-^ 
 
 SB 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BUREAU OF PIANT INDDSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 164. 
 
 B. T, GALLOWAY, Chief 0/ Bwean. 
 
 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH, 
 
 I.-YAUTIAS, TAROS, AND DASHEENS, 
 
 O. W. BARRETT, 
 
 Plant Introducer, Office of Foreign Seed 
 AND Plant Introduction. 
 
 IL-AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND UTILITY OF THE 
 CULTIVATED AROIDS. 
 
 o. F. COOK. 
 
 I^srKi- February 5, 1910. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1910. 
 
 ■l^iCSraV"'' 
 
Glass. 
 
 Book --Jjx3 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate I. 
 
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BUREAU OT PLANT mDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 164. 
 
 B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. 
 
 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 I.-YAUTIA8, TAROS, AND DASHEENS. 
 
 0!^iv. BARRETT, 
 
 Plaxt Introducer, Office of Foreign Seed 
 AND Plant Introduction. 
 
 II.-AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND UTILITY OF THE 
 CULTIVATED AROIDS. 
 
 O. F. COOK. 
 
 IssriCI) J-^EBIU-AKV ."), ]910. 
 
 WASHINGTON-. 
 
 government printing office, 
 1910. 
 
^-3 
 
 %■ 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 BUREAU or PLANT INDUSTRY. 
 
 Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Gallo"WAY. 
 Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. 'Woods. 
 Editor, J. E. Rockwell. 
 Chief Clerk, James K.. Jones. 
 
 Foreign Seed and Plant iNTRonrcTioN. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC STAFF. 
 
 David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. 
 P. H. Dorsett, Albert Mann, George AV. Olivor, AV alter Van Fleet, and Peter Bisset, Experts. 
 Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer. 
 H. V. Harlan. II. C. Skeels, and R. A. Younjc, Assistants. 
 Edward Gouchcr and P. J. Wester, Assistant Propagators. 
 
 Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation In%-estigations. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC staff. 
 
 O. F. Cook, Bionomhi in Charge. 
 G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanists. 
 H. Pittier, Special Field Agent. 
 S. M. Bain and D.N. Shoemaker, Experts. 
 
 E. B. Boykin, J. H. Kinsler, Argyle McLachlan, and D. A. Saimders, Special Agents. 
 E. C. EwinK and R. M. Meade, Assistants. 
 164 
 2 
 
 FEB 11 1910 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Bureau of Plant Industry, 
 
 Office of the Chief, 
 Washington, D.C., Sej^tember 15, 1909. 
 
 Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled 
 ''Promising Root Crops for the South," consisting of two papers, 
 '' Yautias, Taros, and Dasheens, " and ''The Agricultural History and 
 Utihty of the Cultivated Aroids," and to recommend that it be 
 published as Bulletin No. 164 of the Bureau series. These papers 
 have been prepared by Mr. O. W. Barrett, formerly Plant Introducer, 
 Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, and Mr. 0. F. Cook, 
 Bionomist, with a view to publication. 
 
 Mr. Barrett, who recently resigned his position in this Bureau to 
 take up the organization of a department of agriculture in the colony 
 of Portuguese East Africa, both before and after his connection with 
 the Department of Agriculture, spent much time in investigating the 
 possibilities of a group of plants that has been almost completely 
 neglected by plant cultivators unfamiliar with the Tropics — yautias, 
 taros, and dasheens. These root crops have formed the staple food 
 of such native races as the Hawaiians in the Pacific, and they have 
 played important rdles in the agriculture of China, Japan, and the 
 Malay Archipelago; in fact, taking the Tropics as a whole, they are 
 among the most important of all root crops. 
 
 Mr. Barrett has long believed that the yautias, dasheens, and other 
 members of the group belonging to the family Aracese could be culti- 
 vated with profit in the southern United States, and in order to find 
 out what might be expected of the different varieties in this countrj^, 
 he assembled a large collection from different parts of the world. His 
 practical experience with similar collections in Porto Rico encouraged 
 him to recommend these as new root crops for the South. 
 
 This report was prepared rather hurriedly before Mr. Barrett's 
 departure for East Africa. It contains the information which Mr. 
 Barrett had collected regarding the different species and varieties, 
 and its object is to enable persons unfamiliar with the plants to dis- 
 tinguish the different sorts, some of which are likel}^ to be much more 
 valuable than others. 
 
 164 3 
 
4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 A general chapter on the agricultural history and utility of the 
 cultivated aroids has been prepared by Mr. O. F. Cook, who has been 
 acquainted with these plants in tropical countries. 
 
 The collection of varieties of cultivated aroids assembled by Mr. 
 Barrett is now being propagated at Gotha, Fla., in cooperation witk 
 Mr. H.^Nehrling, and as soon as a sufficient stock of the different varie- 
 ties is on hand small experiments with them will be started at differ- 
 ent places in the South. 
 
 Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, 
 
 TT T Tirr Chief of Bureau. 
 
 Hon. James Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 164 
 
C N T 1^: N T S 
 
 Page. 
 
 I. — Yautias, taros, and dasheens - 7 
 
 Introduction : 7 
 
 General description of yautias, taros, and dasheeny 7 
 
 General culture. - - 11 
 
 Fertilizers 12 
 
 Harvesting 12 
 
 Yield - 13 
 
 Storage - 13 
 
 Diseases - - -- 13 
 
 Composition of tubers - 14 
 
 Starch - - 14 
 
 Flour, meal, etc 15 
 
 Uses - 15 
 
 Yautia A'arieties 17 
 
 The Rolliza group - 17 
 
 The Manola group 18 
 
 The Amarilla group 19 
 
 The Martinica group 20 
 
 The Oto group - 21 
 
 The Vino group 21 
 
 The Senteh group , 22 
 
 The Violacea group 23 
 
 The Palma yautia - 23 
 
 The Belembe yautia 24 
 
 Alocasia varieties 24 
 
 Alocasia macrorhiza 24 
 
 Taro varieties 25 
 
 Striped taros 26 
 
 Red taros - 27 
 
 Daaheen varieties - 27 
 
 Summary 28 
 
 II. — Agricultural history and utility of the cultivated aroids 31 
 
 Index ".... 39 
 
 164 5 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Plate I. A collection of yautias {Xanthosoma spp.) growing at Gotha, 
 
 Fla Frontispiece. 
 
 II. Leaf and rootstock of the alocasia and of the yautia 8 
 
 III. Leaf and rootstock of the taro and of the dasheen 10 
 
 IV. Base of a dasheen plant, showing tubers 12 
 
 V. Tubers of a dasheen grown at Gough, S. C 14 
 
 VI. Fig. 1. — Starch grains of the taro. Fig. 2. — Starch grains of the 
 alocasia. Fig. 3. — Starch grains of the yautia. Fig. 4. — Starch 
 
 grains of Canna edulis 16 
 
 VII. One of the best table varieties of yautia, the Rolliza, showing 
 
 numerous tubers attached to the rootstock 18 
 
 VIII. Fig. 1. — Yautias and taros grown at Cat Island, S. C, showing 
 young plants in an unfavorable situation. Fig. 2. — Yautias (S.P.I. 
 No. 17463) from Honduras growing at Gotha, Fla., under favora- 
 ble conditions 22 
 
 IX. Fig. 1. — Yautias growing on a steep hillside near the road between 
 Utuado and Arecibo, Porto Rico. Fig. 2. — Flower of the Palma 
 
 yautia 24 
 
 X. Taros under cultivation in wet ground near Honolulu, Hawaii 26 
 
 164 
 6 
 
B. P. I.— 512. 
 
 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 I-YAUTIAS, TAROS, AND DASHEENS. 
 
 By O. W. Barrett, Plant Introducer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 For many years the lack of a wet-land root crop has been felt 
 throughout the South Atlantic and Gulf States. In view of the fact 
 that some 40,000 acres in the Carolinas and Georgia have been fully 
 abandoned, with at least half as much ground that is only planted 
 once in two to four years on account of the decreased profits in rice 
 culture in that section, an effort has been made to find profitable 
 crops which may be grown in the rich soils of the coast-plain area of 
 both of the regions mentioned, which are too wet for profitable 
 potato culture. 
 
 The recent increase of interest in starch roots, which may be utilized 
 in the production of alcohol as well as for stock feeding, has lent a 
 still greater importance to this question. 
 
 With one or two exceptions the root crops discussed in the following 
 pages are practically new to this country and come from the Tropics. 
 However, theh crop season is sufficiently short to allow of their 
 maturing in ordinary seasons before the advent of killing frosts; in 
 fact, one or two of the varieties have been successfully grown with 
 a fair yield as far north as central New York. 
 
 These crops comprise salad plants, table tubers, stock-feed tubers, 
 starch roots, and varieties adapted for the manufacture of meal, 
 alcohol, etc. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF YAUTIAS, TAROS, AND DASHEENS. 
 
 The economic aroids of the world have received very little attention 
 outside of a few tropical countries, yet some of them bid fair to become 
 of great commercial importance within a few years, for the foUowing 
 reasons : They are adapted to soils which are too wet for other root 
 crops, such as sweet potatoes and cassava; they grow rapidly if 
 given a fairly rich soil and a fair amount of moisture; they yield 
 10394— Bui. 164—10 2 7 
 
8 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 heavily, in some cases two to four times the average yiekl of potatoes 
 (the RolHza yautia « has yielded when moderately fertilized, with 
 ordinary cultivation, at the rate of 15 tons of edible tubers, besides 
 5 tons of rootstocks suitable for stock feeding or starch manufacture) ; 
 their keeping qualities are in most cases excellent, whether kept in 
 the ground in situ or in a dry place in bags; and they are resistant 
 to insect and fungous pests. 
 
 The yautias (see PL I), or, as some varieties are called in the 
 British West Indies, taniers, are perhaps more important from the 
 commercial point of view than either the taros or the dasheens. 
 These three types of plants occur throughout the world in from 100 
 to 200 varieties. 
 
 The yautias, or taniers, belong to the genus Xanthosoma, and by 
 far the greater number of forms are included in the species X. sagitti- 
 folium Schott. (See PI. 11, B.) The taros have long been known 
 under the name Colocasia antiquorum esculentum; unfortunately, the 
 yautias have been almost always, up to the beginning of the twentieth 
 century, included under this name. The dasheens are tuberous- 
 rooted taros, usually of dwarf habit (see PL III, B, and Pis. IV and 
 V), and though it is uncertain to what species they belong there is 
 no doubt whatever of their close kinship with the true taros. (See 
 PL III, A.) The alocasias (see PL II, A) of the Orient and South 
 America resemble the xanthosomas, but can usually be readily dis- 
 tinguished by their leaf, as well as their root, characters. The genera 
 Xanthosoma, Colocasia, and Alocasia constitute almost the only 
 economic plants in the subfamily Colocasiese. 
 
 The general aspect of the plants belonging to this group is that of 
 the so-called caladium, or elephant-ear, which has become popular 
 as an ornamental during the past two or three decades. They are 
 succulent, stemless plants, although some varieties produce a rhizome, 
 or main rootstock, 2, or even 4, feet in length, the greater portion of 
 which may be above the surface of the ground. The leaves arise 
 from the tip of this rootstock or from its offsets or tubers. The leaf 
 stem ranges from 1 to 8 feet in height; it is usually grooved near the 
 middle, forming a sinus which at its lowest extremity is wrapped 
 about the tip of the rootstock. Most varieties seldom or never pro- 
 duce flowers, and none of the cultivated forms have been observed 
 by the author to produce seed under any circumstances. In fact, 
 the yautias are considered the oldest cultivated crop in the world — 
 and probably the only one, with the exception of the highly cultivated 
 taros — which does not ripen seed under favorable conditions. 
 
 The leaf blade of the yautia is always sagittate, or arrow-shaped, 
 i. e., the sinus at the broad base is open" exposing the attachment of 
 
 <i Pronounced yow-tee/-ah. 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
'<^ 
 
GENEEAL DESCRIPTION OF YAUTIAS, TAEOS, AND DASHEENS. 9 
 
 the petiole (see PL II; B). The shape of the blade is more or less 
 triangular, with the retroceding basal lobes more or less rounded on 
 the side toward the leafstalk. In the dasheens and taros, however, 
 the blade is peltate, or shield-shaped, i. e., the petiole is attached to 
 the under side of the blade, usually about half way between the 
 center and the basal margin (see PI. Ill) ; the tip may be rounded or 
 prolonged into a sharp angle. A more or less pronounced marginal 
 vein runs just inside the entire edge of the leaf, connecting the tips 
 of the side veins and opening by large pores on to the margin itself; 
 frequently in sunshine immediately after rain there is a superfluity of 
 water in the plant, and this is reduced by the discharge of drops 
 through these pores — a phenomenon known as "weeping," which 
 is rather common among the aroids. 
 
 The entire plant of both the taro and the yautia is filled with lati- 
 ciferous ducts containing a yellowish juice, which upon exposure 
 rapidly thickens and turns brownish, forming a viscid gum. The 
 true sap indelibly stains white cloth a reddish brown. 
 
 The tuber, which is morphologically merely a specialized horizontal 
 branch of the more or less nearly vertical rhizome, varies in shape 
 from a very slender root-like body, thickened toward the apex, to a 
 nearly spherical form, the average shape, perhaps, being obovoid. 
 The attachment may be weak, as in the case of the best types, the 
 tubers of which may be readily snapped off from the central root- 
 stock by a quick shake with the hand, or they may be strongly 
 attached close about the parent root. The tubers are usually covered 
 with a fibrous bark, especially near the apex. The color of the exterior 
 is almost always, whether of the genus Xanthosoma, Colocasia, or 
 Alocasia, a deep brown; the inner skin, however, may be white, rose, 
 green, or purple, which shows particularly about the tip. The 
 interior of the tuber is usually white or creamy white, but in some 
 types it is yellow, orange, rose, or even purple. This feature is 
 especially of interest when three or four sorts of as many colors are 
 served together on the table. 
 
 Both the rhizome and the tuber bear more or less prominent buds, 
 or "eyes," from which shoots may sprout under favorable conditions. 
 The color, shape, number, etc., of these eyes upon the tuber vary 
 constantly with the variety and are of considerable importance in 
 distinguishing closely related forms. The rhizome is marked with 
 distinct rings around its upper and thicker portion, which mark the 
 axils of fallen leaf bases; just above these leaf scars are numerous 
 small eyes, which seldom develop, whereas the lower portion of the 
 rhizome bears another type of buds which may develop into tubers 
 or, if exposed to light and air, into offsets and side shoots. The 
 tuber also possess6s eyes, or suppressed buds, which vary greatly in 
 
 164 
 
10 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 character, according to the variety of the phmt. They are usually 
 naked and irregularly situated. 
 
 The roots of the tuber are usually few compared with those of the 
 rootstock. As in most aroids, the roots of the plants of these three 
 genera are coarse, but rather long; they vary from white to red, are 
 somewhat brittle, and contain comparatively little of the milky latex 
 which fills most of the other organs of the plant. None of these 
 plants are deep-rooted. 
 
 The flowers appear in palmate clusters from the axil of the 
 leaf. The peduncles, which are about one-third of the length of 
 the petioles, are more or less adherent or connate toward the base. 
 Seldom more than one flower in a cluster is open at a time. 
 At the moment of flowering, the peduncle stands erect; immedi- 
 ately upon the partial opening of the flowerets upon the spadix the 
 peduncle withers and falls, though rarely the spathe and the spadix 
 decay before the peduncle finally shrivels. As before stated, how- 
 ever, the flower buds seldom open and are usually discovered in 
 a semidecayed condition in the axil of the leaf. The flowers of related 
 species of plants are snail-pollinated; no snails, however, have been 
 noted by the writer in the flowers of any species of either of these 
 three genera. The few species of wild or semicultivated sorts which 
 occasionally attempt to produce seeds are probably insect-pollinated. 
 The odor from the spathe is usually pronounced and varies from an 
 unpleasant pungent aroma to a nauseous perfume. The spathe 
 inclosing the spadix, which bears the minute flowers, is usually green 
 at the base and creamy white or yellowish red in its limb or upper 
 portion, which may be erect or bent at right angles to the spadix. 
 The pistillate ' or basal portion of the spadix is thicker and much 
 shorter than the staminate extremity; the spadix in these genera is 
 always straight. In the taros the extreme tip of the spadix is sterile. 
 In the case of some of the yautias, the spathe may barely exceed the 
 tip of the spadix, whereas in some of the taros it may be prolonged 
 to about twice the length of the spadix; it may be open, like that of 
 a caladium, in some of the yautias, or it may be strongly twisted into 
 a cornucopia-like roll, as in some of the taros. 
 
 The name yautia is an Arawak word which was in common use in 
 the Greater Antilles at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. The 
 meaning is probably "place of (ya') the hutia (or spiny rat, Ca'promys 
 sp.)," which was formerly very abundant in tropical America and 
 which fed upon roots and fruits. The origin of the name tanier is 
 unknown. The "r" is usually not pronounced in the British West 
 Indies, and the spellings "tannia" and "tania" are frequently seen. 
 Eddo is probably an African word synonymous w^th taro, but fre- 
 quently applied to the tanier. Coco is another term applied to the 
 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S, Dept, of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate III 
 
 M O 
 
 3 I 
 
GENEKAL CULTURE. 
 
 11 
 
 yautia in the British West Indies. Malanga is the Arawak name for 
 taro, and is still current in Cuba for both yautias and taros. In 
 Panama the yautia is called by the Indian (San Bias?) name of oto, 
 while in Mexico it passes under the names of quequeste, tekixcamote 
 (probably a mongrel Indian and Spanish word), rejalgar, colomo, 
 lampaza, and macal. 
 
 Since the yautias have been only very recently mtroduced mto the 
 Eastern Hemisphere, there are of course few native names ui that 
 region. However, the local names for the taro varieties are exceed- 
 ingly numerous and compHcated. Probably as many as 100 more 
 or less distinct forms of the taro and of the closely related dasheen 
 are now extant; many varieties have probably been lost on account 
 of the radical changes in habits of the aborigines ui the Pacific islands 
 during the past few decades. The locality ui which the cultivation 
 of th^ taros began appears to be Polynesia, though this is not defi- 
 nitely settled. A number of varieties have been cultivated for 
 many centuries, if not for thousands of years, in China and Japan. 
 There is not much doubt, however, that all of the yautias origmated 
 in tropical America. The alocasias appear in South America, west- 
 ern Polynesia, the East Indies, the Malay Penmsula, and India. 
 There appears to be no local name which is sufficiently common or 
 distinctive to permit of its use in this work. 
 
 GENERAL CULTURE. 
 
 The planting of yautias, taros, and dasheens should be begun as 
 soon as danger from frost is over, for they require six months or 
 more to mature. 
 
 The plants may be set in rows for convenience of cultivation, 
 though in the case of very wet lands, where horse tools can not be 
 used and where the weeds are killed by allowing the water to stand 
 at intervals, a close, haphazard method, as practiced in the Orient, is 
 advisable. 
 
 The distance between plants depends largely upon the variety 
 planted. Most varieties of yautias and taros require from 1 to 2 
 square yards of surface for their proper development; the dasheens, 
 being of lesser growth, require only from one-half to three-fourths as 
 much space. In rich alluvial soil, 5,000 to 10,000 plants may be set 
 per acre. If planted in fairly dry soil, close planting in rows about 
 3 feet apart is recommended; this will allow cultivating the young 
 plants with a horse hoe or cultivator. 
 
 Both the tops of the old rootstocks and the tubers themselves may 
 be used as "seed." Even sections of the old rhizome of sufficient 
 size for each chunk to bear two or more buds may be utilized. The 
 ''head," or top', of the rhizome, which is the preferred portion for 
 
 164 
 
12 PEOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 planting, is prepared by cutting off the tip of the old stem, leaving 
 h to lA inches of the leafless portion and about 4 inches of the basal 
 portion of the roUed-up leafstalks. The dead bases of the petioles, 
 if any, are peeled ofT from this head until fresh tissue showing the 
 dormant buds is visible. In setting, the tip of the cylinder of petioles 
 is left just above the surface of the soil; thus the portion of the root- 
 stock is protected from overheating by the sun. Care should be 
 taken, however, to allow no stagnant water to settle in the plant hole, 
 as this would very likely cause rottmg of the rhizome before the roots 
 could be formed. In fact, sour soil containing stagnant water is of 
 course injurious to any of these plants, especially when young. After 
 growth has started, however, plenty of water moving through the 
 soil is undoubtedly advantageous. 
 
 FERTILIZERS. 
 
 Like all root crops giving heavy yields, yautias, taros, and dasheens 
 require either a naturally rich or a well-manured soil. Potash seems 
 to be the element demanded. At the Porto Rico Experiment Sta- 
 tion unfavorable results were obtained by the author with chemical 
 nitrates and phosphates, Ordinarj^ stable manure gave the best 
 yield, TTell-rotted coffee pulp on ordinary soil gave a yield of 12,4 
 tons per acre. Soil which can frequently be flooded will probably 
 require no manure whatever. 
 
 HARVESTING, 
 
 The usual method of harvesting yautias, taros, and dasheens is by 
 hand pulling, supplemented by the use of a pick or a mattock. The 
 bundle of leafstalks of the mature plant is grasped in both hands, and 
 if the soil is moist or sandy one strong pull usually brings up the 
 entire root system; if some of the tubers break off from the rhizome 
 and remain in the ground, they are readily brought out with a blow 
 or two with a hoe. If the soil is packed, it may be necessary to 
 loosen it, at least on one side of the hill, with a hoe before lifting the 
 plant — after the manner of removing cassava roots. 
 
 The treatment of the tubers and rliizomes after removing from the 
 soil depends upon the use to which they are to be put. Of course, 
 as much earth should be removed as possible before hauling from the 
 field; tliis can be accomplished in dry weather by simply leaving the 
 roots in loose, shallow piles upon the soil surface. 
 
 In the West Indies ''castration" of the tubers is sometimes 
 employed; this consists in digging about the rootstock and remov- 
 ing mature tubers by means of a knife or even with the fingers. This 
 process is of course not advised in this country, except where tubers 
 are required for the table early in the season. Where the plants may 
 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 Base of a Dasheen Plant, Showing Tubers. 
 
DISEASES. 13 
 
 be allowed to continue growth for eighteen to twenty-four months 
 and where this method of castration is employed, it is undoubtedly 
 possible to take as much as 30 tons of tubers from one acre in that 
 time. 
 
 YIELD. 
 
 While single yautia plants may yield as high as 6 or more pounds 
 of tubers to the hill, the average for common varieties in ordinary 
 soil may be reckoned at 2 to 4 pounds per hill. The yield of the tare 
 should be about the same as that of the yautia. The yield of the 
 dasheen is 50 to 75 per cent of that of the yautia; however, in favor- 
 able conditions the yield may amount to 4 or 5 pounds per hill, 
 which should give 15 or more tons of roots to the acre. The yield 
 for alocasia varieties has never been calculated, but will probably be 
 found to be somewhat lower than that of the yautias. 
 
 STORAGE. 
 
 If kept dry after being harvested, the roots resist decay fairly well; 
 small packages of tubers can easily be kept six months in a dry 
 atmosphere without losing much of their vitality. If left in the 
 ground in situ they also keep fairly well and have been carried 
 through the winter season in South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, and 
 Texas. The roots, whether tubers or rhizomes, should be stored in 
 such manner as to guard against frost, decay from dampness, and 
 damage from animal pests. 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 All parts of the plants, with the exception of the parenchyma of 
 the leaf, are filled with a thick juice which appears to protect the 
 plants against the attacks of insects, fungi, and bacteria under ordi- 
 nary conditions. However, there are two or three forms of decay in 
 the tuber which are due partly to fungous and bacterial infection and 
 partly to physiological causes; these decays seldom affect any except 
 tubers and rootstocks which have lain dormant in the soil or which 
 were slightly infected with the germs at the time of harvesting. 
 
 During drought the margin of the leaf blade sometunes shows 
 large, roundish patches of dead tissues. 
 
 A white mycelial growth is frequently found on the surface of 
 tubers and rhizomes. On the former the white threads seem to do 
 no injury whatever, but about the top of the rootstock there are fre- 
 quently to be found patches of agglomerated hypha? beneath which 
 the cortical tissue is partially destroyed. The bases of the leaves are 
 rarely attacked, but in a few cases have been noted as affected by a 
 soft rot, probably caused by infection of this white mycehum. 
 Heads or tubers showing any trace of the yellowish or whitish areas 
 
 164 
 
14 
 
 PEOMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 caused by fungous mycelium or any patches of soft-rot should be 
 discarded in planting. The brownish fibro-vascular bundles fre- 
 quently seen in tubers and rootstocks of material which has been 
 kept for some time after maturing are to be looked upon with sus- 
 picion, though their presence is not necessarily a proof of the exist- 
 ence of a fungous disease. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF TUBERS. 
 
 The following passage is quoted from Bulletin 6 of the Porto Rico 
 Agricultural Experiment Station": 
 
 Analyses of two samples of yautia have been made at the Maine Experiment Sta- 
 tion, and the results given below are quoted from unpublished material. A white 
 variety contained 85.9 per cent edible portion and 14.1 per cent refuse, i. e., parings. 
 A yellow variety contained 76.9 per cent edible portion and 23.1 per cent refuse. In 
 the preparation of ordinary Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes for the table, the edible 
 portion constitutes on an average 80 per cent and the parings or refuse 20 per cent of 
 the tuber. The following table shows the composition of the two varieties of yautia 
 analyzed, calculated to a uniform basis of. 70 per cent of moisture, and includes for 
 purposes of comparison the composition of Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes: 
 
 Composition ofyautias and potatoes. 
 
 Yautia and potato. 
 
 White yautia. 
 Yellow yautia 
 Irish potato . . 
 Sweet potato . 
 
 Water. 
 
 Per cent. 
 70.0 
 70.0 
 78.3 
 69.0 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Per cent. 
 1.7 
 2.5 
 2.2 
 1.8 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 0.2 
 
 .2 
 
 .1 
 
 .7 
 
 Total carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Sugar, 
 
 starch, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Per cent. 
 26.3 
 26.1 
 18.0 
 26.1 
 
 Crude 
 fiber. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 0.6 
 .6 
 .4 
 
 1.3 
 
 Per cent. 
 1.2 
 .6 
 1.0 
 1.1 
 
 Fuel 
 value per 
 pound. 
 
 Calories. 
 529 
 538 
 385 
 570 
 
 The analyses show that yautias do not differ materially in composition from the 
 potatoes. As is the case with potatoes, carbohydrates constitute the chief nutritive 
 material. An examination of the yaptias shows that the principal carbohydrate 
 present is starch. 
 
 STARCH. 
 
 Yautia varieties range from about 20 per cent to 30 per cent of 
 starch. Taro varieties are ill adapted to starch m.anufacture for two 
 reasons: The starch grain is only about one-fifth the size of that of 
 the yautia (1 /i to 3 /x,^ see PL VI, figs. 1 and 4), which prevents the 
 rapid settling of starch grains in water, and the rhizome of all taros 
 examined thus far contains a gummy substance which renders the 
 water in which the ground or grated root may be suspended of such a 
 
 o Barrett, O. W. The Yautias, or Taniers, of Porto Kico. Bulletin 6, Porto Rico 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, p. 23. 
 blfi = 1/1000 millimeter, or about 1/25000 inch. 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 Tubers of a Dasheen Grown at Gough, S. G. 
 (Seven-eighths natural size.) 
 
"USES. 15 
 
 viscous nature that the starch grains are prevented from sinking to 
 the bottom. Alocasia starch (see PL VI, fig. 2) has been but slightly- 
 investigated thus far, but though the starch content of alocasia roots 
 is somewhat less than that of yautias the gum contained is probably 
 much less than in the case of the taro. 
 
 The size of the starch grain varies considerably in different yautias, 
 and is probably afi'ected to a greater or less degree by the soil condi- 
 tions, seasons, etc., in which the starch was produced. The size of 
 the starch grain in the dasheen and the taro does not seriously inter- 
 fere with the use of these roots as alcohol producers or as a source 
 for stock feed, flour^ etc. 
 
 FLOUR, MEAL, ETC. 
 
 Flour made by grinding dry slices of peeled yautia tubers is con- 
 sidered in the West Indies more nutritious and fully as palatable as 
 the famous cassava, or "banimy," cakes; it contains rather less 
 fibrous matter and no trace of the rather dangerous hydrocyanic 
 acid, which occurs even in the sweet cassavas under certain condi- 
 tions. 
 
 Taro flour has been on the market for several years, and is said to 
 form a very easily digested food for invalids, infants, and persons in 
 whom the digestive function is weak. It may be mentioned that 
 the principal food of the Hawaiian race was poi, made from taro 
 roots, and in their language there was no expression whatever for 
 indigestion. Flour made from the red or yellow tuber variety of 
 yautias should prove an attractive article in the northern markets. 
 About 70 per cent of the peeled tuber is water; thus 10 pounds of 
 tubers, net weight, yield after 3 hours' drying about 3 pounds of 
 flour. This flour will keep indefinitely without becoming musty if 
 protected from moisture. 
 
 USES. 
 
 Yautia tubers boiled form a large part of the diet of the laboring 
 classes in tropical America; in fact, the yautia ranks third in impor- 
 tance among the root crops in many countries of that region. The 
 fried tubers enter into many dishes on the planters' tables. In some 
 places, especially Jamaica, the larger tubers are baked and served 
 like baked potatoes. The taro rootstocks may be eaten either boiled 
 or baked, but are frequently served as purees and used in thickening 
 soups and stews. None of the alocasias, with possibly a few excep- 
 tions, are suitable for table use. 
 
 In boiling, the thin skin should be previously removed. This 
 
 skin may be left on in baking or roasting and may even be eaten 
 
 along with the interior, as in the case of the true yams. When 
 
 baked, the mealiness and peculiar flavor of the yautia are brought 
 
 10394— Bui. 164—10 3 
 
16 PKOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 out much better than in any other method of cooking. The tubers 
 of some yautia varieties are decidedly firm, even when thoroughly 
 boiled; in fact, some of the varieties are best served mashed and 
 made into small cakes, or croquettes, for otherwise — unless eaten at 
 once while hot — the hard texture may be somewhat objectionable. 
 The water in which the tubers are boiled should of course be well 
 salted. 
 
 An excellent method of serving yautia tubers is as follows: Mash 
 the thoroughly boiled tubers, then add milk or eggs and grated 
 cheese; this mixture should be made into small, thin croquettes and 
 fried. Parboiling, cutting in thin slices, and frying is a native 
 method in tropical America which brings out the characteristic flavor 
 to good advantage. In fact, the yautia may be used in any way in 
 which the common potato is used, and while there is very little dif- 
 ference in flavor among the many varieties of potatoes there is con- 
 siderable variation in flavor, as well as great difference in color, 
 among the yautia varieties. 
 
 The young leaves of both taros and yautias cooked as a salad are a 
 valuable addition to our list of pot herbs. '^ As comxpared with other 
 greens, these leaves contain probably more nourishment, as well as 
 flavor, because of the creamy sap contained in these plants, especially 
 the yautias. The boiled leaves may be served either with a milk or 
 cream sauce, or fried like cabbage or made into croquettes with eggs, 
 cheese, and milk. 
 
 The Belembe yautia has a less rich but a more pronounced flavor, 
 perhaps, than any other variety. The purple leaves of the Violacea 
 type turn to a dull purplish color when boiled, resembling the purple- 
 leaved cabbage. The petioles of some of the Japanese varieties are 
 also cooked for greens, and in one case are said to be eaten raw. 
 However, on account of the minute, needle-like crystals of calcium 
 oxalate contained in the leaves, and to some extent in the outer por- 
 tion of the tubers and rootstocks of both yautias and taros, cooking 
 should always be carefully attended to. The alocasias contain a 
 larger quantity of these crystals in the "blanket" portion of the roots 
 than do either the taros or the yautias. 
 
 Few stock-feeding experiments have been carried out with either 
 yautia or taro roots. At the Porto Rico Experiment Station yautias 
 were fed to pigs with favorable results, except that when used as 
 an unmixed ration it was believed there was a tendency to produce 
 scouring. 
 
 «Mr. H. F. Schultz, horticulturist in charge of the Commission's vegetable gardens 
 of the Canal Zone, has grown thousands of pounds of "yautia spinach" for the offi- 
 cers' mess, and it has proved a great success as served on their tables, taking the 
 place of spinach when the latter could not be supplied. Mr. Schultz states that he 
 finds it difficult to supply the growing demand for this tender and spicy vegetable. 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate VI. 
 
 Fig. 1 .—Starch Grains of the Taro. 
 
 (Magnified 200 diameters.) 
 
 Fig. 2.— Starch Grains of the Alo- 
 
 CASIA. 
 (Magnified 200 diameters.) 
 
 ■'KJI^ 
 
 
 
 3 3 -^ A* 
 
 
 Fig. 3.— Starch Grains of the 
 
 Yautia. 
 
 (Magnified 200 diameters.) 
 
 / 
 
 -^.-Vi. 
 
 ! 
 
 AjJ''- 
 
 / 
 
 nn u 
 
 i 
 
 y V ^' ^™^ 
 
 \ 
 
 ^^ X ^^-' 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 -f?^ 
 
 ^'r 
 
 Fi3. 4.— Starch Grains of the Ganna 
 
 EDULIS. 
 (Magnified 200 diameters.) 
 
YAUTIA VAEIETIES. 17 
 
 No experiments have been made thus far regarding the commercial 
 methods of obtaining alcohol from these roots. It is believed, how- 
 ever, that many varieties will prove superior to potatoes in this 
 respect, and the fact that yautias can be grown in the wet lands 
 of the Southern States, where neither cassava, sweet potatoes, nor 
 potatoes can be growm, renders the need for further investigation along 
 this line decidedly urgent. 
 
 YAUTIA VARIETIES. 
 
 The known cultivated forms of this most interesting class of eco- 
 nomic plants may be grouped under the following eight sections. 
 
 THE ROLLIZA GROUP. 
 
 The Kolliza variety (S. P. I. No. 14471) is in many ways the best form 
 yet tested. There are many slight variations, or at least geographical 
 forms, of this variety, which may be described as follows : 
 
 Height 3 to 5 feet, with spreading petioles and triangular blades. The green 
 petioles have a mauve line running along the more or less re volute sinus margin. 
 The basal veins at the attachment of the petiole are always naked in mature leaves 
 for one-half to 1 inch from the sinus. The tubers (PI. VII) are comparatively large 
 and regular in shape, i. e., nearly cylindrical, with the apex slightly larger and fre- 
 quently somewhat bent upward; the eyes and roots are comparatively few; the inte- 
 rior is an even white throughout and the flavor when cooked is excellent. Flowers 
 are almost never produced in this variety. Time for maturing, eight to eleven 
 months, depending upon dryness of season and soil. Adapts itself more readily to 
 various conditions than most other varieties. 
 
 This is the most widely distributed type of yautia, and is known to 
 occur in Venezuela, Trinidad, Dominica, Porto Rico, Isle of Pines, 
 Cuba, Santo Domingo, Mexico, British Honduras, and Surinam. 
 Closely related varieties have been received from Ceylon (probably 
 introduced from South America), British Guiana, and Colombia. 
 The many forms of this variety differ in the amount of color in evi- 
 dence upon the outer portion of the petiole, in the width and shade 
 of the sinus margin stripe, in the vigor of the plant, etc. It is prob- 
 able that extensive field tests of these forms would show that several, 
 at least, have tubers with characters which make them readily 
 interdistinguishable. 
 
 A Jamaica variety (S. P. I. No. 15397) very similar in appearance 
 as to leaf and leafstalk, and even the root system, produces tubers 
 having a tendency to come to the surface of the soil and with a dis- 
 tinct taro-like flavor when cooked; according to Mr. Nehrling they 
 are sometimes found standing erect above the soil surface about the 
 mother plant. 
 
 A variety which has been in the trade as Alocasia marshaUi (S. P. I. 
 No. 15401) is of unknown habitat, and though the tubers are scarcely 
 distinguishable from those of the Rolliza the entire petiole is covered 
 
 164 
 
18 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 with a glaucous, bluish bloom and stands more erect than in the type 
 variety. 
 
 A variety from Jamaica (S. P. I. No. 15415) has a leafstalk reddish 
 toward the base and with a wider maroon stripe on the sinus wing, 
 while the midrib and the basal veins of the blade are reddish beneath. 
 
 Two other Jamaica varieties (S. P. I. Nos. 15406 and 15418) 
 closely resemble the parent type, but the tubers of the former are 
 smaller and more numerous, while the petiole of the latter is of a 
 brighter green and has a more strongly colored sinus stripe. 
 
 A variety known in Porto Rico as the " Blanca" (S. P. I, No. 15419) 
 has erect petioles and more slender rhizomes, which curiously enough 
 contain numerous raphidian crystals which bar the rootstocks of this 
 variety from the table, although the tubers are apparently free from 
 this defect; this variety is supposed to endure more stagnant water 
 in the soil than its sister sort, the Rolliza. 
 
 A variety from Honduras, via Florida (S. P. I. No. 17462), may 
 belong to another type because of its yellowish tubers and the extra 
 amount of color on the sinus wing and the base of the petiole. 
 
 A variety received from Singapore (S. P. I. No, 18384) also has a 
 creamy white tuber and a leaf blade somewhat more shining than in 
 the Rolliza. The origin of this variety is undoubtedly tropical 
 America; this was received as Alocasia indica. A variety (S. P. I. 
 No. 19271) cultivated in Texas as an ornamental proves to be quite 
 distinct from Rolliza on account of the exceedingly slender tubers. 
 
 A variety which has been in the trade as Alocasia javanica (S. P. I. 
 No. 19291) may perhaps belong to a distinct type; the tubers are 
 numerous, clustered, of irregular shape, and white inside with greenish 
 inner rind; there are also slight peculiarities in petiole and blade. 
 
 A variety (S. P. I. No. 204S4) from Santo Domingo also has 
 creamy white tubers. A variety in northeastern Mexico, the Lam- 
 paza (S. P. I. No. 17149), is entirely green with the exception of a 
 narrow line on the sinus margin; another variety there, the Rejalgar 
 (S. P. I. No. 20970), has a petiole reddish at the base and bluish in 
 the middle, while the blade has a violet margin, and in the young leaf 
 the veins are shaded red beneath; the natives do not cultivate this 
 latter variety, but gather the young leaves and petioles for greens and 
 to mix with their stews, while the tubers are also mashed and made 
 into a gruel, according to Dr. Edward Palmer. 
 
 THE MAN OLA GROUP. 
 
 The plants in the Manola section are characterized by the flatness 
 of their leaf blades— in this resembling niany of the alocasias, but 
 the naked basal veins at the sinus make them xanthosomas. The 
 varieties belonging to this type are usually of more dwarf size than 
 
 164 
 
3ul. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate VII 
 
 One of the Best Table Varieties of Yautia, the Rolliza, Showing Numerous 
 Tubers Attached to the Rootstock. 
 
YAtTTiA VARIETIES. 19 
 
 those of the EoUiza section, and the tubers are variable. The plants 
 are adapted to much drier soils and they withstand long periods of 
 drought much better. This type appears confined to the island of 
 Porto Rico. 
 
 The Manola yautia of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15405) may readily 
 be distinguished by its very flat, broadly triangular leaf blade and its 
 comparatively short petioles, which are scarcely colored at all on the 
 margin of the sinus wing. The color of the tubers varies inside 
 according to their size and maturity from pale yellow to orange; the 
 exterior is rough, with numerous small eyes. 
 
 The Gengibrilla yautia of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15388) has a 
 much more slender petiole, with less bluish glaucous coloring on the 
 surface, but with considerable reddish maroon shading on the inside 
 of the sinus wings. On account of the very slender tubers it is 
 doubtful whether this variety can correctly be placed in this group, 
 notwithstanding the flatness of the leaf blade. 
 
 A very rare variety discovered in the west end of Porto Rico and 
 known there as the " Islena " (S. P. I. No. 15390) may be distinguished 
 from the Manola by the large irregular blotches of reddish purple and 
 maroon on the outside of the sinus wing. The tubers are normal in 
 shape, but pinkish inside and of high quality. 
 
 THE AMARILLA GEOUP. 
 
 Varieties in the Amarilla group are the most dwarf of all yautias, 
 and though closely resembling the RoUiza varieties as to blade and 
 petiole the very short and rough tubers which are of a yellowish or 
 orange color inside distinguish them from those in the RoUiza sec- 
 tion, while the concave or irregularly curved blade separates them 
 from yautias of the Manola type. Varieties of the Amarilla type are 
 known to occur in Cuba, Santo Domingo, Porto Rico, and Dominica, 
 and they probably occur in some of the South American countries. 
 
 The Amarilla of Porto Rico and Cuba (S. P. I. No. 15387) has short 
 petioles covered with a glaucous gray bloom, but without any purplish 
 shading on the sinus margin. The tubers are short, small, very firm, 
 yellow inside, and of very rich flavor; their keeping quahties are 
 excellent when not affected with fungous diseases previous to harvest- 
 ing. During the dry season the tubers may be left in the ground for 
 weeks, or even months, and removed from time to time as required. 
 While the yield is not so high as in some other types, the richness of 
 the flavor and the good keeping quahties render it a popular variety. 
 
 A larger variety of the Amarilla type, the ''Dominica," or "Sama- 
 nal," of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15408), is distinguished by having a 
 few blotches or fetripes of a maroon color along the sinus margin, by 
 its much more slender habit, and by the paler color of the leaf blade. 
 
 164 
 
^0 PEOMiSmG ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The tuber in some respects is the finest flavored and richest of all the 
 varieties of yaiitias tested thus far. It should be generally culti- 
 vated, since it proves fairly productive and resistant to fungous 
 attacks. 
 
 THE MARTINICA GROUP. 
 
 Most varieties of the Martinica section are strong growing, hand- 
 somely colored, and fairly productive. The petiole is usually striped, 
 especially near the sinus. The leaf blade is usually dark in color; 
 the tubers are of fair size, but short, rough, and beset with numerous" 
 small eyes; the interior is yellow or orange. The type of this section, 
 the Martinica (S. P. I. No. 15385, probably introduced from Mar- 
 tinique), is sometimes known as the "Huevo," on account of the egg- 
 shaped tubers ; as the "Quintal," from its supposed maximum yield of 
 100 pounds per clump; and as the "Amarilla," from the bright-yellow 
 color of the tubers. This plant, which has been known in the trade 
 as Xanthosoma maculatum, is one of the most striking varieties when 
 well grown; the petiole sometimes attains a height of 4 or 5 feet and 
 is beautifully shaded with cream and rose on a green background, 
 while along the sinus wings are irregular blotches of maroon and reddish 
 brown. It is fairly productive, but there is a tendency to over- 
 stooling, and for this reason it should be harvested as soon as the 
 tubers are mature ; if left in the ground like the Amarilla these tubers 
 usually send up new shoots even during the driest weather. The 
 tubers are perhaps more nearly cylindrical than in any other variety ; 
 however, they bear many roots and are firmly attached to the central 
 rootstock. The color is deep yellow inside, and when cooked this 
 turns to a deep olive or grayish yellow shade. The tubers are so rich 
 that only a few ounces suffice for the carbohydrate portion of a meal. 
 Like the tubers of the Amarilla, their firmness is a rather objectionable 
 characteristic. Not only does this variety flower more frequently 
 than any other, but teratological monstrosities have been noted in 
 several instances, as, for example, double spathes, coherent peduncles, 
 and distally flattened spadices. Unfortunately this otherwise highly 
 desirable variety appears susceptible to fungous diseases and does 
 not endure drought well. 
 
 The Orqueta (S. P. I. No. 15379) is an exceedingly rare variety 
 which is confined to a small district of Porto Rico. The leafstalks 
 are the palest of all the yautias, in some cases when grown in the 
 shade being nearly white; there are always, however, a few faint 
 streaks of maroon along the sinus margin. The leaf blade is also of 
 a pale yellowish green color. The tuber is yellow or orange inside. 
 This variety is inferior in point of hardiness and productiveness, but 
 is of some use as an ornamental, and in moist, rich soils will yield a 
 fair crop. 
 
 164 
 
YAUTIA VARIETIES. 21 
 
 THE OTO GROUP. 
 
 Varieties of the Oto section have a general resemblance above 
 ground, but the tubers are exceedingly variable in color. The 
 petioles are always strongly colored, either reddish, bluish purple, 
 or glaucous maroon; the whitish bloom common to most yautias is 
 more in evidence in this than in the other sections already mentioned. 
 The plants are usually of medium to large size, and though results of 
 field experiments are lacldng, there is no doubt that some of the 
 varieties will prove of high value. 
 
 The so-called "Jamaica tanier" of Trinidad (S. P. I. No. 15383) 
 has reddish brown petioles with a glaucous sinus wing, which becomes 
 deep reddish purple along the margin, which is usually rolled inward. 
 The midrib and basal veins are mauve-purple beneath, especially in 
 young leaves. The rhizome is orange-yellow inside and the tubers 
 are of a decided yellow shade. 
 
 A variety received from the Jamaica Department of Agriculture 
 (S. P. I. No. 15403) resembles the one just mentioned as to blade and 
 petiole characters, except that there is more of a reddish or scarlet 
 tinge at the base of the leafstalks and along the sinus margin. How- 
 ever, the tubers are of a pronounced rose color and comparatively 
 short, while the rhizome is of a pale-rose tinge throughout. 
 
 A variety received from Guatemala (S. P. I. No. 15804) is probably 
 identical with the Jamaica of Trinidad, but appears to be more 
 vigorous and prolific. A similar variety (S. P. I. No. 16947) from 
 Kamerun, West Africa, differs from the two previous sorts in having 
 white tubers. This variety was probably introduced from tropical 
 America. 
 
 The Oto of Panama (S. P. I. No. 19715) has a reddish, very erect 
 petiole with strongly reflexed sinus wings, marked with numerous 
 purple lines; the blade is short, but the basal veins are less exposed 
 than in most varieties. The tubers are of a beautiful rose shade. 
 
 A variety from Santo Domingo (S. P. I. No. 20488), similar to 
 the preceding, has a pronounced bluish glaucous bloom on the leaf- 
 stalks, and the pale flesh of the rhizome is marked with dark-purple 
 lines along the fibro-vascular bundles. 
 
 THE VINO GROUP. 
 
 The varieties of the Vino section of yautias are usually dwarf or 
 medium in size, with more or less coloring of the leafstalks and with 
 pinkish or purplish tubers. The tendency to "sucker" is an objec- 
 tionable feature. These yautias should be grown upon rich, moist 
 soils and planted comparatively close. The flavor of the tubers, 
 together with their unusual color, which is even more pronounced 
 after cooking, renders them of high value for the table. 
 
 164 
 
22 PEOMISING EOOT CEOPS FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 The Vino, or Punzera (S. P. I. No. 15377), of Porto Rico is appar- 
 ently confined to the West Indies and is nowhere common. The leaf 
 blade is of a dark-green shade with light-colored veins, and the 
 petiole is stained purple along the inside. The tuber is distinctly 
 flaky or "mealy" when baked, or even when boiled, and has a 
 delicate nutlike flavor distinct from that of most other yautias. No 
 record of the flowering of this variety has been obtained. 
 
 The Islena of the south side of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15410) is 
 the largest variety of this section and sometimes attains a height of 
 6 feet. This variety in blade, petiole, and tuber is very similar to 
 the Vino. 
 
 Similar varieties have been received from Grenada and Santo 
 Domingo; one from Haiti (S. P. I. No. 17703) has a dark- violet 
 margin around the blade and the young leaf is stained maroon, 
 except along the veins, while the sinus margin is irregularly marked. 
 The rose-tuber form (S. P. I. No. 19778), called the " Tekixcamote," 
 of Chiapas, Mexico ; the red-tuber form (S. P. I. No. 20864), called the 
 "Macal," of Tabasco, Mexico; and a variety having strongly colored 
 petioles (S. P. I. No. 17463; see PI. VIII, fig. 2), from Honduras, 
 belong in this section, but have not been sufficiently studied. 
 
 THE SENTEH GROUP. 
 
 The three varieties of the Senteh type have been received only 
 from Java; theoretically, all of the East India xanthosomas were 
 introduced from tropical America, but it is believed that the Ameri- 
 can prototypes have in this case become extinct in the Western 
 Hemisphere. 
 
 The Senteh (S. P. I. No. 17236), which was received as Alocasia 
 macrorliiza, may readily be distinguished from al'l but one of the 
 other yautias by the strongly contrasted dark-maroon or bronze- 
 purple blotches along the sinus wing and on the sides, and even the 
 back, of the petiole, especially toward the base. Although the 
 young petiole is sometimes nearly white, in a few cases it has been 
 noted of a blackish purple color. The leaf blade resembles that of 
 the Rolliza, but is somewhat shorter. The tuber also resembles that 
 of the Rolliza type. 
 
 The "talus soerat " (S. P. I. No. 17239), which was received from 
 the Botanic Gardens at Buitenzorg as Colocasia monorliiza scripta, 
 closely resembles the Senteh; however, the striping of the petiole is 
 much less in evidence and the tuber is of a yellowish white color 
 inside and, besides, has a tendency to rise above the soil surface. 
 Both this and the previous variety should be cultivated as orna- 
 mentals either in beds or indoors in pots. The yield and quality of 
 the tubers have not been determined. 
 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate VIII. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Yautias and Taros Growing at Cat Island, S. C, Showing Young Plants 
 IN AN Unfavorable Situation. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Yautias (S. P. I. No. 17463) from Honduras Growing at Gotha, Fla., 
 Under Favorable Conditions. 
 
YAXTTIA VARIETIES. 23 
 
 S. P. I. No. 20948 resembles the typical Senteh, but has more 
 purplish shading on the lower portion of the petiole. This is one of 
 the most striking varieties of yautia for ornamental purposes. 
 
 THE VIOLACEA GROUP. 
 
 The two varieties of the Violacea type are very distinct from all 
 other yautias. The entire petiole, with the exception of the extreme 
 distal portion, is of a dark blackish purple, suffused with a glaucous 
 bloom; the leaf blade is normal as to shape, but the color is very 
 dark, while the midrib and larger veins, especially in young leaves, 
 are of a pronounced purpHsh tinge. 
 
 The Guayamera (S. P. I. No. 15394) has been in the trade as 
 Xanthosoma violacea. This form was received from the Buitenzorg 
 (Java) Botanic Gardens as Colocasia antiquorum niger, and from the 
 Singapore Botanic Gardens as Alocasia vioUceum. The leaf blade is 
 bent at an acute angle, or at most at a right angle, with the petiole, 
 which stands erect and attains a height of 5 feet. The tubers are 
 rather slender, of medium size, and of a pronounced pinkish or rose 
 color inside. Flowers are almost never seen. Although a very pop- 
 ular variety in Porto Kico, the author never found tubers for sale in 
 the market. 
 
 The Prieta, or Morada (S. P. I. No. 15404), is an exceedingly rare 
 variety apparently confined to Porto Rico. It is distinguished from 
 the preceding variety by its leaf blades being at a normal angle 
 instead of nearly vertical, and by its orange instead of rose tubers. 
 This variety, which is of first quality for table use, should be planted 
 in rich, moist soil. It appears to be subject to root troubles if exposed 
 to prolonged drought. 
 
 THE PALM A YATJTIA. 
 
 It is probable that the Palma yautia (S. P. I. No. 15414) will 
 prove to be botanically distinct from the Xanthosoma sagittifolium 
 varieties. The leaf blade, which sometimes measures 4 feet long by 3 
 feet wide, is strongly concave, Kke that of most true yautias, but the 
 basal veins of the laminar sinus are much less exposed. The rhizome 
 is caulescent, sometimes rising to a height of 3 or 4 feet above the soil 
 surface. The very small tubers are produced only under very favor- 
 able circumstances. However, the large rhizome, which may in one 
 season attain a diameter of 4 or even 6 inches, is used as poultry and 
 pig feed by the natives; for tliis purpose it should be cut in chunks 
 and boiled. The yellowish or orange interior of the rootstock con- 
 tains about the same percentage of starch as the RoUiza variety, 
 although the fibro-vascular bundles are more in evidence. Ten 
 pounds is af air weight for a 1-year-old rhizome. This variety fre- 
 
 164 
 
24 PEOMISING BOOT CEOPS POE THE SOUTH. 
 
 quently flowers, and the spathe (see PL IX, fig. 2) is 12 to 18 inches 
 long, rather slender, glaucous maroon below, shading to a pinkish 
 yellow above. The odor is rather unpleasant and pungent. The 
 petiole is shaded from purphsh maroon along the sinus to dull-green 
 distad. 
 
 THE BELEMBE YAUTIA. 
 
 The Belembe {Xanthosoma Imstifolium) , a dwarf species of yautia 
 (S. P. I. No. 15412), is cultivated in Porto Rico and Panama for its 
 leaves, which have an aromatic flavor when boiled. It seldom 
 attains more than 2 feet in height and prefers half shade in moist soil. 
 The petiole is erect, dark green, with a long blade having large, 
 shghtly twisted basal lobes. Tlie corni may become multiple-headed 
 from the sprouting of numerous offsets, but no true tubers are ever 
 produced. Only the leaves are utilized. Flowers are sometimes 
 seen. 
 
 ALOCASIA VARIETIES. 
 
 The Alocasia group contains Httle-known plants whose taxonomic 
 relationships have not yet been worked out. In fact, since they very 
 seldom flower, it is almost impossible to accurately determine their 
 specific names. On account of the insoluble crystals of calcium 
 oxalate (raphides) contained in the cortical portion, or "blanket," of 
 the rhizome, it is not safe to use any of the alocasias as table roots or 
 for poultry or stock feeding, although for the latter purpose they can 
 probably be utihzed when thoroughly boiled. These plants are of 
 especial utihty where a quick-growing root containing a medium 
 quantity of starch is required. In the Tropics, where growth is 
 practically continuous in the moist soils along rivers and mountain 
 streams, 10 to 25 pounds may be calculated as the normal weight for 
 a rootstock of from 1 to 2 years of age. Many of the South Ameri- 
 can forms which may prove to belong to a closely related genus have 
 the objectionable habit of overstooling. 
 
 Among the collection received from Surinam a few forms hke the 
 Abo (S. P. I. No. 19222) and the Koso (S. P. I. No. 19221), have con- 
 siderable color on the petiole, which frequently shades into a purphsh 
 zone about the tip of the rhizome. The leaf blade somewhat resem- 
 bles that of the Palma yautia, but is more flat, with less prominent 
 veins and a more nearly closed laminar sinus (see PI. II, A). The 
 color of the interior of the rhizome varies from white to orange. 
 
 ALOCASIA MACRORHIZA. 
 
 The Alocasia macrorhiza is seldom cultivated in Porto Rico, where 
 it bears the common name of Panama, but is frequently used for feed- 
 ing pigs. The plant is an even, dark, shining green throughout 
 
 164 ' 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate IX. 
 
TARO VARIETIES. 
 
 25 
 
 thouo-h the inside of the rootstock is white. The laminar smus is 
 practlcallv open, though the basal veins are always covered. Even 
 9-foot plants have thus far resisted all attempts to shock them into 
 flowering. It is beheved that this variety will succeed better as a 
 starch root than even Alocasia indica or A. odora, though prolonged 
 field tests are necessary to determine this point. 
 
 TARO VARIETIES. 
 
 Though among the oldest cultivated plants in the world, the fifty 
 to one hundred varieties of taro now in cultivation have received 
 very httle scientific attention, and are consequently in a deplorable 
 state of taxonomic confusion. Undoubtedly the larger number of 
 these forms ^^nll be found to conform to the limitations of the species 
 Colocasia antiquorum and to its principal variety, 0. antiquorum escu- 
 lentum. For convenience in cultural discussions we may divide the 
 genus into two groups, viz, the true taros and the dasheens. The 
 petioles and blades of both groups are very similar (see PL III) . How- 
 ever, the tuberous offsets of the dasheens are seldom found among the 
 true'taros, although tliickened, stolon-like, and more or less superfi- 
 cial offsets are common under certain circumstances in some of the 
 taro types. The leaf is always peltate, though the angle which the 
 blade forms with the petiole is variable; the comparative width of 
 the blade and its irregular marbhngs and mottled areas are also 
 inconstant. Among the dasheens a bronze -purphsh shading of 
 petiole is a permanent feature, which, taken with its dwarf size and 
 the tubers, renders the two groups readily separable. Among the 
 taros color and markings run rampant; indeed, even the sap of two 
 or three varieties is colored, or at least colors instantly upon exposure 
 
 to the air. 
 
 In Hawaii, where forty-five distinct varieties are recognized, the taros 
 are roughly divided into upland and lowland sorts. Varieties of the 
 latter type are usually flooded at frequent intervals during the grow- 
 ing season (see PI. X), partly to keep down weeds and partly because 
 the plants require a great quantity of water. Although most taros 
 contain from 15 to 25 per cent of starch, the size of the starch grain 
 itself (see PI. VI, fig. 1) is so smafl (1 /i to 3 fi) and the gum content of 
 the root is so high that it is doubtful whether any commercial method 
 for extracting the starch from either the taro or the dasheen can 
 readily be found. However, for grinding into flour or meal or for 
 alcohohc distiflation roots of both types of this section are eminently 
 adapted. Two or three companies have already placed upon the 
 market a flour made by grinding the cooked roots of some of the 
 Hawaiian taros. 
 
 Perhaps the commonest, or at least the most widely distributed, 
 of aU the taros is the common West Indian ''eddo," or, as it is known 
 
 164 ■ 
 
26 PEOMISING ROOT CROPS FOE THE SOtJTH. 
 
 in Porto Rico and Cuba, the ''malanga." This variety attains a 
 height of 3 to 5 feet, has comparatively few suckers, and produces 
 in six to ten months a more or less cylindrical or fusiform rhizome 
 from 6 to 12 inches long by 3 to 4 inches in diameter. The leafstalks 
 are pale green, becoming almost white toward the base, although at 
 the point of attachment with the rhizome there is frequently a dis- 
 tinct shade of rose. The leaf blade is bent at a considerable angle 
 with the petiole, so that in the mature leaf it hangs nearly vertical. 
 The rootstock is more or less covered with a fibrous bark similar to 
 that of the yautia root; it has practically no blanket of poisonous 
 tissue about the starchy interior. Not only is there a slight trace of 
 tannin in the mucilaginous juice of the root — which of course be- 
 comes black when touched with iron or steel — but it appears to have 
 some ferment which upon cooking changes the juices of the root to 
 a purplish black shade. Hence the boiled taro root has not the 
 inviting white appearance of the yautia tuber upon the table. The 
 fibro-vascular bundles of the rhizome are small as compared with 
 those of the yautia rootstock. The fungous diseases which attack 
 the yautia are also in evidence among the taro and dasheen varie- 
 ties, although the latter root appears to be much more resistant than 
 the former. 
 
 It appears that there are several forms of this typical West Indian 
 taro, which vary in point of color of the petiole base and of the top 
 of the rhizome. The strongest variation from this type, which 
 should perhaps stand in a class by itself, is the highly colored Royal 
 or Lehua taro (S. P. I. No. 19952) of Hawaii. This variety, which 
 was formerly cultivated solely for the royal families, contains a 
 blood-like sap and produces purplish or rose-colored roots; even the 
 veins in the leaf blade are more or less tinged with reddish purple. 
 This is an upland variety requiring comparatively little water, which 
 should be generally cultivated as a first-class table tuber for the 
 fancy-vegetable market. 
 
 STRIPED TAROS. 
 
 The marblings or stripings of the petiole and the more or less pro- 
 nounced marbling of the leaf blade in this section of true taros serve 
 to readily distinguish the forms superficially. The shape of the 
 blade varies from the exceedingly narrow and flat form found in a 
 variety from Sibpur, India (S. P. I. No. 17102), to the strikingly 
 striped varieties from Java, like the ''talus belang" (S. P. I. No. 
 20954), which has pale-green petioles entirely covered with more or 
 less irregular bands of bronze-green, while the blade itself is strongly 
 marbled in light and dark green patches. The "talus koekoek" 
 (S. P. I. No. 20953), also of Java, has petioles nearly white, with a 
 slight brownish narrow striping, especially on the young leaf, while 
 
 164 
 
Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agncultur 
 
 PLATE X, 
 
DASHEEN VAKIETIES. 27 
 
 the sinus wings are involute and the blade a bluish green shade with 
 a weak, slightly crumpled margin. The ''kempol koenig" (S. P. I. 
 No. 20945), of Java, has the palish petiole covered over with minute, 
 cross-hatched, darker green lines. 
 
 The petiolar spot on the upper surface of the blade varies from a 
 yellowish green to a pronounced purplish shade, which may be en 
 masse or in the form of radiating lines. The color of the roots varies 
 from ivory-white to orange-yellow. In some varieties there is a 
 tendency to produce many offsets. 
 
 RED TAROS. 
 
 Only ten or twelve distinct sorts of red taros are included in the 
 collection made by the writer, though it is probable that this num- 
 ber could be easily doubled, or perhaps trebled. However, the red or 
 black taros are comparatively rare and until last year were prac- 
 tically luiknown in the Western Hemisphere. The colors of the peti- 
 ole vary from a pale reddish or maroon tinge to an almost black 
 color. Of the latter type, the " kalukandala " (S. P. I. No. 17461) of 
 Ceylon may be taken as a type. This strong-growing and highly 
 ornamental variety holds its nearly erect black petioles 4 to 6 feet 
 high. The rhizome is yellowish inside, while its apex and the bases 
 of the petiole are purplish. 
 
 Another type, the " garendakandala " (S. P. I. No. 17459), also from 
 Ceylon, has obscure greenish lines upon a reddish brown background, 
 except toward the upper part of the petiole; the blade narrow, 
 glaucous blue; the top of the rhizome and extreme base of the petiole 
 white instead of pink. 
 
 Another distinct type is the "kiempol poetich" (S. P. I. No. 20947) 
 of Java. In this the petiole is bronze-red in the middle, pale green at 
 the base and apex, with a paler, involute sinus margin. The blade 
 is pecuhar in having purple flecks near the petiolar spot and occa- 
 sional pale-green blotches near the middle, while the veins are dark 
 glaucous green. 
 
 DASHEEN VARIETIES. 
 
 For reasons previously explained, it is not always easy to distin- 
 guish between the dasheens and the taros, for some of the dasheens 
 have a tendency to throw sprouts from the tips of the tubers, while 
 some of the taros produce tuber-like offsets at the surface of the 
 ground. Many forms of the dasheen have been cultivated in China 
 and Japan for centuries, if not for thousands of years. One variety, 
 the Hatake-imo (S. P. I. No. 21649) of Japan, has the corm-like 
 offsets combined into a multiple-headed clump; but, stranger still, 
 each tip throws out not one but an indefinite number of buds. It is 
 possible that the process of close cutting the petiole has finally 
 brought about an abnormal habit in this form. The leaf and petioles 
 
 164 
 
28 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 of this variety in particular, and of many of the so-called "imos" of 
 Japan in general, are gathered as greens and boiled like spinach, and 
 they are also dried and preserved with salt." 
 
 A distinct type of dasheen which was sent under the name Leuco- 
 casia gigantea (S. P. I. No. 21644), the Hasu-imo of Japan, is so free 
 from the acridity which is common in the vegetative portion of 
 these plants that the petioles may be eaten even without cooldng. 
 The color of the petiole varies from a pale green in some of the 
 Japanese forms to a pronounced purphsh bronze color; the petiolar 
 spot may be obscure or purplish, as in the taros. 
 
 Perhaps the best form of dasheen is the Trinidad (S. P. I. No. 
 15395). This matures its tubers in about six months from planting, 
 provided the soil and climatic conditions are favorable. Though the 
 tubers are not large (seldom larger than a hen's egg), the prohficness 
 makes up for the small size. Both the tuber and the central root- 
 stock may be used on the table ; the inside is very white, though the 
 surface is covered with a mat of coarse, reddish brown fibers. The 
 erect petioles are purplish bronze-green, especially in the middle, 
 while the leaf blade is dark bluish green, with a purple petiolar spot. 
 This variety readily adapts itself to either dry or moist soils, pro- 
 vided they are not baked or acid. Since this variety endures close 
 planting, it is probably possible to obtain upward of 10 tons of 
 roots to the acre with common culture in ordinary soil.^ 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 There is a vast area of semicultivated and uncultivated land in the 
 Gulf and South Atlantic States which is too wet to admit of the cul- 
 tivation of general crops, but which is adapted to the root crops 
 discussed in this paper. 
 
 The four types of these root crops, namely, yautias, alocasias, 
 dasheens, and taros, are practically new to the agriculturists of 
 America, although most of the varieties discussed here have been 
 under cultivation in other countries for centuries. 
 
 "The Midsu-imo (S. P. I. No. 21647), one of the largest tubered of the Japanese 
 dasheens, has yielded in rich, moist soil in an experimental plantation of 35 hills at 
 Gough, S. G., 84 pounds of roots to the hill. The hills were at a distance of 3 feet, in 
 rows 4 feet apart, and on this basis the yield was at the rate of more than 15 tons to the 
 acre. The length of season was seven months from planting to harvest. Closer 
 planting, which would be of advantage from a cultural standpoint, would probably 
 increase the yield per acre. 
 
 b The Trinidad dasheen yielded in the experiment at Gough, S. C, in a small plot 
 of 6 hills, an average of 7 pounds to the hill, or at the rate of more than 12J tons to 
 the acre. A somewhat similar variety from Surinam, the "Sinesie," of which 62 
 hills were grown, yielded an- average of 7.6 pounds to the hill, or at the rate of 13J 
 tons to the acre. Some other varieties of this type, of which only small plots were 
 grown, yielded at a much higher rate. 
 164 
 
SUMMAKY. 29 
 
 These crops require only a moderate amount of attention, but 
 mider ordinary conditions it is believed that their yield will be com- 
 paratively large. FertiHzers are seldom required; insect and fungous 
 pests are comparatively few; cuttings of the root instead of seeds are 
 employed in propagation. 
 
 Many of the varieties are of use as salad plants, though the prime 
 object, especially of the yautia and dasheen varieties, is the produc- 
 tion of starch. The tubers of many varieties are suitable for table 
 use, and the roots of nearly all forms may be used as stock food 
 either fresh or when ground into meal. Several varieties which 
 produce small but numerous tubers are particularly adapted for the 
 production of alcohol. 
 
 164 
 
II -AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND UTILITY OF 
 THE CULTIVATED AROIDS. 
 
 By O. F. Cook. 
 
 There can be no question as to the importance of the cultivated 
 aroids. Though a large number of varieties, and even distinct species 
 and genera, are included under this general term, the series may be 
 viewed agriculturally as a single crop of world-wide importance. 
 It is unfortunate that the studies reported upon by Mr. Barrett 
 could not be carried farther, but even this mcomplete report con- 
 tains a very much wider range of information than any other pub- 
 lication on the subject. 
 
 The culture of the taro extends from the West Indies across the 
 Pacific islands, Japan, China, the Malay region, Hmdustan, Mada- 
 gascar, and the whole breadth of tropical Africa. The natives of 
 East Africa grow the taro extensively and have many named varie- 
 ties.*^ Welwitsch reports Colocasia as growing spontaneously m the 
 Portuguese colony of Angola, even in districts where it is not now 
 used by the natives. The taro exists also among the natives of the 
 interior of Liberia, though the eddoes (Xanthosoma) , introduced 
 from the West Indies in the last century, are now preferred. 
 
 The scientific name Colocasia has been connected through the 
 Greek with an ancient Egyptian word, "culcas." The taro is culti- 
 vated in Egypt, but its antiquity in that country was questioned by 
 De Candolle, who also doubted whether "culcas" was really the 
 name of the plant that we now call Colocasia. I have recently 
 learned from Mr. A. Aaronsohn that the taro is grown in Palestine 
 and Syria, especially in the vicinity of Beirut, and that the word 
 "culcas" is still in use among the Arabs as the name of the plant. 
 Mr. Aaronsohn is also inclined to believe that the culture of the taro 
 in Palestine is very old. 
 
 The culture of the taro in China is considered by all authorities as 
 very ancient. The Chinese residents of California import con- 
 
 «Damnier, U. Die Gemusepflanzen Ostafrikas. In Engler's Die Pflanzenwelt 
 Ost-Afrikas und der 'Nachbargebiete, Berlin, 1895, p. 131. The presence of a variety 
 of Xanthosoma among the cultivated East African aroids is indicated, though the 
 plants have not been thoroughly studied. 
 
 164 31 
 
82 PROMISING EOOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 siclerable quantities of taro from Canton and. from Hawaii, and are 
 beginning to produce it in California. There is also said to be a 
 growing demand for it among the white population.'^ 
 
 Whether the taro also existed in ancient America and thus had a 
 really world-wide distribution in prehistoric times is an interesting 
 question worthy of a careful investigation from the standpoint of 
 ethnology as well as from that of the agricultural study of the varie- 
 ties. The fact that these cultivated aroids have been so persistently 
 neglected by Europeans lends them an especial interest in the stud}^ 
 of primitive agriculture, since we have much greater justification for 
 supposing that their distribution represents the work of primitive 
 man than in the case of plants in which civilized people have been 
 interested. The present tendency to give more careful consideration 
 to such plants and to exchange varieties between remote parts of the 
 world is likely to disturb the present localization of varieties and 
 make it even more difficult to learn their source unless careful studies 
 of the varieties accompany the work of introduction. 
 
 There seems to be no record of an introduction of the taro into 
 America by Europeans until very recent times, and yet botanists 
 have reported it as existing in many localities among the natives. 
 The close external similarity of the taro to the yautia renders it very 
 probable that mistakes would be made and prevents our placing any 
 complete reliance upon the reports, even of acknowledged authori- 
 ties, unless we can know the facts on which their identifications were 
 based. Thus Seemann, who was an eminent and thoroughly compe- 
 tent botanist, reported the existence of Colocasia in Panama with 
 the native name oto, while Mr. Barrett reckons the oto as one of the 
 varieties of Xanthosoma. Varieties having leaves with a closed 
 sinus are reckoned as Colocasia, those with a completely margined 
 open sinus as Alocasia, those with the margin interrupted in the 
 sinus as Xanthosoma. These leaf characters are certamly very 
 convenient in dealing with these varieties that seldom or never 
 flower, but it has to be admitted that such differences are often found 
 among members of the same genus in other groups of plants. The 
 forms reckoned as Xanthosoma appear to be more different among 
 themselves than some of them are from varieties placed in Colocasia. 
 Thus the Palma yautia is very distinct from the other Porto Rican 
 varieties. Its failure to produce tubers, ready production of flowers 
 (PI. IX, fig. 2), and greater similarity to a species that grows wild in 
 Central Anierica indicate a more recent domestication. 
 
 Varieties of aroids with the taro-hke leaves are widely distributed 
 among the natives of the West Indies and adjacent parts of the con- 
 
 « Blasdale, Walter C. A Description of Some Chinees Vegetable Food Materials and 
 Their Nutritive and Economic Value. Bulletin 68, Office of Experiment Stations, 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899, p. 13. 
 164 
 
HISTORY AND UTILITY OF THE CtJLTlVATED AEOIDS. 33 
 
 tinent, although not nearly so popular in cultivation as many of the 
 varieties of Xanthosoma. In Porto Kico and Cuba the taro retains the 
 supposedly indigenous name "malanga," which would hardly be the 
 case if it had been introduced by the Spaniards. If the natives of 
 the Caribbean region considered it superior to Xanthosoma, it might 
 be thought to have spread amongst them since the discovery, but it 
 is more difficult to understand the wide distribution without popu- 
 larity, unless we suppose that the taro was formerly more popular 
 than at present and is being displaced by Xanthosoma. If the taro 
 was not already in America before the arrival of Europeans it seems 
 more likely to have been introduced from Africa than from the 
 Pacific islands. Importers of slaves from Africa found it to their 
 advantage to supply the negroes with their accustomed foods. The 
 African oil palm and the cola nut, as well as certain varieties of sweet 
 potatoes and yams, are supposed to have been established in the 
 West Indies during the period of the slave trade. The name ''ma- 
 langa" itself is similar to many African words. One of the East 
 African names of the taro is ''malombo." 
 
 If it be true, as Mr. Barrett seems to think, that Alocasia as well 
 as Colocasia has numerous American varieties, it becomes reasonable 
 to suppose that the three principal types of cultivated aroids, 
 Xanthosoma, Colocasia, and Alocasia, were originally domesticated 
 in America. The American nativity of Xanthosoma has not been 
 questioned, but the greater importance of Colocasia and Alocasia 
 among the Polynesians has made it appear that they must have 
 originated in the Pacific islands or the Malay region. The same 
 argument has been applied to the coconut palm, which is certainly a 
 native of America, though it has usually been ascribed to the shores 
 of the Pacific and Indian oceans because of its much greater impor- 
 tance in the East Indies than in the West. 
 
 The domestication of root crops characterized an early epoch in 
 the development of primitive agriculture in tropical America. This 
 is shown by the large series of root crops that were domesticated in 
 America. In addition to the cultivated aroids, there were sweet 
 potatoes (Ipomoea), arrowroot (Maranta), cassava (Manihot), yams 
 {Dioscorea alata), apio (Arracacia), lleren (Calathaea), potatoes 
 {Solanum tuberosum, S. commersoni, and other species), ullucus 
 {UUucus tuherosus), achira (Canna edulis), masua (Trojmeolum 
 tuberosum), oca (Oxalis crenata), and the Jerusalem artichoke 
 (HeliantJius tuberosus). The yam bean or jicama (Pachyrhizus) and 
 the chayote (Chayota or Sechium) were also grown as root crops, 
 though propagated from seeds. 
 
 In addition to this series of plants that have become known as 
 root crops and are usually mentioned as such in botanical works of 
 reference, there are records of several other species that are planted 
 
 164 
 
34 PEOMISING EOOT CROPS FOR THE SOTJTM. 
 
 as root crops in South America. A list of these has been collected 
 recently by Prof. H. Pittier, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, includ- 
 ing Polymnia edulis, Lepidium meyenii, Portulacca grandijlora, and 
 several other plants whose botanical names and agricultural possi- 
 bilities are still unknown. 
 
 The root crops that were domesticated in America stand in dis- 
 tinct contrast with Old World root crops, both in number and in 
 character. The species cultivated in the Old World were relatively 
 few, mostly the seed-propagated garden vegetables of temperate 
 regions, such as radishes, turnips, beets, parsnips, carrots, etc. The 
 temperate root crops domesticated in the Old World were mostly 
 capable of being eaten raw, as though they had been used first by 
 people unaccustomed to use fire for cooking vegetables. The root 
 crops that were domesticated in America are not eaten raw by the 
 natives. Many of them are disagreeably acrid in the raw state, like 
 the aroids, or even positively poisonous, like the cassava. Very few 
 new types of plants appear to have been domesticated as root crops 
 in the Old World Tropics, and none of them have attained the 
 prominence of several of the American species. The banana appears 
 to have been domesticated first as a root crop, and some of the varie- 
 ties are still cultivated for their rootstocks in New Caledonia and in 
 East Africa. 
 
 The greater antiquity of the domestication of plants in America 
 is to be inferred from the fact that many of the cultivated species 
 are not known in the wild state, while in the Old World there are very 
 few species, if any, that do not have wild representatives that still 
 appear closely similar to the domesticated forms. In the case of 
 the yautias the American nativity is clearly indicated by the wild 
 species of Xanthosoma. One of these grows abundantly in Guate- 
 mala and is eaten by the natives in times of scarcity of other food. 
 Yautias are also cultivated in Guatemala, but rather sparingly, 
 Indian corn being the chief staple in all parts of the country. The 
 varieties of Xanthosoma cultivated in Guatemala appear quite dis- 
 tinct from the common wild species. The wild plant is larger and 
 has a lighter green foliage, and the rootstocks that provide for the 
 vegetative propagation of the plant are very slender, only about the 
 diameter of an ordinary lead pencil, instead of the large, fleshy, 
 tuberous rootstocks produced by the cultivated sorts. This wild 
 species has a considerable similarity to the variety cultivated in Porto 
 Rico under the name ''yautia palma," but has a shorter and thicker 
 spadix with a less ample spathe. 
 
 The abundance of the wild xanthosomas in the mountainous parts 
 of Guatemala, including the volcanic districts, makes it easier to 
 understand how a poisonous plant might come to be used and finally 
 
 164 
 
HISTOEY AND UTILITY OF THE CULTIVATED AEOIDS. 35 
 
 protected, propag&ted, and cultivated by primitive man. The agri- 
 cultural development would come about very naturally and grad- 
 ually after the making of the simple discovery that these acrid plants 
 could be eaten after they had been kept for a time in boiling water. 
 This discovery was possible in many places in tropical America in 
 the very early stages of human progress, before cooking utensils were 
 used and even before fire had been definitely adopted by primitive 
 man. Springs of hot water are numerous and are shown by special 
 abundance of ancient remains to have been centers of population in 
 primitive times. Former association with hot springs is also sug- 
 gested by the habit of many of the Indians, such as the Kekchis of 
 eastern Guatemala, to drink only hot water. 
 
 An alternative possibility has to be admitted, that the taro plant, 
 like the banana, might have been brought to America from the 
 Pacific islands in prehistoric times and might have fallen into com- 
 parative disuse as the result of the discovery in America of the 
 xanthosoma, which seems to be a better plant for general agricultural 
 purposes. There is good historical evidence that the banana, which 
 certainly originated in the Old World, had been brought to America 
 before the Spanish conquerors arrived. No such direct testimony is 
 likely to be secured regarding the taro, which attracted relatively 
 little attention from the early historians of Spanish America. We 
 have to rely upon the general considerations that it is not likely to 
 have been brought by the Spaniards, and still less likely to have been 
 adopted by the Indians, who are very slow to take up the cultivation 
 of any new plant unless it appears to have a very distinct advantage. 
 The Polynesian method of cultivating the taro in pools or swamps is 
 not known to be applied to the plant anywhere in America. Mr. 
 David Fairchild, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, states that the 
 Polynesian system of planting the taro in the muddy soils of swamps 
 or artificially flooded places is in use in the island of Madeira, intro- 
 duced, doubtless, by the natives of the island who have lived in 
 Hawaii (see PL X). The nearest approach to this system is seen 
 when the plants are scattered along the banks of small streams. 
 Many yautias are raised in Porto Rico on very steep, rocky slopes of 
 mountains, where the soil is very shallow and irrigation is quite out 
 of the question. (See PL IX, fig. 1.) 
 
 Wliether or not we agree with Mr. Barrett regarding the prospective 
 commercial importance of the aroids or their profitable cultivation 
 in the United States, the study of them is eminently justified by two 
 practical considerations, (1) that they are extensively used as food 
 by millions of natives of tropical countries and (2) that they are 
 worthy of much more careful consideration by all Europeans who 
 undertake to settle or reside in tropical countries, 
 
 164 
 
36 PEOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The Tropics afford a great variety of fruits, though there are few 
 locaHties where the traveler's expectations of profusion are reaHzed. 
 But if fruits are usually to be reckoned as scarce, there is often a 
 downright famine of vegetables. Not only on the Isthmus of Pan- 
 ama, but in many other parts of the Tropics where railroad building 
 and other improvements are being attempted by men from Europe 
 and the United States, the deficiency of fresh vegetables is recog- 
 nized as a practical difficulty which seriously interferes with comfort, 
 health, and efficiency. 
 
 The Department of Agriculture receives many letters from Amer- 
 ican residents of tropical countries asking for information and seeds 
 of varieties of temperate vegetables that will grow in the Tropics. 
 In some regions moderate success with a few of the temperate types 
 of vegetables is possible if special care is used and after sufficient 
 experience has been accumulated. Varieties better suited to tropical 
 conditions are being discovered or introduced from other tropical 
 countries. The success of the Chinese gardeners with some of their 
 seeds from Canton shows that their varieties and methods of culture 
 are worthy of our careful considefation. 
 
 In many cases the most practical advice that can be given to per- 
 sons newly established in tropical localities is to study and make use 
 of the indigenous tropical vegetables, of which these yautias, taros, 
 etc., form excellent representatives. These plants will thrive and 
 produce abundantly under extreme tropical conditions where most 
 of our temperate vegetables will refuse to grow and the others can be 
 expected to produce only the most indifferent results. The acrid 
 substances and milky secretions render the aroids immune to many 
 of the diseases and insect pests that interfere with the cultivation of 
 other kinds of plants that lack such protection. 
 
 Propagation by rootstocks is an especial advantage under tropical 
 conditions, since it avoids the difficulties of germinating, transplant- 
 ing the seedlings, and caring for the plants in their tender early stages. 
 With sufficient water the cultivated aroids may be expected to hold 
 their own with any other crop, and they will also thrive in places too 
 wet for most of our cultivated plants. 
 
 The agricultural advantages make it all the more desirable that 
 residents in the Tropics should become thoroughly acquainted with 
 the cultivated aroids. Many people think they have tried the trop- 
 ical vegetables who have not really done so. It is necessary to learn 
 how to use a new plant, as well as to learn how to grow it, and one 
 must persist until he has had a fair opportunity of testing his own 
 taste. The tendency to condemn any unfamiliar dish is very gen- 
 eral, whereas the same flavor that seemed so objectionable at first 
 may appear quite attractive after we have become accustomed to it. 
 
 104 
 
HISTORY AND UTILITY OP THE CULTIVATED AEOIDS. 37 
 
 This is true of the aroids used as garden vegetables. By people 
 who have become familiar with yautias or eddoes they are often 
 recommended as better than potatoes. But if one expects too close 
 a similarity he is disappointed. Instead of the soft, mealy, white, 
 bland-tasting "mashed potato," one finds a much firmer material of 
 a somewhat yellowish or grayish color and a distinct, slightly nutty 
 flavor. Nobody would be hkely to mistake eddo for potato, and if 
 potatoes were expected eddoes might be a distinct disappointment. 
 But if we give the eddo a fair trial on its own merits, it may hold its 
 own with the potato in our gastronomic affections. We may be sur- 
 prised to find ourselves as willing to have eddoes served as potatoes 
 or to find that we miss the eddoes at home as much as we did the pota- 
 toes in Africa. 
 
 164 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Agricultural history and utility of the cultivated aroids, paper 31-37 
 
 Alcohol, production from aroids, need of investigations 17 
 
 use of small tubers 29 
 
 Alocasia indica, Singapore yautia, description 18 
 
 javanica, description 18 
 
 macrorhiza, description 24-25 
 
 marshalli, characters 17-18 
 
 Panama, description 24-25 
 
 varieties, description, distribution, etc 24-25 
 
 violaceum, description 23 
 
 See also Aroids, Dasheens, Taros, Tubers, and Yautias. 
 
 Amarilla group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 19-20 
 
 Aroids, characters, distinguishing, of yautias and taros 32 
 
 cultivated, agricultural history and utility, paper 31-37 
 
 distribution, varieties, etc 32-33 
 
 economic, description, habits of growth, etc 8-11 
 
 fungous pests, resistance 8 
 
 propagation, methods 36 
 
 seed, production 8 
 
 use of rootstocks and tubers 11 
 
 use of wet lands 7 
 
 yields 8 
 
 See also Alocasia, Dasheens, Taros, Tubers, and Yautias. 
 
 Banana, cultivation as root crop 34 
 
 Barrett, O. W., paper entitled "Yautias, taros, and dasheens " 7-29 
 
 Belembe yautia, description 24 
 
 Blanca yautia, from Porto Rico, description 18 
 
 Buds of tubers, variations, importance 9 
 
 Carolinas, wet lands, cause of abandonment 7 
 
 " Castration " of tubers , 12-13 
 
 Coco, name for taro 10 
 
 Coconut palm, nativity 33 
 
 Coffee, pulp, use as fertilizer 12 
 
 Colocasia antiquorum, description 8, 9-11 
 
 esculentum, description, etc 25 
 
 niger, description 23 
 
 derivation of name 31 
 
 monorhiza scripta, description 22 
 
 Colocasiese, family, description of genera 8-11 
 
 Colomo, name for taro 11 
 
 Cook, 0. F., paper entitled "Agricultural history and utility of the cultivated 
 
 aroids " 31-37 
 
 Crops, wet-land, need in South 7 
 
 Culcas, Arab name for taro 31 
 
 164 • 39 
 
40 PKOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Culture, yautias, taros, and dasheens 11-12 
 
 Dasheen, Hasu-imo, description 28 
 
 Hatake-imo, description 27-28 
 
 Midsu-imo, experiments at Gough, S. ( ' 28 
 
 Trinidad, description, yield, etc 28 
 
 experiments at Gough, S. ( ' 28 
 
 Dasheens, culture 11-12 
 
 description 7-jl 
 
 diseases 13-14 
 
 fertilizers 12 
 
 harvesting 12-13 
 
 starch grains, size 1,5 
 
 storage 13 
 
 varieties, description, distribution, etc 27-28 
 
 yautias, and taros, paper 7-29 
 
 yield 13 
 
 See also Alocasia, Aroids, Flowers, Taros, Tubers, and Yautias. 
 
 Diseases, yautias, taros, and dasheens 13-14 
 
 Dominica yautia, description, etc., important variety from Porto Rico 19 
 
 Eddo, name for taro 10 
 
 taro of West Indies, description 25-26 
 
 See also Taros. 
 
 "Eyes" of yautia, taro, and dasheen tubers, variations, importance 9-10 
 
 Fertilizers, yautias, taros, and dasheens 12 
 
 Flour, taro, manufacture, value, etc 15 
 
 yautia, manufacture, value, etc 15 
 
 Flowers, yautias, taros, and dasheens, habits of growth, desrriptioii, pollination, 
 
 etc - 10 
 
 Garendakandala taro, from Ceylon, description - 27 
 
 Gengibrilla yautia, from Porto Rico, description 19 
 
 Georgia, wet lands, cause of abandonment 7 
 
 Guayamera yautia, from Java, description - - 23 
 
 Harvesting yautias, taros, and dasheens 12-13 
 
 Hasu-imo dasheen, from Japan, description 28 
 
 Hatake-imo dasheen, from Japan, description 27-28 
 
 Introduction to paper on yautias, taros, and dasheens 7 
 
 Islena yautia, from Porto Rico, description, value, etc 19, 21 
 
 "Jamaica tanier," description 21 
 
 Java, taro varieties, description 26, 27 
 
 Kalukandala taro, from Ceylon, description 27 
 
 Kempol koenig taro, from Java, description 27 
 
 Kiempol poetich taro, from Java, description 27 
 
 Lampaza, name for taro - - 1 1 
 
 Leaf, blade, taro and dasheen, description 9 
 
 yautia, description - 8-9 
 
 stem, aroids, description - 8 
 
 Leaves, yautias, taros, and dasheens, use as pot herbs 16 
 
 Lehua taro, description 26 
 
 Leucocasia gigantea, description 28 
 
 Macal, name for taro _ ^^ 
 
 Malanga, name for taro and yautia ll 
 
 taro of Porto Rico and Cuba, description 25-26 
 
 Malombo, name for taro ^^ 
 
 164 
 
INDEX. 41 
 
 V&gt\ 
 
 Manola group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 18-19 
 
 Manure, stable, use as fertilizer 12 
 
 Martinica group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 20 
 
 Meal, taro, manufacture, value, etc !•') 
 
 Midsu-imo dasheen, experiments at Gough, S. C 28 
 
 Names, variant, for yautias and taros 10-11 
 
 Nitrates, chemical, use as fertilizer injurious 12 
 
 Orqueta yautia, from Porto Rico, description, value, etc 20 
 
 Oto group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 21 
 
 name for yautia 11 
 
 Palm, coconut, nativity 33 
 
 Palma yautia, description 23-24 
 
 Panama alocasia, from Porto Rico, description 24-25 
 
 Phosphates, chemical, use as fertilizer injurious 12 
 
 Pigs, feeding, experiment with yautias 16 
 
 Planting yautias, taros, and dasheens, cultural directions, etc 11-12 
 
 Plants, aroids, habits of growth, distinguishing characters, etc - 8-11 
 
 number to square yard 11 
 
 Pollination of flowers of aroids 10 
 
 Porto Rico, varieties of yautias 18, 19 
 
 Potash, requirements of yautias, taros, and dasheens 12 
 
 Potatoes, composition, comparison with yautias 14 
 
 flavor, comparison with yautias 37 
 
 Propagation, aroids, methods 36 
 
 Punzera yautia, from Porto Rico, description 22 
 
 Quequeste, name for taro '. - 11 
 
 Recipes, preparation of tubers and rootstocks for food 15-16 
 
 Rejalgar, name for taro 11 
 
 Rhizome, use as seed 11-12 
 
 Rhizomes, aroids, description 8 
 
 Rolliza group, yautias, description, distribution, value, etc 17-18 
 
 Root crops, American, comparison with European 34 
 
 domestication in America 33-34 
 
 importance for Tropics 31-37 
 
 Roots of tubers of yautias, taros, and dasheens, habits of growth 10 
 
 Rootstocks, taros, preparation for food 15-16 
 
 yautias, tai'os, and dasheens, use as seed 11 
 
 Royal taro, description 26 
 
 Samanal yautia, description, etc., important variety from Porto Rico 19 
 
 Sap of yautias and taros, character, 9 
 
 Seed, production by aroids 8 
 
 use of rootstocks and tubers of aroids 11 
 
 Seeman, report of Colocasia in Panama 32 
 
 Senteh group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 22-23 
 
 Snail, pollination of flowers 10 
 
 Soil, requirements of yautias, taros, and dasheens 11 
 
 South, need of wet-land crops 7 
 
 Spadix, variation in species of yautias, taros, and dasheens 10 
 
 Spathe, yautias, taros, and dasheens, odor, variations, etc 10 
 
 Starch content, yautia 14-15 
 
 grains, variation in yautias, taros, and dasheens 15 
 
 manufacture from taros, difficulties 14-15 
 
 Storage, yautias, taros, and dasheens 13 
 
 164 
 
42 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Summary of paper on yautias, taros, and dasheens 28-29 
 
 Talus belang taro, from Java, description 26 
 
 koekoek taro, from Java, description 2G 
 
 soerat yautia, description 22 
 
 Tanier, Jamaica, description 21 
 
 variant spellings 10 
 
 See also Yautias. 
 
 Tannin, appearance in taros 26 
 
 Taro, kalukandala, description 27 
 
 kempol koenig, description 27 
 
 kiemi^ol poetich, description '. 27 
 
 Leh.ua, description 26 
 
 malanga, description 25-26 
 
 names in other countries 10-11 
 
 Royal, description 26 
 
 talus belang, description ■. 26 
 
 koekoek, description 26 
 
 Taros, cultivation, extent 31-32 
 
 culture ■ 11-12 
 
 description 7-11 
 
 diseases 1 3-14 
 
 fertilizers 12 
 
 flour and meal, manufacture, value, etc 15 
 
 harvesting 12-13 
 
 importations from Canton, China 32 
 
 red, description, etc 27 
 
 rootstocks, preparation for food 15-16 
 
 sap, character 9 
 
 starch content 14-15, 25 
 
 storage 13 
 
 striped, description 26-27 
 
 uses 15-17 
 
 varieties, description, distribution, etc 25-27 
 
 yautias, and dasheens, paper 7-29 
 
 yield 13 
 
 See also Alocasia, Aroids, Dasheens, Flowers, Tubers, and Yautias. 
 
 Tekixcamote, name for taro 11 
 
 Trinidad dasheen, description, yield, etc 28 
 
 experiments at Gough, S . C 28 
 
 Tubers, use as seed 11 
 
 yautias, composition, comparison with potatoes 14 
 
 preparation for food 15-16 
 
 taros, and dasheens, color 9 
 
 composition 14 
 
 habits of growth 9 
 
 importance of variations in "eyes " 9-10 
 
 Varieties, alocasia, description, distribution, etc 24-25 
 
 dasheens, description, distribution, etc 27-28 
 
 taros, description, distribution, etc 25-27 
 
 yautias, description, distribution, etc 17-24 
 
 Vegetables, scarcity in tropical countries 36 
 
 Vino group, yautias, description, distribution, etc . .- 21-22 
 
 Violacea group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 23 
 
 164 
 
INDEX. 
 
 43 
 
 Page. 
 
 "Weeping " of yautia leaves, cause 9 
 
 Xanthosoma hastifolium, description 24 
 
 maculatum, description, value, etc 20 
 
 saggittifolium, description 8, 9-11 
 
 violacea, description ""^ 
 
 wild varieties, occurrence 34-3o 
 
 Yautia, Belembe, description 24 
 
 Blanca, description 1° 
 
 derivation of word ^^ 
 
 Dominica, description 19 
 
 Gengibrilla, description 19 
 
 Guayamera, description 23 
 
 Islena, description - 19, 21 
 
 Orqueta, description - 20 
 
 Palma, description - 23-24 
 
 Punzera, description - 22 
 
 Rolliza, yield ^ 
 
 Samanal, description 19 
 
 spinach, demand in Canal Zone 16 
 
 talus soerat, description 22 
 
 Yautias, Amarilla group, description, distribution, etc 19-20 
 
 cooked, flavor, comparison with potatoes 37 
 
 cultivation on steep slopes 35 
 
 culture 11-12 
 
 description, commercial importance, etc 7-11 
 
 diseases 13-14 
 
 feed for pigs, experiment 1^ 
 
 fertilizers 1*" 
 
 flour and meal, manufacture, value, etc 15 
 
 harvesting 12-13 
 
 leaves, ' ' weeping, ' ' cause 9 
 
 Manola group, description, distribution, etc 18-19 
 
 Martinica group, description, distribution, etc - 20 
 
 Oto group, description, distribution, etc 21 
 
 Rolliza group, description, distribution, value, etc 17-18 
 
 sap, character 9 
 
 Senteh group, description, distribution, etc 22-23 
 
 starch content - - 14-15 
 
 storage - - - 13 
 
 taros, and dasheens, paper 7-29 
 
 tubers, composition, comparison with potatoes 14 
 
 uses 15-17 
 
 varieties, descriptions 17-24 
 
 Vino group, description, distribution, etc - 21-22 
 
 Violacea group, description, distribution, etc 23 
 
 yield 13 
 
 See also Alocasia, Aroids, Dasheens, Flowers, Taros, and Tubers. 
 
 Yield, yautias, taros, and dasheens 13 
 
 164 
 
 o 
 
[Continued from page 2 of cover.] 
 
 85 -Princiroles of Mushroom Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making. 1905. Price, 10 cents 
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