure ministry. 
 Feb. 5. Appointment of the 
 
 Waddlngton ministry. 
 June 1. Prince Louis Na- 
 poleon killed by the Zulus. 
 Aug. 2. Seat of government 
 
 removed from Versailles 
 
 to Paris. 
 Dec. 20. Resignation of the 
 
 Waddington ministry. 
 Dec. 28. Appointment of 
 
 the Freycinet ministiy. 
 
 France. 
 
 EuEOPB, elsevs'here. 
 
 1879 
 
 Feb. 8. Definite treaty of peace be 
 
 tvveen Russia and Turkey signed 
 Mar. 12. River Theiss in Hungary 
 
 breaks its dykes and destroys 300 
 
 lives. 
 Mar. 20. Russian troops evacuate 
 
 Adrianople. 
 Nov. 29. King Alfonso of Spain 
 
 marries the Archduchess Marie 
 
 Christina. 
 Dec. 30. Attempt to assassinate 
 
 King Alfonso of Spain. 
 
 WoKLD, elsewhere. 
 
 1879 
 
 Jan. 8. British troops 
 enter Candahar (Af- 
 ghanistan). 
 
 Jan. 10. British troops 
 enter Zululand ; 22, 
 are defeated at Is- 
 aiidlana. 
 
 Feb. 12. Chilians take 
 possession of disput- 
 ed Bolivian territory. 
 
 Feb. 16. King of Bur- 
 mah assassinates 
 princes of royal 
 house at Mandalay. 
 
 Feb. 20. Death of 
 Shere All, Ameer of 
 Afghanistan ; suc- 
 ceeded by Yakoob 
 Khan. 
 
 Mar. 23. Chilians cap- 
 ture Calania. 
 
 April 2. Zulus defeat- 
 ed at Gingholova. 
 
 April 0. Chili formal- 
 ly declares war 
 against Peru ; 11, 
 Peruvians defeated 
 in naval battle off 
 Loa. 
 
 June 24. Zulus invade 
 Natal ; 28. General 
 Wolseley lands at 
 Durban. 
 
 June 25. Ismail, Khe- 
 dive of Egypt, abdi- 
 c.T,tes and is succeed- 
 ed by his son, Tew- 
 fik Pasha. 
 
 June 26. Afghans sign 
 treaty of peace. 
 
 July 1. Zulus defeated 
 at Ulundi. 
 
 July'16. Chilians bom- 
 bard Iquique ; 21, 
 Peruvians bombard 
 Caldera. 
 
 Aug. 8. Second bom- 
 bardment of Iqui- 
 que by Chilians ; 16, 
 Battle at San Pedro 
 de Acatama ; and, 
 28, at Antofagasta. 
 
 Aug: 28. The Zulu 
 king, Cetewayo, 
 captured. 
 
 Sept. 1. Bolivians and 
 Peruvians capture 
 Calama ; 16, Naval 
 battle off Iquique ; 
 19, Chilians victori- 
 ous at San Fran- 
 cisco. 
 
 Sept. 3. Maj. Cavag- 
 nari and British. 
 Embassy assassinat- 
 ed in Cabul. 
 
920 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PeoseessofSocibty. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Beitish Empire. 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 Feb. 18. Slavery abol 
 ished in Cnba. 
 
 Feb. 29. Tunnel 
 through St. Gothard 
 Mt. completed. 
 
 June 10. Celebration 
 at Lisbon of ter 
 centenary of Ca 
 moens. 
 
 Aug. 14. Completion 
 of Cologne Cathe 
 dral, begun in 1248. 
 
 Nov. 4. Kansas adopts 
 prohibitory amend- 
 ment to constitu 
 tion. 
 
 Dec. 8. Flogging abol 
 ished in British 
 navy. 
 
 Deaths : Ole Bull, 
 Lydia Maria Child, 
 Geo. Eliot, Empress 
 of Russia, Lucretia 
 Mott, Paul de Mus- 
 set, Offenbach, Tom 
 Taylor. 
 
 June 2. Garfield and Arthur nominated by 
 Republicans at Chicago. 
 
 June 11. Weaver and Chambers nominated 
 by Greenbacli-Labor Convention at Chi- 
 cago. 
 
 June 24. Hancoclc and English nominated 
 by Democrats at Cincinnati. 
 
 Oct. 14. Indian Chief Victoria and fifty 
 braves killed by Mexicans. 
 
 Nov. 4. Garfield and Arthur elected Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President. 
 
 Jan. 3. Riots in Con- 
 nemara, Ireland. 
 
 Feb. 17. Parliament 
 defeats bill to 
 make franchise in 
 Ireland the same 
 as in England and 
 Scotland. 
 
 Mar. 24. Parliament 
 dissolved. 
 
 April 21. Resigna- 
 tion of Beacons- 
 field. 
 
 April 23. Appoint- 
 ment of Gladstone 
 government. 
 
 May. Insurrections 
 in Western Ire- 
 land. 
 
 June. H o n s e of 
 Commons refuses 
 to allow Bradlaugh 
 to take his seat. 
 
 Oct. -Nov. Riots in 
 various parts of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Dec. 28. State trial 
 against Parnell, 
 etc., begins In 
 Dublin. 
 
1877-82 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 921 
 
 Fkance. 
 
 Europe, elsewhere. 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 Jan. 29. Bill passed to sup- 
 press political clubs. 
 
 June. Ai'Diy chaplains abol 
 ished. 
 
 June 29. Island of Tahiti 
 annexed to France, 
 
 June 30. Jesuits expelled 
 from their religion i 
 houses. 
 
 July 11. Communists am 
 nestled. 
 
 Sept. 10. Revolt of natives 
 of Domenica against 
 French government. 
 
 Sept. 19. Resignation of 
 Frej'cinet ministry. 
 
 Sept. 23. Appointment of 
 Ferry ministry. 
 
 Oct. 30. Religious houses 
 of Jesuits forcibly closed. 
 
 Nov. 9. Ferry ministry re- 
 sign ; but, 11, withdraw 
 their resignations. 
 
 Dec. 9. Bill for taxing reli- 
 gious property passed. 
 
 1880 
 
 Feb. 18. 1,200 persons arrested in 
 Russia for " attempting " to assas- 
 sinate the Czar ; 24, Gen. Melikofl: 
 appointed Dictator of Russia. 
 
 April 7. Bismarck offers his resig- 
 nation to the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, but it is not accepted. 
 
 May 4. German Anti-Socialist laws 
 extended to 1884. 
 
 June 1. International Exhibition 
 opened at Brussels. 
 
 June 16. Supplementary Conference 
 meets at Berlin to settle Greek and 
 Montenegrin questions. 
 
 July 3. Prussia passes bOl to sub- 
 ordinate all clergy to the State. 
 
 Sept. 17. Naval demonstration 
 against Sultan to enforce Monte- 
 negrin settlement. 
 
 Oct. 19. Czar marries Princess Dol- 
 gorouki. 
 
 Nov. 27. Turks evacuate Dulcigno. 
 
 Nov.-Dec, Anti-Semitic meetings 
 at Berlin. 
 
 1879 
 
 Sept. 9. Communist 
 outbreak in Colom- 
 bia ; German consul 
 and 200 others 
 killed. 
 
 Sept. 17. Internation- 
 al Exhibition at 
 Sydney, New South 
 Wales. 
 
 Oct. 2. Afghans re- 
 pulsed with great 
 loss at Shutargar- 
 dan: 21, Abdication 
 of Yakoob Khan, 
 
 Oct. 8. Chilians cap- 
 ture the " Huascar." 
 
 Oct. 24. Midhat. Pasha 
 resigns governor- 
 ship of Syria. 
 
 Nov. 2. Chilians cap- 
 ture Pisagua ; and, 
 8, Tarapaca ; and, 
 17, Conchas Blan 
 cas : and, 22, the 
 " Pilcomayo ; " 13, 
 are defeated at 
 Quintlagoa; but, 24, 
 are victorious at 
 Iquique. 
 
 Dec. 12. Attempt to 
 assassinate Lord 
 Lytton at Calcutta. 
 
 Dec. 14. Afghans de- 
 feated near Cahul ; 
 and, 23, at Sherpur, 
 
 1880 
 
 Jan. 5. Revolution in 
 Peru ; Gen. Pierola 
 proclaimed Dicta- 
 tor. 
 
 Jan. 7. Chilians occu- 
 py Ilo. 
 
 Jan. 15. Afghans de- 
 feated near Dacca ; 
 21, British capture 
 Khelat-i-Ghilzai. 
 
 Feb. 1-3. Chilians de- 
 feated. 
 
 Mar. 7. Chilians bom- 
 bard Arica • and, 11, 
 occupy Moquega ; 
 and, 18, Islay. 
 
 April 10. C liilians 
 blockade Callao. 
 
 April 19. Afghans de- 
 feated at Ahmed- 
 key ; 20, defeat Brit- 
 ish near Ghitrzner ; 
 25, defeated at Cha- 
 rasiab. 
 
 June 7. Chilians cap- 
 ture Arica -and Tac- 
 na. 
 
 July 4. Chilian "Loa" 
 destroyed by tor- 
 pedo. 
 
922 
 
 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 Peogeessoi'Societt. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Beitish Empiee. 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1883 
 
 1881 
 
 Feb. 7. Work begun 
 on Panama Canal. 
 
 May 17, 19. Revised 
 New Testament 
 published in Eng- 
 land and America. 
 
 June 11. "Jeannette" 
 destroyed by ice in 
 Siberian seas. 
 
 Auff. Electrical Ex- 
 hibition opened at 
 Paris. 
 
 Deaths : Beaconsfleld, 
 Gen. Burnside, Car- 
 lyle, Dean Stanley, 
 J. G. Holland,. J. T. 
 Fields, Emile Littre. 
 
 1882 
 
 J. P. Slater gives 
 $1,000,000 for edu- 
 tion of the colored 
 people of the 
 South. 
 
 Great increase in use 
 of electric light. 
 
 1881 
 
 Mar. 4. Gai-iield inaugurated as President. 
 
 May 5. New treaty with China confirmed 
 (regulating immigration). 
 
 June 2. Great Britain pays $75,000 for For- 
 tune Bay fisheries damages. 
 
 July 2. Garfield shot by Guiteau in Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 July 20. Indian Chief Sitting Bull surren- 
 ders at Fort Buford. 
 
 Sept. 19. Garfield dies at Elberon, N. J. 
 
 Sept. 20, 22. Arthur takes oath of office as 
 President. 
 
 Oct. 5. International Cotton Exhibition 
 opened at Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Oct. 18. Centennial celebration of Battle of 
 Yorktown ; British flag saluted by order 
 of the President. 
 
 Oct. 31. Cashier of Mechanics' National 
 Bank, Newark, embezzles $2,000,000. 
 
 Nov. 14. Beginning of trial of Guiteau for 
 murder of Garfield. 
 
 1882 
 
 Jan. 25. Guiteau trial ended in his convic 
 tion of murder in the first degree. 
 
 Feb. 28. Congress passes apportionment 
 bill giving House or Representatives 325 
 members. 
 
 May. Outbreak of Apache Indians in Ari 
 zona. 
 
 May 8. Congress passes bill suspendinc 
 ChlEeee immigration for ten years. 
 
 1881 
 
 Jan. 24. House of 
 Commons sits 
 continuously for 
 41 hours to pass 
 coercion bill. 
 
 Jan. 25. Irish State 
 trial ends in dis- 
 agreement of the 
 jury. 
 
 Mar. 17. Passage of 
 Irish arms bill . 
 
 Apr. - June. 1,063 
 families in Ireland 
 evicted for not 
 paying rents. 
 
 July 30. Passage of 
 Irish land bill. 
 
 1882 
 
 Mar. 2. Attempt to 
 
 assassinate Queen 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Apr. 27. Marriage 
 of Prince Leopold 
 to Princess Hele- 
 na of Waldeck. 
 
1877-82 
 
 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 923 
 
 Teance. 
 
 Europe, elsewhere. 
 
 WoELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1881 
 
 May 12. City of Tunis sur- 
 renders to French. 
 
 July 11. French army bom- 
 bards Sfax. 
 
 Nov. 10. Resignation of the 
 Ferry ministry ; 15, For- 
 mation of the Gambetta 
 ministry, 
 
 1881 
 
 Mar. 13. Assassination of Czar of 
 
 Russia ; succeeded by his son 
 
 Alexander III. 
 Apr. 15. Execution of five Nihilists 
 
 for assassination of the Czar. 
 Apr. 27. Beginning of outrages 
 
 against the Jews in Russia. 
 Dec. 8. Ring Theatre in Vienna 
 
 burned, and 794 lives lost. 
 
 July 25. Abdul Rah- 
 man recognized by 
 British as Ameer of 
 Cabul; 27, British de- 
 feated in Candahar. 
 
 Sept. 1. Afghans de- 
 feated at Candahar. 
 
 Sept. 6. Insurrection 
 of Basutos ; 25, de- 
 feated. 
 
 Sept. 14. Offer of U. 
 S. to mediate in 
 Chilian war accept- 
 ed. 
 
 Oct. 1. International 
 Exhibition opened 
 at Melbourne. 
 
 Oct. 14, 19. Basutos 
 defeated. 
 
 Nov. 15. Rising of the 
 Boers in the Trans- 
 vaal against the 
 British government. 
 
 Nov. 25. Negotiations 
 for peace between 
 Chili, Peru, and Bo- 
 livia broken ofif. 
 
 Dec. 21. General ris- 
 ing of the Boers in 
 the Transvaal; 2.3, 
 they declare theit 
 independence ; and, 
 28, occupy Potchef- 
 stroom. 
 
 1881 
 
 Jan. 23. Callao and 
 Jfeiima surrender to 
 Chilians. 
 
 Mar. 23. Boer war in 
 S. Africa ended. 
 
 Apr. Earthquake at 
 Chios, Asia Minor, 
 destroying forty -five 
 villages and 5,000 
 persons. 
 
 Nov. False Prophet 
 appears in Soudan. 
 
 1882 
 
 Jan. Failure of the Union 
 
 Generale. 
 Jan. 30. Resignation of the 
 
 Gambetta ministry and 
 
 formation of the Freycinet 
 
 ministry. 
 May 2. French capture Ha- 
 
 Noi in Southeastern 
 1 Asia. 
 
 1883 
 
 Feb. Twenty-one Nihilists in Russia 
 
 condemned to death or to penal 
 
 servitude. 
 Apr. Prince Gortschakoff resigns 
 
 Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 
 
 Russia. 
 
 May. Assassination of Gen. Strel 
 nikoff at Odessa. 
 
 1882 
 
 May. Renewal of po- 
 litical massacres in 
 
 June 11. Riots in 
 Alexandria; 340 Eu- 
 ropeans killed. 
 
934 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGRESS. 
 
 PeogressofSociety. 
 
 United States. 
 
 British Empire. 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 Deaths : Longfellow, 
 Darwin, Emerson, 
 Gambetta, Garibal- 
 di, Pusey, Abp. 
 Tait, Anthony Trol- 
 1 o p e, T h u r 1 o w 
 Weed, G. P. Marsh, 
 R. H. Dana, jr., 
 Auerbach, Dr. Dra- 
 per, Dr. Bellows. 
 
 1883 
 
 June 30. Guiteau hanged in Washington. 
 
 Aug. 2. Congress passes over the Presi- 
 dent's veto the largest River and Harbor 
 bill ever passed— $18,74.3,875. 
 
 Nov. Elections throughout the country 
 generally favorable to the Democrats. 
 
 1882 
 
 May 6. Assassina- 
 tion of Lord F. C. 
 Cavendish and 
 Mr. Burke in Dub- 
 lin. 
 
 July 13. Queen signs 
 new coercion bill. 
 
 Aug. Passage of 
 Irish arrears of 
 rent bill. 
 
 Dec. Parliament 
 adopts new rules 
 of procedure. 
 
 Dec. 20. Archbish- 
 opric of Canter- 
 bury accepted by 
 Bishop Benson. 
 
1877-82 
 
 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 925 
 
 A.D. 
 
 France. 
 
 ExiEOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 WoELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1SS2 
 
 1882 
 
 1882 
 
 1882 
 
 
 Aug. 7. Formation of the 
 
 Sept. Turkey cedes 5,000 square 
 
 July 11. British fleet 
 
 
 Duclerc ministry. 
 
 miles to Greece. 
 
 bombards Alexan- 
 
 
 Passage of divorce bill. 
 
 Oct. 2. Attempt to assassinate King 
 
 dria ; 12, Egyptians 
 
 
 
 Milan of Servia. 
 
 evacuate and iire 
 
 
 
 Dec. Conviction of forty-five So- 
 
 Alexandria. 
 
 
 
 cialists at Prague. 
 
 Aug. 15. Gen. Wolse- 
 ley arrives at Alex- 
 andria ; 20, seizes 
 the Suez Canal ; 
 and, 24, defeats 
 Egyptians at Mag- 
 far and (25) at Kas- 
 sasin Lock. 
 
 Sept. 13. British cap- 
 ture Tel - el - Kebir 
 and Zagazig ; 14, 
 Arabi is captured ; 
 23, Damietta'surren- 
 ders ; and, 25, Khe- 
 dive returns to Cai- 
 ro. 
 
 Dec. 3. Arabi sen- 
 tenced to death ; 
 commuted by Khe- 
 dive to perpetual 
 exile. 
 
BIOGEAPHIOAL IKDEX 
 
 TO 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTOET. 
 
 ff. B. This list of remarkable persons, from tlie earliest period, is not, of conree, Intended 
 U? include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in theii 
 BS'yeral departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as fall 
 lists are given in their proper place. 
 
 This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . 
 
 Pirst, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World'i 
 Pr igress ; " and 
 
 Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- 
 tefiiporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. 
 
 Thus : SocKATEs, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. o. The tables 
 on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' 
 Ufe. 
 
 Milton was bom a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; 
 six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended 
 the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year 
 before Gustavus Adolphus became Idng of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became 
 king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he 
 was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- 
 headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, 
 Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in 
 England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America ; Richelieu, Mazarine, 
 Colbert, Eubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moli6re, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. 
 He died A. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles IL 
 was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English, 
 
 And thus, of any person mentio'ned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be 
 found at a glance, on referring to the tables. 
 
 Abbbeviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. (Barbarian) includes several different 
 nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ 
 are indicated by b. o.; all others are A. d. In some oases the dates are necessarily left 
 blank. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian . . . • 
 
 Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . » . 
 
 Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician 
 
 Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) 
 Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . 
 Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist 
 Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . 
 Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . 
 Arab, Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . , 
 
 Turk, Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey , , . 
 
 Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . . . 
 
 Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels « 
 
 Nor. Abel| Kicholas H., mathematician . . . 
 
 927 
 
 BOKN. 
 
 DIED, 
 
 f. 1188 
 
 
 c. 1570 
 
 1453 
 
 f. 622 
 
 
 1813 
 
 1854 
 
 1562 
 
 1623 
 
 1763 
 
 1849 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1886 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1856 
 
 1804 
 
 1846 
 
 1802 
 
 
928 
 
 THB world's PEOGBESS. 
 
 NIIIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Sp. Abenczra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. 
 
 Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary . « 
 
 Scot. Abercrombie, John, author of ' IntellectualPowers' 
 
 Eug. Abe^oromby, Sir Ralph, military commander . . 
 
 Eng Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer • 
 
 Fr. Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . . 
 
 Fr. About, Edmoiid, novelist, traveller, &c. . . 
 
 Jew. Abra;-;im, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation . 
 
 Er. Abrantes, duchess d', biographer 
 
 Dan. Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor 
 
 Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet 
 
 Syr. Abulfuda, the geographer .... 
 
 Rom. Acciu?, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) , 
 
 Ital. Aooursius, or Accorao, an eminent critic . . , 
 
 Ger. Accum, J'red., operative chemist (in England) . 
 
 PrusB, Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 
 
 Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. 
 
 Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 
 
 Ital, Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher 
 
 Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 
 
 Eng. Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author . 
 
 Eng. Adam, Robert, an architectural author . . . 
 
 Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. . 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ire. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 -, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. 
 
 -, Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic 
 
 Add' SOU; Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 
 
 Adelungi John C, philologist and lexicographer 
 
 Adolphus, -John, author of history of England, &c. . 
 
 Adrp.in, Robert, mathematician (at New Tork, &o.) 
 
 Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) 
 
 .(Elfrit, archbishop of Canterbury, author cf Anglo-Saxon works 
 
 .^Slian, the historian and rhotoriciati , . 
 
 ./Eneas, son of Priam, king of Troy , , 
 
 uEschines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates 
 
 , orator , , 
 
 .^sop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . 
 jEitius, military commander (defeated Attila) 
 Africanus, Julius, historian 
 Bp.Moor — , Leo, author of travels in Africa 
 
 Agamemnon, " the king of kings" . . 
 
 Agathius, historian and poet , , 
 
 Agassiz, Louis, naturalist , . , 
 
 Agesilaua II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 
 
 Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne 
 
 Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings 
 
 Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible . 
 
 Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander . 
 
 Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Autinomiana 
 
 Agrlppa, military commander, governor of Judea 
 
 , Cornelius, philosopher, &o. , , 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIES 
 
 1119 
 
 1174 
 
 1784 
 
 1860 
 
 1781 
 
 1844 
 
 1738 
 
 1801 
 
 1764 
 
 1831 
 
 1606 
 
 1664 
 
 B. 0. 1995 B. c 
 
 1. 1821 
 
 1784 
 
 1838 
 
 1128 
 
 1203 
 
 561 
 
 S2J 
 
 1273 
 
 1545 
 
 D. 0. 171 
 
 
 
 1229 
 
 1769 
 
 1833 
 
 indon 1764 
 
 1834 
 
 f. B. 0, 1100 
 
 
 3d cent. 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1220 
 
 1252 
 
 . . 1741 
 
 1809 
 
 1728 
 
 1734 
 
 . 1735 
 
 1826 
 
 1767 
 
 1848 
 
 1726 
 
 •1803 
 
 1672 
 
 1719 
 
 . 1732 
 
 1808 
 
 1766 
 
 1845 
 
 . 1775 
 
 1843 
 
 76 
 
 138 
 
 •ks 
 
 10f,5 
 
 160 
 
 
 f. B. 0. 1183 
 
 
 B. 0. 393 B. 
 
 0. 323 
 
 f. B. 0. 600 
 
 
 . 
 
 454 
 
 
 232 
 
 1487 
 
 152e 
 
 B, 
 
 . 0. 904 
 
 . f. 
 
 565 
 
 1807 
 
 
 reeks) u, 
 
 , 0. 361 
 
 771 
 
 83iJ 
 
 • B. 
 
 0. 251 
 
 
 1610 
 
 40 
 
 93 
 
 1490 
 
 1566 
 
 40 
 
 94 
 
 1486 
 
 1538 
 
 1816 
 
 1847 
 
 f. B. 
 
 0. 456 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 929 
 
 RATIOK KAHS AND FB0F£SSION. 
 
 Eng. Aikin, John, M. Do, an elegant writer, editor of poets, &o. 
 
 Eng. , Lucy, biograplier and historian , , 
 
 Fr. ~ Aim6-Martin, Louis, writer on education , 
 
 Eng. Alnsworth, Eobert, grammarian and lexicographer « 
 
 Eng. ' , Wm. Erancis, traveller, geologist, &c. . 
 
 Eng. ^— — , Wm. Harrison, novelist , , 
 
 Eng. Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal , . , 
 
 Tartar. Akbar, Mobammed, a great Mogul sovereign . , 
 
 Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet ^ . , 
 
 Swe. Akenblad, philologist . • , , 
 
 Bar. Alaric I., king of the Visigoths . . , 
 
 Span. AJberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman . . 
 
 Eng. Albert Edward, Prinoe of Wales, heir to the British throne 
 Ger. Albeit, Prince, husband of the Queen, of England . 
 
 Ital. Albert!, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &o. . 
 Ger. Albertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas 
 Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror , . , 
 
 ItaL Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer . , 
 
 Port. Albuquerque (the great) military commander . 
 
 ' Gr. Alcaeus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . . , 
 
 Tczl. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author . 
 Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . 
 Gr. Alciphron, author of Letters, &c. 
 
 Amer. Alcott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist * 
 
 Amer. -"^— , Wm. A., writer on education and philosopher 
 jSng. Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. , 
 
 Amer. Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony . 
 Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . , 
 
 Aldus, see Manuiius .... 
 Fr. Alembert, John Le Rend d', math., hist., and philosopher 
 Eng. Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling . 
 
 Amer. , Archibald, theologian and author , 
 
 Amer. , J. Addison, theologian and commentator 
 
 Amer. -, James W., theologian ... 
 
 Eom. ■ , Severus, emperor 
 
 Bar. the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire 
 
 Rua. , jSTevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, 
 
 Bus. , !•, emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 
 
 Rus. , II., (became emperor 1855) , , 
 
 Ur. Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East . 
 Ital. Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . , , 
 
 Eng. Alfred, justly called the Great, king , , 
 
 ItaL Algarotti, a general, scholai-, and critic . , 
 
 Bar. A li Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks 
 Bar. All Tepe'ini, pasha of Jannina . . , 
 
 Bcot. Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste' 
 
 Scot. , Archibald, sir, 'History of Europe,' ' Essays' 
 
 Amer. Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution . 
 
 Amer. , Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary , 
 
 Eng. Alleyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) 
 Amer. Allston, Washington, painter and poet . 
 
 gar. Almamon, caliph, patron of learning « o 
 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 
 747 
 
 1625 
 
 « 
 
 
 1848 
 
 • 
 
 1660 
 
 1S07 
 
 1743 
 
 • 
 
 1805 
 1801 
 
 
 , 
 
 unt 
 
 1606 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1770 
 
 • 
 
 
 1819 
 411 
 
 • 
 
 1664 
 ld41 
 
 175" 
 
 , 
 
 1819 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1398 
 
 1490 
 
 • 
 
 1205 
 
 1280 
 574 
 
 . 
 
 1826 
 
 
 
 1452 
 
 1515 
 
 f.B. 
 
 0. 606 
 
 
 
 1492 
 
 1550 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 450 B. 
 f. 170 
 
 1799 
 
 1798 
 
 C. 404 
 
 , 
 
 732 
 
 804 
 
 
 1598 
 
 1687 
 
 • 
 
 
 709 
 
 ^ 
 
 1717 
 
 1783 
 
 
 1783 
 
 
 . 
 
 1772 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1809 
 
 1860 
 
 , 
 
 1804 
 
 1859- 
 
 
 209 
 
 235 
 
 B 
 
 0. 356 B 
 
 0. 323 
 
 &C. . 
 
 1218 
 
 ■i2e2 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 
 1048 
 
 1118 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1803 
 
 
 849 
 
 900 
 
 , 
 
 1712 
 
 1769 
 
 
 1728 
 
 1773 
 
 
 1744 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1757 
 
 1839 
 
 , 
 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1737 
 
 1789 
 
 , 
 
 1784 
 
 
 
 1566 
 
 162« 
 
 • 
 
 1779 
 
 1843 
 
 83S 
 
930 
 
 THE -WORLD'S PE0GKES3, 
 
 KATIOIC, 
 
 Bav. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Mex. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Port 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Mex. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Ifal. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Scot> h. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bwe. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 FEg. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Atist. 
 
 iing 
 Car 
 Fr. 
 
 OIBD 
 
 778 
 180S 
 
 1284 
 1185 
 
 1815 
 1834 
 1582 
 
 NAME AKD PROFESSION. BOEW. 
 
 Almansor, oaliph, patron of learning . > • 712 
 
 Almon, John, political writer . . • • 1728 
 
 Almonte, Juanet, general and statesman . ■ t-YK 1801 
 
 Alplionso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author . • 1203 
 
 Alphonso I., Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monarchy • 1094 
 Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . . • 1761 
 
 Althcrp, Viscount, statesman and book collector . . 1758 
 
 Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander 1508 
 
 Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolutioa . « • 1790 
 
 Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet • . 1794 
 
 Amaziah, king of Judah . . , • • 
 
 Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author ... 340 
 
 Americus Vespucius (of Florence), explored the S. American 
 
 coast ...... . 1451 
 
 Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator . • • 1750 
 
 , Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder . . 1803 
 
 Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &o. • • 1717 
 
 Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian . . . • 
 
 Ammon, Christ. F. von, Protestant theologian • • 1766 
 
 Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher . • • 
 
 Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ' Jno. Bunole' « 1719 
 
 Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist . . « 1800 
 
 , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher . 1775 
 
 Amyot, James, bishop of Auserre, translator of Plutarch . 1613 
 
 ..j.nacharsi8, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon • b. C. 592 
 
 Anacreon, a celebrated poet . « • • 
 
 AnastasiuB I., emperor of the East ... 
 
 Auaxagoras, a philosopher . « . • B. 0. 500 
 
 Anaxarohus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b. c. 340 
 
 Anaximauder, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher . • B. 0. 611 
 
 Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher • . 
 
 Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . • . 1794 
 
 Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman • < . 1767 1837 
 
 Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist • • 1835 
 
 Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . . • 1692 1765 
 
 , Sir Edmund, a judge and author, . . 1605 
 
 Andersson, Chas. John, explorer in Africa . * • 1856 
 
 Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine • . 1797 
 
 Andre, John, British ofacer in American war . • • 1751 1780 
 
 Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of. Winchester . . 1555 1626' 
 
 Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, . f. B. O. 63 
 
 Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works . . , 1794 1857 
 
 Anglesey, Henry "W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . • 1768 1854 
 
 Angoulerae, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVL . . 1778 1851 
 
 Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of 
 
 Naples, who rose to great power ...» 1623 1R46 
 
 Anna Commena, daughter of the Enaperor Alexis L, historian 1083 1118 
 
 Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France . , 1604 1C66 
 
 Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. . • 1500 153Q 
 
 Annet, Peter, a deistical writer .... 1703 1778 
 
 Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . B. o. 247 B. o. 183 
 
 Anquetll du Perron, a classical scholar and author . . 1733 1803 
 
 B. 0. 809 
 387 
 
 1517 
 
 1803 
 1847 
 1797 
 SOT 
 185^ 
 B. c. 24 
 1789 
 1864 
 1836 
 1593 
 
 B. 0. 474 
 
 518 
 
 B. 0. 428 
 
 B. 0. 547 
 
 B. c. 504 
 
EIOGEAPHICAl^ DfDEX, 
 
 931 
 
 VATIOK. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 liaL 
 
 Bom, 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Pers, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eom, 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scotch, 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 ItJ. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Mex. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 yAUB AND PROFESSION. BOEN. 
 
 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, a learned divine • 1033 
 
 Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander • . 1697 
 
 Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs • • 1750 
 
 Ai:ster, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' . , , , 1753 
 
 Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author . • 179T 
 
 Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutiona • • 251 
 
 , of Padua, a divine . . . • il£5 
 
 Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great , 
 
 Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great • • 
 
 Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics • B. c. 423 
 
 Antonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. • . 1806 
 
 Antoninus Pius, emperor .... 86 
 
 , Marcus A ureliiis, emperor, surnai„ecl the philosopher 121 
 
 Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman • B. c. 83 
 
 Anveri, a celebrated poet . • • • . 
 
 Anville, Jean B. d', geographer . . • 
 
 Apicius, the name of three Roman epicures . . 
 
 Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jewa 
 
 Apollodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen 
 
 ApoUonius, surnamed Rhodius, a poet . • • B. o, 
 
 , Pergamensls, a geometrician . . 
 
 , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher , 
 
 Appian, an historian . . • • 
 
 Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theolog: 
 Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer . 
 
 Aq^uinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian . 
 
 Arago. Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . 
 Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder 
 Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman . 
 
 Arbuthnot, John, Dr., apoet . . • 
 
 Archelaus, Ionic philosopher • . . 
 
 Archius, a poet . . • • 
 
 ArchUochus, a poet . . • ■ 
 
 Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician , 
 
 Arohytas, a mathematician • • • 
 
 Aretino, Guide, inventor of the gamut of music 
 
 , Leonard, an historian . . . 
 
 , Peter, a satirist . . . 
 
 Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-governor of Virgi 
 Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . , 
 
 Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet . 
 
 . , Bartholomew, historian • . 
 
 Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . 
 Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . , 
 
 Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . . 
 
 Aristarchus, of Samoa, mathematician and philosopher 
 
 ■, grammarian and critic . • • 
 
 Aristides, an Athenian statesman . « • 
 
 — , jEHus, an orator and sophist , . 
 
 , one of the fathers of the church . , 
 
 Aristippus, of Gyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniacs 
 Aribtomenes, a warrior and patriot . , 
 
 SIEOl 
 
 1109 
 1762 
 
 1823 
 
 1867 
 359 
 
 1231 
 B, 0. 301 
 B. 0. 3Z8 
 
 161 
 
 180 
 
 C. 30 
 
 1201 
 
 1783 
 
 A. D. 1st cent. 
 
 f. 80 
 
 5th to 2d cent. 
 194 
 
 1697 
 
 £ B. 0. 242 
 
 f. 143 
 
 1 . 1772 
 
 A. D. 
 
 . 1224 
 
 1786 
 
 1705 
 
 B. 0. 273 
 
 9^ 
 
 1819 
 
 2d cent. 
 1274 
 1833 
 1769 
 
 B. c. 2n 
 1735 
 
 f. B. 0. 450 
 
 f. B. c. 719 
 
 f. B. 0. 685 
 
 B. c. 287 
 
 B. 0. 408 
 
 995 
 
 1369' 
 
 1492 
 
 nia 1572 
 
 1779 
 
 1565 
 
 1566 
 
 1678 
 
 1474 
 
 1802 
 
 f. B. 0. 280 
 
 B. 0. 160 
 
 B. 0. 467 
 129 185 
 
 f. 127 
 f. B. o. 392 
 f. B. 0. 662 
 
 .213 
 .860 
 
 1414 
 1056 
 ;S39 
 
 1613 
 1631 
 1743 
 1533 
 1855 
 
932 
 
 THE WOKLD'a PEOGEESS. 
 
 KATIOK, NAME AND PEOFESSION. 
 
 Gt. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . • 
 
 Gr. Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the PeripatetioB 
 
 Or. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian eect 
 
 Span. J Moiitanus, Benedict, orientalist 
 
 Eng. Arkwrig'ht, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 
 
 Fr. Arlincourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist 
 
 Ger. Armiuius, the deliverer of Germany 
 
 jjutcli, , James, a celehrated divine, founder of a sect 
 
 Eng. ArmstrD ig, John, M D., poet 
 
 _^mer. , John, general, statesman, and historian 
 
 Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, trouhadour . . . 
 
 g'r. . , Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet . 
 
 Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer . 
 
 Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . • 
 
 Pruss. Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist . . 
 
 Amei. Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . 
 
 jtal. , of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard 
 
 jgng_ , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. 
 
 'E,x]g, ) Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist 
 
 j;jjg_ , Thomas K., author of classical text-hooks . 
 
 Bcot. Arnott, I'^iel, popular scientific writer . . • 
 
 Gr. Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus , . • 
 
 Eng. Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts . 
 
 Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . . 
 
 Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia . . • . 
 
 ■Qqx. ) founder of the new Persian kingdom , * 
 
 riem. Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader • 
 
 Eng. Arthur, a prince celehrated in fable . . . 
 
 Amer Arthur. Timothy S., author of tales and essays 
 
 Eng. Arundel, Thos. H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles 
 
 Eng. Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States 
 
 Eng. Aschain, '^iOger, a learned writer .... 
 
 Bar. Asdmbal, a Carthaginian general . . . 
 
 Eng. Ashburlon, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman .1 • 
 
 'Amer. Ashmun, John K., jm-ist, professor of law . . 
 
 Eng. Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield . . 
 
 Gr. Aspasia, the accomplished wife (2) of Pericles . . 
 
 Eng. Asser, John, historian ..... 
 
 Ger. Ast, George A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' , 
 
 Ger. As tor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York . 
 
 Amer. A-jChison, David, i., senator. United States, from Missouri 
 
 Gr. Athanasius, St., oie of the fathers of the church , . 
 
 Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher .... 
 
 Gr. Athenais, Empress 0^ the West and authoress, called also Eu- 
 
 doxia ...... 
 
 Gr. Athenseus, a celebratec grammarian, the Greek Varro . 
 
 Bar. Attains, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of 
 
 parchment . . . . • 
 
 ig.j.^ . . , Ehodius, mathem-atician . . . . £ b 
 
 Hng. Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy . 
 
 Rom. Atticns, a knight and author (works lost) . . B, 
 
 F*. Auher, D. E. B., famous musical composer . , . 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 389 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 884 
 
 43« 
 
 
 1527 
 
 i598 
 
 
 1732 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1856 
 20 
 
 
 1560 
 
 1610 
 
 
 1709 
 
 1779 
 
 
 1758 
 
 1843 
 1220 
 
 
 1718 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1710 
 t 803 
 
 1778 
 
 
 1781 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1740 
 
 1801 
 1555 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 
 1795 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1788 
 
 
 
 f. 140 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 '. E 
 
 . 0. 250 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 425 
 
 
 * 
 
 1832 
 
 
 473 
 
 542 
 
 
 1809 
 
 1646 
 
 
 1745 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1515 
 
 1568 
 
 
 E. 
 
 0. 220 
 
 
 1774 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1833 
 154T 
 
 
 • 
 
 C09 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1-^41 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 296 
 
 371 
 
 
 t 177 
 
 
 f 190 
 
 . 173 
 
 1662 
 . 109 
 1T84 
 
 vGi 
 
 B. C. lU? 
 
 1731 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL liTDEX. 
 
 933 
 
 HATIOM 
 
 Swiss. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 Pr. 
 G. Jew. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 AuTaignS J. H. Merle d', Ustorian of Refonnation , 
 Auckland, William, lord, statesman • 
 
 Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . . • 
 
 Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil, com . 
 
 Auerbach, Bertliold, novelist . . , 
 
 Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 
 
 the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Ca,Tit6fb'^j 
 
 Rom. Augustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the "West 
 
 Kom. Augustus, Caius Julius Csesar Octavius — 1st emperor 
 
 Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India . 
 
 Rom. Ausouius, Decimus Magnus, poet , . • 
 
 Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist . , , 
 
 Eng. , Sarah, essayist and trans' ator . 
 
 Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas . 
 
 Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus — republioau — military commander 
 
 Ara» Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . 
 
 Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York 
 
 Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician and author . . 
 
 Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Icdes to Shakespeare, &o. 
 
 Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E,, professor, poet, and essayist 
 
 Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer 
 
 Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author 
 
 E-IRN. 
 
 DIBO. 
 
 1794 
 
 
 , 
 
 1611 
 
 1797 
 
 loil 
 
 1757 
 
 1818 
 
 lfl2 
 
 
 354 
 
 430 
 
 t&fb-^j 
 
 604 
 
 , 
 
 478 
 
 2. 0. 63 
 
 14 
 
 . 1318 
 
 1707 
 
 
 394 
 
 1775 
 
 18iy 
 
 (abt) 1800 
 
 
 S . 
 
 1838 
 
 17^ 
 
 1800 
 
 , 
 
 1197 
 
 1797 
 
 
 &80 
 
 1037 
 
 
 1804 
 
 1813 
 
 1865 
 
 17S6 
 
 1845 
 
 17S3 
 
 1868 
 
 IS 
 
 Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist 
 
 Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author 
 
 Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . , 
 
 Gr. Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . , £ o 
 
 Amer. Bache, Ales. D. scientific engineer and writer 
 
 Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian 
 
 Eng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 
 
 Amer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . 
 
 Amer. Bacon, DeUa, writer on Shakespeare . . 
 
 Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher 
 
 Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge 
 
 Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and _t 
 
 • man ...... 
 
 Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature . 
 Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of BafBn's Bay 
 Ger. Biihr, John C. F., classical philologist . . « 
 
 Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &e. . 
 
 Eng. , iSTatban, a grammarian and lexicographer . • 
 
 Eng. — — , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . , 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist . . 
 
 Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 
 Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . . 
 
 Sa-jti , Matthew, physician and anatomist . 
 
 Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revO' 
 
 lution ..... 
 En». Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician 
 Amer. Bainbridge, WiUiam naval commander . (Princeton) 
 
 . 1710 
 
 
 1734 
 
 1797 
 
 1724 
 
 1803 
 
 13, C. 450 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1867 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1806 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1214 
 
 1292 
 
 "t03- 
 
 
 1561 
 
 1623 
 
 1735 
 
 1804 
 
 1584 
 
 1622 
 
 1793 
 
 
 . mi 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1742 
 
 1787 
 
 
 r 1619 
 
 1708 
 
 . 1762 
 
 1351 
 
 1761 
 
 1323 
 
 • 
 
 1733 
 
 1793 
 
 1774 
 
 1344 
 
 on) 1774 
 
 i33J 
 
934 
 
 THE world's PEOGRESS 
 
 rAIIOK, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Beet 
 
 Turk. 
 
 Amar. 
 
 rial. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Tr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bwe. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 PruBS. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Turk. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 ja.tner. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eag. 
 
 tish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr= 
 
 Atnert 
 
 KAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. 
 
 Balrd, Robert, D. D., author of travels . • . 1798 
 
 — — — , Sir David, military commander « • • 1757 
 Bajar.et, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane • • . 
 Baker, Edward D., U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bluflf) 1811 
 
 Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer . 1782 
 
 Balboa, Vasoo Nunez de, early navigator to South America . 
 Baldwin, who became emperor of the East • . 
 
 Balfe, %/m. Michael, musical composer • • ■ 1808 
 
 Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . • 1259 
 
 Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott • 
 
 Ballou, Hosea, universaiist minister and author . . 1771 
 
 Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, Ist lord, founder of Maryland * 1582 
 Baluc, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XI. . • 
 
 Balzac, Houor^ de, novelist . ' , . 1799 
 
 Bancroft, George, historian of the U. S., secretary of navy, &c. . 1800 
 
 Banier or Banner, a celebrated military coramander , • 1596 
 
 Banim, John, novelist . . . . • 1800 
 Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 
 Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., TJ. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Koyal Society • 1743 
 
 Baraguay d' Hllliers, Achille, marshal of France . • 1795 
 
 Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . • 1782 
 
 Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age « 1721 
 
 Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneouB writer « 1743 
 
 Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers . • 
 
 Barber, Francis, officer In revolutionary army • • 1751 
 
 Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer . • . 1674 
 
 Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . « Va. 1775 
 
 Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . Va. 1783 
 
 Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 
 
 Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &o. • 1716 
 
 Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist — ' Ingoldsby Legends' 1788 
 Barker, Joseph, noted financier .... 1779 
 
 Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet . • • 1756 
 
 Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator • . . 1811 
 
 Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. . 1798 
 
 -, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar . . • 1654 
 
 , Daniel H. a distinguished conohologist . . 
 
 Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . , 
 
 Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 
 
 Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution 
 Birr6, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America , . 
 
 Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author , . 
 
 Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) 
 
 -, Isaac, a divine and mathematician . , 
 
 ■ , Sir John, traveller, authoi:, secretary to Admiralty . 
 
 Barry, John, the first American commodore , , 
 
 , Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament , 
 
 — — , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . , 
 
 Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . , , 
 
 Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &o. . 
 Bartlett, John R., author of explorations, &o , , 
 
 1547 
 1759 
 1755 
 1726 
 1767 
 1768 
 1630 
 1764 
 1745 
 1795 
 
 Va. 1785 
 1821 
 
 , 1716 
 1805 
 
 DIED 
 
 186S 
 1829 
 1413 
 1861 
 
 1517 
 1206 
 
 1314 
 1833 
 1852 
 1632 
 
 1850 
 
 1641 
 1842 
 1862 
 
 1820 
 
 1740 
 1825 
 1518 
 1783 
 1728 
 1842 
 1841 
 1690 
 1789 
 184S 
 
 1812 
 
 1712 
 1818 
 1619 
 1813 
 1829 
 1802 
 1834 
 1851 
 1667 
 1848 
 1803 
 1860 
 1839 
 
 1791 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDES:. 
 
 935 
 
 ■ATIOH, NAME AND FROPESSION. 
 
 Amer. Barilett, Josiah, Btatesman, gov. N. II., &c. , , 
 
 Eng. , Wm, H., artist and author , , 
 
 Amer, Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr, 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 -, Bernard, the Quaker poet 
 
 Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . . , 
 Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . 
 Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . 
 Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . 
 Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman 
 Bastiat, Frederick, political economist . . 
 Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . • 
 Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, , 
 Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . . 
 Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . 
 Batteus, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer 
 Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . , 
 , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) , 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Hung, 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Fi. 
 Fr, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Brit. 
 
 Bauer, Brijuo, an audacious opposer of Ciiristianity 
 Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . 
 Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author . 
 Bayard, Peter, military commander . . . 
 
 , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer 
 
 Bayer, John, astronomer .... 
 
 , Theophilus, chronologist and historian 
 
 Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's 
 
 tionary') . • • . . 
 Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet * • • 
 Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet . • . 
 Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland 
 , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com 
 
 viceroy of Italy, &c. .... 
 
 Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . 
 Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist . • 
 
 — , Francis, dramatic writer . > 
 
 Beauz6e, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . 
 
 Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher 
 
 , Marquis, professor of political economy and author 
 
 Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist 
 
 , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . 
 
 Becket, Thomas k, celebrated prelate and statesman 
 Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (' Vathek') . 
 Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &o. . 
 Becquerel, Antoine Osesar, natural philosopher 
 Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian 
 Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator 
 Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, militai-y commander • 
 
 Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . . 
 
 Amer. , Henry Ward, theologian and politician . 
 
 Amer. ■ — , Lyman, theologian and preacher . . 
 
 Eng. Beechey, Frederick W., admiral, Arctic voyager , 
 Fruhs Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) 
 Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1729 
 1809 
 1766 
 17f4 
 IV 1 
 326 
 1706 
 1653 
 17o8 
 
 1 a 
 
 1790 
 17--8 
 16t.2 
 1C84 
 1713 
 l-^O? 
 
 i8c;) 
 
 18u3 
 1792 
 1615 
 1476 
 1767 
 
 1694 
 
 1647 
 1797 
 1735 
 
 j7 
 1733 
 11 »8 
 1^55 
 l',_4 
 1716 
 1735 
 1800 
 1791 
 1119 
 1760 
 1739 
 1788 
 672 
 1793 
 
 1796 
 
 1800 
 1770 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1793 
 
 1854 
 181i 
 1849 
 1777 
 373 
 1775 
 1T28 
 1839 
 1850 
 
 1864 
 1764 
 1775 
 1780 
 1854 
 1849 
 
 1691 
 1524 
 
 1S15 
 1627 
 1738 
 
 1706 
 1839 
 1803 
 1837 
 
 1824 
 1799 
 
 1616 
 17S9 
 1781 
 17 '.13 
 1853 
 1855 
 1170 
 1844 
 18U 
 
 735 
 1834' 
 1435 
 
 1863 
 
 1856 
 1833 
 1821 
 
936 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Ger. Bohaim, or BDliem, navigator and geographer • • 
 
 Frg, Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . « • 
 
 Russ. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator . • • 
 
 QcT. Beklier, Emmanuel, pliilologist . . • 
 
 Eag. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator . . 
 
 Rem. Belisariua, a celebrated general and conqueror . 
 
 Ital. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplisbed &, philanthropic 
 
 Amer, Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . 
 
 Scot. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe . 
 
 Amer. , John, statesman . . . • 
 
 6cOj, , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist • ■ 
 
 ycot. , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . . 
 
 Amer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author . 
 
 Ita_. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 
 
 Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet . . . . • 
 
 !Fr. Beileisle, count de, military commander . . , 
 
 Eng. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . 
 
 Ital. Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . . • 
 
 Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . 
 
 Eng. Beloe, "Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &o., 
 
 Fr. Bel&n, William, naturalist and traveller . 
 
 Eng, Belskim, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ital. B.=ilzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt . . 
 
 Pol. Bern, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria , 
 
 ItaL Bem' o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature . 
 
 Eng. Bemb: 7, John, a gallant admiral . . , , 
 
 Ital. Benedict, Kt., one of the originators of monasteries . 
 
 Ital. , XIII., pope, theological writer . . , 
 
 Ital. , XIV., " " " . . 
 
 Fr. Benezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (died in America) 
 
 Ger. Bengal, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist 
 
 Eng. Bengsr, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs , 
 
 Amer. Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . , 
 
 Sp. Jev7 , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East • , 
 
 Bar. Bentadad, king of Syria . • • . 
 
 Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist • . . 
 
 Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . , 
 
 Eng. Sentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , 
 
 Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar . 
 
 Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • , 
 
 Fr. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . . 
 
 Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. P., statesman and jurist . 
 
 Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria 
 
 Gar. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer . . 
 
 Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at TJpsal , , 
 
 3el. Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . 
 
 liisii. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher 
 
 Amar. , William, governor of Virginia ... 
 
 Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer 
 
 Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. 
 
 Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . 
 
 Amer. ' , Francis, governor of MassacLusetta . • 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1459 
 1640 
 
 1680 
 1T85 
 1799 
 
 1808 
 1744 
 1767 
 1797 
 1763 
 1781 
 1719 
 1542 
 1523 
 1684 
 1634 
 1808 
 1814 
 1766 
 1518 
 1752 
 1778 
 1795 
 1470 
 1650 
 480 
 1649 
 1675 
 1713 
 1687 
 1778 
 1809 
 
 DIBD 
 
 1504 
 168? 
 1741 
 
 565 
 
 1798 
 1830 
 
 1825 
 1842 
 1790 
 1626 
 1677 
 17 -1 
 1''72 
 1:35 
 
 1817 
 1564 
 1827 
 1823 
 1'5<5 
 1542 
 1702 
 547 
 1728 
 1768 
 11H 
 1752 
 1827 
 1864 
 1173 
 B. c. 895 
 
 1800 
 1612 
 1742 
 1662 
 1782 
 1780 
 1,85 
 B. c. 1st to 3d cent 
 1797 
 
 1691 
 1832 
 1742 
 1858 
 1S57 
 
 1736 
 
 1802 
 1684 
 
 ?.'03 
 
 : .34 
 
 1638 
 
 1784 
 
 1753 
 1667 
 
 1844 
 1697 
 177? 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 937 
 
 lUnOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Dutch. Bernard, Jolin Frederick, bookseller, editor and author 
 
 Ft. , St., preacher of Crusades and author . 
 
 Fr. , Simon, engineer and military commander 
 
 Amer. Berrien, John McPherson, XJ. S. Senator from Georgia 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Itah 
 
 En:'. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 ItaL 
 Gr. 
 Fr. 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a 'History of the People of God,' 
 in 11 vols. 4to ...... 
 
 Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Cliarles XL, (assassinated) 
 , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 
 
 BOKir. 
 
 1J91 
 
 1779 
 1781 
 
 1681 
 1778 
 1798 
 
 Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 
 
 Berryer, Pierre A., statesman .... 
 Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 
 Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . 
 
 Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army . . 
 Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at PhilHpshurg) 
 Berzelius, John James, chemist . , , . 
 
 Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . . 
 
 Bessi6res, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) 
 Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet . 
 
 Betterton, Thomas, famous actor .... 
 Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer , 
 
 Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius ' . 
 Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver , 
 
 Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer « • . 
 
 Bezout, mathematician • « . • 
 
 Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author . • 
 
 Bias, one of the seven sages . . . , 
 
 Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist • , 
 
 Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatist . . » , 
 
 Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . . , 
 
 Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy 
 
 , John, an eminent Socinian writer . . , 
 
 -, Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy • 
 
 , •' , financier and litteraieur . , « 
 
 Biela, William, baron von, astronomer • , 
 
 Adi^. Bigelow, John, medical writer • • • * 
 
 Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian . * , . 
 
 (jr. Bion, pastoral poet . . . . , 
 
 Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniac) • ■ 
 
 Fr. Blot, Jean B., malhematician , . , , 
 
 Eng. Biibeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutiona 
 Aniier. Bird, Eobert jVT., M. D., novelist .... 
 Amer. Bir^sy, James G., anti-slavery politician . . 
 
 Fr. Biro: ., hike of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 
 Eng. Bish.-y, Sir Henry B., musical composer . . 
 
 Amer. Bissell, "William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 
 Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer , . 
 
 Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author ... 
 
 S^.an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the 
 
 name of the Cid ..... 
 
 Boot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . 
 In.Ain. BlacV Hawk, Indian Chief . , . , 
 
 Eng. Blackstone, Sir "William, an eminent lawyer and author 
 
 1790 
 1753 
 1748 
 1778 
 1670 
 1776 
 1784 
 176.> 
 1805 
 17So 
 l-JlS 
 1791 
 1753 
 ■£19 
 1730 
 1662 
 ; 606 
 1771 
 1733 
 r.7S6 
 1783 
 1615 
 1750 
 1786 
 i782 
 L787 
 llll 
 
 1774 
 1776 
 1803 
 1792 
 1561 
 1775 
 1811 
 1759 
 1757 
 
 1040 
 
 1784 
 
 1768? 
 
 1723 
 
 DIBD, 
 1751 
 
 ll'S 
 
 :.,&3 
 rsi 
 
 1820 
 
 186? 
 
 ■J 815 
 1823 
 1R44 
 
 mz 
 
 1862 
 1810 
 1801 
 
 1828 
 1605 
 17S3 
 1729 
 
 130T 
 
 1787 
 18-50 
 1R48 
 1662 
 1778 
 1844 
 1856 
 
 iS41 
 ;. 30(J 
 I. 240 
 
 1862 
 ^841 
 1854 
 1S5T 
 lo03 
 
 180s 
 ?,793 
 
 i'XS 
 
 178» 
 
938 
 
 THE WOBLD's PEOGKESS. 
 
 HATIOlf. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Prus. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Brit 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutcli. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Colom. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Bag. 
 
 AmeT. 
 
 HAME AND PEOPESSION. 
 
 Blackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States 
 Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician . • 
 
 — — , Francis P., journalist and politician . . 
 
 , Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers . 
 
 — — , Eobert, a divine and poet . < • 
 
 Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &c. « 
 
 Blake, Bobert, a celebiated admiral . c 
 
 Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist . • 
 
 Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist 
 Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur 
 Bloomfleld, E. v., classical scholar . . 
 
 , Kobert, a poet . . • • 
 
 Blucher, a celebrated military commander • 
 
 Blum, Robert H , publicist and politician • • 
 
 Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist . , 
 
 Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . 
 
 Bocoacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy 
 Boccalina, a satirist .... 
 
 Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist 
 Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . • • 
 
 Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of library « 
 
 Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author a> » 
 
 Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist . . 
 
 Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians 
 Boethius, a statesman and philosopher 
 Bogatzky, Chas. Hem-y. theologian, (' Golden Treasury') 
 Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . . . 
 
 Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor 
 Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') . 
 Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet • • 
 
 Boissard, Jean J., fabulist . • • • 
 
 Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . . 
 
 , d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 
 
 Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., 
 Bolingbvoke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer 
 Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country , « 
 
 Bonaparte, Jerome, es-king of Westphalia « 
 
 . , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain • 
 
 , Louis, ex-king of Holland . , 
 
 , Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and 
 
 emperor .... 
 
 — — — — , Luoien, Prince of Canine . • 
 
 . , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon . 
 
 — , Napoleon, emperor of France 
 
 Bond, William C, astronomer . 
 Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestanta 
 Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 
 Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician < 
 
 , John, " , 
 
 Boiipland, Aim6, traveller and botanist t 
 
 Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . 
 
 BooD(:, Daniel, the fijst settler in Kentucky , 
 
 BOKK. 
 
 Bixa 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1718 
 
 180« 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1699 
 
 1777 
 
 17SS 
 
 1857 
 
 1599 
 
 lesi 
 
 1803 
 
 1845 
 
 1757 
 
 1783 
 
 1789 
 
 1849 
 
 1788 
 
 1846 
 
 1766 
 
 1823 
 
 1742 
 
 1819 
 
 1807 
 
 1848 
 
 1752 
 
 1840 
 
 
 61 
 
 1313 
 
 1373 
 
 1556 
 
 1613 
 
 1509 
 
 1567 
 
 1530 
 
 1596 
 
 1644 
 
 1612 
 
 1575 
 
 1624 
 
 1668 
 
 1738 
 
 455 
 
 526 
 
 1690 
 
 1744 
 
 
 nil 
 
 1434 
 
 1494 
 
 1636 
 
 1711 
 
 1743 
 
 1831 
 
 1694 
 
 1758 
 
 1756 
 
 1826 
 
 1507 
 
 1535 
 
 1678 
 
 1751 
 
 1785 
 
 1831 
 
 1784 
 
 1859 
 
 1768 
 
 1844 
 
 1778 
 
 1846 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1840 
 
 1750 
 
 1836 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 1789 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1569 
 
 1720 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1840 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1840 
 
 1796 
 
 1852 
 
 1730 
 
 1823 
 
 *i 
 
BIOGSAPHICAIi INDEX. 
 
 939 
 
 KATIOK. NAME AND PSOFESSIOM, 
 
 Ger. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar , . • 
 
 Ital, Bregli, pTiilosopher and mathematician • • 
 
 Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian , 
 
 ItaL Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools . 
 
 Ital. Borgia, Csesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL 
 ItaL , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI, 
 
 ItaL Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . , 
 
 Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain ' • 
 
 Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist . , • 
 
 Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral , 
 
 ItaL Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer . 
 
 Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France , , 
 
 Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian • • 
 
 Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician • , 
 
 Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . , • 
 
 Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson . 
 
 Eng. Boswoith, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer * 
 
 Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . • 
 
 Ital. Bottiger, archasologist and antiquarian . , 
 
 Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician . , ' . 
 
 Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution 
 
 Amer. Boudinot, Ellas, a statesman and philanthropist 
 
 Ft. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author 
 
 Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander • 
 
 Fr. BoulainviUiers, Henry, count of, historian • . 
 
 Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . . 
 
 Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer • 
 
 Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist . . , 
 
 Ft. Bcurdaloue, a noted preacher • • • 
 
 Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician , « 
 
 Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author • « 
 
 Fr. Bouimont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 
 
 Fr, Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet . * 
 
 Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • , 
 
 Fr. Bousmard, M, de, a military engineer • • 
 
 Ft. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist , , 
 
 Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' « 
 
 Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . , 
 
 Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &o. , 
 
 Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. . 
 
 Amer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman , 
 
 Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 
 
 Amer. Bo wen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author 
 
 JSng. Bowles, William Lisle, poet . . , 
 
 Eng. Bo wring, James, statesman, poet and linguist • 
 
 Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . • • 
 
 Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher • • 
 
 Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer . . , 
 
 Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) « 
 
 Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . . 
 
 Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician , 
 
 Amer. Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . • 
 
 XOEN. 
 
 SISB, 
 
 1731 
 
 
 1507 
 
 
 1781 
 
 
 1T36 
 
 ISOl 
 
 1608 
 
 1670 
 
 15th Cent. 
 
 1538 
 
 1584 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1759 
 
 182S 
 
 1711 
 
 1761 
 
 1711 
 
 1787 
 
 1810 
 
 186- 
 
 1627 
 
 1704 
 
 1730 
 
 1814 
 
 1676 
 
 1732 
 
 1710 
 
 1795 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1835 
 
 1802 
 
 
 178C 
 
 1823 
 
 1740 
 
 1821 
 
 1729 
 
 1811 
 
 1344 
 
 1711 
 
 1658 
 
 1752 
 
 1728 
 
 1809 
 
 1700 
 
 1780 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1704 
 
 1799 
 
 1S54 
 
 1616 
 
 1680 
 
 1773 
 
 1846 
 
 
 1747 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1807 
 
 1S02 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1S28 
 
 1787 
 
 1851 
 
 177S 
 
 1838 
 
 1754 
 
 1825 
 
 1727 
 
 1790 
 
 1752 
 
 1811 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1850 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1562 
 
 1601 
 
 1719 
 
 1804 
 
 1667 
 
 1729 
 
 1776 
 
 1850 
 
 1626 
 
 1691 
 
 1680 
 
 1776 
 
 1767 
 
 1828 
 
940 
 
 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 MAIION. 
 
 Amer. 
 Ainer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ainer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 T)an. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 N.A.In 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Mer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 ■Ger. 
 
 fewe. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Boot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irisli. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 JGrace, Charles Loring, philauthropist and traveller 
 
 Brtckenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist . 
 
 Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia 
 
 Bradford, Alden, author of ' History of Massachusetts' 
 
 , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686 
 
 -, William, attorney-general of the U. S. . 
 -, William, first printer in Pennsylvania . 
 
 -, William, second governor of Plymouth colony 
 
 Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician 
 Eradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley 
 Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian . . 
 
 Brady, Robert, physician and historiaa . , 
 
 Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer . • 
 
 Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians . 
 
 , J. G. C, a poet . . . e 
 
 .Brant, Joseph (Thayendanega), a Mohawk chief , 
 Brantome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler » 
 
 Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . . 
 
 Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . , ■ 
 
 Breckinridge, John, D. D., theologian . . 
 
 , John C, Vice-President U, S. , « 
 
 , Robert J.,D.D., Presbyterian theologian 
 
 Breitkj'xpf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-found 
 Bremsr, Fredrica, novelist ... 
 
 Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . . * 
 
 Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher . . 
 
 , V/'lliam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims . 
 
 Bridgewater, " ukeof, introducer of canals in England 
 
 , Jrancis H. E., duke of, founder of ' Treatiser' 
 
 Briggs, Cliarlas F., novelist and journalist . , 
 
 , Een'y, mathematician . . . 
 
 Brigham, Aiiariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist 
 Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. « , 
 
 Brinvflliers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner « 
 
 Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist . » , 
 
 Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer 
 Brockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house • 
 Brodhead, Johu K., author of ' History of New York' 
 Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. S., surgeon and surgical author 
 Broglio, due de, statesman « . « , 
 
 Bronte, Anne, 'Acton Bell.' novelist «, » 
 
 — — — , Charlotte, novelist • • • « 
 
 — , Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist , 
 
 Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 , Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author , 
 
 Brooks, Charles T., author of ' Translations from German * 
 
 , Erastus, journalist and politician. , , 
 
 — — , James, journalist and politician , « 
 
 , John, LL.D., governor of Massachnsetta • 
 
 -, Maria, poet, (' Maria del Occidente ') , , 
 
 Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' 
 Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist 
 
 
 BORN. 
 
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 1826 
 
 
 
 178S 
 
 
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 1715 
 
 1758 
 
 
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 1588 
 
 1657 
 
 , 
 
 169a 
 
 1762 
 
 
 1612 
 
 1672 
 
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 1709 
 
 1349 
 
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 1546 
 
 1661 
 
 
 1718 
 
 1747 
 
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 1697 
 
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 1540 
 
 1614 
 
 
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 . (abt.) 1800 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
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 1794 
 
 
 1S02 
 
 1865 
 
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 1560 
 
 1614 
 
 
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 1706 
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 1810 
 
 
 
 1752 
 
 1825 
 
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 1795 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1723 
 
 1789 
 
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 1779 
 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL LtifDEX. 
 
 941 
 
 DATICir. 
 
 Irisb. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 Ir.Am. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Irisli. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. • 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr., 
 
 Fr. 
 
 EUBS. 
 
 Ger. 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 Rom. 
 Kom. 
 Fr. 
 
 Dutch, 
 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Brougham, John, actor and author . • 
 
 Brougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist • 
 
 , Adolphe T., hotanist, . . • 
 
 Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer 
 
 Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants 'Brvrwa Brothers 
 
 , Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister 
 
 , (Blackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist 
 
 , Charles Brockden, a novelist . . , 
 
 , Captain John, abolitionist and martyr • « 
 
 , Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet • • 
 
 , Goold, grammarian, • • ■ 
 
 , Henry Kirk, sculptor . . » . 
 
 -, James, senator, minister to France • • 
 
 , James, eminent publisher (Boston) . « • 
 
 , John, D.D., a miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 , John, a divine and author .... 
 
 , Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 . 
 
 , Nicholas, principal patron Brown University • 
 
 , Robert, eminent botanist . . , 
 
 , Samuel, chemist and poet • . • 
 
 , Thomas, satirist, . . • • • 
 
 , Thomas, metaphysician ... 
 
 Browne, George, count de, an ofacer in the Russian service 
 
 , Sir Thomas, a X'hysician, and philosophic writer 
 
 , William George, a traveller in Africa, &o. . 
 
 Brownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut 
 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, . • • 
 
 , Robert, poet, . . # . , 
 
 Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer « • 
 
 Bruce, James, a celebrated traveller . , « 
 
 — , Robert, the deliverer of his country • • 
 
 Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . . • 
 
 Brummell, George Bryan, 'Beau Brummell' . • 
 
 Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . . . 
 
 Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 
 Brunei, Isambard K., engineer of Great Eastern, &o. . 
 
 Brunei, Sir M. I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. . 
 
 Brunet, Jacques Chai-les, 'Bibliographer's Manual' . 
 
 Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order . . 
 
 Brunnow, Baron, diplomatist .... 
 BruDswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander , 
 
 , Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military coni' 
 
 mander ...... 
 
 Brunton, Mary B., novelist, ' Discipline, ' &c. 
 
 Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government 
 
 , Marcus Junius, conspirator against Cassar , . 
 
 Bruyfere, John de la, a celebrated writer . • 
 
 Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . . • • 
 
 Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters' • • 
 
 Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary . o 
 
 , William Cullen, poet, traveller • . 
 
 Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur • • 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 CIBQ 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1770 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1772 
 
 183f 
 
 's' 1764 
 
 
 
 180« 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1771 
 
 1810 
 
 1800 
 
 1850 
 
 1777 
 
 1820 
 
 1791 
 
 1857 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1766 
 
 18.'>5 
 
 1800 
 
 1855 
 
 . 1715 
 
 1766 
 
 1722 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1828 
 
 1769 
 
 1?41 
 
 1781 
 
 1858 
 
 1817 
 
 '.856 
 
 1663 
 
 1704 
 
 . 1778 
 
 1820 
 
 1698 
 
 1792 
 
 1605 
 
 1682 
 
 
 1814 
 
 . 1779 
 
 1865 
 
 18C9 
 
 1860 
 
 . :812 
 
 
 l-'CS 
 
 
 1730 
 
 179''. 
 
 
 1329 
 
 :^750 
 
 1798 
 
 1778 
 
 1840 
 
 168 ■> 
 
 1742 
 
 1763 
 
 1815 
 
 180' 
 
 1859 
 
 176S 
 
 1845 
 
 1377 
 
 1144 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1792 
 
 1* 
 
 1735 
 
 130S 
 
 1778 
 
 1818 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 505 
 
 B, 
 
 0. 43 
 
 1644 
 
 lc?9f 
 
 1652 
 
 
 . 1757 
 
 -859 
 
 1715 
 
 1804 
 
 . 1794 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1837 
 
943 THE wobld's peogeess. 
 
 NSlIGir. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Buat Kanfay, Louis Q-., count de, a learned writer • 
 Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Eeformation 
 Ger. Buch, Leopold von, geologist . . • 
 
 Scot. Buchsn, William, a physician and author . • 
 
 Sect. Buchf-nan, Claudius, a divine . . • 
 
 Bad. , George, an eminent writer . • 
 
 _^,Tjer. , James, 13th president of the United States . 
 
 Eng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman . • 
 
 'En". — , George Villiers, son of the former . 
 
 ji^ng. ■ ., James Silk, traveller and author . . 
 
 _^mer. , Joseph T., journalist and author . • 
 
 Eng. Buckland, Wm., D. D., geologist. . . . 
 
 Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian . . 
 
 Amer. , Joseph S., author of ' Sermons,' &c« • 
 
 3ng. Buokstone, John B., actor and playwright . . 
 
 Arner. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer ...» 
 Polish. Bufaer, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer 
 3i>. Buifon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist • 
 
 Fr. Bugeaud, T. E., marshal of France . . . 
 
 Ger. Buhle, J. O., ' History of Philosophy,' &c. , . 
 
 Eng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . • 
 
 Eng. , Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer • 
 
 _^or_ _ , Ole, famous violinist ...» 
 
 Swi^a. Bullinger, reformer and author . . . « 
 
 Amer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of educational works • 
 Eng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer . 
 
 Enf. ■ — , (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist 
 
 j5j,g_ _ 1 Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist . . . 
 
 Aust. Buol-Schauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . . 
 
 EusB. Bue on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian . 
 Eng. Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' 
 Ger. Burckhardt, John Charles, mathematician . , . 
 
 g-^^riss. , John Louis, oriental traveller • 
 
 Scot, Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and meohanio • • 
 
 Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician . . , 
 
 Ger. Bt^iger, G. A., poet ..... 
 
 Eng. Burges, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist « . 
 
 Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator . . 
 
 Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological author 1756 
 
 Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature' . 
 
 Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author . 
 
 Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer . . 
 
 Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . • 
 
 Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman . • 
 
 Du;.:>h. Burman, Peter, critic and editor . . , 
 
 G-ei-. Burmeister, He: man, naturalist .... 
 
 Am«r. Bumap, George W., clergyman and author . , 
 
 Ev..ot. Burnes, Sir Alex., 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &c. . 
 
 Scot. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian. Bishop cf Salisbury 
 
 ^jjjgr^ ^ Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and authoi . , 
 
 £ijg, , John, engraver, painter, and critic , , 
 
 Eng. Burney, Charles, a doctor of music . ■ • 
 
 1191 
 
 1551 
 
 1774 
 
 1853 
 
 1729 
 
 1791 
 
 1766 
 
 1805 
 
 1506 
 
 1582 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1592 
 
 1628 
 
 1627 
 
 1688 
 
 1784 
 
 1856 
 
 1779 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1856 
 
 1751 
 
 1812 
 
 1784 
 
 1812 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1839 
 
 16S1 
 
 1737 
 
 1707 
 
 1788 
 
 1784 
 
 1849 
 
 1763 
 
 
 1786 
 
 1864 
 
 1634 
 
 1710 
 
 ISIO 
 
 
 1504 
 
 1575 
 
 1791 
 
 1864 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1791 
 
 I860 
 
 1628 
 
 1688 
 
 1773 
 
 1815 
 
 1784 
 
 1815 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1770 
 
 1844 
 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 
 1786 
 
 1864 
 
 1770 
 
 1853 
 
 :• 1756 
 
 183'- 
 
 1714 
 
 1775 
 
 
 1792 
 
 1730 
 
 1797 
 
 1694 
 
 1743 
 
 1520 
 
 1598 
 
 1668 
 
 1741 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1802 
 
 ^359 
 
 1S05 
 
 1841 
 
 1643 
 
 1725 
 
 17T6 
 
 1858 
 
 1784 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1811 
 
BIOGRAPHICAIi IKDEX. 
 
 943 
 
 RATIOX. SAME AND PEOPESSSON. 
 
 Eng. Bumey, Frances, (see Mme. d'Arblay), noveliBt • 
 
 Eng. , James, admiral and author . . 
 
 Scot. Burns, a popular and national poet . . . 
 
 Amer. Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-president U. S. , . 
 
 Amer, Burritt, Elihu, ' the learned blacksmith ' and philanthropist 
 Amer. Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer 
 .Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Melancholy' 
 
 Eng. , Wm. E., actor and author 
 
 Ger. Busching, Aiithon Frederick, philosopher and geological writer 
 Amer. Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . 
 Amer. Bushnell, Horace, D.D., theological and metaphysical author 
 Mex. Bustamenle, Anastasio, president of Mexico . . 
 
 Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier . 
 
 Irish. Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Saints' 
 
 Amer, , Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina 
 
 Amer. , Beuj. F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general U. S. 
 
 Amer. , Benj. F., major-general U. S. army in war for Union 
 
 Eng. , Charles, Catholic historian and jurist . . 
 
 Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author . 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of "^schylus," &c. 
 
 Eng. , 8;\muel, a humorous poet , . « 
 
 Amer. ^, Richard, colonel, an officer in the Kevolution , 
 
 Amer. , "Wm. Allen, poet .... 
 
 Amer. , Wm. O., statesman and general . « • 
 
 Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist ... 
 
 Eng Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and philanth. . « 
 
 Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer . 
 
 Ger. , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer * 
 
 Amer. Byles, Mather, clergyman and author . . 
 
 Eng. Byng, Honorable John, admiral ... 
 Eng. Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet . • 
 
 Eng. , Honorable John, admiral ... 
 
 Eng. , Lady Koel, wife of the poet ... 
 
 aoBN. 
 
 Draft 
 
 1752 
 
 184C 
 
 1739 
 
 1820 
 
 1759 
 
 1799 
 
 1756 
 
 1838 
 
 . mn 
 
 
 1765 
 
 1840 
 
 1576 
 
 1639 
 
 •.1804 
 
 1860 
 
 1721 
 
 1893 
 
 1796 
 
 1859 
 
 1802 
 
 
 i782 
 
 1851 
 
 . L"M 
 
 1792 
 
 1710 
 
 1773 
 
 1796 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1858 
 
 1750 
 
 ISSI 
 
 1692 
 
 175a 
 
 1774 
 
 I84r 
 
 . 1612 
 
 168i) 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1764 
 
 1829 
 
 1786 
 
 lS4ft 
 
 1564 
 
 1629 
 
 1599 
 
 1644 
 
 , 1706 
 
 1788 
 
 1704 
 
 1757 
 
 1788 
 
 1828 
 
 1723 
 
 1786 
 
 . 1793 
 
 1860 
 
 €. 
 
 Fr. Cabet, Etienne, communist .... 
 
 Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North America 
 
 Eng. ^——, Sebastian (son of John), navigator 
 
 Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator . . 
 
 Span- Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 
 
 Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator ... 
 
 Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . . 
 
 Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, 4;c. 
 
 Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher 
 
 Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet . . . 
 
 Amer Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . 
 
 Rom. Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author 
 
 Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . 
 
 Fr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . . 
 
 Ft. Oaill6, Ren6, ' Voyage k Timboucto,' fto. . • 
 
 . 1788 
 
 1866 
 
 1477 
 
 1557 
 
 1500 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 f. 1456 
 
 
 
 1450 
 
 1742 
 
 1803 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 
 680 
 
 . 1743 
 
 1788 
 
 B C. 100 B. 
 
 0. 44 
 
 1743 
 
 179S 
 
 1787 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
944 
 
 THE WOELD'S PKOGEESB. 
 
 KATIOa. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 ItaL Cajetan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author , , 
 
 Gr. Calaber, J^^iiitus ..... 
 
 Eng. Calamy, Eirrund, Presbyterian divine and author , . 
 
 Span. Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . . 
 
 Amer. Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author . . 
 
 Amer. ^ Rev. James, revolutionary patriot . , 
 
 Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages . 
 
 Amsr. Calhcun, John C, senator of the United States • 
 
 Rom. Caligula, Roman Emperor .... 
 
 G-r. Calipptn, astronomer and mathematician , , 
 
 Gfr. Calixtus, Geo., Lutheran theologian , • . 
 
 Gr. Callinachus, a poet . . . • 
 
 Gr. Calli.ijhenes, philosopher and historian . , • 
 
 Er. Ca.'mst, Augustine, an erudite divine and author • 
 
 Hal. C£/:ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author . . 
 
 Ex. Cr.lonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state . 
 
 "Ex, Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . . 
 
 Amer. Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author 
 
 Amer. , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 
 
 Fr. Cambac6r6s, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist 
 
 Eng. Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George IIL . . 
 
 .Pers. Cambyses, second king of Persia . . . 
 
 I2ng. Camden, William, an eminent antiquary and historian . 
 
 Scot. Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronians 
 
 Scot. , Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel . • . 
 
 lort. Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country , 
 
 Fr. Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author . 
 
 Amer. Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect , , 
 
 Scot. • , George, a divine and author . , 
 
 Scot. , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &c. 
 
 Scot. , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich 
 
 Scot. ■ , John, lord chancellor, jurist, 'Lives of Chancellor 
 
 Scot. , Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c.. Lord Clyde 
 
 Scot. , Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch' &c. . . 
 
 Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . . 
 
 Fr. ■ Campiston, John G. de, dramatist ... 
 
 Fr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian . . 
 
 Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . . 
 
 Fr. Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea 
 
 Ital. Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher . . 
 
 Dan. Canute, King of Denmark and of England, 'the Great' 
 
 Fr. Carefigue, A. II. A., historian .... 
 
 Eng. Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . . 
 
 Span. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . , . 
 
 Gr. Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . . 
 
 Rom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . . 
 
 Ital. Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson. , 
 
 Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. . 
 
 Brit. Car^usius, usurper of Empire in Britain . . 
 
 Ital. Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 
 
 Eng. Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava 
 
 Fr. Cardonue, Dennis D., an eminent orientaliat . 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIKB 
 
 1510 
 
 1593 
 
 t 
 
 250 
 
 1600 
 
 1666 
 
 1600 
 
 1687 
 
 1772 
 
 1853 
 
 . 1734 
 
 1781 
 
 1435 
 
 1511 
 
 17S2 
 
 1850 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 f. B. C. 830 
 
 
 1586 
 
 1656 
 
 f. B. c. 150 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. S28 
 
 1672 
 
 1757 
 
 1699 
 
 1768 
 
 1734 
 
 1802 
 
 1509 
 
 1623 
 
 . 1803 
 
 
 
 1676 
 
 1753 
 
 1824 
 
 1774 
 
 1850 
 
 1 B 
 
 0. 521 
 
 1561 
 
 16';!3 
 
 
 16B0 
 
 
 1719 
 
 1517 
 
 1579 
 
 1752 
 
 1822 
 
 1792 
 
 
 . 1709 
 
 1796 
 
 1708 
 
 1775 
 
 1678 
 
 1743 
 
 s' 1778 
 
 1S61 
 
 1791 
 
 1863 
 
 1777 
 
 1844 
 
 1722 
 
 1789 
 
 1656 
 
 1723 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 1770 
 
 1827 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 995 
 
 1035 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1713 
 
 1781 
 
 1754 
 
 1810 
 
 1776 
 
 1831 
 
 188 
 
 217 
 
 1770 
 
 1799 
 
 (att.) 100 
 
 
 250 
 
 293 
 
 1501 
 
 1578 
 
 . 1797 
 
 
 1720 
 
 1783 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 945 
 
 RATIOH, 
 
 Fr, 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span, 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gua. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Port. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 RU8. 
 
 Rus. 
 
 Span.E 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 [t. Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 MAMB AND PEOFESSION. 
 
 CarSme, Murfe Antony, famous cook • • 
 
 Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars' 
 Carew, Thomas, poet . . • « 
 
 Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . • 
 
 , Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . • 
 
 — , Henry C, political economist . . 
 
 , Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &o. . 
 
 , William, missionary to India , . 
 
 Carissimi, James, musical composer . • . 
 
 Carleton, Wm., novelist . , , 
 
 , Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 
 
 Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author . 
 
 Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . 
 
 , Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer 
 
 Carlos, Don, son of Philip XL, (hero of SchUler's tragedj'^ 
 
 , Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . 
 
 Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico , 
 
 Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times' . 
 
 , Thomas, historian and metaphysician , 
 
 Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy^ 
 Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . * 
 
 Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author • 
 
 , Wm. B., physiologist . . , 
 
 Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician < 
 
 Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . 
 
 Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Deo. of Indep. 
 Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . . 
 
 , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller • 
 
 Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . , 
 
 Cams, C. G., writer on anatoflay and ptiysiology , 
 Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . , 
 
 , Jonathan, traveller and author , . 
 
 Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of ' Dante' . . 
 
 Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian 
 Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist ... 
 Cassin, John, ornithologist . . . 
 
 Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . , 
 
 Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian 
 Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar . 
 Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer • 
 
 Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . 
 
 Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal , 
 Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . . „ 
 
 Catesby, Mark, natura'ist . , . 
 
 Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great . . 
 
 II., empress the " Great " and the vicions 
 
 , of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . . 
 
 -, of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England 
 
 - Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . . 
 
 - de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . 
 
 -, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL . 
 
 Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator 
 
 BOBK. 
 
 'IISD. 
 
 178^ 
 
 '.!35 
 
 16fr3 
 
 ir73 
 
 15S9? 
 
 16)9 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1596 
 
 leei 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1760 
 
 1«;59 
 
 1761 
 
 lSr2 
 
 1600 
 
 16 j a 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1803 
 
 1729 
 
 17.W 
 
 1802 
 
 1834 
 
 1768 
 
 1840 
 
 1545 
 
 156S 
 
 1788 
 
 1856 
 
 18— 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1805 
 
 1795 
 
 
 . 218 B. 
 
 0. 128 
 
 1753 
 
 1823 
 
 1780 
 
 1840 
 
 18— 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1836 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1737 
 
 1832 
 
 1717 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1830 
 
 1535 
 
 1603 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1732 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1621 
 
 1772 
 
 1840 
 
 1474 
 
 1564 
 
 17S2 
 
 1866 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1625 
 
 1712 
 
 470 
 
 516 
 
 n. 
 
 0. 42 
 
 1606 
 
 1685 
 
 1463 
 
 1525 
 
 
 1355 
 
 1782 
 
 1849 
 
 1680 
 
 1749 
 
 1682 
 
 1727 
 
 1729 
 
 1796 
 
 1483 
 
 1536 
 
 1638 
 
 1703 
 
 1521 
 
 1542 
 
 1519 
 
 1589 
 
 
 1548 
 
 B.O. 63 
 
946 
 
 THE WORLb S PEOGKKSS. 
 
 HAltOH, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. B. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Span. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Ital 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Boot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Ger, 
 
 Swe. 
 
 1857 
 1807 
 1651 
 1857 
 1809 
 1754 
 1557 
 1591 
 1861 
 1492 
 1765 
 1805 
 1810 
 1612 
 1598 
 
 NAME AND PE.OFESSIOS. BOBN. DIBB^ 
 
 Catinat, Mcholas, military commander . * • 1637 1718 
 
 Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . * 
 
 Cato, Marjus Fortius, the censor, statesman and author B. c. 232 B. 0. 147 
 
 , Marcus Porcius, of Utica, statesman . , b. o. 95 b. o. 46 
 
 Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . , . , B. o. S6 
 
 Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . , • 1780 
 
 Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist ■ • 1773 
 
 Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ' Holy Court ' , 1583 
 
 Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 . 1802 
 
 Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. • 1749 
 
 Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . • • 1691 
 
 Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer . • 1505 
 
 , Thomas, navigator • • . • 1564 
 
 Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman . , 1809 
 
 Caston, William, the introducer of printing into England , 1410 
 
 Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer . . 1720 
 
 Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator • • . 1752 
 
 Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . , , , 1748 
 
 , Eobt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . « (abt.) 1550 
 
 , Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman . , . 1520 
 
 Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 2d cent. 
 
 Cecrops, 1st king of Athens .... (abt.) b. c 
 
 C<<llini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music • . 1500 
 
 CeJsus, Auielius Cornelius, a celebrated physician « f. 30 
 
 , an Epicurean philospher . , • . f. 50 
 
 Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . . 
 
 Censorius, a critic and grammarian . . « , f. 240 
 
 Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . . , 1667 
 
 Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ' Don Quixote' , 1547 
 
 Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . . 1783 
 
 Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . . » 1730 
 
 Chalmers, Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &o. , 1759 
 
 , George, miscellaneous writer .... 1744 
 
 , Thoma.-., D. D., theologian and political economist • 1770 
 
 Chambers, Robert, publisher and author • . « 1802 
 
 , Sir "William, an architect ... 1726 
 
 , William, publisher and author ... 1800 
 
 Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 1820 
 
 Chamisso, A. von, author of ' Peter Schlemihl,' &c. . . 1781 
 
 ChampoUion, the younger, • Monuments de I'Egypte,' &c. 1790 
 
 , Figeac, historian and antiquary ... 1779 
 
 Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer . . 1790 
 
 , William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist 1780 
 
 , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author . 1810 
 
 Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor .... 1781 
 
 Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator • 1814 
 
 Chapman, George, poetical translator . a . 1557 
 
 Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer • • • 1727 
 Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist ..... 1756 
 
 Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France • 742 
 
 Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &c. . . 1500 
 
 Charles XII.| king, a celebrated warrior . . » 1682 
 
 1599 
 
 1723 
 1616 
 1856 
 
 1808 
 1854 
 1825 
 1846 
 
 1796 
 
 1832 
 
 1856 
 1842 
 
 1841 
 
 1634 
 1801 
 1832 
 814 
 158iJ 
 1761 
 
mOGHAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 947 
 
 RATIOK, NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. 
 
 EnfT. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender . 1720 
 
 Fr • , J. A. C, natural philosopher . . , 1746 
 
 JFr. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian . . 16S2 
 
 Amer. Chase, Philander, bishop of Prot. Kpis. Church, Ohio . . 1775 
 
 ..'imer. , Salmon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio 1808 
 
 Er. Chasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer , . , 1799 
 
 Dutch. Chass6, David H., baron, military commander , . 1765 
 
 Ft. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author . , 1706 
 
 Fr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author . 1734 
 
 Fr. Chateaubriand, F. P., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller 1769 
 
 Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F.. theological reformer . . 1795 
 
 Fr. Chatele;, '^ aul du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) , . 1693 
 
 Eng. Chathan-, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman . . , 1708 
 
 Eng. Chatterton, Thomas, famed for precocious learning • , 1752 
 
 Eng. Chaucer, Geofl'rey, the father of English poetry . , 1328 
 
 Amer. Chauncsy, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College . 
 
 Amer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . , 
 
 Amer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist . . « 
 
 Amer Cheever, Geo. P., congregational clergyman and author • 1807 
 
 Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist . . , 1688 
 
 Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 1694 
 
 ItaL Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer , , . 1760 
 
 Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman , 1806 
 
 Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist ..... 1786 
 
 Amer. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works . « 1S02 
 
 En^\ Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author . . . 1602 
 
 •'■r. Chilo, Euphoi-us of Sparta, one of the seven wise men . f. b. o. 598 
 
 .\.mer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . . . 1752 
 
 Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . . 1776 
 
 Pol. Chlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . • 1772 
 
 iLmer. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator . . 1799 
 
 Fr, Cboiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author . 1762 
 
 Eng. Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author 1801 
 
 Swe. Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . . . 169,3 
 
 Afric. Christophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti • , 176V 
 
 'ir. Chrysjphus, a stoic philosopher . . , B. 0. 280 
 
 Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator , . 34-i 
 
 Amer. Church, Benj., military commander and author • . 16;19 
 
 Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . , « 1721 
 
 Eng. Gibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet . . 1671 
 
 Eom. Cicero, Marcus Xullius, one of the greatest of orators . B, o. 105 
 
 ItaL Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer • . 1754 
 
 Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general .... i 
 
 Bom. Cincinuatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot . , f. B. 0, 456 
 
 Eom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius . f. b. C. 87 
 
 Ital. Clrillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician . . . 1734 
 
 Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revoljtion , 
 
 Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician ... 1713 
 
 Amer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College • • 1703 
 
 Scot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa • e • 1783 
 
 Eng. Clare, John, poet .... . 1793 
 
 Eng. Clarendon, G. "W. F., Villiers, earl of, statesman « . 1800 
 
 DIED 
 
 173? 
 1825 
 1761 
 
 1852 
 
 1849 
 1749 
 1783 
 1848 
 1851 
 1636 
 1778 
 1770 
 1400 
 1671 
 1S40 
 
 1752 
 1773 
 1840 
 
 1644 
 
 1843 
 
 1841 
 1854 
 1859 
 
 1856 
 
 1689 
 
 1820 
 
 207 
 
 407 
 
 1718 
 
 1764 
 
 1757 
 
 ;, c. 43 
 
 J 801 
 
 0. .^9 
 
 1799 
 
 1818 
 1765 
 1767 
 1827 
 
948 
 
 THE -WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 NATIOJI. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Amcr. Clark, Louis Qaylord, editor of 'Knickerbocker* ■ , • 
 
 AmeT. , 'Willis Gaylord, poet and esBayist • 
 
 Air«r. , Wm., general, explorer of Kocky Mountains . 
 
 ELg. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 
 
 Eng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist . 
 
 Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author . 
 
 Eng. , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare,' 
 
 ^raer. , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' . . 
 
 Eng. , Eev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Bible' . 
 
 Eng. , Samuel D., theologian and philosopher • 
 
 Eag. , Sir James, medical author . . , 
 
 Ensf. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist , • 
 
 Ron- . Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... . 
 
 Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of. Viscount Dundee 
 Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . • 
 
 Amer. Clay, Cassius M., anti-slavery politician 
 
 Amer. , Clement C, ex-senator of U. S. from Alabama . 
 
 Amer. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . . 
 
 Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist • 
 
 Amer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state • 
 Gr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . • 
 
 Amer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist . 
 
 Amer. Clemens, Jeremiah,U. S. senator from Alabama • 
 
 Clement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes 
 
 Qr. , of Alexandria, a ' father of the church ' , 
 
 Gr. dementi, Muzio, musical composer . 
 
 Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . , 
 
 Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue . 
 
 Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . . 
 
 Swiss. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer . . 
 
 Fr. AiE, , Lament, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes . 
 
 Amer, Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York 
 
 Amer. , James, general Amer. Bev. . . 
 
 Amer. , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U 
 
 Eng. Ciive, Robert, lord, military commander . . 
 
 Fr. Cloquet, Hyppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . . 
 
 Fr. Clot, or Clot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt 
 
 Amer. Cobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author . . , 
 
 Eng. Cobbett, William, political writer . • , 
 
 Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer « • 
 
 Eng, Gobham, Sir Jno. Oldoastle, lord, martyr , • 
 
 Eng. Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . « 
 
 Eng. Oodrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral • » 
 
 Eng. CoflS.n, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b. in K"ftntncket) , , 
 
 Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . 
 Eng. Ccke, Sir Edward, a learned judge 
 
 Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . • 
 
 Amer. Colburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &c. « 
 
 Amer. , Zerah, precocious arithmetician . . 
 
 Amer. Golden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &o. 
 
 Amer. — — > Cadwallad(3r D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &o. 
 
 ]*ng. Cokridge, ffartley, author and poet 
 
 BORK. 
 
 riBtt 
 
 ISOO 
 
 
 , 1810 
 
 1341 
 
 1770 
 
 1838 
 
 . 1760 
 
 1833 
 
 1767 
 
 1821 
 
 1810 
 
 
 ,' &c. 1809 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1842 
 
 1627 
 
 1701 
 
 1675 
 
 1723 
 
 1761 
 
 1846 
 
 
 B. 0.450 
 
 1627 
 
 1701 
 
 . 1720 
 
 1793 
 
 1810 
 
 
 . 1789 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1852 
 
 . 1705 
 
 1773 
 
 1796 
 
 185« 
 
 . f. 260 
 
 
 1780 
 
 l'-58 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 220 
 
 
 1832 
 
 . f. 559 
 
 
 
 B. C 442 
 
 
 B. c. 30 
 
 1656 
 
 1736 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1769 
 
 183, 
 
 1736 
 
 1812 
 
 r. S. 1739 
 
 ■•si-i 
 
 1725 
 
 nil 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 186S 
 
 1762 
 
 1835 
 
 1804 
 
 1865 
 
 1360 
 
 1417 
 
 1775 
 
 1860 
 
 . 1770 
 
 1851 
 
 1759 
 
 1839 
 
 1736 
 
 1813 
 
 1549 
 
 1634 
 
 1619 
 
 1683 
 
 , 1793 
 
 1823 
 
 1804 
 
 1840 
 
 1688 
 
 1773 
 
 1769 
 
 1834 
 
 1797 
 
 1U9 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 949 
 
 VATIOH. KAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. I>IED. 
 
 Eng. Coleridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur , , (abt.) 1800 1845 
 
 Eng. , Sarah, daughter of Samuel T., author • . 1803 1852 
 
 Eng. , Samuel T., poet and metaphysiciaa . 177" 1834 
 
 Fr- Coligni, Gaspard de, admiral • . • • 1-lV 1573 
 
 Eng. Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admii-al . , 174S 1810 
 
 Eijg. Collins, William, a popular poet ■ . ■ • 1720 1758 
 
 Eng. Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) . : 1673 1717 
 
 Eng. , George, dramatic writer . . , , 1733 1784 
 
 Eng. , George, (the younger), dramatist , , 1762 1836 
 
 Fr. Colombatjde I'lsSre, medical writer . , , (abt.) 1800 
 
 Amor. Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer . . 1789 1857 
 
 Eng -, C. C, author of 'liaoon' .... 1773 1833 
 
 Amer. , George H., author of 'Tecumseh,' &c. , , 1818 1847 
 
 Amer. . , Walter, Eev. author of voyages and travels . . 1797 1851 
 
 Ital. Columbus, Christopher, the disco\erer of America , 1441 150S 
 
 Scot. Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer . , 1797 1S47 
 
 ;Scot. , George, phrenologist and philosopher . , 1778 1858 
 
 LFr. Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian ... 1445 7609 
 
 iMex. Comonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mesioo , , 1812 
 
 Amer, Comstock, John L., author of popular school-books . . 1789 1^58 
 
 Fr. Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Positiveism " 1798 1857 
 
 Amer. Conant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic . , 1S02 
 
 Span. Concha, Jos6 de la, captain-general of Cuba , , 1800 
 
 Fr. Conde, Louis II. of Bom-bon .... 1621 
 
 Fr. Gondillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer , 1715 
 
 Fr. Condorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . . 1743 
 
 Amer. Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman . , 1785 
 
 Chin, Confucius, a celebrated philosopher . , b. c. 550 
 
 Eng. Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the ' Congreve rocket ' . 1772 
 
 Gr. Conon, an Athenian general .... », 
 
 Amer. Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet . . . 181i 
 
 Fr. Considerant, Victor, socialist philosopber , , ISOf 
 
 Scot. Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scott's poems, miscellany, &o. 1776 
 
 Fr. Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . , ' 1767 
 
 G-r. Constantine, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274 
 
 Gr. , VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author , 905 
 
 Gr. ' , XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 
 
 It. Am. Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Bevolution a ' cabaler,' &o. . (abt. 
 
 Eng. Conybeare, William D., clergyman and geologist . 1787 
 
 Eng. , William G. (son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul' 
 
 Eng. Cook, Eliza, poetess ..,•.. 1818 
 
 Eng. , James, a celebrated circumnavigator , , 1728 
 
 Eng. Cooke, George F., an eminent actor ... 1756 
 
 Eng. , George Musgrove, ' History of Party' . . 1814 
 
 Amer. , John Esten, novelist and poet ... 1830 
 
 Amer , Philip P., poet ..... 1816 
 
 Eng. , T. P., actor . . , . , , 17S6 
 
 Eng. Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . 1792 
 
 Amer. , James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 17S9 
 
 Amer. , Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Instit'ita 1791 
 
 Amer. , Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . , 1725 
 
 Bng. Sir Astley Paston, physician and medico" Twiter . 1768 
 
 1683 
 1780 
 :_''94 
 1S55 
 
 3. 390 
 1856 
 
 1827 
 ?.830 
 337 
 959 
 1453 
 1778 
 1857 
 1857 
 
 1776 
 1812 
 186& 
 
 18S0 
 
 1854 
 1.^53 
 1851 
 
 1783 
 184! 
 
950 
 
 THE WOKLD'S PBOGEESS* 
 
 NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Cooper, Thomas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) 
 
 Eng. , Thomas A., actor .... 
 
 Irish. Ooote, Sir Eyre, commander in India 
 
 Pruss. Copcnicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of tha 
 
 .?ytljagorean system uf the universe . . 
 
 Eng. Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lyndhurst (born in Boston, U. S.) 
 
 Fr. Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution 
 
 Ger. Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Chr 
 
 Eom. . Ooriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior . 
 
 Fr. Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer 
 
 Ital. Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance 
 
 Eng. Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York . 
 
 Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . 
 
 Fr. , Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist 
 
 Fr, Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian 
 
 Eng. Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India 
 
 8pan, Cortez, Pernaudo, the brutal conqueror of Mexico 
 
 Amer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov, of Ohio 
 
 Ital. Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . . 
 
 ItaL " IL " « « , , 
 
 Ital. " IIL " « « , , 
 
 ItaL, Costa, Paolo, litterateur . . • • . 
 
 Eng, Costello, Dudley, author and journalist . 
 
 Irish, , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs . . 
 
 Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 
 
 Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . , 
 
 Eng. Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor . 
 
 Fr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist . . . 
 
 Eng. Cottle, Amos, versifier . . . . 
 
 Eng. — , Jos., publisher ' Recollections of Coleridge • , 
 
 Eng. Coiton, Charles, humorist and poet . , 
 
 Amer. — , John (of Boston), a learned divine . , 
 
 Eng. , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general 
 
 Fr. Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . , 
 
 Fr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, Roman Catholic theologian 
 
 Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist . . . 
 
 Pi-. , Paul Louis, political writer 
 
 Fr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author . 
 
 Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian .... 
 
 Pr, , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . , 
 
 Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible • 
 
 Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet .... 
 
 3ng. Cowper, William, lord chancellor . • 
 
 Eng. » William, poet . . , , 
 
 Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet , 
 
 Amer. , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . 
 
 Amer. Cose, Tench, writer on political economy . 
 
 Eng, , William, traveller and historian . , 
 
 Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems , 
 
 Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms , 
 
 Eng. Crab be. Rev. George, poet 
 fier. Cramer, John Andrew, miecellaneouB writer • • 
 
 EOKH. 
 
 DIED 
 
 1759 
 
 184(1 
 
 1776 
 
 184S 
 
 1726 
 
 1783 
 
 1473 
 
 1543 
 
 1772 
 
 1863 
 
 1768 
 
 1793 
 
 rist 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 488 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1467 
 
 156J 
 
 
 1723 
 
 1606 
 
 1634 
 
 1625 
 
 1709 
 
 
 1718 
 
 17S8 
 
 1805 
 
 1485 
 
 1554 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1519 
 
 1594 
 
 1590 
 
 1621 
 
 1642 
 
 1723 
 
 1771 
 
 1836 
 
 1803 
 
 1865 
 
 1815 
 
 
 ng 1370 
 
 1440 
 
 . 1764 
 
 1832 
 
 1781 
 
 1851 
 
 1773 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1770 
 
 1853 
 
 1630 
 
 1687 
 
 1585 
 
 1652 
 
 1773 
 
 1S65 
 
 1736 
 
 1806 
 
 16S1 
 
 1776 
 
 1772 
 
 1825 
 
 1774 
 
 1825 
 
 . 1725 
 
 1784 
 
 1627 
 
 1707 
 
 . 1792 
 
 1867 
 
 1485 
 
 1565 
 
 1618 
 
 1667 
 
 1664 
 
 1723 
 
 1731 
 
 1800 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1756 
 
 1824 
 
 . 1747 
 
 1828 
 
 1818 
 
 
 . 1778 
 
 1854 
 
 1754 
 
 1833 
 
 . 1728 
 
 178S 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 951 
 
 HATIUN. XAHE AND PBOFESSIOH. 
 
 Eng. Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer « , 
 
 Eng. , Francis, " " . , , 
 
 Amer. Cranch, "Wm. jurist, judge U. S. District Court D. 0. 
 Eng. Cianmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . . 
 Eng. Crashaw, Eichard, poet and divine , , 
 Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander 
 Amer. Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist . 
 Ft CrSbillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet , , 
 Ger. Creuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary • 
 Fr. (Jrevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian , • 
 Croesus, King of Ljdia, famed for riches . . 
 Croft, Wra., musical doctor and composer , • 
 Croker, John Wilson, statesman nnd author 
 , Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &o. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . 
 Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman . 
 -, Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey 
 Crowe, Catherine, author of 'Nightside of Nature' . 
 Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature , 
 — , Robert, humorous artist 
 
 Cruden, Alexander, author of a 'Concordance to the Bible' 
 Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher • • . 
 
 Amer. Cuffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain , . 
 
 Boot. Cullen, William, an eminent physician , , 
 Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer , 
 , William Augustus, duke of, military commander 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Camming, John, popular preacher and theological author 
 
 , Rouallyn W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author 
 
 Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . 
 
 Cumin, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 
 Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. S. 
 
 , Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist . 
 
 , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critio . 
 
 Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. . , 
 
 Amer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist « • 
 
 Amer. Cushman, Charlotte S., actress ... 
 
 E. Am. , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth • 
 
 Amer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington 
 Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists 
 
 Fr. , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist . 
 
 Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 
 Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer 
 — — , of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . 
 
 , St., the apostle of the Sclav! . , 
 
 Pera. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire 
 
 Pers. , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia 
 
 PoL Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish natiou . 
 
 I» 
 
 Fr. Dacler, Aime, a celebrated classical scholar . 
 
 Ft., DagueiTe, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyplng , 
 Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author , 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1771 
 
 1772 
 1779 
 1489 
 
 DIBD. 
 
 1S5S 
 184? 
 1855 
 1556 
 1650 
 3. 53 
 1834 
 1763 
 1858 
 l''6S 
 B. c. 6th Cent. 
 
 1772 
 1674 
 1771 
 1693 
 
 1657 
 17S0 
 1798 
 1780 
 1599 
 1490 
 
 1780 
 
 1794 
 1701 
 1617 
 1759 
 1712 
 1732 
 1721 
 1810 
 1820 
 1768 
 1750 
 1809 
 1813 
 1824 
 
 1800 
 1816 
 1580 
 1781 
 1769 
 1773 
 
 876 
 315 
 
 1727 
 
 1257 
 1854 
 1360 
 1658 
 '540 
 
 1853 
 1770 
 1688 
 1818 
 1730 
 1811 
 1765 
 
 18^2 
 IS- 7 
 
 1615 
 
 1857 
 
 1832 
 
 1838 
 
 258 
 
 444 
 
 380 
 
 822 
 
 B. 0. 559 
 
 i, 0. 400 
 
 1770 1868 
 
 1651 
 1789 
 
 1721 
 1851 
 
952 
 
 THB WOELD'S PEOGEESa. 
 
 RATION, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bwe. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Axnero 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Venet, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer 
 
 A me? 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 HAME AND PBOVESSIOH. 
 
 DaWgieUv CoL TJli'.c, milit. officer . • ■ , 
 
 Dahlman, Fred C, historian . . • > 
 
 Dale, Richard, commodore in Eevol. war . • . 
 
 Dalin, Glaus von, the father of Swedish poetry • • 
 
 Dallas, Commodore A. J., naval commander . , , 
 
 , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist • . 
 
 , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. 3. . 
 
 Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . . , 
 
 Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer • , 
 
 Dampier, William, an eminent navigator . , , 
 
 Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &c. • • 
 
 , Richard H., poet and essayist . • • 
 
 , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller . 
 
 , Samuel L., agricultural chemist . . • 
 
 Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . . • 
 
 Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author . • . 
 
 Daniell, John F., chemist .... 
 
 , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India . 
 
 Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.) . . 
 
 Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets . 
 
 Danton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist ... , 
 
 Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) . 
 
 D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . 
 Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked . 
 Dariington, Wm., botanist and politician ... 
 Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist . 
 Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander . 
 Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur . . 
 
 Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist . . - . 
 
 Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius 
 Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet . 
 
 Davies, Charles, mathematician .... 
 
 , S,T,muel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer , 
 
 Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian . . , 
 Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism , 
 , Charles H., mathematician and naval officer , 
 
 , Jefferson, general and U. S. senator from Mississippi 
 
 , John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis SLraits • 
 
 , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, &c. . , 
 
 Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals , • 
 
 Davy, Sir Humplirey, eminent chemist . , 
 
 Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England • . 
 
 Dayton, "Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman . , 
 
 Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France . . 
 
 Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars 1751 
 De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician 
 Debruce, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 
 Decandolle, A. P., botanist .... 
 
 Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the IT. S. navy 
 Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet . . . • 
 
 Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer . . 
 
 Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . , » 
 
 BOftK. 
 
 Dim 
 
 1842 
 
 18S4 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1756 
 
 182- 
 
 1708 
 
 1753 
 
 1791 
 
 1844 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1817 
 
 1766 
 
 1844 
 
 1699 
 
 1778 
 
 1652 
 
 17U 
 
 181S 
 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1110 
 
 1205 
 
 1752 
 
 1835 
 
 1790 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1837 
 
 1758 
 
 1841 
 
 1265 
 
 1321 
 
 1759 
 
 1794 
 
 1749 
 
 1838 
 
 1752 
 
 1840 
 
 1815 
 
 1842 
 
 1782 
 
 
 1705 
 
 1766 
 
 1761 
 
 1840 
 
 1605 
 
 1688 
 
 1S08 
 
 1S40 
 
 1823 
 
 1838 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1761 
 
 1576 
 
 1631 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 
 1605 
 
 1766 
 
 1850 
 
 1770 
 
 1823 
 
 1778 
 
 1829 
 
 1611 
 
 1668 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1758 
 
 1789 
 
 1 1751 
 
 1829 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1731 
 
 1782 
 
 1778 
 
 1841 
 
 1779 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1638 
 
 1527 
 
 161S 
 
 1661 
 
 1781 
 
MOQEAPHICAl INDEX, 
 
 95c 
 
 BATIOK. VilSJS AND PBOFESSION. BOBN. 
 
 G-. Am. DeKalb, John, baron, maj.-gen. In Am. revoL army • « 1732 
 
 Eng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist . . , 1796 
 
 Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer . , , 1749 
 
 Delaucey, "William H., Epis, Bishop West New York o 1797 
 
 Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist . . , , 1794 
 
 Delille, James, a celebrated poet . . , , 1738 
 
 Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . . 16S8 
 Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution 1740 
 
 Deluc, Jean Andr6, natural philosopher . . . 1727 
 
 Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt . 1791 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Swisz. 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . ! 
 . Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great 
 
 Maced. 
 
 Gr. Demooritus, a celebrated philosopher 
 
 risD. 
 
 ' 1786- 
 IS5S 
 1822 
 186- 
 1843 
 1813 
 1768 
 1806 
 181T 
 1864 
 B. 0. 28'J 
 B. 0. 283 
 
 De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . , 
 
 Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . , 
 
 Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller 
 Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian . , 
 
 Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England • 
 
 Amer. Dennie, author and editor of 'Portfolio,' &c. . 
 
 Amer. Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in 'Dunciad' . 
 
 Fr. D'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis SV. . , 
 
 Eng. DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . , 
 
 Derby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesman 
 Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman 
 Desai-s, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . 
 Descartes, Bene, an eminent philosopher . . 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author • 
 
 Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti . 
 
 De Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi , 
 
 Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer . 
 Deurhoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author . 
 
 Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist 
 
 Eng. Devereux, Robert, third Eaii of Essex, parliamentary gener 
 De Vigny, Alfred, count, poet and noveUst 
 Dewees, W. P., medical writer . . , 
 
 De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic 
 Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist . 
 
 Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman 
 
 Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 
 
 , del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler 
 
 Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . 
 
 , Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and songwriter 
 
 , Thomas Frognall, bibliographer 
 
 Eng, 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 Ital. 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 EUB& 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Afric. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Span, 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eug. 
 Bcot. 
 Eng. 
 
 Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher' 
 Dickens, Charles, novelist . . 
 
 Amer. Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman . . 
 
 Amer 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 -, John, author of ' Farmer's Letters ' 
 
 Diderot, Denis, first editor of 'Encyclop6die M^thodique' 
 Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 
 
 , Firmin, publisher and meixber of Deputies . 
 
 , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller . 
 
 Egypt. Didymus, -who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works . 
 
 . B. C. 460 
 
 1806 
 . B. c. S81 
 
 1786 
 173 , 
 :.V<i» 
 
 . :.7J8 
 1757 
 1728 
 1786 
 1799 
 1743 
 1768 
 1596 
 1762 
 1760 
 
 c 1500 
 1680 
 1650 
 1820 
 : . 1592 
 1799 
 1768 
 1780 
 1794 
 1625 
 
 Cabt ) 1560 
 1748 
 1771 
 1770 
 1772 
 1812 
 1800 
 1732 
 1713 
 1730 
 1764 
 2790 
 L s. c. Sd 
 
 C. 322 
 1828 
 1813 
 1854 
 1812 
 1783 
 1810 
 1859 
 
 1816 
 1800 
 1650 
 1794 
 1806 
 1542 
 1754 
 1717 
 
 1646 
 1863 
 1841 
 1849 
 
 1672 
 1500 
 
 1814 
 1841 
 1847 
 .18.59 
 
 1865 
 1808 
 1784 
 1804 
 
 loss 
 
954 
 
 THE WOBLD'S progress. 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1785 
 
 1792 
 
 1775 
 
 1810 
 
 1802 
 
 C. 350 
 
 245 
 
 C.30 
 
 1576 
 
 f. B. o. 10 
 
 B. 0, 413 
 
 f. B. 
 
 HATIOV. KAMi! AHD PaOFESSION. 
 
 Pruss. Dietitscli-ZaliaJkansky, count, military commander 
 
 Ger. Diffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical autlior , 
 
 Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 
 
 Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' Athenasum' 
 
 Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist . . * 
 
 Maced. Dinoorates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . 
 
 Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor . . . 
 
 Gr. Dio-Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher . 
 
 Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible • 
 
 Gr. Diodorus Sioulus, a historian . , . 
 
 Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher. . • 
 
 Gr. , Laertius, biographer . . • • 
 
 Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of ' Roman History ' . . • 
 
 Gr Dionysius, a geographer . . . . . f. 140 
 
 G-r. , of Alesandria, saint and bishop of the Church. . 265 
 
 G-r. , the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian , A. D.lst 
 
 G-r. — , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse . . B. o. 430 
 
 (Jr. , of Halicarnassus, critic and historian , . 
 
 (Jr. , the younger, tyrant of Syracuse • • B. C. 367 
 
 Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' ... 1767 
 
 Amer. Dis, D-^r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums • 
 
 Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. . 
 
 Eng. Dixon, T'liiam Fepworth, author and critic . . 1821 
 
 Amer. Doane, jeo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &o. . 1799 
 
 Eng. Dobell, ET-diey, poet ..... 1824 
 
 Eng. Dodd, Dr. > lUiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 1729 
 
 Eng. Doddridge, -L'hL'ip, a gifted and pious divine aaid writer . 1702 
 
 Eng. Dodsley, Ki-bert, publisher and author . . • 1703 
 
 Ger. Doebere-mcv, 7 "W., chemist . . , • 1T80 
 
 Span. Dominic De Gruzman, founder of preaching friars . . 1170 
 
 Rom. Domitian, e:nperor ..... 52 
 
 Scot. Don, David, ootanist ..... 1800 
 
 Ital. DonatsUo (Zcneto di BelJodi Bardi) sculptor . • 1383 
 
 Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer . • . 1797 
 
 Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . • • 1573 
 
 Eng. Donovan, 'Edward, writer on natural history . . .1 798 
 
 Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) . 1468 
 
 Amer. Dorr, Thomas W., politician, elected (?)governorof Rhodelsland 1S05 
 
 Fr. En. D'Orsay, Gouiit Alfred, author, artist, aud ' beau' . 1798 
 
 Hind. Dost-Moht.mmed, en:iir of Caboo . . - . 1785 
 
 Eng. Douce, Firncis, antiquarian and author . • • 1762 
 
 Scot. Douglas, Ga-win, a poet and translator . • . 1474 
 
 j^iaev. 1 Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor . 1817 
 
 gjjot. ; Sir Howard, general, military and naval author • 1776 
 
 _^iiier. , Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois 1813 
 
 Amer. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher .... 1777 
 
 Amer. Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 1786 
 
 Amer. Downing, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening 
 
 and horticulture ..... 1815 
 
 Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 1772 
 
 Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator ... f. 623 
 
 Eng. Drakej Dr. Nathan, physician and essayist « , 1766 
 
 Dies 
 
 183J 
 
 1847 
 1825 
 1S64 
 
 313 
 
 1649 
 
 C. 0. 323 
 
 155 
 
 cent. 
 B. o. 367 
 53 
 B. 0. 343 
 
 1848 
 
 1859 
 
 1777 
 1756 
 1764 
 
 1221 
 96 
 1840 
 146a 
 1848 
 1631 
 1837 
 1560 
 1854 
 1852 
 1863 
 1834 
 1521 
 
 1861 
 1861 
 1834 
 1S55 
 
 1853 
 lg5» 
 
 183f 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 955 
 
 ITATION. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 E. Am. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Br 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 NAMS AND ?B0FESSI0H. 
 
 Drake, JosepTi Eodman, poet . . . 
 
 , Samuel Q-., historian of the Indians, Boston, &o 
 
 , Sir iTraucis, a celebrated circumnavigator , 
 
 Draper, John "W., chemist and physiologist . . 
 
 Drayton, Michael, poet, ' Poly-olbioa ' 
 Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer 
 Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author 
 Drouyn de I'Huys, Edward, statesman . . 
 
 Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer . 
 
 Drummoiid, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drumniond lights 
 ■ , Sir William, scholar, author and diplomatist 
 
 -, William, poet 
 
 Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany 
 Dryden, John, an eminent poet . 
 Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' , 
 Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist 
 Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . , 
 
 Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author , 
 Duchesne, Andrew, a historian . . , 
 
 Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian . . 
 
 Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician 
 Dugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author . , 
 
 Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . 
 
 Duhalde, Jean B., geographer . , , 
 
 Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c . . 
 
 , Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist 
 
 , J. B., chemist .... 
 
 Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator . 
 
 Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . . 
 
 , P. S. L., writer on legislation . , 
 
 Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 
 Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' 
 
 -, William, poet .... 
 
 Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral , , 
 
 . , William, logician and translator • , 
 
 Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman • 
 
 Dundonald, Earl of, (* Lord Cochrane ') admiral . 
 Dunglisson, Rohley, M. D., medical author . . 
 
 Dunlap, William, painter and historian ♦ , 
 
 Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer . , 
 
 Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . . 
 
 Dunstan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician . 
 Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . , 
 
 , Charles, baron, jvirist and statesman . . 
 
 , Louis Eiie, an ecclesiastical historian . 
 
 Duponceau, P. S., ijhilologist, jurist, &c., (at Philadelphia) 
 Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral. , . 
 
 Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . , , 
 
 Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . . 
 
 Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engraver . , 
 
 Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author • 
 Durer, Albert, painter and engiaver . , 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 3)JfE->, 
 
 1795 
 
 1S2C 
 
 . 1798 
 
 
 1545 
 
 1596 
 
 ISll 
 
 
 1563 
 
 16.?! 
 
 . 1572 
 
 1634 
 
 1765 
 
 1831 
 
 . 1806 
 
 
 , 1773 
 
 iS5C 
 
 s . 1797 
 
 1840 
 
 17G0 
 
 1835 
 
 1585 
 
 1649 
 
 B. c. 38 
 
 £ 
 
 1631 
 
 1700 
 
 1760 
 
 1835 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 . 15th cent. 
 
 1803 
 
 
 . 1584 
 
 1640 
 
 1704 
 
 1722 
 
 , 1823 
 
 
 1605 
 
 1686 
 
 1314 
 
 1380 
 
 . 1674 
 
 1743 
 
 1S03 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1790 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1726 
 
 1759 
 
 1829 
 
 c . 1T30 
 
 1823 
 
 1774 
 
 1851 
 
 1405 
 
 1535 
 
 1731 
 
 1804 
 
 1714 
 
 1760 
 
 1741 
 
 1811 
 
 1775 
 
 1860 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1839 
 
 1731 
 
 1783 
 
 1274 
 
 1308 
 
 92') 
 
 988 
 
 1783 
 
 1865 
 
 1784 
 
 
 1637 
 
 1719 
 
 1760 
 
 1S44 
 
 1S03 
 
 1865 
 
 1778 
 
 1835 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 . 1798 
 
 
 , 1800 
 
 
 . 1471 
 
 USi 
 
^'; 
 
 956 
 
 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. 
 
 KATION, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Mug. 
 
 Eog, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Aaier. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 ^.mer. 
 
 Aaner. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amor. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amor. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND FBOFESSION. 
 
 Durfee, Job, priest and author . . . 
 
 Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author . . , 
 
 Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada 
 Duroo, Michael, Dulse of Friali, military commander 
 Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer . 
 
 , Thee, author and journalist . . 
 
 , Thee, (son of the above), ethnologist and historian 
 
 Duyckiuck, Evert Aug. , author and critic . 
 
 , Geo. Long, author and critic « , 
 
 Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - , 
 
 Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece ' . . , 
 
 Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist 
 
 E 
 
 Kastburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. . 
 Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critio • 
 
 Eaton, Amos, botanist .... 
 
 , Wm., military ofllcer and consul in Africa • 
 
 Kckerman, John Peter, litterateur 
 
 Eckford, rZenry, eminent shipbuilder . . , 
 
 Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian 
 Edgeworth, Maria, novelist ...» 
 Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . 
 
 , tola B., theologian and miscellaneous author . 
 
 Edwards, 3"yan, an historian , . . 
 
 , r.'ohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism . 
 
 , jenathan, an able divine and metaphysician 
 
 , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist 
 
 -, W. F., anatomist and physiologist (born, at Jamaica) 
 
 Eginhard, o,r: historian, biographer of Charlemagne 
 
 Egmont, ".amoral, count, patriot and martyr 
 
 Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist . 
 
 Eichborn, F C, theologian and jurist . 
 
 Eldon, L-id, lord chancellor of England , . 
 
 Elgin, T., 3ruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles 
 
 Elizabeth, queen . . . . 
 
 Eliot, Samael, author of ' History of Liberty' , 
 
 Ellenboro-;gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice 
 
 ■ — , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India 
 
 EJlery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence 
 
 EUesraere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author 
 
 EUet, EHza F., biographer and critic , , 
 
 Elliot, John, ' the apostle to the Indians ' . . 
 
 EUiotson, John, physician and physiologist . , (abt.) 
 
 Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter 
 
 . Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England' 
 
 , Ebenezer, poet ' Corn Law Rhymes' 
 
 , J. D., commodore is. American navy 
 
 , Stephen, naturalist 
 
 EUis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman and author 
 —— -, Sir Henry, antiquary and author . 
 
 Bosir. 
 
 DIED 
 
 1790 
 
 im 
 
 1628 
 
 172S 
 
 1792 
 
 1840 
 
 1772 
 
 1813 
 
 1752 
 
 1817 
 
 1765 
 
 1846 
 
 
 1866 
 
 1816 
 
 
 , 1823 
 
 1863 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1700 
 
 1758 
 
 1796 
 
 1720 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1842 
 
 1764 
 
 1811 
 
 1792 
 
 1852 
 
 1775 
 
 1832 
 
 1674 
 
 1730 
 
 1767 
 
 1849 
 
 1330 
 
 1376 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1743 
 
 1800 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1703 
 
 1757 
 
 1777 
 
 
 771 
 
 840 
 
 1552 
 
 1568 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1781 
 
 1854 
 
 1750 
 
 1838 
 
 1771 
 
 1841 
 
 1533 
 
 1603 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1818 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1727 
 
 1820 
 
 1800 
 
 1857 
 
 1604 
 
 1690 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1781 
 
 
 1785 
 
 184S 
 
 1771 
 
 1S38 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1777 
 
 
BIOGEAPHICAIi IKDEX. 
 
 957 
 
 ITAnOir. NAMK AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng, ElUs, Wm. Rev., misBionary and author , • (abt, 
 
 Eng. Elliston, Robert W., actor . . . • 
 
 Amer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., militaiy ofa.cer in Union army . 
 
 Amer. , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the TJ. S 
 
 Eng. Elmes, James, architect and author . . , 
 
 Scot, ■ Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . 
 
 Fr. Elssler, Fanny, danBeuBe 
 
 Dutch. Elzevir, Louis M. G-. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries 
 
 Amer. Embury, Emma E., poet . . . • 
 
 Amer. Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author , • « 
 
 Amer. , Kalph Waldo, poet and essayist , • 
 
 Eng. "William, a distinguished mathematician . , . 
 
 Irish. Emmet, Rohert, ' United Irishman' (executed) . 
 
 Irish. , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator • 
 
 Amer. Emmons, Ehen, geologist and author 
 
 Amer. , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author • • 
 
 Or. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . 
 
 Encke, John Francis, astronomer . • • 
 
 Ainer. Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts • • 
 
 Ger. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . • 
 
 Eng. Eniield, William, miscellaneous writer . « 
 
 Fr. Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) . 
 
 Fr. Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and cCidier 
 
 Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . > 
 
 Gr. Epictetus, a stoic philosopher 
 
 Gr. EpioiiriTS, founder of the Epicurean sect of pli.oi:pl:.ii8 . B 
 Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and ^vtLtr . 
 
 Ger. Erastus, Thomas, founder of ' Erastianism' theo'io^ . 
 
 Qt. Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher I 
 
 Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet . . « • 
 
 Span. Ericcira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian • 
 
 8. Am. Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . , 
 
 Eng. Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . 
 
 Pruss. Erman, A. G., ' Travels in Siberia,' &c. . . . 
 
 Ger. Emesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic • • 
 
 Scot. Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian . . . . 
 
 Scot. , Ralph, divine, 'Gospel Sonnets' . , 
 
 Scot. , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator 
 
 Assyr. Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin ot A.";',yri3 
 
 Span. Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist 
 
 Span. Espartero, J. B., Duke of Vittoria, statesman and soldier 
 
 Amer. Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . • , 
 
 Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . . , 
 
 Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer • . • • 
 
 Eng. Esses, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . • 
 
 Fr. Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander * . 
 
 Anst. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . , 
 
 Eng. Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist . 
 
 Afrio. Euclid, an eminent geometrician . . , f. 
 
 Fr. Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 
 
 Span. Eugenie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France . 
 
 Bwisa Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician . . 
 
 BORK. 
 
 Dika 
 
 t.) 1795 
 
 
 ^771 
 
 1831 
 
 1837 
 
 1861 
 
 1715 
 
 1S07 
 
 17S2 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1S5S 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1805 
 
 1863 
 
 1797 
 
 
 . 1803 
 
 
 1701 
 
 1782 
 
 1780 
 
 18C3 
 
 1764 
 
 1827 
 
 1798 
 
 1863 
 
 1745 
 
 1840 
 
 1791 
 
 1865 
 
 15S9 
 
 1665 
 
 1804 
 
 1849 
 
 . 1741 
 
 1797 
 
 1772 
 
 1804 
 
 1728 
 
 1810 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 363 
 
 . f. 40 
 
 
 . c. 342 B. 
 
 0. 371 
 
 1467 
 
 15.S6 
 
 1524 
 
 15S3 
 
 3. C. 276 B. 
 
 0. 196 
 
 1525 
 
 1595 
 
 1614 
 
 1699 
 
 1803 
 
 
 isoe 
 
 
 1707 
 
 1781 
 
 16S0 
 
 1756 
 
 ldS5 
 
 1752 
 
 1750 
 
 1823 
 
 B. c. 7th cent. 
 
 1589 
 
 1669 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1860 
 
 1772 
 
 1840 
 
 1770 
 
 isn 
 
 . 1567 
 
 1601 
 
 1729 
 
 1794 
 
 1636 
 
 1694 
 
 B. C. 300 
 
 
 1663 
 
 1736 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1707 
 
 173S 
 
958 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, 
 
 Gr. liurlpides, a celebrated tragic poet . . • B, 
 
 Gr. EufceV:"us, bishop of Cffisarea, a learned father of the church, and 
 
 ecclesiastical historian . • 
 
 Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • 
 
 Rom. Eutyches, au ecclesiastic, founder of a sect 
 Amer. Evans, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . 
 
 Amer. Evarts, .leremiah, (see Amer. B. G. for Missions) 
 J- ^g. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous ■writer . . 
 
 Amer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist 
 
 Amer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author 
 
 ('ler. Ewald, Geo. H. A. von, orien<^alist and theologian 
 Kn.Am. Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics 
 Amer. Ewing, This., statesman and jurist . 
 
 Eng. Exmouth, 1 idw. PeUew, viscount, admiral • 
 
 F 
 
 Eng. Paber, Gsorge Stanley, theological vtrriter . 
 
 jgng, J Trederick Wm., Roman Catholic priest and theological 
 
 author ..... 
 
 Rom. Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . . 
 
 Ger. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . 
 
 Ital. , John Oliriatian, a celebrated entomologist 
 
 Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . . 
 
 Eng. Fabyan, Robf.l, chior-'iler . . • 
 
 Ital. Facoiolato, or '■'accicl./i.i. Jat., philologist . . 
 
 Pruss. Fahrenheit, Qivoriel Paniel, an experimental pfillosopher 
 Eng. Fairfax, Edwfcd, poet, translator of Tasso 
 
 Sng. , Thon.as, lo^-d, a general in the civil war , 
 
 Bng. Falconer, "William, a pr^et . . . • 
 
 Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of "Venice, (beheaded) 
 
 Eng. Falkland, Luci-Ji? C.arj. viscount, poliiician and author 
 
 Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Kioliard, poet and diplomatist . 
 
 Irish. Faraday, Michael, chimist .... 
 
 Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet . 
 
 Eng. Farmer, Hugh, the logian .... 
 
 Attier. Famham, Mrs. Eli^a W., traveller and philanthropist 
 
 Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist . . . 
 
 Amer. Farrar, John, metLo-.iatician and author , . 
 
 Fr. Faucher, Leon., poi'tisal economist ... 
 
 Fr. Fauxiel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author 
 
 Ger. Faust, John, one of thclnventors of printing , . 
 
 Vt. Favre, J. 0. Jules, lawyer and politician . , 
 
 Ell". Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator • . 
 
 Amer. Fay, Theo. 8., author and diplomatist . , 
 
 Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East 
 
 Amer, Felton, Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard 
 
 College .... 
 
 Fr. F6r!.6ion, Francis dc Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and 
 
 one of the most virtuous of men . . 
 
 Bwe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist 
 
 BOBN. T>1 BD 
 
 0. 480 B. 0. 40< 
 
 S4C 
 
 f. S60 
 
 1755 1819 
 
 1781 1831 
 
 1620 1651 
 
 1790 1847 
 
 1794 1865 
 
 1803 
 
 1792 
 
 1789 
 
 1757 1833 
 
 1773 
 
 1815 
 
 1854 
 
 . B 
 
 0. 204 
 
 1668 
 
 1736 
 
 . 1742 
 
 1807 
 
 1732 
 
 1803 
 
 1450 
 
 1515 
 
 1684 
 
 1760 
 
 1686 
 
 1736 
 
 
 1633 
 
 16U 
 
 1671 
 
 1730 
 
 1769 
 
 
 1355 
 
 1610 
 
 1643 
 
 1608 
 
 1636 
 
 1790 
 
 1867 
 
 , 1588 
 
 1647 
 
 . 1714 
 
 1787 
 
 1815 
 
 1864 
 
 1678 
 
 170T 
 
 1779 
 
 1853 
 
 1803 
 
 1854 
 
 1772 
 
 1844 
 
 
 1468 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1633 
 
 1693 
 
 1807 
 
 
 . 1632 
 
 169S 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1S07 
 
 1351 
 
 1743 
 
 171J 
 17S« 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL ESTDEX. 
 
 959 
 
 JTATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosoplier . 
 
 Scot. , Jam.es, a self-educated astronomer, philosoph.er, &o. 
 
 Scot, Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art , 
 
 Span, Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . . 
 
 Boot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist .... 
 
 Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal,, archbishop of Lyons 
 
 Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist 
 
 Amer. , Wm. Pitt, TJ. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas, 
 
 Ger. Feuerhach, Ludwig, philosopher and author 
 
 Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist , 
 
 Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher . , , 
 
 Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . . 
 
 Amer. Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph , 
 
 Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate 
 
 Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author 
 
 Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . 
 
 Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist 
 
 Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria , 
 
 Amer. Fillmore, Millard, 13th president U. S. . , 
 
 Amer. Finney, Charles G., preacher and theological writer • 
 
 Pers. Fii-dusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses 
 
 Amer. Fisk, Wilbur, president "Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &o, 
 
 Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . 
 
 Eom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . 
 
 Eonj. , Cains, general, consul, and censor of tribune 
 
 Eng. Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal . , 
 
 Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet ...» 
 
 Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-conformist divine • 
 
 Fr. Flecbier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . , 
 
 Ger. Fleischer, II. L., orientalist . , . , 
 
 Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist 
 
 Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author , 
 
 Eng. , Giles, poet .... 
 
 Eng. , John, a dramatist . * , . 
 
 Eng. , Phineas, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 
 
 It. , Claude, a divine and historian . . 
 
 Amer. Flint, Eev. Timothy, novelist and historian . . 
 
 Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . . 
 
 (Jer. 1 John G., lexicographer 
 
 Ger. Follen, 0. T. C., theologian and philologist (in U. 8.) . 
 
 Fr, Fonblanque, J. S, M., jurisprudence 
 
 Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer 
 Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . . 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . . 
 
 Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . • 
 
 Eng. , John, M. D., medical writer ... 
 
 Amer, Force, Peter, journalist and historian . « 
 
 ItaL Forcelliiii, Giles, a Latin lexicographer . • 
 
 Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author . • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1724 
 1710 
 1808 
 1652 
 1782 
 1763 
 1771 
 1806 
 1804 
 1775 
 1701 
 1762 
 1433 
 1819 
 1805 
 1822 
 1787 
 1707 
 
 1800 
 1792 
 940 
 1792 
 1743 
 B, 0, 230 B. 
 s. 
 1646 
 1633 
 1627 
 1632 
 1801 
 1785 
 1658 
 1580 
 1576 
 1584 
 1653 
 1640 
 1780 
 1755 
 1802 
 1788 
 1796 
 1787 
 1657 
 1806 
 1721 
 1815 
 1787 
 1790 
 1688 
 15S6 
 
 BtEO, 
 
 1^16 
 1.79 
 
 1765 
 1854 
 1839 
 1837 
 
 1833 
 1764 
 1814 
 1499 
 
 1855 
 1754 
 1547 
 
 1020 
 
 1839 
 
 ■"798 
 
 0. 17 
 
 0. .17 
 
 719 
 
 1688 
 
 16a 
 
 1710 
 
 1857 
 1716 
 1627 
 1625 
 1650 
 1743 
 1722 
 1840 
 1794 
 
 1855 
 
 1846 
 1865 
 1757 
 1863 
 1771 
 1864 
 
 i64e 
 
960 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGBESS. 
 
 iriTrOW. NAME AND PBOPESSIOK, 
 
 Eng. Eord, Richard, author of works on Spain • ' * 
 
 Itai . Foresti, E. Felice, patriot and litterateur . • 
 
 Artier. Forrest, Edwin, actor . . • . 
 
 a."n^. Forster, John, journalist and author • • 
 
 G-er. , John R., traveller and naturalist . , 
 
 Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . . 
 
 Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., arohceologist (Ency. Antiq.) • 
 
 Fosoari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice . . 
 
 Foscolo, Niool TJgo, poet and musical author . . 
 
 Foster, John, essayist . , . . 
 
 Fouoh6, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist 
 
 Fouqu6, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &o. 
 
 Fourier, Charles, founder of tlie ' social ' system . 
 
 , Francis M. C, writer on social science . 
 
 Ttal. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 eer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bug. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist . . . 
 
 Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators 
 
 , George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers 
 
 , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' . 
 
 , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . 
 
 Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . • 
 
 Francia, Jos6 Or. R., dictator of Paraguay « . 
 
 Amet. Francis, John W., physician and author « . 
 
 Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' . . 
 
 Savoy. , de Sales, saint and bishop . . . 
 
 Irish. , Sir Philip, political writer . . . 
 
 Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 
 
 Ens. , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer 
 
 Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader, beheaded . 
 Pruss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author • 
 Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. S. 
 Amer. Frelinghuysen, Theo., statesman ...» 
 Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman , 
 
 Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . , , 
 
 Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . • 
 
 Grer. Freytag, G-. W. P., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. • , 
 
 Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . ■ 
 
 Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author . . . 
 
 Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet , , 
 
 Amer. Frothinghara, Kichard, Jr., historian and journalist « 
 
 Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist . . , 
 
 Amer. — , "Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . * 
 
 Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . , 
 
 Amer. , Richard, D. D., Baptist preacher and author 
 
 Amer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, litterateur , 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian . . 
 
 Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist . . • 
 
 Fr. Fureti^re, Anthony, a philosopher . . . 
 
 Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author 
 &er. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist • , 
 
 Ewiaa. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art . • 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 vr** 
 
 1796 
 
 issa 
 
 1793 
 
 1858 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1729 
 
 1798 
 
 1780 
 
 1841 
 
 • 1770 
 
 1842 
 
 1372 
 
 145V 
 
 1777 
 
 1821 
 
 1770 
 
 184? 
 
 1763 
 
 1820 
 
 1777 
 
 1843 
 
 . 1772 
 
 1386 
 
 1772 
 
 1831 
 
 1809 
 
 
 ors 1748 
 
 i8oe 
 
 1624 
 
 1690 
 
 1517 
 
 1587 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1806 
 
 1757 
 
 1840 
 
 1789 
 
 1861 
 
 1182 
 
 1226 
 
 1567 
 
 1623 
 
 1740 
 
 1808 
 
 1706 
 
 1790 
 
 1786 
 
 1847 
 
 1667 
 
 1747 
 
 1712 
 
 1789 
 
 1759 
 
 1835 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1752 
 
 1832 
 
 1769 
 
 1846 
 
 1778 
 
 
 , 
 
 1594 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1333 
 
 1400 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1845 
 
 1815 
 
 ]864 
 
 1754 
 
 1815 
 
 1803 
 
 
 ISIO 
 
 1S50 
 
 1608 
 
 1661 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1620 
 
 i6sa 
 
 ar 1802 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1741 
 
 1821 
 
BORN. 
 
 DIBT> 
 
 1724 
 
 180E 
 
 1788 
 
 185S 
 
 
 1787 
 
 1670 
 
 1740 
 
 1755 
 
 1829 
 
 l"9,-i 
 
 1806 
 
 17 n' 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1st cent 
 
 131 
 
 
 1T86 
 
 
 1564 
 
 1642 
 
 BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 9(31 
 
 VATIOir. NAME AND PROFESSIOK. 
 
 Amer, Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman . 
 
 Amer. , James, statesman and negotiator , » 
 
 Eng. Gage, Thomas, iast royal governor of Massachusetts • 
 Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . • 
 
 Ft. Gail, J. B., philologist .... 
 
 Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 
 Amer, Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander . 
 Rom. Gains, or Caius, jurist and legal -writer . . * 
 
 Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . • 
 
 EruAm. Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer ' , 
 
 Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 
 Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the 
 
 science of phrenology .... 1758 182S 
 
 Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet . . .. 1808 
 
 S. Am, Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnoL 1701 1845 
 
 Amer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for 
 
 deaf and dumb ..... 1787 1851 
 
 Euss. Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes . . 16th to 17th cent. 
 
 Russ. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . 
 
 Scot, Gait, John, novelist ...... 
 
 Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dio- 
 
 coverer of galvanic electricity .... 
 Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 
 Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law ... 
 
 Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist • • . • . 
 
 Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer ...» 
 Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry • 
 Span. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru . . 
 
 Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate . • 
 
 Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader . . 
 
 Pr. Gamier, Count Germain, jurist . . . . 
 
 Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist . . 
 
 Amer, Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . . 1805 
 
 Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet . . . 1718 
 
 Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince 
 
 of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... 
 Eng. Gaskell, Elizabeth C, novelist ..... 
 Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopner . . . 
 
 Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, general, 
 Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the Revolution . 
 
 Fr. " Gavarni," real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . 
 
 Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... 
 Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist .... 
 
 Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian , , 
 
 Amer. Gayarre, Charles A., historian .... 
 Eug. Gell, Sir William, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) 
 Ger. Gellert, Chrisiian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 
 Rom. Qellius, Aulius,. graromarian .... 
 
 Fr Qeaest, cj &enOt, jffidwarfl C, diplomtitiit . . 
 
 1770 
 
 1840 
 
 1779 
 
 1839 
 
 1737 
 
 .1798 
 
 
 152i 
 
 
 88 
 
 1798 
 
 ■<.S4"' 
 
 1779 
 
 i837 
 
 1503 
 
 153<^ 
 
 
 1559 
 
 1483 
 
 15£5 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1821 
 
 1716 
 
 17': 9 
 
 1350 
 
 1413 
 
 1820 
 
 1863 
 
 1592 
 
 1656 
 
 1489 
 
 1512 
 
 1728 
 
 1806 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1688 
 
 17S2 
 
 1778 
 
 1850 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1830 
 
 1716 
 
 1769 
 
 A. Di 
 
 2d cent. 
 
 1765 
 
 1834 
 
962 
 
 THE world's PROGBE£)0. 
 
 KATfOK. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Kr. 
 
 En,?. 
 
 B'r. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ame; 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 GenghioKhaiij a celebrated conqueror . . 
 Genlis, Stephania F61icite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century 
 Geoffroy-Saint Ililaire Etienne, zoologist . , 
 Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &o. . . 
 G6rard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of Fi-ance 
 Gsrmanious, Tiberius Drusns Ca;sar, military commander 
 Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. 8. 
 Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author 
 Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller . . 
 «aervinu8, George Gottfried, historian and politician 
 Geseuius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critio 
 Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist . ' . 
 , John Matthias, a philologist . . 
 
 Giannone, Peter, an historian . . . 
 
 Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author 
 
 Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians 
 
 Gibbs, Josiah "W., philologist . . 
 
 Amer. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both oflcers in the E 
 lution ...... 
 
 Eng. , Thomas Milner, statesman . • 
 
 Amer. Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman . • • 
 
 Eng. Giflbrd, William, a critic and poet . , 
 
 , John, an historical and political writer . 
 
 Gieseler, John K. L., church historian . . 
 
 Ghbert, James W., writer on banking 
 
 , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 Eng. 
 Sng. 
 fcJcot. 
 Eng. 
 
 GilfiUan, George, clergyman and author . . 
 
 Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author 
 Amer. Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering 
 Scot. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. 
 Amer. Gilman, John T., noted governor of ]S!"ew Hampshire • 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 -, Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author 
 
 Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' . , 
 
 , Wm., writer on the picturesque . , 
 
 Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist . . 
 
 Gioberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman 
 Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences . 
 
 Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist . . , 
 
 Fr.Am. , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire s 
 
 Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . , 
 
 Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author , 
 
 Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . 
 
 Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author . , 
 
 Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . . • 
 
 Eng, Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author . 
 
 Ger. Gluck, Christop W. von, musical composer . 
 
 Bwe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist . . , 
 
 Fr. Godfrey, of BouiUon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the 
 
 Crusades ..... 
 
 Amer, Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, fco. 
 Eng. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of, statesman , , 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1164 
 1746 
 
 1772 
 1770 
 
 1773 
 
 1814 
 1363 
 1816 
 1805 
 1786 
 1516 
 1691 
 1676 
 1809 
 1737 
 1790 
 
 1807 
 1795 
 1767 
 1758 
 1792 
 1794 
 
 1813 
 1697 
 1816 
 1741 
 1759 
 1731 
 1617 
 1724 
 1757 
 1801 
 17d7 
 1822 
 1750 
 1802 
 1809 
 1636 
 1796 
 1349 
 1809 
 1714 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 1640 
 
 BIBS, 
 
 122! 
 1830 
 
 1844 
 
 1842 
 
 1862 
 
 19 
 
 1429 
 
 1842 
 1565 
 1761 
 1758 
 
 1794 
 
 186a 
 1826 
 1818 
 1854 
 1868 
 1583 
 
 1771 
 
 1838 
 1828 
 1858 
 1583 
 1804 
 1815 
 1852 
 1829 
 
 1831 
 
 16S« 
 
 1415 
 1857 
 1781 
 1805 
 
 no« 
 
 183S 
 1713 
 
BIOQEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 963 
 
 KATIOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Span. Qodoy, Manuel de, statesman, 'prince of the peace' • 
 
 Amer. Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian . , 
 
 Eng. , "William, novelist and metaphysician . « 
 
 Ger. Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist . . 
 
 Ital. Goldoni, Charles, the Italian MoliSre . . . 
 
 Irish. Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous •writer 
 
 Dutch. Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . . 
 
 Span. Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . , 
 
 Eng. Good, John Mason, physician and author , , , 
 
 Amer. Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . , 
 
 Amer. , Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author 
 
 Amer. , Samuel Griswold, ' Peter Parley,' voluminous author 
 
 Amer. Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee • 
 
 Scot. Gordon, ' lord George,' political agitator . , 
 
 Eng, , Wm., author of History of the United States . 
 
 Eng. Gore, Catharine G., novelist . . , 
 
 Eng. Gorges, Sir Ferdinaudo, ' lord proprietor of Maine' « 
 
 Hung. Gorgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) 
 
 Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist . . . • 
 
 RusSi Gortchakoif, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, dec « 
 
 KuEs. , Alexander, prince, diplomatist . , 
 
 Amer. Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author • • 
 
 En.Am. Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance ... 
 
 Irish. , Hugh, viscount, general in India. &c. . • 
 
 Amer. Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician . , 
 
 Amer. , Hannah F,, poet . . . * ( 
 
 Eng. , John, naturalist and author . . • 
 
 Fr. Gourgaud, Gaspard, baron, one of ISTapoleon's generals 
 
 Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . , 
 
 Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 
 
 Rom. , Caius Sempronius . . , , 
 
 Ger. Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . . 
 
 Scot, Grahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver 
 
 house, general ..... 
 Scot. , James, a poet ..... 
 
 Scot. , James, author of ' History of the United States ' 
 
 Fr. Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of Menoirs' 
 
 Fr, Grandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . , 
 
 Fr. Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian , . 
 
 Scot. Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist. See. « 
 
 Scot. , James, journalist and author , , , 
 
 Scot. , James, novelist .... 
 
 Span. Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman . . 
 
 Eng. Granville, G. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman • 
 
 Eng. , John Carteret, earl, statesman . , 
 
 Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . , 
 
 Irisli. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman . 
 
 — — — , Thomas CoUey, novelist . , , 
 
 Dutch. Gravcsande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 
 
 Amer. Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of ' Flora,' &o. 
 
 Amer. , Henry Peters, painter. . • « 
 
 Eng. ———, John Edward, naturalist .... 
 
 BOBH. 
 
 nisn 
 
 1767 
 
 1861 
 
 , 1813 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1838 
 
 1749 
 
 1831 
 
 1707 
 
 1793 
 
 1731 
 
 1774 
 
 1596 
 
 1667 
 
 , 1443 
 
 1515 
 
 1764 
 
 1827 
 
 1790 
 
 1860 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1793 
 
 1860 
 
 1800 
 
 1860 
 
 1750 
 
 1793 
 
 1730 
 
 1807 
 
 1799 
 
 
 
 1647 
 
 1818 
 
 
 f. B. 0. 
 
 5th cent 
 
 1792 
 
 1861 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1677 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1779 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 'abt.) 1800 
 
 1865 
 
 1804 
 
 
 . 1783 
 
 1852 
 
 
 1402 
 
 
 B. c. 133 
 
 
 B. 0. 121 
 
 1632 
 
 1703 
 
 1643 
 
 16S9 
 
 1765 
 
 1811 
 
 . 1770 
 
 1842 
 
 1621 
 
 1707 
 
 . 1803 
 
 1847 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1838 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1517 
 
 1586 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1690 
 
 1793 
 
 f. 12th cent. 
 
 . 1750 
 
 1821 
 
 1796 
 
 1864 
 
 1688 
 
 1711 
 
 1810 
 
 
 . 1819 
 
 
 aht,)1800 
 
 
964 
 
 THE world's PBOGEESS. 
 
 BATIOK. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ainer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Irisli. 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irisli. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 ItaU 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 NAME AND PEOFEBSIOlf. BORN. DIEB, 
 
 Gray, Thomas, poet .... • 1716 1771 
 
 Graydon, Alex., author of ' Eevolutiouary Memoirs * • 1752 1818 
 
 Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . • . 1811 
 
 Gregory I., the Great, pope, author . . 544 604 
 
 , VIL, the Great, pope Hlldebrand, celebrates:^ despot . 1086 
 
 ■ , David, philosopher and mathematician . • 1661 1710 
 
 ■ ■ — , George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . . 1754 1808 
 
 , James, philosopher and mathematician , . 1648 1685 
 
 , Nazianzen, St. Christian, writer . ■ . 328 389 
 
 of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer ... 331 396 
 
 , Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer . 1774 1841 
 
 of Tours, historian .... 544 593 
 
 Green, AshbelD. D., clergyman and author . . . 1762 1848 
 
 , Horace, physician, author of medical 'WorkB « 1802 1866 
 
 Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . . • 1804 
 
 , Geo. Washington, scholar and critic . . 1811 
 
 , Matthew, poet ..... 1696 1737 
 
 , Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the ReTolution 1741 1786 
 
 ^, Nathaniel, author and journalist . . . 1797 
 
 , Robt., dramatist .... 1560 1592 
 
 Greenhow, Robert, historical writer .... 1800 1854 
 
 Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author ... 1783 1858 
 
 Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author , . • 1805 1853 
 
 Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author . 1554 1628 
 
 Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for William IV. . 1764 1845 
 
 , Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 1537 1554 
 
 Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist . 1745 1812 
 
 Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , . . 1770 1837 
 
 , Gerald, noveUst ..... 1803 1840 
 
 Grimke, Thomas S., jurist . . , . 1786 1834 
 
 Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . . . 1785 1863 
 
 Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . 1774 1852 
 
 Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England . 1766 1843 
 
 , Eufus Wilmot, author and critic . , 1815 1857 
 
 Gronovius, James, an erudite critic .... 1645 1716 
 
 Grose, Francis, antiquary and author ... 1731 1791 
 
 Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author . . 1805 
 
 Grote, George, author of History of Greece , . 1794 
 
 Grotefeiid, G, F., philologist .... 1775 1836 
 
 Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar . . 1583 1645 
 
 Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France . • 1776 1847 
 
 Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . (Tenn.) 1777 1840 
 
 Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist , . . . 1616 1664 
 
 Guarini, John Baptist, a poet .... 1537 1612 
 
 Guericke, Otto, experimental philoB., Inventor of the air-pump . 1602 1686 
 
 Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician . . 1S05 
 
 Guiccardini, Francis, an historian .... 1482 1540 
 
 Guillotin, Joseph T.. benevolent physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738 1814 
 
 Guise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525 1574 
 
 , Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519 1563 
 
 — — , Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior , 1550 168S 
 
 Gui2»t, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician . 1787 
 
BIOGKAPHICAIi INDEX, 
 
 965 
 
 ItATION. 
 
 Nor. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pol, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 8 we. 
 
 Swe 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Qdiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior . . , 
 
 Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gunter scale 
 Gurney, Joseph John, philanthropist , (Soc 
 
 Gurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and author . 
 Gurwood, John, Col:, editor of Wellington's Despatches 
 Gustavus 1., (GuBtavus Vasa) king of Sweden 
 
 IL, Adolphus, king of Sweden ; able warrior 
 
 III., king of Sweden . , , 
 
 IV., Adolphus, king of Sweden . . 
 
 Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce 
 
 , William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &o. 
 
 Guttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing . 
 
 Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China 
 
 Guyon, Jeanne M. B., de la Motte, mystical teacher and writer 
 
 , Richard D., general in the service of Hungary, &c. 
 
 Sw.Am.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on physical geography . , 
 
 Eng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (' Nell Gwynn ') mistress of Charles II. 
 Hg. Au.Gyulai,.Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy 
 Eng. Habington, Wm., puet . . • . 
 
 Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic . . • 
 , James H., actor . . , • 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 ficot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Hafiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia ^ 
 
 Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian • , 
 
 Hahn, August, theological writer . . • 
 
 — ^ , Simon Frederick, an historian . , . 
 
 Hahneman, founder of ' Homeopathy ' in medicine 
 Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 
 Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c., of the English 
 Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian 
 Haldeman, S. S., nattu-alist and philologist , 
 
 Amer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author 
 
 Amer. , David, journalist, founder of N. Y. Journal of Commerc 
 
 Amer. , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy , 
 
 Amer. , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser . 
 
 Amer. , Sarah J., poet and prose writer . . , 
 
 Eng. , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge . 
 
 Pr. Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . , 
 
 Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer , 
 Eng. Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, ' Sam Slick' , 
 
 Eng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. . . 
 
 Amer. , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay , 
 
 Amer. , James, jurist and author . , , 
 
 Amer. , James, geologist and palasontologist . , . 
 
 Eng., — ^, Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author • 
 
 Eng. , Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . . 
 
 Eng. Hal lam, Henry, historian . . . , 
 
 Amer. Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet ... 
 
 Swiss Haller, Albert von, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astroi Dmer and matbematiolan 
 
 Eng. Halliwell, James Orchard, archaeologist and author . 
 
 Bcot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . • , 
 
 Garth, Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general . , 
 
 BOBir. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1016 
 
 loss 
 
 e 1581 
 
 1619 
 
 jnds) 1788 
 
 1847 
 
 1805 
 
 186& 
 
 , 1791 
 
 1845 
 
 1496 
 
 1560 
 
 1594 
 
 1633 
 
 1746 
 
 1792 
 
 1778 
 
 1837 
 
 1793 
 
 
 J. 1708 
 
 1770 
 
 1400 
 
 1463 
 
 1803 
 
 1851 
 
 1648 
 
 1717 
 
 1813 
 
 1856 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1650 
 
 1687 
 
 1798 
 
 1866 
 
 1605 
 
 i64e 
 
 1808' 
 
 
 . 1800 
 
 
 
 1389 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1807 
 
 1857 
 
 1692 
 
 1729 
 
 1755 
 
 1843 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1553 
 
 1616 
 
 1764 
 
 1842 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 B 1791 
 
 1849 
 
 1758 
 
 1776 
 
 1784 
 
 1863 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1609 
 
 1676 
 
 1799 
 
 18G2 
 
 1766 
 
 1844 
 
 1803 
 
 1865 
 
 1783 
 
 1844 
 
 1784 
 
 1826 
 
 . 1793 
 
 
 1811 
 
 
 . 1574 
 
 1656 
 
 1764 
 
 1831 
 
 . 177T 
 
 1859 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1708 
 
 1777 
 
 1656 
 
 1741 
 
 , 1820 
 
 
 1674 
 
 1713 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 229 
 
966 
 
 THE WORLD'S PE OGRESS. 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Carth. 
 
 Carth. 
 
 Nor. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Sar. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr ^ 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. SOHS. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasury, D. S. 1757 
 
 -, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer 
 
 -, James, statesman, U. S. senator from South Carolina 
 
 , Sir Wm., diplomatist and antiquary 
 
 , Sir Wm., metaphysician 
 
 , Sir Wm. Eowan, mathematician and philosopher 
 
 -, Thos., Oapt., novelist, ' Men and Manners in America 
 -, William Richard, archaeologist 
 
 Hammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist . . 
 
 Hammond, James, poet . . . , • 
 
 , James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina 
 
 Hampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman . 
 
 Hampton, Wade, general in revolution 
 
 Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress 
 Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers 
 Hannibal, or Annibal, general against Rome . . 
 
 Hanno, navigator . . . . • 
 
 , the Great, general and statesman . . . 
 
 Hanstein, G., mathematician and astronomer • • 
 
 Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works . . 
 
 Hardenbergh, Karl A von, statesman , . 
 
 Harding, Chester, portrait painter . , , 
 
 , James D., artist and author on art . 
 
 Hardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India 
 Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer . . . 
 
 Hare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer , 
 
 , Robert, chemist and physicist . . , 
 
 Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist . . , 
 
 Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman . 
 
 Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning 
 Harper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born 
 Harrington, James, political writer . , . 
 
 Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia . 
 Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &o. . 
 
 , John, theological writer .... 
 
 — , Thaddeus Wm., naturalist 
 
 Harrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president U. 
 Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College 
 Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 
 Hase, Henry, classical antiquarj' . . , 
 
 , Karl Aug., theological author . . . 
 
 Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) . 
 Haslam, John, writer on insanity .... 
 Hastings, marquis of, military commander . , 
 
 , Warren, governor-general of British India . 
 
 Hauser, Caspei-, a mysterious " wild boy " . , 
 
 Haussez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller . • 
 
 Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor 
 Hauy, Reu6 Just, mineralogist . * • 
 
 Havelock, Henry, general in India . • • 
 
 Haven, Alice B., author of juvenile hook* . . 
 
 Haviland, Jobn, architect . • ■ • 
 
 1758 
 
 1786 
 1730 
 1788 
 1805 
 1789 
 1777 
 1774 
 1710 
 1807 
 1594 
 1755 
 1737 
 1684 
 C. 247 
 
 B. 0. 
 
 I 
 
 1784 
 TS17 
 1750 
 1792 
 1798 
 1785 
 1821 
 1795 
 1781 
 1796 
 1661 
 
 1795, ■ 
 
 1611 
 
 1560 
 
 1670 
 
 1804 
 
 1795 
 
 1773 
 
 1569 
 1789 
 ISOO 
 1810 
 1764 
 1754 
 1733 
 
 1778 
 
 1742 
 1795 
 1828 
 1792 
 
 1804 
 
 i8ia 
 
 1857 
 1803 
 1856 
 
 1842 
 1859 
 1856 
 1742 
 
 1643 
 
 1835 
 
 1793 
 
 1758 
 
 B. c. 183 
 
 5th cent. 
 
 B. c. 202 
 
 1822 
 1866 
 1863 
 18.56 
 1859 
 1855 
 1858 
 1843 
 1724 
 808 
 '7, 1801,'4 
 1677 
 1621 
 1719 
 1856 
 1856 
 1841 
 1688 
 1658 
 1842 
 
 1853 
 1844 
 1825 
 1818 
 1833 
 
 1591 
 1822 
 1857 
 1866 
 1853 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 96"; 
 
 XATIOir. KAUE AND PBOFESSION. 
 
 Araer. Ha-wea, Joel, Congregational clergyman and author . , 
 
 Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral • 
 
 Eng. Hawksworth, Dr. Jolia, misoellaneous writer . . « 
 
 Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, originator of the slave trade 
 
 Eng. , Sir John, author of ' History of Music,' &c. . , 
 
 Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian , 
 
 Amer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist . . . , 
 
 Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer , • 
 
 Eng, Haydon, Beiij. A,, historical painter • • ■ . 
 
 Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator aud author . , 
 
 Eng. Hayley, "William, a poet and miscellaneous writer , . 
 
 Amer. Hayne, Kohert T., governor of South Carolina and senator U. S. 
 
 Amer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot . 
 
 Eng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of 'Eaust' , , 
 
 Eng. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic . . » , 
 
 Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, «fec. , , 
 
 Eng. , Sir George, author of ' Kome,' &c. , , , 
 
 Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories . 
 
 Amer. Heath, Wrn., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs 
 
 Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . , 
 
 Eng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector • 
 
 Ger. Hecker, Fred. K. F., politician . . . 
 
 Amer. , Isaac F., Roman Catholic clergyman and author 
 
 Eng. Heokwelder, John, Moravian missionary and author 
 
 Ger. Hederiok, Benjamin, a lexicographer . , 
 
 Amer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author , , 
 
 Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist . 
 
 Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian ... 
 
 Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician • , , 
 
 Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and lilleraieur , , 
 
 Ger. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author , , 
 
 Bom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus, emperor . 
 
 Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer 
 
 Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard 
 
 Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist , . 
 
 Fr. Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher , , , 
 
 Ger. HelvicuB, Christopher, a chronologist . , 
 
 Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess • . . , 
 
 Eng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist .... 
 
 Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian 
 
 Eng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, ' orator Henley' 
 
 Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. , 
 
 Eng. Henningsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier . , 1815 
 
 Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch , , , 1553 iqiq 
 
 Amer. , Caleb S,, clergyman and author . , , 1804 
 
 Amer. , Joseph, physicist, director of Smithsonian Institute 1797 
 
 Amer. , Matthew, author of ' Comment, on the Bible' . , 1662 1714 
 
 Port. ——, the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. . 1394 1463 
 
 Boot. , Robert, an historian • . . , 1718 1790 
 
 Amer. — , Patrick, an orator and patriot . . 1736 1799 
 
 Amer Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist • • • . 1858 
 
 Rom. Heraclins (born in Cappadocia), emperor of the East , 576 641 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 AZBU 
 
 17S9 
 
 186J 
 
 1713 
 
 178-. 
 
 1715 
 
 1773 
 
 1520 
 
 1595 
 
 1719 
 
 1789 
 
 1798 
 
 186S 
 
 1804 
 
 1863 
 
 1732 
 
 1809 
 
 1786 
 
 18^ 
 
 1745 
 
 1820 
 
 1791 
 
 1835 
 
 1758 
 
 1S34 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1830 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1782 
 
 1855 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1737 
 
 1814 
 
 1783 
 
 1826 
 
 1773 
 
 1833 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1743 
 
 1823 
 
 1675 
 
 1748 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1730 
 
 1759 
 
 1760 
 
 1842 
 
 1770 
 
 1831 
 
 1799 
 
 1856 
 
 1681 
 
 1741 
 
 247 
 
 327 
 
 fl. 4th cent, 
 
 
 rd 1101 
 
 1164 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1715 
 
 1771 
 
 1581 
 
 1617 
 
 1794 
 
 1835 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1692 
 
 1756 
 
 1640 
 
 1699 
 
968 
 
 THB world's PEOGBESS, 
 
 KATI05. NAME AND PROFESSION. PORH. 
 
 Gr. Heraclitus, a philosopher . . . . f. B. o. 504 
 
 Eng. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and philosopher 
 
 Eiig. Herbert, George, clergyman and poet . 
 
 Eng.AnL , Henry Wro. novelist and miscellaneous author 
 
 Diia 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 G«,r. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Enss. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer 
 
 , Sidney, statesman 
 
 , Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet . 
 
 , Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher 
 
 Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer . 
 
 Heriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school 
 
 Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, ' History of Philosophy' &o. 
 
 , J. G. J., philologist . . . 
 
 Hermogenes, a rhetorician .... 
 
 Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer 
 
 Herod, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) b. o. 
 
 , the Great, King of the Jews ... 
 
 Herodian, an historian . . , . 
 
 Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works ar 
 
 extant ....•• 
 Herold, L. G. F., musical composer . • • 
 
 Herrera, Anthony, an historian . • ■ 
 
 , Jose J. de, president of Mexico • • « 
 
 Herrick, Robert, poet .... 
 
 Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer . . , 
 
 , Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers 
 
 Herschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 
 
 , Sir J. F. "W"., astronomer and natural philosopher 
 
 Hervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer . 
 , Thomas K., poet and prose writer . , 
 
 Herzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author . 
 Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer . . 
 
 Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . , 
 
 Hey wood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist , , 
 
 Hickes, George, a theologian and philologist , 
 
 Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author . . 
 
 Amer. Hicks, Elias, preacher of the Society of Friends 
 Amer. Hildreth, PJchard, autlior of History of the United States 
 Fr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist . , 
 
 Eng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England . 
 Eng. Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman . 
 
 Eng. , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at Waterloo 
 
 Eng. , Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer . 
 
 Amer. Hillard, George S., author and journalist . . 
 
 Jew. Hillel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud . . 
 
 Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet . . « , 
 
 Eng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer . 
 
 Eng. Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States 
 Gr, Hipparcbus, astronomer . . . ,• 
 
 Gr Hippocrates, the father of medicine . • • 
 
 Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer . 
 Amer. Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., theologian and geologist , 
 
 , Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot 
 
 Kng. Hoadley, William, a oelehraied prelate and author . 
 
 er 1581 
 
 1648 
 
 1593 
 
 1632 
 
 1807 
 
 1858 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1580 
 
 1630 
 
 1778 
 
 1847 
 
 , 1744 
 
 1803 
 
 1563 
 
 1624 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1772 
 
 1848 
 
 . t 180 
 
 , 
 
 1818 
 
 1859 
 
 t) B. 0. 7 
 
 A.D. 44 
 
 B. 0. 71 
 
 4 
 
 . f; 230 
 
 
 B. 0. 484 
 
 
 1792 
 
 1833 
 
 1659 
 
 1625 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1591 
 
 1674 
 
 1750 
 
 1848 
 
 1738 
 
 1822 
 
 1760 
 
 1842 
 
 1713 
 
 1758 
 
 , 1799 
 
 1859 
 
 1812 
 
 
 B. 0. 907 
 
 
 1729 
 
 1812 
 
 1650 
 
 
 1642 
 
 1715 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1748 
 
 1830 
 
 1807 
 
 1863 
 
 1772 
 
 1844 
 
 . 1795 
 
 
 1744 
 
 1833 
 
 . 1772 
 
 1842 
 
 1716 
 
 17T5 
 
 1808 
 
 
 B. 0. 113 
 
 
 1789 
 
 mi 
 
 1823 
 
 
 . 1800 
 
 
 B. 0. 
 
 2d cent, 
 
 B. C, 460 
 
 
 A. D 
 
 3d cent. 
 
 1793 
 
 
 . 19W 
 
 1761 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 969 
 
 HATiOH KAMB AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Hobart, John Henry, bishop of Hew York « ~'" « 
 
 Eng. Eobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. . 
 
 Eng. HoVjhoufle, John Cam,, Lord Broughton, author and statesman 
 Fr. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander . . , 
 
 Amer. Hodge, Charles, Rev., theological writer . « 
 
 Amer. Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses • « 
 
 Swiss. Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot . • • 
 
 Eng. Hofland, Barbara, novelist • • • • 
 
 Eng. Hoffman, David, lawyer and author . • , 
 
 Amer. Hoffman, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist , , 
 
 Scot. Hogg, James, ' the Ettrick Shepherd,' poet . , 
 
 Hung. Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle worker . 
 Dan. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian , , 
 
 Amer. Holbrook, John E., naturalist .... 
 Eng. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 
 Eng. Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy . , 
 
 Eng. Holingshed, chronicler .... 
 
 Amer. Holland, JosiahG., journalist, poet and essayist . ., 
 
 Eng. , Lord, statesman and litterateur • , 
 
 Eng. — , Philemon, a translator . . , , 
 
 Amer. Hollis, Thomas, benefactor of Harvard College . 
 
 Amer. — '• , Thomas, philajithropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) • • 
 
 Eng. Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . , 
 
 Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America' , , 
 
 Amer. , Oliver Wendell, physician, poet and essayist , 
 
 Eng. Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice . , , 
 
 Amer. Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist , 
 
 Soot, Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, ' Criticism ' , , 
 
 Scot. , John, a divine, dramatist and historian . 
 
 Gr. Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished 
 Eng. Hone, Wm., author of ' Every Day Book,' and political works 
 Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer . , . 
 
 Eng. , Tiiomas, poet and humorist ... 
 
 Dutch. Hoogvliel, Arnold, a poet . • » , 
 
 Eng. Hook, Robert, a mathematician , . , 
 
 , Theo. E., novelist and humorist . , , 
 
 Hooko, Nathaniel, author of a Roman histoiy , 
 
 Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . , 
 
 , Richard, an eminent divine . , , 
 
 , Sir W. J., botanist . , , , . 
 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Amer, 
 
 Hoole, John, a poet and translator ... 
 
 Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . 
 
 Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, " Anastaeius " , 
 
 Hopital, Michel de 1', chancellor of France 
 Amer. Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore IT. S. Navy 
 
 Amer. , John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author 
 
 Amer. , Mark, clergyman and author . , 
 
 Amer. , Samuel, an eminent divine and author . . 
 
 Amer. , Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 Amer. Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737 
 
 Amer. , Joseph, jurist and stateeman , . 
 
 Rom. Horace, Quintus Flaccus, eminent poet . , 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 DIBS. 
 
 1776 
 
 1830 
 
 , 1588 
 
 1797 
 
 1786 
 
 
 1T68 
 
 1T97 
 
 . 1797 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 . 1765 
 
 :sio 
 
 1770 
 
 1844 
 
 . 1784 
 
 1854 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1772 
 
 1835 
 
 1793 
 
 1849 
 
 1685 
 
 1754 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1744 
 
 1809 
 
 1640 
 
 1730 
 
 
 1582 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1773 
 
 1840 
 
 1551 
 
 1636 
 
 . 1659 
 
 1731 
 
 1720 
 
 1774 
 
 . 1787 
 
 1857 
 
 1763 
 
 1837 
 
 . 1809 
 
 
 1642 
 
 1709 
 
 1728 
 
 1829 
 
 1696 
 
 1782 
 
 1724 
 
 1S08 
 
 B. 0. 907 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1843 
 
 1T24 
 
 1836 
 
 1798 
 
 1845 
 
 1687 
 
 1763 
 
 . 1635 
 
 1702 
 
 1788 
 
 1841 
 
 1690 
 
 1763 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1553 
 
 1600 
 
 1785 
 
 1865 
 
 1717 
 
 1803 
 
 1495 
 
 1555 
 
 1770 
 
 1831 
 
 1505 
 
 1573 
 
 . 1718 
 
 1803 
 
 r 1792 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1803 
 
 1707 
 
 1785 
 
 thor 1737 
 
 -791 
 
 1770 
 
 1842 
 
 B. 0. 6S B. 
 
 0. i 
 
970 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGRESS. 
 
 NATION, 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 NAME AND PBOFESSION. 
 
 Horn, Philip de Mont, count of, soldier and stateeman 
 Home, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich 
 
 , Richard H., poet and essayist 
 
 — — , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian 
 Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist . 
 
 -, Leonard, geological writer 
 
 Horeley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician 
 
 Hortensius, Quintus, orator . . • 
 
 Amer. Hosack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer 
 
 Heb. Hosea, prophet . . . • • 
 
 Er. Houdin, Robert, conjurer . . • 
 
 Fr. Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . . . 
 
 Fr. Houssaye, Ars6iie, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Amer. House, Samuel G., physician and philanthropist 
 
 Amer. Houston, Sam., general, goverr.or, and ex-governor of Texas 
 
 Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist 
 
 ^j^er. , John Eager, revolutionary soldier and statesman 
 
 Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines • 
 
 jijng^ J Geo. Aug., general in colonial war , • 
 
 Eng. ■ , Richard, lord, earl, admiral . . • 
 
 Fng. , Sir Wm., commander-in-chief in America . 
 
 Eng. Howell, James, author of ' Letters 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng 
 
 Howitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet 
 -, "William, traveller, essayist, &c. 
 
 Howley, "William, arohbisl.op of Ca.terbury 
 Hoyle, Edmund, writer on games 
 Swiss. Huber, Francis, naturalist 
 
 Fr. Hue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author . 
 
 Eng. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river . 
 
 Ft. Hnet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author 
 
 Ger. Hufeland, Chris. "W., medical author 
 
 Fr. Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings 
 
 Irish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. T. 
 
 Fr. Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman 
 
 Amer. Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const. andGuer 
 
 ji^mer. , "Wm., general in "War of 1812 . 
 
 Ger. Humboldt, Karl "Wilhelm, baron, statesman and anthor 
 
 ■, F. H. A., baron, traveller, geographer, and nat 
 
 Pruss. 
 Scot. 
 Eng. 
 Amer, 
 
 Hume, David, an historian and philosopher 
 
 , Jos., statesman and reformer . . 
 
 Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author . 
 
 Amer. Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist , . 
 
 Hung. Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior . 
 
 Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author and journalist . . 
 
 ■E^ig, , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist , 
 
 Eng. , Leigh, poet and essayist . . . 
 
 , Thomas 8., chemist and geologist . 
 
 Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author . 
 
 ■, Robert M. T., TT. S. senator from Virginia 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Soot, 
 
 Amer 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Avaet. 
 
 Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodists 
 , "Wm., Antinomian preacher . , 
 
 .1 Jeded. V., poet and novelist . • 
 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIES. 
 
 • 
 
 1522 
 
 156S 
 
 
 1730 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1817 
 
 , 
 
 1785 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1736 
 
 1806 
 
 
 B. C. 114 B. 
 
 C. 50 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1835 
 
 
 8th cent 
 
 . B. 0. 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 
 1741 
 
 1828 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 IS 
 
 1793 
 
 1862 
 
 
 ■ 1726 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1752 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1758 
 
 
 1725 
 
 1799 
 1814 
 
 
 1596 
 
 1666 
 
 
 1804 
 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 1765 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1672 
 
 1769 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1831 
 
 
 . 1813 
 
 1860 
 1611 
 
 
 . 1630 
 
 1721 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1836 
 
 
 946 
 
 996 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 3r.),& 
 
 -c. 1775 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1753 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1767 
 
 1835 
 
 phil 
 
 1769 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1711 
 
 1776 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1753 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1400 
 
 1456 
 
 
 1804 
 
 1S5S 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1S5S 
 
 
 1S26 
 
 
 
 1728 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 
 1707 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1744 
 
 ISlf 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
MOGEAPHICAL ENDBX, 
 
 971 
 
 RATIOX. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Dutoh. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Gr, 
 
 Jew. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author , 
 Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &c. , 
 Huskisson, Rolnou William, able statesman . 
 Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer , 
 Hutoheson, Fi-ancis, a philosophical writer . 
 Hutchinson, Anne, founder of if. E. Antinomians , 
 ■ , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) 
 
 -, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian 
 
 Hultea, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer 
 Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician 
 
 , James, a geologist and philosopher 
 Huygens, Christian, a scientific author . 
 Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician 
 Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior . 
 
 Hypatia, N"eo, Platonic philosopher . 
 Hyrcanup T. and II., high priests ■ 
 
 BOttN. 
 
 DIEIX 
 
 • 1S19 
 
 
 172C 
 
 1808 
 
 1769 
 
 1830 
 
 1S76 
 
 14ia 
 
 1694 
 
 1747 
 
 
 1643 
 
 161T 
 
 1664 
 
 n 17U 
 
 178C 
 
 14S8 
 
 1523 
 
 1737 
 
 1823 
 
 1726 
 
 1797 
 
 1629 
 
 1705 
 
 , 1776 
 
 1857 
 
 1717 
 
 1782 
 
 370 
 
 416 
 
 1st and 2d cent 
 
 lamblichns, Neo, Platonic philosopher • • • 
 
 Turk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , « , 
 
 Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet . . , , f. b. o. 
 
 Span. Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits , t 
 
 , Saint, primitive father of the church • . 
 
 , St., patriarch of Constantinople • • . 
 
 Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist , , . . 
 
 Port. Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal . , , 
 
 Amer. Ingersoll, Charleu J., statesman and historian . • 
 
 Amer. ' , JoDeph E., statesman and lawyer • « 
 
 Scot. Inglifl, Henry D., traveller and author • • • 
 
 Eng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar . , , 
 
 Amei. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter . ■ 
 
 Amer. , John, journalist and litterateur • • • 
 
 Innocent, the name of thirteen popes .... 
 
 Irenasus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author , ;, 
 
 Eng. Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour ' . . . . 
 
 Eng. • , "W". H., author of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries' . 
 
 Gr. Irene, a Byzantine empress ..... 
 Eng. Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of his generals 
 Amer. Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels . , 
 
 Amer. , Peter, author (brother of "Washington) , , 
 
 Soot. — — , Rev. Edward, theological writer . ■ , 
 
 Amer. , Theodore, author of Conquest of Plorida' , 
 
 Amer. , Washington, historian and essayist . . , 
 
 Amer. , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . . 
 
 Bpan. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus .' 
 
 Span. II., queen of Spain • . • « 
 
 Gr. Isaeus, an orator . . . , • B. 
 
 Heb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophets • • 
 
 Ft. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist . * , 
 
 Gr. Isocrates, an orator . • . • c E» 
 
 Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico • . • • 
 
 A. B. 
 
 4th cent. 
 
 17^9 
 
 
 1848 
 
 550 
 
 
 
 1491 
 
 
 1558 
 107 
 
 779 
 
 
 877 
 
 1756 
 
 
 1821 
 IS'SS 
 
 17S2 
 
 
 1862 
 
 17S6 
 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1835 
 
 1774 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1846 
 1850 
 
 402 
 
 to 
 
 1687 
 
 2d cent. 
 
 1750 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1777 
 
 
 1835 
 
 752 
 
 
 803 
 
 1610 
 
 
 1651 
 
 ISIO 
 
 
 
 1771 
 
 
 1838 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1834 
 
 1809 
 
 
 
 1783 
 
 
 185« 
 
 1766 
 
 
 1821 
 
 1451 
 
 
 1504 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 C. 418 
 
 
 
 B. c. (ibt) 800 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1857 
 
 0.486 
 
 
 
 1784 
 
 
 11824 
 
972 
 
 THE WOELD's progress. 
 
 NATIOH. NAME AMD PEOFESSION. BORN. 
 
 Amer. Ivos, Levi S., ex-protestant episcopal bisliop of North Carolina 1797 
 
 Amer, Izard, Ralph, statesman (of South CaroHna) . • • 1742 
 
 1801. 
 
 Amer. Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. 
 
 Amer. , James, eminent phj'sician . . . 
 
 Amer. , Gen. Andrew, military commander, president U. S, 
 
 Amer. , Patrick T., eminent merchant . . 
 
 Amer. , Tliomas Jonathan (' Stonewall '), rebel general 
 
 Eng, , William (' of Exeter ') musical composer , 
 
 Heb. Jacob, the Patriarch ...» 
 Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H., philo.?opher, novelist, &o. , • 
 
 Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist . , 
 
 Fr. Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer ... 
 Fr. Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jaoquard loom . 
 I'r. Jacquemont, Victor, travellSr and naturalist . « 
 
 Dutch. Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist . . 
 
 Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar • . 
 
 Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian . , 
 
 Amer. — — , Henry, philosophical writer . . 
 
 Amer. , John Angell, congregational clergyman and author 
 
 , St., the Elder, apostle ... 
 
 , St., the Less, "... 
 
 Eng. Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art , 
 
 Scot. , Robert, naturalist and author . , 
 
 Pers. Jami, or Djami, poet .... 
 
 Scot. Jamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author . 
 
 Fr. Janin, Jules, litterateur .... 
 
 Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect , , 
 
 Ital. Januarius, patron saint of Naples , , , 
 
 Amer. Jarves, James J., traveller and author , . 
 
 Amer. Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist . 
 
 Fr. Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet . . . 
 
 Amer, Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution . 
 
 Amer. , John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 
 
 Amer. Jay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist , 
 
 Eng. , Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . 
 
 Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . , 
 
 Ger. Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician 
 Irish. Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer 
 Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, Sdpres. of the U. S 
 Scot. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and" critic . . 
 
 Eng. Jeffreys, George, infamous .judge 
 
 Hind. Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthrop: 
 Aust. Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia , 
 
 Eug. Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier , , 
 
 Eng. Jenkyns, William, non-conformist (' on Jude ') . 
 Eng. Jeimer, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculation 
 Eng. Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellanoous writer . 
 
 Scot. Jerdan, 'William, journalist .... 
 Heb. Jeremiah, prophet > • • • 
 
 St 
 
 fl. B. 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1777 
 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 1780 
 
 1847 
 
 1826 
 
 1863 
 
 1730 
 
 1803 
 
 0. 1836 B. 
 
 0. 1689 
 
 1743 
 
 1819 
 
 1764 
 
 1847 
 
 1770 
 
 1840 
 
 1752 
 
 1834 
 
 1801 
 
 1832 
 
 1727 
 
 1817 
 
 1750 
 
 1817 
 
 1801 
 
 1860 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1859 
 
 
 44? 
 
 
 66? 
 
 1797 
 
 1860 
 
 1774 
 
 1854 
 
 1414 
 
 1492 
 
 1759 
 
 1838 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1585 
 
 1638 
 
 272 
 
 305 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1786 
 
 1851 
 
 1798 
 
 1864 
 
 1750 
 
 1779 
 
 1745 
 
 1829 
 
 1779 
 
 1858 
 
 1769 
 
 1853 
 
 1412 
 
 1431 
 
 1763 
 
 1825 
 
 1736 
 
 1775 
 
 1743 
 
 1826 
 
 1773 
 
 1850 
 
 1643 
 
 1689 
 
 1783 
 
 1859 
 
 ISOl 
 
 1859 
 
 1770 
 
 1828 
 
 1612 
 
 1685 
 
 1749 
 
 1823 
 
 1704 
 
 1787 
 
 1782 
 
 
 0.678 
 
 67« 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL niDEX. 
 
 973 
 
 ffATIOB. 
 
 G«r. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eug, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Heb. 
 
 HoL 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir William, geaeral and governor in North America 
 
 Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . . . 
 
 Scot. , Alex. K., geographer , • , 
 
 Scot. , George, ■writer and naturalist , 
 
 Scot. , James F. W., chronicler and agrioultaral author 
 
 Fr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler . . 
 
 Fr. , Frangois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe 
 
 Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi 
 
 Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer . 
 Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . 
 Jonah, the prophet , . • , 
 
 Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas 
 
 , Inigo, an eminent architect , . , 
 
 , Jacob, commodore in the U. S. navy 
 
 , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States 
 
 , Owen, architect and decorator 
 
 , Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology 
 
 ■ , Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 
 
 , Eev. "William, ' of Nayland,' Hutchinsonian divine 
 , William, divine and author . . 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Jerome, St, one of the fathers of the chujch . 
 
 , ol Prague, reformer, companion of Huss , 
 
 •JeiTold, Douglas, essayist 
 
 Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral . , 
 
 Jewell John, learned prelate and author » 
 
 Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist . . , 
 
 Joan of Arc, ' the greatest of heroines' . 
 
 Joanna, queen of Naples . . . 
 
 Joel, the prophet . . . • 
 
 Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everardj, poet . 
 
 Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . . 
 
 John, the Evangelist .... 
 
 , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster 
 
 , king of Sasony and author . « 
 
 — — , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general 
 
 , Edward, historian of N. England ... 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer i^ the cause of liberty 
 
 , Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' 
 
 , Alex B., philologist and miscellaneous writer 
 
 , Andrew, president U. S. . , , 
 
 , Reverdy, jurist and statesman . . 
 
 , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president TJ. 8. 
 
 , Samuel, first president Columbia College and author 
 
 , Walter R.. physicist .... 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Icel. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist 
 Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian . . 
 
 Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. 
 Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author . 
 
 Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author 
 Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinlco) 
 JosephuB, celebrated historian and warrior 
 Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of tlie Israelites 
 
 1782 
 
 1774 
 1522 
 
 1410 
 
 I. 800 
 1511 
 
 1803 
 
 1340 
 1801 
 1629 
 1600 
 1649 
 1709 
 17S6 
 1S08 
 1796 
 17S0 
 1696 
 1794 
 1715 
 1803 
 1804 
 1798 
 1796 
 1224 
 1818 
 
 1714 
 
 1775 
 
 i 
 
 1798 
 1572 
 1770 
 1736 
 1809 
 1810 
 1746 
 1726 
 1726 
 1574 
 1704 
 1762 
 1779 
 1698 
 1761 
 37 
 
 f. B. 
 
 DIED 
 
 420 
 1416 
 1857 
 1823 
 1571 
 1833 
 1431 
 
 153a 
 
 1852 
 100 
 1398 
 
 1696 
 1072 
 1703 
 
 1784 
 
 1850 
 1772 
 1852 
 1744 
 1862 
 
 1855 
 1855 
 1319 
 
 1780 
 1744 
 
 0.862 
 1858 
 1652 
 1850 
 1792 
 
 1794 
 1800 
 1800 
 1837 
 17S3 
 1814 
 1830 
 1770 
 1814 
 9S 
 
 B. 0. i5oa 
 
974 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL INDES. 
 
 KATxOH 
 
 Heb. 
 Heb. 
 Fr, 
 Fl\ 
 
 Ger. 
 Mex. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 Dan. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swis8. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 NAME AND PEOFESSION. 
 
 Joeiah, 17tli king of Judah ... 
 JothaiE, king of Judah . . . i 
 
 Joufiroy, Theo. 8., metaphysician and statesman 
 Jourdan J. B., marshal of France . « 
 
 Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor . , 
 
 Juan, or John, of Austria., don, -warrior . . 
 
 Juarez, Benito, statesman and president , 
 
 Juba, king of Numidia ...» 
 
 -, king of Mauritania and historian . 
 
 Judah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist < 
 Judas Maccabeus, patriot . . , 
 
 Judd, Sylvester, author of ' Margaret ' . . 
 
 Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India . 
 
 , Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above . 
 
 , Emily Chubbnck, third wife of above, and author 
 
 (' Fanny Forester ') • • • 
 , Sarah Boardman, second wife of above . 
 
 Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral 
 
 Jugurtha, Numidian king 
 
 Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, 
 
 tate' ..... 
 Julien, A. J., orientalist . . , 
 
 Jullieii, Louis G., musical composer, &c. . 
 
 Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaid . « 
 
 Junge, Joachim, philosopher . , 
 
 Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author . , 
 
 Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer 
 Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military oflQcer 
 
 , Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. 
 
 JuBSieu, A. L. de, botanist 
 
 Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor 
 
 , Latin historian .... 
 
 , Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 
 Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor 
 Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists 
 
 ApoS' 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIED, 
 
 B. c. 64T 
 
 B. C. 60S 
 
 B. c. 783 
 
 B. 0. 742 
 
 1796 
 
 1842 
 
 1762 
 
 1833 
 
 
 364 
 
 1546 
 
 1578 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 B. c. 46 
 
 
 B. 0. 18 
 
 129 
 
 194 
 
 
 B. 0. 160 
 
 1813 
 
 1853 
 
 1788 
 
 1850 
 
 1789 
 
 1826 
 
 1817 
 
 1854 
 
 1803 
 
 1845 
 
 . 1629 
 
 1697 
 
 
 B. a. 104 
 
 381 
 
 363 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1812 
 
 1860 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1587 
 
 1657 
 
 1740 
 
 1817 
 
 1512 
 
 1575 
 
 1771 
 
 1813 
 
 1784 
 
 1839 
 
 1748 
 
 1836 
 
 450 
 
 627 
 
 B. 0. 200 
 
 
 91 
 
 165 
 
 482 
 
 565 
 
 
 128 
 
 Q«r. 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 Bwe. 
 
 Boot, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Buss. 
 
 Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . . 
 
 Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer . 
 Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 
 Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... 
 Kamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich 
 
 Islands • . ... 
 
 — ^ , II. king, introduced Christianity . 
 
 , III. introduced Constitution , , 
 
 , IV. (Alex. Liholiho) . , 
 
 Kames, Henry Home, lord, judge and author , 
 
 Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . 
 Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician . . , 
 
 Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire 
 
 (abt) 
 
 Fr. Karr, J. B Alphonse, miscellaneous author 
 
 1651 ni6 
 
 1719 1799 
 
 1717 1780 
 
 1715 1779 
 
 1800 
 
 1824 
 
 1817 1854 
 
 1834 
 
 1596 1827 
 
 1820 1857 
 
 1724 1804 
 
 1766 1826 
 
 180S 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 975 
 
 RATIOK. KAHE AND PBOFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Kater, Henry, mathematician . • 
 
 Kavaiiagh, Julia, novelist . • 
 
 Kean, Charles John, actor • • 
 
 , Edmund, tragedian . 
 
 , Ellen Tree, wife of 0. J. Kenn, actress 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rehell 
 Keats, John, a poet . . . 
 
 Keble, John, divine and poet . , , 
 
 Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author . 
 Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral . 
 
 , James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian servi. 
 
 , Thos., mathematician, (' Use of Globes ') , 
 
 Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general 
 
 , Franc Etienne, son of above, general 
 
 Kelly, Michael, composer and singer . 
 
 Kemble, Charles, actor . . , 
 
 , Frances Anne, actress and anther 
 
 — , John M,, scholar and historian . 
 
 ' , John Philip, celebrated tragedian 
 
 Kemfelen, "Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-play 
 
 Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imita 
 Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological 
 Kendall, Amos, statesman and author 
 
 , George W., journalist and author . 
 
 Amer, Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author 
 Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . 
 Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist 
 Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author 
 Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critic 
 Ir.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author 
 
 Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Vic 
 
 , James, jurist, chancellor of New Toik • 
 
 , William, judge, esteemed jurist . 
 
 Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist . . , 
 , John, poet . . • - 
 
 ion of Christ' 
 writer 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Kepler, John, eminent astronomer • . 
 
 Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . . 
 
 Kerr, Robert, miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 Amer. Key, Francis S., author of 'Star Spangled Banner' 
 Eng. Kidd, Wm., noted pirate, executed 
 Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist 
 Scot. Kilmarnock, Wni. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded 
 Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , . 
 
 Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New York 
 
 Amer, , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist . 
 
 Amer. , Thomas Starr, author .... 
 
 Amer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president 
 
 Eng. Kinglaka, Alex. Wiu., M. P., author of 'Eothen' . 
 
 Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities 
 
 Eng. Kingslcy, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet 
 
 Amer. Kip, "Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author 
 
 Amer Kirkland, Caroline M. luthor of travels and essays 
 
 oria 
 
 BORH, 
 
 1777 
 
 1824 
 ISll 
 1787 
 1805 
 1815 
 179G 
 1790 
 1800 
 1746 
 1696 
 1759 
 1735 
 1770 
 1762 
 1775 
 1811 
 1807 
 1757 
 1T54 
 1380 
 1637 
 1789 
 ISIO 
 1809 
 1782 
 1795 
 1660 
 1718 
 1T97 
 1767 
 1763 
 
 1732 
 17S3 
 1571 
 1726 
 
 1779 
 
 1612 
 1702 
 1818 
 1789 
 1755 
 1824 
 1786 
 1802 
 1795 
 1819 
 1811 
 
 DIED. 
 
 18S5 
 
 1833 
 
 1S62 
 1820 
 
 1820 
 1758 
 
 1824 
 1820 
 1835 
 
 1826 
 1854 
 
 1857 
 1823 
 1806 
 1471 
 1711 
 
 1825 
 
 1728 
 1783 
 1863 
 1820 
 1847 
 1861 
 1802 
 1S56 
 1630 
 1786 
 1814 
 1843 
 1701 
 1690 
 174S 
 
 1867 
 1827 
 1864 
 1S53 
 
 183T 
 
 1861 
 
976 
 
 THE WOELD'S PBOGEESS. 
 
 NATIOK. NAME AND PBOPESSIOH, 
 
 Eng. KitchineiWiUiam, writer on Cookery . 
 
 Eng. Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author . 
 
 Hung. Klapka, George, patriot, Boldler and author 
 
 PrusB. Klaproth, Henry J., philologist aid ethnologist 
 
 Fr. Kleher, John Baptist, military officer , 
 
 Ger. Klopstock, the ' Milton of Germany ' • 
 
 Ger. Knapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . 
 
 Amer. , Bamuel L., miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Eng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author 
 
 Eng. , Richard Payne, miscellaneous ■writer , • 
 
 Irish. Knowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor 
 
 Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author 
 
 ./^jner , Henry, military offl.cer and statesman 
 
 Ger. Knyphausen, baron, general in British eervioe 
 
 Ger. Koch, Christopher William, historian . . 
 
 Yv. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist 
 
 Ger. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author 
 
 Dan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer 
 
 Ger. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet 
 
 Pol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and patriot, served in the Ameri 
 
 can army during the Revolution . , . 
 
 Hung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary 
 
 Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Fer. von, historian, &o. • 
 
 Hung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist . , 
 
 Pol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . , . 
 
 Ger. Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian • 
 
 Q-er. — , Fred. William, religious writer . « 
 
 Russ. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . . . 
 
 Ger. Kugler, Franz Theodore, writer on art, &o. . . 
 
 Ger. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic .... 
 
 Ger. Kimth, Charles S., botanist .... 
 
 Russ. Kutusofi, Michael L. G., field-marshal , , 
 
 Ft. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian . . 
 
 Ital. Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist . . • 
 
 Eng. LaboucherS, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman . 
 
 Fr. Laborde, A. L. G., comte de, traveller, &o. . . 
 
 Fr. LabruySre, see Bruyire .... 
 
 Fr. Lacfipfede, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist . 
 
 Fr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author 
 
 Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur . . 
 
 Fr. Lacroix, Sylvestre F., mathematician 
 
 Lactantiua, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero 
 
 Bom. Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, praetor and consul 
 
 Pr Laennel, an eminent physician .... 
 
 Fr. Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner 
 
 Ft. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and states- 
 man . . . . • 
 
 Ft. — , Q;eorge "W., statesman . 
 
 Ff. Lafltte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman 
 
 Fv. , Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate 
 
 SCXN. 
 
 Dots 
 
 
 1821 
 
 1804 
 
 1864 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1784 
 
 183d 
 
 1754 
 
 1800 
 
 1724 
 
 1803 
 
 1753 
 
 1825 
 
 1784 
 
 1838 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1824 
 
 1784 
 
 1862 
 
 1752 
 
 1821 
 
 1750 
 
 1806 
 
 1730 
 
 1789 
 
 1737 
 
 1813 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1813 
 
 1746 
 
 1817 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1761 
 
 1819 
 
 1804 
 
 1860 
 
 1780 
 
 1855 
 
 1768 
 
 1845 
 
 1770 
 
 1846 
 
 1808 
 
 1858 
 
 1768 
 
 1841 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1745 
 
 1813 
 
 1663 
 
 1738 
 
 1794 
 
 1858 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1774 
 
 1842 
 
 1756 
 
 1826 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1817 
 
 1765 
 
 1833 
 
 
 325 
 
 t. 186 t. 
 
 :;, 115 
 
 1782 
 
 1826 
 
 1816 
 
 1852 
 
 1757 
 
 1768 
 1780 P 
 
 1834 
 
 1841 
 
 1821 
 
BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 977 
 
 ITATIOK. KAMB ASV FROF£SSIOM. 
 
 Ger. La Fontainej Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes misoeUaneous 
 
 Fr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabuUst • , 
 
 Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Louis, able mathematician . , 
 
 Fr. La Gu6ronnier6, I-ouis E. A., viscount de, publicist « 
 
 Fr. Lahai-pe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &o. , 
 
 Scot. Laiug, Malcolm, historian • • . . 
 
 Ft. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer . 
 
 Amer. Lamar, Mirabeau E., second president of the republic of Texas 
 
 Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist . , , 
 
 Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 
 
 Fr. Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states- 
 man ..... 
 
 Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist . . . , 
 
 Eng. , Lady Caroline, novelist , . , 
 
 Ital. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution , 
 
 Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .... 
 
 Eng, , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds • 
 
 Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer 
 
 Fr. Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general . . , 
 
 Fr. Laniotte Fouqu6, Fred., baron de, novelist ' Undine' 
 
 Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education , , 
 
 Amer. Lander, Fred. W., military officer (k. at Ball's Bluif ) • 
 
 Eng. , Richard and John, travellers in Africa , ^ 
 
 Fr, Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts , 
 
 Eng. , (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist , , 
 
 Eng. Landor, Walter Savage, poet and essayist . , 
 
 Eng. Landseer, John, engraver and author 
 
 Eng. Lane, Edw. Wm.J orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &o, 
 
 Amer. , James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon . , 
 
 Ger. Lange, commentator on scriptuie . . , 
 
 Amer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator . , 
 
 Ital. Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury , , 
 
 Eng. Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author . . , 
 
 Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury 
 
 Fr. Lannes, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France . 
 
 Eng, Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council 
 
 Eng. > William Petty, marquis of, premier 
 
 Ital. Lanzi, Luigi, writer on art .... 
 
 Fr. La P6rouse, Jean F., count, navigator 
 
 Fr. Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer axid geO' 
 metrician • • . . . 
 
 Lappenberg, Johann M., historian . . , 
 
 Irish. Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical sciehce . 
 
 Eng. — , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine , , 
 
 Fr. Larrey, Dominique J., baioii, surgeon and author , 
 
 Fr. La Salle, Robt. C, sieur de, navigator and author . • 
 
 Span. Las Casas, Earth de, missionary and historian • , 
 
 Pr, , biographer of Napoleon, &c. . . , 
 
 Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian , 
 
 Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 
 
 Eng Latham, John, ornithologist .... 
 
 Eng. — ' , Robert Q., p'lilologist and ethnologiflt , 
 
 BOHN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1766 
 
 1831 
 
 1621 
 
 169S 
 
 1736 
 
 1813 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1739 
 
 1793 
 
 1762 
 
 1818 
 
 1732 
 
 1801 
 
 1798 
 
 185J 
 
 1732 
 
 1807 
 
 1770 
 
 1832 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1834 
 
 1785 
 
 1828 
 
 1748 
 
 1792 
 
 1761 
 
 1842 
 
 1770 
 
 1809 
 
 1782 
 
 1854 
 
 1806 
 
 1868 
 
 1777 
 
 1848 
 
 1771 
 
 1839 
 
 1822 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1802 
 
 1839 
 
 1775 
 
 1864 
 
 1769 
 
 1852 
 
 1867 
 
 1739 
 
 1819 
 
 1605 
 
 1689 
 
 1735 
 
 17- 
 
 
 1228 
 
 1769 
 
 1809 
 
 178f 
 
 1863 
 
 1737 
 
 1805 
 
 1732 
 
 1810 
 
 1741 
 
 1789 
 
 1749 
 
 1827 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1793 
 
 1859 
 
 1684 
 
 1768 
 
 1760 
 
 1842 
 
 1635 
 
 '.687 
 
 1474 
 
 15Pe 
 
 1762 
 
 1843 
 
 ISOO 
 
 
 1470 
 
 1553 
 
 1740 
 
 1853 
 
 1812 
 
 
978 
 
 THB world's progress. 
 
 NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORS, 
 
 Eng. Land, 'William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition . 1573 
 
 Soot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History . 1784 
 
 Amer. Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war • 1756 
 
 A.mer. , Henry, patriot and statesman . • • 1724 
 
 Fr. Lavalette, M. C, count de, military commander • « 1769 
 
 Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV . 1644 
 
 Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist . • 1741 
 
 Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . . 1743 
 
 Soot. Law, Jolin, financier of the ' Mississippi Bubble' « . 1671 
 
 Eng. , "Wm., religious and mystical autlior . . • 1686 
 
 Amer. Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . . 1792 
 
 ^mer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist • . 1786 
 
 Amer. , James, captain in U. S. Navy . • • 1781 
 
 Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh . 18i7 
 
 Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . . c 1792 
 
 Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . , 1777 
 
 Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to "Washington, diplomatist . « 1760 
 
 Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet . • . . 1729 
 
 Swiss. Leclerc, John, eminent critic . . • • • 1657 
 
 Amer. Le Conte, John, naturalist .... 1784 
 
 Amer. , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) . 1825 
 
 Amer. , John, M. D., naturalist, (Georgia) . . 1818 
 
 Fr. Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician ... 180& 
 
 Amer. Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman . 1751 
 
 Amer. Lee, Artliur, M.D., statesman . . • • 1740 
 
 Amer. , Charles, officer in the Revolution . • . 1730 (?) 
 
 Amer. , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . • • (abt.) 1800 
 
 Amer, , Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . . 1734 
 
 Eng. , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . • » 1750 
 
 Amer. — ^, Henry, general in Revolutionary War . . 1756 
 
 Amer. , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies • . 1808 
 
 Amer. , Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . • . 1732 
 
 Eng. — — , Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar . . • . 1783 
 
 Eng. , Sophia, Miss, novelist . . • • 1750 
 
 Eng. Leech, John, humorous artist in Pnnch, &c. ... 1817 
 
 Fr. Lefebvre, Franfois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France 1755 
 
 Amer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litieraieur , . 1797 
 
 Fr. Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . • 1753 
 
 Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous -writer . . 1802 
 
 Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher , 1646 
 
 Eng. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth . 1532 
 
 Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . . 1752 
 
 Scotch. Leigliton, Robert, able prelate .... 1613 
 
 Amer. Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer • • • 
 
 Amer. Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . • o 1824 
 
 Eng. , John, eminent divine and author . « • 1691 
 
 Irish. , Thomas, eminent divine and author • « • 1772 
 
 Pol. Lelewel, Joachim, historian . . « • 1786 
 
 Fr. Lemaitre, Fred., actor . . . « . 1798 
 
 Eng. Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of 'Punch' . . 1809 
 
 Eng. Lempri^re, John, hiographer and lexicographer . « 1824 
 
 Jfv. L'KncloB, Ninon de, noted courtezan . , , 1615 
 
 DrED 
 
 164S 
 1843 
 1782 
 1793 
 1830 
 1710 
 1801 
 1794 
 1729 
 1761 
 1855 
 1852 
 1813 
 
 1860 
 1826 
 1807 
 1736 
 
 1788 
 1782 
 1782 
 
 1797 
 1824 
 1816 
 
 1791 
 1852 
 1824 
 1S64 
 1820 
 1843 
 1833 
 1840 
 1716 
 1588 
 1842 
 1684 
 1691 
 
 1768 
 
 lies 
 
 issa 
 
KATIOK 
 
 Dutch. 
 Dutch. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 
 ItaL 
 Ger. 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bcot, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amei 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 KAME AND FBOFESSION. 
 
 Lennep. David J. van, jurist and poet • , 
 
 , Jan van, poet and novelist . , 
 
 Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. Y.) . , 
 Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer 
 Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors 
 Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts, 
 Leo, Henry, historian . . . . , 
 Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thennopylsa , f, 
 Leopold I, king of the Belgians . . . 
 I, emperor of Germany . , . , 
 
 VI, " «♦ . . 
 
 II, "".... 
 
 Lepidus, noted Boman family ... 
 
 Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist . , 
 
 Lermontotf, Michael, poet .... 
 Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist ... 
 Leroy de St. Ariiaud, J. A, marshal of France, general in chief 
 Lesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias' 
 Leslie, Charles Robt., artist and author . , , 
 
 ——, John, bishop, theological writer . , 
 
 , John, mathematician and natural philosopher . 
 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist . , , 
 
 Lessing, Qotthold E., critic and author . , , 
 
 Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . . 
 
 L'Estrange, Sir Roger, political writer , • , , 
 
 Leuret, Francis, anatomist .... 
 Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist , . 
 
 Lever Chas. Jae., novelist , . , , 
 
 Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and anther . , 
 
 Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer ... 
 Le Vert, Octavia W., authoress .... 
 Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher 
 Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author 
 Lewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 , Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &o. 
 
 , Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis 
 
 , Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . , 
 
 , Samuel, educationist ... 
 
 , Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman , 
 
 , Taylor, classical scholar and author . , 
 
 Leyden, John, author • . • . , 
 
 L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France , 
 
 Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher 
 
 Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin) 
 
 Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist ... 
 
 Lieven, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . , 
 
 Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . , 
 
 Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and anther , 
 
 Ligtiori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological •writer 
 
 Lilly, George, dramatist . . , , , 
 
 , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer . , 
 
 — — , William, astrologer • • • . 
 
 
 979 
 
 BORK. 
 
 Dniit 
 
 . 1T74 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1710 
 
 1804 
 
 1772 
 
 1U43 
 
 8. 1475 
 
 1521 
 
 1799 
 
 
 B. 0. 491 
 
 
 . 1T90 
 
 186- 
 
 1640 
 
 1705 
 
 1747 
 
 1192 
 
 1797 
 
 
 B. 0. 200 
 
 36 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1811 
 
 1841 
 
 1798 
 
 
 E 1801 
 
 1854 
 
 . 1668 
 
 174T 
 
 1794 
 
 1859 
 
 1570 
 
 1671 
 
 1766 
 
 1832 
 
 . 1805 
 
 
 1729 
 
 1781 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1616 
 
 1704 
 
 1797 
 
 18.)1 
 
 1753 
 
 1824 
 
 . 1806 
 
 
 1803 
 
 1836 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 1817 
 
 
 . 1713 
 
 1803 
 
 1754 
 
 1S32 
 
 1773 
 
 1813 
 
 1774 
 
 
 1799 
 
 1S&4 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1811 
 
 1504 
 
 1573 
 
 1742 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1857 
 
 1735 
 
 1814 
 
 1735 
 
 1814 
 
 . 1696 
 
 17S7 
 
 1693 
 
 17J9 
 
 1553 
 
 1600 
 
 1602 
 
 1681 
 
980 
 
 THE WOELD'S PKOGSESS. 
 
 WATION 
 
 Putch. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Euss. 
 
 Irisli. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bpaa. 
 
 , NAUB AND FROFEBSION. 
 
 Iiimborch, Philip, theologian and author . . 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. S. 
 
 , Benjamin, major-general iu the Revolutionary War 
 
 , Levi, attorney -general of the U. S. (from Mass.) 
 
 , Levi, governor of Massachusetts . . 
 
 Liud, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist 
 
 Lindley, John, botanist 
 
 Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &a 
 
 ^ Sir David, poet . « . 
 
 Ling, Peter E., physiologist and poet . • 
 
 Lingard, John, author of ' History of England ' 
 Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian . 
 Linneeus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists 
 Lipsius, Justus, critic .... 
 
 Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 
 Liston, John, comic actor . . • • 
 
 Liszt, Francis, performer on piano . • 
 
 Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist . ' . 
 
 Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 
 Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author 
 Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier 
 Livingston, Brockbolst, soldier and jurist . . 
 
 ^ Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman 
 
 , Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 , Robert R., statesman and jurist 
 
 , William, governor of New Jersey and poet 
 
 Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa 
 Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian . 
 Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &o. . 
 
 Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author . . 
 
 Lobau, count, marshal of France . . 
 
 Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician 
 Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of ' Quarterly' 
 Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' 
 Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief . 
 
 , James, colonial statesman and author 
 
 , John A, major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. 
 
 Lofft, Capel, author .... 
 Lola-Montez, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer 
 Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne 
 Lomonozoflf, Michael V., poet and historian . 
 
 Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman 
 Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author 
 Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist 
 Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher 
 Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house 
 Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author . • 
 
 , James, rebel general 
 
 Longueville, Arme G., duchess, politician . . 
 
 Lougworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer 
 Loomis, Elias, physicist, astronomer 
 Lope de Vega, Carpio FeUx, poet and dramatist 
 
 ■OBN. 
 
 SIEB 
 
 , 1633 
 
 171J 
 
 1809 
 
 1863 
 
 1733 
 
 1818 
 
 1749 
 
 lS2i 
 
 . 17S2 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 (abt) 1480 
 
 1555 
 
 1776 
 
 1839 
 
 1771 
 
 1851 
 
 1736 
 
 1794 
 
 1707 
 
 1778 
 
 1547 
 
 1606 
 
 1801 
 
 1842 
 
 1776 
 
 1846 
 
 1811 
 
 
 
 1481 
 
 1781 
 
 1840 
 
 , 1811 
 
 
 1770 
 
 1828 
 
 1757 
 
 1823 
 
 1764 
 
 1836 
 
 , 1716 
 
 1778 
 
 1747 
 
 1813 
 
 1723 
 
 1790 
 
 1815 
 
 1866 
 
 . B. C. 59 ». 
 
 D. 17 
 
 1756 
 
 1823 
 
 1729 
 
 1783 
 
 1770 
 
 1838 
 
 1632 
 
 1704 
 
 1794 
 
 1854 
 
 1756 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1674 
 
 1751 
 
 1751 
 
 1824 
 
 1824 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1S22 
 
 1711 
 
 1765 
 
 1769 
 
 1822 
 
 1784 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 f. B. c. 250 
 
 
 1699 
 
 176C 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1610 
 
 1676 
 
 , 1782 
 
 186S 
 
 1811 
 
 
 . 1562 
 
 16Si 
 
BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 981 
 
 KATIOH. NAME AITD PBOFBSSIOH. 
 
 Fr. Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician 
 Amer. liOssing, Benson J., historian and artist . 
 
 Scot. Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agricultuie, 
 and architectui-e . . . 
 
 Eng. , Mrs. Jane "W., horticultural -writer . 
 
 French. LOUIS, the name of eighteen kings of France 
 Louis I., the Debonnaire . , , 
 
 « IX, Saint 
 
 " XL, ethofhouseofValois , . 
 
 " XIL, 8th " " . 
 
 ** XIII., 2d Bourbon . , 
 
 " XIV., 3d " . 
 
 " XV., 4th "... 
 
 " XVI. 
 
 " xvn. . . 
 
 '« XVIIL . . i . 
 
 Louis, baron, eminent Burgeon . . . 
 
 Philippe, king of the French , 
 
 Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger, 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Qr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Lovat, Simon Eraser, lord, executed for treason 
 Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist . 
 
 , Rev. E. P., abolitionist journalist 
 
 Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer . 
 Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon 
 Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author . 
 , James Russell, poet and critic . 
 
 , John, lawyer and philanthropist . 
 
 , John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute 
 -, Marj-, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer • 
 Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union 
 
 , William J , statesman . , , 
 
 , 'William Thomas, 'Biblio-Manual' , . 
 
 Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author . 
 
 Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesnits . 
 
 Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . 
 
 ^-, Marcus Annaens, Latin poet . . , 
 
 Lucian, celebrated writer . . . 
 
 Luoilius, the earliest Roman satirist • . . 
 
 Luoke, Gott C. F., theologian . . , 
 
 Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet . , 
 
 Luc uUus, wealthy warrior . . , 
 
 Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L . 
 
 Lully, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' 
 Lund}', Benjamin, abolitionist . , . 
 
 Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist . 
 
 Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant refonrttion 
 Lnttrell, Henry, poet .... 
 Luxemburg, duke of, military officer ... 
 Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator • . 
 
 Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) . . 
 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller . 
 
 Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of InJependence 
 
 BOBK. 
 
 1524 
 1S13 
 
 1783 
 1800 
 
 778 
 1215 
 1423 
 1462 
 1601 
 1638 
 1710 
 1754 
 1785 
 1755 
 
 1773 
 
 1667 
 18U 
 1802 
 1797 
 1769 
 1782 
 1819 
 1T69 
 1799 
 1810 
 1722 
 1782 
 
 1710 
 1491 
 1800 
 
 120 
 
 . C. 148 
 
 1792 
 
 c. 95 
 
 0. 115 
 
 1620 
 
 1235 
 
 1789 
 
 1484 
 
 1628 
 0. 898 
 1375 
 1797 
 1749 
 
 DIES. 
 
 1574 
 
 1813 
 
 1858 
 
 840 
 1270 
 1483 
 1515 
 
 1643 
 1715 
 1774 
 1793 
 1795 
 1824 
 183T 
 1850 
 
 1747 
 1864 
 1837 
 
 1844 
 1861 
 
 1840 
 1836 
 
 1800 
 1861 
 1S43 
 1787 
 1556 
 
 37 
 
 210 
 B. 0. 191 
 
 1855 
 
 B. 0. 49 
 1693 
 1315 
 
 1839 
 
 1548 
 1851 
 1695 
 
 1461 
 1-7J 
 
982 THE world's peogbess. 
 
 KATIOM, NAME AND FBOFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Lynch, ■William P., captain U. 8. navy, author of * Dead Sea, 
 
 Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) 
 
 Amer. Lyon, Mary, teaciier and philanthiropist 
 Amer. , Matthew, politician .... 
 
 Amer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at Wilson's Creek 
 
 Gr. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . . 
 
 Gr. Lysias, orator . . . . • 
 
 Gr. Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals . • 
 
 Eng. Lyttleton, Gteorge, lord, poet and historian ■ 
 
 OT, 
 
 Fr. MahUlon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . ■ 
 
 Boot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . 
 
 Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist . 
 
 Eng. Macaulay, T., Bahington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 
 
 Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman , . 
 
 Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century , • 
 
 Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . , 
 
 Irish. MacClure, Sir E. J., discoverer of North-west passage 
 
 Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist , . . , 
 
 Amer. Macoorst, David J., political writer , . 
 
 Scot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author . . 
 
 Scot. Macoulloch, J. R., political economist and statistician 
 
 Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . 
 
 Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army 
 
 Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . . 
 
 Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author . . • • 
 
 Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . . 
 
 Fr. Macdonald, S. T. A., marshal of France 
 
 Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake 
 
 Champlain .... 
 
 Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Union Army 
 Amer. Macdufiie, Geo., U. S. senator from South Carolina . 
 Scot. Maogillivray. "Wm., naturalist . . , 
 
 Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . 
 Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . 
 
 Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer . 
 Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 
 Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels 
 Scot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . . 
 
 Irish. Mackenzie, Eobt. 8., journalist, &c. . , 
 
 Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist . , . 
 
 Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . 
 Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . , 
 
 Scot Macknight, James, divine and author . , , 
 
 Aust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general t 
 
 Amer. MaoLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . 
 
 Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician . 
 
 Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge *>f U. 8. Supreme Court 
 Eng, MacLean, L. E. L., (Mise Landon), poet and novelist 
 
 BOHN. 
 
 
 nnix 
 
 I, &0. 1805 
 
 
 
 1772 
 
 
 
 1/97 
 
 
 1848 
 
 1746 
 
 
 1822 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1861 
 
 . 
 
 B. 
 
 0.395 
 
 B. c. 459 
 
 
 
 B. c. S60 
 
 B. 
 
 0.281 
 
 1709 
 
 
 1763 
 
 , 1632 
 
 1707 
 
 1756 
 
 1836 
 
 . 1737 
 
 1806 
 
 an 1800 
 
 1859 
 
 1768 
 
 1838 
 
 1733 
 
 1791 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 . 1826 
 
 
 1797 
 
 1855 
 
 . 1810 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1864 
 
 1826 
 
 
 rmy 
 
 1773 
 
 1835 
 
 . 1779 
 
 1808 
 
 1720 
 
 1790 
 
 1765 
 
 1840 
 
 1783 
 
 1825 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1788 
 
 1851 
 
 1796 
 
 1852 
 
 1797 
 
 1857 
 
 1469 
 
 1527 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1734 
 
 181T 
 
 1803 
 
 1849 
 
 1745 
 
 1831 
 
 1S09 
 
 
 aht ) 1810 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1832 
 
 1690 
 
 1796 
 
 1721 
 
 1800 
 
 1752 
 
 1828 
 
 . 1786 
 
 1857 
 
 1698 
 
 Hit 
 
 1785 
 
 
 18&i 
 
 183S 
 
BIOGEAPHICAIi INDEX:. 
 
 983 
 
 lATIOK. NAUE AND FBOFESSION. 
 
 Irish. MaCiiee, Daniel, historical painter . . , 
 
 Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . , , 
 
 Amer. Macleod, Savier Donald, miscellaneous ■writer . , 
 
 Scot. Maclure, William, geologist, &c .... 
 
 Fr. MacMTahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal . 
 
 Scot. MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . . , 
 
 Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. T.) 
 
 Amer. Macomb, Major-General Alex., military commander . 
 
 Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years 
 
 Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . . , 
 
 Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion . 
 
 Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian .... 
 
 Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 
 
 Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author . . . 
 
 Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer . . , , 
 
 Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . 
 
 Welsh, Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . . 
 
 Span. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author . . , 
 
 Kom. Maecenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature 
 
 Ital. Mafi'ei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. . . , 
 
 Amer. Maffitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . • 
 
 Irish. Magee, "Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) « . 
 
 Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator , , 
 
 Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist .... 
 
 Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 
 
 Fr. Magnan, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France . . 
 
 Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author . . . 
 
 Bar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his 
 name ...... 
 
 Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople 
 
 Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian .... 
 
 Jew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi ... 
 
 Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubign^, queen . , . 
 
 Ital. Maio, Angelo, discoverer and editor of Latin classics . 
 
 Ital. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author , • . 
 
 Eng. Maittaire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . , 
 
 Heb. Malachi, the prophet . . . • . 
 
 Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian .ind author , . 
 
 Amer, Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author . . . 
 
 Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' . . 
 
 Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician ... 
 
 Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . . 
 
 Ital. Malibran, M. F;, Madame, vocalist .... 
 
 Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet .... 
 
 Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer .... 
 
 Bwies. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian .... 
 
 Eng. Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . • . 
 
 Eng, , Jas. H. H., (son of above), statesman . • 
 
 Eng. — , William of, historian .... 
 
 Eng, Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . • 
 
 ItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist . « 
 
 Eng. Maltby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist • . 
 
 ■ DRN. 
 
 DIES 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1774 
 
 183i 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1840 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1841 
 
 1782 
 
 1841 
 
 1757 
 
 1837 
 
 1738 
 
 1798 
 
 is-:3S 
 
 1864 
 
 1793 
 
 
 : 1773 
 
 1835 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1751 
 
 1836 
 
 12th , 
 
 sent. 
 
 1806 
 
 
 
 B. C. 9 
 
 1675 
 
 1755 
 
 1794 
 
 1350 
 
 1765 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1521 
 
 1783 
 
 1855 
 
 1793 
 
 1842 
 
 1791 
 
 1864 
 
 1810 
 
 
 569 
 
 632 
 
 1430 
 
 1480 
 
 1610 
 
 1686 
 
 1131 
 
 1204 
 
 1635 
 
 1719 
 
 1753 
 
 1821 
 
 166S 
 
 1747 
 
 B. c. 
 
 5th cent. 
 
 1787 
 
 1864 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1833 
 
 16.'38 
 
 1715 
 
 1721 
 
 1794 
 
 1808 
 
 1836 
 
 1555 
 
 1628 
 
 1702 
 
 1765 
 
 1730 
 
 1807 
 
 1746 
 
 1826 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 1I4S 
 
 1741 
 
 isia 
 
 1628 
 
 1694 
 
 1770 
 
 185t 
 
984 
 
 THE WORLD'S PKOGKSSS. 
 
 R Altos, 
 
 Ger, 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Pers, 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital, 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 A.irer. 
 
 Pt'S. 
 
 3?r, 
 
 B?. 
 
 >3er. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 AuBt. 
 
 Bpan, 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Rom, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ft, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 &.raer. 
 
 NAME AND FROFESSIOX. 
 
 Malte Brun, Conrad, poet and geographer • 
 
 , M., geographer . . • 
 
 Malthus, T. E., political economist . • 
 
 Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author f 
 
 Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author 
 
 Manes, or Manichaeus, founder of the Maniohsean sect 
 
 Manfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies 
 
 Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . , 
 
 Mann, Horace, statesman and educutionist . . 
 
 Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author 
 
 Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . 
 
 Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . 
 
 Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general , . . 
 
 , Wm. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman 
 
 Mantell, G. A., geologist . . . 
 Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author 
 , the Younger, printer and author . 
 
 — , Paul us, (son of Manutius), printer 
 
 BORN, 
 
 . 1775 
 
 1766 
 1799 
 1300 
 239 
 (abt.) 1231 
 1804 
 1796 
 1812 
 1815 
 1585 
 1803 
 
 . 1705 
 1790 
 
 . 1447 
 1547 
 1512 
 1784 
 1754 
 
 B. 0, 267 
 1256 
 1786 
 
 Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi . . 
 
 Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist • 
 Maroellus, Marcus Claudius, general • . 
 
 Marco Polo, Venetian traveller . • 
 
 Marcy, Wm. Learned, statesman . • • 
 
 Mardonius, Persian general in Greece • • • 
 
 Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre . • 1492 
 
 MargaretofAnjou, queen of Henry VI. of England . . 1J'~>9 
 Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 
 
 Margaret, queen of Denmark, &c., ' Semiramis of the North ' . 1353 
 
 Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of Prance , . 1552 
 Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 
 
 Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (horn at Naples) . 1806 
 
 Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1574 
 Mariana, John, celebrated historian ...» 1537 
 
 Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . e 1717 
 
 Marie- Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . . 1782 
 
 Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 1755 
 
 Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . . . 1821 
 
 Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . . 1810 
 
 Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 
 
 Marius, Cains, famous general and demagogue . . B, C. 153 
 
 Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . . 1650 
 Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and 
 
 traveller ...... 1773 
 
 Marmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . . . 1723 
 
 Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet . • . 1664 
 
 Mapes, James J., agriculturist , . * . 
 
 Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi • 1637 
 
 Marrast, Armaiid, journalist and politician . • . 1800 
 
 Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . . . • 1778 
 
 Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . . . 1755 
 
 Marsh, Anne, novelist ..... (abt.) 1800 
 
 Marsh, Geo. Perkina, philologist and diplomatist . . 1801 
 
 j>iBn< 
 
 1828 
 
 183- 
 
 1372 
 27 
 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 162(£ 
 1862 
 1793 
 186- 
 1517 
 1597 
 1574 
 
 1793 
 B. c. 208 
 1323 
 1857 
 B, 0. 479 
 1549 
 1481 
 1530 
 1412 
 1612 
 1847 
 
 1642 
 1624 
 1780 
 
 1793 
 
 1795 
 B. 0. 86 
 
 1722 
 
 1852 
 1799 
 1593 
 1865 
 1675 
 1852 
 1847 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 985 
 
 ■ATlOir. . NAME ASS PBOFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Marsh, Herbert, 'biahop of Peterborougli, theological writer 
 Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician . . . • 
 
 Amer. Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer . 
 
 Eng. Marshman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author . 
 
 Eng. Marston, Jolm, poet and dramatist . , , 
 
 Eom. Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist • • 
 
 Eng. Martin, Benj., optician and author • • • 
 
 Fr. Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . , , 
 
 Amer. Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian . . 
 
 Eng. Martineau, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress . . 
 
 Eng. , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 
 
 Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor .... 
 
 Bpan. Martinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur 
 Ger. Marfius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller . . 
 
 Eng. Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . 
 
 Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist . < . 
 
 ItaL , Peter, reformer and theologian . • 
 
 Eng. Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman ... 
 Eng. Mary I., first queen regnant of England . . 
 
 Eng. , II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange . . 
 
 Scot. Stuart, queen of Scots . . • . 
 
 Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller ... 
 Eng. Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician « . 
 
 Eng. Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer . • • • 
 
 Amer. Mason, George, statesman • . . • 
 
 Amer. , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman . . , 
 
 Amer. , John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . 
 
 Eng, , John, divine and author .... 
 
 Amer. , John M., eminent divine . . , 
 
 Amer. — — , John, M., senator from Virginia, rebel . . 
 
 Amer. , John Y., statesman and minister to France , 
 
 Amer. , Lowell, musical teacher and composer . , 
 
 Eng. , William, divine and poet . . , 
 
 Ind. Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags . . 
 
 Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals 
 Eng. Massey, Gerald, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . 
 
 Massinissa, king of Numidia . . • , (abt] 
 
 Scot. Masson, David, biographer and essayist ... 
 Eng. Maunder, Samuel ' Treasury of Knowledge ' . . 
 
 Amer. Mather, Cotton, divine and author . , , 
 
 Amer. , Increase, clergyman and author . . 
 
 Irish, Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' . , 
 
 Eng. Mathias, Thomas, author of ' Pursuits of Literature' . 
 Eng. Matthew of Westminster, historian . . , 
 
 Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist . , 
 
 Amer. ' Matthias ' (Robert Matthews), religious impostor • . 
 
 Fr. Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . . 
 
 Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet , 
 
 Eng. Maundrell, Rev. Henry, traveller in the East . . 
 
 Ft. Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. 
 Hoi. Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 DIlDw 
 
 1758 
 
 1883 
 
 1794 
 
 184T 
 
 . 1755 
 
 183S 
 
 1767 
 
 1837 
 
 (abt.) 1570 
 
 1634 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 1704 
 
 1782 
 
 . 1704 
 
 i7sa 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1764 
 
 1840 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1753 
 
 1835 
 
 1786 
 
 
 . 1781 
 
 1812 
 
 103? 
 
 167? 
 
 . 1600 
 
 1561 
 
 1621 
 
 1678 
 
 1515 
 
 1£58 
 
 1662 
 
 1694 
 
 1542 
 
 1587 
 
 17-92 
 
 1848 
 
 1731 
 
 1824 
 
 1732 
 
 1811 
 
 1726 
 
 1792 
 
 1763 
 
 1848 
 
 IGOO 
 
 1672 
 
 1706 
 
 1763 
 
 . 17T0 
 
 1829 
 
 1795 
 
 1859 
 
 1792 
 
 
 . 1725 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1661 
 
 . 1758 
 
 181T 
 
 1828 
 
 
 1663 
 
 1742 
 
 ) B. 0. 240 B. 
 
 0, 148 
 
 1823 
 
 
 1790 
 
 1849 
 
 1663 
 
 1728 
 
 1639 
 
 1723 
 
 1790 
 
 1856 
 
 1750 
 
 1835 
 
 13th cent. 
 
 1776 
 
 1835 
 
 'abt> 1790 
 
 183- 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1782 
 
 1825 
 
 1650? 
 
 1710 
 
 1698 
 
 1759 
 
 • . 1567 
 
 16a 
 
986 
 
 THB WOKLD'S PKOGBESS. 
 
 SATIOX. KAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author 
 
 Eng. , Thos. Rev., history of Hindostan, &o. • 
 
 Mauricius, Flavins Tib., Byzantine emperor 
 Amer. Maury, Matthew P., naval ofHcer, astronomer, rebel, &o. 
 
 Yr. , John Sifliein, cardinal and statesman 
 
 Eng. Mavor, Eev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &o. . 
 Ger. Mavrocordato, statesman . . . 
 
 Eng. Ma we, Joseph, mineralogist and conchologist . . 
 
 Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany . , 
 
 Ger. . , prince, emperor of Mexico , , 
 
 Rom. Maximinus, Cains J. V., emperor of Rome • 
 
 Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., ' Life of Wellington,' «Sto. . . 
 
 Amer. Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historical writer . 
 
 Ger. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer . . , 
 
 Eng. Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers, 
 
 morons and miscellaneous writers 
 ^jjjgj.^ , Jonathan, clergyman and author , , 
 
 Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . , 
 
 Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks . , 
 
 Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . 
 Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac 
 _^j^ej.. ^ Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author 
 
 I.Amer.Meagher, Thos. F., gen. in Union armies, gov. Idaho 
 Eng. Medhurst, "Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary 
 
 Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal . 
 
 , Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany 
 
 I ,' pater patriae,' Florence 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Turk. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ger.. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Bubs. 
 
 Ger. 
 Ger. 
 
 -, Lorenzo de, poet, gov. of Fiorence, and patron of arts 
 -, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts 
 
 Mehemet-Ali, pasha of Egjrpt . . . 
 
 Meiners, Christopher, historian , 
 
 Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . . 
 
 Melbourne, vVin. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman • 
 Mellen, Grenville, poet .... 
 Melmoth, Wm., 'Letters,' translation of Cicero, &c. 
 
 ,' Religious Life' . . 
 
 MelviUe, Andrew, religious reformer . 
 
 , Herman, author of travels, romances , 
 
 — , Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author 
 
 Menander, comic poet .... 
 Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer 
 
 ', Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher 
 
 Mendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying 
 Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and 6t.atesman 
 Mengs, Anton Raf:iel, painter and writer on art 
 Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . . 
 Mentchikofi', Alex., prince, statesman . 
 , Alex., S., admiral . . . 
 
 Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of 'Meimonites' 
 Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian . . 
 
 Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer 
 
 Am«T. Meroer, Hugli, general in the Revolutionary war • 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIBD 
 
 . 1805 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1821 
 
 539 
 
 60S 
 
 , 1806 
 
 
 1746 
 
 isn 
 
 1758 
 
 1337 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1829 
 
 1459 
 
 1519 
 
 (sLot) 1834 
 
 1867 
 
 
 233 
 
 1795 
 
 1851 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1723 
 
 1762 
 
 s, hu- 
 
 
 . (abt) 1812 
 
 
 1720 
 
 1766 
 
 1602 
 
 1661 
 
 
 1709 
 
 1809 
 
 
 , 1815 
 
 
 1789 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 1796 
 
 1857 
 
 1511 
 
 1535 
 
 1519 
 
 1574 
 
 1389 
 
 1464 
 
 rta 144S 
 
 1492 
 
 
 14t9 
 
 1769 
 
 1849 
 
 . 1747 
 
 1810 
 
 1497 
 
 1560 
 
 . 1779 
 
 1848 
 
 1799 
 
 1841 
 
 . 1710 
 
 1799 
 
 1666 
 
 1743 
 
 1545 
 
 1622 
 
 1819 
 
 
 . 1535 
 
 1607 
 
 . B. 342 
 
 B. c. 290 
 
 1809 
 
 1847 
 
 1729 
 
 1786 
 
 >'ing . 1510 
 
 1680 
 
 1503 
 
 1575 
 
 1728 
 
 1779 
 
 1623 
 
 1698 
 
 1672 
 
 1769 
 
 1789 
 
 
 
 1561 
 
 1798 
 
 
 e 1512 
 
 1594 
 
 172C 
 
 177S 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 987 
 
 MATIOH. NAUE AND FBOFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Meigs, Eelum J., rovoL oificer . , 
 
 Amer. Meriam, Bben, statistician and meteorologist 
 
 Fr. Merimee, Prosper, novelist . , • 
 
 Eng. Merivale, Charles, historian • * • 
 
 Eng. , John Herman, poet . , 
 
 Swiss. Merle d'Auhign6, J, H., D. D., historian . « 
 
 Fr. Merovoeus, founder Merovingian dynasty , 
 
 Fr. Mery, Joseph, poet and novelist . . , 
 
 Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of ' Mesmerism ' , 
 
 Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet . . 
 
 Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada 
 
 Bom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians 
 
 Aust. Metternioh, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist 
 
 Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic . . , 
 
 Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . 
 
 Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. E., antiquarian author , 
 
 Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . • 
 
 Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . , 
 
 Gr. Miaulis, naval commander • • « 
 
 Heb. Micah, the Prophet . • • • 
 
 Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian ... 
 
 Ger. Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and critic 
 
 Ft. Michaud, Joseph, historian - . • • , 
 
 Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana ') , , , 
 
 Fr. Michel, Francisque, arch^ologist ...» 
 
 Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian ...... 
 
 Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer . . , 
 
 Pol. MicMewioz. Adam, poet ...... 
 
 Eng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of ' Lusiad,' &o. » 
 
 Eng. Middleton, Conjers, divine and elegant writer . , • 
 
 Amer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman . , , 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, dramatist . . . , 
 
 Amer. Mifflin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary war . , 
 
 Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian ..... 
 
 Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 
 
 Amer. Milburn, 'William Henry, 'blind preacher ' and author 
 
 Bcot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 
 
 Eng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . . , 
 
 Eng. Millais, John Everett, ' pre-Raphaelite ' painter . , 
 
 Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c., (' I'll try, sir') , 
 
 Eng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests 
 
 Scot. , Hugh, geologist ...... 
 
 Amer. , William, founder of the ' Millerites,' or second adventistB 
 
 Fr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet ..... 
 
 Ft. Millia, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &c . . , , 
 
 Eiig. Millnian, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian . , 
 
 Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian . . , 
 
 Eng. Mills, Charles, historian . . . . » , 
 
 Fr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist . . • • 
 
 Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman . * 
 
 Eng. Milner, Joseph, author of ' Church History ' , , 
 
 Amer.. Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman . • 
 
 BOKN. 
 
 DIBP. 
 
 1740 
 
 18231 
 
 1794 
 
 1864 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1844 
 
 1794 
 
 
 411 
 
 457 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1734 
 
 1815 
 
 1698 
 
 1783 
 
 1785 
 
 1846 
 
 . 250 
 
 69 
 
 1773 
 
 1859 
 
 1579 
 
 1639 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1783 
 
 1848 
 
 1610 
 
 1682 
 
 1774 
 
 1849 
 
 1772 
 
 1885 
 
 f. B 
 
 0. 750 
 
 
 1839 
 
 1717 
 
 1791 
 
 1767 
 
 1839 
 
 1746 
 
 1802 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1855 
 
 1734 
 
 1788 
 
 1683 
 
 1750 
 
 1743 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1627 
 
 1744 
 
 1800 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1823 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1836 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1851 
 
 1684 
 
 1738 
 
 1802 
 
 1856 
 
 1781 
 
 1849 
 
 1782 
 
 1818 
 
 1759 
 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1726 
 
 1785 
 
 1788 
 
 1828 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1744 
 
 1797 
 
 1773 
 
 1844 
 
THE world's PEOGKESS, 
 
 HATION, NAME AND PEOFESSIOH. 
 
 Gr. MlltiadeB, Illustrious Athenian general , 
 
 Eng. MUton, John, the Homer of Britain . , 
 
 Fr. Mini6, Claude E., inventor of the Mini6 rifle-bullet 
 
 Amer. Minot, George R., historian .... 
 
 Bom. Minutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer . 
 
 Mex. Miramon, Miguel, military leader . . . 
 
 Span. Miraiida, Francis, revolutionary general, 
 
 Fr. Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the 
 
 Revolution and author .... 
 
 Fr. Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist 
 
 Amer. Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general 
 
 Amer. Mitchell, Donald G., essayist . . , 
 
 Amer. , Maria, astronomer . . • . 
 
 Amer. , Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, classical scholar and critic . 
 
 Eng. Mitford, Mary Bussell, novelist and essayist • 
 
 Eng. , Rev. John, editor of poets, . , , 
 
 Eng. ■ — —, WUliam, historian and philologist . a 
 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior . • . 
 
 Ger. Mitscherlich, E., chemist . . , , 
 
 Ger. Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman . 
 
 Turk. Mohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) 
 
 Bar. Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites 
 
 Ger. Mohler, Johann Adam E., catholic theologian . 
 
 Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist . , 
 
 Scot Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Fr. M0II6, M. L., comte, statesman , . . , 
 
 Hoi. Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist , 
 
 Eng. Molesworth, Sir William, statesman and author 
 
 Fr. Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian 
 
 Fr. MoliSre, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist 
 
 Span. Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . , 
 
 Scot. Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . , 
 
 Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman , 
 
 Eng. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer 
 
 Swiss MoDod, Adolphe, ' reformed pastor ' and author , 
 
 Swiss. — , Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor ' at Paris . 
 
 Amer. Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president U'^'*-'"! St.atea 
 
 Ger. Mouse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician , , 
 
 Fr. Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler , , 
 
 Eng. Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author . . 
 
 Eng. , Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' &o. , 
 
 Eng. • — , Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer , 
 
 Eng. Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet 
 
 Fr. Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist 
 
 Fr. Montalembert, Charles F., count, statesman and author 
 
 Fr. Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada 
 
 Fr. Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal , , 
 
 Ger. Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior 
 
 Fr. Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. 
 
 Fr. Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer . . 
 
 llontez, Lola, female adventurer • • • 
 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 Sim 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 4S9 
 
 , 
 
 , 1608 
 
 1674 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 • 
 
 . 1758 
 
 1803 
 
 
 3d cent 
 
 
 . 
 
 (abt.) 1830 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1760 
 
 1816 
 
 aoter 
 
 in the 
 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1791 
 
 . 
 
 1776 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1810 
 
 186- 
 
 . 
 
 , 1822 
 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1783 
 
 1845 
 
 , 
 
 . 1786 
 
 1855- 
 
 
 1781 
 
 1859 
 
 , 
 
 1734 
 
 18-27 
 
 
 B.C. 123 B. 
 
 0. 64 
 
 
 1794 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 heme 
 habite 
 
 ) 1769 
 s f. 1650 
 
 1850 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 • 
 
 1774 
 
 1889 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1851 
 
 , 
 
 1781 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 , 
 
 1810 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1817 
 
 , 
 
 . 1622 
 
 1673 
 
 
 1585 
 
 1600 
 
 . 
 
 . 1714 
 
 1799 
 
 
 
 1265 
 
 , 
 
 . 1608 
 
 1670 
 
 
 1802 
 
 1856 
 
 , 
 
 1794 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1831 
 
 . 
 
 1746 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1390 
 
 1453 
 
 , 
 
 . 1770 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1720 
 
 1802 
 
 , 
 
 1690 
 
 1762 
 
 
 1661 
 
 1715 
 
 . 
 
 1533 
 
 1592 
 
 
 ISIO 
 
 
 • 
 
 . 1712 
 
 1759 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1809 
 
 , 
 
 • 1609 
 
 1681 
 
 
 1641 
 
 1707 
 
 
 1689 
 
 1765 
 
 
 1821 
 
 1861 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL USTDEX. 
 
 989 
 
 ffinOK. HAMB AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Mex. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . 
 
 Mex. II, last Atzec emperor . . • 
 
 Fr. Montfaucon, Bern, de, arcliseologist and author . 
 
 !Eng. Montgomery, James, poet . , . , 
 
 Amer. ■ — , Richard, intrepid military officer , 
 
 Eng. . , Robert, poet .... 
 
 Fr. MontholoD, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon 
 
 Fr. Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . 
 
 Ital. Monte, Vincent, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Montmorency, noble family of France . , , 
 
 Fr. Montpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &o . 
 
 Boot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader » 
 Amer. Moore, Geo. H., author .... 
 
 Amer. , Frank H , author . . , « 
 
 Amer. , Clement C, writer of verses, &c. . • 
 
 Amer. , Jacob Bail ej^, journalist and author . . 
 
 Scot. , John, miscellaneous author 
 
 Scot. , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna 
 
 Ital. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer 
 
 Eng, More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . , 
 
 Eng. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher 
 
 P/. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . , 
 
 Amer. Morfit, Campbell, chemist and authoj . , 
 
 Amer. Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in revolutionary war . 
 
 Amer. , Jno, H-enry, rebel flUibuster general . 
 
 Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &o. 
 
 Eng. , Sii- Henry J., buccaneer 
 
 Eng. Morier, James, novelist, 'HajjiBaba' &o. 
 
 Eng. Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer 
 
 Fr. Morny, Chas. A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. , 
 
 Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player 
 
 Eng. Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . 
 
 Amer. Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist . . 
 
 Amer. , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . . 
 
 Amer. , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 Amer. , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financ: 
 
 Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 
 
 Eng. , Robert D. D., missionary and philologist 
 
 Amer. Moree, Jedcdiah, geographer and statistical writer 
 
 Amer. — ■ , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph 
 
 Amer. , Sidney E., journalist and geographer , 
 
 Fr. Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi . 
 
 Scot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent 
 
 Amer. , John, signer of Declaration of Independence 
 
 Amer. , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist 
 
 Amer. , Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?) 
 
 Heb. Moses, lawgiver of the Jews 
 
 Ger. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . 
 
 Boot. Motherwell, "William, poet . . , 
 
 Amer, Motley, John Lothrop, historian . 
 
 Amer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' and philanthropist 
 
 4jner, — ■ — ^i Valentine, eui'geon and author . . 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 Died. 
 
 1 
 
 1473 
 
 . 1480 
 
 1620 
 
 • 1655 
 
 1741 
 
 , 1771 
 
 1854 
 
 • 1737 
 
 1775 
 
 1807 
 
 1855 
 
 1783 
 
 1853 
 
 1493 
 
 1567 
 
 1753 
 
 1828 
 
 loth to 19th century 
 
 1627 
 
 1693 
 
 1612 
 
 • 
 
 1651 
 
 1779 
 
 1863 
 
 1797 
 
 1853 
 
 1728 
 
 1802 
 
 1761 
 
 1809 
 
 1526 
 
 1555 
 
 . 1744 
 
 1833 
 
 . 1614 
 
 1687 
 
 1763 
 
 1813 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1736 
 
 1802 
 
 • 
 
 1780 
 
 1859 
 
 1637 
 
 1690 
 
 1780 
 
 1849 
 
 1720 
 
 1784 
 
 1811 
 
 1865 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1703 
 
 1784 
 
 1802 
 
 1864 
 
 1752 
 
 1816 
 
 1726 
 
 1798 
 
 cier 1703 
 
 1806 
 
 1782 
 
 1834 
 
 1782 
 
 183i 
 
 1761 
 
 1827 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1768 
 
 1835 
 
 1530 
 
 1581 
 
 (Penn) 1724 
 
 1777 
 
 1709 
 
 1851 
 
 ) . 1819 
 
 
 . B, 0. 1571 B 
 
 0. 1451 
 
 1695 
 
 1755 
 
 1797 
 
 1836 
 
 1814 
 
 
 . 1793 
 
 
 1785 
 
 186f 
 
990 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 KATtOBT. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit , . 
 
 Gor. MoschuB, buoollo poet . . . , f. B< 
 
 Amer. Moultrie, Wm., general and etatesman , • 
 
 Mouradgea, D'Ohason, Armenian historian . > 
 
 A.mer, Mowatt (Eitchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress • (a 
 
 Ger. Mozart, 0. W. T., eminent corciposer . . 
 
 Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &o, 
 Ger. MuUer, C. O., historian, archceologist classical scholar . 
 Swiss. Muller, John von, celebrated historian, ' Universal History ' 
 
 Ger. , John, physiologist .... 
 
 Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. F., proverbial for « stories 
 
 Eng. Mdnden, Jos. S., comedian . 
 
 Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples 
 
 ItaL Muratorl, Louis Anthony, historian . 
 
 Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator 
 
 Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taugbt linguist 
 
 Scot. , Hugh, geographer (Enoyclo) 
 
 Scot , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent 
 
 Eng. , .John, the elder, eminent publisher 
 
 Amer. , Lindley, grammarian . 
 
 Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman . • 
 
 Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet . . 
 
 Fr. MuBset, Louis C. A. de, poet . • 
 
 BORSr. 
 
 DIED, 
 
 1660 
 
 17H 
 
 . 0. 160 
 
 
 . 1731 
 
 180S 
 
 1740 
 
 1807 
 
 ibt) 1826 
 
 
 1756 
 
 1793 
 
 3. 1777 
 
 1842 
 
 1797 
 
 1840 
 
 1752 
 
 1809 
 
 1801 
 
 1S58 
 
 1720 
 
 1797 
 
 . 1758 
 
 1832 
 
 1771 
 
 1815 
 
 1672 
 
 1750 
 
 1727 
 
 1805 
 
 1775 
 
 1813 
 
 1779 
 
 1846 
 
 . 1531 
 
 1570 
 
 1778 
 
 1843 
 
 . 1745 
 
 1826 
 
 1761 
 
 1803 
 
 0. 1243 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1857 
 
 N. 
 
 Issyr. KabonasBar, first king of the Chaldeans « 
 
 Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . . 
 
 Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king . 
 
 Heb. Nahum, prophet 
 
 Irish. Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c. 
 
 Scot. ■ — , John, baron, inventor of logarithms 
 
 Eng. , Sir Charles, admiral . . , 
 
 Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) 
 
 Fr. , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) , 
 
 Fr. , III., (Louis N'apoleon), emperor . 
 
 Eng. Nares, James, musical docto-, composer , 
 
 Eng. , Rev. Edmund, ' Tliinks I to myself 
 
 Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor 
 
 Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman 
 
 Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ' Beau Nash' • , 
 
 Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general . 
 
 Pars. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . , 
 
 Span. Navarrete, Martin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages' 
 
 Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &o 
 
 Amer. , John, novelist 
 
 Amer. — — , Joseph C, litterateur . , . 
 
 Ger. Neander, J, W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian 
 
 6r. Neaichus, admiral and voyager . . 
 
 Cbald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon . . 
 
 Fr. Necker, James, eminent financier and statesman 
 
 Bwias. — — , Madame J. C, wife of James, easayist 
 
 1 B. 0. 747 
 
 
 1. B. c. 626 
 
 
 1688 
 
 1747 
 
 f. B. 0. 
 
 7th cent. 
 
 1782 
 
 18.53 
 
 1550 
 
 1617 
 
 1786 
 
 1860 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 1811 
 
 1832 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1715 
 
 1783 
 
 1762 
 
 1841 
 
 
 567 
 
 1795 
 
 
 * . 1674 
 
 1761 
 
 1567 
 
 1625 
 
 1201 
 
 1274 
 
 1765 
 
 1844 
 
 1678 
 
 1743 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1807 
 
 1848 
 
 1789 
 
 1850 
 
 . B. 0. 
 
 4th cent. 
 
 
 B. 0. 463 
 
 1732 
 
 1804 
 
 1739 
 
 17M 
 
mOGEAPHICAL rSTDEX. 
 
 991 
 
 PATIOir. NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Neele, Henry, pojt and miscellaneous writer « « 
 
 Swiss. Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps .... 
 Heb. Nehemiah, governor of Judea . . , j ; 
 
 Nelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated adminU , , 
 
 Nepos, Cornelius, historian , . • * 
 
 Nero, infamous emperor • • • • 
 
 Nerva, emperor ..... 
 
 Nesselvode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist . 
 Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, founder of Nestorians 
 Neukomm, Sigism. chevalier, composer . . . 
 
 Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 
 Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer . 
 
 , Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers , 
 
 , Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) , 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Qer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 KUBB, 
 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 
 Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave • , 
 Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . ■% . 
 Nicholas 1., emperor, (1825-55) . . , 
 Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist . 
 Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic . 
 , William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 
 
 Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer 
 Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author . 
 
 Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . , , 
 Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian . 
 , Cnrsten, celebrated traveller . . 
 
 Eng. 
 Ger. 
 Ger. 
 Pol. 
 Eng. 
 
 Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author 
 Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . , 
 
 Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' . . 
 
 Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... 
 
 Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . 
 
 Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist . . . ■ 
 
 Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author . . 
 
 Eng. Normanby, C. G. Pliipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman 
 
 Eng. North, Francis, Ist lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' . . 
 
 Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . 
 
 Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . . . 
 
 Amer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author . 
 
 Eng. , Hon. Mrs., poetess .... 
 
 Amer. Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . 
 
 Amer. , Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author 
 
 Eng. , John, poet and translator 
 
 Ger. Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . . 
 
 Eng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) , 
 
 Amer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot , . , 
 
 Irish. Nugent, lord, author of ' Life of Hampden,' &c, , 
 
 Rom. Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. 
 
 Span. Nunez, Ah a C. de Vaca, explorer . . . 
 
 O. 
 
 Eng. Gates, Tittis, infamous pretender of the ' Popish plot' . 
 7r. Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist . • • 
 
 BOEK. 
 
 KIED. 
 
 . 1798 
 
 1828 
 
 1798 
 
 1829 
 
 B. 0. 444 
 
 
 1758 
 
 180S 
 
 . B. 
 
 0. 30 
 
 37 
 
 63 
 
 S2 
 
 98 
 
 1780 
 
 1862 
 
 
 439 
 
 1778 
 
 1857 
 
 Q. 1782 
 
 
 1725 
 
 1807 
 
 1642 
 
 1727 
 
 1704 
 
 1782 
 
 . 1769 
 
 1815 
 
 14fch 
 
 cent. 
 
 1796 
 
 1855 
 
 1807 
 
 1863 
 
 y 1753 
 
 1815 
 
 1786 
 
 1842 
 
 , 1733 
 
 18U 
 
 1799 
 
 1848 
 
 1776 
 
 1830 
 
 1733 
 
 1815 
 
 1756 
 
 1841 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1839 
 
 1787 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1770 
 
 1823 
 
 1783 
 
 1844 
 
 1797 
 
 186; 
 
 1637 
 
 168£ 
 
 1732 
 
 1791 
 
 1746 
 
 1837 
 
 1790 
 
 1835 
 
 1834 
 
 1859 
 
 1773 
 
 1866 
 
 1751 
 
 1826 
 
 1772 
 
 1801 
 
 1781 
 
 1861 
 
 1805 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1850 
 
 B. 0. 714 
 
 
 
 1564 
 
 1619 
 
 170t 
 
 1740 
 
 183« 
 
2n 
 
 THE WOELD's PBOGEESS. 
 
 ITATIOS. KAME AND FBOFESSIOB. 
 
 Irish. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet . . • • 
 
 Iiish.. — ^, Win. Smith, political agitator . « 
 
 Irish. O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . * • 
 
 Irish, O'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator . , • 
 
 Eng. Ockley, Simon, orientalist . . . | 
 
 Arab, Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . . 
 
 Fr, Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman . . • 
 
 Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy . . . 
 
 Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch,, discoverer of electro-magnetism . 
 
 Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . • 
 
 Irish. O'Keefe, John, diamatist , . • 
 
 Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist , . « * 
 
 Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer , , . 
 
 Eng. ■ Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Oobham , , . 
 
 Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author 
 
 Span. Olivan, don AlesB., publicist . . , . 
 
 Amer. Olmsted, Denison, professor, astronomer, &o. . 
 
 Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian . . 
 
 Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . . 
 
 Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author • 
 
 Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons 
 
 Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education , 
 
 Gr. Oppian, poet , . . . 
 
 Dutch. Orange, "William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 
 
 Dutch. , William II., prince of, stadtholder . 
 
 Dutch. — , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England 
 
 Span. Oriila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist . . 
 
 Origen, one of the fathers of the church . • 
 
 Fr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of « Egalit6,' guillotined , . 
 
 Jr. — , Fer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe • 
 
 Euss. Orloff, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . . 
 
 Eng. Orme, Eobert, historian of India .... 
 Eng, Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman . . 
 
 Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the 'father of poetry' • 
 Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy , 
 
 jrish. , Eoger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author . 
 
 Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author . . 
 
 Amer. Osgood, Frances, poetess .... 
 
 jijoier. ^1 Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author . 
 
 Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 
 Scot. Ossiaii, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century 
 Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt .... 
 
 Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . , 
 
 _^iner. , Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist ... 
 
 Ger. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) , . 
 
 Eng, Ottley, "Wm. Young, writer on art . , . 
 
 Eng. Otway, celebrated dramaljst, ' Venice Preserved ' 
 Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France . . • 
 
 Eng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist . • . 
 
 Ger. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modem religious school of art 
 Eng. Overbury, Sir I'hos., (poisoned in the Tower) . . 
 
 Bom. Ovid, Fublius N iso, poet .... 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 PIED 
 
 
 1868 
 
 1806 
 
 186- 
 
 • 1775 
 
 1841 
 
 1795 
 
 1855 
 
 1678 
 
 1720 
 
 
 267 
 
 1791 
 
 
 
 493 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1851 
 
 1698 
 
 1785 
 
 1748 
 
 1833 
 
 1778 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1840 
 
 1360 
 
 1417 
 
 1797 
 
 1851 
 
 1791 
 
 1859 
 
 1796 
 
 1839 
 
 581 
 
 644 
 
 1778 
 
 1836 
 
 1691 
 
 1768 
 
 . 1771 
 
 1863 
 
 f. 150 
 
 
 public 1533 
 
 1584 
 
 1626 
 
 1650 
 
 land 1650 
 
 1702 
 
 1787 
 
 
 185„ 
 
 253 
 
 1747 
 
 1793 
 
 1810 
 
 1842 
 
 1734 
 
 1783 
 
 1728 
 
 1801 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 1676 
 
 1731 
 
 1621 
 
 1679 
 
 1717 
 
 1783 
 
 1S12 
 
 1850 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1502 
 
 1580 
 
 (abt.) 1500 
 
 
 1725 
 
 1772 
 
 1767 
 
 1848 
 
 1815 
 
 1867 
 
 1771 
 
 1836 
 
 1651 
 
 1685 
 
 1767 
 
 1847 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1581 
 
 161S 
 
 B. 0. 43 
 
 11 
 
BIOGBAPHICAl. INDEX. 
 
 993 
 
 RATION. HAME AND PBOFESSION. BOBH. 
 
 Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Indies' 
 
 Amer. Owen, David Dale, geologist • . • • 
 
 Eng. — — — , John, independent theologian . « 
 
 Eng. , Eichard, surgeon and naturalist . , » 
 
 Welsh, , Robert, political theorist . , , 
 
 Amer. , Robert Dale, statesman and author • « ■ 
 
 Eng. Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author • . 
 
 P. 
 
 Amer. Paine, Elijah, jurist ..... 
 
 Amer. , Elijah (son of above), jurist ... 
 
 Amer. , John Howard, dramatist, ' Home, Sweet Home ' 
 
 Amer. , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot ... 
 
 Amer, , Robert Treat, son, poet, . . , 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, political and deistical writer . . 
 
 Er. Paixhan, general, inventor of guns bearing his name . 
 
 Yen. Paez, military commander and president Venezuela . 
 
 Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . , , 
 
 Eng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author • , 
 
 Eng. Palgrave, Sir Erauois, antiquarian author . , 
 
 Er. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist . ■ . , 
 
 Er. Palissy, Bernard, ' the Potter' . . , 
 
 Ital, Palladio, Andrew, architect . , , , 
 
 Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist , . 
 
 Eng. Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . « 
 
 Ger. Panzer, G. W. E., bibliographer . . , 
 
 Ital. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general . , 
 
 Can. Papineau, L. J, politician and patriot . « 
 
 Rom. Papinian, ^milius, civil lawyer . , * , 
 
 Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist . . 
 
 Eng. Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist • . , . 
 
 Er. Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe 
 
 Eng. , Matthew, historian .... 
 
 Soot. Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller 
 
 Amer. Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 
 
 Eng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author . 
 
 Ital. Parma, Alexender Earuese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 
 
 Irish. Parnell, Thos., poet and divine . . . 
 
 Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist , , 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, lived 152 years . . 
 
 Eng. Parry, Clapt. Edward, Arctic navigator . . • 
 
 Amer, Parsons, Theophilus, jurist .... 
 
 Amer. ^, Theophilus (son), jurist , . . , 
 
 Amer. Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist . 
 
 Amer. , Mrs. Sarah, ' Fanny Fern,' authoress . • 
 
 Er. Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer . 
 
 Ru83. Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of "Warsaw, general . « 
 
 Eng. Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. "W., engineer . . , 
 
 Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . 
 
 Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 
 
 Bom. Paterculiis, Caius Velleius, historian , . (abt.) b. o. 
 
 1807 
 1616 
 
 1771 
 
 1717 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1G40 
 1860 
 1683 
 
 1860 
 
 179: 
 
 1757 
 
 1849 
 
 1796 
 
 1853 
 
 1791 
 
 1851 
 
 1731 
 
 1814 
 
 1773 
 
 1811 
 
 1736 
 
 1809 
 
 1782 
 
 1854 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1835 
 
 1745 
 
 1805 
 
 1788 
 
 1861 
 
 1730 
 
 1815 
 
 1510 
 
 1590 
 
 1518 
 
 1580 
 
 1741 
 
 1811 
 
 1784 
 
 1865 
 
 1729 
 
 1812 
 
 1726 
 
 1806 
 
 1789 
 
 
 145 
 
 212 
 
 1493 
 
 1541 
 
 1812 
 
 1862 
 
 1838 
 
 
 
 1259 
 
 1771 
 
 1804 
 
 1810 
 
 1860 
 
 1759 
 
 1829 
 
 1546 
 
 1592 
 
 1679 
 
 1717 
 
 1746 
 
 1825 
 
 1483 
 
 1635 
 
 1790 
 
 18J5 
 
 1750 
 
 1813 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1623 
 
 1662 
 
 1782 
 
 18J6 
 
 1781 
 
 1861 
 
 1767 
 
 1863 
 
 1786 
 
 1831 
 
 30 
 
 
994 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS. 
 
 RATION. NAME A.NO PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Patmore, Coventry, poet • • • • 
 
 Irisll. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland . , . 
 
 Eng. , Simon, bishop of CMoliester, Bible commentary 
 
 Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) , . , 
 
 Heb, , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . , 
 
 Fr. , St. Vincent de. Catholic missionary . , 
 
 Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . . 
 
 Rom. FauUis-.i3Smilius, Lucius, fell at Cannae . • 
 
 Gr, Pausanias, spartan commander . , 
 
 Gr. , topographical writer , ■ , , 
 
 Eng. Paston, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . 
 
 Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-hinder . . . 
 
 Amer. Paysou, Edward, D. D., congregational divine . 
 
 Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer « , 
 
 Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer , 
 
 Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . 
 
 Eng. Pearson, John, bisliop of Chester, ' On the Creed * 
 
 Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria IL) 
 
 Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal , 
 
 Eng. Peel, Sir liobert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer • 
 
 Eng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman • . 
 
 Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) . 
 
 Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect , 
 
 Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias 
 
 Fr. Pelissier, A. J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal 
 
 Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot 
 
 Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general , 
 
 Fr. Peloiize, Theodore Jules, chemist . 
 
 Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of . 
 
 Eng. Penn, Granville, author 
 
 Eng. • , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 
 
 Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania . 
 
 Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary , 
 
 Ital. Pepe, William Florestan, general , , « 
 
 Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general • c . 
 
 Ital. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur ...» 
 
 Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of • Diary' 
 
 Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . , 
 
 Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic . 
 
 Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, ' Religious Ant, Poetry ' 
 
 Fr. P6reflxe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . 
 
 Eng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' • , 
 
 Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer , , 
 
 Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman , » 
 
 Amor. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist , 
 
 Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 
 
 Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. 
 
 Eng. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 
 
 Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator , « 
 
 Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . , , 
 
 Amer. Perrj', Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') , , 
 
 Amer. , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1823 
 
 
 372 
 
 483 
 
 . 1626 
 
 1707 
 
 1652 
 
 1623 
 
 
 65? 
 
 1576 
 
 1669 
 
 . 1779 
 
 1860 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 216 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 470 
 
 f. (abt.) 120 
 
 1802 
 
 1865 
 
 1739 
 
 1797 
 
 1783 
 
 1827 
 
 . 1802 
 
 
 1799 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1858 
 
 1613 
 
 1686 
 
 1837 
 
 1S6- 
 
 
 1834 
 
 . 1750 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1552 
 
 1598 
 
 354 
 
 
 
 757 
 
 1794 
 
 1864 
 
 1789 
 
 1854 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 364 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 1621 
 
 1T61 
 
 1844 
 
 1621 
 
 1670 
 
 1644 
 
 1718 
 
 1726 
 
 1798 
 
 1780 
 
 1855 
 
 1697 
 
 1759 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1703 
 
 17G2 
 
 1812 
 
 1795 
 
 1857 
 
 1728 
 
 1811 
 
 \ 1605 
 
 1670 
 
 1804 
 
 1853 
 
 1710 
 
 1735 
 
 B. c. 490 B 
 
 0. 429 
 
 1785 
 
 1864 
 
 1699 
 
 1660 
 
 1766 
 
 1849 
 
 1704 
 
 1854 
 
 1741 
 
 1788 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1882 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 1786 
 
 181S 
 
BIOGB«PHICAL INDEX. 
 
 995 
 
 RATION SAME AND FROFESSION. BOBN. 
 
 Fr. Persigny, Jean O. Y., politician and diplomatist . 1808 
 
 Kom. Persius, Flaccus Aulus, satiriBt . • , , 34 
 
 Ger. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son) 1772 
 
 Rom. Pertinax, emperor ...... 126 
 
 Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new gystem of education 1745 
 
 Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior , . . 1672 
 
 the Hermit, first mover of the crusadea , • 1050? 
 
 Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic '...», 1599 
 
 Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior • • 1653 
 Petermann, August H., geographer . . • . 
 
 PetigTBW, James Louis, of 8. C, Union statesman • . 1789 
 
 P6tion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . , , 1770 
 
 Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets . 1304 
 Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 1778 
 
 Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author . • . 1795 
 
 Phsedrus, fabulist . . . , • . f. 30 
 
 Buss. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Gt. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 ^.mer. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Phil idor, A.ndrew, writer on chess . .» . 
 
 Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . , » 
 
 St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory , • 
 
 Phillimore, John G., author on law , • 
 
 Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist , , , 
 
 — , John, poet ' Splendid Shilling ' , , 
 
 , Sir Bichard, bookseller and compiler . « 
 
 Philo-Judasus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria , 
 Philopoemen, celebrated general . . . 
 
 Pbipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts 
 Phooion, eminent Athenian general , . . , 
 
 Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople • 
 
 Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . . . , 
 
 Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer , . , 
 
 Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist • • 
 
 Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . . , 
 
 Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman , 
 
 , John, philologist . . • , 
 
 Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer , 
 
 Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . . , 
 
 Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. * , 
 
 Pilate, Pontius, Eoman governor of Judea . 
 Pinckiiey, Charles Coteswoith, general and diplomatist . 
 
 , William, distinguished orator and diplomatist 
 
 Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets . . , 
 
 Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author , 
 
 Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, navigator, d^covered Brazil 
 Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 
 Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit • . . 
 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . , . 
 
 Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician , • 
 
 Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator , , 
 
 , William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman . , 
 
 , Wiliam, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham 
 
 PittacuB, of Mitylene, one of the seven 
 Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) 
 
 1726 
 B. 0. 383 B. 
 
 1515 
 1809 
 
 1676 
 
 1768 
 f. A. 
 . B. 0. 253 B, 
 
 1651 
 
 B. 0. 400 B. 
 
 815 
 
 1768 
 • 1746 
 
 1769 
 
 1761 
 
 1746 
 
 1772 
 
 1655 
 • 
 
 1804 
 
 1765 
 
 B. 0. 522 
 
 . 1758 
 
 f. 1500 
 
 1789 
 
 1689 
 
 1765 
 1699 
 1708 
 1759 
 B. O. 650 
 . 1762 
 
 61 
 1843 
 193 
 1827 
 1725 
 1115 
 1660 
 1735 
 
 1863 
 1818 
 1374 
 1854 
 1858 
 
 1796 
 
 0. 386 
 
 1595 
 
 1865 
 
 1749 
 
 1708 
 
 1840 
 
 D. 40 
 
 0.183 
 
 1695 
 
 0. 318 
 
 891 
 
 1837 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1804 
 
 1829 
 
 1843 
 
 1724 
 
 1815 
 
 38? 
 
 1825 
 
 1822 
 
 0. 442 
 
 1826 
 
 1821 
 1773 
 
 0. 527 
 1847 
 1743 
 1778 
 ISOS 
 
 C 670 
 
996 
 
 THE WOKLD'S PEOGEBSa, 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PKOFESSIOK. 
 
 Rpan. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . • 
 
 Eng. Platoche, James R., dramatist and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Gr. Plato, illustrious philosoplier, founder of the Academic sect 
 
 Rom. Plautns, comic poet .... 
 
 Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 
 
 Eng. , Lyon, chemist, (born in Bengal) 
 
 Bora. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 
 
 Horn. , the younger, warrior and author 
 
 Egypt. PlotinuB, Platonic philosopher . . . • 
 
 Irish. Pluntet, W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland . • 
 
 Gr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . • • 
 
 Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. , • 
 
 Eng. Pocock, D. B., learned critic and commentator , « 
 
 Eng. --, D. E., learned prelate and traveller , » 
 
 Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . • 
 
 Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist . 
 
 Amer. Poinsett, Joel B., statesman, diplomatist, and author • 
 
 Fr. • Poisson, D. S., mathematician . . . 
 
 Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury . 
 
 Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. • 
 
 Fr. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman . « 
 
 Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . . . • 
 
 ^mer. . Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general . . 
 
 Ei>g. PoUok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' . . 
 
 Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller . . 
 
 Gr. Polybius, eminent historian 
 
 Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author . 
 
 Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman . 
 
 Eng. Pomfret, John, poet ..... 
 
 Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . 
 
 Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . (' The Great.') 
 
 Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America 
 
 Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 
 
 Pol, , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland 
 
 Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief . . . . • 
 
 Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &o. . . 
 
 Eng. , Matthew, able divine and author . . * 
 
 Engl Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet 
 
 ^xaer. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist 
 
 Porphyry, Platonic philosopher . . • 
 
 Eng. Person, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic . 
 
 Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher , , 
 
 Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist . . a 
 
 Amer. > David, commodore, U. S. Navy « « 
 
 ^■axer. ■ , David D., rear-admiral . . . 
 
 Eng. , Jane, novelist, • . • • » 
 
 £jjg_ , Sir Robert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &o. . 
 
 Eng. PortetiB, Beilby, eminent prelate 
 
 Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. hp. of Pennsylvania, and educa 
 tional author .... 
 
 ^njer. ■ Horatio, D. D., episo. bishop of New York • 
 
 Eng. _, John, archbishop of Canterbury. • Gr. Antiq.' 
 
 • BOBN. 
 
 ©IBft 
 
 1475 
 
 1541 
 
 . 1796 
 
 
 B. 0. 430 
 
 B. C. 347 
 
 B, 0. 227 
 
 B. 0. 184 
 
 ;r 1749 
 
 1819 
 
 1819 
 
 
 23 
 
 79 
 
 61 
 
 115 
 
 203 
 
 270 
 
 , 1765 
 
 1854 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 
 1617 
 
 1604 
 
 1691 
 
 1704 
 
 1765 
 
 1811 
 
 1856 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1851 
 
 1781 
 
 1840 
 
 1500 
 
 1558 
 
 . 1780 
 
 1847 
 
 1611 
 
 1741 
 
 1795 
 
 1849 
 
 1806 
 
 1864 
 
 1799 
 
 1827 
 
 1250 
 
 ' 1323 
 
 B. c. 205 
 
 B. 0. 123 
 
 
 169 
 
 1699 
 
 1782 
 
 1667 
 
 1703 
 
 1772 
 
 1764 
 
 B. 0. 106 
 
 B. 0. 48 
 
 1460 
 
 1521 
 
 1763 
 
 1813 
 
 . 1732 
 
 1798 
 
 1712 
 
 1769 
 
 1624 
 
 1779 
 
 1688 
 
 1744 
 
 t. 1823 
 
 
 233 
 
 304 
 
 1759 
 
 1808 
 
 1540 
 
 1616 
 
 1781 
 
 1832 
 
 1780 
 
 1843 
 
 1776 
 
 1850 
 
 1780 
 
 1842 
 
 1731 
 
 1808 
 
 I" 
 
 1800 
 
 1863 
 
 1674 
 
 1711 
 
BIOGEAPHICAIi INDEX. 
 
 997 
 
 VATIOir. HAHE AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator . 
 
 Eng, Pottenger, Sir Henr.y, diplomatiet , 
 
 Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . , , 
 
 Buss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . . • 
 
 Eng. Praed, Winthrop Maokworth, poet . . 
 
 Amer Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer . 
 
 Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the II. S. Navy 
 
 Amer. Prentiss, Sargent S, lawyer and politician, famed foreloqne 
 
 Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hiokling, historian . . . 
 
 Amer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina . 
 
 Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty . , 
 
 Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque . 
 
 Eng. Prideanx, Humphrey, learned divine. . . 
 
 Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy . 
 
 Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer • 
 
 Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England . 
 
 Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . , . 
 
 Eng. Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . • 
 
 Eng. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . , . 
 
 Eng. Pritchard, J. C., ethnologist, ' Natural History of Han* 
 
 Rom. Probus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor . . . 
 
 Ital. Procida, John of, patriot . • • 
 
 Gr. ProMus, a Platonic philosopher • • • 
 
 Procv lius, historian . . . • 
 
 Rom. , Anthemius, emperor • • • 
 
 Eng. Proctor, Miss Adelaide A., poetess . • 
 
 Eng. , Bryan W. (' Barry Cornwall '), poet and ciltio 
 
 Rom. Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, poet . . 
 
 Fr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . 
 
 Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary 
 
 Fr. PsalmanaiSir, George, literary impostor 
 
 Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer 
 
 Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &c, 
 
 Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian 
 
 Eng. Pugin, Augs. Welhy, architectural writer . , 
 
 Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service . 
 
 Ital. Pulci, Louis, poet ..... 
 
 Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author , . 
 
 Eng. Purcell, Henry, musical composer . . . 
 
 Eng. , Thos., musical composer . . . 
 
 Eng. Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage • 
 
 Amer. Pursh, Fred., botanist .... 
 
 Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ' . 
 
 Amer. Putnam, Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution 
 
 Amer. , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio 
 
 Eng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, 'Art of Eng. Poesie' 
 
 Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate . . . 
 
 Eng, Pyra, John, republican politician . . . 
 
 Amer Pynchon, Wm., founder of Springfield, MaPB. . 
 
 Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect , 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirui . • • a 
 
 Gr. Pyttagoras, celebrated philosopher . * 
 
 BOBK. 
 
 DIED^ 
 
 . 1721 
 
 1804 
 
 1787 
 
 1858 
 
 . 1795 
 
 1841 
 
 . 1768 
 
 1841 
 
 1802 
 
 1839 
 
 1759 
 
 1837 
 
 1761 
 
 1807 
 
 Luence 1810 
 
 1850 
 
 . 1796 
 
 1859 
 
 1794 
 
 1860 
 
 . 1728 
 
 1791 
 
 1747 
 
 1829 
 
 . 1648 
 
 1724 
 
 1799 
 
 1851 
 
 1733 
 
 1804 
 
 , 1687 
 
 1758 
 
 1789 
 
 1834 
 
 1788 
 
 1S64 
 
 , 1664 
 
 1721 
 
 1785 
 
 1848 
 
 232 
 1225 
 
 282 
 1303 
 
 410 
 
 487 
 
 . 410 
 
 487 
 
 . 1787 
 
 472 
 18C4 
 
 B.O. 52 B 
 
 '0. 12 
 
 1809 
 
 1865 
 
 1609 
 
 1669 
 
 1679 
 70 
 
 1763 
 
 ec. . 1785 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1794 
 
 . 1811 
 
 1852 
 
 1747 
 
 1779 
 
 1432 
 
 1487 
 
 1814 
 
 
 . 1658 
 
 1695 
 
 
 1682 
 
 1577 
 
 1628 
 
 1774 
 , ISOO 
 
 1820 
 
 1718 
 
 1790 
 
 . 1738 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1600 
 
 . 1745 
 
 1813 
 
 , 1584 
 
 1643 
 
 15^? 
 . t B. 0. 300 
 
 1662 
 
 B. 
 
 ». 0. 586 B. 
 
 0. 273 
 0. 497 
 
998 
 
 IHB WOELD's PK0GBES3. 
 
 HAlIOir. NAME AND PEOFESSIOW. 
 
 Eng. Qaaln, Jones, M. D., anatomist . . • 
 
 Eng. Quarles, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' . 
 
 Fr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . • • 
 
 Quekett, John, microscopist , . . 
 
 Fr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral . • • 
 
 Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' . • 
 
 Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician • 
 
 Spac, Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet . « 
 
 Eng. Quln, James, actor . . . • • 
 
 Fr. Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist 
 
 Amer. Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author , 
 Amer. ■, Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier 
 
 Fr. Quinet, Edgar, litterateur 
 
 Span. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian 
 
 Rom. Qujntilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator 
 
 Bom. Quintus-Curtius, historian . . . f. time "' 
 
 Amer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi , 
 
 n. 
 
 Fr. Eabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . • • 
 
 Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist . . 
 
 Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress . . 
 
 Eng. Radcliflfe, Anne, romance writer, 'Mysteriesof TJdolpho' 
 
 Aust. Eadetzky, Joseph, count, commander m Italy 
 
 Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector 
 
 Eng. — , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of ' History of Java,' &6 
 
 Amer. Eaflnesque, S. C. J, botanist 
 
 Dan. Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary . 
 
 Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea 
 
 Amer. Ragnet, Condy, political economist . 
 
 Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ' 
 
 Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, ' a man illustrious in arms 
 
 literature' . . • • 
 
 Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist « . 
 
 Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet . . . 
 
 ^mer. • , David, historian . ' . . 
 
 Span. Ramusio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' 
 Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman 
 
 ^j^er. , Peyton, first president of Congress 
 
 G«r. Ranke, Leopold, historian . . . 
 
 Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archseologist and traveller 
 Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher 
 Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England 
 
 Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . 
 Dan. Rask, E. C,^ philologist and lexicographer 
 Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman 
 PruBB. Ranch, Fred. A., metaphysician 
 Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. Q. von, Lxistonan . • 
 
 Amer. Rawle, William, juriBt . . . 
 
 BOBH. 
 
 IIES 
 
 . 
 
 1861 
 
 .. 1592 
 
 1644 
 
 . 1782 
 
 1857 
 
 , 1815 
 
 1861 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 1699 
 
 1774 
 
 . 1796 
 
 
 , 1580 
 
 1645 
 
 1693 
 
 1766 
 
 1635 
 
 1668 
 
 1772 
 
 1864 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1772 
 
 1857 
 
 42 
 
 122 
 
 espasian 
 
 1st Cent. 
 
 1799 
 
 1858 
 
 1483 
 
 1553 
 
 . 1589 
 
 1699 
 
 1820 
 
 1858 
 
 1764 
 
 1823 
 
 1766 
 
 1858 
 
 1788 
 
 1863 
 
 0. . 1781 
 
 1826 
 
 1784 
 
 1842 
 
 . 1795 
 
 
 1788 
 
 1855 
 
 . 1784 
 
 1842 
 
 1785 
 
 1811 
 
 3 and 
 
 
 1552 
 
 1618 
 
 1776 
 
 1833 
 
 1685 
 
 1758 
 
 1749 
 
 1812 
 
 1485 
 
 1557 
 
 - 1773 
 
 1833 
 
 « 172£ 
 
 1775 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1661 
 
 1725 
 
 . 1770 
 
 1847 
 
 1784 
 
 183S 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1841 
 
 • 1781 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1831 
 
BIOGEAPniCAL INDBZ. 
 
 999 
 
 tTATIOV. ' HAMB AND PROFESSIOH. 
 
 Eng. Rawllnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist • 
 
 Eng. Bay, John, naturalist and author 
 
 Fr, Kaynal, "William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher 
 
 Boot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author • • 
 
 Amer. Read, Geo, Campbell, admiral • • * 
 
 Eng. Reads, Charles, novelist .... 
 
 Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . , , • 
 
 Eng. Kedding, Cyrus, journalist and author . • 
 
 Amer. Redfield, William C, meteorologist . , , 
 
 Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief • . 
 
 Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist . • 
 
 Eng. , Isaac, critic and editor . , , 
 
 Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution • • • 
 
 Amer. ——, Wm.B., politician and author . . 
 
 Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopffldla &0. . 
 
 Eng. Eeeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' « 
 
 Eng. — — — , John, comic actor ... , , 
 
 Eng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher « 
 
 Fr. Eegnard, John Francis, comic writer • • 
 
 Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . . • 
 
 Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist . . 
 
 Irish. Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist 
 
 Bcot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologlst, • Use of Storms 
 
 Amer. -, Samuel C, naval commander . . • 
 
 Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . , 
 
 Ger. Eeinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) , , 
 
 Fr. R6musat, J. P. A, historian and linguist . , 
 
 Fr. Een6, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . , , 
 
 Eng. Kennel, Major J., geographer and traveller • 
 
 Scot. Eennie, John, eminent engineer and architect « 
 
 Amer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army . . 
 
 Eng. Eepton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . « 
 
 Turk. Eeschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey . 
 
 Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. 
 
 Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer 
 
 Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg 
 
 Eng, Ricardo, David, 'writer on political economy and finance 
 
 •^— — , Joseph Le^is, (on International law) • 
 
 Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian « . 
 
 Eng, Eich, Obadiah, bibliographer . . • 
 
 Eng. Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England • 
 
 Eng. — III, king, killed at Bosworth • 
 
 Eng, Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) * 
 
 Scot, , James, traveller in Africa . « 
 
 Eng, , Samuel, eminent novelist . . 
 
 Scot, , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 
 
 Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman 
 
 Ger, Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. . 
 
 Eng, Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr . . 
 
 Span. Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . • 
 
 Ital, Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer • 
 
 Ital. Bistori, Adelaide, actress . . • 
 
 BOBV. 
 
 DIBIX 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1628 
 
 1701 
 
 1713 
 
 1798 
 
 1821 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 1777 
 
 1849 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1S57 
 
 1759? 
 
 1830 
 
 1808 
 
 1854 
 
 1742 
 
 1807 
 
 1748 
 
 1785 
 
 1743 
 
 1825 
 
 1723 
 
 1803 
 
 1799 
 
 1838 
 
 1814 
 
 1865 
 
 1647 
 
 1709 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1858 
 
 1783 
 
 1861 
 
 1710 
 
 1796 
 
 1753 
 
 1813 
 
 1788 
 
 1832 
 
 1409 
 
 1480 
 
 1742 
 
 1830 
 
 1761 
 
 1821 
 
 1825 
 
 1862 
 
 1752 
 
 1818 
 
 1802 
 
 1858 
 
 1614 
 
 1679 
 
 1779 
 
 1859 
 
 1820 
 
 1863 
 
 1772 
 
 1823 
 
 1812 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1700 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1157 
 
 1199 
 
 1450 
 
 1485 
 
 1775 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1689 
 
 1761 
 
 1787 
 
 1865 
 
 1585 
 
 1642 
 
 1763 
 
 1825 
 
 1500 
 
 1555 
 
 1783 
 
 1825 
 
 1313 
 
 135« 
 
 1821 
 
 
1000 
 
 TEEB world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 ilATIOH. HAME AND PROFESSIOS. 
 
 Eng. Eltotie, Leltch, joumalist and author . • 
 
 Amer. Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, « Eichmond Enquirer* • 
 
 Eng. Eitson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • 
 
 Amer. Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer • • 
 
 Ger. Eitter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' . • 
 
 Ger. , Charles, geographer . . . • 
 
 Bpan. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 
 
 Amer. Rives, M. 0. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . . 
 
 Amer. Rivee, John C, journalist, ' Washington Globe ' . 
 
 Amer. Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. T. * > 
 
 Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . 
 
 Scot Robertson, William, celebrated historian . • 
 
 Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist ' of the revolution 
 
 Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 
 
 Bcot. Rob Eoy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) 
 
 Fr. Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal . 
 
 Fr. Eochefoucaiild-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . 
 
 Fr . Eochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . . 
 
 Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. 8. navy . « 
 
 Eng. Eoduey, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . 
 
 Eng. Eoebuck, John Arthur, statesman . . « 
 
 Eng. Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . • 
 
 j^mer. , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, poet .... 
 
 Eng. Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist . 
 
 Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author 
 
 Fr. , M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . 
 
 Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian , . 
 
 Eng. Romaine, William, divine and author , . • 
 
 Eng. Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . 
 
 Eom. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome . • 
 
 Ger. Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer 
 
 Eng. Eooke, Sir George, admiral .... 
 
 Span. Rosa, don Francisco Martinez de la, statesman, poet, historian &o, 
 
 Span. Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . 
 
 Rom. Eosoius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent . 
 
 Eng. EoBCOe, Henry, biographer .... 
 
 ]jjjg_ , William, biographer and miscellaneons writer 
 
 Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . . 
 
 Ger. Eose, Gustave, chemist .... 
 
 Eng.- , Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' . . 
 
 Eng. , Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . . 
 
 Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &o. 
 
 Amer Eosecrana, W. S., gen. in Union army . 
 
 Ger. Eosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of pMl 
 
 osophy ..... 
 
 Ger. EosenmuUer, E. F. C, orientalist . . . 
 
 Ital. Eosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critio . « 
 
 Eng. Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator . . 
 
 Eng. , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer . , 
 
 Eng Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer • • 
 
 Ital. Rossini, Joachim, musical composer ■ • 
 
 BORH. 
 
 i>:ei>. 
 
 . 1800 
 
 1861 
 
 1778 
 
 1854 
 
 . 1752 
 
 1803 
 
 1731 
 
 1798 
 
 . 1791 
 
 
 1779 
 
 18S9 
 
 1791 
 
 
 . 1796 
 
 1864 
 
 1724 
 
 1802 
 
 . 1796 
 
 1864 
 
 1721 
 
 1793 
 
 1759 
 
 1794 
 
 1794 
 
 1864 
 
 t) 
 
 1763 
 
 1725 
 
 1807 
 
 , 1747 
 
 1827 
 
 1773 
 
 1794 
 
 1771 
 
 1838 
 
 1717 
 
 1793 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1855 
 
 1779 
 
 
 1733 
 
 1793 
 
 1754 
 
 1793 
 
 1661 
 
 1741 
 
 . 1714 
 
 1795 
 
 ' 1757 
 
 1818 
 
 • B 
 
 0. 716 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1650 
 
 1708 
 
 CO. 1789 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 61 
 
 1800 
 
 1836 
 
 1751 
 
 1831 
 
 1633 
 
 1684 
 
 1795 
 
 
 . 1795 
 
 1838 
 
 1775 
 
 1843 
 
 1800 
 
 1843 
 
 1819 
 
 1 
 
 
 11- 
 
 1805 
 
 
 <, 1768 
 
 1835 
 
 1783 
 
 1854 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1858 
 
 1800 
 
 13S] 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
BIOGBAPHICAI. IKD2UC 
 
 1001 
 
 KATIOM. HAHE AKD FROFESSIOB. 
 
 Oer.Jw.Botbschild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great baifking-taoTiso 
 — — , Ansolin at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 18S6) and 
 Solomon, sons ot Meyer Anselm Eothscbild . . 
 
 Rotteck, Chas. "W. R. von, historian . . , , 
 
 Rousseau, John Baptist, poet .... 
 
 , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer • 
 
 Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . , 
 
 Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist . , , , 
 
 Ruckert, Frederick, poet . . , , 
 
 Rumfor J, Benjamin Thompson, count, officer (in foreign service) and 
 
 philosopiter ..... 
 
 Rumsey, James, inventor , • , , 
 
 Rupert, prince, warrior . • . . . 
 
 Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 
 Rush, Richard, diplomatist . . , , 
 
 Rushworth John, ' Historical Collections ' • • 
 
 Rusk, Thos, J., U. S. senator from Texas • . , 
 
 Ruskin, John, writer on art .... 
 Eussel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters ' 
 
 , Lord 'William, one of the martyrs of liberty 
 
 Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . 
 
 , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author 
 
 , William, historian of modern Europe . . 
 
 Gei, 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 l>utch- 
 
 Eng. 
 
 — , William H., Times correspondent and author 
 
 Rutledge, Edward, statesman 
 
 , John (brother of above), statesman . 
 
 Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral . , 
 
 Eymer, Thomas, antiquary, » Federa ' • 
 
 CBS. 
 
 DIKA 
 
 1780 
 
 1821 
 
 1775 
 
 1840 
 
 1670 
 
 1741 
 
 1712 
 
 1778 
 
 1673 
 
 1718 
 
 1795 
 
 1854 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1753 
 
 1814 
 
 1743 
 
 1793 
 
 1619 
 
 168? 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1607 
 
 1690 
 
 1803 
 
 1857 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1636 
 
 1723 
 
 1641 
 
 1683 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1746 
 
 1794 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1800 
 
 1739 
 
 1800 
 
 1607 
 
 1679 
 
 1713 
 
 
 s. 
 
 Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist . . 
 
 Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition 
 
 Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . 
 
 Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . , 
 
 Pers! Badi, or Saadi, poet . . . , , 
 
 Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian • 
 
 Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt . , 
 
 Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . , 
 
 Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . , 
 
 Fr. St. Hilaire. Auguste de, botanist . . , 
 
 Fr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist . 
 
 Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of 'Paul and Virginia, 
 
 ItaL St. Real, Csesar Vichard abbi de, historian . 
 
 Fr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher • 
 
 Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral . 
 
 Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales , . 
 
 Sng. Bala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author . 
 
 Bar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior 
 
 Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran 
 
 Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman • 
 
 Bom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, historian , . 
 
 f. B. 0. 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1672 
 
 1724 
 
 1613 
 
 1684 
 
 1758 
 
 1838 
 
 1175 
 
 1296 
 
 1567 
 
 1587 
 
 1822 
 
 1863 
 
 1798 
 
 1854 
 
 1735 
 
 1813 
 
 1799 
 
 1861 
 
 1772 
 
 1S44 
 
 1736 
 
 1814 
 
 1639 
 
 16S3 
 
 1760 
 
 1823 
 
 1734 
 
 1823 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1137 
 
 1103 
 
 1680 
 
 1736 
 
 1650 
 
 1619 
 
 86 B. 
 
 0. Sj 
 
1002 TUB world's pkogeess. 
 
 NATIOir. HAMB AND FRQFESSIOK. 
 
 Fr. Salmaslus, Claudius, scholar and author . • 
 
 Fr. Balvandy, N, A., comte de, statesman . . • 
 
 F^'. Salverte, miBcellaneous writer . , • 
 
 Heh. Samson, judge of Israel . . • > 
 
 Heb. Bamuel, lae* judge of Israel . « « 
 
 PhoB. SanconiAtho, philosopher and historian • • 
 
 Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist • 
 
 Amer. Sanderson, John, litterateur . , • . 
 
 A'aier. Sands, Robt. O., poet and litterateur . , 
 
 Eug. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval offlcer . 
 
 Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer . 
 
 Max. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president 
 
 Gr, Sappho, poetess ..... 
 
 Chald. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh . ' . 
 
 Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian 
 
 Heb. Saul, 1st king of Israel . . . . 
 
 Fr. Sauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian • 
 
 Fr. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . • 
 
 Fr. Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . . . 
 
 Fr. Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . . 
 
 Fr. , Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . 
 
 £ng. Savage, Ei chard, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Savary, Nicliolas, 'Life of Mahomet,' ' Letters on Egypt' 
 
 Ger. Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Eoman law 
 
 Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence 
 
 Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1696 
 
 Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior 
 
 Dan. Baxo-Grammaticus, historian 
 
 Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say 
 
 Fr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy . 
 
 Amer. , Thomas, naturalist .... 
 
 ItaL Soaliger, Joseph Jtlstus, critic and historian . 
 
 ItaL , Julius Cffisar, learned critic . 
 
 Scandenlierg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 
 
 Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer 
 
 Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Ahinger, jurist . . , 
 
 Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . , , 
 
 Ger. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . . • 
 
 Bwe. Scheele, Charles "Wm., eminent chemist • « 
 
 Ger. Bchelling, Fred. Augs., novelist . . , , 
 
 Ger. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . , , 
 
 Amer. Schenck, Kobert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . . 
 
 Pruss. Bchill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic oiflcer 
 
 Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent historian and dramatist 
 
 Sehimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Koyal' . 
 
 Ger. Sohlegel, A. "W. von, critic and essayist 
 
 Ger. —— — , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian . 
 
 Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian 
 
 Ger. Bcblosser, M. S. F., historian . . . 
 
 Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . • . 
 
 Amer. Schofield, major-genera.' and governor Virginia • . 
 
 Oer. Scholl, blBtorian >...•• 1706 1833 
 
 BOBIT. 
 
 DrBO, 
 
 1588 
 
 1653 
 
 1795 
 
 1856 
 
 1771 
 
 1839 
 
 . B. c. 12th Cent. 
 
 B. 0. 11th Cent. 
 
 f. B. 
 
 0. 760 
 
 1S04 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1844 
 
 1790 
 
 1832 
 
 1623 
 
 1672 
 
 1600 
 
 1667 
 
 1798 
 
 
 f. B. C. 606 
 
 
 B. 
 
 . 876 1 
 
 •ian 1522 
 
 1623 
 
 E. 
 
 c. 1055 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1757 
 
 1S38 
 
 1677 
 
 1730 
 
 1740 
 
 1799 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 . 1697 
 
 1743 
 
 1750 
 
 1788 
 
 1779 
 
 1861 
 
 1452 
 
 1498 
 
 srvice 1696 
 
 1750 
 
 1600 
 
 1639 
 
 1134 
 
 1208 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1767 
 
 1832 
 
 . 1787 
 
 1824 
 
 1540 
 
 1C09 
 
 1484 
 
 1558 
 
 rarrior 1404 
 
 1467 
 
 1540 
 
 1600 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 1610 
 
 1660 
 
 1764 
 
 
 1742 
 
 1786 
 
 1766 
 
 1839 
 
 1775 
 
 1854 
 
 1773 
 
 1809 
 
 1759 
 
 1805 
 
 1778 
 
 1856 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 1772 
 
 1829 
 
 1768 
 
 1834 
 
 . 1776 
 
 186 
 
 1730 
 
 179« 
 
BIOGEAPHiCAL mDBX. 
 
 1003 
 
 ■ATioa, 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Boot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Chald. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Egypt, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Bag. 
 
 ITAME AND F&OFESSIOX. BOBN. DIED 
 
 bchomlierg, Armand Frederick, warrior • • • 1619 1694 
 
 Schomburgk, Sir Eobert H., naturalist and traveller . 1804 186J 
 
 Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 1864 
 
 Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 1838 
 
 Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . , . 1615 1667 
 
 Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior . , , 1661 1747 
 
 Schumacher, H. C, astronomer . . , , 1780 185C 
 
 Schu.z, 0. G., critic and lUteraleur . . • t 1747 
 
 Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution , , 1731 1804 
 
 Sohwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . , , 1771 1820 
 
 , prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 1852 
 
 Scioppius, Caspar, philologist and grammarian • . 1576 1649 
 Scipio, .^milianuB Publius, able warrior, (minor) . b. 0. 123 
 
 , Publius Cornelius, sumanled Africanus, able warrior, (major) b. 0. 189 
 
 Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician . . 1291 
 
 , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . , 1747 1821 
 
 — — , Sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular 
 
 writers of modern times .... 1771 1832 
 
 , "Winfleld, lieutenant general commander-in-chief IT. S. army 17S6 1866 
 
 Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... 1791 1861 
 
 Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman . 1775 1851 
 
 Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate ... 1693 1768 
 
 Secundus, John, Latin poet .... 1511 1536 
 
 Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 1790 1867 
 
 , John, (of Conn.) Union general . , 1815 1864 
 
 , Theodore, statesman and political economist , 1780 1839 
 
 , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . . ISll 1859 
 
 Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... 1639 1701 
 
 Segur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer . . 1753 1830 
 
 Selden, John, antiquary and historian ... 1584 1654 
 
 Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer , . 1723 
 
 Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) . 
 
 Semiramis, queen of Assyria . , , f. b. 0. 1250 
 
 Seneca, Lucius Annseus, philosopher, statesman and moralist b. c. 2 
 
 Senior, Nassau W., political economist . , , 1790 
 
 Bennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography , 1771 
 
 Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian , . , 1493 
 
 Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman ... 1779 
 
 Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . 
 
 Bervetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin 
 
 Sesostris, king of Egypt . 
 
 S6vign6, Mary de, marchioness of, epiiitolary writer 
 
 Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . 
 
 , 'William H., statesman, U. S. senator from K 
 
 1509 
 . f. E. 0. 1500 
 
 1627 
 1747 
 Y., sec of state 1801 
 1640 
 
 Shadwell,T., poet laureate .... 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 
 
 , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, « Characteristics ' 1671 
 
 Shakespeai e, John, orientalist • . . . 1774 
 
 . , William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 
 
 Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist . . , 1734 
 
 — — , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated . . 1618 
 
 Shaw, George, natvralist . . . , 176I 
 
 65 
 1864 
 1884 
 1572 
 1S52 
 B. c. 73 
 1553 
 
 1696 
 1809 
 
 1692 
 1683 
 1713 
 1858 
 1616 
 1813 
 1673 
 1S1£ 
 
1004 
 
 THS WOBLD^S FBOGSESS. 
 
 KATION. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 ^Uner. 
 
 HAME AND PEOPESSION, 
 
 Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion , , 
 
 Shedd, "W. G., D. D., theologian, historia^, and critio 
 Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . » 
 
 Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist . 
 
 , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . . 
 
 Shenetone, "William, poet .... 
 Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department 
 
 — — , Kichard Brinsley, dramatist and orator . 
 
 , Thomas, actor, and author . • « 
 Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London . . 
 Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . • 
 , John, U. S senator from Ohio . ■ • 
 
 , William T., general . • • 
 
 Sherwood Mrs., novelist . . . • 
 
 Shiel, Eichard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . . 
 
 Shirley, James, dramatist . . • • 
 
 Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval oflicer • • 
 
 Shuhrick, John Templar, naval oiiicer ■ • 
 
 , William B., rear admiral ... 
 
 Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Old and New Tesament' 
 Sihbee, Richard, theologian, ' Bruised Reed ' . 
 
 Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses . 
 
 Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman , 
 
 Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . , 
 
 , Sir Philip, accomplished oflBoer and author , 
 
 Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist . , 
 
 Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-66 « 
 
 Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . , , 
 
 Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . , 
 
 , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . 
 
 Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor . 
 
 , Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic . . 
 
 Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . . 
 
 Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet • • 
 
 , of Eos, lyric poet .... 
 
 Simpson, Robert, mathematician . « . 
 
 , Thomas, " ... 
 
 Sinclair, Catharine, authoress . . . 
 
 Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere . 
 Sismondi, J. C. L., historian . . ; 
 
 Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII . . 
 
 Sleidan John Philipson, historian . . . 
 
 Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist ... 
 
 Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy 
 
 , Alex, poet ..... 
 
 , Charlotte, poet .... 
 
 — , General Samuel, military commander and statesman 
 
 ———, Horace, poet, 'Rejected Addresses,' &o. • 
 
 — — , James, poet, n u • » 
 
 — — , John, ' History Viginia' . . 
 
 , John Pye, theological writer . • • 
 
 — , Joseph, Mormon prophet • . • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 j>no, 
 
 1740 
 
 182S 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 1798 
 
 1851 
 
 1792 
 
 1822 
 
 1714 
 
 1763 
 
 1751 
 
 1819 
 
 1722 
 
 1788 
 
 1678 
 
 1761 
 
 1721 
 
 1793 
 
 1775 
 
 1852 
 
 1792 
 
 1851 
 
 1594 
 
 1666 
 
 1650 
 
 1705 
 
 1778 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1577 
 
 1636 
 
 1755 
 
 1831 
 
 , 1757 
 
 1844 
 
 1620 
 
 1683 
 
 , 1554 
 
 1586 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1865 
 
 1779 
 
 1864 
 
 1759 
 
 1836 
 
 . S92? 
 
 461? 
 
 1806 
 
 
 B. 0. 660 ? 
 
 
 650? 
 
 
 1687 
 
 1768 
 
 1710 
 
 1761 
 
 1800 
 
 1864 
 
 1779 
 
 1839 
 
 , 1773 
 
 1843 
 
 1450 P 
 
 1529 
 
 , 1506 
 
 1556 
 
 1660 
 
 1752 
 
 y 1723 
 
 1790 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1808 
 
 1752 
 
 1839 
 
 1779 
 
 1849 
 
 1775 
 
 1839 
 
 , 1579 
 
 1631 
 
 1774 
 
 1851 
 
 . 1805 
 
 1844 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 1005 
 
 KATIOX. HAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essaj'ist, critic and moralist « 
 
 Eng. ^— — , Sir James E., 'botanist and naturalist . , 
 
 Eng, , Sir William Sidney, military commander . 
 
 Eng. , T. Soutliwortb, -writer on sanitary reform . 
 
 Eng. , William, classical scholar and author . 
 
 Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U, 
 
 Scot. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian . 
 
 Eng. Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Camhridge, author, lecturer 
 
 Eng. , Win. Henry, admiral, scientific writer . 
 
 Eng. Boane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . 
 
 Pol. Sohieski, John III., king of Poland, warrior . 
 
 Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect . 
 
 6r. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers 
 
 Gr. , ecclesiastical historian . . • 
 
 Span. Soils, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . . 
 
 Heb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverhs • 
 
 Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . 
 
 Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer . 
 
 Eng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer . . 
 
 Eng. , Wm., poet, 'The Chase' . . . 
 
 Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Eossi, vocalist . 
 
 Gr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet , . . 
 
 Ft. Sorbonne, E. de, theologian, founder of the 8. College at Par 
 
 Amer. Soul6, Pierre, U. 8. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist 
 
 Er. Souli6, Fredericlr, novelist and dramatist , 
 
 Soulouque, Faustin, ex-emperor of Hayti . 
 
 Fr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of F 
 
 and statesman .... 
 
 Eng. South, Roheit, eminent divine . . 
 
 Amer. Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. 8., N". Y. 
 
 Eng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) , 
 
 Eng. Southerr.e, J., dramatic writer. and poet . . 
 
 Eng. Southey, Mrs. Eobt.,'(Caroline Bowles), poet . , 
 
 Eng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer • 
 
 Fr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... 
 
 Fr. Boyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . 
 
 Gr. Sozomen, ecclesiastical hi^torian . . . 
 
 Amer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer 
 
 Eng. Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . 
 
 Eng. Bpelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . 
 
 Eng. Spence, "Wm., entomologist .... 
 
 Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York . 
 
 Eng. , earl of, statesman . . . • 
 
 Amer. , John C, jurist and see. navy , • 
 
 Eng. , Wm. R, translator .... 
 
 Eng. Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . • 
 
 Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior . . 
 
 Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) . • 
 
 Ger. Spohr, Louis, musical composer . • • 
 
 Amer. Spooner, Shearjashub, {Diet of Painters') . • 
 
 Ger. Sprengel, Kent, botanist .... 
 
 Eng. Bpurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1768 
 1759 
 1764 
 
 1790 
 1814 
 
 1721 
 1764 
 17S8 
 1753 
 1629 
 1539 
 
 B. C. 470 B. 
 
 5th cent., 
 1610 
 
 B. 
 f. B. 
 
 1650 
 1790 
 1692 
 1804 
 B. C. 495 
 1201 
 
 1800 
 1789 
 
 1769 
 1638 
 1787 
 1750 
 1662 
 1787 
 1775 
 1806 
 1800 
 
 (abt.) 1794 
 1827 
 1561 
 1783 
 1765 
 1758 
 1788 
 1770 
 1553 
 1571 
 1633 
 1783 
 
 1766 
 183^ 
 
 DIEB. 
 
 1841 
 182S 
 ISiO 
 1861 
 
 1835 
 1771 
 1849 
 1865 
 183T 
 1698 
 1594 
 . C. 400 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1686 
 
 0. 975 
 
 , 0. 598 
 
 1716 
 
 1743 
 1854 
 
 ,0.404 
 1274 
 
 1847 
 
 1851 
 1716 
 1842 
 1814 
 1746 
 1854 
 1843 
 1854 
 1858 
 450 
 1866 
 1864 
 1643 
 1868 
 1848 
 1835 
 1855 
 1834 
 1598 
 1630 
 167> 
 
 issa 
 
1006 
 
 THE "WOKLD'S progress. 
 
 NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Ger. Spnrzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) 
 Amer. Sprague, Charles, poet ..... 
 Amer. - , Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian 
 
 Amer. Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary 
 -Bug. Stackhouee, Thomas, divine and author, « Hist Bible • 
 
 Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, anthoress 
 
 , Madame, talented writer 
 
 Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E. . 
 
 Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter . . 
 
 Stanhope, Charlep, earl, politician and inventor 
 
 Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller 
 
 , Phil, Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. Stanton, Edwin M., sec: etai-y of war 
 
 Amer, Stark, John, distinguished offlcer in the Revolution 
 
 Rom, Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet 
 
 Staunton, Sir Geo. L. ' Embassy to China' . 
 
 Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist . 
 
 Steevens, Geo,, ' Comment, on Shakespeare ' , 
 
 Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author 
 
 Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers 
 
 , John L., traveller and author 
 
 Stephenson, George, engineer . 
 
 , Robert, «• . 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 L:ish, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Sterling, Wra., M, P., bibliographer and critic , 
 
 Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author 
 
 Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer 
 
 Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms . 
 Pruss, Steuben, Fred, W, A , baron, who generously aided the Ainerican 
 
 cause ....,, 
 
 Amer. Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . , 
 
 Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England 
 Amer, Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chap]ain in the TJ, 8, Navy and author 
 
 Boot. , Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer , 
 
 Amer. Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian . , , 
 
 Eng. StiUingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of Worcester and author 
 
 Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red 
 
 Jacket' • . • . » 
 
 Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist . , 
 
 Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence , 
 Eng, Stow, John, antiquary and historian . , 
 
 Amer, Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic , , , 
 
 Amer, , Harriet Beeoher, Mrs., novelist « 
 
 Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist . , . , 
 
 Strabo, eminent geographer . . . 
 
 Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . 
 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, viscour.t, diplomatist . 
 
 Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' 
 
 , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author 
 
 Gr, 
 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Ger. 
 Ger. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Russ, 
 Scot. 
 
 Strickland, Agnes, historian of Queens of England' 
 Stryp?, John, theologian, biographer and historian 
 Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer , . 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert, historian ... 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1776 
 1791 
 1795 
 
 1820 
 
 1680 
 
 1766 
 
 1693 
 
 1584? 
 
 1798 
 
 1753 
 
 1776 
 
 1805 
 
 1728 
 61? 
 1737 
 1671 
 1736 
 1789 
 
 10th 
 
 1805 
 1788 
 1803 
 1806 
 1806 
 1713 
 
 1749 
 
 1784 
 1798 
 1753 
 1727 
 1633 
 
 1793 
 1766 
 1779 
 1525 
 
 1814 
 1T46 
 19 
 1593 
 17S8 
 1S08 
 1786 
 1806 
 1643 
 1793 
 1742 
 
 1S3S 
 
 175 J 
 
 1817 
 1750 
 1658 
 1867 
 1816 
 1839 
 
 1822 
 96? 
 1801 
 1729 
 1800 
 1859 
 cent. 
 1552 
 1848 
 1859 
 1844 
 
 1768 
 1549 
 
 1794 
 
 J 838 
 1857 
 
 1828 
 1795 
 1699 
 
 1844 
 1835 
 1845 
 1605 
 
 183« 
 1641 
 
 1737 
 
 1864 
 178« 
 
BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 1007 
 
 irATIOK, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. 8fc;art, James, arcliitect and author . , 
 
 Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general , 
 
 Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . , 
 
 Eng. St urge, Joseph, philanthropist . . , 
 
 Gar. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. 'writer, 'Reflections,' &c. 
 Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Suchet, Louis Gahriel, celebrated marshal , 
 Suotling, Sir John, poet and dramatist 
 Sue, Eugene, novelist . . • 
 Suetonius, Paulinus, ■warrior . . 
 , Tranquillus Caius, historian • 
 
 Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian • 
 
 Suidas, Greek lexicographer . ■ . 
 
 Sullivan, Ja?., gov. Mass., political writer • 
 
 , John, revolutionary general . , 
 
 , Wm. LL. D., political writer 
 
 Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 
 
 , Tliomas, portrait painter 
 
 Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher 
 
 Snmner, Charles, U. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist 
 
 Amer. Edwin Vose, Union general . 
 
 Eng. John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author 
 
 Amer. Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. 0. , 
 
 Eng. Sunderland, Roiit. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman » 
 
 Eng. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet . . • 
 
 Eng. Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . , 
 
 Eng. Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. III. , , 
 
 Eng. Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury . 
 
 Rubs. BuvaroS", or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel war 
 
 rior .... . , 
 
 Eng. Swain, Charles, poet .... 
 Dutch. Swamraerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . « 
 
 Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect , . 
 
 Irish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist , . • 
 
 Eng. Swinburne, Algernon, poet , . . 
 
 Amer, Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, ' Army of Potomac' 
 Eng. Sydenham, C. W- Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of C:inada, &o. 
 Rom. Bylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurjcr . 
 Eng. Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to A va' , . • 
 
 Afric. Sypliax, Numidian prince . • . > 
 
 Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelitts, eminent historian • 
 
 Rom. , Marcus Claudius, emperor . . * 
 
 Swe. Tnglioni, Marie, dansuese . . . 
 
 Eng. Talbot, Jno., Ist earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . 
 
 Amer. ^, Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . 
 
 Eng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist 
 
 Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist . 
 
 Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . . 
 
 Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., Revol. oflticer . . . 
 
 Ft. Talma, Francis Joseph; one of the greatest of aotora , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 . 1713 
 
 1788 
 
 3S32 ? 
 
 1864 
 
 • 1780 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1S.5S 
 
 1740 
 
 1786 
 
 1602 
 
 1682 
 
 1772 
 
 1826 
 
 1613 
 
 1641 
 
 1S08 
 
 1857 
 
 37 
 
 
 \. 100 
 
 
 1728 
 
 1798 
 
 f. abt 1000 
 
 
 1744 
 
 180* 
 
 1740 
 
 1795 
 
 1774 
 
 1S39 
 
 va. 1560 
 
 1641 
 
 1783 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1823 
 
 jpist 1811 
 
 
 1796 
 
 1863 
 
 1780 
 
 1S62 
 
 1734 
 
 1832 
 
 , 1641 
 
 1702 
 
 1515 
 
 1547 
 
 , 1779 
 
 1834 
 
 1773 
 
 1843 
 
 1755 
 
 1828 
 
 ruel war- 
 
 
 1730 
 
 1800 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1637 
 
 1681 
 
 , 1689 
 
 1772 
 
 . 1667 
 
 1745 
 
 1793 
 
 1841 
 
 B. 0. 137 B. 
 
 c. 78 
 
 
 1809 
 
 . B. 
 
 C. 201 
 
 56 
 
 135 
 
 200 ? 
 
 278 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1373 
 
 1453 
 
 17.^0 
 
 1813 
 
 1795 
 
 1854 
 
 1754 
 
 1838 
 
 1529 
 
 158S 
 
 1754 
 
 1835 
 
 1763 
 
 1S28 
 
1008 
 
 THE world's PBOGEESS. 
 
 WATIOK. 
 
 Tartar. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swiss, 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Amer„ 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 KAME AMD FBOFESSION. 
 
 Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince 
 and conqueror . . • , . 
 
 Taney, Boger B., chief-justice U. S, . « 
 
 Tannahill, Robt., poet . . . • 
 
 Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America , 
 Tasso, Bsrnardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul 
 
 , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets 
 
 Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic 
 
 , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . 
 
 Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer • 
 
 , Isaac, essayist .... 
 
 , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer • 
 
 , John, ' the "Water Poet ' . . • 
 
 , Sir Robert, sculptor and architect 
 
 , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . 
 
 , Tom, dramatist . . - 
 
 , Wm., miscellaneous writer. , . 
 
 , Zachary, major-general U. S. Army, victor in 
 pres. U. S. . . . . 
 
 Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) 
 Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . . 
 
 Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty 
 Temple, Sir William, statesman and writer 
 Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer . 
 
 , Rev. Wm., famous for ' France' , . 
 
 , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer 
 
 Mexico, 
 
 Tennyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' . 
 
 Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate 
 
 Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K, B, 
 
 Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . 
 
 Tertullian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of 
 
 the Church ..... 
 
 Terry, Alfred H., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher 
 Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . . 
 
 Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture . 
 Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist .... 
 Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of 
 
 Philosophy .... 
 Themistocles, eminent Athenian • . » 
 Th6nard, chemist and statesman « * 
 Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . , . f. b. 
 Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare . 
 Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . . 
 Theodosius, Flavins, Roman emperor and warrior 
 Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . . 
 Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer 
 Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . 
 Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy 
 Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian . , 
 Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian . . 
 , Am6dee S. D., historian . • 
 
 1777 
 
 1884 
 
 1774 
 
 1810 
 
 1754 
 
 1833 
 
 1493 
 
 1569 
 
 1544 
 
 159£ 
 
 
 1836 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1787 
 
 1865 
 
 1613 
 
 1667 
 
 1580 
 
 1654 
 
 1714 
 
 1788 
 
 1758 
 
 1835 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1S49 
 
 1784 
 
 1850 
 
 
 1813 
 
 1757 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1354 
 
 1628 
 
 1698 
 
 1703 
 
 1764 
 
 1705 
 
 1777 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1761 
 
 1819 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1832 
 
 0. 192 
 
 
 160 
 
 1811 
 
 1863 
 
 1752 
 
 1828 
 
 1812 
 
 
 0. 639 B. 
 
 0. 543 
 
 0. 535 B. 
 
 0. 470 
 
 0. 285 
 
 
 
 1744 
 
 383 
 
 457 
 
 346 
 
 391 
 
 0. 371 
 
 
 1515 
 
 1583 
 
 1794 
 
 
 0. 576 
 
 
 1795 
 
 isse 
 
 1797 
 
 
mOGBAPHICAL INDJaC 
 
 1009 
 
 ITAnOH. KAME AITD PEOFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Thiers, ^dolpbe, historian and statesman . , 
 
 Ger. Tliierscli, F. W., Greek philologist, &o, . , 
 
 Ger. Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. Da-yid's, liistoriaa 
 
 Ger. Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian ... 
 
 Amer. Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . . 
 
 , Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 
 
 Scot. Thomson, Anthony T., medical and miso. writer , 
 
 Amer. , Chas., president of Congress . . 
 
 Scot. , Dr. Thomas, chemist . • , 
 
 Boot. , James, popular poet . . 
 
 Amer. Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gt. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 Gr. 
 
 Tart. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Buss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor ... 
 
 Thrasybulus, Athenian general , , 
 
 Thuoydides, historian • . , , 
 
 Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . 
 
 Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor 
 
 Tibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . 
 
 Tickell, Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator 
 
 Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature . 
 
 Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . . , 
 
 Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ' Psyche' ... 
 
 Tillotson. John, eminent prelate and archh. Canterbury 
 
 Tilly, John F., count de, military commander. 
 
 Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse . 
 
 Timour Beg. See Tamerlane . , , 
 
 Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior , 
 
 Tissot, Simon A., medical writer . , 
 
 Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavins, emperor, father of his people 
 
 Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon 
 
 Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman , 
 
 Todd, Eobt B., * Medical Cyclopaedia ' &o. 
 
 Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers , , 
 
 Tomliue, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of Winchester 
 
 Amer. Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. 
 
 Irish. Tone, Theobald "Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion , 
 
 Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . , 
 
 , Tho%., ' History of Prices ' , ' , 
 
 — — , Wm., miscellaneous writer . . , 
 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 
 Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . , 
 
 Span. Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general , , 
 
 Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . 
 Amer. Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . . , 
 
 Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer 
 
 Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . , 
 
 Amer. Totten, Joseph G., military engineer . . 
 
 Amer. Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . , 
 
 Toussaint I'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti 
 Eng. Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment, on Bible ' . 
 Fr. Tracy, A L. C, Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi 
 
 losophy ..... 
 Bug. Traill, Thos. J., editor 'Encyclo. Brltannlca' . , 
 
 Itom. Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior . 
 
 BOBN 
 
 MED 
 
 1798 
 
 
 . 17S4 
 
 1860 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 )r 178?. 
 
 
 . 1778 
 
 1849 
 
 1729 
 
 1824 
 
 1773 
 
 1853 
 
 1700 
 
 1748 
 
 1817 
 
 186? 
 
 1771 
 
 1844 
 
 
 B. 0. 389 
 
 B. 0. 489 
 
 B 0. 400 
 
 1732 
 
 1806 
 
 B. c. 84 
 
 37 
 
 . B. c. 30 
 
 
 1686 
 
 1740 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1773 
 
 1853 
 
 1774 
 
 1810 
 
 1630 
 
 1694 
 
 1559 
 
 1632 
 
 
 B. 0. 337 
 
 1739 
 
 1799 
 
 1728 
 
 1797 
 
 pie 40 
 
 81 
 
 1770 
 
 1804 
 
 1805 
 
 1859 
 
 1810 
 
 1866 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1787 
 
 1774 
 
 1825 
 
 1763 
 
 1798 
 
 1736 
 
 1812 
 
 1774 
 
 1858 
 
 1744 
 
 1820 
 
 1740 
 
 1775 
 
 
 1498 
 
 1783 
 
 lS4f 
 
 1608 
 
 1647 
 
 
 S52 
 
 1788 
 
 
 . 1776 
 
 1854 
 
 1745 
 
 180J 
 
 i 
 
 1857 
 
 1- 
 
 1754 
 
 1838 
 
 . 1781 
 
 1862 
 
 62 
 
 117 
 
1010 
 
 THB world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eiig. Tredgold, ThoB., civil engineer and author . . 
 
 Eng. Trench, Eev. Rich. Chenevix, poet, philologist and theologian 
 Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron, de, celehrated fur his adventures , 
 Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . . 
 
 Fr Tristan, rHermite, Francis, poet , , , 
 
 Eng. Trollope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller . 
 
 Dutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral . , 
 
 Amer. Trooet, Gerard, chemist and geologist . . 
 
 Amer. Trumbull. Col. John, statesman and hist, painter , 
 
 Amer. ■ , Bcnj., historian of Connecticut . . 
 
 Amer. ■ , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut • 
 
 Amer. ■ — , John, poet, born in Ct. . , 
 
 Eng. Truio, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-loril-chancellor , 
 Amer. Truxton, Thos., naval commander . . 
 
 Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer . . 
 
 Amer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . 
 
 Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist , , 
 
 Amer. ■ , Jos., writer and philanthropist . 
 
 Amer. Tudor, "Wm., editor N. Amer. Hev. and biographer . 
 
 Eng. Tuppcr, Martin Ifarquhar, poet and essayist . 
 
 Fr. Turtnne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . 
 
 Ft. Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman . • 
 
 Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary . . 
 
 Eng. , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry' . 
 
 Amer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critic . 
 
 Eng. , Sliaron, 'History of England' . . 
 
 Amer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist . . 
 
 Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) . 
 
 , Francis, (son) " " «' . 
 
 . , John A. (son) «« « " 
 
 Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' 
 
 Amer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general . 
 
 Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . . 
 
 Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and lebel 
 
 Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible into 
 
 English ..... 
 
 Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author , • 
 
 Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian .... 
 
 Gr. Tyrtasus, poet ..... 
 
 Scot. Tytier, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc. writer . 
 
 g(jQj;_ 1 Patrick Fraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots' 
 
 gcot. , Wm,, historical and misc. writer • . 
 
 Ger. IThland, Ludwig, poet . . . 
 
 Span. Ulloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . 
 
 Uncas, North American Indian chief (Mobegans) 
 
 Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and histoiian 
 
 Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretaiy of state 
 
 Scot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . 
 
 Iriah. Usher, James, learned divine and historian 
 
 BDRI7. 
 
 17S8 
 1807 
 1726 
 1741 
 1601 
 1778 
 1597 
 1776 
 1756 
 1735 
 1740 
 175(3 
 1782 
 1755 
 1705 
 1784 
 
 1778 
 1779 
 1810 
 1611 
 1727 
 
 1798 
 1791 
 1768 
 1810 
 15SS 
 1623 
 1671 
 1500 
 1790 
 1734 
 1790 
 
 1500 
 1800 
 1642 
 . 0. 668 
 1747 
 1790 
 1711 
 
 AIEB 
 
 1829 
 
 1794 
 1810 
 1655 
 
 1863 
 1652 
 1850 
 1843 
 1820 
 1809 
 1831 
 1853 
 1822 
 1774 
 1851 
 
 1840 
 1830 
 
 1675 
 17S1 
 1858 
 1839 
 1861 
 1847 
 1859 
 1631 
 1687 
 1737 
 1536 
 1863 
 1804 
 1662 
 
 1636 
 
 1718 
 
 1813 
 1849 
 1792 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1716 
 
 1790 
 
 1680 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1S44 
 
 1778 
 
 1851 
 
 1680 
 
 1669 
 
BIOGBAFHICAL USTDS^ 
 
 1011 
 
 irATIOlr. KASIE AND FROFESSIOK. 
 
 Fr. Vailliant, Sebasti&.l, eminent botanist . , T 
 
 Dutch. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and critio . 
 Ft. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses , 
 
 Valentia, George A., viscount, ' Voyages and Travels ' 
 Rom. Valerian, emperor . . . • • 
 
 Rom. Valerius Flaccus, poet . . • • 
 
 Rom. Maximus, historian . . • ■ 
 
 Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . • 
 
 Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States • 
 
 Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator • . • 
 
 Eng. Vandenhoff, John, actor , , , • 
 
 Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . , , 
 
 Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India • « 
 
 Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general . , 
 
 Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • . 
 
 Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist , 
 
 Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the Patroon' * « 
 
 Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans , 
 ItaL Vasari, George, architect and biog., ' Lives of the Painters' 
 Ger. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist , , 
 
 Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations , 
 
 Fr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer . . 
 
 Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ' dissenting ' divine and histarian 
 Span. Vega, Garcilacso de, poet .... 
 
 Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet • 
 
 Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon 
 Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior 
 Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' 
 Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . 
 Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet . 
 
 Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . 
 
 Eng. Vernon, Edward, adtoiral . . 
 
 Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery 
 
 Fr. V6ron, Louis D6sir6, author and journalist 
 
 Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critio 
 
 Fr. Vertot, Ren6 Hubert, abbe de, historian , 
 
 Eng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary 
 
 Rom. Vespasian, Titus Plavius, warrior and emperor 
 
 Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given 
 
 to the new world 
 Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress 
 Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy 
 Eng. Victoria Aleiandrina, queen of Great Britain 
 Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. 
 ItaL Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . , 
 
 Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective polloa 
 Fr. Vieuxtempg, Henri, violinist . , 
 
 Fr. Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critle 
 Fr. Villars, Louis Hecttr, duke of, able general 
 
 ftr. ViUemaia, Abel, Fr. politician and author 
 
 eoKii. 
 
 DIED 
 
 1669 
 
 1722 
 
 , 1715 
 
 1785 
 
 f. 12th cent. 
 
 . 1770 
 
 1844 
 
 
 260? 
 
 
 881 
 
 {. 30 
 
 
 . 1406 
 
 1457 
 
 1782 
 
 18S4 
 
 1750 
 
 1798 
 
 1T90 
 
 
 , 1776 
 
 1852 
 
 1593 
 
 1645 
 
 . 1823 
 
 1863 
 
 1612 
 
 1662 
 
 . 1781 
 
 1851 
 
 1764 
 
 1839 
 
 B.O. 116 
 
 B. c. 27 
 
 1512 
 
 1574 
 
 1771 
 
 1826 
 
 1714 
 
 1767 
 
 1633 
 
 1707 
 
 1503 
 
 1536 
 
 1562 
 
 163§ 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1654 
 
 1712 
 
 1725 
 
 1797 
 
 . 1814 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 1789 
 
 1864 
 
 1684 
 
 1759 
 
 . 1774 
 
 1849 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1655 
 
 1736 
 
 1684 
 
 1756 
 
 
 79 
 
 1451 
 
 1516 
 
 1797 
 
 1858 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1856 
 
 1490 
 
 1563 
 
 1775 
 
 1850 
 
 1820 
 
 
 . 1709 
 
 
 1653 
 
 1734 
 
 . 1791 
 
 
1012 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 KATIOK. NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Eug. Vlnce, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer 
 
 Fr. Vinet, Alex. E., theologian 
 
 Eom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Eoman poets 
 
 Ital. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary 
 
 Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . i 
 
 Ital. Vittoria Colonna, scholar . . 
 
 Russ. Vladimir the Great, grand duke . • 
 
 Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden , , 
 
 Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht . . 
 
 Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist . , 
 
 Fr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . • 
 
 Ital. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) 
 
 Fr, Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, 
 
 and historian , . , 
 
 Ger. Voss, J. G., historical painter • . 
 
 jmer 
 
 
 BOBM. 
 
 DIES 
 
 1821 
 
 
 , 
 
 1797 
 
 1847 
 
 Oman poets 
 
 B 
 
 c. 70 
 
 B. 0. 18 
 
 1831 
 
 , 
 
 £b 
 
 0. 27 
 
 
 , , 
 
 
 1490 
 
 1547 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 
 1015 
 
 , , 
 
 
 1647 
 
 1714 
 
 ^ 
 
 , 
 
 1619 
 
 1667 
 
 , , 
 
 
 1829 
 
 1856 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 1757 
 
 1820 
 
 , , 
 
 
 1745 
 
 1826 
 
 philosopher 
 
 1 
 
 1694 
 
 1778 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 1577 
 
 1649 
 
 Ger. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic . , 
 
 Amer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist , 
 
 Amer. , James S. (son), patriotic general . 
 
 Ger. "Wagner, Kudolph, physiologist . , 
 
 Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York . 
 
 Eng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist 
 
 Eng. . Gilbert, scholar and critic . , 
 
 Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . . 
 
 Fr. "Walewski, Plorian, count, statesman . . 
 
 Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . , 
 
 Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretaiy of treasury 
 
 Amer. , "William, ' filibustering ' adventurer 
 
 Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist . 
 
 Scot. , "William, patriot and hero 
 
 Irish. , "William Vincent, musical composer . 
 
 Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general . 
 
 Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet 
 
 Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general • 
 
 Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author , 
 
 Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman « 
 
 Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist 
 
 Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . 
 
 Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New Tork 
 
 Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist . , 
 
 Eng. , Izaak, angler and biographer 
 
 Amer. Walworth, Eeuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N". T. 
 
 Ei\g. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . 
 
 Amer. Ward, Artemas, ofiicer in the Revolution . 
 
 Boot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian 
 
 Amer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author 
 
 ^jaer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author 
 
 Amer. , William, novelist, ' Zonobia,' &e. 
 
 Amer. Warren, John Collins, emmept surgeon . . 
 
 Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 
 
 . 1763 
 
 1844 
 
 1807 
 
 1864 
 
 . 1805 
 
 
 1792 
 
 1854 
 
 1796 
 
 1862 
 
 1756 
 
 1801 
 
 1762 
 
 1864 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1732 
 
 1807 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1824 
 
 1860 
 
 1817 
 
 1852 
 
 1276 
 
 1305 
 
 1815 
 
 1865 
 
 1583 
 
 1634 
 
 1603 
 
 1687 
 
 1597 
 
 1688 
 
 1718 
 
 1797 
 
 1676 
 
 1745 
 
 1784 
 
 1858 
 
 1536 
 
 1590 
 
 1815 
 
 1865 
 
 1600 
 
 1661 
 
 1593 
 
 1683 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1698 
 
 1779 
 
 1748 
 
 1800 
 
 1780 
 
 1853 
 
 1764 
 
 1845 
 
 1794 
 
 1843 
 
 . 1797 
 
 1852 
 
 1778 
 
 1858 
 
 . 1741 
 
 1778 
 
BIOGBAPHICAL DiOJEX 
 
 1013 
 
 HATION. MAUE AND FROFESSIOM. 
 
 Amer. 'W&iien, Mrs. Mercy, historian, ' American Eoview* 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Am@r. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 -, Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Year' 
 
 Sir John Borlase, naval officer , . , ' 
 
 Warton, Joseph, poet and critic « 
 
 , Thomas, poet and critic . . , 
 
 "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' 
 Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of U. S. 
 
 , George, ihe father of his country . 
 
 , "Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution . 
 
 Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer • 
 
 Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agriculturist, and historian 
 
 ■ Robert, historian .... 
 
 , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . . 
 
 Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer . 
 
 , Robert, bibliographer . . •■ , 
 
 Watts, Alario Alex., poet and journalist . . , 
 
 Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer , 
 
 Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and poUt. econ. 
 Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution , 
 
 Eng. Wt-ale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &e. • 
 
 Amer. Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author . , 
 
 Ger. Weber, Carl Maria von, eminent composer , , 
 
 Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critio • , 
 
 Webster, John, dramatic poet • « • • 
 
 , Daniel, statesman • • • » 
 
 ———, Noah, author of English Dictionary , « 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . , 
 
 Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain . . 
 
 Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . 
 
 Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . 
 
 "Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. 
 
 of Ireland ... . . 
 
 Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman 
 
 Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . . 
 
 , Edward, theologian and scholar . , , 
 
 , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia , , 
 
 Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . 
 
 Eng- Am. Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Bamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 
 
 Eng. , Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford 
 
 Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist 
 
 Ger. , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist 
 
 Eng. Wesley, Rev. Charles, ' Hymns ' 
 
 , John, founder of Methodist society 
 
 Eng, 
 Eng, 
 Eng, 
 
 Westall, Richard, historical painter ... 
 
 Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu- 
 cational writer ..... 
 Amer. "Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... 
 
 Eng. , Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Comman Prayer' , 
 
 Amer. Wheatoii, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . 
 Eng. Wheatstone, Charles, electrician .... 
 Amer. Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College 
 Eng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educatioufJi •writer 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIES. 
 
 1728 
 
 1814 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1823 
 
 1720 
 
 1800 
 
 1728 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1471 
 
 1759 
 
 1829 
 
 1732 
 
 1799 
 
 1752 
 
 1810 
 
 1683 
 
 1740 
 
 1758 
 
 1842 
 
 1730 
 
 1780 
 
 1737 
 
 1816 
 
 1736 
 
 1819 
 
 177i 
 
 1819 
 
 1799 
 
 1864 
 
 1674 
 
 1748 
 
 1796 
 
 1866 
 
 1745 
 
 1798 
 
 1792 
 
 1862 
 
 18i9 
 
 1S58 
 
 1786 
 
 1826 
 
 1783 
 
 1813 
 
 17th 
 
 cent. 
 
 1782 
 
 1852 
 
 1758 
 
 1843 
 
 1733 
 
 1805 
 
 1731 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1825 
 
 1821 
 
 1852 
 
 1730 
 
 1842 
 
 1769 
 
 1863 
 
 1663 
 
 1727 
 
 1815 
 
 1848 
 
 1794 
 
 1845 
 
 a 1736 
 
 1820 
 
 1593 
 
 1641 
 
 1750 
 
 1817 
 
 1768 
 
 1823 
 
 1708 
 
 1788 
 
 1703 
 
 1791 
 
 1765 
 
 1837 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 1753 
 
 1794 
 
 1686 
 
 1743 
 
 1785 
 
 1848 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1711 
 
 1779 
 
 1795 
 
 1S66 
 
1014 
 
 THE WOBLD'S PB0GKES8. 
 
 BATIOir. WAME AND PnOFESSIOK. 
 
 Amer, W^hipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . • 
 
 Amer. Wliistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways 
 jEng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . 
 Eng. Wliitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament 
 Eng. Wliite, Henry Kirlie, poet .... 
 
 , Rev. Joseph Bianco, priest and English author 
 
 Eng. , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church 
 
 in United States .... 
 
 Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvanistio Methodists . 
 Amer, Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin , . . 
 
 Amer. "Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist 
 Amer. Whittingham, Wm. K., epis. bp.of Maryland and author 
 
 Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London . 
 
 Wickliflfe, or Wicklii; John, the morning star of the Reformation 
 
 Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer 
 
 Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian . . * 
 
 Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author . 
 
 , William, statesman and philanthropist . 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and /iiierai«Mr . • 
 Wilkes, John, celebrated political character • • 
 Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter . . . 
 Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian 
 , Sir Charles, oriental philologist . . 
 
 Amer. Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 En. Am. 
 
 -, Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist 
 
 Williams of Wykeham, aroh-ecolesiast and statesman 
 Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL 
 
 , Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 , John, missionary and author . . 
 , Major-gen. Sir Fenwick, defender of Kars 
 
 -, Otho H., general 
 
 -, Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island . . 
 
 Amer. WilUamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N". Carolina 
 Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and joui 
 nalist ...... 
 
 Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . , 
 
 , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . , 
 
 , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 -, John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist 
 
 , Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author 
 
 Winckelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art ' . 
 
 Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo 
 
 Windham, William, statesman ... 
 
 Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . . 
 
 Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . • 
 
 En. Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . 
 
 jing. , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity . 
 
 .^tmer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author 
 
 j^jaer. , Miron, D, D., missionary and orientalist , 
 
 Bng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter' , 
 
 iHi. Am. Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . • 
 
 KaAia: — — , John (son), governor of Connecticut . 
 
 BOSH. 
 
 DUB 
 
 • 1819 
 
 
 ISOO 
 
 184S 
 
 1667 
 
 1752 
 
 t 1638 
 
 1726 
 
 1785 
 
 1808 
 
 1775 
 
 1841 
 
 eh 
 
 . 1747 
 
 1836 
 
 1714 
 
 1770 
 
 1765 
 
 1829 
 
 1808 
 
 
 , 1805 
 
 
 
 1419 
 
 on 1324 
 
 1384 
 
 1733 
 
 1813 
 
 1792 
 
 1836 
 
 1805 
 
 
 . 1759 
 
 1853 
 
 1789 
 
 1847 
 
 1T17 
 
 1797 
 
 1785 
 
 1841 
 
 1614 
 
 1672 
 
 
 1838 
 
 . 1757 
 
 1825 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1324 
 
 1404 
 
 17871 
 
 1858 
 
 , 1762 
 
 1827 
 
 1796 
 
 1839 
 
 , 1800 
 
 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 
 1606 
 
 1683 
 
 1785 
 
 1819 
 
 r- 
 
 . 1807 
 
 1867 
 
 1766 
 
 1813 
 
 1778 
 
 1858 
 
 1808 
 
 1860 
 
 . 1785 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1846 
 
 . 1717 
 
 1768 
 
 1787 
 
 1802 
 
 , 1750 
 
 1810 
 
 1789 
 
 1858 
 
 
 1388 
 
 1595 
 
 1656 
 
 , 1810 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1864 
 
 , 1789 
 
 •1864 
 
 
 1803 
 
 , 1588 
 
 1649 
 
 1606 
 
 1678 
 
SIOGBAPHICAIi INDEX. 
 
 1015 
 
 ■ A.nOV. NAME AND FEOFESSION. 
 
 Winthrop, Major Theodore, novelist aud patriot 
 Wirt, William, attorney-general U. S. and biographer 
 Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and authjr 
 Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist . 
 
 Withers, George, poet .... 
 Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . , 
 
 Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian .... 
 
 Scot. "Wodi'ow, Bobert, ecclesiastical historian . , 
 
 Woflington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . • • 
 
 Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet , , 
 
 , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 
 
 , Eoger, colonial governor of Conn. , 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 Eng. 
 Amer, 
 Amor, 
 
 Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . , 
 
 Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . , 
 
 Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general , . 
 
 Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . , 
 
 Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician , 
 Eng. WoUaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. , 
 
 Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman . , 
 
 Eng. "WoUstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author • • 
 
 Eng. 'Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer , , 
 
 Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state . 
 
 Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist , , , 
 
 Eng. Woodfall, "William, newspaper publisher (Junius) , 
 
 Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, matlieniaticiau and astronomer , 
 
 Soot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (.BeeTytler-) historian 
 Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian • . , , 
 
 Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . , 
 
 Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, 'Oaken Bucket ' . , 
 
 Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army , , 
 
 Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist , , 
 
 Wooster, David, Revolutionary general , , 
 
 Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions ' 
 
 , Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • 
 
 Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece' . , 
 
 Amer 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 , William, poet laureate . , , 
 
 Worth, William J., major-general TJ. 8. army , , 
 
 Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller aud author . 
 Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . , , 
 
 Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian . 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect . , 
 
 Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer' 
 
 , Silas, governor of New York and senator U. S. , 
 
 , Thomas, antiquarian author , , 
 
 Wurmser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army , , 
 
 Wyatt, Matthew Digby, ai-chitect and author , 
 
 , Sir Thomas, poet and statesman , , , 
 
 "Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . , , 
 
 "Wycliffe, see Wiokliffe, reformer . , , 
 
 Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanthc 
 Wyndham, Sir William, statesman . . . 
 
 BOBX 
 
 DIED. 
 
 . 1828 
 
 1861 
 
 1772 
 
 183a 
 
 r 1802 
 
 1865 
 
 . 1761 
 
 1818 
 
 1590 
 
 1667 
 
 1722 
 
 1794 
 
 1636 
 
 1708 
 
 1679 
 
 1734 
 
 1719 
 
 1760 
 
 1738 
 
 1818 
 
 1727 
 
 1797 
 
 1&79 
 
 1767 
 
 1795 
 
 1662 
 
 1759 
 
 1824 
 
 1726 
 
 1759 
 
 1791 
 
 1823 
 
 1679 
 
 1754 
 
 1766 
 
 1828 
 
 1471 
 
 1530 
 
 1759 
 
 1797 
 
 1632 
 
 1695 
 
 1716 
 
 17T1 
 
 1789 
 
 1851 
 
 1745 
 
 1822 
 
 1773 
 
 1827 
 
 1747 
 
 1813 
 
 1770 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1486? 
 
 1785 
 
 1842 
 
 . 1789 
 
 
 1720 
 
 1773 
 
 1710 
 
 1777 
 
 
 1667 
 
 1784 
 
 1865 
 
 1770 
 
 1850 
 
 1770 
 
 1850 
 
 1794 
 
 1849 
 
 1806 
 
 1855 
 
 1568 
 
 J 689 
 
 1751 
 
 1831 
 
 1632 
 
 1723 
 
 1796 
 
 1853 
 
 1795 
 
 1847 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1717 
 
 179V 
 
 , 1820 
 
 
 1503 
 
 1640 
 
 . 1640 
 
 1715 
 
 1324 
 
 1404 
 
 1324 
 
 1404 
 
 1687 
 
 174S 
 
1016 THE wobld's peogekss. 
 
 HATIOK. NAUE AND FHOFESSION. BOBM. Dm, 
 
 Eng. Wyso, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education . . 
 
 Amor. Wythe, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot ■ 180B 
 
 X 
 
 Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, 'Apostle to tbe Indies' . • 
 
 Gr. Xenocratee, pliilosopher . . . 
 
 Gr. Xenopbanes, philosoplier, founder of the Eleatios 
 
 Gr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general 
 
 Pers. Xerxes I., king of Persia .... 
 Pers. - II., king of Persia . . , 
 
 Spau. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman « 
 
 Amer. Tale, Elihn, early patron of Yale College . • 
 
 Eng. Yarvcll, "William, naturalist and author. • . 
 
 Eng. Youatt, William, author of works on the horse , 
 
 Amer. Young, Alex., D. D., historian of Pilgrims . , 
 
 Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer . . „ 
 
 Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . , , 
 
 Eng. — — , Charles, actor . . • * , 
 
 Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer • . 
 
 Eng. ) Thomas, physician and philosopher . . 
 
 Gr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. 
 
 Span, Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet . . 
 
 Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., voluminous writer . • 
 
 Heh. Zecbariah, the prophet . . , • . 
 
 ItaL Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer . • . . 
 
 Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . , . • 
 
 Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . . . 
 
 Zenohia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of 
 the arts ..... 
 
 Heb. Zephaniuh, the prophet .... 
 
 Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . . 
 
 Swiss. ■ , John George, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Ger. Zinzendffrl, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians « 
 
 Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . 
 
 Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher , * 
 
 Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer 
 
 Gr. Zozimus, historian ..... 
 
 Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales ' 
 
 Swiss. Zuinglius, Dlric, enlightened reformer . . 
 
 (jer. Zumpt, £arl, author of Latin. Grammax • • 
 
 , 
 
 1506 
 
 1552 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 406 B 
 
 0. 314 
 
 £b. 
 
 0.540 
 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 446 B 
 
 C. 360 
 
 
 B 
 
 0. 465 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 425 
 
 
 1457 
 
 1517 
 
 
 1648 
 
 1721 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1856 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1847 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1741 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1856 
 
 
 1681 
 
 1765 
 
 
 1774 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1792 
 
 1828 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1T14 
 
 1798 
 
 f. B. 
 
 C. 520 
 
 
 
 1668 
 
 1750 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 463 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. S62 B. 
 
 , 0. 264 
 
 !S0f 
 
 
 SOO 
 
 £b. 
 
 0. 520 
 
 
 , 
 
 1743 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1728 
 
 1795 
 
 , 
 
 1700 
 
 1760 
 
 
 1730 
 
 1788 
 
 • 
 
 1737 
 
 1815 
 
 , 
 
 f. 400 
 
 
 
 1771 
 
 1848 
 
 • 
 
 1484 
 
 1631 
 
 
 i7»a 
 
 im 
 
BIOGEAPHICAIi INDBX. — ^AETISTS. 
 
 1017 
 
 AETISTS. 
 
 PArN"TERS— ENGRAVERS— SOTJLPTOES—AECHITEOTS. 
 
 NA.TION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Gr. Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. 
 
 Gr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor. 
 
 Gr. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. 
 
 Ital. Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 
 
 ItaU Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa.., So., and Archit, 
 
 Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto . . • . Painter. 
 
 Gr. Alcannenes (pupil of Phidias) . ■ Sculptor. 
 
 Scot. Allan, Sir "William . . ' . . Painter. 
 
 Amer. Allston, Washington . , Port, and Histor. Painter. 
 
 Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter, 
 
 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch. 
 
 Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 
 
 Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters • Painter. 
 
 Gr. ApoUodorus, an Athenian ... Painter. 
 
 Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 
 
 Gr. Aristides, of Thehes . , , . Painter. 
 
 Ft. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 
 
 (Eight painters and engravers named Andran nearly contemporary.) 
 
 BORN. 
 
 nrED. 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 488 
 
 f. B. c. 5fth Cent. 
 
 B. c. 5th Cent. 
 
 1578 
 
 1660 
 
 1400 
 
 149f 
 
 
 152C 
 
 f.B. 
 
 0. 450 
 
 1781 
 
 1850 
 
 1779 
 
 1843 
 
 1488 
 
 1530 
 
 lt74 
 
 1566 
 
 1569 
 
 1609 
 
 f.B. 
 
 0. 330 
 
 f.B. 
 
 0. 408 
 
 1754 
 
 1817 
 
 £b. 
 
 0. 240 
 
 1640 
 
 1703 
 
 Ital. Bacoio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- 
 
 meo) . . • 
 
 Eng. Bacon, John . . « 
 
 Amer. Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) • 
 
 Flem. Balen, Henry van • , 
 
 Ital. Bandinelli, Baccio . • « 
 
 Eng. Banks, Thomas . . 
 
 Dutch. Barents, Dietrich . . . 
 
 Irish. Barker, Itobert, inventor of panoramas 
 
 Irish. Barry, .James . . . 
 
 Eng. Barry, Sir Chas. . , 
 
 Ital. Bartolini, Lorenzo . • 
 
 ItaL Bartoloz/.i, Francesco . ■ 
 
 Ital. Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco . 
 
 Ital. Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander 
 
 ItaL Batoni, Pompey . . • 
 
 Ger. Bauer, Ferdinand . , i 
 
 Eng. Beechy, Sir William « . 
 
 Amer. Beard, Wm. H. (N. Y.) . 
 
 Eng, Beaumont, Sir George H. . 
 
 ItaL Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine , 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1469 
 
 1517 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 1740 
 
 1799 
 
 , Port. Painter. 
 
 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1560 
 
 1632 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 1489 
 
 1559 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1745 
 
 1805 
 
 Histor. Painter. 
 
 1534 
 
 1582 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1740 
 
 1806 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1741 
 
 1805 
 
 . Architect. 
 
 1795 
 
 1860 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 1777 
 
 1850 
 
 , Engraver. 
 
 1730 
 
 1813 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1469 
 
 1517 
 
 lander Painters. 
 
 16th Century. 
 
 Painter, 
 
 1708 
 
 1787 
 
 Botanical Painter, 
 
 
 1826 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 1753 
 
 1839 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1753 
 
 1827 
 
 • Engraver. 
 
 1610 
 
 1684 
 
1018 THE WOELD'S PEOGEBSS. 
 
 KATIOK. SAME AND PROFESSION. BOSK. SlSOk 
 
 Ital, Bellirti. Qiov., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 1462 151? 
 ItaL Bellini, Gentine .... Portrait Painter. 1421 1501 
 ital. Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Arch't. 1598 168P 
 Flem Berchem, Nicholas . . . Engraver. 1624 1689 
 Eng. Bewick. John, publisher of various works with wood- 
 cats .... Wood Engraver. 1760 lV9f- 
 Amer. Bierstadt, Albert (N. Y.) . . Landscape Painter. 
 Eng. Bird, Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819 
 Eng. Blake, William . . . Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826 
 Flem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) . Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608 
 Eng. Bone, Henry . , , Enamel Painter. 1765 1834 
 ItaL Bordone, Paris ..... Painter. 1503 1588 
 Dutch. Both, John and Andrew . . . Painters. 1610 1650, '56 
 Fr. Bourdon, Sebastian . . Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671 
 Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 1756 1811 
 Eng. Boydell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804 
 Dutch. Brentel, Fiancis .... Painter, t, 1635 
 Ital. Bramanfe D'Urbino, Francis L., (Ist of St. Peter's 
 
 Church) .... Architect. 1444 1514 
 Amer. Brevooit, J, R. (N. Y.) . . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Brill, Matthew .... Painter. 1550 1584 
 
 Dutch. Brill, Paul . . , Landscape Painter. 1556 1626 
 Amer. Brown, Geo. L. , , , , Painter, 
 
 Amer. Browu, Henry Kirke • . . « Sculptor. 1814 
 
 Flem. Bruges, John of, or John "Van Eyck . . Painter. 1370 1441 
 
 Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444 
 Ital. Buonai-otti, see Angelo 
 
 Eng. Burnett, Jamea . . , Landscape Painter. 178S 1816 
 
 € 
 
 Ital. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 1588 
 Ital. Cagliaii, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and 
 
 sons of Paul 
 
 Eng. Calcolt, Sir A. W. . . Landscape Painter. 1779 1844 
 
 Ital, Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio ... Painter. 1495 1543 
 
 Gr. Calimachus . . . Sculptor and Architect. f. b« o. 540 
 
 Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 1587 
 
 Ital. Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lauds. Painter. 1697 1768 
 
 Ital. Canova, Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 5822 
 
 Ital. Caracci, Ludovico • . • . Painter. 1555 1619 
 
 Ital. Caracci, Agostino .... Painter. 1558 1601 
 
 Ital. Caracci, Annibalo • . • . Painter. 1560 1609 
 
 Ital. Caracci, Anthony «... Painter. 1583 1618 
 Ital. Caravaggio, see Angelo .... 
 Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro 
 
 with three plates to imitate drawings , . 1486 1530 
 
 Fr. Casas, Louis Francis , , Painter and Architect. 1756 1827 
 Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. T.) . . Lands. Painter. 
 
 Span. Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667 
 
 Ital. Cavendone, James . . . Fresco-Painter. 1577 1608 
 Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto- 
 
 biogi-aphiy ..... Painter. 1500 1570 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. AETISTS. 
 
 1019 
 
 mnoK. 
 
 Span. 
 Flem. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amei. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Dntct. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Cespedes, Paul de 
 Champagne, Philip de 
 — , John Baptist 
 
 NAMB AND FBOFESSION. 
 
 Painter, Sculptor, Architect, 
 , . Painter. 
 
 , Painter, 
 
 , , Sculptor. 
 
 . Hist. Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter and Sculptor. 
 
 « Lands, Painter. 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 Chantry, Sir Francis . . 
 
 Chapman, John G. . . 
 
 Chares . . . • 
 
 Chaudet, Anthony Denis • 
 
 Church, Fred, E. . , 
 
 Cignani, Carlo . « 
 
 Cimabue, Giov., Florentine , 
 
 Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine 
 
 Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Venus) 
 
 Cievenger, Shohal Vail 
 
 Cole, Thomas . . . Lands, and Hist. Painter, 
 
 Collins, William . . Lands, and Fam. life Painter. 
 
 Colman, Saml. (N". T.) . . . Lands. Painter. 
 
 Constable, John . • . 
 
 Cooper, Samuel ... 
 
 Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) 
 
 Cornelius, Peter von . 
 
 Coneggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school 
 
 Cort, Cornelius . . . 
 
 Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan . , 
 
 Cosway, Richard . . 
 
 Courtois, James, known as H Borgognone 
 
 , William (brother) , 
 
 Couture .... 
 Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) 
 
 — , WiUiam . 
 
 Cousin, John . . 
 
 Cox, Duvid . . 
 
 Cranach, Lucas . • 
 
 Cranch, Christr. P. • 
 
 Crawford, Thomas . » 
 
 Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. T.) 
 Cuyp, Jacob G. . . 
 
 , Albert (son of Jacob) 
 
 , Benjamin • • 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 Sculptor. 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Miniature Painter, 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter, 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Sculptor and Architect. 
 
 . Paint., Sculp., etc. 
 
 . Lands. Painter. 
 
 . . Engraver. 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 . . Sculptor, 
 
 . Lands. Painter. 
 
 Lands, and Cattle Painter. 
 
 Lands, and Cattle Painter. 
 
 • • Hist. Painter. 
 
 BORN. DIED. 
 
 15S8 1608 
 
 1604 1674 
 
 1643 1688 
 
 1781 1841 
 
 f, r. 0. 800 
 
 1763 1810 
 
 1628 1719 
 
 1240 1300 
 
 1600 1682 
 
 £ B. C. 180 
 
 1812 1844 
 
 1802 1848 
 
 1788 1847 
 
 1776 
 
 16S9 
 1737 
 1787 
 1493 
 1536 
 1596 
 1740 
 1621 
 1628 
 
 1658 
 1716 
 1500 
 1723 
 1470 
 
 1814 
 
 1568 
 1606 
 1650 
 
 1837 
 1778 
 1815 
 
 1534 
 1578 
 1669 
 1828 
 1673 
 167» 
 
 1731 
 
 1777 
 1590 
 1859 
 1553 
 
 1857 
 
 1649 
 1667 
 
 D 
 
 Eng. Dauby, Francis • • • 
 
 Eng. Daniel, Thomas • • • 
 
 Eng. , Wm. ... 
 
 Ger. Dannecker, John Henry, ' Adriadne,' &o. 
 
 Amer. Darley, F. O. 0. . . . 
 
 Fr, David, James Louis . • 
 
 Ft. , Peter John, of Angers (founder oi 
 
 school) . • • 
 
 Ft. Delacroix, F. V. E. . , . 
 
 Vi. Delaroche, Paul . « 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1793 
 
 1861 
 
 , Lands. Painter, 
 
 1749 
 
 1840 
 
 , Lands. Painter. 
 
 1769 
 
 1837 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 1758 
 
 1841 
 
 Painter and Designer, 
 
 1822 
 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1750 
 
 1826 
 
 recent French 
 
 
 
 * . Sculptor. 
 
 1789 
 
 1858 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1798 
 
 1863 
 
 . Hist. Painter. 
 
 1797 
 
 ISSfl 
 
1030 
 
 THB WOELD'S PROGEESS. 
 
 ISIATION 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital, 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 NAME AND PB0FE5SI0N. 
 
 Denner, BalthaBar .... Port. Painter, 
 De "Witt, Jaraos .... Painter. 
 
 Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. 
 Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 
 Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 
 
 Donatello, or Donato . 
 
 Dor6, Gustave . . 
 
 Doughty, Thomas 
 
 Donw, or Dow, Gerard 
 
 Dubuffe, 
 
 Dufresnoy, Charles AJphonse 
 
 Dnnlap, William 
 
 Durand, Asher B. (N. T.) . 
 
 Durer, Albert (and author) 
 
 , Florentine Sculptor. 
 
 Painter and Designer. 
 
 Iiands. Painter. 
 
 . Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 Hist. Painter. 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 Hist. Painter. 
 
 . Painter and Engraver. 
 
 Paint., Eng., So., and Arch. 
 
 ORN. 
 
 DIGS 
 
 1685 
 
 17« 
 
 1695 
 
 1747 
 
 f. 
 
 B.a 330 
 
 1616 
 
 1688 
 
 1581 
 
 1641 
 
 1383 
 
 1466 
 
 1793 
 
 1858 
 
 1613 
 
 1674 
 
 1611 
 
 1665 
 
 1766 
 
 1839 
 
 1471 
 
 1528 
 
 Eng. Eastlake, Chas. L. . . . . Painter. 1793 1865 
 
 Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768 1859 
 
 Eng. Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on 
 
 glass . . ... . Painter. 1737 1806 
 
 Amer. Ehninger, .Tohn 'W. (N. "X '^ . . . Painter. 
 
 Amer. ElUott, Chas. L. (N. T.) . . . Port. Painter. 
 
 Eng. Etty, Wm. . • . . . Painter. 1787 1849 
 
 Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) . Painter. 
 
 . Dutch. Eycli, John van (said to have invented painting in oil) PaLater. 1370 1441 
 
 Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. . . . 
 
 Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) , 
 
 Eng. Flaxman, John . . . 
 
 Eng. Finden, Wm. . 
 
 Amer. Forbes, Edwin . . 
 
 Scot. Forrest, Robert . . 
 
 Fr. FrSre, Edouard . 
 
 Swiss. Fnseli, Henry (resided in England 
 
 Swiss. , John G. . . . 
 
 O 
 
 Port. Painter. 
 
 . Lands. Painter. 
 
 Sculptor and Artist. 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 Genre Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas . 
 
 Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. S., baroi. . 
 
 Fr. , John I. (Granville) , 
 
 Ital. Ghiberti, Lawrence 
 
 Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak 
 
 Eng. Gibson, John . . . 
 
 Amer. Gifford, Sanford R. . 
 
 Fr.Ani. Gignoux, Regis 
 
 Ital, Giordanl, Luke (the Proteus of Painting) 
 
 Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelli . . 
 
 Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modem) 
 
 Fr, Girardon, Francis . . 
 
 Fr. Girodet, Trioson Aim6 Loais 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Caricaturist. 
 
 Florentine Sculptor. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 Lands. Painter, 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 Paint Sculp, and Arch. 
 
 . Sculp, and Arch. 
 
 • Fainter. 
 
 1755 
 
 1787 
 
 1790 
 
 1741 
 
 1T06 
 
 1727 
 1770 
 1803 
 1378 
 1648 
 1791 
 
 1629 
 1477 
 1276 
 1630 
 1767 
 
 182* 
 
 1853 
 
 1858 
 
 1823 
 1781 
 
 1T88 
 1837 
 1847 
 1456 
 1721 
 1867 
 
 1704 
 1511 
 1330 
 1716 
 182J 
 
BIOGBAPHICAai INDEX. ARTISTS. 
 
 1021 
 
 WAITOir. NAME AKS FfiOFESSIOK. BOBIT. OIKU 
 
 Ital. Giulio Eomano (Pippi) .... Painter. 1492 1546 
 
 Fr. Goujon, John, the Erench Phidias . . Bculptor. 1515 1573 
 
 Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. 
 
 Amer. Greenough, Horatio . • . Sculptor. 1805 185S 
 
 Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. 
 
 Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter 1726 1805 
 
 Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. 1590 1608 
 
 ItaL GuidOjReni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 1574 1642 
 
 ... Painter. 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 ... Painter. 
 
 . Landscape Painter. 
 
 . . . Architect. 
 
 . Historical Painter. 
 
 . . . Painter. 
 
 . . Engraver, 
 
 ... Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 . . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Portrait and Historical Painter. 
 
 Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry 
 
 Amer, Hart, "Wm., b. in Scotland 
 
 Amer. Hart, Jas, M. " 
 
 Amer. Haseltine, W. Stanley 
 
 Eng. Haviland, John , 
 
 Eng. Haydon, R. B. 
 
 Amer. Healy, Gpo. P. 
 
 Kng. Heath, Charles 
 
 Amer. Hennessy, "W. L . 
 
 Amer. Hiclis, Thos. . 
 
 Eng. Hilton, William . 
 
 Flam. Hobbema, Mynderhout 
 
 Eng. Hogarth, WUb'am 
 
 Swiss. Holbein, Hans . 
 
 Qer. Hollar, Wenceslans, executed 2,400 plates . Engraver. 
 
 Amer, Homer, ■VVir.slow .... Painter. 
 
 Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) . Painter. 
 
 Amer. Hosmer, Harriet .... Sculptor. 
 
 Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . . . Engraver. 
 
 Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. 
 
 Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 
 
 Amer. Hubbard, Rich. W. . . , •■ . Painter. 
 
 Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) ... Sculptor. 
 
 Amer. Huntington, Dan. , . , Painter. 
 
 Eng. Hunt, "Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) , Painter. 
 
 Dutch. , Justus (The Old) . , . Painter. 
 
 Dutch. (The Young) . . Painter. 
 
 1787 
 1823 
 1828 
 
 1792 
 1786 
 1S08 
 
 1823 
 1786 
 1611 
 1697 
 
 1498 
 1607 
 
 1592 
 1831 
 1698 
 1746 
 1736 
 
 1806 
 1816 
 1827 
 1682 
 1659 
 1684 
 
 1819 
 
 1853 
 1846 
 
 1849 
 
 1889 
 1699 
 
 1764 
 1554 
 1677 
 
 1660 
 
 1780 
 1828 
 1813 
 
 1749 
 1716 
 
 1706 
 
 Amer. Inman, Henry 
 
 Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 
 
 Ma 
 
 Amer. Jarvis, J. W. 
 
 Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.S 
 
 Amer. , David (N". T.) 
 
 Fr. Johannot, Chas. H. A. 
 
 Fr. , Tony (brother) 
 
 Amer. Jones, Alfred, N. Y. 
 
 Eng, , Inigo , 
 
 Amer. — , Thos. D. 
 
 . Portrait Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter and Designer. 
 
 1800 
 
 18S7 
 
 Painter and Designer. 
 
 1803 
 
 1853 
 
 . . Engraver. 
 
 
 
 • Architect. 
 
 1672 
 
 1669 
 
 . . Sculptor. 
 
 
 
1022 
 
 THE WOELD's PEOGEBSS. 
 
 RATIOir. 
 
 Flem. Jordaene, JacoTj 
 ItaU Julio, Romano 
 
 JIA3IE A17D FBOFESBION. 
 
 BORN. DIED 
 
 Painter. 1595 167« 
 
 Painter and Architect. 1492 1644 
 
 Bwiss. Katifflnan, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) 
 
 Amer. Kensett, John F. ... 
 
 Ger. Kiss, August , . , 
 
 Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) 
 
 Poetical Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1747 
 1818 
 1802 
 1648 
 
 180'T 
 
 1866 
 1T23 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Flera. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 ^mer. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bpfin. 
 
 Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 
 LandoD, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 
 
 Landseer, Chas. . . . Painter of Genre. 
 
 , John .... Engraver. 
 
 , Sir Edwin .... Painter. 
 
 Lang, Louis (h. in Germany) . , , Painter. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir Thos. .... Painter. 
 
 Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV.) . . Painter. 
 
 Leech, John . , . Humorist Artist. 
 
 Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) 
 Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) . 
 Leslie, Chas. R. (resided in England) . . 
 
 Lessing, Carl Fred. 
 
 Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) . . 
 
 Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . , 
 
 Liverseege, Uenry . . 
 
 Lysippus (made 600 statues) 
 
 Painter. 
 Painter, 
 Painter. 
 Painter. 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter and Engraver 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 m: 
 
 Malhone, Edward G. 
 Marshal], "Wm. O. 
 
 , Wm. C. . 
 
 Martin, John . 
 Masaccio . . 
 
 Matsys, Quintin . 
 Mayer . , 
 
 Mazzuolo, Francis 
 McEntee, Jervis 
 Meissonier, Justus A 
 
 , Jean L. 
 
 Mengs, Anthony R. (the 
 Metzu, Gabriel . 
 
 Mieris, Francis . 
 Mignard, Peter , 
 
 Mignot, Louis R. 
 Mills, Claris . 
 Mind, Gottfried . 
 Morghen, Raphael , 
 
 Morse, Samuel F. B. 
 Mount, William Silney 
 Moreland, George 
 Murillo, Bartholomew & 
 
 , . . Miniature Painter. 
 
 ... Sculptor. 
 
 ... Engraver. 
 
 . . . Painter. 
 
 ... Painter. 
 
 .... Painter. 
 
 . . . Sculptor. 
 
 .... Painter. 
 
 . . . Painter, 
 
 Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. 
 
 .... Painter. 
 
 Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 
 
 . . Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 • . Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 ... Painter. 
 
 .... Painter. 
 
 ... Sculptor. 
 
 .... Painter. 
 
 . • . Engraver. 
 
 .... Painter. 
 
 ... Painter. 
 
 .... Painter, 
 
 • , • Painter. 
 
 1769 
 1803 
 1814 
 1769 
 1619 
 1816 
 1618 
 1617 
 1794 
 1808 
 1816 
 1494 
 1803 
 f.B. 
 
 1777 
 1813 
 
 1789 
 1402 
 1460 
 
 1503 
 
 1695 
 1815 
 1729 
 1615 
 1635 
 IGIO 
 
 1815 
 1768 
 1T58 
 
 1807 
 1764 
 1613 
 
 1711 
 1826 
 
 1863 
 
 1830 
 1696 
 
 1680 
 1655 
 1859 
 
 1533 
 
 1832 
 
 0. 324 
 
 1807 
 
 1854 
 1427 
 1629 
 
 1540 
 
 1750 
 
 1779 
 
 1669 
 1681 
 1696 
 
 1814 
 1833 
 
 1804 
 1683 
 
BIOGEAPHICAI. INDEX. — AKTISTS. 
 
 1033 
 
 HATIOW 
 
 RAUE AND FBOFESSIOir. 
 
 BOEK. 
 
 DIED 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Neefs, Peter . . . 
 
 Architectural Painter. 
 
 1570 
 
 1661 
 
 Eng. 
 
 i? ewton, Gilbert (Stuart) . . 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 1785 
 
 1835 
 
 Eng, 
 
 KoUebins, Joseph . • 
 
 , . Sculptor. 
 
 1737 
 
 1823 
 
 fing. 
 
 Northcote, James • . • 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 174S 
 
 1831 
 
 Bug. 
 
 O 
 
 Opie, John . . • 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1761 
 
 1807 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) . 
 
 Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 1610 
 
 1686 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) • 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1617 
 
 1671 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Owen, "William • * . 
 
 « Fainter. 
 
 1769 
 
 1S25 
 
 Amer. 
 
 P 
 
 Page, "Wm. • • . 
 
 , » Painter. 
 
 1811 
 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Pajou, Augustln • > • 
 
 , Sculptor. 
 
 17S0 
 
 1809 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Palladlo, Andrew . . 
 
 , • Architect. 
 
 1518 
 
 1580 
 
 Spaa. 
 
 Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1653 
 
 1726 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Pannini, Giov. Paolo . . 
 
 Architectural Painter. 
 
 1691 
 
 1764 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Parrbasius, of E-phesus • . 
 
 Painter. 
 
 t B. 
 
 0, 420 
 
 Amfci*. 
 
 Peale, Charles W. . HiBtorical and Portrait Painter. 
 
 1741 
 
 1827 
 
 Amer. 
 
 , Rembrandt . ♦ 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1778 
 
 1860 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre; Architect. 
 
 1613 
 
 1688 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1446 
 
 1524 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 1607 
 
 1691 
 
 BeL 
 
 Peters, Bonaventura . , • 
 
 Marine Painter. 
 
 1614 
 
 1652 
 
 Bel. 
 
 , Francis Lucas , , 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1606 
 
 1654 
 
 Bel. 
 
 , John . . • 
 
 Marina Painter. 
 
 1635 
 
 1677 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) . Sculptor, b. 
 
 ,0.498 B. 
 
 0.431 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Phillips, Thomas, R. A, , 
 
 . Port. Painter. 
 
 1770 
 
 1845 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Picart, Bernard . , 
 
 . Engraver. 
 
 1663 
 
 1733 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Pigalle, John Baptist . . 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 1714 
 
 1785 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Pietro, da Pietre . . 
 
 Hist. Painter of Rome. 
 
 1671 
 
 1716 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Plies, Roger de , , , 
 
 Author and Painter. 
 
 1635 
 
 1709 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) 
 
 . Engraver. 
 
 1707 
 
 1778 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Polidors, da Caravaggio . . 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1495 
 
 1543 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) 
 
 , Sculptor. B. 
 
 C. 430 
 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Pordenone, Regillo da . . 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1484 
 
 1540 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 , Potter, Paul (unequalled in araiwa? painting) . Painter. 
 
 1625 
 
 1654 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) Painter. 
 
 1594 
 
 1665 
 
 It.al. 
 
 Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) . 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 1613 
 
 1675 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Piombo, Sebastiano del , . 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1485 
 
 154T 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Powers, Hiram . . 
 
 , , Sculptor. 
 
 1805 
 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Pradier, Jacques • . . 
 
 'Sculptor. 
 
 1798 
 
 1852 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Pratt, Mathew . , 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1734 
 
 1805 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Praxiteles . ;, , 
 
 , Sculptor, fl 
 
 B. 0. 350 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Prout, Samuel , . . 
 
 Water-colorist. 
 
 1783 
 
 1S52 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Prudhon, of Cluny , . 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1760 
 
 1823 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Paget . . Sculptor, 
 
 Painter and Architect. 
 
 1622 
 
 1694 
 
 Bug. 
 
 Pugin, Augustus A. W. . 
 
 . . Architectr 
 
 1811 
 
 18fi] 
 
1024 
 
 XHS WOBLD'S PBOGSESS. 
 
 KATION. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Ger, 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. . 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 FAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Raphael, d' Urhino (real name Sanzio) A prominent Painter. 
 
 Hist, and Port. Painter. 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Raphael daRhegio (Raffaelino) 
 
 Ranch, Chiistian David 
 
 Rembrandt van Eyn, Paul Geritz 
 
 Retsch, Moritz . • 
 
 Eeyuolds, Sir Joshua . 
 
 Richardson, Jonathan » 
 
 Riedinger, John Elias « 
 
 Rober, Fleury » » 
 
 Roberts, David , . . 
 
 Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) 
 
 Romney, George . , 
 
 Roos, Philip Peters . . 
 
 Bosa, Salvator • , 
 
 Rossiter, Thomas P. , . 
 
 Eoubilliac, L. F. , , , 
 
 Rousseau, James . . 
 
 Eowlaiidson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &o.) Paint, and Eng. 
 
 Rubens, Peter Paul » . . . Painter. 
 
 Runciman, Alexander ... Painter. 
 
 Ruysdael, Jacob , . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Ruysdael, Solomon .... Painter. 
 
 Eyckaert, David • • . « Painter. 
 
 Ryckaert, Martin , . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Rysbraecl;, leter ... Landscape Painter. 
 
 Rysbrach, John M. (works In Westminster Abbey) Sculptor. 
 
 • , Art Designer. 
 
 Painter 
 
 Writer on Art and Painter. 
 
 Animal Painter. 
 
 (, . Painter. 
 
 , • Painter. 
 
 • Sculptor, 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 BORN. 
 
 14S8 
 
 1552 
 1781 
 1606 
 1779 
 1723 
 1665 
 1695 
 1797 
 1796 
 1746 
 1734 
 1655 
 1614 
 
 1695 
 1630 
 1756 
 1577 
 1736 
 1636 
 1616 
 1615 
 1591 
 1657 
 1694 
 
 OIBBl 
 
 1528 
 158C 
 1859 
 1669 
 1859 
 1792 
 1745 
 1767 
 
 1864 
 1816 
 1802 
 1705 
 1673 
 
 1762 
 1693 
 1827 
 1646 
 1785 
 1684 
 1670 
 1677 
 1636 
 1716 
 1770 
 
 8 
 
 Ital. Balvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) . 
 
 Ital. Salvi, Nicholas . , o 
 
 Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael ... 
 
 ItaL Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanucchi . 
 
 Eng. Savage, James . . . 
 
 ItaL Seamozzi, Vincent . . 
 
 Pruss. Schadow, J. G. . . • 
 
 Ger. Schadow, Godenhaus F. W. , 
 
 Ger. Schadow, Rudolf . . , 
 
 Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) 
 
 Ger. ScheflEer, Ary .... 
 
 ItaL Bohidone, Bartolomeo . , 
 
 Gr. Scopas . • . . 
 
 Eng. Sharp, William ... 
 
 Amer. Shattuck, Aaron D. , . . 
 
 Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy 
 
 Eng. Sherwin, John Seyse ... 
 
 Amer. Smillie, Jaoies ... 
 
 Amer. , George H. • « • 
 
 Anier. , James D. . . « 
 
 Painter. 1605 1685 
 
 Architect. 1699 1752 
 
 Architect. 1484 1559 
 
 Architect. 
 
 1778 
 
 1S52 
 
 Architect. 
 
 1550 
 
 1616 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1764 
 
 1850 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1789 
 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1786 
 
 1823 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1643 
 
 1708 
 
 Painter 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1560 
 
 1616 
 
 Sculptor. B. 
 
 0.460 B. 
 
 C. 353 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 1740 
 
 1824 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1795 
 
 1850 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 1761 
 
 D9a 
 
 Engraver, 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDBX. AETISl'S. 
 
 1025 
 
 flATIOn 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Dutcli. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Q-er. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Smybert, John (b. in Seolland) . . . Painter. 
 
 Snyders, Francis . Landscape and Animal Painter. 
 
 Soufflot, J. G. (cliurch ofSt. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. 
 
 Spaendonck, Geiradvan 
 Spagnoletto, Giut^eppe Ribera la 
 Steen, Jan 
 
 Stone, William O. , , 
 
 Strange, Robert . . 
 
 Strickland, William « 
 
 Strutt, Joseph, . 
 
 Flower Painter. 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Portrait Painter. 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 Architect. 
 
 Author and Painter. 
 
 Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. 
 Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin Wejst . Port. Painter. 
 
 Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) . . . Engraver. 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1684 
 1579 
 1714 
 17i6 
 1589 
 1636 
 
 1721 
 
 1749 
 
 1713 
 1756 
 
 DIBD 
 
 175-J 
 
 lesi 
 
 178$ 
 
 182a 
 
 1656 
 1689 
 
 1792? 
 18&4 
 1802 
 1788 
 1828 
 
 ItsL Tenerani, Pietro • . • , 
 
 Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) , 
 
 Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) 
 
 Scot. Thorn, Jas. (Tain O'Shanter, &c.) 
 
 Eng. Thornhill, Sir Jas. . . . Histor 
 
 Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert .... 
 
 Ger. Tieck, Christ Fried .... 
 
 6r. Timantbes (contemporary with Parrhasius) 
 
 Ital. Tintoretto (Venetian — pupil of Titian) 
 
 Ital. , II (James Eobusti) 
 
 Ital. Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school 
 
 Fr. Troyon, Constantino . . . , 
 
 Amer. Trumbull, John . . . Histor 
 
 fing. Turner, J. W. M. . 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1789 
 
 
 . Painter.' 
 
 1582 
 
 1649 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1610 
 
 *'l694 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1790 
 
 ■ 1850 
 
 ■ieal Painter. 
 
 1676 
 
 1732 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1772 
 
 184^ 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1776 
 
 1851 
 
 Painter. 
 
 f. B. 
 
 c. 240 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1480 
 
 1579 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1512 
 
 1594 
 
 Painter. 
 
 14S0 
 
 157S 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1813 
 
 1865 
 
 ■leal Painter. 
 
 1756 
 
 184S 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1775 
 
 1851 
 
 Eng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A. 
 
 U 
 
 Paint «r. 
 
 1783 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dutch, 
 .putoh. 
 1 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Flem . 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Du ;ch. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Sie. 
 
 V.-in Beest (b. in Holland P) . . Marine Painter. 
 
 Vanbrugh, Sir Jobn (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arcli't. 
 
 Vanderlyn, John 
 Vander Neer, Arnold 
 Vandervelde, Adrian . 
 
 , the younger . 
 
 , Wm., marine aod battle 
 
 Vanderwerf, Adrian 
 
 Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait 
 
 Vanej-ck, Hubert 
 
 Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) 
 
 Van nucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . 
 
 Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 Architect. 
 
 Vasari, George, biographer of artists 
 Vasi, Joseph 
 
 Architect and Painter. 
 Designer and Engraver. 
 
 1672 
 1776 
 1619 
 1639 
 1633 
 1610 
 1654 
 1598 
 1366 
 1370 
 1488 
 1700 
 1512 
 1710 
 
 3726 
 1852 
 
 1683 
 1672 
 1707 
 \6K 
 
 mi' 
 
 1646 
 1426 
 1441 
 1530 
 177S? 
 1574 
 1782 
 
1026 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 SATIOK 
 
 Span. 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Velasquez, Jas. K. de Sylvia y . . . Painter. 
 
 Verboeckhoven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 
 
 Ver Bryck, C. . . . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Vemet, Horace . . . Historical Painter. 
 
 Vernet, Joseph ..... Painter. 
 Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 
 Verrochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking 
 
 features in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. 
 
 Vertue, George (500 plates) . . Engraver. 
 
 Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter's Architect. 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da ... Painter. 
 
 Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . Architect. 
 
 Volpato, John ..... Engraver. 
 
 Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- 
 ry of Charles I. . 
 
 >0B^. IlIBD 
 
 .699 1664 
 
 1799 
 
 1813 1844 
 
 1789 1863 
 
 1714 178? 
 
 1422 1488 
 
 1684 1756 
 
 1507 1575 
 
 1452 1519 
 
 f B. c. 30 
 1733 1802 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1582 
 
 1649 
 
 Fp. > Wailly, Charles de 
 
 Amer. "Ward, J. Quincy A. 
 
 Eng. Warren, Charles, perfeotor of engraving on steel 
 
 Fr. Watteau, Antoine 
 
 Amer. Weir, Robt. W. . 
 
 Amer. , James F. . , 
 
 Dan. "Wertmuller, (p) (painted in America) 
 
 Amer. "West, Benjamin 
 
 Eng. Westall, Pachard . 
 
 Eng. , William R. A. br. 
 
 Amer. White, Edwin . . . 
 
 Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . 
 
 Soot. Wilkie, David 
 
 Eng. Wilson, Kichard 
 
 Eng. Woollett, William 
 
 Dutch. Wouverman, Philip 
 
 Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &o.) 
 
 Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &o.) 
 
 Eng. Wyatt, R. J. . 
 
 Architect. 
 
 1729 
 
 1798 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 
 
 )n steel Engraver. 
 
 
 1823 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1684 
 
 1721 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1803 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Port. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1738 
 
 182C 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 1781 
 
 1836 
 
 Designer. 
 
 1781 
 
 185S 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 
 
 Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 17S6 
 
 1841 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 1713 
 
 1782 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 1736 
 
 1785 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1620 
 
 1668 
 
 Architect. 
 
 1632 
 
 1723 
 
 .) . Architect. 
 
 1743 
 
 1813 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1796 
 
 1880 
 
 Span. Ximenes, Fran. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1698 
 
 166« 
 
 nem. TpleB, Charles de 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Ital. Zablia, NicholaB 
 
 Gr. Zeixia, celebrated ancient 
 
 Ger. Zincke 
 
 ItaL Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederlgo 
 
 Ital. Zuooaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo , 
 
 l«al. ZuooarelU . 
 
 Architect. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 Enamel Portrait Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1674 1650 
 
 B 0. 490 B. O.400 
 1684 1769 
 
 1639 1639 
 
 1529 1666 
 
 1710 17M 
 
PAINTING. 1027 
 
 PAINTING. Clu-o.::ological Table of the most celebrated Paiiters, arranged in 
 Schools aud Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of 
 the Nineteeutli Century. 
 
 {From BelVa EdiUon of Bredoio's Tables of Universal History.) 
 
 1. Florentine School. — Style elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to 
 please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace — 1240, Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, 
 Andrea Tafli; 1400,'Massolino; 1402, Massaoio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Verrochio, 
 Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Glnrlandajo ; 1445, Leonakdo da Vinoi; 1469, Bartoloinmeo 
 di San Marco ; 14T1, Baldassarre Per uzzi ; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 14S4, Dominico 
 Beccafumi ; 14S3, Andrea del Sarto; 1493. Jacopo Carrucci da Pontormo; 149 i, Del Kuss' 
 1500, Perino del Vaga ; 1509, Daniel da Volterra ; 1510. Francesco Sal viati ; 1510, Giorgio Vassarl ; 
 1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luigi Oardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo liosselli; 
 1596, Pietro Berretiui. called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo- 
 foli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti ; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni; 1702, 
 Pompeo Battoni. 
 
 2. Roman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical 
 study of tlie antique and of nature ; heads of the most subUme beauty ; coloring and chiaro 
 oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturicliio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1433, Raff&el 
 1488, G. V. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Eomano ; 152S, Frederico Barocci ; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero ; 1543;, 
 Frederico Zucchero ; 1589, Dominico Feti ; 1594, Nicholas Poussin : 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo 
 Bernini ; 1599, Andrea Sacchi ; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine ; 1602, Ceriozr* • 
 1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1618, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspro. 
 ±616, Luigi Scaramucoia; 1617, Francesco Komanell ; 1623, Giacinto Brandi ; 1623, Filippo 
 Lauri; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, Giro Ferri; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Raffael Mengs. 
 
 8. Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent 
 coloring, admirable effect ; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; this 
 school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, Andrea Mantegiia; 1478, Giorgione ; 1477, 
 Titian (Tizian« Vecelli da Cadore) ; 14S0, G. A. Regillo ; 1485, Sebastiano del Piombo ; 1510, 
 Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea 
 Schiavone ; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari ; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539, Dario 
 Varotari ; 1540, Felice Eiccio : 1540, -Jacopo Palma (II Vecchio); 1544, Jac Palma; 1549, Giov. 
 Contarino; 1560, Maria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 1586, Tiberio Tijielli; 1590, Aless. 
 Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635. Giov. B. Langetti ; 1642, Andrea Pozzo ; 1656, Franc. 
 Trevi.sani; 1659, Sebast. Ricci ; 1666. Ant. Balestra; 1672, Rosa Alba Carriera : 1675. 
 Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canale ; 1693, Giov. Bati 
 Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 
 
 4. Lombard and Bolognesk Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded 
 a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools 
 are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and voluptuous (though 
 perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his coin- 
 ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduse a more elevated character of design, and many of their 
 pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correggio. 1450, Francesco Franco ; 
 1490, F. Primaticcio; 1494, Correggio Antonio AUegri ; 1495. Polidori Caldari ; 1504. Fr. Maz- 
 zuoli ; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi ; 1546. Camillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Car- 
 ravaggio ; 1555, Lodov. Oaracci: 1557, Agostino Caracci ; 1560, Annibaie Caracci :" 1560, Bartol. 
 Schidone; 1575, Guido Reni, called Guido; 1576, Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini ; 157^. 
 Francesco Albano ; 15S0. Giacomo Cavedcne; 15S1, Dom. Zampieri, called Domenichino; 1581. 
 Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov. Lana; 1600, Mic. Ans 
 Colonna; 1606, Grimaldi; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani; 1612, Simone Canlarini ; 1624, P. Fran. 
 Mola; 1628, Cignani ; 1638, P. F. Caroli ; 1643, Lodov. Quaini ; 1648, Ant. Francescliini : 1654. 
 Guis. del Sole; 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 16 i5, Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1668, Dom. Maria Viaiii ; 
 1671, Donate Oreti ; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti; 1691, G. P. Panini. 
 
 (Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. Xhese nations are not regarded as having founded 
 general Schools: their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. Neapol- 
 itan. — The painters of this nation are reproached witli being in aeneral somewhat affected. 
 Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fil del Tesauro, 1820; 1500,'and Sabbatani; 1560, Guis 
 Cesare d'Arpino ; 16o0, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1618, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvatoi 
 Rosa; 1631, Luca Giordana; 1657, Fran. Solimene: 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli : 1679, Sebast. Conc". 
 1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design. — 1400. Nich. da Vottri ; 1527, Cam- 
 blasi ; 1544. G. B. Paggi ; 1.5.57, Bern. Castelli ; 1581, Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590 Gio. Cs .'lone ; 1616, 
 B«nedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gauli; 1664, Greg. Ferrari, 1654, Bart 
 9-uldoboni ; 166C, II Molinaretto ; Spaniards. — ^Tliese painters have especially imitated the 
 Venetian School, and often display Its brilliant coloring. — 1400, Alonso Berragente; 1487, Blii*8» 
 
1028 PAINTING. 
 
 dePrado; 1519, Morales, 1SS8, Luis de Vargas ; 1532, .1. F. Xiiiienez de Navarete ; 1550, l'at,ii 
 de las Rovias; 1589, Joseph Eibera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Cano; 
 1610, Henrique de las Mannas; 1613, Bartolme Esteban deMurillo; 1617, Franc. Eizzi ; 1681^ 
 Matias de Torres; 1040, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan ile Alfaro; 1651, Juan 0. Falco; 16Ciy, P. 
 di Pietri.) 
 
 5. 6EB5rAN School. — This Scliool liaving never had a common point of union, bears no 
 general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists 
 to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 129T, Th. de Matina; 13.57, Theo. de 
 Prague; 1367, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Dnrer; 1492. Lucas Muller: 1498, Hans Holbein; 
 lf;.5, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmor; 1.560, Christ. Schwartz ; 1.556, John Van Aachen: 
 1564, J. Eottenhammer; 1.570, J. Lys; 1.574, Adam 'Elzhoimer; 1.593, Sam. Hofmann ; 
 1600. J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611, Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink; 1618, P. Van der 
 Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt: 1625. J. Linselback; 1681, J. Hen Eoos- 
 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639. Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Merian ; 1648. Godfrey 
 Kneller; 1666. G. P. Euffgendas; 1668, J. E. Ilubef: 1669. Anna Waser; 1685, fealthasar 
 Denner; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg: 1698, J. E. Eiedenger ; 1709, Brinkman ; 1712, C. W. E. Dietrich ; 
 
 1728, Eaffael Mengs; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 
 
 6. Flk.mish or Belgio Scnooi,. — This School excels in coloring .and in the faithful Imi- 
 tation of nat\ire, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design; it produces 
 eminent artists in every style; that to which Tenievs lias affixed his name had its birth In 
 this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but 
 there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1443. — 1S06, Eubert Van Eyk; 
 1370, John Van Evk; 1450, Quentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley: 1499, J. de Mabuse ; 
 1553, Peter Knock;" 1520, Frank Floris; 1584, Mar de Vos; 1536. J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- 
 bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1548, 0. Van Mander; 1550, H. Steenwvck; 1555, Denys Calvart; 
 1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel: 1570, P. Neefs; 1573, S. Frank; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 
 1577, Peter Paul Eubens ; 1580, David Teniers: 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van 
 Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1518, J. V..n Artois ; 1618, Gonzales 
 Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen ; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 166S, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. 
 Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort. 
 
 7. Dutch School. — This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence 
 of the chiaro oscuro ; exhibits good coloring, and a faitiiful imitation of nature in the mi- 
 nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School 
 1467, Erasmus ; 1494. Luke of Leyden ; -1498, Martin Hemskerk : 1518, An. Moro ; 1564, 
 Ab. Bloemar.t; 1579, Sol de Brey;"l585, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1596. Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. 
 D. de Heein ; 1600, John Wyna'nts ; 1606, Albert Cuvp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Eyn ; 
 1608, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, G.abriel Met- 
 lu; 1620, Philip Wonvermans; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625. Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph 
 Bakhytzen; 1688. W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Euys^dael, Hobbema; 1685, Fran, Mierirs; 1636. 
 John Steen ; 1637; Van den Heyden ; 1688, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 
 1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1682, John Van Huysum. 
 
 English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; 
 excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Hans Holbein ; 154.3, F. 
 Zucchero; 1572, Inigo Jones,; 1601. P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610. W. Dobson ; 1620, Eic. 
 Gibson; 16J9, John Greenhill ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James 
 Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Eich. Wilson; 1728. Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thom. 
 •Gainsborough; 1738, Sawrey Gilpin; 1784, P. J. de Loutherbourg; 1735, David Allan; 1738, 
 Beniamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Northcote ; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, 
 Philip Eeinagle ; 1751. William Hamilton; 1752, Wm. Beechey : 1755. Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, 
 Francis Bourgeoise: 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; "1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1,774 
 
 Edward Bird ;" 1776, John Constable; 1786, Will. Hilton; 1787. Geo. Hen. Harlow; , Tho- 
 
 ,mas Daniell ; 1785, David Wilkie ; 1786, E. B. Haydon ; , A, W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty. 
 
 8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the differ 
 ■cjit Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics ; they are in general more 
 ■successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation 
 and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most numer- 
 lous and flourishing school of all.— 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Eosso de Eossi ; 1502, J. Cousin ; 
 1682, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Pousin ; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600. Le Valentin; 1600, 
 James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur ; 
 1619, Charles le Brun; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien 
 1667, Nicholas Bertin ; 1667, Anth. Rivallv ; 1684, Ant Watteau ; 1688, Francis Le Moine ; 1699 
 Noel N. Coypel; ITOO, Chas. Natoire; 1794, F. Bouchier ; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vie-i 
 
 1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet. 
 
 i^n^m 
 
kM