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'^o^^ :i^^^^ '^^n^ oV^^^^a'" ^.'^^ BUREAU OF MINES INFORMATION CIRCULAR/1988 Water Use in the Domestic Nonfuel IVIinerals Industry UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Information Circular 9196 Water Use in the Domestic Nonfuel Minerals Industry By Choon Kooi Quan UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Donald Paul Model, Secretary BUREAU OF MINES T S Ary, Director As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environment and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. IP 2^6 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Quan, Choon K. Water use in the domestic nonfuel minerals industry. (Bureau of Mines information circular ; 9196) Bibliography: p. 36. Supt. of Docs, no.: 128.27:9196. 1. Nonfuel minerals industry — United States — Water supply. I. United States. Bureau of Mines. II. Series: Information circular (United States. Bureau of Mines) ; 9196. TN295.U4 [TN23] 622s [333.91'23] For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, DC 20402 CONTENTS Page Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Acknowledgments 4 Terminology 4 The water canvass 5 Estimated water use in the nonfuel minerals industry in 1984 6 Water use, by commodity and type of water 6 Water use, by commodity and type of operation . . 6 Sources of new water, by commodity 7 Water treatment, by commodity 8 Intensity of use 10 Water use, by State and type of water 10 Water use, by State and type of operation 14 Sources of new water, by State 15 Water treatment, by State 15 Water use trends 17 Water use trends, by commodity 17 Copper 17 Iron ore 17 Page Phosphate rock 18 Sand and gravel 18 Stone 18 All nonfuel minerals 18 Water use trends, by State 31 Water use in the nonfuel minerals industry in 2000 32 Water use problems and issues 34 Water availability 34 Water quality 34 Land use 34 Summary 35 References 36 Appendix A.— Canvass questionnaire 37 Appendix B.— Canvass coverage 39 Appendix C— Estimated water use in the domestic nonfuel minerals industry in 1984 46 Appendix D.— Water use trends, 1954-84 56 ILLUSTRATIONS 1. New water withdrawals, by major end-use sectors, 1950-80 3 2. Water use in the nonfuel minerals industry, 1954-83 3 3. Water use, by commodity, 1962 4 4. Water use, by commodity, 1984 7 5. Water use, by commodity and type of operation, 1984 8 6. Sources of new water, by commodity, 1984 9 7. Types of water treated, by commodity, 1984 9 8. Crude ore production, 1984 10 9. Value of mine production, 1984 11 10. Water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1984 11 11. Water use per dollar of mine production, 1984 12 12. Water use, by State, 1984 12 13. Water use, by State and type of operation, 1984 15 14. Sources of new water, by State, 1984 16 15. Types of water treated, by State, 1984 16 16. Copper industry water use, 1954-84 19 17. Copper industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84 19 18. Copper industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84 20 ■ 19. Copper industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84 20 20. Iron ore industry water use, 1954-84 21 21. Iron ore industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84 21 22. Iron ore industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84 22 23. Iron ore industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84 22 24. Phosphate rock industry water use, 1954-84 23 25. Phosphate rock industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84 23 26. Phosphate rock industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84 24 27. Phosphate rock industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84 24 28. Sand and gravel industry water use, 1954-84 25 29. Sand and gravel industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84 25 30. Sand and gravel industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84 26 31. Sand and gravel industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84 26 32. . Stone industry water use, 1954-84 27 33. Stone industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84 27 34. Stone industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84 28 35. Stone industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84 28 36. Nonfuel minerals industry water use, 1954-84 29 37. Nonfuel minerals industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84 29 38. Nonfuel minerals industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84 30 39. Nonfuel minerals industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84 30 40. Water use, by State, 1962 31 TABLES Page 1. Population and new water withdrawals, by State, 1980 and 1984 13 2. New water use, by State and major end-use sector, 1984 14 3. New water withdrawals for all U.S. offstream uses 18 4. Mineral sector use of water 18 5. Average water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1983-84 32 6. Mine production in, 1983 and 2000 32 7. Crude ore production in 1983 and 2000 32 8. Estimated water use in the nonfuel minerals industry in 2000 33 9. Average 1983-84 water use and estimated 1985 water use 33 B-1. Canvass coverage, by number of operations and commodity, 1984 39 B-2. Canvass coverage, by number of operations and State, 1984 39 B-3. Canvass coverage, by crude ore production, 1984 40 B-4. Canvass coverage, by value of mine production, 1984 41 B-5. Types of response, by commodity and number of respondents, 1984 42 B-6. Types of response, by State and number of respondents, 1984 43 B-7. Adequacy of water supply, by commodity, 1984 44 B-8. Adequacy of water supply, by State, 1984 45 C-1. Water use, by commodity and type of water, 1984 46 C-2. Water use, by commodity and type of operation, 1984 47 C-3. Sources of new water, by commodity, 1984 48 C-4. Types of water treated, by commodity, 1984 49 C-5. Water use per short ton of crude ore produced in 1984 50 C-6. Water use per dollar of mine production in 1984 51 C-7. Water use, by State and type of water, 1984 52 C-8. Water use, by State and type of operation, 1984 53 C-9. Sources of new water, by State, 1984 54 C-10. Types of water treated, by State, 1984 55 D-1. New water intake, by commodity 56 D-2. Recirculated water, by commodity 56 D-3. Total water used, by commodity 57 D-4. Crude ore production, by commodity 57 D-5. Value of mine production, by commodity 58 D-6. New water intake per short ton of crude ore production 58 D-7. Recirculated water per short ton of crude ore production 59 D-8. Total water used per short ton of crude ore production 59 D-9. New water intake per 1984 dollar of mine production 60 D-10. Recirculated water per 1984 dollar of mine production 60 D-11. Total water used per 1984 dollar of mine production 61 D- 12. Water use, by State and type of water, 1962 62 UNIT OF MEASURE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT gal gallon mt metric ton gal/d gallon per day St short ton gal/st gallon per short ton tr oz troy ounce gal/yr gallon per year yr year mi2 square mile WATER USE IN THE DOMESTIC NONFUEL MINERALS INDUSTRY By Choon Kooi Quan^ ABSTRACT Water availability is essential for mining and minerals processing. To provide government and industry with recent data for water use planning and management, the Bureau of Mines canvassed a number of U.S. producers of nonfuel minerals to determine their water use in 1984. Data were analyzed and compared with previously published data in order to examine historical trends in water utilization in the nonfuel minerals industry and to estimate water requirements in the year 2000. Total water use in the domestic nonfuel minerals industry during 1984 was estimated at 2,267 billion gal, of which 571 billion gal was new water and 1,696 billion gal recirculated water. The largest users of water were the phosphate rock, iron ore, copper, sand and gravel, and crushed stone industries, together accounting for almost 90% of total used. More than one-half of all water was used in Florida, Michigan, and Minnesota. In the year 2000, total water use will amount to an estimated 2,679 billion gal, of which 810 billion gal will be new water and 1,869 billion gal recirculated water. Most of this water would be used in producing the foregoing suite of minerals. ^Physical scientist. Branch of Technical Analysis, Division of Policy Analysis, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC. INTRODUCTION Water is one of the most important factors of production in the nonfuel minerals industry. It is used for mining crude ore and processing the ore to a product that can be sold as such (e.g., sand and gravel) or that can be converted to some other material by smelting and refining (e.g., copper metal from copper ore concentrates). The amount of water used varies according to location, nature of the ore, method of mining and processing, and State and local laws pertaining to water use and subsequent disposal. Generally, more water is used in processing than in mining of ore. Although the current practice is to recycle a substantial portion of the water used in many operations, significant amounts of new supplies are still required to make up for water that is lost through evaporation or incorporation in the final product. Thus, the availability of such supplies is essential to the continued operations of many existing mines. It is especially crucial for determin- ing the technical and economic feasibility of developing new mines. Although nationally the United States has an abundance of water, there could be local or regional shortages due to major climatological differences or seasonal drought. In areas where water is perennially or seasonally scarce and subject to competing uses, such as public supply, agriculture, and mining, economic ex- pansion in one end-use sector could be made only at the expense of other sectors, unless appropriate water resource planning, development, and management procedures have been previously implemented. However, successful im- plementation of such procedures must necessarily be predicated on the availability of reliable data on water use, availability, and quality. Consequently, over the past few decades, several agencies and commissions have been authorized to periodically assess the Nation's current and projected water use and supply. Beginning in 1950 and continuing at 5-yr intervals, the U.S. Geological Survey has published water use data for industrial applications, irrigation, public supply, rural needs, and thermoelectric power generation (1-7).^ Estimated new water withdrawals increased from about 66 trillion gal in 1950 to 164 trillion gal in 1980, at an annual compound rate of about 3% (fig. 1). The two largest uses of water were for irrigation and thermoelectric power generation, together accounting for 72% to 81% of total withdrawals. Industrial uses of water, including mining, accounted for 7% to 8% of total withdrawals, but because of the sectoral aggregation employed, trends in water use in the nonfuel minerals industry could not be discerned. In contrast, U.S. Bureau of the Census data (8-11) indicated that new water use in the nonfuel minerals industry rose from 0.51 trillion gal in 1954 to a high of 0.98 trillion gal in 1968, before declining to 0.55 trillion gal in 1983 (fig. 2). Largely offsetting the decline in new water usage was the steady increase in water recirculation from 0.32 trillion gal in 1954 to 1.39 trillion gal in 1978, after which the amount of water recirculated decreased slightly to 1.20 trillion gal in 1983. The Bureau of the Census data were based on official canvasses of the minerals industry at 5-yr intervals, starting in 1968. There was no canvass between 1954 and 1968. ^Italicized numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of references preceding appendix A. Partly filling the gap between 1954 and 1968 was a Bureau of Mines canvass of water use in the minerals industry during 1962 (12). Results indicated that the domestic nonfuel minerals industry utilized about 1.49 trillion gal of water, of which 51% was new water and 49% recirculated water. More than 82% of all water was used in the production of copper ore, iron ore, phosphate rock, sand and gravel, and crushed stone (fig. 3). Ten States accounted for about 70% of total water used. In decreasing order of magnitude, they were Florida, Minnesota, Tennessee, Michigan, California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, Ohio, and Utah. Perhaps the most comprehensive studies on water use in the domestic aluminum, copper, and iron and steel industries were reported by Conklin (13), Mussey (U), and Walling and Otts (15), respectively. Based on actual field surveys, these studies covered water use in the aluminum industry in 1952, copper industry in 1955, and iron and steel industry in 1957. Although some qualitative state- ments were made regarding the anticipated growth in aluminum, copper, and iron and steel production, no estimates were provided for future water use in these industries. These studies were augmented by a report on water use in the production of copper by Michaelson {16). Mainly because of the potential for water shortages in the Western States, the Bureau of Mines investigated in great detail water use in the minerals industry of Arizona in 1960 (1 7), New Mexico in 1962 {18), Nevada in 1962 {19), Montana in 1963 {20), and Wyoming in 1964 {21). These investigations were based largely on site surveys of major mines and processing plants in those States. Projections of future water use were then made using certain assumptions about expected growth in mineral production. Some of these projections are no longer valid in light of present-day technological and economic conditions. Other studies on water use and projections include those by the Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources in 1961 {22), Resources for the Future in 1971 {23), the National Water Commission in 1973 (^4), the Water Resources Council in 1978 {25), and the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in 1980 {26). For the most part, population, technology, and economic activity were variables used in projecting future water use. However, the nonfuel minerals industry was not separately covered in these studies. Some methods for projecting water demand were reviewed by Lofting and Davies {27). In the 25 yr since the first Bureau of Mines water canvass, the nonfuel minerals industry has undergone profound changes in the nature and scale of operations. Ores being mined today for copper and iron are of lower grade than those mined in 1962, resulting in the increased use of water. More water is also being recycled for use for economic or environmental reasons. At the same time, production of many minerals has been declining because of poor prices and foreign competition. It is therefore likely that water use trends and projections based on 1962 data may not be applicable under present circumstances. Consequently, in order to assist government and industry water use planning, the Bureau undertook a more recent canvass of the domestic nonfuel minerals industry. Results of the canvass are presented in this report. 200 r o 160 CM 3 120 a X a: 1x1 80 z 40 - KEY Rural uses Public supply Irrigation Thermo- electricity ^^ Industrial uses 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 Figure 1.— New water withdrawals, by major end-use sectors, 1950-80. Data from U.S. Geological Survey {1-7). 2.4 r : KEY .8 ^ ^ /7 Recirculated 2.0 - /, // water - . New 1.6 ; water o |- CN : 'o 1 LU (/I 1.2 '- hi I 1954 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 2.— water use in the nonfuel minerals industry, 1954-83. Data from U.S. Bureau of the Census (8-7 7). 400 r 300 - o en en o b{ 200 UJ 100 - KEY New water Recirculated water Total water S ffl I V V V 1 Copper Iron ore Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Stone Other Figure 3.— Water use, by commodity, 1962 (72). Water use by individual commodity and State is addressed in the report. Water use has not been aggregated by water resource region because of uncertainty in identifying political boundaries for each region. Also included in the report are historical trends in water use, major issues that have been identified, and estimates of water requirements in the year 2000. For convenience in interpretation, salient data are presented graphically in the main body of the text, while statistical tables are relegated to appendixes. Where appropriate, data aggregation has been employed in some of the tables in order to avoid disclosing company proprietary information. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The cooperation of respondents in providing data for the water canvass is gratefully acknowledged. Data processing personnel from the former Minerals Informa- tion directorate rendered invaluable assistance in securing U.S. Office of Management and Budget approval for conducting the canvass, in developing mailing lists, and in providing guidance in the use of a data base management system. Delores James, computer systems analyst, Branch of Technical Analysis, was largely responsible for the development of the water use data base and the generation of statistical tables, for which the author is grateful. TERMINOLOGY Some of the terms used in this report are broadly defined here as an aid to comprehension. The definitions may not necessarily coincide with other published defini- tions, nor are they to be construed as all-encompassing. Nonfuel Minerals Industry: For the purposes of this report, the nonfuel minerals industry comprises all those establishments producing metallic and nonmetallic min- erals except solid and liquid fuels, gases, cement, and lime. Hereinafter, any specific reference to the production of metallic commodities such as copper, lead, zinc, etc. implies the mining and processing of their respective ores. Mineral: This refers to the principal product, dif- ferentiated from waste material, in a mining or processing operation. It does not include byproducts such as moly- bdenum and gold recovered in copper mining. Mining: This includes all activities that are involved in the extraction of minerals in surface and underground mines, such as drilling, blasting, loading, and transporta- tion. It also includes solution-mining, dredging and hydraulicking, leaching, liquefaction, and evaporation. Processing: This includes all physical and chemical processes that are used to separate minerals from waste material, such as washing, crushing and grinding, screening, table concentration or jigging, heavy-media separation, electrostatic or electromagnetic separation, and flotation. It does not include the smelting or refining of ores or the manufacture of cement and lime. Crude Ore: This refers to the material that is first obtained from a mining operation before it undergoes processing to remove undesirable waste. Crude ore is sometimes sold or used without further processing. Mine Production: This refers to production as measured by mine shipments, sales, or marketable production (including consumption by producers). Value of Mine Production: This refers to the value of the principal product. Byproduct values are not included. Water Use: This refers to water employed in mining, processing, and all other activities incidental to production. New Water: This is water that is introduced from an external source into a given mine or plant for the first time, regardless of quality. New water is sometimes termed water intake, water withdrawal, or makeup water. Recirculated Water: This is water that is recycled for further use in a mining or processing operation largely as a conservation measure. It does not include solutions recycled because of fixed metallurgical practices, such as a copper leaching solution containing sulfuric acid. Total Water: This is the sum of new water and recirculated water. It is sometimes known as gross water. Water Discharged: This is water that permanently leaves the mine or plant after having been used. Water Consumed: This is the difference between new water and water discharged. It represents the water that is lost through evaporation or product incorporation. THE WATER CANVASS Data on water use in the domestic nonfuel minerals industry in 1984 was obtained by canvassing a selected sample of metal and nonmetal mines, using the question- naire shown in appendix A. The questionnaire was adapted from Kaufman and Nadler {12), with slight modifications to minimize reporting time and requirements. Respondents were asked to report all water, regardless of quality, that was used as a mining or milling agent, such as in the solution mining of salt, production of sulfur in the Frasch process, or flotation of mineral ores. Water used in the smelting and refining of metals or in the manufacture of cement and lime was to be excluded. Plant s and mi nes comprising an integrated operation were to report water usage on a^single questionnaire. An integrated operation was defined as a mine and plant in the same county, operated as a unit by one company, and having an interrelated water system. Where mines and plants were located in different counties, separate estimates of water use in each county were requested. Respondents with new water intake exceeding 1 million gal were asked to provide information on the source, quantity, and adequacy of their new water supply; the amount used and recirculated in mining, processing, or other related activities; the amount discharged or consumed; and the percentage of water treated prior to being used, recycled, or discharged. (Several respondents who reported little or no water intake but who used large amounts of recirculated water provided detailed informa- tion as well). Respondents were advised to calculate water volumes using operational data or rated pump capacities where feasible. In the absence of such data, any reasonable estimates were acceptable. The canvass was started with a first mailing in October 1985. A second mailing to all nonrespondents was made in January 1986. This was followed with telephone solicitations by Bureau personnel to a subset of the remaining nonrespondents during May and June. The canvass was declared officially closed in October 1986 when no more completed questionnaires were returned. Each completed questionnaire was reviewed for con- sistency and accuracy, after which the data were entered into a computerized data base for subsequent processing. The sample of metal and nonmetal mines used in the canvass was derived from a population of about 6,000 establishments that had reported mine production during 1983 in response to a separate Bureau of Mines canvass. Included in the sample were 275 metal mines, each of which produced more than 1,000 st of crude ore, and 2,890 nonmetal mines, each of which produced more than 40,000 st of crude ore in 1983. Inadvertently, most of the con- struction sand and gravel mines were excluded from the sample because they had not been canvassed for their crude ore production in 1983. In 1984, there were some 5,000 sand and gravel mines reportedly producing in excess of 10,000 st each. As indicated later, water use in sand and gravel mines during 1984 was estimated by extrapolation from 1983 Bureau of the Census data. The overall response rate in the water canvass was 66%, distributed by commodity and State as shown in appendix B. Not surprisingly, crushed-stone producers constituted the largest number of operations canvassed (71%) and the largest number of respondents (69%). Clay producers accounted for 8% of all mines canvassed and 9% of all respondents. As a result, the majority of respondents came from States producing crushed stone and clay. The respondents accounted for 79% of crude ore produced in all metal mines but only 43% of crude ore produced in all nonmetal mines in 1984. The lower coverage ratio for nonmetal mines was largely due to the exclusion of most construction sand and gravel producers from the canvass sample. For the same reason, coverage in terms of mine value in 1984 was lower for nonmetal mines than for metal mines. Crude ore was used as the common denominator because it was quantified in short tons across the entire spectrum of metallic and nonmetallic minerals covered in the canvass. In cases where crude ore production data were not available, the tonnage of marketable product was used as a proxy (e.g., evaporated salt and salt in brine). Similarly, where the value of mine production was unavailable, a shipment value was used in its place (e.g., for iron ore). It was felt that such usage of surrogate data would not greatly affect the analytical validity of the results of this study Only 32% of the respondents had total water usage in excess of 1 million gal each in 1984. The vast majority (61%) used little or no water, and 7% of the respondents were inactive during the year. Of the 146 metal mines that were active, 74% used more than 1 million gal each. The ratio for the 1,797 active nonmetallic mines was only 32%, reflecting little water usage by a majority of respondent crushed-stone and clay mines. Consequently, States with many crushed-stone and clay producers during 1984 had proportionately fewer respondents using water. More than iwo-thirds of all respondents using water during 1984 indicated they had water supplies that were adequate for 20 yr. Fourteen percent of the respondents had supply adequacy for 10 yr, and 10% had supply adequacy for 5 yr. About 6% of the respondents neglected to indicate the period of adequacy of their water supplies. Five producers of crushed stone, one producer of lode gold, and one producer of magnesite and brucite reportedly had inadequate supplies of water. These producers were located in the States of California, Nevada, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming. Together, they required an additional 206 million gal of new water per year. ESTIMATED WATER USE IN THE NONFUEL MINERALS INDUSTRY IN 1984 Water use described herein represents those quantities of new and recirculated water employed in mining, processing, and related activities associated with the production of mineral ores. It does not include water that was simply pumped out of mines and discharged (mine dewatering) without prior utilization. Neither does it include water that was used in the downstream processing of ore (e.g., calcination of lime) or water that constituted an "ore" by itself (e.g., sea water from which certain chemical compounds were extracted). For the most part, water use for individual com- modities was estimated by simple extrapolation from respondent data. For example, the sample of respondent phosphate mines used 111.5 billion gal of new water to produce 172.4 million st of crude ore during 1984. By extrapolation, the entire phosphate industry, which pro- duced a total of 182 million st of crude ore, used an estimated 117.7 billion gal of new water. In the case of construction sand and gravel, where the number of mines sampled was negligibly small, an estimate of water use in the industry during 1984 was made by extrapolation from 1983 data. In 1983, U.S. production of construction sand and gravel amounted to some 655.1 million st. According to the Bureau of the Census (ii), new water use in the industry was estimated at 8.51 billion gal. Thus, on the average, the industry used about 130 gal of new water per short ton of production in 1983. In 1984, total U.S. production of construction sand and gravel was 773.9 million st. Assuming the same average new water use per short ton of production as in 1983, new water use in the industry in 1984 was estimated at 100.5 billion gal. Similarly, the amount of water recirculated in the con- struction sand and gravel industry during 1984 was estimated at 45.4 billion gal. WATER USE, BY COMMODITY AND TYPE OF WATER Total water used consists of water that is introduced into the mine and plant for the first time (new water) and water that is recycled for use (recirculated water). As is often the case, much of the recycled water exists within a closed system, is used several times over, and is therefore difficult to quantify with any degree of confidence. Con- sequently, the amount of recirculated water reportedly used by respondents might have been overstated. Water consumed represents that quantity of new water lost through evaporation or incorporation into the product. It is derived from the difference between new water intake and water discharged. Total water used by the honfuel minerals industry during 1984 was estimated at 2,267 billion gal, of which three-fourths was recirculated water and one-fourth new water (see appendix C). Almost 60% of the water was used in the production of nonmetallic minerals. The largest use of water was in the production of phosphate rock, which accounted for one-third of the total used (fig. 4). The next largest uses were in the production of iron ore which accounted for i;y% of total water used, sand and gravel (11%), copper (9%), and crushed stone (6%), The two largest users of water also recycled the most water, possibly in compliance with State and local laws that limit the amount of wastewater that can be discharged into the environment. Thus, 90% of the water used in the production of iron ore and 85% used in phosphate rock production were recirculated. About 43% of total new water was consumed, either througn evaporation or incorporation in the product, and the balance discharged. The copper industry consumed more than three-fourths of its new water intake; although slightly larger in volume, the phosphate rock industry consumed only 52% of its new water intake. Although the quantity of water discharged represented more than one-half of total new water, details on method of disposal or points of discharge were not requested from each respondent. During 1983, iron ore, phosphate rock, sand and gravel, and crushed stone operations directed 95%, 93%, 49%, and 72%, respectively, of their discharge water into streams and rivers (11). Another 34% from sand and gravel and 14% from crushed stone operations were directed into lakes and ponds. WATER USE, BY COMMODITY AND TYPE OF OPERATION Generally, two major activities are associated with the production of minerals— mining of crude ore and pro- cessing of the ore to a marketable product that can be used 800 600 o O) o ^ 400 a: ui 200 s KEY S Recirculated water Total water Water discharged Water consumed i z A Copper Iron ore Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Stone Other Figure 4. — Water use, by commodity, 1984. as such (e.g., sand and gravel) or that can be converted to some other material by chemical or metallurgical processes (e.g., copper metal from copper ore concentrates). In some cases, as in the production of crushed stone, no processing of the crude material may be necessary. Water usage discussed herein applies only to mining and processing of crude ore. Water usage in smelting and refining or in the manufacture of chemical compounds, cement, and lime is not included. Water is used in mining for drilling, dust control, dredging and hydraulicking of certain placer-type deposits, slurry transportation, solution extraction or leaching of ores and salts, and liquefaction of sulfur. The amount of water used will vary with the type of operation. For the most part, drilling and dust control require the least amount of water relative to, e.g., slurry transportation and dredging and hydraulicking. In the processing of ore, large amounts of water may be needed in such diverse applications as washing, crushing and grinding, screening, table concentration or jigging, and flotation. While crushed stone and sand and gravel operations require only simple washing and screening to produce a marketable product, many metallic ores require complex flotation circuits for their concentration. Water usage in a selected number of flotation plants in the United States during 1985 is summarized by Martin, Edelstein, and Hyde (28). Some water is also used in miscellaneous applications such as cooling and condensation, sanitation and drinking, and revegetation of mined lands. Total usage in these applications is usually minimal. About 86% of total water used in the nonfuel minerals industry during 1984 was in the processing of crude ore, 10% was in mining, and 4% was in miscellaneous applica- tions (fig. 5). Phosphate rock accounted for 35% of all water used in processing operations; iron ore, 33%; copper, 9%; sand and gravel, 8%; and crushed stone, 5%. In the case of iron ore production practically all of the water usage went into processing of crude ore. Similarly, almost 90% of the water used in phosphate rock production was for processing the crude ore. The largest mining use of water was in phosphate rock production, which accounted for one-third of all water used in mining operations. It is quite likely that a sub- stantial amount of water used in mining phosphate rock was for slurry transportation from the mine to the pro- cessing plant. SOURCES OF NEW WATER, BY COMMODITY Several sources of new water supply are available to the nonfuel minerals industry. These include surface water from streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs; water from mines; ground water; and water from municipal systems and other sources. While most of the water is self-supplied by company-operated systems, some is 800 600 o o LxJ V) 400 ill 200 - Copper Iron ore Phosphate Sand and Stone rock gravel Figure 5.— Water use, by commodity and type of operation, 1984. Other purchased from outside sources either to supplement self- generated supplies or else to provide a clean source of water for drinking, sanitation, and other essential uses. In 1984, 36% of all new water intake was derived from ground water sources, 19% from lakes and reservoirs, 17% from streams and rivers, 17% from mines, and 11% from public water systems and other sources. For the most part, the quality of each supply source was not specified. However, in 1983, 69% of new water intake was fresh, 19% was brackish, and 12% was saline (11). The largest uses of ground water were in phosphate rock and copper production, both accounting for about 58% of all ground water used (fig. 6). Iron ore production alone used 47% of all water from lakes and reservoirs. The single largest use for mine water was in processing construction sand and gravel, accounting for 40% of all mine water used. WATER TREATMENT, BY COMMODITY Water that is used for mining and processing, or for drinking and sanitation, often requires some form of prior treatment in order to obtain a quality suitable for each specified use. Similarly, water that is to be discharged may require prior treatment in order to comply with State and local environmental regulations. The type and extent of treatment varies with the source of water supply, type of use, and State and local wastewater quality standards. Available methods of water treatment include aeration, biological oxidation (bactericides), chlorination, filtration, pH control, precipitation, settling, softening, and other miscellaneous methods. Because most process water was recirculated, more than three-fourths of all recirculated water was subject to some form of treatment prior to use during 1984 (fig. 7). In contrast, only 30% of all new water and 53% of all discharge water received treatment prior to use or discharge. The five largest users— producers of copper, iron ore, phosphate rock, sand and gravel, and crushed stone- treated 83%, 80%, 85%, 50%, and 77%, respectively, of their recirculated water prior to use. Forty-nine percent of the new water used for copper, 9% for iron ore, 31% for phosphate rock, 16% for sand and gravel, and 32% for crushed stone was treated prior to use. The lower per- centage for iron ore probably reflected the good quality of its fresh water intake. On the other hand, 69% of the discharge water from phosphate rock operations and 60% from sand and gravel operations received treatment prior to discharge, probably to remove excess slimes. About 41% of discharge water from copper, 30% from iron ore, and 49% from crushed stone was treated prior to discharge. In all cases, details on the type and extent of water treatment were rieither solicited from nor provided by the respondents. However, during 1983, 97% of the discharge water from iron ore, 92% from phosphate rock, 97% from sand and gravel, and 77% from crushed stone was treated by primary settling (11). The types of chemical reagents used in treating effluents from a selected number of flotation plants in the United States during 1985 can be found in reference 28. 140 r Copper Iron ore Phosphate Sand and Stone rock gravel Figure 6.— Sources of new water, by commodity, 1984. Other 600 r- 500 ^ 400 en o Q ui (- a: Ui 300 200 100 ^ ^ SSL i i I 2L ^ L KEY New water Recirculated water Water discharged Copper Iron ore Phosphate Sand and rock gravel Figure 7.— Types of waier treated, by commodity, 1984. Stone Other 10 INTENSITY OF USE For each category of water used, an index for the intensity of use per short ton of crude ore produced can be derived using the data in figures 4 and 8. This index represents an industry-wide average in the sense that it includes crude ore production from all nonusers as well as users of water during 1984. Similarly, an index for intensity of use per dollar of mine production can be derived using the data in figures 4 and 9. This index also represents an industry-wide average. Both indices are useful in examining trends in water use in the nonfuel minerals industry. Some caution must be exercised, however, in interpreting indices derived from low tonnages of crude ore or low values of mine production; such indices may be somewhat inflated. Among major users of water, the phosphate rock industry appeared to have the largest total use per short ton of crude ore produced (4,280 gal), followed by iron ore (3,710 gal), and copper (1,040 gal), as indicated in figure 10. Because of averaging over large tonnages, total water use per short ton of sand and gravel and per short ton of crushed stone was only 320 gal and 130 gal, respectively. On the other hand, several low-tonnage minerals used more than 4,000 gal/st. Among these, evaporated salt used 4,910 gal/st and sodium carbonate, 5,460 gal/st. Overall, metal mines used 1,980 gal and nonmetal mines 640 gal for each short ton of crude ore produced. The lower index for nonmetal mines was due to the very large combined tonnage of sand and gravel and crushed stone used in its derivation. In terms of mine value (fig. 11), phosphate rock production also appeared to have the largest total use of water per dollar of mine production (660 gal), followed by iron ore (290 gal), copper (130 gal), sand and gravel (100 gal), and crushed stone (30 gal). However, several minerals with relatively low production values also used more than 300 gal per dollar of mine production. Among these, vanadium used 340 gal, feldspar, 440 gal, and placer gold, 600 gal. On the whole, metal mines used 160 gal and nonmetal mines 110 gal for each dollar of mine production. WATER USE, BY STATE AND TYPE OF WATER Generally, water usage (new or recirculated) by in- dividual States depends on the minerals produced, type of production process, and availability of water. During 1984, Florida was by far the largest user, accounting for about one-third of all water used in metal and nonmetal mines in the United States (fig. 12). Almost 90% of this water was used in the phosphate rock industry. The next largest users of water were Minnesota, which accounted for 20% of all water used, and Michigan (10%). About 98% of the water in Minnesota and 89% in Michigan was used in the iron ore industry. Three Western States — Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah— together utilized about 10% of all water. Almost 88% of the water in these three States was used in the copper industry. Individually, the next four largest users were North Carolina, which accounted for 6% of all water used, California (3%), Texas (2%), and Illinois (2%). Most of the water in North Carolina was used in 1,000 r 800 (O o o Q O a: Q. 600 400 200 Copper Iron ore Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Figure 8.— Crude ore production, 1984. Stone other 11 7.000 p 6.000 r 5,000 r ° 4,000 E- ■o o ui" 3.000 _i 2,000 E- 1,000 7 r I 7 : y « 7 ^^ 7 » « B Copper Iron ore Phosphate Sand and Stone rock grovel Figure 9.— Value of mine production, 1984. Other 4.000 o> 3,000 z o o X tn a: 2.000 UI D. UJ (n a: UJ I 1 .000 P?l Copper »^^^^^:v-^ KEY New 3 woter ^// Recirculated /a water Water discharged Water consumed _ZZBZ2ks=sb. iron ore Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Figure 10.— Water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1984, Stone Other 12 o 600 r 500 400 o a on UJ 300 D- tn a: 200 100 7? 4a ^ I ; KEY New water Recirculated water r^ Water discharged S Water consumed Wf^ PS?r7>r^i — t?SaZh^i.^ Copper Iron ore Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Figure 1 1 .—Water use per dollar of mine production, 1 984 Stone Other 700 r 600 r 500 o CP en o 400 lJ t/i ZD or 300 u 200 r 100 r 4 ^ m ^ AZ CA FL IL rP^ m i Ml KEY New water 7^ Recirculated yj water ^ Water discharged Water consumed P^^ ^ k. [?j^ gjxn MN NM NC TX UT Other Figure 12.— Water use, by State, 1984. 13 phosphate rock production. The production of sand and gravel and sodium compounds used more than three- fourths of the water in California. Most of the water in Illinois and Texas was used in the production of crushed stone and sand and gravel. The States that utilized the most water also accounted for most of the water recirculated. About 85% of the water used in Florida, 89% in Michigan, and 86% in Minnesota was recirculated. States in the arid West consumed a substantial portion of their new water intake. These States included Arizona, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming. In Arizona, water consumption amounted to almost 85% of new water intake, mostly in the production of copper. Although new water withdrawals by the nonfuel minerals industry amounted to 571 billion gal during 1984, this amount was negligible relative to withdrawals by other end-use sectors. New water withdrawals for all end uses by individual States in 1980 were derived from SoUey, Chase, and Mann (7), as shown in table 1. For the same end uses, new water withdrawals by these States in Table 1.— Population and new water withdrawals, by State, 1980 and 1984 1980' 1984 State Population, IC^ Total withdrawals. Population, 10" Total withdrawals, persons 10^ gal persons 10^ gal 3,890 4,015 3,989 4,117 403 80 505 100 2,718 2,920 3,072 3,300 2,920 5,840 2,346 5,983 23,669 19,710 25,795 21,480 2,889 5,840 3,190 6,448 3,108 1,351 3,155 1.371 595 438 614 452 9.740 7,665 11,050 8.696 5,464 2,519 5.842 2,693 NA NA NA NA 965 913 1,037 981 944 6,570 999 6,953 11,418 6,570 11,522 6.630 5,396 5,110 5,492 5,201 2,913 1,570 2,903 1.564 2,363 2,409 2,440 2.487 3,661 1,752 3,720 1,780 4,199 4,745 4,461 5,041 1,125 584 1,156 600 4,216 2,811 4,349 2,899 5,737 2,154 5,798 2,176 9,258 5,475 9,058 5,357 4,061 1,132 4,163 1,160 2,521 1,278 2,598 1.317 4,888 2,519 5,001 2.577 786 4,015 823 4.204 1,570 4,380 1,605 4.478 79 1,314 917 1,508 921 365 978 388 7,360 3,650 7,517 3,728 1,300 1,424 1,426 1,562 17,557 6,205 17,746 6,272 5,874 2.957 6,166 3,104 652 475 687 500 10,797 5,110 10,740 5.083 3.025 657 3,310 719 2,614 2,482 2,676 2,541 11,824 5,840 11,887 5,871 3,400 1,168 3,269 1,123 947 183 962 185 3,119 2,263 3,302 2,396 695 252 705 255 4,591 3,650 4,726 3,757 14,013 7,665 16,083 8,797 1,462 1,679 1,623 1.864 511 124 530 128 100 14 110 15 5,346 3,541 5,636 3.733 4,127 3,030 4,349 3.192 1,950 2,044 1,952 2.046 4,710 2,117 4.762 2.140 471 1.971 511 2.138 Nonfuel withdrawals 10" gal % of total Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . . . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico^ Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virgin Islands^ Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total or average . 228,952 164,669 239,253 173,090 5.4 6.3 47.4 1.9 24.0 4.4 1.1 .3 110.4 22.7 .2 .8 2.4 13.6 3.7 2.7 7.3 1.9 12.5 1.0 2.4 2.5 26.9 65.0 2.0 7.6 2.7 1.6 10.5 .7 8.7 18.3 18.2 27.3 .8 9.2 1.6 1.7 11.2 .1 .2 2.7 .8 15.0 19.3 26.7 .5 .0 2.3 3.6 1.3 2.8 7.0 571.2 0.13 6.30 1.44 .03 .11 .07 .08 .07 1.27 .84 NAp .08 .03 .21 .07 .17 .29 .11 .25 .17 .08 .11 .50 5.60 .15 .29 .06 .04 .70 .18 .23 1.17 .29 .88 .16 .18 .22 .07 .19 .01 .11 .11 .31 .40 .22 1.43 .39 .00 .06 .11 .06 .13 .33 ,33 NA Not available. NAp Not applicable. ^ Solley, Chase, and Mann (7). U.S.-administered islands and commonwealth. 14 1984 were estimated from the observed change in pop- ulation. For example, the population in Alabama increased by about 2.5% from 1980 to 1984; it could then be assumed that new water withdrawals in Alabama increased by the same proportion during this period. A comparison of new water withdrawals by the nonfuel minerals industry with total new water withdrawals in each State during 1984 seems to indicate that in all cases new water requir'^ments for the mineral sector were insignificant. On the whole, more than 80% of all new water withdrawals by all States was used in irrigation and thermoelectric power generation (table 2). The data in table 2 were derived on the assump- tion that end-use patterns in individual States in 1984 re- mained unchanged from 1980. WATER USE, BY STATE AND TYPE OF OPERATION About 80% of all water used by the nonfuel minerals industry in Florida was in processing phosphate rock (fig. 13). Phosphate rock mining accounted for only 9% of Table 2.— New water use, by State and major end-use sectors, 1984, billion gallons State Public supply Rural uses Irrigation Thermo- electricity Industrial uses^ Total Alabama 238 Alaska 24 Arizona 232 Arkansas 99 California 1,636 Colorado 242 Connecticut 133 Delaware 29 Florida 568 Georgia 300 Guam^ NA Hawaii 78 Idaho 60 Illinois 667 Indiana 219 Iowa 113 Kansas 110 Kentucky 128 Louisiana 242 Maine 39 Maryland 184 Massachusetts 294 Michigan 440 Minnesota 166 Mississippi 108 Missouri 276 Montana 51 Nebraska 97 Nevada 96 New Hampshire 34 New Jersey 395 New Mexico 83 New York 833 North Carolina 218 North Dakota 23 Ohio 526 Oklahoma 119 Oregon 86 Pennsylvania 566 Puerto Rico^ 121 Rhode Island 48 South Carolina 136 South Dakota 28 Tennessee 190 Texas 1,598 Utah 304 Vermont 18 Virgin Islands 2 Virginia 232 Washington 311 West Virginia 65 Wisconsin 212 Wyoming 32 Total 13,049 NA Not available. ^Including mining and minerals processing. ^U.S. -administered islands and commonwealth. 72 13 3,294 500 4,117 .5 13 58 100 18 2.947 37 66 3,300 45 1,945 3,699 195 5,983 91 14.768 4,470 515 21,480 85 5,751 70 300 6,448 20 8 1,110 100 1,371 10 2 255 156 452 125 1.216 6,447 340 8,696 66 226 1,780 321 2,693 NA NA NA NA NA 4 355 523 21 981 26 6,035 2 830 6,953 54 41 5,187 681 6,630 61 87 3,663 1,171 5,201 67 20 1,164 200 1,564 55 2,122 133 67 2,487 36 2 1,497 117 1,780 29 874 2,415 1,481 5,041 11 2 292 256 600 23 8 2,441 243 2.889 12 7 1,726 137 2,176 62 71 4,065 719 5,357 71 . 60 641 222 1,160 18 366 597 228 1,317 59 49 2,079 114 2,577 32 4,014 66 41 4.204 63 3,472 821 25 4,478 10 1,300 39 63 1,508 4 1 268 81 388 28 20 2,658 627 3,728 21 1,397 26 35 1,562 71 17 4,885 466 6,272 68 50 1,646 1,122 3,104 12 107 355 3 500 48 2 3,756 751 5,083 37 346 72 145 719 65 2,196 8 186 2,541 80 60 3,807 1,358 5,871 12 107 520 363 1,123 2 2 121 12 185 34 21 2,016 189 2,396 42 167 2 16 255 32 4 2,899 632 3,757 168 3,532 2,729 770 8,797 28 1,296 28 208 1,864 11 1 93 5 128 1 12 15 69 11 3.208 213 3,733 22 2,461 1 397 3,192 10 1 1,669 301 2,046 55 32 1,674 167 2,140 10 1,933 87 76 2,138 2,160 59,525 81,066 17,290 173,090 15 800 r 700 600 % 500 UJ ^ 400 a: 300 200 t 100 KEY p- Other ^ Processing Mining ^^ AZ CA FL IL Ml MN NM NC Figure 13.— Water use, by State and type of operation, 1984. TX UT Other total use in that State. In Michigan and Minnesota, practically all of the water was used in processing iron ore. Similarly, processing of copper ore was the major use of water in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. And in Cali- fornia, Illinois, North Carolina, and Texas, the major use of water was in processing crushed stone, phosphate rock, sand and gravel, and sodium compounds. SOURCES OF NEW WATER, BY STATE The largest users of ground water were, in decreasing order of quantity, Florida, Arizona, North Carolina, Utah, and Georgia, together accounting for about 72% of all ground water used (fig. 14). Ground water sources represented 61% of the new water intake in Arizona, 49% in Florida, 71% in Georgia, 87% in North Carolina, and 88% in Utah. Florida was also the largest user of mine water, followed by Minnesota, New Mexico, California, Penn- sylvania, and Texas. Together, these States accounted for 51% of all mine water used. Mine water represented 28% of the new water intake in California, 11% in Florida, 17% in Minnesota, 47% in New Mexico, 58% in Pennsylvania, and 21% in Texas. In contrast, Tennessee was the largest user ot stream and river water, followed by Michigan, Arizona, Illinois, and Louisiana. Together, they accounted for 50% of all stream and river water used. This source of water provided 21% of the new water intake in Arizona, 55% in Illinois, 54% in Louisiana, 43% in Michigan, and 80% in Tennessee. Nearly one-half of all lake and reservoir water used was in Minnesota. The next largest users of lake and reservoir water were Michigan, New York, and New Jersey, together accounting for 26% of total. This source of water provided 42% of new water intake in Michigan, 79% in Minnesota, 82% in New Jersey, and 59% in New York. Almost 67% of all water derived from miscellaneous sources was used in Florida. While some of this water was from public water systems, most of the remainder was from unspecified sources. WATER TREATMENT, BY STATE Treatment of water prior to use, recirculation, or discharge in individual States is largely a reflection of the pattern of usage and the quality of water being used or discharged. By and large. States using the most water for mining or processing are likely to treat large amounts of this water prior to use. Similarly, States with stringent quality standards for wastewater are likely to treat mine or plant effluents prior to discharge into the environment. During 1984, the three largest users— Florida, Michi- gan, and Minnesota — treated 96%, 98%, and 66%, respec- tively, of their recirculated water prior to use in proces- sing phosphate rock and iron ore (fig. 15). About 41% of the new water in Florida, 24% in Michigan, and 9% in Minnesota was treated prior to use. The lower percentage for new water treated in Minnesota was probably a reflection of the relatively large amount of good quality intake from lakes and reservoirs. More than 87% of all water discharged in Florida and 65% in Michigan was treated, presumably to comply with State and local water quality standards. Only 19% of discharge water in Min- nesota was treated. 16 200 r o ^ 150 o CO UJ o a: O a: i 100 50 b^ KEY s ^ D other Ground water Mine water Lake or reservoir Stream or river :sss m.^ AZ CA FL IL Ml MN NM NC Figure 14.— Sources of new water, by State, 1984. TX UT other 600 500 o CT> O) 400 O r- Q LiJ 1- 300 ^ OH h- rr Ld 200 100 ^ J^ n^ I jsJLt ^H. jsH. KEY ^ ^ New water Recirculated water Water discharged ^ "->" ""^^ ^~^^ gy^/ k-'T^ ffi AZ CA FL Figure IL Ml MN NM NC TX UT Other 15.— Types of water treated, by State, 1984. 17 In the copper industry of Arizona, y6% of its new water, 71% of its recirculated water, and a minor amount of its discharge water was treated. New Mexico's copper industry treated 61% of its new water intake, 90% of its recirculated water, and 42% of its discharge water. In Utah, the copper industry treated only 23%^ of its new water but most of its recirculated and discharge water. Other States with substantial amounts of water treatment included California, Louisiana, New Jersey, and Texas. Thirty-four percent of new water, 82% of recirculated water, and 66% of discharge water were treated prior to use or discharge in California. In Louisiana, 51% of new water, 10% of recirculated water, and 61% of discharge water were treated. In Texas, 52% of discharge water was treated, compared with 77% of new water and 30% of recirculated water. Although a large amount of water was used in North Carolina, only 7% of its new water, 9% of its recirculated water, and 32% of its discharge water received some form of treatment prior to use or discharge. WATER USE TRENDS In order to examine trends in water utilization in the domestic nonfuel minerals industry, data from this canvass were combined with those from an earlier Bureau of Mines canvass (12) as well as with data from the Bureau of the Census {8-11). However, some comments on the complete- ness, comparability, and consistency of the available data should be noted. Inasmuch as the data encompassed water use only for the years 1954, 1962, 1968, 1973, 1983, and 1984, they did not provide for an adequate or complete time series from which meaningful statistical inferences could be drawn. The Bureau of the Census utilized a 10% sample of all metal and nonmetal mines in each of its canvasses. These mines each had a water intake exceeding 20 million gal and together accounted for about 95% of total estimated water use in the nonfuel minerals industry. In contrast, the earlier of the two Bureau of Mines canvasses covered all mines known to have been in production during 1962, regardless of tonnage produced or water usage. In the Bureau's more recent canvass, mines were selected based solely on their crude ore production, regardless of their water usage. These differences in sampling procedure could possibly account for some of the observed incom- parability in the water use data from one sample year to the next. For all canvass years, the Bureau of the Census data on water discharge included water that was discharged during mine dewatering but not actually used in mining, processing, or related operations. As a result, the amount of water consumed in those years could not be correctly estimated, and no attempt has been made to examine trends in water consumption or water discharge. For 1978, the sum of new water and recirculated water did not add to total water used in the Bureau of the Census data. Some minor subtractions from the amount of recirculated water were therefore made by the author to correct these discrepancies. WATER USE TRENDS, BY COMMODITY In the 25 yr since the first Bureau of Mines canvass, the mineral industry has undergone substantial change, in both the nature and scale of operations. Lower grade ores, such as in porphyry copper, have led to the mining and processing of larger tonnages, thus increasing the demand for water. Similarly, the depletion of direct-shipping iron ore in Minnesota resulted in the development of new technology for processing vast amounts of low-grade taconites. In recent times, there has been some increase in water usage in the solution mining of potash, the leaching of copper and gold, and the slurry transportation of phosphate rock. Also, State and local environmental regu- lations pertaining to discharge water quality have en- couraged greater recycling as an economic alternative to water treatment prior to discharge. In some localities where water is scarce and subject to competing demands, there is an added incentive for mine operators to adopt recycling as a means of conserving water. Singly or in combination, all of these factors can be said to have governed water use patterns in the nonfuel minerals industry over the past 25 yr, and they will no doubt continue to do so into the future. Over the period 1954-84, production of copper, .iron ore, phosphate rock, sand and gravel, and stone together accounted for 73% to 90% of total water use, 89% to 92% of crude ore produced, and 62% to 72% of the value of mine production. While several metals and nonmetals, such as gold and silver, lead and zinc, clays, and potash and sodium carbonate, also had large values of mine produc- tion, their water usage and crude ore tonnage were relatively insignificant. Hence, the discussion that follows will focus largely on copper, iron ore, phosphate rock, sand and gravel, and stone. Copper Total water use in copper mines rose from 83 billion gal in 1954 to 496 billion gal in 1973, after which it fell to 202 billion gal in 1984 (fig. 16). This trend in water use roughly paralleled the growth and decline in crude ore production and mine value (fig. 17). The amount of water recirculated increased from 29% of total water use in 1954 to 80% in 1978 before declining to about 60% in 1984. Water use per short ton of crude ore appeared to peak at 2,570 gal in 1968, followed by a steady decline to some 1,040 gal in 1984 (fig. 18). While water use per dollar of mine production also peaked in 1968, its decline thereafter was somewhat more erratic (fig. 19). Between 1978 and 1984, water use per dollar ranged from 122 to 131 gal. Iron Ore Total water use reached its maximum (849 billion gal) in 1973 (fig. 20), although iron ore production and value in 1978 were higher than in 1973 (fig. 21). For the most part, 18 however, water use rose and fell with crude ore production and mine value. From 1954 to 1978, the amount of water recirculated was between 48% and 58% of total water use, but in 1983 and 1984 it increased to about 90%, most likely becauseof successful implementation of water conservation practices during these 2 yr. After reaching a peak of 3,480 gal in 1973, water use per short ton of crude ore fell to 2,860 gal in 1978, followed by a gradual increase to 3,700 gal in 1984 (fig. 22). The same general trend was also apparent in water use per dollar of mine production (fig. 23). Phosphate Rock Total water use in phosphate rock production (fig. 24) appeared to rise and fall with crude ore production and value during 1954-73 (fig. 25). In 1978 water use actually fell even when production and value increased, while in 1983 it increased in the face of declining production and value. Finally, it rose once again with rising production and value, and attained its maximum level of 780 billion gal in 1984. Between 1954 and 1978, recirculated water accounted for about 52% to 72% of total water use, but this ratio increased to over 85% in 1983 and 1984, offsetting the net decline in new water use in these years. The significant increase in 1983-84 could be ascribed to successful con- servation practices implemented by the industry during those years. Water use per short ton of crude ore attained its maximum of 6, 1 10 gal in 1962, after which it declined to its minimum of 1,900 gal in 1978 (fig. 26). From 1978 to 1984 water use per short ton appeared to increase steadily once again, reaching 4,280 gal in 1984. Water use per dollar of production reached its highest level of 860 gal in 1973, fell to its lowest level of 260 gal in 1978, and rose steadily thereafter to 660 gal in 1984 (fig. 27). Sand And Gravel Water use per short ton of crude ore steadily decreased from 150 gal in 1954 to 60 gal in 1973, after which it increased steadily to 130 gal in 1984 (fig. 34). Water use per dollar of production also followed a similar trend (fig. 35). All Nonfuel Minerals For the most part, total water use in the nonfuel minerals industry (fig. 36) roughly paralleled crude ore production and mine value (fig. 37). However, new water intake steadily fell from 61% of total water use in 1954 to 25% in 1984, clearly indicating a decline in its importance relative to recirculated water in the nonfuel minerals industry. New water withdrawals in billion gallons per day and per year for all offstream uses in the United States during the period 1950-80 were estimated by Solley, Chase, and Mann (7) as shown in table 3. Interpolating between years and comparing with new water intake in the nonfuel minerals industry, it could be seen that uses of water in the nonfuel minerals sector accounted for less than 1% of water withdrawn for all offstream uses, and this ratio had been declining steadily since 1968 (table 4). Table 3.— New water withdrawals for all U.S. offstream uses (7), billion gallons Year Per day Per year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 180 66,000 240 88,000 270 99,000 310 113,000 370 135,000 420 153,000 450 164,000 Total water use in sand and gravel operations rose from 260 billion gal in 1954 to 340 billion gal in 1962 (fig. 28); it then fell to 178 billion gal in 1968 even as production and value were increasing (fig. 29). From 1968 through 1984, water use rose and fell with production and value. In contrast to copper, iron ore, and phosphate rock production, new water use in sand and gravel production appeared to exceed recirculated water use for most years. Water use per short ton of crude ore fell from 470 gal in 1954 to 220 gal in 1968, after which it gradually increased to 320 gallons in 1984 (fig. 30). The same general trend could also be observed for water use per dollar of production (fig. 31). 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 1984 Table 4.— Mineral sector use of water Year Use, 10- gal Mineral Mineral sector All sector use, % 84,000 507 0.6 105,000 758 .7 125,000 982 .8 146,000 956 .7 160,000 855 .5 170,000 548 .3 173,000 571 .3 Stone For the most part, total water use in stone production (fig. 32) generally increased and decreased with produc- tion and value (fig. 33), with the largest increase in 1984 seemingly anomalous. As with sand and gravel, new water use in stone operations appeared to exceed recirculated water use for most years. Water use per short ton of nonfuel minerals production rose from about 720 gal in 1962 (data for 1954 not available) to 870 gal in 1968 and then fell to 720 gal in 1973, after which it steadily rose to 890 gal in 1984 (fig. 38). Water use per dollar of mine production increased sharply from 60 gal in 1954 to 110 gal in 1962 and then declined to about 100 gal in 1978, after which it increased once again to over 120 gal in 1984 (fig. 39). 19 500 r 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 Figure 16.— Copper industry water use, 1954-84. 1983 1984 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 1 7.— Copper Industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84. 1984 20 o ■£ o 0^ 3.000 r 2,500 z 2.000 r Q:: o X ^ 1 .500 q:: UJ Q. ^ 1 .000 500 - 1954 1962 1968 Figure 18.— Copper industry water use 1973 1978 1983 per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84. 1984 200 r 150 - o of _J o a 00 ^ 100 [£. UJ Q. UJ (/) ID 50 - 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 19.— Copper industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84. 1984 21 1.000 800 - en o 600 «- iJ 3 01 LiJ 400 200 - 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 Figure 20.— Iron ore Industry water use, 1954-84. 1983 1984 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 21.— Iron ore Industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84. 1984 22 4,000 o X UJ Q- LU LU 3,000 2,000 1,000 KEY New water Recirculated /j. water Total water i 1 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 22.— Iron ore Industry water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1954-84. I \A 1984 400 300 o a» of _i o a 00 o) 200 Or: iij Q. UJ ID UJ I 100 KEY New water Recirculated water Total water - g?5C^ Vy XI c D oo o o (- o Q O 20 10 NOTE : Production data for 1954 not available KEY Crude ore production Mine value 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 37.— Nonfuel minerals Industry crude ore production and mine value, 1954-84. 1984 30 1.000 r KEY 01 o X (/) ir LlJ Q_ LiJ CO Z3 ct: UJ 800 600 400 200 New water Recirculated water NOTE : Production data for 1954 not available 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 1984 Figure 38.— Nonfuel minerals industry water use per sliort ton of crude ore production, 1954-84. of _j o o 00 a: UJ Q. (/J Z) a: 111 150 r 120 1954 1962 1968 1973 1978 1983 Figure 39.— Nonfuel minerals industry water use per 1984 dollar of mine production, 1954-84. 1984 31 WATER USE TRENDS, BY STATE Trends in water usage by individual States could not be meaningfully analyzed because data from the Bureau of the Census were not disaggregated among fuel and nonfuel minerals at the State level. However, a comparison can be made between Bureau of Mines data for 1962 and 1984. During 1962, the nonfuel minerals industry used 1,487 billion gal of water, of which 758 billion gal was new water and 729 billion gal recirculated water. Ten States accounted for about 70% of total water used (29). These were, in decreasing order, Florida, Minnesota, Tennessee, Michigan, California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, Ohio, and Utah (fig. 40). In comparison, 571 billion gal of new water and 1,696 billion gal of recirculated water were used by the industry during 1984. Ten States accounted for 85% of total water used. In decreasing order, they were Florida, Minnesota, Michigan, North Carolina, Arizona, California, Texas, Utah, New Mexico, and Illinois (fig. 12). The decline in new water use and the increase in water recirculation reflected their relative importance to the nonfuel minerals industry during the two time periods. Notably, most of the increase in total water usage was accounted for by Arizona, Florida, Michigan, Minnesota, and North Carolina. These increases were the result of an increase in the production of copper in Arizona, phosphate rock in Florida and North Carolina, and taconites in Michigan and Minnesota. For a good number of individual States, however, there were sharp relative declines in water use. To some extent, some of these declines could be ascribed to decreases in the production of crushed stone and sand and gravel in these States. In other States, the underlying causes of the declines were varied and included decreases in the pro- duction of gold in Alaska, bauxite in Arkansas, molyb- denum and uranium in Colorado, lead and zinc in Idaho, copper in Montana, and iron ore in Pennsylvania. The single largest decline in water usage in Tennessee could not be readily explained at this time. For the most part, there were substantial decreases in the amount of water discharged in a majority of States, possibly in compliance with State and local environmental regulations. On the other hand, the amount of water consumed more than doubled, largely through product incorporation and evaporation. o o Ld (/) ID Dl Ld 300 r 250 200 150 7 100 50 X/N x/\ x/\ x/N mS r. m ^ KEY New water Recirculated !Zl water ;V^ Water \Vi discharged Water consumed L4inf7 ^ ifl. ^ AZ CA FL Mi MN NM OH IN TX UT Other Figure 40.— Water use, by State, 1962 [29). 32 WATER USE IN THE NONFUEL MINERALS INDUSTRY IN 2000 Because of data inadequacy, estimates of future water use could be made only for a selected number of metallic and nonmetallic minerals. Even so, the estimates were derived from a simple nonstatistical methodology described herein. First, an average intensity-of-use index was calculated for each commodity. This index was obtained by dividing the sum of water use (new, recirculated, or total) by the sum of crude ore production over the period 1983-84. Results of these computations are shown in table 5. Next, crude ore production in the year 2000 was estimated based on the projections of marketable mine production given in table 6 (30). It was assumed that the rate of growth in crude ore production would parallel that in marketable production from 1983 to 2000. Crude ore estimates for 2000 would be as shown in table 7. Applying the average intensity-of-use indices to pro- jected crude ore production then gave estimates of water use in the nonfuel minerals industry in 2000 (table 8). Total water use in the nonfuel minerals industry was estimated at 2,679 billion gal in 2000, of which 30% would be new water and 70% recirculated water. About 82% of all water would be used in producing copper, crushed stone, iron ore, phosphate rock, and sand and gravel. Compared with 1984 water usage, there would be a slight increase in new water use relative to recirculated water. This would be due primarily to the increase in the production of sand and gravel and of crushed stone, both of which use proportionately more new water than recirculated water for each ton of output. Largely because of its projected high rate of growth in production, the iron ore industry would surpass the phosphate rock industry in total water use in the year 2000. Table 5. — Average water use per short ton of crude ore production, 1983-84, gallons Table 6.— Mine production In 1983 and 2000 Commodity New water Recirculated water Total Metals: Copper 400 Gold and silver 183 Iron ore 373 Lead and zinc^ 430 Uranium-vanadium 1 ,346 Other metals 359 Average Nonmetals: Clays Phosphate rock Potash, soda, borates. . . Rock salt^ Sand and gravel Stone Sulfur^ Other nonmetals Average Average, all nonfuel minerals 232 652 1,092 190 373 3,159 3,532 167 597 492 1,838 1,304 1,663 387 1,469 1,856 493 196 689 551 3,375 3,926 953 3,009 3,962 238 258 496 167 140 307 62 42 104 1,854 1,268 3.122 1,311 404 1,715 197 403 600 604 836 Commodity Production 1983 2000 « Change, % Metals: Copper 10^ mt.. 1,038 Gold lO^troz.. 1,957 Iron 10^ st Fe content.. 27 Lead 10^ mt Pb content.. 449 Silver lO^troz.. 43 Uranium-vanadium st V content.. 2,433 Zinc 10^ mt.. 275 Nonmetals: Clays 10^ St.. 40,983 Phosphate rock 1 0^ mt.. 42,573 Potash 10^ mt KjD equivalent.. 1 ,429 Salt 10^ St.. 32,973 Sand and gravel, 10^ st: Construction 655 Industrial 26 Sodium carbonate 10"^ St.. 8,467 Stone: Crushed 10^ St.. 863 Dimension 10^ St.. 1,186 Sulfur 10^ mt.. 9,290 1,400 35 4,500 130 50 85 620 38 50 16 9,200 278 700 155 70,000 71 46,400 9 1,300 -9 51,500 56 1,000 53 50 92 12,000 42 1,300 51 770 -35 15,700 69 Estimated. Table 7.— Crude ore production in 1983 and 2000 Commodity Production, 10" st Change, % 1983 2000 Metals: Copper : 196.0 Gold 40.4 Iron ore 128.0 Lead 8.4 Silver 9.5 Uranium-vanadium 10.2 Zinc 5.7 Other metals 28.9 Total 427.0 Nonmetals: Clays 40.6 Phosphate rock 141.0 Potash 13.8 Rock salt 10.1 Sand and gravel: Construction 655.1 Industrial ^26.6 Sodium carbonate, natural 6.7 Stone: Crushed 868.0 Dimension 2.6 Sulfur, Frasch ■'4.5 Other nonmetals 47.2 Total 1,816.2 Grand total or average 2,243 2 264.6 35 92.9 130 236.8 85 11.6 38 11.0 16 38.6 278 14.5 155 2 48.6 68 718.6 68 69.4 71 153.7 9 12.6 -9 15.8 56 ,002.3 53 51.1 92 9.5 42 ,310.7 51 1.7 -35 7.6 69 ^70.3 49 2,704.7 49 3,423.3 53 ^1984 only. Estimates based on data in table 6. ^Estimates based on aggregate change in foregoing commodities. •'Marketable production. NOTE:-Data may not add to totals shown owing to independent rounding. 33 Several assumptions were implicit in the foregoing estimates of future water use: Water use was determined solely by the level of crude ore production. No technological changes were to occur between 1983 and 2000 to drastically alter water use patterns in the nonfuel minerals industry. Ore grades would remain unchanged through the end of the century. No major changes in State and local environmental regulations would occur that would have a significant impact on water use. Table 8.— Estimated water use in t>ie nonfuei minerals industry in 2000, billion gallons Commodity New water Recirculated water Total Metals; Copper 116 Gold and silver 19 Iron ore 88 Lead and zinc 11 Uranium-vanadium 52 Other metals 17 Total Nonmetals: Clays Phosphate rock Potash, soda, borates, Rock salt Sand and gravel Stone Sulfur Other nonmetals Total Grand total 810 173 289 19 38 748 836 4 15 19 71 63 80 303 1,026 1,329 34 14 48 85 519 604 21 66 87 4 4 8 176 147 323 81 55 136 14 10 24 92 28 120 507 843 1,350 1,869 2,679 An average intensity-of-use index for each commodity over the period 1983-84 would apply for the remainder of the century. At the present time, it cannot be determined if the estimates for individual commodities are realistic, be- cause there are no comparative estimates from other sources. In the past, projections of future water use had been made by several public and private-sector organiza- tion, including the Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources (22), Resources for the Future (23), the National Water Commission (2^), the U.S. Water Resources Council (25, pp. 95-101) and the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works (26). Most of the projec- tions were for new water withdrawals and consumption, based on anticipated growth in population, economic activity, and technology. However, no attempt had been made to estimate water use by individual commodities. Depending on the methodology employed, projections of future water use could differ considerably from one another. Thus, the Water Resources Council estimated freshwater withdrawal by metal mines at 1.36 billion gal/d (496 billion gal/yr) and by nonmetal mines at 6.12 billion gal/d (2,234 billion gal/yr) in 2000. The total annual freshwater withdrawal of 2,730 billion gal is more than three times the Bureau's new water estimate shown in table 8. While earlier Bureau of Mines studies on water use in Montana (20), Nevada (19), New Mexico (18), and Wyoming (21) contained estimates of water requirements in the mineral industries in those States in the year 2000, these estimates could not be compared with those in table 8 because they pertained to a selected number of individual States only. Also, these estimates included water usage in smelting and refining of ores. The work of Kaufman and Nadler (12) illustrates the need for continual revisions in water use projections as new data become available. With 1962 as a base year, they developed mathematical expressions for estimating water use in the minerals industry to the year 1985 (table 9). A comparison of these estimates with average water use data for 1983-84 indicates the difficulty of correctly projecting water use more than 20 yr into the future. Table 9.— Average 1983-84 water use and estimated 1985 water use {12), billion gallons Average 1983-84 water use Estimated 1985 water use Commodity New water Recirculated water Total New water Recirculated water Total Copper Iron ore Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Other 86 57 89 124 204 127 480 545 104 194 213 537 634 228 398 176 221 343 957 388 168 229 679 437 611 344 450 1,022 1,394 999 Total 560 1,450 2,010 2,085 2,124 4,209 34 WATER USE PROBLEMS AND ISSUES Current and potential problems associated with water use in the nonfuel minerals industry were not addressed in the water canvass, but based on published data, they appear to be generally related to water availability, water quality, and land use. Because copper, crushed stone, iron ore, phosphate rock, and sand and gravel are major users of water, the following discussion will focus largely on them. WATER AVAILABILITY Although a vast majority of respondents in the water canvass indicated their new water supplies to be adequate for 5 to 20 yr under conditions then existing, it could not be determined whether such supplies would be available in the future under a different set of political, economic, and demographic conditions. A case in point is Arizona, and Michigan provides another perspective. Arizona, which produces about 70% of the Nation's copper, has an arid climate and limited surface water resources. About 60% of the new water withdrawal in the State is derived from ground water resources, which are being depleted 1 . 7 times faster than they can be replenished (26). Overdraft of ground water is thus a serious problem throughout the State. In the Tucson area, near where the major copper producers are located, the ground water is subject to such competing uses as agriculture, mining, and public supply. Already, there are indications of strain among some users. In 1984, Anamax Mining Co., which operated a small solvent extraction-electrowinning plant at the Twin Buttes Mine, was sued by the U.S. Government, the Papago Indian Tribe, and others for allegedly with- drawing excessive amounts of surface and ground water from the Santa Cruz River Basin in derogation of plaintiffs' rights to it. The action resulted in the closure of the operation in 1985, with a loss of 156 jobs. It seems likely that ground water withdrawals will continue to increase in support of a growing population in the Tucson area. It seems likely also that ground water levels will continue to decline because withdrawal rates are expected to exceed recharge rates. As future water levels decline, pumping costs will increase, well capacities will be reduced, water quality will tend to deteriorate, and there is a potential for water rights to become an issue of major proportions. All this may have an adverse impact on future copper production in Arizona. The future of iron ore operations of Cleveland Cliffs, Inc. (CCI), at the Tilden Mine in Michigan seems likely to depend on the availability of an alternative water supply for the neighboring city of Ishpeming. In April 1987, CCI announced plans to relocate the mine north of the existing ore body in order to profitably exploit a higher grade magnetite deposit. The relocation would entail the draining of Schoolhouse and Foster Lakes (which overlie the deposit) and damming of the southeast end of Lake Ogden. Tilden Lake would be used for dumping stripped overburden. All of these lakes form the Lake Sally watershed, from which the city obtains its water supply. It is estimated that up to 50% of the watershed would be depleted by the planned relocation of the mine. City council members have sug- gested that they would oppose the relocation if CCI were unable to provide the city with, financial assistance for the construction of a new water supply system. Iron ore production in Michigan, which accounts for about one- fourth of U.S. production, would be severely impacted should CCI be prevented from proceeding as planned. WATER QUALITY Enormous amounts of waste are generated annually in the processing of minerals, and they have to be disposed of in accordance with Federal, State, and local environ- mental regulations. These wastes are usually in the form of solid particles carried in discharge water from the proces- sing plants. In the longest and most historic environmental con- flict, the U.S. Department of Justice tried Reserve Mining Co. on August 1, 1973, for allegedly polluting Lake Superior with taconite tailings discharged from the company's plant at Silver Bay, MN. The trial lasted several years and resulted in Reserve Mining's agreement to construct a land disposal site about 4 miles from the Silver Bay plant. Completed in 1980, the disposal site, designated as "Milepost 7," required about 200 permits from State agencies and cost several hundred million dollars. The permits were granted subject to 12 stringent conditions designed to protect the environment and to mitigate the potential health threat from asbestiform fibers in the taconite. Covering an area of 5.8 mi^, the disposal site was designed to contain some 700 million st of tailings over a 40-yr period. When Reserve Mining went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1986, the Minnesota De- partment of Natural Resources estimated that it would cost up to $57 million to permanently close the site. In addition to containing solid material, most process water contains various amounts of chemical reagents that are used in the selective flotation of minerals. These reagents are potential pollutants and have to be removed from wastewater prior to discharge. The cost of pollution abatement can be considerable. In 1983, annual operating costs for pollution control amounted to $34.2 million in iron ore production, $27.3 million in phosphate rock, and $5.2 million in copper ore (11). Because no chemical reagents were used in processing crushed stone and sand and gravel, total operating costs for pollution abatement in these industries amounted to only $6.4 million. Pollution control costs can generally be expected to increase with any foreseeable increase in mineral production. Costs will also increase with tighter effluent standards unless more efficient pollution control technologies can be developed and installed at existing facilities. LAND USE Large amounts of land are utilized in the nonfuel minerals industry for the dual purpose of solid waste disposal and water reclamation. After settlement of par- ticulate matter, water flowing out of the disposal site is recycled back to the processing plant for further use. In 1983, some 32,000 acres of land were used for disposal of wastes from iron ore mines, 41,000 acres for wastes from phosphate rock mines, and 15,000 acres for wastes from copper mines (11). Crushed stone and sand and gravel together used about 10,000 acres. 35 Because crushed stone and sand and gravel operations are located near urban areas where most new residential and commercial construction takes place, the amount of land available for waste disposal can be severely limited by local zoning laws. The issue becomes a dichotomy between the need for urban construction and the production of construction materials that supports it. Doubtless, this issue will prevail far into the future unless alternative materials can be developed for building construction. Although most new waste disposal sites are designed and constructed according to rigid environmental stan- dards, some potential problems may yet be encountered. These include embankment failure and erosion by wind and rain, causing the release of large quantities of sediment into the environment. Where the waste contains sulfide ores, water percolating through it may result in acid drainage into surrounding areas. Constructing and maintaining a leakproof waste disposal site containing sulfide material can be a costly undertaking. Another large cost associated with waste disposal is land reclamation in accordance with bonded procedures agreed upon during the permitting process. Most States require mined land, including waste disposal sites, to be restored to its former or next higher use before a bond posted by the operator can be released. Largely because of this, many acres of previously mined land have been successfully reclaimed in recent years. But much work still remains to be done to expedite land reclamation in Florida. Phosphate slimes are estimated to cover more than 100,000 acres of land in Florida. Because of the nature of the slimes, particle settlement is slow, and successful reclamation usually takes several years. Thus, the operator's reclamation bond is tied up for a long period of time before it can be used for a new venture. In order to assist the phosphate industry in its reclamation efforts, the Bureau of Mines has been developing techniques for the large-scale dewatering of phosphate slimes (31). Industry itself appears to have made some progress in this endeavor. A dewatering process has been reported that will reclaim land for agricultural and livestock use in about 4 yr at a cost of $2,000 per acre (32). Another problem facing the phosphate rock industry in Florida is the preservation of wetlands. The State contains over 20% of the remaining wetlands in the United States, and these areas are being rapidly depleted by coastal development, agricultural drainage, and urban expansion. The preservation of remaining wetlands has become a primary concern among certain public and governmental groups, and has led regulatory agencies to restrict mining of swamps and marshes unless mitigative measures can be demonstratively employed, such as at Agrico's Fort Green Mine in Polk County. Thus, develop- ment of techniques for restoring wetlands may well be a top priority for the Florida phosphate rock industry in the future. Watershed preservation is also an issue in the phos- phate rock industry in Florida. After nearly 10 yr of attempts to obtain permits to develop the Duette deposit in Manatee County, Estech Inc. subsequently sold the 10,500- acre site to the county in 1985. Environmental concerns over the Lake Manatee watershed, which supplies Manatee and Sarasota Counties with drinking water, had delayed the development of the project. Manatee County purchased the property for a reported $26 million in order to protect the watershed. It can thus be seen that land use restraints and conflicts are typically the types of problems that are likely to be encountered in the disposal of water-bearing wastes. How well these problems can be satisfactorily resolved will determine the level of future production in the nonfuel minerals industry. SUMMARY Total water use in the domestic nonfuel minerals industry amounted to an estimated 2,267 billion gal in 1984, of which 75% was recirculated water and 25% new water. Among all metallic and nonmetallic mineral in- dustries, the single largest user was the phosphate rock industry, which accounted for more than one-third of all water used. The next largest users were copper, crushed stone, iron ore, and sand and gravel industries, together accounting for 55% of the total. Among all States, Florida was by far the largest user, accounting for about one-third of all water used, most of it in its phosphate rock industry. The iron ore industry of Michigan and Minnesota used 30% of all water, while the coppej^ industry of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah used 10%. Large amoun ts of water were also used in North Carolina (6% of total), California (3%), Texas (2%), and Illinois (2%). Between 1954 and 1984, new water use appeared to be declining and water recirculation increasing in their relative importance to the nonfuel minerals industry. For the most part, the increase in water recirculation could be ascribed to the processing of larger tonnages of low-grade ores, but some of the increase could also have been the result of economic and environmental considerations affecting new water use and discharge. Total water use in the nonfuel minerals industry was estimated to be 2,679 billion gal in the year 2000, of which 30% would be new water and 70% recirculated water. More than 80% of the water would be used in producing copper, crushed stone, iron ore, phosphate rock, and sand and gravel. Current problems and issues associated with water use in the nonfuel minerals industry include water availability, water quality, and land use. Although tech- nology and institutional and regulatory procedures are already in place to solve some of these problems and issues, new approaches may be needed to solve others in order that production of copper, crushed stone, iron ore, phosphate rock, and sand and gravel can continue into the future. 36 REFERENCES 1. MacKichan, K.A. Estimated Use of Water in the United States, 1950. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 115, 1951, 13 pp. 2. Estimated Use of Water in the United States, 1955. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 398, 1957, 18 pp. 3. MacKichan, K.A., and J.C. Kammerer. Estimated Use of Water in the United States, 1960. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 456, 1961, 26 pp. 4. Murray, C.R. Estimated Use of Water In the United States, 1965. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 556, 1968, 53 pp. 5. Murray, C.R., and E.B. Reeves. Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1970. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 676, 1972, 37 pp. 6. Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1975. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 765, 1977, 39 pp. 7. Solley, W.B.. E.B. Chase, and W.B. Mann IV. Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1980. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 1001, 1983, 56pp. 8. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Water Use in Mining. 1967 Census of Mineral Industries, MIC 67(l)-2, 1971, 48 pp. 9. Water Use in Mineral Industries. 1972 Census of Mineral Industries, MIC 72(l)-2, 1975, 65 pp. 10. Water Use in Mineral Industries. 1977 Census of Mineral Industries, MIC 77-SR-4, 1981, 71 pp. 11. Water Use in Mineral Industries. 1982 Census of Mineral Industries, MIC 82-S-4, 1985, 52 pp. 12. Kaufman, A., and M. Nadler. Water Use in the Mineral Industry. BuMines IC 8285, 1966, 58 pp. 13. Conklin, H.L. Water Requirements of the Aluminum Industry. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 1330-C, 1956, pp. 102-137. 14. Mussey, O.D. Water Requirements of the Copper Industry. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 1330-E, 1961, pp. 181-218. 15. Walling, F.B., and L.E. Otts, Jr. Water Requirements of the Iron and Steel Industry. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 1330-H, 1967, pp. 341-.S94. 16. Michaelson, S.D., B.H. Ensign, S.J. Hubbard, and A.W. Last. Water, a Raw Material for the Production of Copper. AIME preprint 60 H 98, 1960, 17 pp. 17. Gilkey, M.M., and R.T. Beckman. Water Requirements and Uses in Arizona Mineral Industries. BuMines IC 8162, 1963, 90 pp.. 18. Gilkey, M.M., and R.B. Stotelmeyer. Water Requirements and Uses in New Mexico Mineral Industries. BuMines IC 8276, 1965, 111 pp. 19. Holmes, G.H., Jr. Water Requirements and Uses in Nevada Mineral Industries. BuMines IC 8288, 1966, 65 pp. 20. Hale, W.N. Water Requirements and Uses in Montana Mineral Industries. BuMines IC 8305, 1966, 99 pp. 21. Gilkey, M.M., and R.B. Stotelmeyer. Water Requirements and Uses in Wyoming Mineral Industries. BuMines IC 8328, 1967, 92 pp. 22. U.S. Senate. Report of the Select Committee on National Water Resources. 87th Congr., 1st sess.. Rep. 29, Jan. 1961, 147 pp. 23. Wollman, N., and G.E. Bonen (Resources for the Future, Inc.).The Outlook for Water— Quality, Quantity and National Growth. Johns Hopkins Press, 1971, 286 pp. 24. National Water Commission. Water Policies for the Future. GPO, 1973, 579 pp. 25. U.S. Water Resources Council. The Nation's Water Resources 1975-2000, Volume 2: Water Quantity, Quality, and Related Land Considerations. GPO, 1978, 531pp. 26. U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. State and National Water Use Trends to the year 2000. 96th Congr., 2d sess.. Rep. 96-12, May 1980, 297 pp. 27. Lofting, E.M., and H.C. Davies. Methods for Estimating and Projecting Water Demands for Water-Resource Planning. Climate, Climatic Change and Water Supply. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1977, pp. 49-60. 28. Martin, T.W., D.L. Edelstein, and G.H. Hyde. Mining and Quarrying Trends in the Metals and Industrial Minerals Industries. Ch. in BuMines Minerals Yearbook 1985, v. 1, pp. 7-65. 29. U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook 1963, v. 3, 2235 pp. 30. Mineral Facts and Problems, 1985 Edition. B675, 1986, 936 pp. 31. Smelley, A.G., and B.J. Scheiner. Large-Scale Dewatering of Phosphatic Clay Waste From Northern Florida. BuMines RI 8928, 1985, 9 pp. 32. U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals and Materials. A Bi- monthly Survey. June/July 1987, p. 24. 37 APPENDIX A.— CANVASS QUESTIONNAIRE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF MINES WASHINGTON, D.C. 20241 WATER USED IN THE NON-FUEL MINERAL INDUSTRY 1984 Form Approved O.M.B. No. 1032-0117 INDIVIDUAL COMPANY DATA-PROPRIETARY Unless authorization js granted in the section above the signature, the data furnished in this report will be treated in confidence by the Department of the Interior, except that they rriay be disclosed to Federal defense agencies, or to the Congress upon official request for appropriate purposes. (Please correct if name or address has changed.) Coiieei.on oi m n-tu«l fm.>«r.l mforrti.t. on ■• •uihorlicd by Public Liw &2-3B6 in d the Dclenie P foduction ^cl Thii intormalion ii UMd 10 ■upporl t*e uiiue poller oe ci«>oni per a.rxnq Id •me>v«ncy ptcpaieanaia ■ d atitmt ano ■niivei* to ' mmeiali l»9>iliiion aiM) ■nduil'ial trend 1 The Bureau elie* on y ut ■eluniifr and umely rMponie to .. ure th.l itf .n orrtKl.on 1 complete and accurate Please complete this form and return one copy to the Bureau of Mines in the enclosed envelope. Complete a separate form for each operating unit using reasonable estimates when exact data are not available. 1. IDENTIFICATION AND LOCATION OF OPERATING UNIT. A. Name of operation B. Commodity C. Location; County. State. D. If the operation was inactive the entire year of 1984, check here | | sign, and return this form. 2. MINING AND PROCESSING ACTIVITIES COVERED BY THIS REPORT (check all pertinent boxes). A. Mining Activities: I I Underground j I Open pit or strip I 1 Quarrying B. Processing Activities: I I Washing I I Crushing & grinding I I Screening I I Concentration I I Placer I I Dredging I I In-place leaching I I Cherriical extraction I I Roasting I I Sintering I I Retorting [ I Well or pumping operation |~~] Other (specify) I I Smelting I I Other (specify)- 3. WATER USAGE DURING 1984. A. Was water used in the performance of activities checked in Section 2? (1) Yes | (2) No B. If not, sign and return form. C. If new water intake exceeded 1,000.000 gallons per year complete Section 4 through 9. (OVER) 38 4. NEW WATER BY SOURCE. Report quantity of new (intake or make-up) water brought into the mine or plant for the first time. Source Code Gallons per year (2) ■:■:■.■;■;■:•;;:■:-:■; (1) ■■■■■■:Myy^ . .■;■:■:-:-:-:■:■;•;•: Stream or river 401 ■liili Lake or reservoir 402 ■iliiii Mine water 403 Ground water 404 ::>:::::i;;::;::: : Other (specify) ■ . IIM^ TOTAL 499 i;iililiili 5. ADEQUACY OF NEW WATER SUPPLY: Code 501 A. Is your water supply adequate at present? (1) Yes O ; (2) No Q B. If yes, for how long do you believe your water supply will be adequate? ( check one) 5 years Q] : 10 years [^ ; 20 years [^ C. If supply IS not adequate, how much additional water would you require based on your present annual level of operation? gallons per year. 6. RECIRCULATED WATER (report quantity of water ihat was recirculated or reused in the mine or plant for the purpose of conserving water); gallons per year. Code 601 7. TOTAL WATER USED. Report total new water Section 4, plus recirculated water Section 6. Use (1) Code Gallons per year (2) llllll ill ■liiiiiiiiii:: iiililiiii Mining 701 i:W::- ■ ■■:4S*S*S*s;¥;*H;E;, ..: .....;...;■;.;, ,.. :^mUiimw;;M Processing 702 iiiiiiiilP --i Other (specify) lllllllll TOTAL 799 8. WATER DISPOSED. Gallons Disposed per year (1) Code (2) A. Water discharged from mine or plant 801 B. Water consumed (evaporation or lost in product; should equal new water (4) minus water discharged (8A) 802 9. WATER TREATED. Report percentage of each type of water treated (includes settling, filtering, areating, softening, precipitating, pH control, other). NEW WATER RECIRCULATED DISPOSED If you desire a copy of the published report, please check this box. | | Remarks Name of person to be contacted regarding this report Tel area code No. Ext. Address No. Street City State Zip May tabulations be published which could indirectly reveal the data reported above? Dd) Yes □ (2) No Signature APPENDIX B.— CANVASS COVERAGE Table B-1.— Canvass coverage, by number of operations and commodity, 1984 39 Commodity Operations Respondents Number % Commodity Operations Respondents Number % Metals: Antimony Bauxite Beryllium Copper Gold: Lode Placer Iron ore Lead Manganiferous ore. . Mercury Molybdenum Platinum Rare eerths Silver Tin Titanium (ilmenite).. Tungsten Uranium-vanadium . Zinc Zirconium Total or average Nonmetals: Aplite Asbestos Barite Bromine Calcium chloride . . . Clays Diatomite Feldspar Fluorspar Garnet 1 8 1 24 52 26 22 12 3 1 4 1 1 26 1 2 3 74 12 1 275 1 2 7 5 3 243 5 11 1 - 1 1 6 1 20 27 17 19 10 2 1 2 1 1 16 1 2 2 55 11 1 196 1 2 4 2 3 181 5 10 1 1 100 75 100 83 52 65 86 83 67 100 50 100 100 62 100 100 67 74 92 100 71 100 100 57 40 100 74 100 91 100 100 Nonmetals — Continued Gypsum Iodine Lithium minerals Magnesite and brucite Magnesium compounds . . . Mica, scrap Olivine Perlite Phosphate rock Potash Pumice Pyrophyllite ■ Salt: Evaporated Rock Salt in brine Sand and gravel: Construction Industrial Soapstone Sodium carbonate, natural Sodium sulfate, natural ... Stone: Crushed Dimension Sulfur, Frasch Talc Tripoli Vermiculite Volcanic cinder Wollastonite Total or average Grand total or average 57 2 1 1 8 4 3 3 38 10 4 1 29 14 33 27 77 1 6 3 2,261 8 7 7 1 2 12 1 2,890 47 2 1 1 5 4 1 3 35 8 3 1 23 13 25 10 41 1 6 2 1,443 5 6 5 1 2 9 1 1,894 27 100 100 100 63 100 33 100 92 80 75 100 79 93 76 37 53 100 100 67 64 63 86 71 100 100 75 100 66 3,165 2,090 66 Tabie B-2.— Canvass coverage, by number of operations and State, 1984 State Operations Respondents State Operations Respondent s Number % Number % Alabama Alaska Arizona 63 28 44 44 15 29 33 99 43 5 1 73 54 1 16 24 90 48 64 50 71 19 2 23 15 33 34 14 113 14 70 54 66 67 73 67 36 100 62 58 50 84 75 74 59 44 63 70 63 33 77 50 65 79 82 67 54 Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire 15 55 4 8 38 20 39 66 51 2 98 43 40 113 16 1 29 8 98 133 30 9 1 66 37 32 54 31 2,090 53 69 n Arkansas 49 New Jersey New Mexico 34 59 59 California 136 fifi Colorado 64 14 New York 87 76 Connecticut North Carolina 108 47 Delaware 1 North Dakota 3 67 Florida 118 93 2 Ohio 125 78 Georgia Guam Oklahoma 65 Rfi Oregon Pennsylvania 50 157 80 Hawaii 19 32 122 7? Idaho Puerto Rico^ 24 67 Illinois Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota 3 49 14 33 Indiana 81 ^°i Iowa 147 80 101 30 57 Kansas Tennessee 127 77 Kentucky Louisiana Texas Utah Vermont Virgin Islands^ 216 41 12 2 62 7,T Maine 6 75 Maryland Massachusetts 30 30 51 43 17 169 50 Virginia 104 63 Michigan Minnesota Washington West Virginia 59 40 63 80 Mississippi Missouri Wisconsin 78 69 Wyoming Total or average 38 3,165 8? Montana 26 66 U.S. -administered islands and commonwealth. 40 Table B-3.— Canvass coverage, by crude ore production, 1984, million short tons Ore production Commodity Respond- ents U.S. total Cover- age, % Ore production Commodity Respond- ents U.S. total Cover- age, % Metals: Bauxite 0.8 1.1 73 Copper 161.6 193.0 84 Gold: Lode ■'12.2 40.5 30 Placer 7.7 8.5 91 Iron ore 137.8 176.0 78 Lead 5.5 5.6 98 Silver 6.9 7.9 87 Titanium W W 100 Uranium-vanadium 2.3 2.3 82 Zinc 5.6 5.8 97 Other metals ^34.3 ^34.9 98 Total or average 374.7 476.1 Nonmetals: Barite .1 1.1 Calcium ctiloride (^) NA Clays 23.9 44.6 Diatomlte 1 .3 1.5 Feldspar 2.5 2.6 Gypsum 11.0 16.7 Magnesium compounds 18.8 NA 79 9 NAp 54 87 96 66 NAp Nonmetals— Continued Mica, scrap 0.6 Perlite .5 Phosphate rock 1 72.4 Potash 11.0 Pumice .3 Salt: Evaporated 4.3 Rock 14.5 Salt in brine 10.6 Sand and gravel: Construction 1.1 Industrial 13.7 Sodium carbonate, natural 6.7 Stone: Crushed ^602.2 Dimension .8 Sulfur, Frasch 4.1 Talc .5 Other nonmetals ^4.1 Total or average ^ 905.0 Grand total or average 1,279.7 1.0 .6 182.0 15.6 .6 ^6.2 15.1 ^19.7 773.9 29.4 6.7 ^956.0 ^1.2 54.1 1.0 95.4 2,085.0 2,561.1 60 83 95 71 50 69 96 54 (') 47 100 63 67 100 50 76 43 50 NA Not available. NAp Not applicable. W Withheld to avoid disclosure of company proprietary data; included with other metals. ^Excludes gold from base metal ores. ^Includes antimony, beryllium, manganiferous ore, mercury, molybdenum, rare earths, tin, titanium, tungsten, and zirconium. ^Includes nickel, platinum, and items indicated in footnote 2. "Less than 0.05. ^Sold or used by producers or marketable production. ^Excludes sodium carbonate from brines. ^Estimated based on ratio of respondents' production to total U.S. production (63%) in 1983. ^Includes aplite, asbestos, bromine, fluorspar, garnet, iodine, lithium minerals, magnesiteandbrucite, olivine, pyrophyllite,soapstone, sodium carbonate from brines, sodium sulfate (natural), tripoli, vermiculite, volcanic cinder, and Vifollastonite. ^Includes abrasives, aplite, asbestos, boron minerals, fluorspar, graphite, iron oxide pigments (crude), kyanite, magnesite, marl (greensand), millstones, olivine, pyrophyllite, soapstone, vermiculite, and wollastonite. 41 Table B-4.— Canvass coverage, by value of mine production, 1984, million dollars Value Cover- Value Cover- Commodity Respond- U.S. age, % Commodity Respond- U.S. age, % ents total ents total Metals: Nonmetals — Continued Bauxite 14.5 15.6 93 Mica, scrap 1.9 7.1 27 Copper 1.294.1 1,608.4 80 Perlite 12.9 16.6 78 Gold: Phosphate rock 1,128.2 1,182.2 95 Lode ^271.6 727.7 37 Potash 163.9 241.8 68 Placer 12.7 1,926.8 14.8 ^2,247. 7 86 86 Pumice 1.5 4.9 31 Iron ore Salt: Lead 156.8 181.3 86 Evaporated 225.3 387.2 58 Silver 223.6 W 361.8 W 62 100 Rock Salt in brine 185.6 61.6 188.6 99.3 98 Titanium 62 Uranium- Sand and gravel: vanadium'^ "20.2 24.6 82 Construction 3.6 2,244.0 {') Zinc 193.5 ^164.9 270.6 ^523.8 71 31 Industrial Sodium carbonate, natural . . . Stone: Crushed Dimension 165.1 513.6 ^2,253.4 ^92.9 532.5 377.2 611.0 3,755.6 154.6 546.1 44 Other metals 84 Total or average 4,278.7 5,976.3 72 60 Nonmetals: 2.8 25.4 11 60 Barite Sulfur, Frasch 98 Calcium chloride 1.6 93.0 12 Talc 12.3 23.3 53 Clays 533.9 1,037.2 51 Other nonmetals ^222.1 ■'°1,077.2 21 Diatomite Feldspar 116.8 19.4 74.3 120.9 23.5 113.7 97 83 65 Total or average Grand total or 6,324.7 12,330.4 51 Gypsum Magnesium compounds W W W average 10,603.4 18,306.7 58 W Withheld to avoid disclosure of company prop ietary data; included with other metals or nonmetals. ^Excludes gold from base metal ores. ^Value of shipments of usable ore. ^Vanadium only. Estimated based on ratio of respondents' crude ore production to total U.S. crude ore production (82%). ^Includes antimony, beryllium, manganiferous ore, mercury, molybdenum, rare earths, tin, titanium, tungsten, and zirconium. ^Includes antimony, beryllium, iron oxide pigments (crude), magnesium chloride for metals, mercury, rare earths, tin, titanum, and zirconium. ^Less than 0.05. ^Estimated based on ratio of respondents' value of stone production to total value of U.S. stone production (60%) in 1983. ^Includes aplite, asbestos, bromine, fluorspar, garnet, iodine, lithium minerals, magnesite and brucite, magnesium compounds, olivine, pyrophyllite, soapstone, sodium sulfate (natural), tripoli, vermiculite, and wollastonite. ^°lncludes abrasive stones, asbestos, asphalt (native), boron minerals, bromine, emery, fluorspar, garnet, graphite, helium (crude), iodine, kyanite, lithium minerals, magnesite, magnesium compounds, marl (greensand), olivine, peat, pyrites, pyrophyllite, sodium sulfate (natural), staurolite, tripoli, and wollastonite. ^^Excludes cement and lime. 42 Table B-S.— Typet of raspons*, by commodity and number of respondents, 1984 Water use Commodity > 10^ < 10^ None Closed Total gal gal Water use Commodity >10^ <10^ None Closed Total gal gal Metals: Antimony 1 Bauxite 1 Beryllium Copper 18 Gold: Lode 20 Placer 8 Iron ore 12 Lead 3 Manganiterous ore Mercury 1 Molybdenum 2 Platinum Rare earths 1 Silver 12 Tin 1 Titanium (ilmenite) 2 Tungsten 2 Uranium-vanadium 15 Zinc 8 Zirconium 1 Total 108 Nonmetals: Aplite 1 Asbestos 1 Barite 1 Bromine 2 Calcium Chloride Clays 38 Diatomlte 4 Feldspar 9 Fluorspar 1 Garnet 1 1 5 6 1 1 2 20 1 6 27 5 4 17 4 3 19 5 1 1 10 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 16 1 2 2 9 1 30 55 1 2 11 1 23 15 50 196 1 1 2 2 1 4 2 1 2 3 10 130 3 181 1 5 1 10 1 1 Nonmetals-Continued Gypsum Iodine Lithium minerals Magnesite and brucite Magnesium compounds . . . Mica, scrap Olivine Perlite Phosphate rock Potash Pumice Pyrophyllite Salt: Evaporated Rock Salt in brine Sand and gravel: Construction Industrial Soapstone Sodium carbonate, natural Sodium sulfate, natural . . . Stone: Crushed Dimension Sulfur, Frasch Talc Tripoli Vermiculite Volcanic cinder Wollastonite Total Grand total 4 6 17 27 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 5 3 1 4 1 1 1 2 3 27 1 3 4 35 7 1 8 3 3 1 1 16 3 2 2 23 4 7 2 13 16 2 4 3 25 7 2 1 10 30 7 4 41 1 1 6 6 2 2 366 317 680 80 1,443 1 3 1 5 6 6 2 2 1 5 1 1 2 2 2 7 9 1 1 568 363 866 97 1,894 676 386 881 147 2,090 Table B-6.— Types of response, by State and number of respondents, 1 984 43 Water use State > 10" <10"' None Closed Total gal gal Water use State >10^ <10® gal gal None Closed Total Alabama 13 11 16 4 44 Alaska 6 3 2 4 15 Arizona 18 3 8 29 Arkansas 5 7 18 3 33 California 36 21 39 3 99 Colorado 8 5 9 21 43 Connecticut 2 2 10 5 Delaware 1 i Florida 30 10 24 9 73 Georgia 34 8 12 54 Guam'' 1 1 Hawaii 6 2 8 16 Idaho 10 3 6 5 24 Illinois 16 8 61 5 90 Indiana 16 5 26 1 48 Iowa 15 19 30 64 Kansas 11 7 28 4 50 Kentucky 14 22 32 3 71 Louisiana 12 4 2 1 19 Maine 10 10 2 Maryland 9 6 8 23 Massachusetts 4 3 7 1 15 Michigan 16 2 12 3 33 Minnesota 14 2 17 1 34 Mississippi 2 2 10 14 Missouri 13 18 79 3 113 Montana 6 2 5 1 14 Nebraska 1 2 5 8 Nevada 23 3 7 5 38 New Hampshire NA NA NA NA New Jersey 7 2 9 2 20 New Mexico 14 4 16 5 39 New York 35 8 19 4 66 North Carolina 25 10 15 1 51 North Dakota 1 1 2 Ohio 21 20 54 3 98 Oklahoma 6 12 23 2 43 Oregon 2 14 19 5 40 Pennsylvania 39 30 39 5 113 PuertoRico'' 3 2 11 16 Rhode Island 3 1 1 South Carolina 12 3 13 1 29 South Dakota 1 2 5 8 Tennessee 43 20 29 6 98 Texas 58 19 45 11 133 Utah 10 8 5 7 30 Vermont 5 4 9 Virgin Islands^ 1 1 Virginia 21 27 16 2 66 Washington 7 7 18 5 37 West Virginia 9 6 14 3 32 Wisconsin 5 4 44 1 54 Wyoming 13 2 9 7 31 Total 676 386 881 147 2,090 NA Not available. ^U.S.-adminlstered islands and commonwealth. 44 Table B-7.— Adequacy of water supply, by commodity, 1984^ Commodity Responc lents with ade- Need. quate supply for— 10^ (') Syr lOyr 20 yr (') gal 1 1 1 5 11 1 1 3 6 8 2 W 1 6 1 1 1 7 3 3 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 1 2 2 15 5 3 1 1 9 18 68 12 w 1 1 1 2 6 10 20 2 1 2 1 2 1 6 1 1 Commodity Respondents with ade Need, quate supply for— 10^ (') Syr 10 yi 20 yr (') gal 4 1 1 1 W 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 19 2 2 1 4 1 1 2 13 3 1 1 3 12 2 S 6 2 21 1 1 1 4 2 5 31 49 263 18 W 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 6 56 79 396 31 w 7 65 97 464 43 206 Metals: Antimony Bauxite Copper Gold: Lode Placer Iron ore Lead Mercury Molybdenum Rare earths Silver Tin Titanium (ilmenite) Tungsten Uranium-vanadium Zinc Zirconium Total Nonmetals: Aplite Asbestos Barite Bromine Clays Diatomite Feldspar Fluorspar Garnet Nonnetals— Continued Gypsum Iodine Lithium minerals Magnesite and brucite . . Magnesium compounds . Mica, scrap Olivine Perlite Phosphate rock Potash Pyrophyllite Salt: Evaporated Rock Salt in brine Sand and gravel: Construction Industrial Sodium carbonnate, natural Sodium sulfate, natural . . Stone: Crushed Dimension Sulfur, Frasch Talc Tripoli Vermiculite Total Grand total W Withheld to avoid disclosure of company proprietary data; included in grand total. ^As reported by respondents using more than 1 million gal. ^Inadequate supply. ^Unspecified number of years. NOTE.— No water use was reported for the following commodities: beryllium, manganiferous ore, platinum, calcium chloride, pumice, soapstone, volcanic cinder, and wollastonite. 45 Table B-8.— Adequacy of water supply, by State, 1984' State Respondents with ade- quate supply for — Need, 10^ (') Syr lOyr 20 yr {') ya 1 11 1 5 1 2 3 12 1 5 1 4 4 25 2 w 2 4 2 2 1 3 3 23 1 4 4 26 1 2 4 2 2 6 2 2 12 1 14 1 13 2 1 4 6 5 1 8 2 6 4 1 3 5 1 1 1 2 1 1 14 1 8 5 1 1 2 9 2 1 4 1 state Respondents with ade- Need, 10^ gal quate supply for— (^) Syr 10 yr 20 yr (') 1 1 7 4 9 2 w NA NA NA NA NA NA 1 1 S S 3 6 2 3 7 21 2 W 1 4 18 2 1 1 1 19 6 1 1 W 1 5 6 26 1 W 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 2 5 34 2 7 6 42 3 9 1 1 1 19 1 2 3 1 2 7 4 1 1 2 9 1 w 7 6S 97 464 43 206 Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut . . . Delaware Florida Georgia Guam'' Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina . North Dakota . . . Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania . . . Puerto Rico'' . . . Rhode Island . . . South Carolina . South Dakota. . . Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Total NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosure of company proprietary data; included in total. 'As reported by respondents using more than 1 million gal. ^Inadequate supply. •^Unspecified number of years. ''u.S.-administered islands and commonwealth. NOTE.— No water use was reported for Vermont and the Virgin Islands. 46 6,220 8,960 15,180 1,980 4,240 3,490 5.310 8,800 3.240 250 67,740 584,350 652,090 57.020 10,720 2,500 320 2,820 2,470 30 2,490 1,020 3,510 1,480 1,010 6,980 1,440 8,420 5,960 1,020 2,400 1,590 3,990 1,890 510 6,250 39,910 46,160 3,770 2,480 APPENDIX C— ESTIMATED WATER USE IN THE DOMESTIC NONFUEL MINERALS INDUSTRY IN 1984 Table C-1.— Water use, by commodity and type of water, 1984, million gallons New Recirculated Water Water Commodity water water Total discharged consumed Metals: Copper 81,460 119,900 201,360 18,870 62,590 Gold: Lode Placer Iron ore Lead Silver Uranium-vanadium Zinc Other metals^ Total Nonmetals: Clays Diatomite Feldspar Gypsum Magnesium compounds Mica, scrap Phosphate rock Potash Salt: Evaporated Rock Salt in brine Sand and gravel: Construction Industrial Sodium carbonate, natural Stone: Crushed Sulfur, Frasch Other nonmetals^ Total Grand total 571,000 1,695,900 2,266,900 328,250 242,750 ^Includes antimony, bauxite, mercury, molybdenum, rare earths, tin, titanium, tungsten, and zirconium. ^Includes aplite, asbestos, barite, fluorspar, garnet, iodine, lithium minerals, magnesite and brcite, olivine, perlite, pyrophyllite, sodium sulfate (natural), dimension stone, talc, tripoll. and vermiculite. 179.530 762,800 942,330 96,680 82,850 22.600 8,480 31,080 14,810 7,790 520 150 670 520 1,430 8,190 9.620 1,080 350 560 80 640 30 530 960 720 1.680 960 1,140 480 1.620 730 410 117,690 660.790 778.480 56,840 60,850 4,400 3.090 7,490 2,240 2,160 22,580 7,880 30,460 20,590 1,990 3,570 3,890 7,460 3,400 170 6,310 6.310 6,310 100,500 45,350 145.850 67.720 32,780 23,710 84,990 108,700 7,620 16,090 9,480 27,090 36,570 3,560 5.920 64,960 61,100 126,060 45,640 19.320 7.550 5,200 12,750 5,550 2,000 3,510 15,620 19,130 800 2,710 391,470 933,100 1_,324,570 231,570 159.900 Table C-2.— Water use, by commodity and type of operation, 1984, million gallons 47 Commodity Mining Processing Other Total Metals: Copper 14,680 Gold: Lode 1.370 Placer 1.740 Iron ore 3.030 Lead 50 Silver 870 Uranium-vanadium 6,200 Zinc 1,660 Other metals^ 24,750 Total 54,350 Nonmetals: Clays 1,310 Diatomite Feldspar 20 Gypsum 220 Magnesium compounds Mica, scrap Phosphate rock 74,840 Potash 130 Salt: Evaporated 5,200 Rock 1,930 Salt in brine 5,050 Sand and gravel: Construction 21 ,320 Industrial 34,540 Sodium carbonate, natural 40 Stone: Crushed 13,190 Sulfur, Frasch 1 1,130 Other nonmetals^ 50 Total 168,970 Grand total 223,320 184,780 10,100 6,860 649,020 2,750 1,670 1,870 2,280 21,360 880,690 27,160 470 9,440 340 1,640 1,620 687,620 7.330 22,220 5,430 101,070 58,670 36,530 100,400 260 18,640 1,078,840 1,900 3,710 200 40 20 970 350 50 50 7,290 201,360 15,180 8,800 652,090 2,820 3,510 8,420 3,990 46,160 942,330 2,610 31,080 200 670 160 9,620 80 640 40 1,680 1,620 16,020 778,480 30 7,490 3,040 30,460 100 7,460 1,260 6,310 23,460 145,850 15,490 108,700 36,570 12,470 126,060 1,360 12,750 440 19,130 76,760 1,324,570 1,959,530 84,050 2,266,900 ^Includes antimony, bauxite, mercury, molybdenum, rare earths, tin, titanium, tungsten, and zirconium. ^Includes apllte, asbestos, barlte, fluorspar, garnet, iodine, lithium minerals, magneslte and brcite, olivine, perlite, pyrophyllife, sodium sulfate (natural), dimension stone, talc, tripoll, and vermlculite. 48 Table C-3.— Sources of new water, by commodity, 1984, million gallons Commodity Stream or river Lal>o ..^*'\c:7;^/v oo^.^j^>.% -^^ "^" ^°^ *0 vv „< v^^ ./"-* ^4 Q. ^ *l!oL' *' <*.^'"''^^ ^y^ V • b •: %/ '' • **'\ <*. '^Cf'S' • %.^ *bv* ^oV « -"t. J- ■.-mis'. V > •^0^ °^'-^^-\^° .. V'^cTT'V^^'^ °<^**vr;-^^fO v^^rrT'*^^^ %**rr;-'^* V.^'^" * • rfSf^^,.*^.. o U G^ '^ *^1^* A <:. •' *w* .-^^-^ \/ '*^fe'' •"*->■ .'^^r. .P ^ vV^^ 'o, 'o . » * A <". ' . . '<>*,. i'^'' '