S B RsCT u. s. department of agriculture. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 210. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. HmDI COTTON m EaYPT. 0. F. COOK, Bionomist in Charge of Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations. Issued May 11, 1911. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. Glass Sa^^i U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 210. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. HmDI COTTO^T m EdYPT. 6^i O. F.'XOOK, Bionomist in Chnrye of Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations. Issued May 11, 1911. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 19U. Co-iyU ^ 9 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. Assistant Chief of Bureau, William A. Taylor. Editor, J. E. Rockwell. Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. Crop Acclimatizatio.n' a.nd Adaptation I.westiuations. scientific staff. O. F. Cook, Bionumist in Charge. 0. N. Collins, Botanist. F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanist. II. Pittier, Special Field Agent. A. T. Anders. J. II. Kinsler, Argyle MfLachlan, and D. X. Sauudor.s, Agents. C. B. Doyle and R. M. Meade, Assistants. 210 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL u. s. derartment of agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washington^ D. C.^ Januanj 13^ 1911. Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled " Hindi Cotton in Egypt,'' by Mr. O. F. Cook, of this Bureau, and to recom- mend its publication as Bulletin No. 210 of the Bureau series. This paper reports the results of a visit to the cotton-growing districts of Egj^pt in June and July, 1910. It shows that the ad- mixture of inferior Hindi cotton is a serious burden upon the Egyp- tian industry and that our more intelligent farmers can secure an important advantage through the improved system of selection that has been developed by experiments in Arizona. A careful compari- son of the results of the Arizona experiments with the conditions actually' existing in Egypt became necessary in order to determine whether a satisfactory degree of uniformity has been attained in our acclimatized strains of Eg^^Dtian cotton. A previous study of the problem of diversity of the Egyptian cotton had been made in Arizona, as reported in Bulletins Nos. 147 and 15G of this series. Respectfully, Wm. a. Taylor, Acting Chief of Bureau, Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 210 CONTENTS, Page. Introduction 7 Importance of uniformity in Egyptian cotton 9 Lint and seed characters of Hindi cotton 11 Distinctive characters of Hindi plants 14 Habits of growth of Hindi cotton 14 Leaf characters of Hindi cotton 15 Floral characters of Hindi cotton 16 Fruit characters of Hindi cotton 15 Prevalence of Hindi cotton in Egypt 18 Characters of Hindi hybrids 26 Distinctive features of hybrids 26 Coherence of characters in hybrids 28 Intensification of characters in hybrids 33 Relationships of Hindi and Egyptian cottons 36 Supposed increase of Hindi cotton 41 Estimate of damage from the Hindi contamination 43 Other causes of deterioration of the Egyptian crop 45 Prospects of Egyptian cotton in the United States 48 Conclusions 51 Description of plates 54 Index 55 210 5 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Fig. 1. — A field of Egyptian cotton intermixed with Hindi. Fig. 2. — An Egyptian cotton plant between two Hindi plants 54 II. Fig. 1. — Small cotton field at Benha, Egypt. Fig. 2. — Large cotton field at Benha, Egypt, with natives irrigating 54 III. Bracts and calyxes of Hindi cotton from Mesopotamia and from Fayum, Egypt 54 IV. Bracts and calyxes of Egyptian cotton and of a Hindi hybrid V. Bracts and calyxes of Hindi-like Upland cotton from Cochin China 54 and of a relative of the Egyptian cotton from central Africa VI. Bolls of Egyptian and of Hindi cotton 54 210 G B. P. I.— 643. HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT INTRODUCTION. Inspection of many cotton fields in different parts of Egypt shows that the so-called Hindi cotton is a general contamination of the Egyptian stock, responsible for a large amount of diversity and de- generation. Expression of inferior Hindi characters renders many of the plants not onl}^ worthless from the standpoint of production, but dangerous to future crops. The establishment of a profitable culture of Egyptian cotton in Arizona and southern California de- pends largeh^ on the exclusion of the Hindi contamin,ation." The Hindi cotton complicates the problem of acclimatizing and adapting the Egyptian cotton to the cultural conditions found in the United States. In this case a problem of heredity had to be studied. Instead of the physical factors alone, it has been necessary to analyze the characters of the plants in order to determine the causes of im- purity and find means of elimination. ''"Hindi is tlie nnnie applied in Egypt to an nndesirable type of cotton wltli a short, wealv fiber, that in.iures the high-grade Egy])tian varieties by infesting them with hybrids. The skill and cheapness of the native Egyptian labor enable the exporters to have the cotton sorted by hand in their baling establishments, so that a high reputation for uniformity has been secured in spite of the Hindi admixture. • " The introduction of the Egyptian cotton into the United States brings also the problem of the Hindi cotton, but without the resource of cheap labor wiiich enables the difficulty to be surmounted in Egypt. The practicability of estab- lishing a commercial culture of the Egyptian cotton in the United States de- pends largely upon the elimination t)f the Hindi contamination and other forms of diversity, so that the fiber may be produced in a satisfactory condition of uniformity. The Hindi cotton problem might be compared to that of the red rice that mixes with the white and depreciates the value of the crop. In the case of the cotton, there is a better prospect that adequate knowledge of the vegetative characters may enable the undesirable plants to be removed from the fields without too seriously increasing the cost of production." ( See Circu- lar 42, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, entitled " Origin of the Hindi Cotton," 1909, p. 3. This circular contains the results of a previ- ous study of the Hindi cotton made in connection with experiments in Arizona. It will be sent free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture.) 210 7 8 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. During the first j^ears of its cultivation in Arizona the Eg;\-ptian cotton produced onl}' small yields and rather inferior fiber. After the yield and quality began to improve, an undesirable amount of diver- sity appeared. A study of this diversity showed that it was due in part to hybridization with the common American Upland cotton, and that this danger was unusually serious in Arizona when the two kinds of cotton are grown in the same locality, owing to an unusual abun- dance of wild bees. The Hindi cotton is an additional factor of diversity inherent in the imported Egyptian stock, more difficult to understand because not previously knoAvn in the United States. Experiments show that both of these sources of diversity can be eliminated by a more careful system of field selection, applied early in the season before the inferior plants have begun to flower, and hence before they have cross-fertilized the neighboring plants. The value of the Arizona Egyptian cotton and the prospects of cultivating this crop on a commercial scale in the United States depend largely on the degree of uniformity that can be attained in the fiber, in com- parison with that of the Egyptian product. Hence, the necessity for an inspection of the cotton fields of Egypt in order to determine the extent of diversity in the crop as raised in that country. The high cost of labor in the Southwestern States forbids any direct imitation of Egyptian methods, either in raising the crop or in preparing it for market. Other solutions of the problems of production have to be sought. The requirement of uniformity has been met in Eg3qot by a system of careful grading of the cotton after picking that would be very difficult to establish in the United States, and too expensive to leave any assurance of profit for the farmer even if it were established. The Eg}'ptian cotton trade is organized on an entirely different basis from the American. Instead of merely ginning and baling the farmer's cotton as he brings it from the fields, it is the regular practice of the Egyptian ginning establishments to buy the seed cotton from the farmer and prepare it for the market by sorting, grading, and blending. Instead of depending entirely on samples, as with Ameri- can cotton, Egyptian cotton is sold largely by the marks or brands that are placed on the bales by the ginning establishments. Cotton of the same mark is supposed to represent a definite uniform quality. This is much more practicable in Egypt than it would be in most parts of the United States because of the much greater uniformity of climate and soil in Egyj^t. In comparison with the wide range of soils, climates, and seasonal vicissitudes in the cotton-producing districts of the United States, the Egyptian cotton industry gives at first an impression of com- plete uniformity. Although people in Eg}^pt supposed that cotton would be more advanced in Upper Egypt than about Cairo, this did :2io IMPORTANCE OF UNIFORMITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON. 9 not prove to be the case. It is quite possible that the crop of Upper Egypt comes to maturity earlier in the fall, owing to hotter weather in the summer, but there was very little difference at the middle of June. The effect that would naturally be expected from higher day temperatures in Upper Egypt may be neutralized in the early part of the season by cooler nights, due to the greater radiation allowed by the drier air. In any event the cotton was found at nearly the same stage of development about Beni-Suef as about Cairo and Tanta. (See PI. I, fig. 1.) Even at the middle of July much of the cotton in Upper Eg3q3t, between Beni-Suef and Minieh, was still quite small, having scarcely reached the flowering stage. In some fields the plants were only G or 8 inches high. The same was true of many fields in Lower Egj'pt in the region of Mansurah. (See PI. II, figs. 1 and 2.) To what extent the later planting was respon- sible for the more backward state of the cotton in these districts was not learned, nor the reasons that may exist for later planting. The most important local differences perceptible in Egypt were not those of the external conditions or of the methods of cultivation. The superiority of the cotton raised in the Delta region may be due in part to superior conditions, as generally assumed, but better knowl- edge of the Hindi cotton among the native cultivators is another factor of great importance, since it determines whether the inferior Hindi cotton shall be rogued out or left to mature in the fields. Many native cultivators at Beni-Suef pay no attention to the Hindi cotton, while about Mansurah it seems to be known to everybody. But even about Mansurah the human factor is by no means uni- form, as shown by widely varj'ing proportions of Hindi cotton in the different fields. IMPORTANCE OF TJNIFOIIMITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON. The requirement of uniformity increases with the presence of other good qualities of cotton. A long, strong cotton commands higher prices, because it can be spun into stronger or finer thread and used to make stronger or finer fabrics. An admixture of short, weak fibers not only reduces the strength of the threads and impairs the quality or durability of the fabric ; it interferes also with the work of the spinning and weaving machinery by the more frequent breaking of the threads. The superiority of the Sea Island cotton does not consist alone in its length and strength, but in its extreme uniformity. This is main- tained by a highly developed system of selection, w^ell recognized among the Sea Island planters but not yet applied to any other commercial type of cotton. The seed for each season's crop is raised by itself, apart from the general planting, and traces its ancestry 210 10 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. back to a single superior individual of two or three generations before.** In the Egyptian system of cotton culture no attempt seems to be made to imitate the methods of the Sea Island planters. Even less consideration is given to selection than in the Upland-cotton industry of the United States. While very few planters of Upland cotton have been accustomed to select their own seed, it has at least been possible for them to buy seed of selected stocks of many of the Upland varieties, wb.ereas planters in Egypt do not appear to have nny recognized source of supply from which to secure luiiform stocks of seed of the Egyptian varieties free from the Hindi contamination. Differences between the seeds of the Hindi and the Egyptian cotton enable a selection to be nuide. even after ginning, but it seems evident from the condition of the fields in Egypt that a considerable quantity of Hindi seed nnist be planted and that many Hindi plants are allowed to grow to maturity and so to maintain the contamination.'' The advantage that the individual planter might gain by a careful and persistent selection of his own seed is difficult to realize under the Egyptian system of selling the seed cotton to the ginner. There is also a custom of exchanging seed between different villages on the theory that better yields can be obtained in this way. Thus growers of Mit Afifi cotton near Mansurah obtain their seed from Kefir Zeyat, between Tanta and Alexandria, a place that is commonly supposed to produce seed of a superior quality. Such exchanges of seed are ''Webber, H. J. Iniprovenient of Cotton by Seed Selection. Ye.'irbook of the Department of Agricultnre for 1902, p. 374. ^ " The seed reserved for sowing is passed through special riddles, which re- move small and dead seed ; purity can not be obtained by this means, but merely a better looking sample ; that is to say, as far as general appearance is con- cerned, the sample may be excellent, but closer examination reveals the pres- ence of seed not true to variety. Small cultivators do not, as a rule, trouble even to secure the best seed which is procurable, but content themselves with the employment of that resulting from the ginning of common qualities of all pickings, regardless of origin and purity. Were this seed purchased at a low price it would provide no excuse for such a short-sighted policy, but even this is not the case, the price paid to the village merchant being, as a rule, considerably higher than that for which the better qualities could be obtained. " In order to overcome this difficulty, the Khedivial Agricultural Society, in conjunction with the Agricultural Bank, distributes annually to small culti- vators the best seed obtainable at cost price, the value of which is collected at the end of the following cotton season. " It must be remarked, however, that the seed so distributed is merely the best that can be procured. " That it is vastly superior to that which in the absence of such a system of distributing would be employed is without doubt. At the same time this system does nothing to actually improve the seed." (See Foaden, G. P., "The Selection of Seed Cotton," Yearbook of the Khedivial Agricultural Society, 190.5, p. 122.) 210 LINT AND SEED CHARACTEES OF HINDI COTTON. 11 well calculated to preserve and distribute the Hindi contamination. Even the introduction of new, carefully selected varieties could be expected to give only temporary improvement unless the whole sys- tem were changed. The process of deterioration would be resumed at once as a result of the crossing between adjacent fields of different varieties and the exchange of seed between different localities. After selection is relaxed the rapidity of deterioration of a vari- ety of cotton depends on two cooperating factors, variation and cross- ing. Both of these factors must vary in different places, for they are influenced by external conditions. When cotton is grown under new or unfavorable conditions, more numerous variations appear. Abundance of bees or other cross-fertilizing insects causes a more rapid spreading of variations through the stock. Relatively uni- form conditions and apparent scarcity of insects may give longer life to varieties in Egypt than in the United States, but the general tendencies and results of deterioration seem to be quite the same." The history of cotton culture in Egypt shows that a succession of new varieties has replaced the old at intervals of a few decades. The modern Egyptian cotton industry began with the variety dis- covered and popularized by Jumel, a French engineer, about 1820. The Jumel cotton was replaced by the Ashmuni after 18G0, the Ash- muni by the Mit Afifi about 1890, and more recent varieties, such as the Jannovitch and Nubari, are now replacing the Mit Afifi. Other varieties, such as the Bamieh, Gallini, Zafiri, Abbasi, Sultani, etc., have either failed to gain any general poj)ularity or have aroused only temporary interest. LINT AND SEED CHARACTERS OF HINDI COTTON. The character that renders the Hindi cotton so unwelcome as an element of admixture in the Egyptian stock is the much shorter and coarser fiber. The Hindi fiber is also pure white in color, whereas in the more popular Egyptian varieties the lint is a somewhat creamy white, tinged with buff or brown. White-linted varieties of Egyptian cotton have been cultivated to a small extent, but have never become popular in Egypt. The difference in the color of the lint is of much assistance in the work of sorting out the Hindi admixture after the fiber has been picked and brought to the ginning establishment. Any thorough separation of the inferior Hindi fiber from a white variety must be "Though very few insects were noticed in the Egyptian fielcls in June and July, they may be more abundant later in the season. Ralls reports between 5 and 10 per cent of crossing, and even 25 per cent in one of his exi>eriments. (See Balls, W. L., "Cross-Fertilization in Cotton," Cairo Scientific Journal, vol. 2, 1908, p. 405.) 210 12 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. much more difficult, if not entirely impracticable. From this point of view it is easy to understand why the culture of Sea Island cotton or of the superior white varieties of Egyptian, such as Abbasi, has not become more extensi^'e. The superiority claimed for the lint of the white varieties, such as Abbasi, is in accordance with other indications of a general correla- tion between the color and the length of the lint. Study of the lint characters of many variations and hybrids seems to indicate a general tendency in brown fibers to be shorter and coarser than white fibers. Thus the Jannovitch variety has lint longer and whiter than the Mit Afifi, though still with a very slight tinge of brown. The Abbasi lint is still longer, but is pure white in color.'' If the need of sorting the fiber were removed by more effective methods of eliminating the Hindi variations, the way would be open to a larger use of white-linted varieties. Though brownish lint is preferred for a few purposes, the color seems to be valuable chiefly for the aid it gives in sorting out the inferior fiber that results from the Hindi contamination. If American growers are sufficiently care- ful to keep out the Hindi contamination, they may be able to gi"ow white varieties that have longer and stronger fibers than the brown- linted varieties now popular in Egypt. In addition to the long fibers that compose the lint, the seeds of typical Egyptian plants are always provided with short fibers, or " fuzz," that continue to adhere to the seed after the lint has been removed by ginning. The fuzz may be confined to small tufts at the ends of the seed or may extend down one side, or may be more widely spread over the surface. The seeds of the typical Hindi cotton, on the other hand, are entirely without fuzz. The black surface is left entirely naked after the lint has been removed. The absence of fuzz makes the small, sharp-pointed, black stalk or funiculus at the base of the seed much more conspicuous in the Hindi cotton, though it is present in other varieties. The seeds of the Hindi cotton are more angular in shape than those of the Egyptian cotton. Though not adhering like the seeds of kid- ney cotton, they seem to be more closely crowded together in the boll than the seeds of the Egyptian cotton, and this mutual pressure tends "The production of Abbasi cotton is said to be irregular because tlie price fluctuates with Sea Island cotton. When Sea Island cotton is cheap there is small demand for the Abbasi. Another variety that gave very promising results in an experiment in Arizona in 1909, the Nubari, is said to be not very highly appreciated in Egypt because of a tendency to produce small bolls. While many small-boiled plants were found in the Nubari field in Arizona, there was less diversity in this and other respects than in any other lot of plants grown from imported seed. 210 LINT AND SEED CHAEACTEES OF HINDI COTTON. 13 to make the Hindi seeds longer and more angular. Fully developed Egyptian seeds are usually plum]:*, with all the sides distinctly con- vex and with a larger diameter than the Hindi seeds. The smooth surface and narrower shape of Hindi seeds make it possible to separate most of them b}' sifting, as the Egyptian ginning establishments are said to do. Nevertheless, it is not to be expected that any complete elimination of the Hindi cotton can be accom- plished in this way, for Hindi plants are occasionally found with fuzzy seeds much like the seeds of American Upland cotton. The seeds of Hindi hybrids are also somewhat fuzzy, often in the same Avay as the Egyptian seeds. Hand selection of seed intended for planting is said to be done in Egypt, though it does not seem to be a regular practice. Experi- ' ments carried on by Mr. Argyle INIcLachlan in Arizona indicate that Hindi variations and other aberrant tendencies can usually be de- tected if the seeds are studied with sufficient care and discrimination. The sorting out of the Hindi cotton is also assisted by the fact that the Hindi lint is very lightly attached, allowing the black surfaces of the seeds to be very readily seen. Even before the cotton is picked from the plants this diift'erence is often very apparent. In addition to being short and coarse, the fibers of the Hindi cot- ton are relatively straight and have very little tendency to cling together, like the longer and more abundant fibers of Egyptian and I'pland varieties. After the Hindi bolls are open the seeds soon begin to separate and fall out, especially if they have a little assistance from wind or rain. In other words, the Hindi cotton is conspicu- ously lacking in storm-proof qualities. The naked surfaces of the Hindi seeds may be responsible for the fact that young plants of the Hindi cotton often appear to make more rapid growth than adjacent Egyptian plants. Experiments have shown that the germination of fuzzy-seeded varieties may be seriously delayed in dry weather, while seeds without fuzz may germinate promptly in the same soil. Obviously, too, a Hindi seedling that had genninated promptly and had sent out roots to absorb water would retard the germination of other seeds in the same hill. The cotton is planted in Egypt in relatively dry soil, the young plants being easily destroyed by any excess of Avater. Under such condi- tions there is usually a very unequal development of the young plants. Two or three plants in each hill, or perhaps only a single one, may develop several leaves and attain a height of 8 or 10 inches, while the other seedlings of the same hill remain with only the cotyledons expanded. 210 14 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF HINDI PLANTS. HABITS OF GROWTH OF HINDI COTTON. If the Hindi cotton could be recognized only by the characters of the lint and seeds, it might be impossible to effect a complete elimina- tion of the Hindi characters by selection. As long as Hindi plants are allowed to flower in the fields with the Egyptian plants and cross- fertilize them the undesirable Hindi characteristics may be expected to reappear. Even if no seeds of the Hindi form are planted, some of the apparentlj^ normal Egyptian seeds are likely to contain Hindi hj^brid embiyos, and these in turn can grow to maturity and produce pollen for continuing the Hindi infection to further generations. It is fortunate, therefore, that the Hindi cotton has several very definite differences in the vegetative parts, so that all Hindi plants can be recognized and rogued out of a field or a seed plat before the age of blooming and cross-fertilization is reached. The general form or habit of growth of the Hindi plants is different from that of the Egyptian cotton, though this is not so apparent in the Egyptian fields, where the plants are crowded closely together, as in experimental plantings, where more space is allowed the individual 13lants. The tendency of the Hindi cotton is to produce a broader and more bushy plant, more like the Upland than the Egyptian cotton. (See PI. I, fig. 2.) There is a general impression that the Hindi cotton is larger and more luxuriant than the Egyptian, but this may relate to the Hindi hybrids rather than to the genuine Hindi individuals. The Hindi plants may appear larger early in the season, perhaps as a result of more prompt germination, but they are usually outgrown by the neighboring Egyptian plants by the time the fruiting stage is reached. The Egjq^tian cotton, as w^ell as the Hindi, shows different habits of growth under different conditions. In the cooler climate of Lower Egypt there is no such luxuriance of vegetative growth as in Arizona, but the branches are more spreading and the foliage more open. The habit of the Egyptian cotton in Egypt is more like that of Upland cotton in our Southern States. The similarity was especially strong in the Fayum Oasis, where some of the cotton is planted on rather poor land. It flowers and fruits when only 8 or 10 inches high, ma- turing small, bushy plants, like Upland cotton on poor soil in the South. Something of the exuberant tendency was shown in an ex- perimental planting of Egyptian cotton at Siut (Assiut), in Upper Egypt. The habits of branching of the Hindi cotton are also different from those of the Egyptian. The fertile branches are less definitely spe- cialized than in the Egyptian cotton and have a stronger tendency 210 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF HINDI PLANTS. 15 to grow in upright or oblique positions and to assume the functions of vegetative branches, the flower buds being often aborted." LEAF CHARACTERS OF HINDI COTTON. The leaves of the Hindi cotton are characterized by thinner texture and lighter color, a fresh, bright green that forms quite a definite contrast with the duller grayish or bluish green of the Egyptian leaves. The surfaces of the leaves of the Egyptian cotton are some- what duller and more hairy in Egypt than in Arizona, though not so grajdsh as when the Egjqotian cotton is grown in the cool climate of the Pacific coast, near Los Angeles. The color is usually darker before the fruiting stage of the Egyptian cotton is reached, when the foliage usually takes on a lighter and more yellowish tone. The dark foliage of the vegetative phase may be retained under condi- tions of abnormal luxuriance, or the change to the yellower shade of green may occur prematurely if the plants are affected by some unfavorable condition, such as too much water or too little. The veins of the leaves of the Hindi cotton are usually reddish, and the red color becoities very pronounced at the pulvinus or cushion-like thickening at the bases of the veins, where they pass into the petiole or stem of the leaf. The two large veins on each side of the midrib are particularly likely to be grown together at the base, giving the pulvinus of the Hindi cotton an oblong shape, The'leaves of the Egyptian cotton do not have an enlarged pulvinus, the veins passing more directly into the petiole without becoming much swol- len or united at the base. The surface of the pulvinus of the Hindi cotton is naked, or with only a few scattering hairs, while the cor- responding part of the P2gyptian cotton is usually quite hairy. The lack of specialization of the bases of the veins in the Egyptian cotton seems to render the leaves less capable of movement. They do not appear to change their positions to face the sun in the morning and afternoon as much as the leaves of the Hindi cotton. The turn- ing of the leaves to the sun renders the Hindi plants more conspicu- ous in the morning and afternoon than in the middle of the day, when the leaves have a horizontal position. Advantage was taken of this fact in making inspections of fields from moving trains, as will be explained later. Even in the first leaves or cotyledons of the young seedlings the reddening of the veins and the basal spot enables the Hindi cotton to be recognized and separated from the Egyptian. The difference of coloration is not so obvious in the first few leaves that appear after the cotyledons, for even in the Egyptian cotton these are likely '^Dimorphic Branches in Tropical Crop Plants. Bulletin 198, B,urean of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910. 77267°— Bui. 210—11 2 16 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. to have a somewhat reddish spot at the base, especially if the condi- tions are not favorable for rapid growth. The differences become more obvious as the plants grow, until the flowering stage is reached, but they may lessen or disappear at maturity. In adult Egyptian plants the veins of the leaves often become reddish, while those of adult Hindi plants may become pale." After the color contrasts have disappeared, the recognition of the Hindi plants requires notice of other less obvious details of the leaves, flowers, and bolls. Thus the leaves of the Hindi cotton have the lobes broader, more abruptly narrowed toward the apex, and usually produced into longer terminal points. In Hindi hj^bricls there are often 5 to 7 lobes which are often somewhat folded or plicate, as in the Eg3q)tian cotton, the true Hindi plants having the leaves nearly flat. The rounded basal lobes of the leaf are broader in the Hindi cotton, so that the leaf as a whole is more nearly square or oblong in shape. The corresponding margins of the Egyptian leaves are likely to converge or slope backward toward the stem.^ The sinus or notch at the base of the leaf, where the petiole is inserted, is usually much broader in the Hindi cotton, exposing the upper surface of the end of the petiole. In the Egyptian leaves the sinus is generally very narrow or completely closed by the contact or overlapping of the margins of the lobes. The wider separation of the lobes of the Hindi cotton may be considered as a consequence of the thickening of the veins and the enlargement of the end of the petiole FLORAL CHARACTERS OF HINDI COTTON. The involucre that incloses the bud of the cotton plant is composed of three bracts, small leaf -like organs, each margined with a fringe of narrow teeth. The bracts of the Hindi cotton are more broadly rounded at the base and have longer and more numerous teeth than those of the Egyptian cotton. Comparison of the Hindi bracts shown in Plate III with the Egyptian bracts at the top of Plate IV will enable these differences to be understood. Another diagnostic feature of the Hindi bracts is that the teeth run down nearer to the base, a tendency that is shared by the Hindi hj^brids. Three hybrid bracts are shown at the bottom of Plate IV. The bracts of the Egyptian cotton seemed to be somewhat more cordate in Egypt than in the United States, but the narrowly triangular form, straight sides, and small teeth, remote from the base, generallj^ render them ® Mutative Reversions in Cotton, Circular No. 53, Bureau of Plant Industry. U„ S. Dept. of Agriculture, March, 1910, pp. 10-11. * For natural-size illustrations of leaves of Egyptian and Hindi cotton, see Circular No. 42, Bureau of Plant Industry, December, 1909, pp. 4 and 5. 210 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF HINDI PLANTS. 17 quite different from the Hindi bracts, in spite of endless variations in the minor details. The calyx of the Hindi cotton has five distinctly prominent triangular lobes, one or two of which are often produced into a narrow needle-like point. In the Egyptian cotton the lobes of the calyx are very short and broadly rounded, never produced into long points. Three examples of the toothed calyx of the Hindi cotton are shown in Plate III; an Egyptian calyx and the calyx of a hybrid in Plate IV. The fresh, newly opened flowers of the Hindi cotton have pale creamy-white petals like tliose of Upland cotton instead of lemon- yelloAv petals like Egyptian cotton. In the afternoon the flowers of both sorts change to a reddish pink, but the Hindi flowers attain a much deeper shade than the Eg3qDtian. The petals of the Hindi cotton are shorter than those of the Eg}q3tian and open more widely. The Hindi flower may be de- scribed as cup-shaped, the Egyptian as tubular. The purple sj^ot found at the base of each petal in Egyptian flowers is lacking or only faintl}' indicated in typical Hindi flow^ers, though often quite pronounced in Hindi h3'brids. The pollen of the Hindi cotton is of a much paler yellow and the individual pollen grains are much smaller than those of the Egyptian cotton. FRUIT CHARACTERS OF HINDI COTTON. The bolls of the Hindi cotton have a rounded conic shape, broadest near the base, and taper abruptly to a short point. Egyptian bolls are more fusiform, narrow^er at the base than near the middle, and taper less abruptly to a rather blunt apex. The shape differs appre- ciably with the conditions, the less luxuriant plants in Egypt having a broader and more conic form than is usual in Arizona, more like the bolls produced by the Egyptian cotton in the vicinity of Los Angeles. (See PI. VL) The surface of the Hindi bolls has a rather dull pale pea-green color, with only slight indications of the deeply buried oil glands. Egyptian bolls, on the contrary-, have a fresher, darker color, with the surface smooth and shining, but rather deeply pitted around the numerous superficial oil glands, each of which appears as a distinct black dot. These differences appear somewhat less jDronounced in Egypt than in Arizona. Pale-green bolls were found on many plants that seemed in all other respects to represent true Egyptian cotton. The darker color of the bolls in Arizona may be connected with the greater luxuriance of the plants. The number of carpels, or " locks,'' varies in the Hindi cotton from 3 to 5, the majority of bolls having 4 locks. In the Egyptian cotton 210 18 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. the locks range from 2 to 4, with 3 as the prevailing number. Very few 4-locked bolls could be found in the Egyptian fields, but they are somewhat more numerous on the larger and more luxuriant plants grown in Arizona. PREVALENCE OF HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. Familiarity witli tlic vegetative characters of the Hindi cotton made it possible to secure definite information regarding the prevalence of this tj'pe of cotton in Egypt and thus obtain a basis of judgment regarding the value of the methods of selection that are being ap- plied to the Eg}^ptian cotton in Arizona. In attempting to judge of the practicability of establishing the culture of Egyptian cotton in the Southwest, it is obviously important to understand how far the commercial reputation of the Egyptian cotton for uniformity depends on the special methods of sorting and j^reparing the cotton for market. This will enable us to appreciate the advantage that may be gained by growing a more uniform fiber in the fields and avoiding the necessity of the subsequent labor in sorting and blend- ing the fiber into a uniform product after it comes to the ginhouse. Some writers have given the impression that the native cultivators rogue out all the Hindi plants during the process of thinning the young cotton early in the spring and thus avoid an admixture of the Hindi fiber. Others have referred to the Hindi cotton as a wild plant in Egypt, or even a conmion w^eed, making it seem almost impossible to avoid contamination. Neither of these impressions seems to correspond with the facts. Though many of the native cultivators will hasten to assure the inquirer that they pull out all of the Hindi plants, a goodly rem- ]iant of typical Hindi individuals is to be found in nearly ever}^ field. On the other hand, one does not find the Hindi cotton, any more than the Egyptian cotton, outside of regularh' planted cotton fields. Seeds scattered near permanent watercourses or about towns may sometimes grow to maturity, but it is not easy to understand how the idea of wild cotton growing at large in Egjq^t could have gained currency. Other plants that casual observers might mistake for cotton, such as the okra or bamieh (Hihiscus esculentus), the Deccan hemp (Hihiscus cannahinus), or even the cocklebur (Xan- thium), are all strictly dependent upon cultivation and irrigation. It is difficult to believe that a plant of the habits of the cotton could exist as a native or truly wild species in the Xile Valley. And if such* a species did exist naturally it would be dependent upon the annual flood for its water, and would be a winter-growing species. The commercial culture of cotton was not developed in Egypt under the historical system of basin irrigation direct from the annual flood 210 PREVALENCE OP HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. 10 of the Nile. The period of high water comes during the late summer and autumn, the fruiting season of the cotton. Eg.ypt did not gain imi^ortance as a cotton-producing country until the modern system of perennial irrigation from stored water was developed, in the nineteenth century. The Egyptian system of close planting greatly increases the diffi- culties of finding the Hindi individuals and of counting the Hindi and Eg}'ptian plants to determine the percentages of each. Early in the season, while the plants are still small, each one can readily be seen as a separate individual, but with larger gi^owth they fuse together, as it were, to form a solid mass of foliage. Early inspection has the further advantage of utilizing the differences in the color of the foliage that are readily appreciable in the vegetative phase of development, but tend to disappear after the fruiting stage has been reached, as already explained. If actual countings are not made, the proportion of Hindi cotton is likely to be seriously underestimated after the plants have reached the adult or flowering stage. It has been said that the Hindi plants can be distinguished from the Egyptian by their taller growth, but this seems to be true of hybrids or of young individuals rather than of mature plants of the true Hindi type. It was noticed at Calioub and at several other points that while many of the hybrid plants ran several inches above their Egyptian neighbors, the true Hindi plants had usually been outgrown by the Eg\"ptian. In fact, some of the Egyptian cultivators consider that the hybrids rather than the true Hindi plants ought to be pulled out. They have noticed that many of the large overgrown hybrids produce very little fruit and are willing to pull them out so they shall not crowd their more productive neighbors. Careful roguing in the early part of the season is more likely to take out all of the true Hindi plants and leave a few of the hyl)rids. so that careful cultivators are more likely to be familiar with mature hybrids than with mature Hindi individuals. The true Hindi plants, being less obtrusive when the stage of maturity is reached, are very easily overlooked unless special care is taken to separate and count the plants of each hill. Though two plants are usually left at thinning, regularity in this respect can not be depended upon. It often happens that only one plant sur- vives, or careless cultivators may leave occasional hills with three or four plants. It may be that the value of countings as the basis of general esti- mates of the proportion of Hindi cotton would not be seriously impaired by assuming two plants to each hill. The saving of time in this way would enable more extensive counts to be made. This plan was followed in a few of the later countings mentioned below, 210 20 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. at Calioub and Siut, in fields wliere tlie plants had grown very large. The hills were each noticed in turn to see whether they con- tained Hindi plants. Hills wath no Hindi were assumed to have two Egyptian plants. The general effect of this plan would be to reduce somewdiat the apparent proportion of Hindi plants, since it is prob- able that in most of the fields there would be more hills wath a single plant than with three or four plants. Xevertheless, it might be that the figures obtained in this w ay would be more reliable, in view of the larger areas that might be inspected in a limited time. To serve as a general basis of judgment regarding the prevalence of the Hindi cotton in Egypt, countings of individual plants were made in several different localities. In most localities several sepa- rate counts were made, usually in fields of different proprietors, or at least of different tenant cultivators. The figures obtained do not represent the full extent of Hindi contamination of the stock, for in most cases a more or less careful roguing out of the Hindi plants had already taken place. The psychological factor of the individual cultivator enters, therefore, as an important element in the calcula- tions. One field might have only a few Hindi plants, while the next would have a considerable percentage. Thus of two adjacent fields at Tanta one showed less than 3 per cent of Hindi, the other 15 per cent. Questioning of the native cultivators showed wide differences of individual opinion. Some of them were quite alive to the need of pulling out all of the Hindi cotton and showed annoyance or offered excuses if reminded that many Hindi plants Avere still to be found in their fields. Others took a more languid interest in the matter. One cultivator might claim to have pulled out large numbers of Hindi already, while his neighbor might not think it necessary to admit any responsibility for pulling out the Hindi at all. He would not den}", perhaps, that he had heard of the need of pulling out bad cotton plants, but w^ould insist that very few people did it. The popular impression in Egypt among people who consider themselves informed about cotton growing is that selection receives proper attention in the Delta region, where the Mit Afifi and Janno- vitch, the principal varieties of Egyptian cotton, are grown, but is very much neglected in Upper Eg3qDt, where the Ashmuni and other inferior stocks are produced. It seems, however, that this impres- sion ma}" relate to more careful sorting done in the ginning establish- ments of the Delta rather than to any really efficient selection in the field. Even about Tanta and Mansurah, the recognized centers of production of high-grade fiber, a conspicuous representation of the Hindi cotton was seen in a large proportion of the fields. The percentages of Hindi plants counted in fields at Tanta, in Lower Egypt, are about the same as those obtained at Beni-Suef. in 210 PREVALENCE OF HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. 21 Upper Egypt. (See Table 1.) The idea of Hindi cotton seemed to be more common about Tanta, but no indication of a serious effort to eradicate the Hindi type from the fields could be gathered from native cultivators. They are willing to pull out the Hindi plants rather than the Egyptian at the time that the hills are thinned down to the usual two plants, but have no idea of destroying any more plants after the thinning has been done. One very zealous native showed interest to the extent of pulling up some of the Hindi plants that were pointed out to him, wdiere there w^as an Egyptian plant in the same hill. But when there w^ere two Hindi plants together in a hill he would pull up only one. Nor could he be induced to sacrifice any of the Hindi individuals that stood by themselves, although he believed (as was afterward learned) that a Government inspection was being made. The Eg^^ptian Government sends entomological insj)ectors through the fields to guard against outbreaks of the Egyptian bollworm. Beni-Suef is considered the chief center of cultivation of the Ashmuni cotton, this variet}' being now confined largely to Upper Egypt. Inspection of fields in this locality on June G, 1910, showed a general prevalence of Hindi and great lack of uniformity in other respects, though not as great nor as obvious as in experiments with this variety in Arizona. There is the same tendency to red spots at the base of the leaves, which is recognized as a mark of this variety to distinguish it from Mit Afifi, Jannovitch, and other more care- fully selected varieties. The more general tendency to the red spot may be a result of a more general contamination with the Hindi type of cotton. A special count was made at Beni-Suef to learn the extent of Hindi contamination as indicated by the presence of the distinct red spot at the base of the leaf. This included true Hindi plants, obvious hybrids, and all other plants that would have been considered as having too red a callus for varieties of Egyptian cotton other than Ashmuni. Of 1^13 plants examined for the color of the callus 183 had the callus green or onl}^ slightly tinged with red, as usual in Egyptian cotton, while 80 plants were noted as having the callus distinctly red, as in the Hindi cotton. In the oasis of Fayum still less attention seems to be paid to the Hindi cotton than about Beni-Suef. Native cultivators knew that some of the plants produced inferior cotton, but did not claim to be able to distinguish them excejDt by the white flowers. There was evi- dently no intention of pulling out any of the white-flowered plants. The variety planted at Fayum was not considered to be Ashmuni, but was merely called Beladi, or " native,"* cotton. Other countings of Hindi w^ere made in the Beladi cotton at Siut. Cotton is not regularly planted about Siut, but experiments are 210 22 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. being made with seed brouglit from Fiiyiim. The percentage of Hindi is much hirger than appeared at Fayum, though the phmter claimed that he had taken out numerous Hindi phmts when the field was thinned. In addition to the plants counted as Hindi, much diversity was apparent, almost as much as in a field of Aslimuni cotton grown in 1909 at Somerton, Ariz. Such cases suggest the pos- sibility that transfer to new conditions ma}^ have the effect of in- ducing additional variations in these diverse stocks, but the pro- portion of Hindi in either parent stock could not be ascertained. Whatever the cause of the phenomenon, it is a significant fact that the proportion of Hindi plants and obvious hybrids may run as high as 20 per cent. The census of Jannovitch cotton at Tanta was somewhat more rigorous than that at Beni-Suef and included some plants with dis- tinctly red leaf bases; plants with distinctly red leaves and other obviously aberrant tendencies that might have been omitted in the Ashmuni fields, where the red callus is so common a feature. But man}^ other definitely aberrant plants with light-gTeen leaves were not included when they lacked the red callus. These light-colored plants have the more ample and luxuriant foliage of the Hindi hybrids and may represent a second-generation splitting of the Hindi characters. Such a splitting might be expected with a color charac- ter like the basal spot that also shows seasonal reversibility. The smallest proportions of true Hindi plants were found in fields in the vicinity of the barrage (a few miles below Cairo) and at Calioub, in the same district. None of the fields that were inspected in these places showed any large percentages. About two-thirds of the plants counted as Hindi were plants of the type considered as first-generation hybrids. In one field at the barrage and in another at Calioub no true Hindi plants could be found, even after a rather careful search, though several obvious hj^brids were present in each field. At Benha, on the contrary, the Hindi percentages not only ran higher but a larger proportion of the plants represented the true Hindi type. In the neighborhood where the counts were made near Mansurah the native cultivators placed much importance on the elimination of the Hindi plants, though they were known by a different name, " Haga," the word Hindi not being recognized. It was estimated that about 5 to 6 Hindi plants had been removed from each row of 100 to 150 plants at the time of thinning, in addition to those that remained to be counted. This would indicate a total Hindi represen- tation of between 5 to 10 per cent in this stock of seed at the time of planting. In several instances it Avas noticed that the Hindi plants seemed to be more numerous on the higher, drier ridges or dikes that bounded 210 PREVALENCE OF HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. 23 the different sections into whicli the fields were divided for irriga- tion purposes. Separate counts were made of plants along some of the dikes, but without securing any definite evidence. It would be interesting to know whether such differences of conditions would have an influence over the expression of the Hindi characters. Other explanations were possible — that the higher ridges had been neglected at the time of thinning the plants or that the Hindi plants had an advantage in germinating in the drier soil of the higher ridges, because of the smooth seeds. The cotton often appears to be more luxuriant on the higher dikes than in other parts of the fields. Indeed, such dikes are usually planted with double rows of cotton, as though to take full advantage of the more favorable conditions. Table I. — Countings of Hindi cotton plants. Location. Plants count- ed. Egyp- tian type. Hindi type. Per- cent- age of Hindi. Location. Plants count- ed. Egyp- tian type. Hindi type. Per- cent- age of Hindi. ■ 445 274 512 105 178 440 327 245 1.30 435 242 457 155 161 435 294 224 124 10 32 55 10 17 11 33 21 6 2.24 11.67 10.74 6.06 9.55 2.48 10.09 8.56 4.61 Fayum, Upper Egypt (Belddi variety). . . Total f 871 \ 676 819 629 52 47 5.99 6.95 Beni-Suef, Upper 1,547 1,448 99 6 41 Egypt ( Ashmuni Siut, Upper Egypt. . . 609 467 • 316 444 i 467 494 398 260 354 383 115 69 56 90 84 18.88 14.77 17.72 20.27 17.98 Total 2,722 2,527 195 7.16 2,303 1 889 414 17.97 f 595 886 464 464 368 1,028 806 1.34 566 566 569 829 441 437 340 923 738 118 550 476 26 57 23 27 28 105 68 16 16 90 4.36 6.43 4.96 5.82 7.61 10.21 8.44 11.92 2.83 15.09 Mansurah, Lower EgvDt { Jannovitch and Mit Afifi va- rieties) Tanta, Lower Egypt (.Tannovitch variety) f 844 476 560 531 790 669 528 598 934 829 472 555 523 758 662 517 584 924 15 4 5 8 32 7 11 14 10 1.77 .84 .89 1.50 4.05 1.04 Total. 2.08 2.34 1.07 Total 5,877 5,421 456 7.77 5,930 5,824 106 1 78 Benha, Lower Egypt Total Barrage, near Cairo.. 1,149 424 551 483 567 334 511 1,124 410 543 474 559 328 486 25 14 8 9 8 6 25 2.17 3.31 1.45 1.86 1.41 1.79 4.89 I 857 202 461 655 I 558 810 20O 429 633 542 47 2 32 22 16 5.49 .99 6.93 3.36 2.86 2, 733 2,614 119 4.36 Beteha, Palestine Total 4,019 3,924 95 2.36 f 1,043 I 889 1,975 I 982 954 816 1,947 946 89 73 28 36 8 53 8.21 1.41 3.66 Calioub, near Cairo. . f 417 497 |l,216 412 493 1,202 5 4 14 1.19 .80 11"; 4,889 4,663 226 4.62 2,130 2,107 23 i 1.07 Count was made of 32,150 plants in all, of which 1,733 were re- corded as belonging to the Hindi type, a percentage of 5.39. If the percentages for the different localities are averaged, a somewhat higher general average, 5.98 per cent, is obtained. One series of countings of Hindi plants was made in an experiment with Egyptian cotton in Palestine, at a locality called Beteha, near 210 24 HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. the north end of the Lake of Tiberias, not far from the ancient Capernaum. The first two counts at Beteha were made in late- phmted fields that had not yet been thinned or roguecl for Hindi. The percentages obtained in these cases, 8.53 and 8.21, may be tal^en to represent the amount of Hindi contamination represented in the seed before pLanting. Earh^-phmtecl fiekls at Beteha seemed to be as far advanced as any seen in Egypt, the date of the visit being June 23. In order to obtain a more general and yet a -not altogether in- definite indication of the prevalence of the Hindi cotton, the apparent presence or absence of Hindi cotton was noted for a considerable number of fields that could be seen to advantage from the railroad. Such inspection is greatly facilitated by a fact already considered, namely, that the leaves of the Hindi cotton have greater freedom of motion than those of the Egyptian cotton, and that they make pro- nounced changes of position in order to face the sun in the morning and afternoon. The Hindi plants are much more readily seen from a distance at these times than in the middle of the day, when the leaves are in a horizontal position to face the sun overhead. The presence of tall hybrids gives a general impression of uneven surfaces to the fields and thus betrays the presence of Hindi cotton, even when details of individual plants can not be made out. But when the broader, fresh-green leaves of the Hindi plants are formed into rosettes to face the sun, they become conspicuous and unmis- takable. Indeed, it is sometimes more difficult to distinguish them from the okra that is often planted in the fields than from the Egyptian cotton. The Egyptian okra (bamieh) has broad leaves of the same color as those of the Hindi cotton and also a red spot at the junction with the stem. Such observations are greatly assisted by the fact that the Egyp- tinn railroads are usually elevated on embankments. By being able to look down on the fields a more accurate impression can be gained than by viewing the plants from the side, as one is obliged to do when standing on the same level. It is to be expected of course that Hindi plants would be found by more careful inspection in most of the fields where they were not ap- parent from a passing train. But at least it maj^ be considered that fields showing no apparent Hindi have been rogued. In a large pro- portion of cases the Hindi plants and hybrids were very conspicuous. Fields that have had the Hindi plants and hybrids rogued out often appear remarkably even in height and color. Such an inspection could not be made to any advantage after the Egyptian cotton has entered the fruiting phase, when the color changes from a dark to a lighter green, thus destroying the contrast with the Hindi cotton, so marked during the earlier vegetative phase. 210 PREVALENCE OP HINDI COTTON IN EGYPT. 25 In addition to the lighter color assumed by the foliage of the E^^p- tian plants as the season advances, the proportion of yellow in the fields is increased by the abundance of bracts and flowers. At the time these changes were taking place, about the middle of July, the clark-green tone of the vegetative phase was still shown with much uniformity in some of the fields, while others had gone over to the yellower shades or were still more completely dominated by the abundance of yellowish bracts and still yellower flowers. These changes seemed to have come rather suddenly, for most of the fields seemed to represent one phase or the other quite definiteh% only a few showing pronounced individual diversities of coloring among the Egyptian plants. Table II. — Fields ivilh HinOi cottan (ti)[iarvnt from trains Fields were noted between towns— Number of fields. Fields witti apparent Hindi. Fields without apparent Hindi. 48 53 81 82 88 24 30 51 13 24 90 29 34 49 46 50 76 81 82 22 24 a (10) 44 (3) 13 (4)17 (16) 73 26 (4)27 (3)42 2 Cliebin and Maotietoul. . . . 3 5 Bilbeis and Zagazis; . 1 Zagazie and Abou-Kebir 6 2 Kafr Salcr and Abou el Ciiel