^ "^^ A^ is N / SPECIAL REPORT BUREAU OF EDUCATIOK EDUCATMAL EXHIBITS AND CONVENTIONS WORLDS INDUSTRIAL AND COTTON CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, NEW ORLEANS, 1884-'85. I>^RT I. CATAI.OGUE OF EXHIBITS. - WASHIXGTO:>f: - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1886. M950 COT • 1 .11 ^K"^ I P JO CONTENTS OF PART I. PagB. Letter of transmission to tlie Secretary of the Interior 5 Introduction 7 Letter of transmission to Commissioner Eaton 31 Exhibit of tiie Bureau of Education 34 Exhibit of the Office of Indian AfiFairs 41 State educational exhibits: Florida 44 Illinois - 45 Iowa 46 Louisiana 50 Michigan ^'^ Minnesota 51 Nebraska 59 New Hampshire 61 New Jersey 6"2 Ohio 64 Rhode Island 71 Tennessee 71 Virginia 7"2. West Virginia 73 Wisconsin 73 Citj' school exhibits : Albany, N. Y 74 Alexandria, Va * 74 Atlanta, Ga 74 Chicago, 111 74 Denver, Colo 74 Leavenworth, Kans 74 Oak Park, 111 74 Portland, Oreg 74 Washington, D. C 75 West Denver, Colo 84 Wilkes Barre, Pa 84 Miscellaneous exhibits : Text-books a 85 School apparatus 89 Kindergarten 93 Kitchen-garden 96 Crfeche '. 96 Normal schools 97 Business colleges 98 Institutions for secondary instruction 98 Institutions for the superior instruction of women 101 Colleges and schools of science 103 Museums and science collections ■- 105 Physical and chemical apparatus l'-i7 3 4 CONTENTS. Page. Miseellaneous exhibits — Coutiiiued. Models illustrating descriptive geometry i 134 Gymnastic apparatus 13(5 Library collectioiis. 13G Art exhibits 141 Schools of mediciuo 14-2 Nurse training schools 142 Schools for the deaf and dumb 144 Schools for the blind 147 Reform and industrial schools 14& Schools for the feeble-minded 149 American Missionary Association 149 Christian Brothers 151 Freedman's Aid Society 102 Department of Colored Exhibits 164 Foreign exhibits : England 165 Jamaica 166 Japan 166 France 186 Letter transmitting list of awards 202 Awards : Belgium 2C6 England 206 Honduras 206 Jamaica 206 Japan 206 Mexico 207 France 208 Bureau of Education 214 Bureau of Indian Affairs 215 Woman's Department 215 States of the Union 217 American Missionary Association 228 Brothers of the Christian Schools ; 228 Department of Colored Exhibits 230 Freedman's Aid Society 231 Commercial Department 231 Index 233 4 LETTER Department of the Tnterioe, Bureau of Education, Washington^ D. C, November 25, 1885. Sir : The accompanying papers/ which are hereby transmitted for publication, give the best view, doubtless, that it is possible to preserve of education at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Expo- sition. It was early manifest that the exhibition would present a rare opportunity for the promotion of the advancement of education. The desire on the part of the Management to improve this oppor- tunity to the utmost was expressed in the most explicit and emphatic terms by the Director-General, Hon. E. A. Burke, when he declared that they sought not only that the exhibition should be thoroughly national and international and in all its aspects educational, but that education itself, its systems, institutions, principles, methods, and results should be shown as far as possible by its literature and appli- ances, by models, by graphics, by actual class work, and by papers and discussions from the ablest educators. The following papers will make known how far the purposes of the Management have been real- ized, and their publication will preserve and extend the usefulness of whatever was accomplished in this behalf. The fullness of the papers and of the report of Lyndon A. Smith, Esq., my representative and chief assistant in immediate charge of the Department of Education at the exhibition, renders it unnecessary that I should here enter into details which would otherwise require more specific reference. I desire to tender most hearty thanks to all those who have in any way aided in the work here reported, but it would require a catalogue larger than Homer's to specify each one by name. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOHiSr EATON, Cojnmissioner. The Hon. Secretary of the Interior. ' The proceediogs and papers of the International Congress of'Educators may be found in Part II of this Report ; the proceedings of the Department of Superiutend- I'uce and Education Day addresses in Part III. v; EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. INTRODUCTION. EXPOSITION AUTHOEITraS INTERESTED IN EDUCATION. The World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition provided, in its earliest plans, for a department of education. The director- general, members of the Board of Management, and influential citizens believed it would be an interesting and profitable feature of the exhi- bition. They also desired that educational meetings should be held to unite the words of experienced men with the lessons of silent exhib- its, and thus create a lasting impression upon the surrounding States in favor of popular education. The Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association is accustomed to hold a winter session, and consequently this body was invited to meet at New Orleans during the continuance of the Exposition. This first public effort by thie Management in behalf of education was in February, 1884, and the acceptance of the invitation was accompanied by the appointment of a committee to co-operate with the Bureau of Education in arranging for a suitable exhibition of education. The members of this committee were Hon. G. J. Orr, State school commissioner, Georgia; Hon. H. Clay Armstrong, State superintendent of education, Alabama; Hon. W. O. Rogers, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. ; Hon. Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.; Hon. J. H. Smart, president of Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind.; Hon. T. W. Bicknell, Boston, Mass., president of the National Educational Association; and Hou. B. L. Butcher, State superintendent of free schools, West Virginia, and president of the Department of Superintendence. The wishes of the director-general, Maj. E. A, Burke, were expressed in his first report to the President of the United States, dated April 10, 1884. He said : " Extensive preparations have been made for a national educational disi)lay. * * * No subject claims greater attention on the part of our people, and the effect of this school of instruction will be to impart a healthy impulse to the cause of education and a better knowledge of methods. Already local educational societies are being organized throughout the State of Louisiana, and I am sure that the Exposition will secure for the cause of education a more liberal provision from all of the backward States." 7 b EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. APPOINTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENT. The Board of Management selected Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education, as superintendent of the Department of Educaliou, and urged him to accept the position. He consulted the Secretary of the Interior, and not only received permission to accept the appointment, but was encouraged to devote a portion of his own time and to assist the enterprise by the means at the command of his office. Prepara- tory work was immediately undertaken, and a preliminary circular issued to scatter information and stimulate activity. Scarcely more than this could be done until money had been appropriated and more definite knowledge of the inclinations of educators obtained. REPORT OF COMMITTEE TO CO-OPERATE WITH BUREAU OF EDUCA- TION. The National Educational Association met in July at Madison, Wis. The subject was presented at one of its meetings by Director-General Burke and 'Commissioner Eatou. The former considered education the great need of the South ; believed that its people realize that the peace, progress, and happiness of that section depend upon it, and ex- pected much aid from a well-sustained exhibition of education. The committee appointed by the Department of Superintendence made a re- port which has been circulated by the Bureau of Education. This re- port enumerated the articles that could be contributed to an educational display, and gave rules for preparing material. Among its recommenda- tions was one " that the State and city educational authorities act as agents of their respective States and cities in the preparation of the representation of the systems, institutions, and instrumentalities within the sphere and range of their official connection or authority." The principle recognized in this recommendation did much to determine the grouping of exhibits at the Exposition. Generous rivalry between States, localities, and institutions helped to improve the quality of their collections. ACTION OF SCHOOL OFFICERS. The superintendents of public instruction for several States ijromptly began efforts to have their educational exhibits creditable and complete. Circulars were issued informing teachers and superintendents of the nature of material desired, inquiring what and how much could be sup- plied, and oflering assistance in the work of preparation. The circular sent out by the Nebraska superintendent, Hon. W. W. W. Jones, illus- trates the initiatory steps taken in some States. He divided the work of preparation into eight sections, and assigned the control of each sec- tion to a person familiar with the field given him. The divisions are best presented in his own words : (1) A showing of the State organization of schools and the atliuinistratiou thereof, with statistics of growth, school funds, &c. 8 INTEODUCTION. » (2) The State university, its organizatiou, growth, and present condition, and specimens of work. (3) A comi)lete showing of the normal school work, with history of the normal school; also, the ^ora and/a««a of Nebraska. (4) A statement of our normal institutes, with methods, courses of study, announce- ments, circulars, examinations, and general character. (5) The work of the children of the State is of highest importance, and should occupy the most prominent place. The teachers of the State are especially requested to make this department most creditable. Examinations, daily written work, map drawing, free-hand drawing, compositions, specimens of penmanship, which may be copies of several lines of prose or poetry, specimens of handiwork in or out of school, in fact, anything that shows what our children are doing in an educational way. Ungraded, graded, and high school work will all be included in this department. The county superintendents, teachers, and principals are earnestly requested to lend their assistance and are urged to co-operate in making this department all it should be. All pupils' work should be upon paper of uniform size, 8^ by 11 inches, with a margin of one inch, written only upon one side and neatly bound for preservation. (6) A collection of kindergarten work; photographs and grouud plans of our best public and private school buildings; plans and specifications for the lighting, ven- tilation, and construction of school houses; also, a collection of school literature and periodicals published in this State, school books, and educational addresses, and woman's work in connection with the public schools. (7) Exhibits of technical work ; industrial and other departments of schools for the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the feeble minded, and of reform schools. (8) A department showing the plan, organization, curriculum, work, and history of the denominational schools of the State. The action of city superintendents in carrying' out the suggestions and recommendations of tlie committee of the National Educational Association is excellently illustrated by the course of Superintendent W. O. Rogers, of New Orleans. Already an appropriation had been made to meet necessary expenses. Public interest had been stimulated. Teachers' meetings were held to consider how best their work could be represented. The general directions issued by the Bureau of Education were adapted to the particular needs of the city schools, and circulars printed to show what to do, and how to do it. l-^xaminatious were con- ducted by means of questions prepared by the superintendent, and pre- caution exercised to have the true condition and work of the schools shown. Penmanship, map drawing, and composition received special attention, as aflbrding very suitable material for exhibition. By such means not only New Orleans, but many other cities, collected repre- sentative exhibits from their public schools. PLAKT OF EXHIBIT OF BUREAU OF EDUCATION. The end sought by the plans made for the exhibit of the Bureau of Education was the display of material illustrating the work of all classes of schools and as many phases of education as practicable. This was to be arranged according- to the relations existing between the different articles. As museums, in general, ignore geographical boundaries and recognize only scientific classifications and relations, so an educational 9 10 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. display would be most effective in which the same rule prevailed. This idea was expressed by the committee of the National Educational As- sociation in the following words: It would seem wise to represent the education of the country as a whole, sections and State lines beiug disregarded, due credit being given for all coutributious, whether from States, municipalities, institutions, or individuals, by the mode of in- stallation, by appropriate labels, and otherwise. The extent of the educational display and the feelings of the exhib- itors made the logical arrangement of the entire department undesira- ble, and increased the importance of consecutive display by the Bureau of Education. Contributions were obtained from many sources, so that the princijial branches of (Education were represented by suitable arti- cles. The methods followed in collecting material are indicated b^' the following rules early adopted by the Bureau : (1) Coutributious of fur- niture and appliances are to be solicited from manufacturers of school supplies; (2) text books are to be asked from publishers; (3) gifts and loans may be accompanied by the owner's card or labeled so as to iden- tify him ; (4) practical and tested apparatus is to be preferred to costly instruments, and those having iimited and infrequent uses; (5) avail- able schools may be resorted to for pupils' work; and (G) purchases are to be made or aid given in cases when it is necessary in order to com- plete an exhibit or to insure the representation of a class of schools. ALLOTMENT TO BUREAU OF EDUCATION. An essential element in all plans was economy. The limits of the appropriation to the Interior Department for the preparation of its ex- hibits, and the many bureaus in the Department having close relations with the industry and progress of the country, reduced the amounts re- ceived by them respectively. Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, represent- ative of the Interior Department for the exposition, said in his letter apportioning the fund at his disposal : The amount appropriated for the Department of the Interior is grossly inadequate to defray the expense of making a full and creditable exhibit. We are compelled, therefore, to do the best we can with the money we have received. It was the desire of Congress that there should be shown at New Orleans thnt which is indicative of the resources of this country, embracing every department of field and forest, shops and factory, mills and mines, lakes, rivers, &c., to show the greatness of industrial art and its effect upon the general prosperity of our peoples, and also the progress that has been made in education and the means adopted for the general ditfnsion of knowl- edge among the people. The amount assigned to the Bureau was $15,000. This was done "with the inteut to add to the sum so apportioned as we progress with the work." The intention so expressed has been carried out by Marcellus Gard- ner, esq., the successor of General Butterworth as representative of the Department; for, though the plans of the Bureau, formed after the apportionment, did not contemplate an expenditure in excess of the 10 INTRODUCTION. 11 original apportionment, a slight excess became necessary. The amount accomplished by this comparatively small sum has been surprising to those acquainted with the facts. TEXT-BOOKS AND APPAEATUS. The collection of text-books and apparatus was greatly facilitated by a circular letter from the Commissioner of Education to all the firms known to the Bureau as publishing school books, or dealing in or manu- facturing educational appliances. The body of this letter was as fol- lows: In the course of preparation for the New Orleans Exposition it has become proba- ble that this Bureau will display in its exhibit a considerable amount of school appa- ratus and. many text-books. Some firms have ofl'ered to supply, free of charge, such articles of their manufacture or publication as I may wish to use in this exhibit. While intending to accept these offers, I desire to show no partiality, and would be glad to receive others of similar nature. The response to this letter was very general on the part of publishers. Charts and maps, slates and black-boards, pencils and crayons were sent forward in suitable shape and quantity for exhibition. Only two manufacturers of school furniture responded, though others who re- ceived invitation to contribute regretted afterward their failure to do' so. The same hesitancy to exhibit heating and ventilating apparatus existed. The catalogue of exhibits contains a list of these contribu- tions, to which reference may be made. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. Several dealers in physical and chemical apparatus expressed a will- ingness to exhibit their wares with the Bureau. The museum of the Bureau already contained a collection of valuable physical appliances. The amount of apparatus available suggested the equipment of labora- tories for physics and chemistry. Prof. Isaac J. Osbuu, of Dennison University, Granville, Ohio, was requested to furnish a plan of a model laboratory suitable for a high or normal school, and did so. It was in- tended to economize space in schools and be in itself an exhibition of a room adapted to the purposes of both a laboratory and recitations with- out either use diminishing its value for the other. The plan was adopted in a modified form, but there were difiBculties in the way that i)reveuted the free use of the laboratory for illustrating chemistry and limited the work in it to a few simple experiments. The physical apparatus was utilized for public instruction and entertainment. Every department of physics was illustrated, as the collection of apparatus was complete and adapted to the i)urpose. The Bureau secured from an exi)ert a list of articles necessary to illustrate all the leading divisions of physics, such as heat, light, acoustics, magnetism, and electricity. The Com- missioner put Mr. Charles H. Richardson, a gentleman of experience, in charge of the collected material, and placed at his disposal means 11 12 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. for making his section intensely interesting. The finest apparatus showing the wonders and curiosities of electricity contributed to the attractions. Later a solar microscope was fitted up and drew the atten- tion of visitors to the revelations of processes and products of nature. Thus the Bureau furnished simple chemical experiments, illustrations of peculiar electrical phenomena, representations of the laws of physics, and the display of objects by a solar microscope, as the fulfillment of its plan for chemical and physical laboratories. EXHIBITS ILLUSTRATING SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE. Instruction in science is accompanied by not only the use of appa- ratus, but also other illustrations that attract notice. Drawing and the construction of models are taught, especially in institutions where engineering is a principal subject of studj. Classical colleges have much less to exhibit that is of popular interest than have schools of science. Consequently an eftbrt Avas made to have the latter make ex- hibits in accordance with their possibilities in that direction. A collec- tion of drawings from them was desiied, and a letter sent to them ask- ing each institution for two specimens. By these efibrts, and the use of material from the museum of the Bureau, a good display of the means and methods of instruction in various departments of engineer- ing was secured. English exhibits added much to the display in me- chanical engineering, and other displays not with the Bureau con- tained material representing every feature of instruction in science. MANUAL TRAINING. Closely allied to instruction in mechanical engineering is training in mechanic arts. It is but a few years since this was systematically at- tempted by American schools. Already the exiJeriment has met with such success as to assure the usefulness of schools of manual training. The instruction imparted in tbem is of a kind needed by the Soutli at thiB time, when its resources are being developed and its industries multiplied. It seemed of utmost importance that this kind of iustruc- tion should be adequately represented at the Exposition. Tulane University, in New Orleans, was at the point of organizing a school for manual training, and the Bureau secured its co-operation in establish- ing and conducting it in the gallery of the Government building ad- joining the exhibits of the Bureau of Education. In this waj" a full exhibit was set conspicuously before the visitors at a comparatively small expense, and the hopes of Commissioner Eaton for such a display fully realized. Drawing-tables, work-benches, and tools were supplied and arranged for the use of students, and daily instruction given in drawing and wood-working. The more elaborate processes of metal- working were not attempted, as no pupils were prepared to undertake their difficulties, and the equipment for them could not readily be set up in an exposition. The classes were occupied with their lesson from 12 INTRODUCTION. 13 3 to 5 each afteruoon except Saturday, when earlier hours were pre- ferred. Carpentry and wood-turning were taken up in turn, and some excellent specimens of work done by the students were presented for public inspection toward the close of the Exposition. Peo])le were greatly interested in this novel feature of an exhibition, and watched the work and progress of the boys to findtheproofs of the value of manual training. HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRY AND KINDERGARTEN. An object to be promoted by an exhibition of education is the sug- gestion of means by which the prevalent system of instruction may be broadened and perfected. The criticism is often made that our schools do not prepare pupils for the duties and labors they are to meet and per- form after leaving school. Manual training schools have sprung up partially in response to this sentiment, and are fitting boys to enter fields of usefulness not likely to be overcrowded. The question has arisen whether there is not a corresponding course of training needed in duties peculiar to girls. A majority pass from the school into the family, and find tlieir life-work as sisters, wives, and mothers; on their skill depends the health of the child and the comfort of the grown per- son. Skill may be increased not only by practice, but also by informa- tion and instruction. Several societies have this work in hand, and they desired to have it displayed effectively at the Exposition. Four means of representing it commanded attention: First, a nursery show- ing the appliances, aids, and methods of saving infant life, and making it comfortable and healthful; second, a kindergarten to illustrate the most approved system of developing normally the mind of a child; third, a kitchen-garden, applying the principles of the kindergarten to l)reparation for housework; and, fourth, a school of household industry carried on in a "model home" and giving instruction in cooking, sew- ing, &c. The limited time for preparation did not permit the execution of this plan by co-operative action, and it was left for the Bureau of Education to do what it could in these directions. The kindergarten and kitchen-garden were put in operation. Children came in from homes near the Exposition. The kindergarten was under the instruc- tion of Mrs. Anna B. Ogden, and afterwards Miss May Crosby, both of Washington; had its sessions in the forenoon; and was in operation dur- ing nearly the entire length of the Exposition. Miss Olivia Tracy, of New York, taught the kitchen-garden, having afternoon sessions four days in the week during March and April. A kitchen -garden class from Leland University had one exercise a week in the Department of Colored Exhibits. The exhibition of a nurserj' was found impracticable. Much material similar to that which would have constituted such a dis- play was contained in the exhibit of the Fitch creche. Exhibits of sewing from public and normal schools and Miss L. J. Kirkwood's sew- ing box were other principal displays of the Department of Education in the line of household industry. 13 14 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE XEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. REFOEMATORY EDUCATION. The introduction of industrial education into reformatory and penal institutions has been successful in promoting the virtues and suppress- ing the vices of the inmates. It may determine whether a person shall go out to become a valuable citizen or a hardened criminal. The trades and pursuits that can be utilized were well represented at the Exposi- tion. Boots and shoes, brooms and brushes, woodwork and clothing, these and many other articles showed the work done in reform schools. Photographs illustrated the difference of arrangements in the congre- gate and family systems. The Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, aided by the Bureau of Education, made a fine display, including photo- graphs, publications, kindergarten work, sewing and fancy work. EDUCATION OF THE DEFECTIVE CLASSES. Prof. F. Louis Soldan, principal of the St. Louis Normal School, in a report on the educational exhibits at the Exposition, uses the follow- ing language: Beside the main stream of public education which runs in the direction of the com- mon schools, there are strong side currents in education, and the fresher impulse of the main stream seems to have affected them. One of these side currents tends to- ward the thorough training of those whom some natural defect renders more helpless than others. It was the extensive collection of exliibits from schools for the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the feeble-minded that elicited this remark, Preparations for the exhibits in the section for deaf mutes was com- menced by the adoption of the following resolutions by the National Conference of Principals and Superintendents of Institutions for Deaf- Mutes, held in July, 1884: Resolved, That it is the sense of this Conference that the interests of deaf-mutes and the subject of their education have assumed such proportions and demand such atten- tion that it is deemed proper and desirable to secure space and arrange for a deaf- mute department in the Cotton Centennial Exposition to be opened in the city of New Orleans, December 1, 1884. Resolved, further, That a committee of three superintendents of institutions be ap- pointed to consider the feasibility of such a plan, and, if found practicable, to make the necessary arrangements. Resolved, further, That we will lend such a movement all the aid in our power, and give it our hearty co-operatiou. The committee appointed was J. E. Dobyns, of Mississippi, David Greenberger, of New York City, and J. L. Noyes, A. M., of Minnesota. They prosecuted their work in harmony with the Bureau of Education, and received from it pecuniary aid and satisfactory space on condition that they should locate with the Bureau and form its exhibit of deaf-mute education. The prominent features of deaf-mute instruction and speci- mens of the work done after leaving school united in forming an in- structive and noteworthy display. The interest in it on the part of deaf-mutes was increased by the presence of a deaf-mute in the Chatau- 14 INTRODUCTIOX. 15 qna iilcove, not I'ar (listant, who took plensure iu sbowiiig its several articles and eouversin;^ witii deat-nmte.s in their own peculiar way. The collect ioM ut exhibits of schools lor the blind svas under the churj^e of a committee, consisting of William B. Wait, of New York, P. Lane, of Louisiana, and Prof. John T. Sibley, of Missouri. This class of ex- hibits was not extensive, but fanly representative of so much of the work of the blind, in school and out, as could be presented readily. MEDICAL EDUCATION. The arrangements of the medical section were aided greatly by Dr. J. M. Toner, LL.D., who helped to secure a large collection of photo- graphs of instructors in medicine, and by Prof. A. F. A. King, M.D., dean of the National Medical College, Columbian University, Wash- ington, who secured from his associate professors lists of articles that could be exhibited advantageously in illustration of several branches of instruction, viz: medical chemistry, anatomy, physiology, surgery, theory and i)racti(;i^ of medicine, obstetrics and gyna;cology. This was the foundation for building a medical exhibit, but modifications were necessary here also. The chemical laboratory was so near that its ma- terial was not duplicated for the medical exhibit. Pathological speci- mens were not secured to the full extent suggested. The departments of anatomy, obstetrics, gynaecology, and surgery were excellently rep- resented. Several microscopes, with slides for the use of the student of meditiine, were exhibited. Several medical journals were on file ; and i)ictures of nurse-traniing schools made up a very interesting por- tion of the Bureau exhibit. PHYSICAL CULTURE. Physical culture adapted to produce sound bodies is neglected in many schools. Its importance increases with the progress of civiliza- tion and the consequent filling up of cities and diminution of opportu- nities for out-door sports and exercise. Three kinds of ai)paratus were shown by the Bureau of Education, namely, home gymnasiums, com- plete in themselves and serviceable for the use of families and small schools; sjiecial pieces of apparatus, as poles, ropes, horses, wall- ladder, horizontal bar for more violent exercises, and elaborate pieces se- lected from those devised by Dr. D. A. Sargent, of Harvard University. The instruments for testing the strength of certain groups of muscles and for ascertaining height, chest dimensions, weight, «&c., were pro- cured and kept accessible to visitors interested in anthropometric meas- urements. Mr. nartvig Nissen, of Washington, and afterward his assistant, Mr. Klaus Olsen, were in charge of the displays of gymnastic apparatus. They gave l(>ssons and illustrations several times a day, using not only the apparatus already mentioned, but a large Swedisli gymnasium exhibited by Th. Nordenfeldt, of London. The purposes 15 1 6 EDUCA TIOXAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. served by their efforts were, first, to show the mauner of using the ap- ])aratus ; second, to interest visitors in the more general introduction of gymnastics into schools ; and third, to illustrate, not the method of training athletes and acrobats, but the possibilities of developing the body and endowing it with health and vigor. LIBRARY. The library was to be represented at the Exposition by a well-fur- nished room, ornamented by selections from the art displays, equipped with the. appliances useful in conducting a library, and containing-, books representing the classes of literature of peculiar importance to teachers and school officers. Casts and drawings from schools of indus- trial art adorned the section set apart for library purposes. Appli- ances from the Library Bureau at Boston were exhibited. School laws ; reports of school officers in the United States and foreign countries; bound volumes of educational publications; treatises on teaching, dis- cipline, education, &c.; books of reference and for general culture, and the textbooks of higher instruction, were arranged near each other ; and with the miscellaneous volumes contributed by publishers and not ranked as text-books, they constituted the library. Text-books suita- ble for public schools were displayed in connection with school-work and apparatus. STATISTICAL CHARTS. Statistical charts were prepared for use in the library section and with exhibits from classes of schools whose statistics were given. The statistics graphically represented showed the increase in number of in- stitutions, instructors, and students in nearly all classes of schools ; the location of those schools; school population, enrollment, and at- tendance, represented so as to aid comparisons ; ratio of students to teachers; illiteracy, and the distribution of the Poabody fund. These charts were prepared by Mr. II. M. Waitt, S. B., a graduate of the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, assisted by Miss E. Anna Hanson, from the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, and under the di- rection of Dr. Charles Warren, statistician of the Bureau of Education. ]^early all statistics may be presented in a way to attract notice by a suitable arrangement of large areas of distinct colors. Some admira- ble charts showing distribution and location of school-houses were shown by States. This introductory statement is intended to be rather a recital of things done than a full report of results. The exhibit of the Bureau of Edu- cation, as it appeared after its completion, is described in connection with the catalogue proper. By reference to it the reader can ascertain the cities, institutions, and individuals contributing most extensively, obtain an idea of their arrangement, and see the ultimate result of plans and efforts made with care and due deliberation, but sometimes 16 INTRODUCTION. 17 thwarted or seriously modified by lack of time and money. The private schools giving instruction superior to that of the ungraded public school and inferior to that of the full college, were represented more poorly than any other classes of in- stitutions whose courses of instruction are accompanied by the use of appliances or produce evidences of progress suitable for exhibition. AID TO EXHIBITORS. States and institutions were aided in the preparation of their exhibits by the exposition management. This aid was rendered through different channels and in different ways. Direct apportion- ments of money were made to some, upon an understanding or contract that a specified exhibit should be presented. Several of the educational exhibitors were aided through General Eaton, as chief of the Department of Education. Installation was aided by assignments of laborers, gifts of lun)ber and nails, and, occasionally, small contributions of money. Close economy was required in the expenditure of money and the use of material furnished by the Exposition. All decoration in excess of that neces- sary for the proper display of material was at the expense of persons exhibiting or represented by exhibitors. BUREAU OF EDUCATION. The exhibit of the Bureau of p]duca- tion was installed at as little expense as was consistent. It occupied the eastern portion of the southern gallery of the Government building. A plan of the space occupied is herewith given. The partitions were wooden framework cov- ered with inexpensive brown or maroon cloth. Solid board jjartitions were made where wall space for heavy exhibits was Jieeded. Tables were made upon the ground, and covered to correspond with 7950 COT 2 •^-f ~ a ;? 3 "Manual TYaining. ISeeSle Minded. ^^ Schools of Science, gi ^enck Section. 17 18 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. adjoining screens. Such material as required protection was arranged in counter or upright cases, the latter being fitted with shelves or partitions to make a surface on which tbe several exhibits could be displayed to best advantage. The dark room, for electrical experiments, and the room for the solar microscope were of wood, and were lined with black cloth. The screen on which the pictures were thrown was of white cloth, and placed near the main aisle. The decorations of the exhibit were few and plain. The posts of tlie building passing up through the gallery were covered with alternate strips of red and white cloth, with a band of blue at the top of the decoration. The wall of the building was cov- ered with white cloth, with a border of red at the top. The ceiling was not covered, and because of this some exhibits were injured by material from the rojDf. Tbe only exhibits included among those of the Bureau of Education that were installed with a view primarily to artistic eftect were those of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, arranged by Mr. E. A. Spring, and the Institution for the Instruction of the I3eaf and Dumb, New York City, arranged by Prof. A. Le Prince. The kin- dergarten room and exhibits were located apart from the other exhibits of the Bureau, in the southwest corner of the building. The room was comfortably furnished and tastefully decorated under the supervision of Mrs. Ogden, the kindergartner. STATE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. The State educational exhibits, located in the northern portion of the eastern gallery, formed one of the most interesting features of the edu- cational department. The intelligent visitor could not fail to observe the excellent quality of the material gathered in them; the ingenious construction of tables, stands, and screens for exhibiting purposes ; the positions selected for them so as to make the best use of space and take advantage of the best lights ; and the arrangement of the articles to harmonize with those around them and to conform to the relations ex- isting between them. To these State exhibits belongs a large share of the compliment i^aid by the Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., to the educa- tional department in the remark that "A great variety of things and processes that we had despaired of showing in an exposition are in- structively displayed here." NEW HAJIPSHIRE AND PENNSYLVANIA. A person passing from the main entrance of the building up to the State exhibits found at the head of the stairs two small exhibits, one from Wilkes Barre, Pa., and the other from the cities of New Hampshire. The former displayed material completely illustrative of a city school system. It was neatly arranged by the city superintendent. Prof. A. W. Potter. The New Hampshire exhibits were rather specimens from different cities than a collective State exhibit. Some particular feature was i^rominent in the exhibit of each city, as, for instance, work in chemistry from Nashua, and i^lans of school buildings from Manchester. 18 INTRODUCTION. 19 fe" ^ k UasTca,^ Vlr^tm-u\ 19 20 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. IOWA. The first of the great exhibits reached by the visitor after those just mentioned was that of Iowa. It had a frontage of forty-five feet on the main aisle aud extended back thirty feet. It was installed by State Superintendent John W. Akers, and Prof. T. H. McBride, of the State University. Much of the material was placed on tables and on screens rising vertically from the middle of the tables. The effect of the exhibit was greatly increased by the paper- ing of the walls and ceiling, tlie prevailing tint of the paper being such as to produce pleasing effects in its contrast with the white paper used for drawings and school work. The distinguishing feature of this ex- hibit was the large amount of graded school work collected from nearly all of the larger cities and towns of the State, and bearing testimony to the efBciency of their graded school system. MINNESOTA. The next exhibit was that of Minnesota, occupying about the same space and arranged in somewhat the same way as that of Iowa. The stands on which the exhibits were placed were made with wings that could be folded and feet that it was the apparatus for regulating clocks pnt up in various parts of the building. This ex- hibit was to illustrate primarily the work of the Carleton College ob- servatory at Northfleld, Minn., Prof. W. W. Paine, director, in regulat- ing the clocks of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Eailroad, and incidentally the common practice of regulating time by electric connec- tion of clocks with some standard time-piece. A chief excellence of the Minnesota exhibit lay in the fact that it represented in a comprehensive and symmetric manner the educational system and institutions of the State. No class was admitted, nor did the exhibit of any chiss have a relative importance in the entire display greatly out of proportion to its actual place in the educational system of the State. Tiie exhibit was arranged under the immediate direction of the State Superintend- ent, Rev. D. L. Kiehle, assisted by Prof. Irwin Shepard, of the normal school at Winona, and Supt. W. F. Phelps, of that city. The exhibit was cared for by a relay of prominent Minnesota educators, each remaining two weeks. LOUISIANA. The Louisiana exhibit was largely from the city of New Orleans. Among the things that visitors would notice most quickly were a large case of slates containing work from the primary schools, an exhibit of the botanical collections made by pupils in the high school, and a bound volume of views of the McDonogh school buildings erected and to be erected in accordance with the provisions of the will of John McDonogh, 20 INTRODUCTION. 21 «rho left a fund, the interest of which was to be used in the construc- tion of public school buildings in New Orleans. NEBRASKA. By the side of the Louisiana exhibit came that of Nebraska, which contained a very valuable display from its State normal school at Peru, and manj* others of more or less interest. An important suggestion was given by the display of apparatus for determining the atmospheric condition of a school-room. INDIANA. Indiana occupied a large section at the center of the State exhibits. Its space was well filled with exhibits, chiefly from rural schools, taste- fully arranged by Mr. A. E. Buckley. These exhibits were elementary in their character, but, with some others contributed by private institu- tions in diflerent parts of the State, made up a very excellent exhibit, although it is to be regretted that the wealthier institutions of the State and those under its special control did not make exhibits to correspond with their resources. OHIO. Beyond the Indiana exhibit was that of Ohio. It contained very ex- tensive displays from colleges arranged by Prof. A. H. Tuttle, of the Ohio State University, and a fine exhibit of drawing prepared by the schools of Columbus under the direction of Prof. W. S. Goodnough. The other exhibits were such as to make the Ohio space one of the most instructive to visitors. It was arranged and cared for by Pro- fessor Goodnough, Hon. John Hancock, of Dayton, and State Superin- tendent Leroy D. Brown. TENNESSEE. The exhibits from the State of Tennessee were made principally by private institutions. Several of those making the largest displays were institutions for the superior instruction of women. Drawing, painting, and the decoration of china, which form a part of the studies pursued in these schools, furnished material for making the Tennessee section one of the most attractive in the whole line, though it was not so well filled with exhibits. Still, representations of public school work and of that of universities were not wanting. The exhibits from other Southern States were interesting principally as showing the progress of newly inaugu- rated systems of public education, aud were full of promise for the future of these systems. NEW JERSEY. The New Jersey exhibit arrived too late to be installed with the other States, but was placed in the southern part of the same gallery. It contained more bound volumes of school work and photographs of 21 22 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. .^-*. ''njispi ^ i^ ^ -X school buildings than any other State exhibit. Its exhibits of draw- ing, especially of maps, was most excellent. MISSIONARY SOCIETIES. At the northern end of the east- ern gallery were the exhibits of the Freedmau's Aid Society, the Amer- ican Missionary Association, and the International Missionary Asso- ciation, all of them denominational societies. The exhibits of the Freedman's Aid Society were prin- cipally examination i)apers and other written work from the vari- ous schools for the colored race over which it had control. There were a few specimens of industrial work. A portion of the material for this exhibit was diverted from its intended place and scattered among State exhibits and in the Colored Department. The exhibits of the American Missionary Asso- ciation were more varied, contain- ing, besides examination papers, drawing, and fancy work, many ar- ticles made in the Hampton (Va.) Normal and Agricultural Institute, and the Santee Normal Training School, Santee Indian Agency, Nebraska. Exhibits indicative of Eev. Sheldon Jackson's eftbrts for education in Alaska and the work of Miss Amy M. Bradley at Wil- mington, N. C, were located near by. ward's MUSEUM. Ward's Museum of natural his- tory was located immediately south of the State educational exhibits. It was an extensive and accurately classified collection of specimens representing the several depart- ments of science. The representa- 22 INTRODUCTION. 23 tiou (restoration) bf the mammoth, occupying a central position at the front of the gallery, was one of the most conspicuous objects in the entire building. Visitors spent much time in examining the stuffed animals and other articles, and gave evidence of the popular interest in an exhibit eminently scientific in character. The extent to which the museum is described in the catalogue obviates the necessity of its more extended notice in this place. A ground plan of the space occu- pied by it at the center of the gallery gives an idea of its extent and completeness.^ CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. The Christian Brothers, with the New York Catholic Protectory, oc- cupied ninety feet of the gallery next to the exhibit of natural science. Economy of space, systematic arrangement, and the observance of ar- tistic requirements marked the instalhition of their exhibits. Tables, shelves, and screens were placed as near each other as consistent with the free passage of visitors in and out among the exhibits. Two nor- mal schools, eleven colleges, twelve academies, thirty-seven parochial schools, two industrial and training schools, and two orphanages con- tributed material. An exhibit of the educational books and charts of which members of the brotherhood were authors, included the histori- cal works of the order, charts for teaching writing and drawing, text- books, literary and scientific works, and normal manuals. A choice part of the collection was the display of models and casts for instruction in drawing, designing, and architecture. The exhibit was under the care of Brother Maurelian, president of Christian Brothers College, Memphis, Tenn. He was assisted from time to time by various mem- bers of the order, all of whom displayed zeal and unwearying interest in the exhibit, so that it never failed to be a model of cleanliness and order, and to show an increasing attractiveness in arrangement. The exhibit of the New York Catholic Protectory was composed chiefly of shoes, suits of clothes, books and printing, electrotyping, chairs, socks and stockings, and silk, from the male department ; lace work, plain 'Doring a display of the Ward collection at the Milwaukee Exposition, and before its contents and their excellence had become fully known, an opinion was asked from Prof. Spencer F. Baird, the director ef the National Museum at Washington, as to Mr. Ward's work in general, and this present collection in particular. Professor Baird promptly returned a reply, from which we have been kindly allowed by the gentleman to whom It was addressed to make the following extract : « * « • * * • " We occasionally buy specimens from Professor Ward, and are constantly having specimens mounted and skeletons prepared at his establishment. "Professor Ward's specimens are uniformly well prepared and preserved, and we have found them thoroughly satisfactory. • • • "His establishment is probably the largest and best conducted of the kind in the world, and he has done much service to the cause of museum education in this coun- try, and by his own eflforts has greatly raised the standard of excellence in the class of objects in "Which he deals." 23 24 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. -S.x1'Vvo\oC)tj o J. f^ cr» ?f> o «?» ^ o o t^ r-* o ji ^ £) >> o» .i o ^ — > p^ CX/C- 6V0b XA.fc\'Uo.x\X. 'tS CO -a 0> " y i^ ^ V J^ F^ t t= ^ <^ V ^ 3Aa->vvYt\- v» d 6 ;>- e ^ «i o O a ^ 24 INTRODUCTION. and fancy sewing, embroidery, and kid gloves, from the female department. The articles were of excellent quality and taste- fully disi)layed. MISCELLANEOUS EXHIBITS. The other exhibits in the east- ern gallery possessed no pecu- liarities not suggested by the catalogue lists of their articles. Most of them were installed by the Exposition and were without special decoration. The exhib- its of Judson Institute, Marion, Ala., and the Indian Training School, at Carlisle Barracks, Pa., were exceptions, the former be- ing installed under the supervis- ion of its principal, Robert Fra- zer, A. M., and the latter by Mr. A. J. Standing, assistant super- intendent. The art work in the former and the industrial work in the latter enabled them to make excellent displays. The plan of this part of the gallery gives a general idea of the posi- tions aiul extent of the exhibits. POKEIGN EXHIBITS. Japan, France, Belgium, Eng- land, Jamaica, Mexico, and Hon- duras were represented by ex- hibits of greater or less extent. Their presence was in nearly if not quite all cases due to the solicitation and encourage- ment of the Commissioner of Education. For this purpose he visited the Health Exhibition in London and several cities in Bel- gium, France, and Great Britiiin. The exhibits of Japan, Jamaica, Belgium, and Honduras were in- stalled in the main buildingof the 2 w-pp S-.S — in Sag:'! dri * ^ •< a 2,3 - Si-=^P' ;::" T5 o ilJl |M =;-"" = ■o' - - i_o ?" " ? 2, a 3 o l%0 IP " 3 o © =*- ° ^° n raw- B 3 C l^ £-~ 2. c r" -1' c ^ o P C£. 3 - r.- 5' 5 ." Ilw M^ = P !j. 3> 2=3 o S; ■» 3 3 31 "-'13-5 i<~ = 2*5- I NeivYorJc ' Catholic ¥^ ^ ^ health G^fmnoBfttcs. \ 25 26 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Exposition, out of the domain of the department of education. The Mex- ican educational exhibits were partly in the main building and partly in the Women's Department. A small portion of the English and French educational exhibits were placed in the sections set apart for the com- mercial exhibits fiom those countries. It is to be hoped that the proper reports will do justice to the exhibits outside of those over which the Bureau of Education had supervision, whether they were State, national, or individual. ENGLAND. The exhibits from England were sent by cities or individuals, and in- cluded a display from (1) Birmingham School Board ; (2) ShefiBeld School Board; (3) James Rigg, Engineer, London, E.G.; (4) Prof. Henry Stayne, Technical College, Finsbury, London ; (5) British and Foreign Blind Association ; (G) Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb; (7) T. Nordenfeldt (Swedish gymnasium); and (8) Bath. The Birmingham exhibit consisted of a model of a school house built on the class-room system ; pieces of physical apparatus made by pupils ; needle- work ; and folios and volumes of school work. The Sheffield exhibit illustrated by woodwork and mechanical drawings a course of study devised for the purpose of making a "proper connection between the theoretical instruction of the class-room and the practical instruction of the work shop." The Swedish gymnasium occupied a square 39 feet on the side. It was necessary to put it up so as to include the exhibits of Professor Stayne, Mr. Bigg, and the Sheffield School Board within its outer limits. This was done in such a way as not to do injury to the effect produced by these displays, nor hinder free access to them, nor render them liable to injury from the exhibition of the gymnasium. The use of the gymnasium was restricted, but not sufficiently to prevent the testing of its merits. The system on which the gymnasium was con- structed was designed to be productive rather of health than strength, and was understood and approved by the persons employed by the Bu- reau of Education to call attention to gymnastic ai)paratus and the methods and value of physical culture. The Bath exhibit was located at the south end of the western gal- lery, occupying a space fifty by thirty feet. It consisted of models of ancient Roman and modern baths, with drawings and photographs rep- resenting the baths and their surroundings, and antiquities, such as his- toric flagstones, pottery, and lead pipe from the Roman baths. The ex- hibit was put in place by Mr. and Mrs. George Morris, of Bath, under the direction of Lient.-Col. Eugene Hay Cameron, who lost his life on the passage back to England. This exhibit illustrated the use of min- eral baths and the aid rendered to history by the excavation of ancient cities. 26 INTRODUCTION. 27 FRANCE. The French exhibit was extensive, complete, and systematic. It occnpied most of the western half of the southern gallery. Its divisions are shown by the accompauyiug plan of the space occupied. Xormal school material was arranged ifMebucccUoTU along the front of the gallery. The arrangement was such as to produce the best im- pression and to command the admiration of visitors. " The genius of the French," said Dr. Harris, "wide-reaching as it is, is especially manifest in that very quality for which the whole Exposition is dis- tinguished — the art of ar- ranging and disposing things so as to make them display themselves. One can say truly that the apparatus of the French educational ex- hibit actually makes things into teachers." The French exhibit was under the im- mediate charge of Mons. B. Buisson, assisted by Mr. A. Duvallj and, therefore, its history is rather to be given by him in the catalogue than in a reijort of the Department of Education, whose officers only assigned space, secured privileges, and exchanged courtesies. One quotation may be appropriately added, in which Mr. E. V. Smalley aptly describes to the read- ers of the Century the French educational exhibit: It covers the whole field of edu- cational efiort in France, from the creche for infants and the primary school to the cottages, the medical schools, the schools for manual labor, and the national schools of decorative arts. The American teacher visiting the crowded gallery containing this exhibit will be struck, first, by the way in which the French carry their love of system into their school work ; next, by a certain 27 28 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. artistic feeling and indefinable toucli of taste in the work of the pnpils ; and then, most of all, by the many evidences that instruction is carried outside the test-book, as far as possible, to objects and their relations, teaching theories by things and not by sentences learned by rote. SPECIAL OCCUREENCES. teachers' VISITS. The lirst special event connected v^ith the Department of Education worthy of notice was the visits of teachers to the Exposition at the Christ- mas holidays. It is to be regretted that the educational exhibits were not all in order and completeness at the time. Those that were ready for inspection were examined by hundreds of teachers whose only oi>- portunity of visiting New Orleans was their holiday vacation. One gathering of teachers at the Exposition was particularly worthy of note. It was a meeting of two hundred from Texas, to listen to an address by Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education, and to be introduced by him to persons in charge of educational exhibits. The line of march was through Ward's Museum, which was described in popular language by its proprietor ; to the Christian Brothers exhibit, where Brother Noah, of Amawalk, N. Y., was in charge, and spoke to them of the qualities and lessons of exhibits received, and mentioned others that were ex- pected; to the display of manual training under Prof. John M. Ordway; to the exhibit of physical culture under Prof. Hartvig Nissen ; and to the Chautauqua alcove, the exposition home of Prof. E. A. Spring. Teachers did not cease to visit the Exposition during its continuance, and frequently brought their schools or classes with them. The interest shown by New Orleans teachers in the educational exhibits was most commendable. They frequently came, either alone or in groups, often with pupils, and examined the scholars' work, the specimens of draw- ing and writing, the apparatus and text-books suitable for their schools, and other exhibits of peculiar value to actual teachers. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS. An International Congress of Educators was held in connection with the Exposition. The arrangements for it were made by a committee consisting of Hon. M. A. Newell, State superintendent of public instruc- tion, Maryland; Hon. W. T. Harris, LL.D., Concord, Mass.; William H. Payne, A. M., professor of the science and art of teaching. University of Michigan; Hon. Le Eoy D. Brown, State commissioner of common schools, Ohio; and Hon. A. Coward, State superintendent of common schools. South Carolina. Abundant reason for holding it existed in the universal interest felt in the Exposition, the natural movement of in- telligent people toward it, the facilities for illustration and instruction it possessed, and the great value of combining educational exhibits and theories to produce the most permanent results. The Department of INTRODUCTION. 29 Saperintendence held its winter session at tbe same time. Both meet- ings were successful and may be reckoned among the events of the Exposition. Committees were appointed to examine minutely the edu- cational exhibits and to report on them, that their valuable lessons might be given to the teachers and educators, not only of this country, but also of foreign nations. children's jubilee. A "Children's Jubilee" was celebrated on April 10. It consisted of songs by the white school children of Xew Orleans. The program was: (1) "Let us with a gladsome mind"; (2) patriotic song from the Swiss; (3) Summer, by the girls' high school; (4) America; and (5) Auld Lang Syne, by the young ladies of the high school. The preparation of the children for singing was supervised by Prof. Luther W. Mason. The prime movers in the project were Eev. D. L. Mitchell and TJhic Bet- tison, Esq., superintendent of city schools. The Management admitted free all who were to participate in the singing. It was estimated that 120 teachers and 4,500 children were present. EDUCATION DAYS. Education days were celebrated on May 12 and 14. The earlier was an occasion for a review of the educational field represented by the ex- hibits of an educational nature, and afforded an oj)portunity for express- ing the gratitude the friends of education had for the support given that department by the Exposition. The latter education day was in the interests of colored education. Its orators were Southern men who had a practical realization of the need and means of educating the colored race. The occasion was enlivened by the songs of some 1,600 pupils of institutions in the city. A careful examination of the addresses of this day is recommended to students of the race problem in the South. RETUEN OF EXHIBITS. At the close of the Exposition the educational exhibits were packed up either by those directly interested in them or by employes of the Department of Education. A circular letter had been sent to the own- ers of exhibits asking for the address to which each should be returned. Answers to nearly all were received and the exhibits were shipped ac- cording to direction, advantage being taken of contracts for the free re- turn of goods on which full freight to the Exposition had been paid. As in collecting exhibits for the Bureau of Education part had been shii)ped through the Bureau and part direct to New Orleans, so in returning those exhibited by the Bureau there was a choice made between these two methods. Few errors in shipment occurred, and these were rem- edied when brought to the attention of the proper officials. Many of the foreign exhibits were contributed to the Bureau of Edu- cation for its museum. All the Japanese exhibit, large portions of the 29 30 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. French and the English exhibits, except those of Professor Stayne, the Sheffield School Board, Th. Nordenfeldt, and Bath, went to the Bureau. The Bath exhibit was given to the museum of hygiene of the United States Navy Department. The exhibits of Professor Stayne, the Shef- field School Board, and Th. Nordenfeldt were packed, marked, and turned over to the officers of the Exposition to be returned to their owners. FAVORS RECEIVED. It would be impossible to enumerate in full those persons and insti- tutions that have placed the Department of Education under obligations by reason of favors granted and kindness shown. It may not be amiss to mention a few from whom the Department has received great assistance. William O. Eogers, Esq., and liev. D. L. Mitchell, of New Orleans, were especially helpful. The Louisiana Educational Society placed its con- venient rooms at the disposal of the head of the educational interests of the Exposition and his assistants. Tulane University opened its doors to the friends of education, whether they came as individuals or in bodies, and they received a most cordial welcome from Col. William Preston Johnston, the eminent president, and his assistants. The Bu- reau of Education had at all times the sympathy and co-operation of officers of the Interior Department exhibit, and its thanks and those of the Educational Department of the Exposition are due to its secretaries, Hon. H. M. Teller and Hon. L. Q. C. Lamar ; to its representatives, Hon. Benjamin Butterworth and Marcellus Gardner, Esq. j and to its chief clerk at the Exposition, Col. H. W. Coffin. 30 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. letter of trai^^smission to the commissioner of eduoatio:n^. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, November 21, 1885. Dear Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a catalogue of edu- cational material exhibited at the World's Industrial and Cotton Cen- tennial Exposition. A few exhibits not in the Department of Education either were not catalogued or the catalogue was not furnished ; there- fore they do not appear in these pages. ARRANGEMENT. The arrangement of the catalogue corresponds nearly with the order required by the logical relations of exhibits and the preferences of State school officers. The unclassified exhibits of the National Bureau of Ed- ucation are presented at the beginning, prefaced by a statement of the work of the Bureau, and of the special exhibits displayed under its im- mediate control. Catalogues of State educational exhibits follow. These preserve, usually, the peculiarities wrought into them by their authors. Generally they are prefaced by an outline of the school system of the State. The lists of text- books and school appliances follow immediately the catalogue of city school exhibits. The reason of this is that city school exhibits represent the public school system, and the public schools are the i)rlncipal purchasers and users of school books and appliances. From this point onward the arrangement conforms approximately to the classification of schools in your annual report. Museums, cabinets, models for technical instruction, laboratory and gymnastic appliances are brought into relation with the exhibits of colleges and schools of science. The enumeration of articles exhibited by societies, or from foreign countries, completes the catalogue. COLLECTION. The lists of articles have been obtained from persons in charge of ex- hibits whenever practicable. Endeavors to obtain them were begun 31 62 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. even before the opening of the Exposition. Personal solicitation often renewed failed sometimes to produce satisfactory response. By the use of your circular letter of February last much was accomplished. That this catalogue is not complete is not the fault of the compilers or the Bureau; for some who have been asked many times for their portion have never supplied it. The work of collecting and j)reserving the data and preparing certain sections of the catalogue was performed by Henry H. Piper, A. B., with painstaking and accuracy. Mr. Charles H. Rich- ardson prepared the material for the section relating to chemical and physical apparatus. ARRANGEMENT. If excuses are needed because the entries in tlie catalogue do not con- form to a single standard, they are found in the variety and amount of the material to be catalogued, the number of persons unused to cata- loguing engaged necessarily in the work, and the limited time at the disposal of any one concerned. An alphabetical arrangement has pre- dominated. Departure from it has been made whenever clearness of explanation or correctness of impression required. The lack of uni- ibrmity is compensated by the introduction of excellences characteristic of different cataloguers. A study of these would aid materially in the preparation of a set of rules for future use in expositions and pedagog- ical museums. HISTORICAL MATTER. The historical and statistical matter presented at intervals is of much value in enabling the reader to judge correctly of the significance of exhibits. The work of schools newly established and still struggling agairst prejudice and indifference possesses an interest not existing in case where material is sent from schools long established and generously supported. The statistics of education formed in many cases distinct and attractive exhibits, useful in indicating to the emigrant or capital- ist the intelligence and social condition of communities offering homes or investments. They also stir up the educational laggards and the unwilling tax-payers. They enlighten and direct the teachable citizen of ignorant but aspiring communities, and furnish him arguments for the support of schools and the promotion of education. . FOREIGN EXHIBITS. Catalogues, more or less complete, of exhibits from foreign countries are appended. A few small exhibits, as those of Belgium and Hon- duras, and the material included with the Mexican exhibit and not separately arranged in it, do not appear. The catalogue of the Japanese exhibit is very complete, being a description rather than an enumeration. These catalogues are full of information of the educational condition and peculiarities of the countries the exhibits represent. Nothing can show the drift of the French Republic, the rapid modification of the LETTER TRANSMITTING CATALOGUE. 33 Japanese people, better than tbe display of tlie material and methods used in the preparation of their children for industry', influence, and citizenship. These exhibits are produced by the same instrumentalities that are producing the history of these nations for the next fifty years. The omissions from the catalogue can be supi)lied, in cases where the material unmentioned is meritorious, from the list of awards made by the educational jury. Few exhibits of value escaped its notice, or, being- noticed, did not receive recognition. Altogether the catalogue fairly represents the great collection of edu- cational material at the recent Exposition. The opportunity to see it is past ; the chance to know of it, to study its lessons, and to refer to it for information, will remain indefinitely, and become more advan- tageous than the temporary exhibition of the articles themselves. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, LYNDOIT A. SMITH, Representative, Bureau of Education, W. I. and C. G. Exposition. Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education^ 7950 COT 3 33 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION. John Eaton, Commissioner. DESCBIPTIVE SKETCH OF THE BUBEAU. The Bureau of Education was created ' ' for the purpose of collecting such statistics as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and Territo- ries, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education. ' ' It will be perceived that the chief duty of the office under the law is to act as an ed- ucational exchange. Exercising and seeking to exercise no control whatever over its thousands of correspondents, the office occupies a position as the recipient of voluntary information which is unique. European ministries require paid subordinates to furnish the information needed for the compilation of their official reports; but at considerable expense of time and trouble the great body of intelligent educators of this country gratu- itously furnish a mass of information concerning their work, which in character and extent is believed to surpass what is brought together anywhere else. In collecting this information, the main reliance is placed, as has been intimated, upon correspondence ; but the exchange of publications and appliances and the purchase of books, pamphlets, and educational apparatus are also resorted to. The results have been a very large and continually increasing correspondence, an educational library of great value, and the rudiments of a most interesting museum. The language of the law already quoted authorizes the Eureau to enter upon a wide field of research, sends it to the study of school systems elsewhere prevalent, and leads to inquiry as to the ministries of instruction in the several European states, as to the useful suggestions in foreign educational reports and journals, and as to the systems of training in the universities, gymnasien, realschulen, schools of architecture and draw- ing, and the various institutions for primary education in every civilized community or state, in order that whatever is peculiar or excellent in each may be collected, with a view to the assistance of our educators in their work. All this, with the educational collections Irom our country, is presented by the Bureau in annual reports, each giving abstracts of the various classes of instruction (such as pri- mary, secondary, superior, professional, and special), with lists and statistics of all noticeable institutions and a general summary of the whole educational field; in occa- sional circulars of information, of which 68 have been published since 1870, besides special reports on topics of particular importance and smaller publications on topics of minor moment; and in written answers to inquiries on school matters from a great variety of sources, both in this country and abroad. The amount of information conveyed by these means with respect to educational sys- tems, school laws, and important institutions is such as has never previously been made 34 BUEEAU OF EDUCATION. 35 generally accessible in the United States, such as no agency belonging merely to a sinj^Ic State could possibly have gathered, and such as private persons could uot have ol)t;iiui;d, even with vast labor and at great expense. In obedience to the law requiring the Bureau of Education to diffuse iulormation re- specting the organization and management of schools and school systems, and luethods of teaching, it has sought to reach people where they congregate in large masses. It has made a display, at expositions of national or international importance, of such evi- dences of improved methods and appliances as could be shown either from the collection it has made for permanent use, or from institutions and individuals choosing to display through the medium of the Bureau. The Bureau has not only displayed articles from its own material, but has also superintended collective exhibits of educational material and appliances. The following circular gives a correct idea of the logical representa- tion of education made under the immediate charge of the Bureau : Flan. — The intention of the exhibit of the Bureau of Education was to show in logical sequence the material of education in all grades and forms. States and institutions seemed to have a less wide field to draw from, and to have peculiarities best shoAvn by separate exhibits. Then, too, there is much material sent to a great exposition which is valuable and instructive, antl which cannot be shown advantageously unless grouped with other simi- lar articles. The arrangement of the Bureau exhibit enabled those in charge of it to bring into harmonious relations and appropriate surroundings many pieces of apparatus and much scholar's work. Charts of history are hung around a model of thatcemer of American history, the National Capitol. The various devices for instruction in number find a place on the same shelf. Maps and globes are gathered for the most part around a single center. School architecture. — In the logical arrangement of the exhibit school architecture holds a fundamental place. The child of tender years, susceptible to every injurious in- fluence from impure atmosphere and unequal heating, needs a school-room with acces- sories that will not impair its health or implant germs of future disease. Such a school building is shown as a crown-piece among the models of school-houses. The model is of wood, constructed so as to show the location of all air passages, the flues used in venti- lation, the dressing rooms, the stairways, and the means of lighting. The building from which the model is taken is one recently erected in the city of Washington, and embodies the results of years of study by the school oflficials, especially the superintend- ent. It combines excellent ventilation, suitable heating, lighting in sufiQcient amount and from the right direction, convenience of ingress and egress, and economy of con- struction. The plans of the building and a diagram of a cross-section accompany the model. The other representations of school buildings are designed to unite with this in showing the progress in school architecture, from the log house of the newly settled regions and days fast going by, to the more modern and convenient rural and village schools. Photographs and plans of schools in Denver, Colo., show admirable arrangement and appropriate architecture. The plans of the Whittier and Emerson buildings are especiiilly elaborate. The fresh-air passages are colored blue ; those for the pure air after it is beated are red; and those for the impure air are black. The heating is a system of indirect radi- ation. The plans approved by the Maryland educational authorities for country school- houses are also found in this section. Early child life. — The early education of the child and his care before entering the public school are shown by the kindergarten and kitchen-garden displays and a collec- tion of photographs and articles from the Fitch creche, at Bulfalo, N. Y. This institution is a home for little children whose mothers are away from them at work. The children are taken care of, and those of suitable age are instructed in a kindergarten. Photo- graphs of the pound, the dining-room, the wardrobe, and dormitories are interesting. Infants' clothing and toilet sets, and cribs and cradles are shown. Kindergarten. — The kindergarten display is located apart from the main portion of the Bureau exhibit, in a room at a sunny corner of the gallery. Here a class is instructed five times a week by Mrs. Anna B. Ogden, a teacher now employed by the Bureau. The class is comprised of children from homes near the Exposition grounds, and attracts a con- siderable circle of parents and visitors. Much interest in the class is manifested by those passing through the gallery, and many return for a second view of the busy children. The exhibits of kindergarten work are from schools in distant portions of the country, Washington, San Francisco, Indian Territory. Much of the material displayed has been 35 36 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. furnished by the manufacturers, and has been wrought into designs illustrative of the system, by a skillful teacher and student of kindergarten principles. Kitchen-garden. — The kindergarten room is occupied in the altemoon four days in the week, Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, by a class in kitchen-garden. This system of instruction is an application of kindergarten methods to the instruction of girls in household duties. "It is a combination of songs, exercises, and plays de- signed in a thoroughly practical way to train a child in simple housework. " It is divided into six parts or occupations, including such operations as kindling fires, waiting on the door, the care of rooms, laundry work, and cooking. The class is conducted by Miss Olivia Tracy, a pupil and assistant of the founder of the system. The music for the ex- ercises is supplied from a fine Weber piano, loaned by the manufacturers. Primary schools. — The primary section includes apparatus directly adapted to the younger classes of scholars and material produced by them. The apparatus includes charts to be used in teaching reading, spelling, and arithmetic, slates in frames and in covers, crayons used in blackboard work, blackljoards, a dissected map, outline maps, and object-lesson cards of various kinds. Seats of sizes used in primary schools are ar- ranged with the exhibit, and some text-books are put here on account of their special use by young children. The scholars' work for all the grades was furnished by the public schools of Washing- ton, as that city was most accessible to the Bureau of Education and has excellent schools. The primary material from these schools represents actual work done in the lower grades, when the pupil first enters upon study. It consists of copy-books, movement exercises in penmanship, samplers (collections of miscellaneous school work), compositions, slate work, and map drawing. The material, except that of the last two classes, is in bound volumes, placed on desks representing those actually used in Washington. The slate work is partly in a counter case and partly on the wall, where the map drawing is dis- played. Grammar schools. — The grammar school section contains much of the apparatus and material contributed by manufacturers and publishers. The collections of text-books common to public schools are displayed in counter cases. The globes and maps are most appropriately located here. The material for teaching sewing and articles of cloth- ing made by pupils in the Winthrop School, Boston, fill one case. Another contains home-made physical apparatus and models to be used in teaching drawing. A most noticeable feature of this section of the exhibit is the putty maps made by children un- der instruction. They show countries in relief and indicate natural productions and re- sources by little pieces of minerals or grains of wheat, rice, or corn. A child knows a country well alter he has made a miniature of its coast, rivers, and mountains, and lo- cated its principal cities. The other work from Washington consists of bound volumes of samplers, copy-books, drawing-books, compositions, examinations, and the like. Pho- tographs of school buildings and interiors, a map showing 'the location of schools in the District of Columbia, and astronomical charts, are on the walls of this section. JBiffh schools. — The high school exhibit includes the text-books used in the Washing- ton High School; photographs of the building, the cadets, the chemical and botanical laboratories, the library, drill hall, drawing-room, and physics lecture room; bound vol- umes containing catalogues, examination papers, essays, observation papers (i)otany), and miscellaneous exercises in the languages, sciences and mathematics, history and political science, and business training. , Across the aisle from the high school exhibit, or between it and the normal displays, are collections of bound volumes of school work from Atlanta, Ga., and Leavenworth, Kans. ; drawing from Oak Park, a suburb of Chicago; a model of the National Capitol, surrounded by historical charts and photographs of historic interest; and a collection of drawiugs representing the work of each grade of the Washington public schools. It was put in its present form and orderly arrangement by the special teacher of drawing. Fur- niture suitable for high schools is shown in the vicinity. Normal schools. — The normal school exhibits are from the Maryland State Normal School, at Baltimore, and the Washington Normal School. While these displays are alike in many respects, they are sufficiently unlike to aid each other in making a complete exhibit. The normal exhibit from Washington contains much material designed for the education of quite young children. Seed cards for number lessons, worsteds for color lessons, tin coins for trading, mounted leaves to teach their forms and sizes, linen tracings for story making, and minerals to illustrate this department of natural history, are skillfully prepared for use in the school-room. One hundred mounted botanical specimens are placed on screens and covered with glass. Portfolios of drawings and de- signs from plant and geometrical forms, frames of designs shaded and in colors, and pho- tographs of the school-room are exhibited. The exhibit of the Maryland State Normal School has portfolios of maps, reading charts, history charts, original designs, rapid crayon drawings, examination papers, bo- 36 BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 37 tanical specimens, etc. Leaves from these portfolios are shown on wall space so as to illustrate the nature of the covered exhibit. Books of sketches and drawings, photo- graphs of blackboard work, a picture of the building, and views of its interior are pre- sented. The distinctive feature of the display is the work in sewing. A portlblio of pieces shows the different steps in teaching sewing. Two cases are filled with hand- sewing, embroidery, and similar evidences of woman's handiwork, all attractive in ap- pearance and creditably executed. Colleges and universities. — Colleges and universities occupy a space adjacent to normal schools, and have a varied but not large display. Photographs of buildings, plans of grounds, and the literature of the institutions make up a large part of the collection. Conspicuous among the objects are models of engineering construction (bridge, wharf, tunnel, etc.), from the University of Pennsylvania. The museum of the Bureau of Ed- ucation is represented by a series of miniature ploughs showiug the improvements made in this instrument, whichmight justly be termed an index of agricultural progress; and also by a set of models for use in teaching descriptive geometry. Surveying instruments and cabinets of minerals add to the completeness of the college exhibit. Gymnaaium. — Physical culture, instruction in art, and the use of the library, accom- pany, or should accompany, every grade of instruction. They are therefore grouped in the space beyond the college exhibit, which represents the culmination of public and gen- eral education. The collection of gymnastic apparatus is chosen so as to represent such physical training as will make of students, not acrobats or athletes, but healthy men and women. Much of the apparatus is of recent design and prepared after a long experience with gymnasiums and college students. Weight, height, strength of hands, and strength of lungs, are noted, and such measurements may be made as will indicate the stroug and weak points of each individual. Art instruction. — The art display is peculiarly industrial, and is from the public schools of Chicago, the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, and the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art. The Chicago exhibit includes specimens from all the grades of instruction usual in public schools; that of the Philadelphia School of Design for Women has a preponderance of designs for wall papers, cloths, and carpets, and includes specimens of carpets in which the design is wrought out; and that of the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art is accompanied by ornamental work in plaster. These institutions are not neglectful of fine art, although their purpose is to prepare their students for earning their livelihood in the industries; and many pieces exhibited are the product of high artistic skill, and merit notice and close examination as such. Library. — The library section contains material customarily found in an educational library and reading room — educational reports, higher text-books, pedagogical literature, educational periodicals, and the like. The reports of the Bureau of Education and the publications of Hon. Henry Barnard are conspicuous by their number. The most num- erous collection of literary publications, including an elegant edition of Longfellow's works, is from Houghton, Mifflin & Co. A set of the registers, records, cases for card catalogues, and other appliances, useful in conducting a library, is worthy of the in- spection of all connected with library management or desiring information on the subject. Physical and chemical laboratory. — A combined laboratory for phj'sics and chemistry was contemplated in the first plans for an exhibit by the Bureau. A gentleman who had given much study to the most convenient arrangement of a school-room lor labora- tory work commenced the plan for this section, but died before its completion. This and the limitations of space caused a modification of the plan. The present arrangement is suggestive, and the equipment of the laboratories excellent. Manj' experiments can be shown by the gentleman in charge, and electrical phenomena are given prominence. The solar microscope shows in a most interesting manner the same things that can be seen by an ordinary microscope; and the curiosities of polarized light are shown to visit- ors. A fine exhibit of optical goods from Bausch, Lomb & Co. is included in the lab- oratory space; and E. B. Benjamin, of New York, James W. Queen & Co., of Philadel- phia, and E. S. Ritchie & Sons, of Boston, are large contributors to the display. Medical and nurse-training schools. — Medical education is represented by^auatomical models, obstetrical instruments, chemical apparatus, and professional literature. The photographs of many faculties of medicine are collected. An interesting portion of this display is that furnished by nurse-training schools. Their exhibits are photographs of hospitals, hospital wards, interiors and exteriors of homes for nurses, and the nurses themselves. The strength of mind and body of nurses, made obvious by their photo- graphs, indicates partially the severe course of training and experience which sifts out weak material from the sisterhood of trained nurses and insures the quality of those who are allowed to graduate at these schools. Schools for the blind. — The collective exhibit of schools for the blind is the first of a series of displays of the education of the defective and delinquent cla.'sses. The books used by them and printed in raised letters of several varieties; the blocks and other ap- 37 38 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. pliances used in mathematical study, the fabrics knit by their sensitive hands, and the forms of industry they are able to pursue are here represented as far as possible. Com- paratively little is present to show the musical opportunities and capacities of the blind, except some compositions from a blind boy of Mississippi. Among the institutions largely represented are those of New York, Ohio, and Louisiana. tSchoolsfor the deaf and duvtb. — The educatiou of the deaf and dumb is well illustrated by the objects collected from their schools, and by specimens of their handiwork after leaving school. The largest exhibits are from the Institution lor the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, New York City; the Illinois Institution lor the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, Jacksonville, and the Mississippi Institution lor the Deaf and Dumb, Jack- son. The first-named institution prepared its display at home and sent a gentleman of rare artistic ability to place it. The products of the art and industrial departments are displayed to the best advantage, the paintings, metal work, tiles, and art needle-work being made to contribute to the appearance of the ruder constructions of the shop. The Illinois institution has a varied exhibit, including bound volumes of examination papers, sketches and portraits in pencil and crayon, shoes, and the like. Many institutions and individuals are represented by the works of art and mechanism displayed. The collec- tion owes its extent and quality largely to Prof. J. K. Dobyns, superintendent of the Mississippi institution. Reform schools. — Reformatory education is shown by various exhibits, chiefly from in- dustrial departments. Clothing from the Colorado State Industrial School, sewing from the Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, wood-work from the Minnesota Reform School, and brushes from the Newark City Home are prominent exhibits. The photographs from the Connecticut State Relbrm School give indications of the enlightened methods of dealing with young offenders, by giving them homes instead of congregating them in prison-like buildings. Schools for the feeble-minded. — Two institutions for the instruction of the feeble-minded, tho.se in Kentucky and Minnesota, present exhibits of the work of this class of youth. The work is not shown because of its superiority, but because it proves that much may be accomplished in the way of preparing those low in intelligence to become useful men and women. FubUcations. — Report of the Commissioner of Education, with circulars and documents accompanying the same, 18G8. Special Report of the Commissioner of Education on the condition and improvement of public schools in the District of Columbia, 1868.^ Annual reports of the Commissioner of Education ibr the years 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882-'83. Contributions to the annals of medical progress and medical education in the United States before and during the war of Independence,by Joseph M[eredith] Toner, M. D., 1874. Public libraries in the United States of America; their hi.story, condition, and manage- ment, special report, 1876. Coutriljutions to the history of medical education and medical institutions in the United States of America, 1776-1876, special report, by N. S. Davis, A. M., M. D., 1877. Industrial education in the United States, special re- port, 1883. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education for August, 1870. Contents : Illit- eracy of 1860; educational statistics; Virchow on school-room diseases; education of French and Prussian conscripts; school organization, &c. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education for July, 1871. Contents: Public instruction in^Sweden and Norway ; the folkehoiskoler of Denmark. Same for November, 1871: Methods of school discipline. Same for December, 1871: Compulsory education. Same for January, 1872 : German and other foreign universities. Same for February, 1872 : Public instruction in Greece, the Argentine Republic, Chili, and Ecuador; statistics respecting Japan and Portugal ; technical education in Italy. Same for March, 1872 : Vital statistics of college graduates; distribution of college students in 1870-'71 ; vital statistics in the United States, with diagrams, &c. Same for April, 1872 : Relation of education to labor. Same for June, 1872 : Education in the British West Indies. Same for July, 1872 : The kindergarten. Same for November, 1872 : American education at the Vienna Ex- position of 1873. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Educatiou for the year 1873. Contents: No. 1. Historical sumtuary and reports on the systems of public instruction in Spain, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Portugal. No. 2. Schools in British India. No. 3. Account of college commencements for the summer of 1873, in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. No. 4. Lists of publications by members of certain college faculties and learned societies in the United States, 1867-1872. No. 5. Account of college commencements during 1873 in the Western and Southern States. ' Valuable reports on Technical Education and Education in Europe were also prepared, but were not ordered to be printed. 38 BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 39 Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1874. Contenis : No. 1. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, January, 1874. No. 2. Drawing in public schools. The present relation of art to education in the United States. No. 3. History of secondary instruction in Germany. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1875. Contents : No. 1. Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1875. No. 2. Education in Japan. No. 3. Public instruction iu Belgium, Kussia, Turkey, Servia, and Egypt. No. 4. Waste of labor in the work of education. No. 5. Educational exhibit at the Cen- tennial in 187G. No. 6. Reformatory, charitable, and industrial schools in the United States. No. 7. Constitutional provisions in regard to education iu the several States. No. 8. Schedule of students' work for the Ceutennial Exhibition, 187G. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1877. Contents: No. 1. Education in China. No. 2. Public instruction in Finland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Wiirtemberg, and Portugal; the TJuiversity of Leipzig. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1878. Contents: No. 1. The training of teachers in Germany. No. 2. Elementary education in London. Circulars of Inlormatiou of the Bureau of Education for the year 1879. Contents: No. 1. Training-schools for nurses. No. 2. Proceedings of the Department of Superintend- ence of the National Educational Association in 1877 and 1879, and of the conference of State college presidents held in Ohio in 1877. No. 3. Value of common-school education to common labor. No. 4. Training-schools of cookery. No. 5. American education as described by the French Commission to the International Exhibition of 1876. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1880. Contents: No. 1. College libraries as aids to instruction. No. 2. Proceedings of the Department of Su- perintendence of the National Educational Association in 1880. No. 3. Legal rights of children. No. 4. Rural school architecture. No. 5. English rural schools. No. 6. Teaching of chemistry and physics in the United States. No. 7. The spelling reform. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1881. Contents: No. 1 . Construction of library buildings. No. 2. Relation of education to industry and tech- nical training in American schools. No. 3. Proceedings of the Department of Super- intendence of the National Educational Association in 1881. No. 4. Education in France. No. 5. Causes of deafness among school children and the instruction of children with impaired hearing. No. 6. Efi'ects of student life on the eyesight. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1882. Contents: No. 1. Inception, organization, and management of training-schools for nurses. No. 2. Pro- ceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association for 1882. No. 3. The University of Bonn. No. 4. Industrial art in schools. No. 5. Maternal schools in France. No. 6. Technical instruction in France. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1883. Contenis: No. 1. Legal j)rovisions respecting the examination and licensing of teachers. No. 2. Co- education of the sexes in the public schools of the United States. No. 3. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association at its meeting at Washington, February 20-22. No. 4. Recent school-law decisions. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1884. Contents: No. 1. Meeting of the International Prison Congress at Rome, iu October, 1884. No. 2. The teaching, practice, and literature of shorthand, by Julius Ensign Rockwell, stenog- rapher. No 3. Illiteracy in the United States in 1870 and 1880, with diagrams and observations, by Charles Warren, M. D., with an appendix on national aid to education, by J. L. M. Curry, L.L. D., general agent of the Peabody Education Fund. No. 4. Pro- ceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association at its meeting at Washington, February 12-14, 1884. No. 5. Suggestions respecting the ed- ucationalexhibitattheWorld'sIndustrialandCottonCentennialExposition. No. 6. Ru- ral schools : progress in the past; means of improvement iu the future. No. 7. Aims and methods of the teaching of physics, by Prof. Charles K. Wea4, A. M., of the University of Michigan. Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education for the year 1885. Contents: No. 1. City school systems iu the United States, by John D. Philbrick, LL. T>. Bulletins : A manual of the common native trees of the Northern United States, 1877. The Brussels congress, 1880. The Indian school at Carlisle Barracks, 1880. Industrial education in Europe, 1880. Vacation colonies for sickly school children, 1880. Progress of western education in China and Siam, 1880. Medical colleges in the United States, 188C. Educational tours in France, 1880. Comparative statistics of elementary education in fifty principal countries, 1881. Fifty years of freedom iu Belgium, education in Malta, &c., 1881. Library aids, 1881. Recognized medical colleges in the United States, 1881. The discipline of the school, 1881. Education and crime, 1881. Instruction in morals and civil government, 1882. Comparative statistics of elementary, secondary, and superior 39 40 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. education in sixty principal countries, 1882. National Pedagogic Congress of Spain, 1882. Natural sciencein secondary schools, 1882. High schools for girls in Sweden, 1882. Planting trees in school grounds, 1883. Comparative statistics of elementary, secondary, and superior education in sixty principal countries, sheet. The Bufalini prize, 1883. Education in Italy and Greece, 1883. Statistics regarding national aid to education, 1884. Preliminary circular respecting the exhibition of education at the World's In- dustrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 1884. Building for the children in the South. Eeport of the director of the American school of classical studies at Athens, for the year 1882-'83. Planting trees in school grounds and the celebration of Arbor Day. Miscellaneous : Free-school policy in connection with leading Western railways, 1872. A statement of the theory of education in the United States of America, as approved by many leading educators, 1874. The National Bureau of Education; itshistory, work, and limita- tions, 1875. Educational conventions and anniversaries during the summer of 1 876. The International Conference on Education, held in Philadelphia July 17 and 18, in connection with the international exhibition of 1876. Sketch of the Philadelphia Normal School for Girls, 1883. A historical sketch of the State Normal School at Albany, N. Y. ; and a his- tory of its graduates for forty years, 1884. Answers to inquiries about the U. S. Bureau of Education; its work and history, 1883. Building occupied by the Bureau. — Plan of basement, showing laboratory, document rooms, &c. Plan of first floor, showing document and mail-room, room for revising and proof-reading, and rooms for tabulation of statistics, accessions to museum, and art edu- cation. Plan of second floor, showing rooms of commissioner, chief clerk, correspond- ence and files, special research, copyists, and abstracts. Plan of third floor, lil^rary. Plan of fourth floor, museum. Photographs of exterior of building, rooms of conwaissioner, chief clerk, statistics, files and correspondence, and rooms in basement, library, and museum. Flans. — Eighteen plans showing statistical summary of institutions, ipstructors, and students. Fifteen plans showing the location of the institutions reporting to the Bureau of Education, except "city schools," "institutions for secondary instruction, " "indus- trial schools. ' ' One plan: Statistics of United States public schools, showing school pop- ulation, enrollment, average daily attendance, and proportion of male to female teachers. One plan showing ratio of students to teachers in the various schools, except "indus- trial schools. " Five plans showing illiteracy: (1) Total illiteracy of persons ten years old and upwards; (2) illiteracy of white persons ten years old and upwards; (3) illit- eracy of colored persons ten years old and upwards; (4) illiteracy of white adults; (5) illiteracy of colored adults. Charts. — Charts showing illiteracy, patents, and postal receipts for 1880: (1) Number of illiterate adults per 100,000 of adult population; (2) the number of patents per 100,000 of adult population; and (3) the number of dollars deficit or excess per 100,000 of adult population in the United States postal service. Chart showing the distribution of the Peabody fund. Models. — Models illustrating progress in school architecture : Log house, country school- house, village school-house, Dennison School, Washington, D. C. , with floor plans and transverse section, 40 OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIRS. HiKAM Price, succeeded by J. D. C. Atkins, Commissioner. INDIAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT CAELISLE, PA. Exhibit A. Case 1. — Specimens of darning and patching by Indian girls from 9 to 13 years of age. Case 2. — A child's dress made by Nelly Aspenall, a Pawnee girl, aged 17 years. Case 3. — Specimens of pottery painting by Carlisle students, original designs. Case 4. — Specimens of joiner work by Amos Lone Hill, a Sioux, aged 20 years. Case 5. — Girl's uniform dress worn by the Carlisle students, made by Louise Corne- lius, Oneida, aged 16 years. Case 6. — Boy's uniform suitwornby Carlisle students, cut and made by Webster, Osage, aged 18 years, under instruction two and one-half years, working half day of each. Case 7. — Child's dress made by Rosa White Thunder, a Sioux girl, aged 17 years, under instruction one year. Case 8. — Small uniform suit cut and made by Abe Sommers, a Cheyenne, aged 18, under instruction two years, working half days. Case 9. — A pair of breast chains made by Frank Conroy, a Sioux, aged 19 j'ears, worked at his trade half-time for one year. Case 10. — Specimens of welding and forging by Edgar Fire Thunder, a Sioux, aged 18, three years under instruction, working half-time. Case 11. — Contains pair of boots made by Van Horn, a Cheyenne, aged 20 years, wholly instructed at Carlisle, and now employed as shoemaker at the Government Indian School , Lawrence, Kansas. Pairs of girls' shoes by Luke Phillips, Nez Perc6, and Frank Engler, Cheyenne. Case 12. — Pillow sham made by Nancy Mcintosh, a Creek Indian girl, aged 17 years. Case 13. — Skirt made by Ida White Face, Apache, aged 17 years, at school ten months. Case 14. — Boys' shirts made by Emma.Hand, Sioux, and Sarah Sitting Bull, Arapaho girl. Exhibit B. No. 1. — A set of English coach harness, made by Kias, a Cheyenne, aged 20, under in- struction at Carlisle 4 years. ATo. 2. — Heavy wagon harness, regular government pattern, 200 double sets made for Indian Department yearly. No. 3. — Articles of tinware, made by Carlisle students, consisting of coffee boilers, buckets, pans, cups, etc. The school makes tinware for about sixty Indian agencies. No. 4. — Specimens of boys' and girls' shoes made and worn by Carlisle students. The school makes all the girls' shoes and a large part of the boys' shoes and boots, and repairs 150 pairs per month. No. 5. — Specimens of Indian art in leather, by the harness-makers' apprentices in their odd moments. No. 6. — A carriage axle welded at one heat by Edgar Fire Thunder, Sioux, mounted by William Ayawat, Comanche. No. 7. — A panel door and table top by John Dixon, a Pueblo, aged 18. No. 8. — A footstool, made by John Meuaul and Henry Kendall, Pueblo boys of Ifi years. 41 42 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Exhibit C. No. 1. — Specimens of map drawing by Carlisle students, from memory; also original drawings and copies. No. 2.— A set ol' photographs, illustrating the Carlisle school, its buildings and students: also some contrast pictures showing the changes produced by school-training; also pict- ures of iudian parents visiring the school contrasted with those of their children at school, givmg possibilities for the coming generation of Indians. No. 3. — Exiiibit of school-room work, specimens of all grades from three and a half months in school to live years, embracing writing from copy, original composition, ex- amples iu arithmetic, questions in geography and history, specimens of monthly home letters, exercises in language, analy.sis and parsing, book-keeping, &c. No. 4. — Copy of the "Morning Star," an eight-page monthly, published at Carlisle In- dian School in the interest of Indian education and civilization. The type-setting and all tlie mechanical work of the paper are done by Indian apprentices. From 3,0U0 to 5,000 copies are printed monthly. ILLUSTRATION OF INDIAN PROGRESS. Prepared by Miss Alice C. Fletchee. This exhibit sets forth the ijrogr ess and present status reached by the Indians, by showing their past life and present condition. For the sake of clearness, one tribe, the Omahas, was selected to exemjdify the general feature of primitive Indian life and pres- ent industrial progress. They have recently reached the stage of self-support upon land granted in severalty, and their history presented no scenes calculated to arouse unplea.s- ant memories. The exhibit contained the following articles: No. 1. — Photograph of ancient sod dwelling. The chief in full dress approaching the lodge, followed by his wife, showing the manner in which man and wife walk together according to Indian custom. No. 2. — Photograph of sod dwelling, giving a view of the long, projecting entrance. The chief lying down smoking, while his wife stands at the door talJcing with him. No. 3. — Photograph of sod dwelling and of the rack on which the braided ears of corn are hung up to dry, preparatory to storage for winter use. Two women seated in the foreground, one braiding the corn husks so that the corn can be hung up, and the other pounding thfe corn iu a large wooden mortar with a long wooden pestle. No. 4. — Photograph of poles fastened to a pony, showing how ten ts and household goods were transported when the tribe moved out on the hunt. No. 5. — Photograph showing the setting of the tent, stretching of the tent-cloth, women carrying wood, and the hunter returning from the chase. No. G. — Photograph of the tent when set up, the Indian man in full regalia, and the wife •seated at the tent door. No. 7. — Pen and ink drawing giving a bird's-eye view of the tribal circle, showing the' division and location of the gentes, and the position of the sacred tents. No. 8— Tracing ol'a plan of the reservation as it appeared in 1862, with the legend shovring the villages, individual and government breakings, and the one military road through the country. No. 9. — Pen and ink drawing from the sketch made by an Indian of the vilLage of the 'make-believe white men," as these progressive Indians were stigmatized by the rest of the tribe. No. 10. — Photograph showing the present mode of conveying corn by the wagon load to the grist-mill, marking j) great change since the day of braiding the corn husks, and pounding the maize in the mortar. No. 11. — Photograph setting forth the story of one man's labor and accomplishment in ten years, showing his home, out-buildings, and part of his farm. No. 12. — Photograph of a group of Omaha Indians with the agent and his assistants, as they appear today, one Indian in ancient costume to mark the contrast with the past. No. 13. — Photograph of the agent's house. No. 14. — Map showing the reservation as now held in severalty. No. 15. — Photograph of the mission building erected iu 1858 by the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. 42 OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIES. 43 ^0. 16. — Photograph of Omaha girls at the mission school, with the missionary corps. No. 17. — Photograph of the government school with the scholars and the teachers. No. 18. — Photograph of an Indian carpenter at work in his own shop. i\"o. 19. — Photograph of 31 Omaha boys and girls placed at Carlisle School, Pennsyl- vania, in 1882. No. 20. — Photographs: First, of the two cottages built at Hampton Institute, Virginia, by two ladies interested in the experiment, suggested by the experience of Miss Fletcher among the Omaha-s, for the combined home and school trainingofyouug married couples; second, one of the cottages with the mother seated at the window and her little child standing at the door; third, interior of the cottage, .showing the table with lamp and books and the general aspect of neatness and refinement. There were small exhibits in the Pacific Slope division of the Woman's Department from the Indian training schools at Fore.-^t Grove, Oreg., and Albuquerque, N. Mex.; and, in the exhibit of the American Missionary Association, from the normal training school at Santee Agency, Nebraska. 43 STATE SYSTEMS FLORIDA. The exhibit from Florida was entirely from her common schools, from the primary school through the graded grammar schools and the high schools, and consisted of the work of the pupils written in response to questions submitted at the time at which the work was done, and embracing the worst as well as the best, the design being to make a truthful display of the actual status of her educational progress. The Florida Agricultural College and the Deaf-Mute Institute were of so recent orgau- ization as to prevent an exhibit, even had it been thought wise to make one. In addition to the work of the common schools proper, two seminaries, one located at Tallahassee, the capital, for the west half of the State, and one at Gainesville for the east half of the State, each made an exhibit of their work. The schools represented are as follows: West Florida Seminary, academic course. — Examinations in spelling, grammar, geogra- phy, history, mathematics to trigonometry. Special work in surveying and commercial arithmetic and computation. East Florida Seminary, Gainesville. — Examinations in spelling, grammar, geography, mathematics to trigonometry, book-keeping, and special essays on subjects relevant to school study. East Jacksonville graded school. — Written work in answer to questions submitted upon the course of studies arranged tor that school, embracing the rudiments and advancing through the usual studies of a common school. Jacksonville graded, grammar school, white. — Written work in accordance with the course of study adopted for schools of such grade, and map and ornamental drawing, together with composition. Jacksonville graded grammar school, colored. — The same as the above white school, with essays from the teachers relative to the work of the teacher. Duval high school, Jacksonville. — Written work in accord with the course of study for that school and compositions by the pupils. Pine Level, Manatee County, school. — Written work, embrEicing a common school course, composition, map drawing, etc. Oakland graded school, colored. — Exhibit the same as the East Jacksonville school for the white children. Orlando, Orange County, public school. — Written work based upon questions submitted as in the case of the grammar schools, composition, map drawing, etc. St. Joseph'' s Convent school, St. Augustine (this school is operated under the laws of the State for public schools). — Written work based upon a course of study similar to that arranged for the grammar schools, and compositions, map drawings, etc. Sanford, Orange County, puhlic school. — Written work based upon questions submitted, embracing a grammar school course, composition, and map and ornamental drawing. In addition to the above there were several exhibits from schools of a similar character in the rural districts of Marion^ Duval, Putnam, and Volusia Counties. Large charts in print of the full course of study for the grammar schools and high schools of the State were also inchided in the exhibit. Several thousand pamphlets descriptive of the Florida school system, setting forth permanent and annual resources, number of school population, and essential points of school law, were provided for distribution. 44 STATE SYSTEMS ILLINOIS. 45 ILLINOIS. CITY EXHIBITS. The school system of Illiuois is well illustrated by an exhibit from the public schools of Aurora, I'rof. W. B. Powell, superintendent. This exhibit givesa very excellent idea of the public school system in its most advanced state. An exhibit somewhat smaller in size, but excellent in quality, is made by the public schools of Peoria, Professor Dougherty, principal. The Voice and Hearing School for the Deaf at Englewood made a creditable display of work by pupils. ILLINOIS INDUSTEIAL UNIVEESITY. School of art and design. — Crayon. — Studies: Mask; head of Juno; Laocoon; arranged drapery; enlargement from copy; Thorwaldsen's Cupid. Time studies: Man's head, Jrom life; young lady, from life. Charcoal. — Landscapes. Water color. — Jar and drapery; Indian skull and buffalo robe; Psyche; Cupid; lilacs; oranges; lemons, etc.; brass kettle, and vegetables; bronze lamp; military belontrings- group of Japanese objects; moonlight; sunset; autumn; summer. Time studies: Heads, vegetables, fruit, etc.; memorial window; mantel clock; octagon tile; dado for wood carving. Pen and pencil finish. — Designs: Chair; fireplace; wall cabinet; upright iron gate; up- right iron fence; four designs from same elements. Oil color. — Silver vase, inlaid and enameled; cottage lamps; fan; tea set. Clay (terra cotta and plaster). — Rosette; finial; keystone emblem; State arms; three tile^; capital; Youth and Age; architectural ornaments ; sketch (Learning and Labor); Painting, Music, and Sculpture; crocket (unfinished); copy from flat; horse and tiger; winged head from cast; acanthus leaf; two enlargements from casts, from nature. School of architecture. — Case 1. — Elementary woodwork, — First term, Xos. 1 to 2.S, in- clusive. Second term, Nos. 1 to 10, inclusive. Third term, brass cutting, eight exam- ples. Fourth term (platform A), models of staircase ; grand staircase ; roof truss; truss bridge. School of mechanical engineering. — Case 2. — Elementary shop practice, consisting of numerous patterns and examples of lathe work, planer work, filing, and chipping. Case 3. — Advanced pattern work — complete set of patterns for an upright drill press; carved work, &c. Case 4. — Principles illustrated — shock models, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; equilateral cam; sun and planet combination: Watt's crank substitute; cut-oflf valve motion; slotted link motion; intermittent gearing; heart cam; hypocycloidal coupling; adj ustable link con- nection; Peausellier's straight-line motion; intermittent and variable bevel gearing; eccentric cam; chain gearing; twisted belt; windlass motion; Stephenson's link motion ; slotted link motion; treadle motion; elliptic motion; teeth of spar gear. School of botany and horticulture. — Cases 5, 6, and 7. — Specimens of the woods of Illi- nois, vrith leaf, flower, and fruit of each as far as obtainable when the collection was pro- cured. School of agriculture. — Cases 8 and 9. — Samples of com, wheat, rye, barley, &c. , grown in all parts of the State; arranged and labeled at the Industrial University. School of chemi-'ftry. — Case 10. — Analysis of farm products, including several specimens of corn; also whe;it, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, rice, beans, peas, potatoes, red clover, prairie hay, straw, sorghum, oil cake, &c., showing the number of grams of oil, ash, albuminoids, water, fiber, and starch, respectively, in 1,000 grams of each article enumerated. Also two hundred and nine jars and bottles containing chemicals from the laboratory of the Industrial University (students' work). Case 11. — Technological exhibits, embracing the following series: Flax — (1) flax tow from breaker; (2^ sliver from breaking card; (3) sliver from finishing card; (4) yarn from spinning frame; (5) flax bagging. Hemp — (1) hemp stalk; (2) hemp tow from breaker; (3) hemp tow from breaker card; (4) hemp tow from finisher card; (5) sliver from first drawing card; (6) sliver from second drawing card; (7) yarn from ro%ing frame; (8) yarn lirom spinning frame; (9) 3-ply hemp twine for self-binder. 45 46 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. IOWA. The educational system of Iowa includes common schools, graded and ungraded, high schools, one State normal school, one agricultural college, one State university, one col- lege for the blind, one college for deaf-mutes, and nearly fifty colleges and academies. In the exhibit, of which the catalogue is herewith appended, all these institutions have been more or less completely represented. As will be readily seen, by far the larger part of the exhibit came from the common schools, private institutions contributing least. The following is the list of exhibitors contributing, with a brief list of the articles contributed by such exhibitor: Ackley public schools''^. — Manuscript work in grammar and history from the seventh grade. Physiological drawings from the seventh grade. Drawings illustrating prob- lems in physics. Map drawings. Albia public schools^. — Manuscript work from various grades. Penmanship. Copy- books bound in volumes. Map drawings. Atlantic public schools^. — Manuscript work in arithemetic and history from the eighth grade. Manuscript work in language from the sixth grade. Manuscript work in arith- metic from the fourth and seventh grades. Penmanship from map drawing from the sixth grade. Banes, J. de, Dubuque. — Display-card of photographic work. Ballingall, P. G., Oitumwa. — Silk banner with Iowa coat of arms. Bell Plains public schools. — Manuscript woi'k of all grades from first to eleventh. Drawings from sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Map drawings from the same grades. Worsted maps of Iowa. Map weaving from first grade. Box of clay models. Blackburn, 3Iiss S.,^ Vinton, Iowa. — Teachers' examination questions. Teachers' ex- amination manuscripts. Circulars showing the work of county normal institutes during a period of ten years. Burlington public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic, language, grammar, his- tory, geography, music, from all grades. Penmanship from all grades. Manuscript work in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, Latin, German, natural science, book-keeping, &c. , from the high school. Cass County public scJiools.^ — Drawings from the country schools. Map drawings from the graded schools of Marne. Map drawings from the country schools. Cedar Rapids public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from the first, second, and third grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, geography and gram- mar, from fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, grammar, and history from seventh grade. Manuscript work in political economy, English liter- ature, algebra, botany, physics, from the high school. Charles City public schools. — Manuscript work in arithmetic from all grades from third to eighth inclusive. Penmanship from third to eighth inclusive. Manuscript work in geog- raphy and language from the grades fourth to eighth inclusive. Manuscript work in his- tory from the eighth grade. Manusc:«pt work in physical geography, algebra, and word analysis from the ninth grade. Manuscript work in physics and word analysis from the tenth grade. Manuscript work in physiology and geometry from the eleventh grade. Manuscript work in political economy, Latin, and English literature from the twelfth grade. Slate work, drawings, and pencil work from the primary grades. Map draw- ing from fifth and sixth grades. Clinton public schools.^ — Manuscript work from the first and third grades. Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the fourth and fifth grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic and geography from sixth and seventh grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, grammar, and history from the eighth grade. Manuscript work in English literature, geometry, algebra, physiology, modern history, German, and Latin, from the high school. Charts of kindergarten work from the primary grades. Boxes of kin- dergarten material. Drawings from primary grades. Library blanks filled by pupils. Columbus Junction. — Manuscript work in arithmetic, grammar, geography, history, physiology, and algebra, from grammar grade. Manuscript work in grammar and geography from the intermediate grade. Map drawings from intermediate grades. Cornell College. — Framed cut of the buildings and grounds. Photographs of president and professors. Manuscript sketch of the institution. Creston public schools. — Manuscript work in language and arithnietic from the first and secon'd grades. Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the third, fourth, . fifth, and sixth grades. Manuscript work in history from the seventh and eighth grades. lAll the work bound. ^^U the work in portfolio. ^Manuscript work all bound. 46 STATE SYSTEMS IOWA. 47 Drawings from the fourth grade. Map drawings from the fifth, seventh, and eighth grades. Manuscript work in civil government and geometry from the high school. Charts, " Dntlines of Grammar" from the high school. Dannport public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, and geography from third to .seventh grades, inclusive. Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, geog- raphy, and history from the eighth and ninth grades. Manuscript work in zoology, geometry, and botany from the high school. Manuscript work in German from several grades and from the high school. Manuscript from the city training school. Mi.scella- iieous manuscript work. Drawings from grades four to nine, inclusive, and from the liigh .school. Slates from primary grades. Teachers' charts lor instruction in primary grades. Color charts i'or instruction in primary grades. Box of colors corresponding to tlie item last mentioned. Charts for instruction in mu.sic. Charts for elementary work in numbers. Program of daily exercises. Des Jloincs public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, and geography from primary and grammar grades. Inventions in paper-cutting and pa])er-lblding from primary grades. Original designs in paper-cutting from the lifth grade. Manuscript work in history from the eighth grade. Herbaria from the high school. Map drawing from the seventh and eighth grades. Slates from primary grades. Charts for primary instruction from the training school. Worsted maps of Iowa from primary grades. Worsted maps of Polk County, Iowa, from primary grades. Clay relief niaijs of Iowa from primary grades. Dubuque. — Chart of ornamental penmanship from Baylies' Commercial College. Eldora public schools. — Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the grammar grades. INIanuscript work in arithmetic, history, and geography Irom the high .schools. Book-keeping from the high school. Manuscript work in commercial arithmetic from various grades. Drawings illustrating physiology from the high school. Fort Madison public schools. — Penmanship third to eighth grades inclusive. Primary drawing. Map drawing. Grand Junction jniblic schools. — Penmanship from the primary grades. Manuscript work in grammar from the grammar grade-s. Manuscript work in arithmetic, ancient history, physical geography, United States history, from the high school. Drawings from the grammar grades and trom the high school. Green County jmblic schools. — Manuscript work from the country schools of Bristol Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Cedar Township. Map draw- ings from the country schools of Cedar Township. Miscellaneous work in manuscript from the country schools of Franklin Town.ship. Map drawings from the country schools of Franklin Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Graiit Township. Map drawings from the country schools of Grant Township. Manuscript work from Hardin Township country schools. Manuscript work from Highland Township country schools. Manuscript work from the country schools of .function Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Paton Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Washington Township. Map drawings from the country schools of Washing- ton Township. Manuscript work from the country schools of Willow Towu.ship. Hackney, W. F. — Plans and elevation for a tive-room school-house. Hardin County public schools. — Manu.script work in language, arithmetic, and history, from the country schools. Drawings from the country s(;hools. Map drawings from the country schools. Huiscarnp, J. C. — An oil painting — fruit-piece. Iowa AyricuUural College. — Herbaria from the sophomore class of 1884. Iowa College for the Blind. — Manuscript work in geometry. Two volumes, "raided let- ter." Numerous .samples of bead-work. Five brooms. One hair mattress. Onehu.sk mat. One piece rag carpet. Numerous pieces of fancy knitted work. One cane chair- bottom. Samples of thread lace. One doll and hammock. Maps (cloth) of Iowa and Louisiana. Iowa Falls public sthools.'^ — Manuscript work in geometry and physiologj' from the high school. Iowa In.'ititutionfor the Deaf and Dumb. — Two crayon portraits, enlarged from photo- graphs. Four crayon art pieces. One pen-and-ink sketch. Eleven pairs boots and shoes. One walnult office-desk. Iowa State Normal School.^ — Manuscript work in English literature, geometry, English analysis, algebra, arithmetic, and penmanship. Theses of graduating classes, 1878-'83. Notes of lectures on didactics. Notes of work in botany. Notes of laboratory work in physics. Set of drawing-books. Herbaria. Set of relief maps made in putty. Charts of phy.siological drawings. Charts for primary teaching. Charts of drawings from vaxious grades. 'All manuscript work bound, *A11 the work bound. 48 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Jefferson public schools. — Manuscript work from all grades and from the high school. Drawings illustrating problems in physics from the high school. INIap drawings from the grammar grades and the high school. Jesup public schools.^ — Manuscript work in history. Map drawings. Kingsley public schools. — Manuscript work, reading, arithmetic, geography, history, and civil government. Kossuth County public schools. — Map drawing from Greenwood Township. Le Claire public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, &c., Ixom fifth and sixth grades. Le liars public schools. — Primary work in arithmetic and penmanship. Manuscript work in language and arithmetic, from grades second to fourth, inclusive. Manuscrij)t work in geography, from the seventh grade. Manuscript work in German and political economy, from the high school. Lewis public schools. — Manuscript work in geography and history, from the eighth and ninth grades. Lyons public schools. — Manuscript work in botany and rhetoric, from the high school. 3Iarble Rock public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language, from the second, third, sixth, and eighth grades. Manuscript work in geography, from the fourth grade. Manuscript work in grammar and algebra, from the fifth grade. Manuscript work in history, English grammar, and arithmetic, from the seventh grade. Map drawings from the grammar grades. Marengo piMic schools.^ — Manuscript work in language and arithmetic, from fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. Manuscript work in history, from the eighth grade. Manu- script work in rhetoric, botany, Latin, and German, from the high school grades. Marshall County public schools.^ — Manuscript work in geography, arithmetic, language, physiology, and history, from district No. 1, Timber Creek Township; drawings from the same school ; map drawings from the same school. Slarshalltown public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language, from grades second to seventh, inclusive. McGregor public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic, geography, and history, from the grammar grades. Eeport of the public schools for the term ending December 21, 1883. Monroe public schools. — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from the first and second grades. Manuscript work in geometry and English literature from the high school. Nora Springs public schools.^ — Manuscript work in language and arithmetic from the sixth grade. Norris, H. W. — Herbaria, repesenting the Iowa flora. Oskaloosa public schools.^ — JIanuscript work in all branches, representing one day's work in all grades from firet to twelfth inclusive. Map drawings, a series of memory maps of continents. Drawing-books illustrating the work of all grades. Copies of the High School Register, a monthly journal published by pupils of the high school. Ten copies ' ' Course of Study for Oskaloosa Public Schools. ' ' School blanks of various kinds showing forms of reports, diplomas, etc. Ottumwa public schools.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from first and second grades. Manuscript work in music and language from the third and fourth grades. IManuscript work in music, arithmetic, history, and language from the fifth grade. Manuscript work in music, language, and geography from the sixth grade. Manuscript work in arithmetic, geography, and language from the seventh grade. Manuscript work in arithmetic and language from the eighth grade. Manuscript work in history, English literature, Latin, geometry, physics, and botany from the high school. Drawing from all grades above the second. Plack, W. L. — Architectural designs for school -houses (three). Pocahontas jinblic schools. — Manuscript work from the primary and grammar grades. Map drawing from the primary and grammar grades. Rockford public schools. — Manuscript work in arithmetic from the first, second, third, and iburth grades. Manuscript work in physical geography and arithmetic from the fifth grade. Manuscript work in arithmetic, physiology, history, and language from seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth grades. Oil painting, by Anna Lyon, high school. Sanborn, W. W. — Architectural designs for school-houses (five). (Buildings erected in Clinton, Sabula, and elsewhere. ) Scranton public .sc/ioo/.s'.— Manuscript work from the primary grades. Manuscript work from the intermediate grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, history, and penman- ship from the high school. ^AU work bound, 48 STATE SYSTEMS IOWA. 49 SearaborougJi public scJiooIs.^ — Manuscript work in arithmetic, grammar, physiology, and history irom the eighth grade. Manuscript work in geography from the eighth grade. Mtip drawing from the eighth grade. SMdon public schools. — Manuscript work in geography, physiology, and arithmetic from the grammar grades. Shenandoah public schools.'^ — Manuscript work in language from first, second, third, and fourth grades. JSIanuscript work in penmanship from the fifth grade. Manuscript work in grammar from the sixth and seventh grades. Manuscript work in history, geometry, and penmanship from the high school. Map drawing from the second, seventh, and eighth grades. Course of study. Shimek, B. — A collection of the land and fresh- water mollusks of Iowa. Shoup, George E. , Dubuque — Crayon sketches and oil paintings. Sidney public schools. — Manuscript work in geography, language, arithmetic, and his- tory from grammar grades. Manuscript work in language, arithmetic, geography, and penmanship from the intermediate grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, physiology, grammar, Latin, algebra, and physical geography from the high school. Sioux City public schools. — Manuscript work from the primary grades. Set of copy- books from the intermediate grades. Drawings from intermediate grades and from the grammar schools. Drawings from the high school. Map drawing from intermediate grades. Spirit Lale public schools. — Manuscript work and map drawing. Springfield public schools. — Manuscript work from various grades. Map drawipg from various grades. Springvilleimblic schools. — Drawiugs from the grammar grades. Map drawing from the grammar grades. Stcde Department. — Four glass charts displaying (1) Organization and growth of the county normal institutes for a period of ten years; (2) a graphic representation of the relation of the school population to the entire population, school population to enroll- ment, enrollment to average attendance, daily attendance to daily absence; (3) the school statistics of the State from 1848; (4) the organization of the Iowa State school system. Six linen charts illustrating graphically the increase in the number of teachers em- ployed, in school population, in number of schools, in permanent school fund, in valua- tion of school property, in total annual expenditure for school purposes. Bhmk teachers' certificates of four grades. Blank high school diploma. Blank State certificate. Sample lithographs from Des Moines. A bound set of Iowa school reports. A bound set of Iowa school laws and decisions. The report of the censuses of Iowa, 1835-'80. Bound volumes of various school jour- nals. Bound volumes of miscellaneous State documents. One volume of blanks for re- ports of district secretaries. One volume of blanks for reports of county superintend- ents. One volume of blanks for reports of district treasurers. A school-house map of the State, showing number and distribution of school-houses. Photographs of public school buildings and colleges throughout the State. State University of Iowa. — One illustrative paleontological cabinet. Laboratory note- books in biology, botany, conchology, and paleontology. Theses in zoology, botany, and civil engineering. Five photographs of drawings, illustrations for a work on pale- ontology. Sets of drawings illustrating three terms' work in instrumental drawing. Drawings illustrating first and second terms' work in free-hand drawing. A set of topo- graphical maps. Drawings in India ink and water colors. Box of mounted micro- scopic slides. Steamboat EocTc. — Charts of kindergarten work. Charts of primary drawing. Charts of physiological drawings. Charts of various work firom the grammar grades. Map drawings. Stich, John 3f., Clinton. — A set of crayon sketches and drawings. Tama County public schools. — Manuscript work in language from the ungraded schools of Oneida Township. Mannscript work in language from Gladbrook graded schools and high school. Drawings from the country schools of Columbia Township. Map draw- ings from Howard, Carroll, Lincoln, Crystal, Highland, York, and Columbia Town- ships. Worsted maps of Tama County and of the State. Union public schools. — Manuscript work in language from the intermediate grades. Manuscript work in arithmetic, language, physiology, and history from the grammar grades. Dravdngs from the grammar grades. Waterloo public schools. East Sifle. — Photographs of free-hand drawings. Photographs of school buildings. Program of daily exercises. Floor plans of school buildings. Map drawings. West Side. — Penmanship from the fourth grade. Manuscript work in I ^All work bound. 7950 COT 4 49 50 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. grannuav and arithmetic from the seventh grade. Manuscript work in history from the eighth grade. Manuscript work in algebra, history, geometry, analysis, and physical geography from the high school. Map drawing Irom the primary grades. ^West Liberty jynhlic schools. — Manuscript work in grammar, arithmetic, composition, and physiology. Dissected maps illustrating anatomy. Map drawing. WUter, F. 31. — A collection of the land and fresh- water mollusks of Iowa. '^he following Iowa authors contributed to the State's exhibit: Jerome Allen, T. H. Benton, C. E. Bessey, Finley Burke, W. E. Crosby, A. N. Currier, W. R. Fisher, W. N. Friesner, C. H. Gurney, J. B. Harris, J. D. Hornby, W. N. Hull, J. H. Jackson, O. J. Laylander, J. Macy, G. F. Magoun, Marvin and Morrisey, T. H. INIcBride, P^mlin Mc- Clain, W. McClain, J. L. McCriary, J. N. Ross, Wm. Salter, A. J. Stevens, P. W. Sud- low, B. F. Tillinghast, G. Wedgewood, C. A. White, D. S. Wright. LOUISIANA. STATE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT (INCLUDING NEW ORLEANS). Alexandria. — 13 writing books, 3 sets of composition, 1 set each of grammar, arith- metic, history, and geography, 1 portfolio of maps. Clinton Academy, East Feliciana Parish. — Nine pencil drawings, 3 water colors, clay models, specimens of composition. 3Iaiisficld Female College, De Soto Parish. — 67 writing books, 7 drawing books, portfolio of work in drawing and music, volume of pencil drawings, 13 pencil drawings, 9 oil- paintings, 4 paintings on porcelain, 4 packages of examination papers in grammar, 2 packages of examination papers in Latin, 1 package each in algebra, spelling, trigonome- try, geometry, and physiology. Monroe. — Portfolio of pencil drawing and map drawing, 2 portfolios of pencil draw- ing and arithmetic, 2 volumes examination papers in algebra, 3 volumes examination papers in penmanship, 2 volumes examination papers in algebra. New Jberia {parish). — Portfolio of sewing-work and embroidery. Neio Orleans. — The Boys' High School exhibited 10 framed astronomical drawings, 3 framed philosophical drawings, 6 framed balance sheets, 2 framed specimens of short- hand, 2 framed specimens of ornamental penmanship, 3 Iramed maps, framed letter to students in shorthand, 1 bound volume each examination papers in Latin, mental phi- losophy, geometry, penmanship. The Girls' High School furnished 6 framed botanical drawings, 3 astronomical draw- ings, 13 framed charcoal drawings, 2 pencil-drawings, 1 set geometrical drawings, 22 mounted botanical specimens, 2 bound volumes examination papers in botany, 1 each in arithmetic, astronomy, physics, and composition. The grammar school exjiibit consisted of 3 framed water-color paintings; 55 framed maps; 26 maps, not framed; 9 framed samples of ink drawing; 5 framed specimens of penmanship; 3 framed copies of teachers' certificates and diplomas; framed written statement of Louisiana industries; 3 framed mottoes; framed photograph of school building and scholars; framed drawing of "Castle Brun " ; 72 sets of examination papers in arithmetic; 32 sets examination papers in grammar; 58 sets examination papers in penmanship; 31 sets examination papers in composition; 33 portfolios of ruaps; 6 volumes examination papers in composition, arithmethic, and penmanship; specimen of work in etymology; 668 writing books; 100 specimens of slate work; Hill's Map of History. Chestnut Primary School exhibited 24 specimens kindergarten work; 13 specimens of designs; 13 specimens of white ink drawing; 12 specimens of map drawings. A bound volume containing plan of McDonogh Schools, Nos. 1 to 20, was also ex- hibited. Opelousas. — Two volumes of penmanship composition. St. Charles (parish). — Specimens of penmanship and composition. St. James {jxrrish). — Specimens of penmanship composition. Shreveport.— 'Portfolio miscellaneous school vtork. Southern Art Union, N'eio Orleans. — Seven crayon drawings; 13 studies in oil. Southern University. — Three framed maps; 16 samples of slate work in penmanship and arithmetic; volume of maps; bouud volume examination papers in preparatory depart- ment; bound volume examination papers in high school department. State Super intendenVs Office, Hon. Warren Easton, superintendent. — Two copies of re- port for 1882-'83, of State superintendent; bound \'olume of school laws, 50 * I STATE SYSTEMS MICHIGAN MINNESOTA. 51 MIOHIGAK The educational exhibit from Michigan consisted principally of work from all grades of the Grand Rapids public schools, charts representing the studies pursued in the State Universitj^ photographs of charitably and reformatory institutions, and a forestry col- lection from the State Agricultural College. MINNESOTA. His Excellency Lucius F. Hubbakd, President of Board of CoUeptive Exhibits for State of Minnesota. Hon. Oliver Gibbs, jr., U. S. Commissioner for Minnesota. Hon. D. L. KiEHLE, Superintendent of Minnesota Educational Exhibit. Supt. Wm. F. Phelps, Pres. Irwin Shepard, Prof. Wm. W. Payxe, Committee of Installation. letter of transmittal of the superintendent of the MINNESOTA EXHIBIT. St. Paul, Minn., 3Iarch 1, 1885. Sir: I have the honor herewith to submit a report of the material constituting the Educational Exhibit of Minnesota at New Orleans, La., together with a brief sketch of the organization of our school system. I desire to recognize the cordial spirit in which the educators of the State have re- sponded to our call and have co-operated in presenting a comprehensive display of the work of the State in all grades from the kindergarten to the university. The State is under special obligations to the Committee of Installation, who have spared neither time nor labor in aiding to perfect plans for the display of our exhibit and in completing its careful installation. Very respectfuUy submitted. Hon. John Eaton, U. S. C(nnmissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. D. L. KIEHLE, Supt. Eduicational Exhibit, Minnesota. BRIEF SKETCH OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF MINNESOTA. I. national educational endowment. On the 19th of February, 1851, it was enacted by the Senate and House of Represent- atives in Congress assembled, "That the governors and legislative assemblies of the Territories of Oregon and Minnesota be, and they are hereby, authorized to make such laws and needful regulations as they shall deem most expedient to protect from injury and waste, sections 16 and 36 in said Territories, reserved in each township for the sup- port of schools therein." 51 52 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. And it was further enacted, " That the Secretary of the Interior be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to set apart and reserve from sale out of any of the public lands within the Territory of Minnesota to which the Indian title has been or may be extin- guished, and not otherwise appropriated, a quantity of land not exceeding two entire townships, for the use and support of the University of said Territory, and for no other purpose whatever, to be located by legal subdivisionsof not less than one entire section." When Minnesota was by her population entitled to admission into the Union, Congress in an act of February 26, 1857, authorizing her to form a State government, made the following provision: "That sections numbered 16 and 36 in every township of public lands in said State shall be granted to said State for the use of schools." ' ' That 72 sections of land shall be set apart and reserved for the use and support of the State University, to be selected by the governor of said State, subject to the approval of the General Land Office, and be appropriated and applied in such manner as the legisla- ture of said State may prescribe, for the purpose aforesaid, but for no other purpose." But still further and still better: on the 2d of July, 1862, Congress passed an act "donating lands to the several States and Territories which may provide coUegesfor the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts." This act is limited to States not in rebellion, and donates 30, 000 acres for each Senator or Representative in Congress to which the States are entitled by the apportionment of the census of 1860. Section 4 of this act provides that all moneys derived from the sales of these lands, directly or indirectly, shall be invested in stocks yieldiug not less than 5 per cent, upon the par value of such stocks. " That the money so invested shall con- stitute a perpetual fund, the capital of which shall remain forever undiminished, and the interest thereof shall be inviolably appropriated by each State which may claim the benefit of the act, to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agri- culture and the mechanical arts, in such manner as the legislature of the State may re- spectively determine, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the in- dustrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." The act is further detailed, both as to the time of building and the use of the fund, and when States neglect to comply with the provisions, the amount received by them shall be paid back to the United States. The recipients shall make an annual report as to the progress and experiments made, with their costs and results, and all necessary and useful statistics connected with the institutions, and transmit one copy free to all other colleges under the act, and one to the Secretary of the Interior. ^ Under this act Minnesota was entitled to select 150,000 acres of land to aid in teach- ing the branches named in said act, in the State University, making the endowment fund of the Government of the United States to the State of Minnesota for ediicational purposes as follows: 1. For common schools, in acres 3,000,000 2. The University of Minnesota 208,360 Total - 3,208,360 Of the "Agricultural College" grant, amounting to 208,360 acres, 94,439 acres have been selected, and 72,700 acres under the two university grants, making 167,147 acres realized for university purposes out of the entire grant. The permanent school fund derived from the national domain by the State of Minne- sota, at a reasonable estimate, can not vary materially from the following: 1. Common schools, in acres, 3,000,000; value $18,000,000 2. University grants, in all, in acres, 223,000; value 1,115,000 5^ STATE SYSTEMS MINNESOTA. 5B Out of these government appropriations of 3,223,000 acres maybe realized an annual revenue for schools and university: 1. For common schools 51, 000, 000 2. For university instruction 60,000 II. PKOVISION MADE BY THE STATE. The State constitution confirms in all respects the requirements of the Congressional grant. It reaffirms the importance of a provision for popular education; it provides for the sale of school lands, the safe investment of the income, the distribution of interest received from the school fund, and requires the legislature to provide by taxation or other- wise a sufficient amount to "secure a thorough and efficient system of public schools in each township in the State." The organization of the university was confirmed by the State constitution, and the Congressional land grants were severally passed to that corporation. The system of com- mon schools was formally articulated with the university by statute, approved in 1881, appropriating $20,000 for the encouragement of higher education in high schools. This statute appoints a State high school board consisting of the governor of the State, the superintendent of public instruction, and the president of the university, which has su- pervision of all high schools operating under this law. Each school fulfilling the condi- tions of the law receives $400 annually to be used for the support and improvement of the high school. PEOFESSIONAL INSTITUTES. Three normal schools have been established, viz: at Winona, 1857; at Mankato, 1865, and at Saint Cloud, 1869. The following summary presents in more orderly manner the organization and support of our system of public instruction: THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. The system of education which is now supported by the State is comprehended in the following: (1) The schools. • (2) The supervision of instruction. (3) The supply and improv ement of instruction. (4) The financial support of education. The leading ifeatures and facts of the system according to the above arrangement are as follows: I. THE SCHOOLS. ' (1 ) Common schools. — Organized and numbered as subdivisions of the county by the county commissioners. Courses of study include common English branches. Terms of schools not less than four months each year. Teachers must be qualified by holding a certificate of the first, second or third i;rade, i.ssued by county supAintendents upon personal examination. Free to all residents of the district between the ages of five and twenty-one years. Officers: director, treasurer, and clerk. Term of service three years. Present number, 4,802. (2) Independent and special districts. — Organized under general statute as independent, or under special act as special ; generally ado pted by cities and towns. Courses of study, as directed by board of education. Teachers to be qualified by certificate of examining board. 53 54 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Free to all residents of the district between the ages of five and twenty-one years. Officers, board of education, consisting of five members: term, three years. Present number, 100. (3) Slate high schools. — Organized as a department of the schools of the independent and special district. Course of study, three years, prescribed by the State high school board; prepares for the State University. Final examinations are taken upon the completion of subjects ou questions prepared by the State board. Certificate of passing in any subject is accepted in lieu of an entrance examination in that subject at the State University, and to the professional course of the State normal schools. Teachers must hold the certificate of State high school board. Eeports of condition to be made to the board each term. Present number, 56. (4) Slate University. — Organization, by special charter, 1868. Officers: Board of regents, consisting of the governor, ex officio, and superintendent of public instruction, ex officio, and president of the university, ex officio, and seven persons appointed by the governor; term, three years. Departments : Collegiate Department. College of Science, Literature, and the Arts. College of Mechanic Arts. College of Agriculture. College of Medicine.^ Geological Survey. Tuition free in all departments; first two literary, others professional and tecbnical. Course of study in literary departments, classical, scientific, and modern. II. SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION. (1) Superintendent of Public Instruction. — Appointed by the governor, confirmed by the senate; term, two years. Duties: general supervision {vide boards of control of the several departments and institutions); reports to legislature biennially. Salary, $2,500 per annum. (2) County superintendents of schools. — Elected by the people; term, two years. Duties: examination of teachers, visitation of schools, jjrovidiug for institutes and teachers' meetings; reporting annually to superintendent of public instruction. Minimum salary, $10 for each organized district. Present number, 75. (3) Superintendents and examiners of independent and special districts. — Appointed; term and salary determined by the board of education. Duties: examination of teachers and general supervision. (4) Slate hifjh school board. — Organized by statute. Officers: the governor, president; the superintendent of public instruction, secretary; and the president of the State Uni- versity, examiner. Duties: to accept high schools to supervision, to visit and inspect, to prepare ques- tions for, and to conduct final examinations, to exaiftine teachers of State high , schools, to tippropriate $400 to sclioois complying with hiw. Annual appropriation, $:23,O00. ' The faculty of this is for examination. No instruction offered. 54 STATE SYSTEMS — MIKNESOTA. 66 III. THE SUPPLY AND IMPROVEMENT OF INSTEUCTOES. (1) State normal schools. — At Winona; organized, 1859; at Mankato, 1865; at St. Cloud, 1869. Courses of study: Uniform, elementary course, three years; advanced course, four years; academic, professioual in theory and history of education, with practice teaching in model school. Officers: Board of directors, consisting of superintendent of public instruction, sec- retary ex officio^ one resident director at each school, treasurer, and three mem- bers at large; all appointed by the governor; term, three years. Free to all pledging to teach in the State two years. Present number of graduates, 1,044. Present enrollment, 672. (2) State institutes. — Directed by superintendent of public instruction. Instruction by three permanent conductors from the normal schools, the county superintendent, and assistants by special appointment. Number: One every year for each county, usually one week in length. Free to all teachers. IV. FINANCIAL SUPPOET OF SCHOOLS. (1) Permanent funds.— (a) General school fund, $6,246,321.15. Two sections in each township set apart by Congress to be sold at not less than $5 per acre; sales to be invested and interest apportioned in March and October to districts upon school enrollment. Present annual revenue, $363,046. Annual apportionment per scholar, $1.72. Lands unsold, 2,093,478 acres. (b) University fund, $663,630.25. Present annual revenue $30,000. (2) State annual appropriations. — State University, $35,000; normal schools, $48,000; high schools, $400 each, to the amount of $23,000; State institutes, $6,000. One-mill tax, to be returned to the school districts in the amounts paid by each. Present amount, $316,900.79. (3) Special district tax. — In common school districts, voted at annual or special meeting; in independent and special districts, voted by the board of education. Present amount, $1,513,288.44. CATALOGUE OF EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. Albert Lea city schools, E. Chilcoat, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers. Brovm's School and Six Oaks. — Pupils' work in composition. Pupils' work in repro- duction. Cambridge village schools. — 1 volume of public school examination papers. Chatficld village schools, J. F. Giles, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers by high school. Carleton College, Norihfield, James W. Strong, D. D., president. [This institution was oreranized in 1867. The course of study is both preparatory and collegiate — classical, literary, scientific, English, and musical. Ithas a corps of sixteen professors, aproductive endowment fund of nearly 8100,000, six huildinKs, and a campus of thirty-tivc acres. The college supports an extensive public Time Service for rail way and city uses, and is now organizing a Weather Service for the State, and also a State Magnetic Survey.] One volume college catalogue. 10 charts of comets. 1 view Saint Paul Chamber of Com- merce, with time ball. 1 view Saint Paul, showing city time service. 1 map Minnesota, showing State weather service. 1 map, showing time system of Northwest. 9 volumes Herbaria, from Biological Department. 4 volumes of Held work in elementary survey- ing. 1 volume of computation, lunar eclipses. 1 thesis for degree pf A. M. 1 volume 55 56 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of U. S. Signal Station reports. 2 volumes of class work in trigonometry. 2 volumes of examination papers. 3 volumes of " Siderial Messenger." 1 Howard clock, No. 285. 9 P. H. Dudley clocks. 2 time balls in actual operation. 2 relays. 6 sounders. H switches. 15 photographs: college buildings and apparatus, in frames. 1 photograph: Ladies' Hall. IG pieces painting in oil and water colors. 6 pieces crayon. Ipiecesketch- ing in pencil. 7 colored plates college buildings. 2 volumes of examination papers. 1 volume of college catalogues. 10 volumes of notes from Biological Department. 1 large botanical map. 10 large physiological charts. 5 large birds and animals. Curtiss^ Business College, 31inneapolis. — 1 set Curtiss' writing charts. Duluth city schools, Wm. H. Stultz, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers, public schools. 2 volumes examination papers, high school. 1 photograph public school buildings. Detroit village schools, B. L. Bennett, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. Dodge Center village schools, J. M. Eichardson, principal. — 1 volume of examination papei-s. Eyota village schools. — 9 maps. Papils' work in geography. Pupils' work in perfor- ating. Kindergarten work. Pupils' work in composition, grammar, spelling, arithme- tic, history, physiology, drawing, reproduction. Farmijigton city schools, C. H. Welch, principal. — 1 Photograph school building. Fergus Falls city schools, B. M. Eeynolds, superintendent. — 1 volume examination pa- pers. High school. Glencoe village schools, E. V. W. Brokaw, superintendent. — Grammar school. 2 vol- umes of examination papers. Hamline University, Saint Paul, Eev. Geo. H. Bridgman, D. D. , president. — 3 photographs university building. 1 photograph laboratory. 1 photograph apparatus room. Hastings city schools, J. H. Lewis, superintendent. — High school. Surveying : 50 plats of field work by pupils in mensuration, with solutions; 50 plats of field work by pupils in triangulation, with solutions. Botany : 4 herbaria by class of '84. 1 volume of ex- amination papers from all grades. 9 geographical maps. 41 primary slate work in reading, writing, drawing, and numbers. Hennepin County {county schools), C. W. Smith, superintendent. — 1 volume of exams inatiQn papers. Pupils' work in map drawing and industrial drawing. 12 photograph- school buildings. 1 model of log school-building in 1852. 1 model of frame school- building in 1885. 1 large plate-glass tablet showing plans of organization, enrollment, etc. Hutchinson village schools, H. L. Merrill, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. Kindergarten, Saint Paul, Miss Alice Boyd en, teacher. — 6 framed mounts of the work of children from 3^ to 8 years of age, viz: 1 chart of sewing in colors; fundamental forms and forms of life. 1 chart of weaving in colors; fundamental forms and inventions. 1 chart of paper-folding in primary and secondary colors. 1 chart of interlacing with slats; dictations and inventions. 1 chart of pricking; outline forms of life. 1 chart of parquetry; dictations employing squares. Lake City schools, Wm. Moore, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers. Litchfield city schools, Angus Haines, principal. — 2 volumes of examination papers. 1 photograph of school building. Lanesboro city schools, K. W. Buell, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. Mantorville village schools, L. Bliss, principal. — 1 volume of examination pai^ers. 3fa7ikato city schools, B,. E. Denfeld, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers, high school. 1 photograph of school building. Medford village schools. — Pupils' work in arithmetic. Examinations in history, in geography, in physiology, algebra, and language. HJinneapolis city schools, O. V. Tousley, superintendent. — 5 charts crayon sketches, il- lustrating physiology and botany. 8 photographs of buildings and interiors. 1 large picture of high school building and two architects' plans of interior of high school. 1 large tablet containing photographs of buildings and history of schools. 39 charts and folios in pencil and crayon drawings. 1 patented desk and chair. 1 volume of exam- ination papers of high school. 1 volume of specimens in writing. 1 volume of ' ' ques- tions " submitted to teachers and pupilsin 1883-'84. 1 voluraeof public-school reports. 1 volume of business forms, blanks used in public schools. Moorhcad city schools, F. S. Hotaling, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers from public schools. 1 cabinet containing 24 double slates. Work of primary jiupils in spelling, numbers, language, penmanship and drawing. 1 volume of maps furnished by fifth and sixth grades. Maps drawn freehand from copy. 1 map of New England, on rollers; work of seventh-year pupils, freehand. Olmstcad County (country) schools, F. L. Cook, superintendent. — District No. 4 — Exer- cises prepared by pupils with the hektograph, examination papers, pupils' work in com- position; No. 7— Examination papers; No. 9 — Woik of pupils in reading, spelling, rhet- 56 STATE SYSTEMS MINNESOTA. 57 oric, essays, also examination papers; No. 10 — Pupils' work in composition, examina- tion papers; No. 19— Examination papers; No. 22 — Pupils' work iu map drawing; No. 24 — Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 28— Examination papers; No. 37 — Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 47— Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 49— Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 52— Examination papers; No. 54 — Examination papers; No. 56— Speci- men examination papers prepared with lithogram; No. 58 — Examination papers; No. " " . . „ -„ -Pupils' work sition, specimens of drawings, examination papers; No. 86— Specimens of perforating, work ing work in map Examination papers, work in map drawing; Nos. 100, 115, 121, 130, 132— Examination papers; No. 124— Pupils' work in map drawing; No. 134— Pupils' work in map draw- ing. Oronoco village schools. — Pupils' work in composition. Pupils' work in perforating. Examination papers and maps. Plainview village schools, M. A. Robinson, principal. — 1 volume of examination papers. Pleasant Grove schools. — Pupils' wprk in composition, drawing, arithmetic, grammar. Examination papers. Parr, Siq)erinte7ident S. S.—3 volumes "Minnesota Journal of Education," 1881-'84. Payne, Professor W. W.—o volumes of "Minnesota Teacher," Vols. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6. Phelps, Superintendent William i^.— 2volumes of "Teacher's Handbook"; 1 volume of Short Course in Astronomy. Bed Wing city schools, O. Whitman, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination papers; 54 mounted freehand drawings, representation and design; 1 photograph high school building. Redicood Falls, F. V. Hubbard, principal. — 1 photograph of school building. Rochester city schools, S. S. Parr, superintendent. — Drawings from natural foliage and flowers, accompanied by objects. Relief maps in putty of continents, Mexico and United States. Peg work illustrating primary numbers. Slate work from youngest pupils. Drawings from copy. Work in arithmetic from B grammar-grade. Photographs of school buildings. Enshford city schools, W. J. Schmitz, principal. — Primaiy, intermediate, high school. Pupils' work in map-drawing, geography, botany, composition. 1 volume of examination papers. Shepai-d, Principal E. B. — 1 folding seat and desk. Stillwater city schools, V. G. Curtis, superintendent. — Home-made apparatus, made in the workshop of the high school. Mechanics — Simple lever; compound lever; inclined plane and binding screw; screw; wedge, in two sections, hinged. Force and motion — Whirling motion; resultant table; reflection of motion apparatus; apparatus showing effect of gravity on a moving body. Centre of gravity — Mechanical paradox; leaning tower; loaded wheel; square and tri- angular blocks; Blondin figure, balanced; witch figure, loaded; plumb line; two balls of unequal size and weight connected by a rod, pierced at CMiter of gravity. Hydraulics — Force pump (glass); common pump (glass); tantalus cup; water-wheels^ overshot, undershot, and breast wheel; model of Barker's mill. Heat — Pyrometers; ball and ring to show expansion of metals; compound bar, brass and iron. Acoustics — Revolving disk apparatus. Gravitation — Pendulum apparatus. Voltaic electricity — Contracting helix ; Grenet battery; galvanometer; horseshoe elec- tro-magnet; horizontal coil; Oersted's law apparatus; magic circle. Astronomical — Illustration of thesolar system, illustratingplanetaryorbitsand motions. Inclinations of the axis of the sun, earth, and Mars. Parallelism of the earth's axis. Mo- tions of the earth. Succession of day and night. Change of seasons. The moon's revo- lution in its orbit and on its axis. Nodes of the moon'sorbit. The phases of the moon. The path of the moon round the sun. Eclipses of the sun and moon. Nodical and synodi- cal revolution of the moon. Inferior and superior planets. Phases of the planets. Transit ofaplanet. Theretrogrademotion of planets. Conjunction, opposition, quadrature, and elongation of planets. The zodiac and the cometary orbits. Bound volumes — One volume of examination papers in each of the following subjects: Music, literature, geometry, and current topics. Saint Paul city schools, B. F. Wright, superintendent. — Photographs of school build- ings. Penmanship — two sets mounted slates, showing writing of pupils from lowest pri- 57 58 EDtrCATlONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. iilary grade. Twelve large frames, showing the writing of ]mpils from ft to 15 years of ilge. JNIounted drawings from each grade in the school. Solids modeled in clay by pri- mary pupils. Models in jiaper, card board, Avood, stone, clay, etc., by pupils from their own working drawings. High school work in projection — building, construction, ma- chine drawing, mechanical perspective, groups of models in outline, in charcoal and iu crayon. Crayon copies of fruit from nature and from casts. Siiuk Center villar/e schools, W. F. Rocheleau, superintendent. — 1 volume of examina- tion papers from High School. 1 photograph of public school building. Saint Cloud city schools, A. P. Thombs, superintendent. — 1 volume of examination pa- liers. Union school. Scaring, Edward, president State Normal School, Mankota. — 4 volumes Wisconsin School Report, 1874, '75, '76, '77. 1 volume Virgil's iEneid. State Department of Public Instruction. — 1 album Minnesota educators. 7 volumes report of supei'intendent public instruction, 1875-'84. 1 volume of Minnesota reporls. 1 sta- tistical chart. State Normal School, Wiiiona, Irwin Shepard, president. [This scliool was established in 18oS. Has buildings and appliances valued at $175,000. and an an- nual appropriation from the State of 820,000. The departments and courses are as follows : Normal Department — an advanced course of 4 years, an elementary course of 3 years, a professional course of 1 year. Training Department — a model school of 9 grades, a kindergarten, a kindergarten training class.] Industrial drawings: Fifteen framed mounts of original drawings; 10 framed mounts of object drawing; 10 framed mounts of copying drawing; 3 framed mounts in colored designs; a series of wall charts drawn and colored by pupils; 1 large chart of plant forms; 1 large chart of lower forms of animal life; 1 large chart of insects injurious to vegeta- tion; 10 small charts of leading types iu comparative physiology; 25 framed charts of botanical specimens, designed to show the principal characteristics of indigenous trees and .shrubs by the following: {a) Cross sections of small trees and of large shrubs, [b) the bark of the trunk and branches, (c) the leaves and flowers, (d) the I'ruit and cross sec- tions of the same, {e) specimens of the wood, polished, showing the natural grain and color, and indicating its economic value. Kindergarten work: Twenty-four framed mounts of the work of children from four to eight years of age; 8 bound volumes of children's work; 4 bound volumes of pupil teachers' work; a collection of models in clay bj^ children and pupil teachers; specimens of children's work in (a) sewing, (b) weaving, (e) parquetry, (d) paper folding, (e) in- terlacing, (f) cutting and pasting, (g) pricking. A collection of colored interior and ex- terior views of building and rooms. Four volumes of examination papers. Slate Normal School, llankato, Edward Searing, president^ [Thisschool was established as the second State normal school in 186.5. Its buildings and eciuip- ment are valued at 8:90,000. It is supported by an annual appropriation of $10,000. Its educational facilities are complete in a normal, professional, and academic course, and practice department iu the model school — uniform with the other normal schools of the State.] Pupils' work in Grecian and Egyptian ornamentation; ptipils' work in map drawing; 2 large pastel paintings; 2 frames containing class memorials ; 1 i'rame containing 12 views of school building and interior of rooms; 5 volumes of examination pajiers; 5 sheets original designs; 1 water-color painting of building and grounds; 1 pen and ink drawing of building with proposed addition; 1 large map showing standard time. Slate Normal School, Saint Cloud, Thomas J. Gray, president. [This school was opened in 1869, and has buildings worth 850,000 and a home for young ladies worth $25,000. It is supported by an annual appropriation from the State ofS15,WtO and gives tuition free to all pledging themselves to teach two years in the State. The departments of study are asfol- low.s: I, elementary course of three years. II, advanced course of three years. Ill, a special pro- fessional course of one or more years.] 13 photographs of State Normal School bnilding. 23 maps. Pupils" work iu geogra- phy. 2 large charts for teaching botany, mounted specimens. 2 charts. Class work in physiology. Pupils' work in Latin, 1 portfolio. Pupils' work in Engli-sh, 1 portfolio. 3 volumes examination papers. 1 panoramic set hi.storiciil charls of civil war. 1 port- lolio charts lor vocal drill. 4 charts on the training of teachers — a systematic otitline of the art of teaching. 2 charts in arithmetical method. 3 notation boards. 3 charts showing the manner of preparation and teaching of a lesson by a member of the training class. 2 charts illustrating steps in Grube's method of primary number work. 1 port- Iblio of historical charts. 3 charts showing fractional division and relations. Slate Institution for Deaf-3Iutes, Faribault, J. L. Noyes, superintendent. [This institution was established by an act of the legislature in 18.58, and organized by a Hoard of Commissioners in 1863. The buildings were erected by the State, and ample provision is now made for educating all deaf children of the State in common school branches. Instruction in some usefid trade is also provided, as coopering, boot and shoe making, tailo-ring, printing, and dress making.] 2 Ciises needle and fanqy work by pupils. 2 .suits boys' and youths' clothes by pupils. 1 rug made from pieces of old carpet ])y pupils. 4 crayon drawings by pupils. 2 pencil 58 STATE SYSTtXrS NEBRASKA. 59 dra\vinf!;s by dcaf-nmte teacher. 1 pair sowed French calf hoots, handmade, by pupils. 1 pair French kip boots, liand-niade, by pupils. 1 pair sewed calf shoes, hand-made, by pupils. 1 pair sewed pebble goat button shoes, hand-made, l)y jiupils. 7 photo- graphs of school buildings. 1 bound volume reports Minnesota School lor Deaf. 1 bound volume copy book, work of pupils. 1 set '" Mute's Companion," volumes 3-9, a paper issued by tlie pupils. 2 schoolroom picture charts by deaf-mute teacher. 2 vol- umes " Historical Sketch," by Superintendent J. L. Noyes. 1 volume Third Biennial Report and Proceedings of Conference. State School for the Blind. — J. J. Dow, superintendent. — 2 photographs of buildings; 2 tidies made by. pupils; 1 piece of needle- work for ornamentation of mantel; 1 bead basket. St. Peter city fichool, L. C. Lord, superintendent. — 2 volumes of examination papers. St. John^s University, CoUegeville, Rt. Rev. Ale.Kius Edelbrock, o. s. B., president. [This institution was incorporated by an act of the legislature in the year 1857. It is under the care of the Benedictine Order, and is self-supporting. One source of revenue consi.sts of large farui.s carried on exclusively by members of the order. It has a corps of 2-3 professors, and over 200 stu- dents are enrolled. From 30 to 40 students annually receive board, clothing, and tuition gratui- tously. The departments of study are (I.) Theological; (II.) Philosophical; (III.) Classical; (IV.) Commercial; (V.) Scientitic; (VI.) Medical.] Photographs of buildings; photographs of faculty. The Bishop Sealxiry Jli-ssion, Faribault. — [A corporation of the Episcopal Church, comprising three institutions: (1.1 TheSeabury Divinity School, Kev. S. D. Hoskins, warden, has a generous endowment, and gives a course of three years in theology ; ill.) Shattuck School, Eev. James Dobbin, i-ector, a preparatory training school for boys and young men, with a military department ; (III.) St. Mary's Hall, Rt. Rev. H. B. Whipple, Bishop of Minnesota, rector, a boarding school for young ladies.] 1 case 14 photographs. The University of Minnesota, Cyrus Northrop, president. [The University of Minnesota is a part of the public educational system of th* State. Was estab- lishetl in 1867 and is open to l)oth sexes, with tuition free. A grant from Congress of 178,086 acres ot land is the source of the permanent University fund, which now amounts to $66.3,6.30.2.5. Following are the departments: (I.) Collegiate Department; (11.) College of Science. Liters tu re, and Arts; (III. I The College of Mechanic Arts; (IV.) The College of Agriculture ; (V.) The College of Law ; (VI.) The College of Medicine. The University has charge of the Geological and Natiiral History Survey of the State.] College of Mechanic Arts — Plans and photographs of buildings; 1 case 8 plates iso- metric cabinet and perspective drawings; 1 case tests of material; 1 case 21 plates in- dustrial drawings; 1 case 16 plates engineering drawings; 1 case 15 plates descriptive geometry; 1 case tools used in wood work; 1 ca.se tools used in forge work; 1 case exer- cises in forge work ; 1 case exercises in wood work ; 1 book of notes for course in roof and bridge trusses; 1 book of notes for course in stereotomy; 1 book of working drawings in forge work ; 1 photograph of university building; 1 book of specimen records from testing laboratory; 1 large chart giving courses of study in civil and mechanical engineering: 1 large drawing showing grounds of universitj'; 1 photograph of engineering apparatus; 1 case of tools used in vise work ; 1 case of exercises in vise work. Other departments — 1 photograph of university farm building; 12 photographs of in- terior of rooms in agricultural college; 1 plan of agricultural college and plant house; 2 herbaria; 1 large synchromatic chart of Greek biography, literatiire, and art; 1 history of the University of Minnesota; 2 volumes of examination papers; 1 large chart of Eng- lish literature from the time of Widrith to the present, arranged on the linguistic basis. Winona city schools, Wm. F. Phelps, M. A., superintendent. — 5 volumes of pupils' written work in all grades from 1st year to high school ; 2 sets of plans of school rooms of the several grades; 1 large framed group colored views of school buildings and of the city of Winona; 4 cases children's work in designs, constructions, &c., with different ma- terials used in lowest grade; collection card mounts, showing specimens of writing from all grades; collection card mounts, showing grade work in drawing, free hand, iti" ventive, crayon, perspective, &c., all grades; 2 sets reading charts, with supports, show- ing appliances used in first-year grade. NEBRASKA. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM. A State superintendent of public instruction, elected by the people for 2 years, ha.s general charge of the public schools, while a board of regents of the State university and a normal school board have control of the interests indicated by their titles. There is 59 GO EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. also a board composed of various State officers for the management of school lands and funds. Local school officers are county superintendents of public schools, elected by the people for 2 years, and district boards of 3 trustees, elected for 3 years. Districts having more than 150 youth of school age may, if a majority of voters so decide, elect boards of 6 trustees. Women 21 years old vs^ho are residents of the district and owners of property or having children to educate may vote in district meetings. The public schools are free to all residents 5 to 21 years of age, and they must be taught at least 9 months of each year in districts having more than 200 pupils, 6 months in those having 75 to 200, and 3 months in those with less than 75. The funds for their support are derived from the income of a State common school fund consisting of money, stocks, bonds, &c. ; of such jiercentage as may be granted by Congress on the sale of lands in the State; of moneys arising from the sale or leasing of school lands; of the proceeds of all lands granted to the State, unless for other purposes distinctly stated; and of the proceeds of escheats and forfeitures. In addition to the income of this fund there is for public schools a State school tax of not more than IV mills on the dollar of taxable property, and taxes are voted by districts, which may not exceed 25 mills on the dollar. The income of the public schools is also augmented by various fines, licenses, &c. The State funds are apportioned by the State superintendent to the counties in proportion to school population, and by county superintendents to districts, three-fourths of the amount in proportion to the school population therein, the remaining one-fourth equally to the districts. Teachers must hold certificates of qualification and before receiving full pay Hjust make monthly reports to the district director. The director reports annually to the county superintendent, the latter to the State superintendent, and he to the gov- ernor. The system of education includes public high schools, teachers' institutes, a State normal school, a State university, and a reformatory for children. Instruction in all schools supported or aided by public funds must be non-sectarian. EXHIBIT. Beatrice public schools. — Examination manuscript work from first to eighth grade. Columbus public scJiools. — Examination work from third grade. Crab Orchard school. — Specimens of pen work. Crete public schools. — History of Crete Public Schools, by E. Healy. Deaf and Dumb Institute, Omaha, Nebr. — Crayon portrait, specimens of lace work, embroidery, sewing, and crocheting; specimens of mechanical and carpenter work. Fairbury public schools. — Specimens of manuscript work, principally sixth grade; spec- imens of map drawing by pupils. Falls City public schools. — Examination papers of high school, and grammar and primary schools. Grand Island public schools. — Examination manuscript work by high school and inter- mediate grades; slate work by primary and second grades. Hall County. — Manuscript work from Chapman, Wood River, and district schools of Hall County. Hastings public schools. — Highschool — Examination papers in geometry, history, civil government, algebra, physiology, and physical geography. Grammar department — Examination papers in reading, penmanship, grammar, geog- raphy, orthography, arithmetic, and United States history. Intermediate department — Examination papers in reading, writing, arithmetic, spell- ing, geography, and language; specimens of map drawing. Humboldt public schools. — Examination manuscript work from first to tenth grade. Institute for the Blind, Nebraska City. — Specimens of hand-work, consisting of crochet- ing, bead-work, knitting, and broom-making; manuscript work in spelling. Kearney public schools. — Manuscript from high school and intermediate grades. Nebraska City public schools. — Manuscript work from high school and intermediate grades, map drawing and mechanical drawing, condensed history of Nebraska City pub- lic schools. 60 STATE SYSTEMS NEW HAMPSHIRE. 61 Nebraska State Normal School. — Mounted zoological and botanical specimens and mi- croscopic drawings; analysis of air in school building, -with chemicals to test same; ex- periments by classes in phj'sics; models of crystixls; specimens of taxidermy; map draw- ings (outline from memory), map drawings (time limited), map dra^viugs (time unlim- ited); manuscript work in language, in school economy, in history, and in rhetoric. Onutha puhlic schools. — Miss Lucia A. Rogers, special teacher. Exhibition of written music by pupils. Tenth Street Industrial School — Julia Daeman and Katie Homerwik, crocheting; Katie Coffe.v, Edith Stewart, Josie Zebodack, and Lulu Hunt, sewing; Mary Walker and Annie Kramer, hemstitched handkerchief by each. Eed Cloud public schools. — Examination work from high school and lower grades. Sacred Heart Academy, Omaha. — Course of study, and photograph of building. Saint Catherine's Academy, Omaha. — Specimens of drawing and painting. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. — Original demonstration in geometrj' by •. Work on "Critique of Designs," by Prof. L. E. Hicks. Work on botany, by Prof C. E. Bes- sey. "Amerikas Skonliteratur, " byH. Edgren. " Magic of the JNIiddle Ages," by Vic- tor Rydberg. "Nala Sagan," by . "Schakuntala," by . "Sanskrit Formlara," byH. Edgren. " Frithiof's Saga " (Teguer), from L. A. Sherman. Work on biology, by Arabell M. Kimball. "The Modem Genesis," from Fannie J. Ebiight, Tecumseh. West Point public schools. — Manuscript work of high school and grammar department. Yutan public schools. — Examination work in physiology. Photographs of public school buildings. — Ashland, Alexandria, Belvidere, District No. 15 (Butfalo County), Beatrice, Crete (5), Chester, Davenport, Exeter, Fremont (5), Friend, Falls City, Fairbury, Genoa, Grand Island, Hasting.'^, Hebron, Hubbell, Hall County, Kearney, McCook, Nebraska City (7), Norfolk, North Platte, Nemaha County, Osceola, Pawnee City, Red Cloud, Saint Paul, Shelton, Steele City, Sutton, Thayer County (10), Tecumseh, Wahoo, Wilber. Miscellaneous. — Photograph of Creighton College, Omaha. History of Steele City School, by Miss M. A. Melville. Seven drawings from life, by Thomiis Rogers Kim- ball, Omaha. " Nebraska and the Northwest," from T. H. Brooks, Tecumseh. History and reports of county superintendents. Photograph of Normal School and Business Col- lege at Fremont , Nebr. NEW HAMPSHIEE. Concord. — Three bound volumes of examination papers from the high school, including English, mathematics, Latin, and Greek. Drawings, freehand and mechanical, from the grammar and intermediate grades. Portfolio of drawings from all the schools. Photo- graphs of the school buildings. Specimens of work in direction and invention from the kindergarten. • Franklin. — Large bound volume containing photographs of school buildings (including both interior and exterior views). The course of study. Specimens of drawing, pen- manship, and original compositions. Manchester. — Three volumes of drawings from the pripaary, grammar, and high school departments. Portfolio of plans of school buildings. Framed pencil, ink, and crayon drawings. Portfolio of mechanical drawings. Framed photographs of public and school buildings. Chart of public school system. Nashua. — Framed photographs of school buildings. Thirty-four chemical preparations in glass by high school scholars. Frame on which to display them. Porttmouth. — Specimens of penmanship selected from the various grades. 61 62 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. NEW JERSEY. PUBLIC SCHOOL EXHIBITS. The following table is a summary of the amount and character of the work exhibited from the public schools of New Jersey: Counties and cities exhibiting. Number of specimens of pupils' work in- O w 3 O is V >> a 45 31 78 41 95 52 37 16 32 34 7 1 14 8 15 9 10 5 7 65 46 80 82 15 56 29 14 39 31 38 10 84 63 33 9 50 9 13 49 17 11 28 24 103 42 40 21 8 48 3 4 3 3 54 33 3 12 49 19 16 9 7 45 15 27 29 13 26 40 14 13 56 14 Atlantic County Bergen County Burlington County Camden County Camden Gloucester Cape May County Cumberland County , Bridgeton ; , Millville Essex County Newark Orange Gloucester County Hudson County Hoboken Jersey City Hunterdon County Mercer County Trenton .' INIiddlesex County New Brunswick Monmouth County Morris County Morristown Borough and Boon' ton Ocean County Passaic County Paterson Passaic Salem County Salem Somerset County Sussex County Union County Plainfield Elizabeth Rahway Warren County , 54 149 89 44 24 2 20 13 14 8 33 120 27 35 48 38 87 33 33 46 21 14 121 30 74 146 203 53 46 3 32 36 34 10 117 35 14 65 53 55 146 75 72 63 49 24 143 89 20 22 5 22 11 12 53 86 4 8 60 82 16 20 14 32 57 94 46 56 10 15 46 185 147 40 35 19 .29 11 8 60 39 3 32 31 16 61 67 30 •S5 19 33 172 65 25 22 4 14 16 13 12 52 34 11 19 18 37 90 31 21 23 18 10 78 41 3 12 4 70 5 25 8 28 46 34 9 14 11 59 78 106 128 43 42 4 40 36 28 24 73 49 27 72 88 57 399 95 63 74 64 37 25 24 150 144 89 23 23 21 7 16 n 105 76 13 8 87 61 13 12 33 33 94 40 48 29 11 13 36 28 14 10 98 44 STATE SYSTEMS NEW .lEIlSEY. 63 Tlu' ciuirc collcctiou of regular work contrihuted by the public schools fills 10,102 bhiuks, and represents the work of full}' 30,000 pupils. Out of the 3,687 teachers in the public schools, ;{,450 furnished work. The work was bound into volumes, in the follow- ing; proportions: Atlantic County, 12; Bergen County, 20; Burlington County, 26; Camden County (in- cluing Camden, 4), 16; CapeMay County, 6; Cumberland County (including Bridgetou, ;]), 12; Essex County (including Newark, 10, Orange, 4), 32; Gloucester County, 9; Hudson County (including Hoboken, 8, Jersey City, 17), 36; Hunterdon County, 10; Mercer County (including Trenton, 8), 16; Middlesex County (including New Bruns- wick, 4), 11;" Monmouth County, 23; Morris County, 16; Ocean County, 4; Passaic County (including I'aterson, 13, Passaic, 5), 20; Salem County (including Salem, 3), 11; Somerset County, 7; Sullivan County (Millville), 1; Sussex County, 12; Union County (including Plaintield, 2, Rahway, 2, Elizabeth, 4), 21; Warren County (includ- ing Phillipsburg, 4), 14; State normal and model school, 4; private schools, 12. INDIVintTAL EXHIBITS. Staie nomialand model schools. — Numberof specimens of pupils' work: Mathematics, 44 ; grammar, 7; composition, 8; spelling, 4; penmanship, 14; primary work, 9; miscella- neous drawing, 1.0; map drawing, 82; miscellaneous, 27. Total, 205. Stale KormulS.hool. — Work prepared by the pupils in the institution: Four herbaria of local plants; two books of drawings showing the diiferent stages of growth of several plants iVom the seed; three books of plant description; one set of works in book-keep- ing ; one book coutainingspecimensinpenmanship; onecaseof minerals, such as each pupil receives at graduation; one case of chemicals prepared by the pupils; one case of insects prepared by the class; one set of geometrical forms made by pupils. State School for Deaf-Mutes. -16 specimens of work and a history of the institution. Farnum Freparaton/ School, Beverly. — 68 specimens of pupils' work in miscellaneous branches, mathematics, grammar, drawings, and maps. Academy of t/ic Sacred Heart, Jersey City. — 61 specimens in mathematics, grammar, composition, spelling, penmanship, drawing, map drawing, and primary branches. 3Iartha''s lust it ate, llol)oken. — ^3 specimens of pupils' work in mathematics, grammar, composition, penniiiuship, drawing, primary and miscellaneous subjects. The Newark Fablic Hi(jh School. — 25 large mounted drawings, 15 unmounted drawings, 2 graphic scrap-books. Fuhlic school, Summit. — 40 pieces of kindergarten work. Faterson FuhJic School No. 6. — 22 pieces of kindergarten work, 32 books of kindergarten drawings, 24 specimens of kindergarten sewing. Faterson Fulilic School A'o. 4. — 1 set of geometrical solids of polished wood, 6 sets of wood ornaments fastened on card board, 2 maps sawed out of wood, 38 ineces of kinder- garten work. Carhtadt piddic sclaiol. — 1 framed piece of kindergarten work, 15 pieces of kindergar- ten work in drawing, sewing, plaiting, etc. r. L. Davcifs School, district No. 36, Essex County. — 11 pieces of philosophical appa- ratus, consisting of hydrostatic bellows, with rubber hose; Archimedes's screw; Bar- ker's mill; pulleys; inertia apparatus; inclined plane; water-wheels; Ruhmkorff's coil; compound lever; endless screw; and acrobats of pith (work done by boys 14 to 17 years of age). Institvte of the IFoli/ Aiif/eh, Hackensack. — F'ifty specimens of pupils' work in mathe- matics, grammar, composition, spelling, penmanship, primary and miscellaneous branches. IPI-.sY Jersey Acadoity, Bridgetou. — Eighteen specimens of pupils' work in mathematics, composition, spelling, penmanship, and miscellaneous subjects. Dcptford School, Woodlniry. — One hundred and twenty-one specimens of pupils' work in inatheniatics, grammar, drawing, and miscellaneous subjects. llashroucL- Iiistiliitc, Jersey City — One hundred and thirty-three specimens of puiuls' work in mathematics, grammar, composition, spelling, penmanship, drawing, and mis- cellaneous subjects; also live large framed drawings from bas-relief casts. C. A. Gros.s, teacher, Landisville, Atlantic County. — An herbarium containing 101 spe- cies of plants collected by himself in the sandy region near the Atlantic coast. .S". F. ]\forse, counti/ sHperintendent for Atlantic County. — A Collection of marine algse, mounted and named, gathered by himself on the New .Jersey coast. .T. 3T. Grern, of Lr>ng P>ranch. — A large frame containing i)hotographs of the public school l)nildings, and drawings executed by the pupils; also nine books of pupils' work, numbering 720 specimens in the various branches taught in the schools. This exhibit contained 650 photographs of school builclings, showing exterior and interior views. 63 64 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. OHIO. LETTER OF TRANSMISSION. Dear Sir: The following catalogue of the education exhibit of Ohio at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans is submitted for your con- sideration. Very respectfully, LE ROY D. BROWN. To the Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education for the United States of America. CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. REMARKS EXPLANATORY OF THE CATALOGUE. The remarks here prefixed are deemed necessary to a clear understanding of the cata- logue. The several classes of school districts in Ohio are classified as follows: City districts of the first class, applying to cities of ten thousand or more inhabitants; city districts of the second class, applying to cities of less than ten thousand inhabitants; village districts, applying to incorporated villages; township districts and special dis- tricts. The divisions of the territory of the township for separate schools are termed subdistricts. The grades of the graded or union schools maybe defined as follows: (1) Elementary or grammar schools, embracing eight school years. These schools are generally subdi- vided into primary and grammar grades — the first embracing the first four years; the^ second, the second four years. (2) High schools. These in the cities and large towns have a four-years' course of study; but in some of the smaller towns and villages the course is but a three-years' one. In the city high schools instruction in another language than English is almost universally given. In some of them instruction in two languages is given; in others in three languages, and in a few in four languages. These languages are Latin, Greek, German, and French. German or French is frequently taken as an elective for Latin. Greek is principally restricted to students expecting to take a col- lege course. The study of grammar and geography usually begins, in the graded schools, with the third school year, in a short -preliminary oral course, these subjects being entered upon systematically at the beginning of the fourth year. Reading, drawing, music, slate writing, and arithmetic begin with the first year, pen-writiag with the second. Accord- ing to the evidence furnished by the examination papers in the exhibit, EngUah gram- mar and language-lessons differ little from each other. Throughout this catalogue years in school and grades in school are used synonymously; that is, first grade means the same as first year, &c. Under the head of papers in arithmetic are included work in the solution of problems, in both mental and written arithmetic, and answers to questions in rules and principles. United States history is generally taught in the highest grammar grade only. A full statement setting forth the rules and conditions under which the work of pu- pils was done, and the relative portion selected for exhibition, accompanies each set of papers. The photographs of school buildings marked in the catalogue thus *, were, through the kindness of Hon. John C. Keffer, secretary of the Ohio commission, transferred to 64 STATE SYSTEMS OHIO 65 the educational exhibit from the general State exhibit, for which they had V)een col- lected. The population of cities and towns is according to census of 1880. CITY EXHIBITS. Belleiue {population 1,432). — Volume of penmanship containing specimens from all grades of schools, high, grammar, and primary. Papers in German and geometry. Belpre {population 901). — Examination papers: 1 volume from high school, containing papers in geometry: 1 geological chart, by Will H. Pattou, of the high school; 1 photo- graph' of school building. Bhiffton (population 1,290). — Papers (unbound) representing the work of the several grades of the h;gh school and the grammar and pniuary schools; 1 photograph of the school building: 1 photograph of the interior of a school room with pupils seated therein. Chillicot/ip {population 10,938). — Examination papers: 2 volumes from the high school, containing papers in Latin, general history, rhetoric, English composition, English liter- ature, phy.sical geography, physiology, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and as- tronomy; 1 volume of penmanship, containing snecimens from the iburth grade up through the high .school grades; 5 volumes of grammar-school work, containing papers in grammar, geography. United States history, language, and arithmetic; 1 volume Ger- man, reaching from fourth to twelfth year, inclusive; 1 volume of memory maps, from pupils of the Hfth, sixth, and .seventh grades, drawn in the presence of the teacher. In a,l, 10 volumes of n}anuscript. Ten copies of the Annual IJeport of the Board of Education. Ctucinnoti {population 255,130). — 1. Examination papers: 1 volume from the normal school, containing papers on methods of teaching number, reading, and penmanship; methods of giving lessons on familiar things, memory gems, and elocution; essays on the science and art oJ' education and on school management, and essays on the principles of psychology applied to education. Two volumes from AVoodward High School, containing papers in Latin, Greek, French, German, English composition, English literature, general history, chemistry, physics, zoology, geology, algebra, geometry, astronomy and book-keeping. Two volumes from Hughes High .School, containing j)apers in Latin, Greek, French, German. English com- pasition, English literature, general history, chemistry, physics, zoology, algebra, astron- omy, and book-keeping. Oue volume from colored high school and intermediate grades. High school papers on subjects same as those ol Woodward and Hughes High Schools. Three volumes from first intermediate school;^ 1 volume Irom second intermediate school; 2 voluiues from third intermediate school; 2 volumes from fourth intermediate school. These volumes contain papers in spelling, composition, grammar, geography, <3!erman, and penman.ship. One volume Irom first di.strict;^ 1 volume from second district; 1 volume from third district; 1 volume from fourth district; 1 volume from fifth district; 1 volume from sixth district; one volume from seventh district; 2 volumes from eighth district; 1 volume from ninth district; 1 volume from tenth district; 2 volumes from eleventh dis- trict; 1 volume from twelfth district; 1 volume from thirteenth district; 1 volume from fourteenth district; 1 volume from fifteenth district; 1 volume from sixteenth district; 1 volume from seventeenth di^tri(•t; 2 volumes from eighteenth district; 1 volume from nineteenth district: 1 volume from twentieth di.strict; 4 volumes from twenty-first dis- trict; 1 volume from twenty-second district: 1 volume from twenty-third district; 2 volumes from twenty-fourth district; 2 volumes Irom twenty-fitth district; 1 volume from twenty-sixth district; 1 volume from twenty-seventh district: 1 volume from twenty-eighth district: 1 volume from colored school district; 1 volume from Morning- ton School. These volumes ci ntain papers in spelling, language, geography, grammar, arithmetic, penmansliip. and German. One volume of compositions from third to eighth grade, inclusive; 1 volume of literary gems from .same grades; 1 volume of slate work from fourteeulh district. From all the schools, .'j3 volumes, 2. Drawings (in eight large portfolios): 1 portfolio from normal .school and Woodward High School, containing 101 drawings. Of these the normal school contributed 1 draw- ing of humiin head: 4 drawings (colored 1 of Ibliage; 23 ornamental designs; 5 ornamental (colored) designs: 2 maps; 2 drawings (colored) of animals; I painting of animal: total. 38. The contribution of the Woodward Hi;jh Srhool consisted of 9 resented. On the line of construction drawing, beginning at the right, are six drawings — elementary projection and simple machine details. All are drawn to scale, from objects. Next to the left are four drawings of furniture, drawn to scale, from objects, from measurements and rough free-hand sketches made by the pupils. Next are 24 architectural drawings, rough free-hand sketche.-*, some being original designs. They show plans, elevations, sections, inside and outside details, and per- spectives, in ink lines or colored. In the middle I'ow, or representation, are 6 instrumental [lerspective drawings. Next are 22 drawings from geometric models and vases in outline, several of them being groups. Then come 13 pieces shaded with the stump and charcoal or sauce, from copy, models, or casts. On the lower row, at the right, are 30 original designs in pencil, for sui'face decoration, as an oilcloth, tile pattern, etc. Next are 18 designs in monochrome, for borders, centers, etc. Then 6 designs in color for various pur- poses, as wall paper, wood carving, book covers, etc. Finally, two sheets of botanical analysis, in color, for design, showing a painting of a plant, and also the various parts conventionalized and arranged for designing, with an original design made from the given forms. Dravving in the Columbus schools is a required study in all grades, no scholar being excused, except for some physical disability and upon the presentation of a certificate to that effect from a practicing physician. The average time given to drawing is one hour and a half per week, and in the primary and grammar grades the regular teachers do all the teaching, under the sujiervision and instruction of the superintendent of drawing. In the high school the teaching is done by a special teacher of drawing and the enpcrinteudeut of drawing. In the normal school the teaching is done by the super- intendent of drawing. DrauitKj books. — On the shelf under the drawings in the exhibit will be found one finished drawing book of each number used in the primary and grammar grades. Ill the high school lilank books or paper are used. Models. — A set of four models will be seen, constructed of wood and glued together. These were made by one pupil, in the lowest grammar grade, from his own drawings. In this and th(> grade above pupils are encouraged, for home optional work, to con- struct the objects which they draw in their study of construction drawing. They may be made of wood, framed, glued, nailed, or screwed together, or solid; of tin 67 68 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. soldered tojiether; of paper or cardboard, paHted or sewed; of clay ; or of any njaterial that may be choseti. The only requirement is that certain objects be made of a given size from the pupil's own drawings. This work is not yet fully developed. Da)/ton (population, :^8,ti77). — Night schools for industrial drawing: Architectural drawings, 2'.i; mechanical drawings, 17; total, 40; these drawings were displayed on wall space; 'A ])ijofographs of school buildings: seventh district, eleventh district, twelfth district; I interior view of twelfth district building; 1 copy annual report, 1883. Felicitfi (population, 1,047). — One photograph of school building. GalliiioUs (population, 4,400). — Examination papers: I volume from high school, containing papers in English grammar, Latin, German, physical geography, geogra- phy, physics, botany, arithmetic, algebra, and astronomy ; 3 volumes from primary and grammar grades, containing papers in spelling, definition of words, grammar, United States hi.story, geography (with illustrative maps), and arithmetic; in all four vol- umes; 34 booksof map dVawiug fr3).— 1 lithograph of building; 1 chart, survey of South Ada Ditch, by Chas. A. Aubert ; 1 plat of race course, by J. L. Newhouse ; 1 plat of Ada Fair Ground. Niirwalk (popnlatiou, 5,704). — 2 photographs of high school building. Ofce*Z/H (population, 3,242). — Examination papers: I volume from high school and eighth-grade pupils, containing papers in English grammar. United States history, Latin, and Greek ; i volume IVom sixth and seventh grades, containing papers in English graunnar, geography, maps, and arithmetic. Or/ocrflpopulation, l,74^).'— Examination papers: 1 volume from high school, gram- mar, and primary grades, containing papers in English grammar, English literature, geography, and arithmetic. PenmansLiip from second grade up through the high school. Painearille (population, 2,463).— '1 photograph of female seminary ; *1 photograph of Lake Erie Seminary. Portsmouth (population, 11,321).— Examination ])apers: 1 volume from high-school, containing papers in English literature, English history, rbetoric, Latin, mental sci- ence, physics, snatomy and ])hysioiogy, geology, algebra, and trigonometry ; 1 vol- ume from grammar and primary grades, containing papers in English grammar, composition. United States history, geograi)hy, arithmetic, German (from sixth grade and upward); *2 photographic views of Union stieet building. Smitlnnlle (i)opulation, 54(5). — * 1 engraving of high school building. Springlield (population, 20,730). —1. Examination ])aper8: 1 volumofrom high school, containing papers in Latin, German, ])8ych()logy, physics, physiology, algebra, and trigononu-try ; 4 volumes from grammar and jirimary grades, containing papers in spelling, grammar, geography, and United Stales history; 8 volumes English pen- manship, Irom lirst to eighth' grade, inclusive; 1 voluuje German penmanship, from first to eighth grade, inclusive; total, 14 volumes. 2. Drawings (displayed on wall space): High school, 44 decorative designs, 17 dec- orative designs in color; gramunir and prinjaiy grades, from second to eighth grades, inclusive, 77 co|)ies and decorative designs, 5 copies and decorative design in color; total number of drawings, 14:5. 3. Specimens of scroll-sawing (from fifth, sixth, and seventh grad. s), 21. 4. Specimens of all kinds of blanks, including registers, etc., used in the Spring- field schools. Steiihciiville (population, 12,r93).— *G photogra))hs of school buildings: north build- ing, soutb building, second ward, sixih ward, sixth ward (rolling-mill school), and eighth ward. Troi/ (population, 3,803),— High school : chart, working section of railroad, by R. F. Walker. H'arrcn (population, 4,428).— *1 photograph of high school building. 68 STA'lE SYSTExMS OHIO. 69 Welhville (populatioi), 3,:577).— 1 ])bot()^rapli of school bnildiug. West Milton. — Papers (imbouiid) from tho several grades of the schools. JTcHta (population, 7,020). — Exauiiuation papers: 2 volumes from the high school for white youth ; 1 volume from the high school for colored youth, each volume con- tainiug papers iu Latiu, German, physics, science of government, and algebra; 4 vol- umes of grammar and primary grades (from third to eighth inclusive), containing pa- pers iu spelliug, delinition of words, music, geography, United States history, and arithmetic; 2 volumes from colored schools, containing papers in same subjects as above, except music; 1 volume of compositions from all grades of the piimary and grammar schools, except from pupils of the first year; total, 10 volumes; 1 photo- graph of high school building. Za?es/d (population, 1,17.'3).— 1 volume, containing papers iu spelling (with diacritical marks), composition, grammar, U. S. history, general history, physical geography, arithmetic, algebra, and penmanship; 1 photograph of school building. Miscellaneous. — 1 photograph of building for country school, erected in Noble county, 1853; 1 photograph of school building in Uistrict No. (5, Greene county; 1 photograph of school building in District No. 12, Greene county; 1 large framed specimen of penmanship from L. Detweiler, teacher of writing in the public schools of Hillsboro'. Portraits of eminent educators : 1 photograph of W. D. Henkle, 1 pho- tograph of Horace Mann : 1 photograph of G. W. Hosuier, formerly president of An- tioch College ; I photograph of H. H. Barney, formerly State commissioner of common schools; 1 crayon portrait of D. A. Long, president of Antioch College; 1 engraved portrait of W.H. McGutiey ; 1 engraved portrait of Joseph Ray; photograph of the faculty of Autioch College'(group) ; 1 photograph of Dr. John Hancock; 1 photograph; 1 large chart giving average expense per pupil for tuition and the number of schools in each county of the State for the year ending August :U, ld84 ; 1 large chart setting forth the school system of the Staie; 1 large chart givitm the school statistics of the State; 100 copies (bound) of the school laws of Ohio; 100 copies of the commis- sioner's report for 1883 ; 3 bouud volumes of the Educational Monthly. COLLEGE EXHIBIT. This exhibit was prepared and set up by Professor A. H. Tuttle, of the Ohio State University, and gives statistics and other valuable information from IG colleges, be- sides photographic views of buildings and surrcmuding scenery, from most of the institutions presented. In this way, with the addition of charts, was presented an approximately complete history and the present condition of the higher education of the State— something, it is believed, not attempted iu any other exhibit in the Exposition. Upon the value of such a presentation it is not necessary to enlarge. Adelbert College, of Western Reserve Universiti/ {Cleveland).— Statiatica; 1 photo- graphic view of building; 10 interior views. Antioch College {Yellow /-i«(/«).— Statistics; 2 photographs of buildings ; 2 photo- graphs of scenery ; 2 photographs of classes of students. Baldwin University {Berea). — Statistics. Buchtel College (Jfcrow).— Statistics ; *1 photograph of building; * 1 engraving of Bame. Universitfi of Cincinnati {Cincinnati). — Statistics. Denison University (Gra«ri/?t;)-— Statistics; 2 photographs of buildings. Hiram College {Hiram). — Statistics. Kenyan College {Gambler). — Statistics; 8 photographs of buildings; 3 photographs of scenery. Marietta College (Marj^«a).— Statistics; 4 photographs of buildings ; 8 photographic interior views. Oberlin College {Oberlin). — Statistics; 5 photographs of buildings; 1 photographic view of the interior of the chaptel, with students assembled therein. Ohio State University {Columbus). — Statistics; 4 photographs of buildings ; 8 photo- graphic interior views; i) drawings from students of mining department; 1 large drawing of furnace ; 3 drawings from students' engineer department; 1 case students' work (iron and wood), mechanical department. Ohio University {Athens). — Statistics. Ohio Wesleyan University {Delaware). — Statistics; 2 photographs of buildings ; 3 pho- tographic interior views ; 1 photograph uf the famous sulphur spriuort public schools, of bound volumes of examination papers, samples of designing, and, in the jjrimary grade, of modeling in clay, and school reports. / he nehool of design, by samples of elementary and advanced free-hand drawing and painting; free-hand light and shade; elementary and applied design ; elementary and advance5, penmanship 12, political science 48, mythology 2, mathematics 200, English language and literature oiiO, ethics 14, Christian evidences 29. elocution 15, natural sciences 217, metaphysics 161, modern languages 50, ancient languages 77, music 76. 20 pasteboard models of geometrical figures. 2 schemes of composition, theory of penmanship based upon the scale of thirds. 2 maps of ancient Eome. 2 maps of Italy. 5 plans of college buildings. The following in frames : Table showing growth of institution; statement of facilities; historical data; contente of exhibit ; topical outline of work in political economy. Po'de Institute, Nashville. — Framed photograiJJi of building. Eager Wdliams University, Nashville. — 2 bound volumes of examination papers in arithmetic, grammar, geography, penmanship, algebra, physiology, mental science,, geometry, astronomy, civil government, German, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. St. Cecilia'' s Academy, Nashville. — 7 bound volumes examination papers in grammar, history, mathematics, drawing, penmanship, bookkeeping. Samples of work in book- keeping. Colored drawing of institution. Show-case containing eight specimens of fancy work. Framed statement of institution. Vanderhilt University, Nashville. — Framed topographical map. Framed statement of work of institution. Bound volume of register of University. Bound volume, "Dedication and Inauguration." 2 volumes examination j)apers. School of Engineering (Vanderhilt University). — Statement of institution. 24 speci- mens of mechanical drawing. W. E. Ward^s Seminary, Nashville. — Photograph of building. 12 framed oil paint- ings; crayon drawing. Framed statement of growth of institution in twenty years. Portfolio containing statements of organization, equipments, and range of work of in- stitution, with statements of work in belles lettres, science, mathematics, English composition, languages, music, and calisthenics. Watkins Seminary (near Nashville).- Photc/graph of institution. Beechcroft School for Girls, Spring Hill. — Volume examination papers. Peabody High School, Trenton. — 10 packages of recitation papers. VIRGINIA. The educational exhibit of Virginia consisted of nine classes: county maps ; city maps; general maps; promiscuous drawings ; essays, compositions, etc.; copies; mis- cellaneous papers, diagrams, literature, charts, monthly examinations, etc.; office exhibits ; photographs. Class A contained maps of the following counties : Alexandria, Alleghany, Augusta, Bath, Bedford, Brunswick, Campbell, Carroll, Chailotte, Craig, Culpepper, Danville (district), Dinwiddle, Elizabeth City, Fairfax, Fauquier, Fluvanna, Frederick, Gooch- land, Grayson, Greenville, Halifax, Hanover, Henrico, Henry, James City, King George, Lee, Madison, Mecklenburg, Nansemoud, New Kent, Northampton, Northum- berland, Nottoway, Orange, Patrick, Pittsylvania, Powhatan, Prince Edward, Prince George, Princess Anne, Pulaski, Richmond, Roanoke, Rockbridge, Rockingham, and Stafford. Class B, maps of Alexandria, Ashland, Fredericksburg, Lynchburg, Manchester, Norfolk, Petersburg, and Richmond. . Class C, general maps from Accomac County, 4; Augusta, 7; Danville, 19; Dinwid- dle, 2; Elizabeth City, 1; Fauquier, 5; Frederick, 18; Henry, 13; Manchester, 29; Mecklenburg, 1 ; Norfolk, 12; Nottoway, 11; Petersburg, 57 ; Pittsylvania, 12; Rich- mond, 330; Roanoke, 1; Rockingham, 50 ; Rockbridge, 26 ; and Staunton, 25. Class D, under the general name of promiscuous drawings, contained the follow- ing exhibits : Augusta, old log school house ; Charlotte, school house ; Clarke, 3 school houses ; Dinwiddle, log school house; Elizabeth City, log school house (ex- terior and interior) ; Fluvanna, 3 school houses ; Grayson, 2 school houses ; Hanover, school houses (old and new); Manchester, school houses (white and colored); Mil- ler Manual Labor School, diagram of mill machinery, side and end view of derrick, steam-engine, plan of building, Clark and Knight engine, jack-screw, grounds of the school, screw; Petersburg, 9 school buildings; Rockingham, crayon drawings, 12 miscellaneous drawings. Class E included the following essays, compositions, and other documents: Alex- andria, history of schools: Augusta, 3 compositions; Danville, history of schools; Dinwiddle, 25 compositions ; Fredericksburg, history of city ; Lynchburg, 25 compo- sitions, diagram ; Mecklenburg, 3 compositions, history of institute ; Norfolk city, 3 72 . STATE SYSTEMS WEST VIRGINIA WISCONSIN. 73 drawings, 8 compositions ; Nottoway, 8 essays ; Petersburg, 91 specimens of penman- ship, 21 compositions; Pitt8.\lvania, 12 essays, names, with derivation, of countries; Roauoke, compositions, academy news ; Rockingham, Latin and French ex-ercisea, compositions, grammatic diagram, essays ; Staunton, compositions. Class F consisted of 4 copies from Fredericksburg and 2"^ from Staunton. Class G consisted of a diagram of the Moore Street Industrial School. Pendleton cards and drawing maps, and three diagrams of government, from Richmond ; and literature charts, monthly examinations, hair work and needle work from Rocking- ham. Class H (from the oflBce of the superintendent of public instruction) includes the following material : 1 volume of original annual reports from county and cky super- inteudents ; 12 specimens of annual reports as issued from the office ; 3 bound volumes of annual reports ; 1 bound volume of reports of Richmond city school board ; 2 vol- umes of report from Alexandria ; 1 bound volume of Virginia school law; 1 bound volume of samples of blanks from central office ; original questions for examination of teachers ; original report of census of teachers (bound) ; Lynchburg school reports; 2 volumes Lynchburg school regulations; rules and regulations of Alexandria city schools ; 7 copies ' ' Ordinance, Rules and Regulations," Lynchburg ; 2 copies ordinance and annual school report, Fredericksburg ; course of study of public schools, Danville; 3 copies outline of course of study in the public schools of Richmond; fourteenth annual report of schools of Richmond ; 3 copies of Petersburg city school report. Class I contains photographs of school houses, of Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, Washington and Lee University, etc. WEST VIRGINIA. Bemvood. — Bound volume of examination jiapers. Wheeling. — 10 bound volumes examinatiou papers, primary department. 10 bound volumes examination papers, grammar department. State report of schools, 1881-'82. Volume of blank teachers' certificates. Volume of blank orders. Blank register. Blank county report. Blauk sheriff's settlement for school money. Pamphlet of school laws. State of West Virginia. Finding list. Wheeling Public Library. WISCONSIN. CITY EXHIBITS. Milwaukee. — Banners showing statistics. 28 views of school buildings. City nor- mal school building. 4 frames containing pupils' work in drawing. 39 volumes, pupils' work, including kindergarten work. Examination papers in district schools ; also complete sets, showing full course of instruction in high school. These exhibits include the work of whole classes. Lacrosse. — 46 volumes examination papers, and other work of pupils. Madison. — 7 thick volumes of pupils' work, examination papers. Janesville. — 8 volumes of jjupils' work, examination papers. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL EXHIBITS. Oshkosh. — 6 large volumes examinatiou papers and school work. Wliiiewater. — 4 large volumes examinatiou papers and school work. Plattville. — 4 large volumes examinatiou papers and school work. MISCELLANEOUS. Work of pupils in the blind and deaf and dumb institutes. Reports of schools and State institutions. Catalogues of historical society and of colleges. Banner, single piece of silk, 6 by 9 feet, containing statistical information relating to the schools of the State. Set of 8 charts, outlining school system. 2 sets geological reports and 2 volumes geological charts. 36 geological charts on frames. 73 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. ALBANY, N. Y. Bound volumes of pupiW work.— I volnuie penmanship specimens, schools 11, 21, and 24; 1 volume language exercises, schools 11 and 24; 1 volume language exer- cises, schools 2 and 14; 1 volume arithmetic exercises, Schools 12 and 15; 1 volume geography and history exercises, schools 6 and 21 ; 2 volumes drawings, schools gen- erally ; 8 volumes tost exercises, high school. Framed pictures. — 19 drawings ; 1 perspective of high school ; 4 floor plans of high school ; 1 perspective of school No. 2 ; 1 perspective and floor plans of school No. 2. A relief map of Albany county in plaster. ALEXANDRIA, VA. Framed photograph of the Washington school building, exhibited by John P.Clark, of Alexandria, Va. ATLANTA, GA. S*hool work: From boys' high school, 1 volume; girl's high school, 1 volume ; Cal- houn-street school, 2 volumes; Walker-street school, 1 volume; Ivy-street school, 1 volume ; Fair-street school, 1 volume ; Crew-street school, 1 volume ; Marietta-street school, 1 volume; Houston -street (colored) school, 2 volumes; Mitchell-street (col- ored) school, 1 volume; Summer Hill (colored) school, 1 volume. Photograph of Prof. W. F. Slaton, superintendent. Map of Europe. CHICAGO, ILL. Exhibit of drawing under the direction of Prof. Herman Hanstem : 64 charcoal drawings; 65 industrial drawings; 12 water colors; 2 ink sketches; 12 pen drawings; 120 samples of home work by grades IV and V ; 82 samples of wood construction, grade VII ; 47 samples of paper coustruction by grade VII ; 24 pencil drawings, grade IV; 38 peucil drawings, grade V; 48 pencil drawings, grade VI ; 48 pencil drawings, grade VII; 66 pencil drawings, grade VIII; 3 bound volumes drawing books of grades IV, V, and VI; illustrations of persjjective. DENVER, COLO. 6 photographs and plans of school buildings. LEAVENWORTH, KANS. 7 volumes representing work in sixth and seventh grades, and in the courses of th6 high school in English and Latin, history and science, and mathematics. OAK PARK, COOK COUNTY, ILL. 60 framed drawings from grades III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII. PORTLAND, OREG. Picture of high school building and architect's plans of floors of high school bnild- ing. Photographs of six other school buildings. Two charts showing school attend- ance for teu years. Map of city of Portland showing location of school buildings. 20 free-hand crayon drawings by pupils of the high school. 288 mechanical drawings distributed as follows: High school, 54; Park school, 12; Central school, 60; Har- rison school, 54; North school, 66; Couch school, 12; Failing school, :>0. 6 memory maps drawn by pupils of the Couch school. 74 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS WASHINGTON, D. C. 75 WASHINGTON, D. C. Office of Supkrintendent of Public Schools, Washington, D. C, Deccmhir 12, 1884. In arranging for this exhibit no time was allowed for special preparation of pupils' work, and it therefore represents for the most part the regular exercises of the schools. Much of it has been selected with the view of showing methods of instruc- tion rather than finished results. J. Ormond Wilson, Superintendent. catalogue of exhibits. First {/rade. — (1) Regular daily work of pupils on slates, 50 specimens; (2) clay models of geometric forms, 50 specimens. Second grade. — (:i) Regular daily work of pupils on slates, 50 specimens; (4) clay models of geometric forms, 100 specimens; (5) 1 volume of copybooks. Third grade. — (6) 1 volume penmanship drill exercises; (7) 1 v8lume of copy books; (S) 1 volume of drawing-books ; (9) 1 volume of samplers; (10) 1 volume of conip'sitions ; (11) specimens of map drawings. Fourth grade. — (12) 1 volume penmanship drill exercises; (13) I volume of copy books; (14) 1 volume of drawing- books; (I.')) I volume of compositions : (IG) 1 vol- ume of samplers: (17) specimens of map-drawing; (18) 16 specimens putty relief maps. Fifth grade. — (19) 1 volume penmanshij) drill exercises; (20) 1 volume of copy- books; (21) 1 volume of drawing-books; (22) 1 volume of samplers; (2:5) 1 volume of compositions; (24) 1 volume of written examination works; (25) 12 specimens relief maps; (20) specimens of map-drawing. Sixth grade. — (27) 1 volume of penmanship drill exercises; (28) 1 volume of copy- books; (29) 1 volume of drawing-books; (30) 1 volume of compositions; (31) 1 vol- ume of samplers; (32) 1 volume of written examination work; (:J3) 15 specimens relief maps; (34) specimens of map-drawing. Seventh grade.— {'.'lb) 1 volume of penmanship drill exercises; (3G) 1 volume of copy- books; (37) 1 volume of drawing-books; (38) 1 volume of compositions; (39) 1 vol- ume of samplers; (40) 1 volume of written examination work; (41) 15 specimens putty relief maps ; (42) specimens of map-drawing. Eighth grade. — (43) 1 volume of penmanship drill exercises ; (44) 1 volume of copy- books; (45) 1 volume of drawing-books; (46) 1 volume of compositions; (47) 2 vol- umes of samplers; (48) 1 volume of written examination work; (49) 1 volume of spelling exercise books ; (."jO) specimens of map-drawing. Miscellaneous. — (51) 1 volume of catalogues of school libraries; (5'rranuiiaT and reader) ; Harrison & Sharp, Bedwulf (text and glossary), Classical English Reader (with explanatory and critical foot-notes); Thotu, Two Shakespeare Examinations; Lambert, Memory Gems (for primary, intermediate, and advanced classes); Yonge, Scott's Queutin Durward (clas- sics for children). English Grammar.— GWtnove , Outlines of the Art of Expression ; Whitney & Knox, Elementary Lessons in English, Part I— "How to Speak and Write Correctly"; Knox, Teacher's Edition of above, with plans for oral lessons ; Whitney, Essentials of Eng- lish Grammar (for high schools). Latin. — Allen «fe Greenough, Latin Grammar (revised edition, 1877), Caesar (4 books, with vocabulary), Cicero (lli orations, or 8 orations with vocabulary), Ovid (with vocabulary) ; Allen, Latin Primer (for very young students), New Latin Method (with additional exercises by William Deutsch), Introduction to Latin Composition (new edition), Remnants of Early Latin (chieliy inscriptions); Blackburn, Latin Grammar and Exercises (in one volume); Crowell & Richardson, Brief History of Roman Literature (Bender) ; Greenough, Bucolics and Six Books of Virgil's iEueid (with vocabulary) ; Halsey, Etymology of Latin and Greek (with English derivatives); Keep, Essential Uses of the Moods in Greek and Latin ; King, Latin Pronunciation (Roman, continental, and English methods) ; Leighton, Latin Lessons (rewritten, simplified, and carefully graded in 1877); Tetlow, Inductive Latin Lessons (exercises taken fromCaisar); Tomliuson, Manual for the Study of Latin Grammar (paper); Junior Student's Latin-English and English-Latin Lexicon (sheep); Whiton, Six Weeks' Preparation ior Reading Cesar. Greek. — Allen, Medea of Euripides; D'Ooge, Sophocles's Antigone; Flagg, Hellenic Orations of Deniosthoues ; Goodwin, Greek Grammar (syntax based on the author's Moods and Tenses) ; Greek Moods and Tenses (the sixth edition) ; Goodwin &, White, Anabasis (4 boohs, with full notes and references) ; Keep, Essential Uses of the Moods in Greek and Latin; Leightou, Greek Lessons (exercises from the first book of Anabasis) ; Liddell &, Scott, Greek-English Lexicon (abridged) ; Seymour, Selected Odes of Pindar ; Tarbell, Philippies of Demosthenes (from the Ziirich edition of the text) ; White, First Lessons in Greek (exercises from the first 4 books of Anabasis). Mathematics. — Byerly, Ditterential Calculus, Integral Calculus ; Halsted, Metrical Geometry (an elementary treatise on mensuration) ; Hardy, Elements of Quaternions; Hill, Geometry for Beginners ; Wentworth, Elements of Algebra, Complete Algebra, Plane and Solid Geometry, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry and Surveying and Navigation, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry and Surveying, with tables; -Wentworth & Hill, Five-Place Logarithmic and Trigono- metric Tables (seven tables), Five-Place Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables (complete edition), Practical Arithmetic, Examination Manuals: (I) Arithmetic, (II) Algebra, Exercise Manual: (II) Algebra ;* Wheeler, Plane and Spherical Trig- onometry and Tables; Seelye, Hickok's Empirical Psychology, Moral Science. Modern Languages. — Boisen, Preparatory Book of German Prose t; Deutsch, German Reader, Colloquial Exercises; Hodges, Course in Scientific German; Knapp, Grammar of the Modern Spanish Language, Modern Spanish Readings (with notes and vocabu- lary). Modern French Readings (for a year's study) ; Sheldon, Short German Grammar (for high schools and colleges). Science. — Gage, Elements of Physics; Shaler, Primer of Geology. Geographies, etc. — Globe Hand-Book (120 pages, furnished free with globe) ; Hall, Our World (No. 1), Our World (No. 2). Music. — Caswell & Ryan, Time and Tune Book, Book I. The National Music Course. — Eichberg, Fifth, or High School Music Reader, Girl's High School Music Reader, Supplement to High School Music Reader; Mason, Pri- mary, or First Music Reader (adapted to rote singing). Second Music Reader (only major scale in nine keys used). Third Music Reader (songs based on the triads and chords taught in the charts), Intermediate Music Reader (second and third readers bound together), The Teacher's Manual, National Hymn and Tune Book (for female voices and for mixed voices), Independent Music Reader (for upper classes in gram- mar school). Independent Reader and Hymn and Tune Book (mixed voices) combined; Sharland, Fourth Music Reader (for advanced grades of grammar schools) abridged. Miscellaneous. — Lanman, Sanskrit Reader (with vocabulary and notes) ; March, A-B- C Book (based on the phonic method); Mouoyer, Sight Test for Schools (mounted); Stevens, Yale Examinati_on Papers (including Sheffield Scientific School); Whitaker, Wood-working Tools; How to Use Them. * The last two may be liad in one volume. t Notes and text may be had .separate. 87 88 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., NEW YORK CITY. Swinton's Readers (Numbers I-V); Swiuton's lutroductory Geography, Grammar School Geography (six numbers), Complete Course in Geography ; Scribner's Geo- graphical Reader and Primer ; The Literary Reader ; Kerl's Language Lessons; Kerl's Shorter Course in English Grammar; Kerl's Common School Grammar; Kerl's Com- prehensive English Grammar; Swinton's New Word Analysis; Common School Dic- tionary of the English Language, Webster ; Two dozen copies Spencerian Writing Books; The New Bryant and Stratton High School Bookkeeping; Fish's Arithmetic (Numbers I and 2) ; Robinson's Complete Arithmetic; Guyot's Physical Geography; How Plants Grow, Gray ; Gray's Lessons in Botany ; Gra.v's New Maniaal of Botany ; Gray's School and Field Book of Botany ; Gray's Botanical Text-Book; Outlines of the World's History, Swinton; First Lfssous in Our Country's History, Swinton; A Condensed School History of the United States; Elementary Manual of Chemistry; New Text-Book of Chemistry ; New Text- Book of Physics; A Short Course in Civil Government; The Geological Story Briefly Told ; Manual of Geology, Dana; Com- plete Course with the German Language ; Practical French Course ; Elements of Zoology, Tenney ; A Descriptive Atlas of the United States. J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., PHILADELPHIA. Full set of Worcester's Dictionaries; Set of Readers, Willson, Numbers I-V; Pri- mary Analytical Arithmetic; Intermediate Analytical Arithmetic; Higher Analyti- cal Arithmetic ; Common School Arithmetic j Lippincott's Pronouncing Biographical Dictionary; New Elementary Algebra; Astronomy for Schools and General Readers; Lessons in Chemistry, Greene. MACMILLAN & CO., NEW YORK AND LONDON. Guest's Lectures ; Huxley's Physiology ; Lockyer's Astronomy ; Geikie's Physical Geography; Mrs. Fawcett's Political Economy; Jevons's Logic; Stewart's Physics; Thompson's Electiicity ; Masson's French Dictionary; Morris's English Grammar; Tanner's Agricultural Practice ; Ward's Poets, 4 volumes, student's edition ; set Globe Readings; Huxley's Physiography ; Huxley and Martin's Biology ; TaitonHeat; Tait on Light; Calderwood's Moral Philosophy; Foster and Langlcy's Physiology ; Faw- cett's Manual of Political Economy ; Todhunter's Euclid, Algebra for Beginners, Col- lege Algebra, Plane Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Dili'erential Calculus, Integral Cal- culus ; Roscoe's Chemistry ; Calderwood on Teaching ; Fitch on Teaching. JOHN MURPHY, BALTIMORE AND NEW YORK. Lessons in English Literature. THOMAS NELSON & SONS, NEW YORK CITY. World at Home Readers (I to VI); Morrison's Grammar; English Language ; Royal Drawing Books ; Royal History of England and Scotland ; Collier's British History, Great Events, Senior Class Book, Advanced Class Book, Outlines of History, British Empire, Junior Class Book, English Literature; Bryce's First and Second Latin and Greek Books, Elementary Latin Grammar; Blaikie's Bible History; Chemistry of Common Things; Principles of Agriculture; Elementary Mechanics ; Science of Home Life, 2 vols. ; Model Notes of Lessons; Moral Subjects; Scott's Reader. PORTER & COATES, PHILADELPHIA. Set Normal Readers (Numbers I-V); Primary Spelling Book, Buckwalter; Compre- hensive Spelling Book, Buckwalter; Set Raub's Arithmetics; Lessons in English; Practical English Grammar. POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO., NEW YORK CITY. First Book in Natural Philosophy ; First Book in Physiology ; First Book in As- tronomy ; Astronomy for Schools and Academies; Payson, Dunton & Scribner's Single Entry Bookkeeping, Double Entry Bookkeeping, Manual of Penmanship; complete set of Payson, DuntoTi &, Scribner's Penmanship (12 numbers) ; Handbook of National System of Pennmanship ; Industrial Drawing, Bartholomew (Numbers I and 2) ; set of Bartholomew's System of Industrial Drawing (18 numbers); How to Teach Bar- tholomew's System of Drawing; set of six composition books ; blank books for book- keeping. RAND, MONALLY & CO., CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. Indexed Atlas of the World. MISCELLANEOUS EXHIBITS SCHOOL APPARATUS. 89 GEO. SHERWOOD * CO., CHICAGO. Set Model Readers; Model History; Civil Government of Illinois; Civil Govern- ment of Michigan ; Sewall's Botany; Rhetoric Made Racy; Ilaynie's Analysis; set Writing Spellers ; Class Register, >'o. I ; Sherwood's Register; Walker's Register, No. 1; Business Reader ; Student's Reader, parts; Little Folks' Model Arithmelic; Model Elementary Arithmetic ; Model Complete Arithmetic : dozen circulars of each kind. TAINTOR BROTHERS, MERRILL & CO., NEW YORK. Franklin Readers; Campbell's Concise School History of the United States. VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., CINCINNATI. Revised First Reader, Second Reader, Third Reader, Fourth Reader, Fifth Reader, Sixth Reader; Ray's Plain and Solid Geometry, Geometry and Trigonometry, Analyti- cal Geometry, Astronomy, Surveying and Navigation, Ditferential and Integral Cal- culus; Hepburn's Rhetoric ; Eclectic Primary History ; Eclectic United States His- tory ; Thalheimer's England, General History, Ancient History, Modern and Mediaeval History. SCHOOL APPARATUS. [Note.— For physical and chemieal apparatus, see p. 127.) D. APPLETON & CO., NEW YORK. Reading charts, with stands; writing charts, with stands; music charts, with stands and manual; Cornell's outline maps; Henslow's botanical charts; Linton's historical charts. A. L. BANCROFT & CO., SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Bancroft's charts of geography, geographical definition, history, and physiology ; Finch's arithmetical chart ; Montgomery's revolving chart. E. H. BUTLER & CO., PHILADELPHIA, PA. Reading charts, 36 numbers, with color chart, chart of form, and time chart ; chart primer ; Mitchell's outline maps, with key. BUFFALO SCHOOL FURNITURE COMPANY, BUFFALO, N. Y. New paragon desks, full set, double and single; 1 single- back seat; 2 double-back seats ; 1 single box desk ; 1 single study front desk ; 1 tablet settee ; 2 dozen kinder- garten chairs ; large kindergarten table ; 6 small kindergarten tables. BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Cubes, weights, and measures illustrating metric system ; relative globe, relative time globe, relief globe, blackboard glol)e, aud ordinary terrestrial globes, large and small ; relief maps of Italy aud Switzerland ; large framed maps of Eastern and West- em Hemispheres and Canada ; set of drawing models ; set of Boyd's object lessons ; Smith's map of the United States; 4 Warmau's school charts; 6 pictures of Swiss scenery. COWPERTHWAIT & CO., PHILADELPHIA, PA. Set of Monroe's vocal gymnastic charts, including Bell's Visible Speech ; s«'t of Mon- roe's reading charts. DETROIT RADIATOR CO., DETROIT, MICH. School radiator. S. T. ENOS. ETNA, ILL. " Educational Device," framed. 89 90 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. GINN, HEATH & CO., BOSTON, MASS. Mason's musical charts; terrestrial globe (12-iuch). LOUISA J. KIRKWOOD, NEW YOllK CITY. School sewing-bos, containing a supply of needles, thread, thimbles, scissors, pins, emery, cushions, and thimble-bags, 400 basted sewing sample patches, arranged in eight graded lessons. NEW YORK CltAYON COMPANY. Plain white chalk crayons ; enameled white chalk crayons (dustless) ; enameled colored chalk crayons (dustless) ; Conklin's blackboard erasers ; boxes pastel crayons, No. 2 ; boxes pastel crayons, No. 1 ; soapstoue slate pencils ; wire-bound slates ; pen- cil-holding slates ; Lehigh slates. NEW YORK SILICATE BOOK SLATE CO. Holly blackboard; daisy blackboard; young artist blackboard; No. 1 easel and blackboard; No. 2 easel and blackboard; No. 3 roll and blackboard; (pocket) book slate, with interleaves; (quartz) book slate, without interleaves, popular school size; (crystal) book slate, without interleaves, large size; (silica) book slate, same as No. 14; (quartz) bookplate, with interleaves; (stone) book slate, with interleaves, medium size ; (mineral) book slate, with interleaves, largest size ; daily class report for teach- ers' usse, ruled for daily recitation marks of 50 pupils. For office use. — (Silex) book slate, indelibly ruled dollar columns and horizontal lines, medium size; (flint) book slate, indelibly ruled dollar columns and horizontal lines, large size; daily memoranda for vest pocket, interleaves; forget-me-not ladies' shop- ping book, interleaves ; every-day book slate, interleaves, calendar if desired ; min- ute book slate, extra interleaves ; gem book slate, interleaves ; journal book slate, plain title, extra interleaves, horizontal ruling ; merchants' book slate, extra interleaves. For desk or office use. — (Agate) book slate ; centenni.il book slate, ruled interleaves; (diamond) book slate, with interleaves; (glass) book slate, indelibly ruled dollar col- umns and horizontal lines; conductors' book slate, black cloth cover, opening at end, short. PARMENTER CRAYON CO., WALTHAM, MASS. Crayons in ten colors, tastefully arranged upon a revolving cylinder within a shovr case. people's publishing CO., CHICAGO, ILL. The People's Illustrated and Descriptive Family Atlas. RAND, MCNALLY & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. Seven maps in case. CHAS. SCRIBXER'S SONS, NEW YORK CITY. Set Trouvelot astronomical charts. 8ETH THOMAS CLOCK CO., THOMASTON, CONN. Two clocks, one each for library and kindergarten. GEO. SHILLING, WASHINGTON, D. C. Six engineering instruments with case for them, as follows: The Engineer's Transit has two horizontal plates, moving freely upon each other. The upper or vernier plate is of larger diameter than the lower plate or circle, and has at the circumference a rectangular downward projection, within which the circle is closely fitted to exclude dust, grit, etc., from the divisions of the circle and the ver- niers, which are on the lower side of the vernier plate. Apertures are cut and fitted with porcelain shades in the vernier plate directly above the verniers, revealing the same and an equal space of the circle around which they travel. At the edges of the 90 MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL APPARA.TUS. 91 apertures recesses are cut, into which pieces of jilate glass an; closely fitted, aftbrding protcctiou to the circle and verniers, and also excluding dust, moisture, etc. On top of the vernier plate is a compass central to the vertical axis ; the needle is 4^ inches long, and is provided with a lifter to release it from the pin when the instrument is not in use. The vertical axis consists of two parts, the internal and the external; the internal axis is connected with the vernier plate and the external axis with the circle. The external axis is also fitted into a shank, at the upper end of which is a circular plate which is 5" iu diameter (called the upper parallel plate), containing the four leveling screws, placed opposite each other at equal distances apart. To the lower end of the shank a segment of a ball is attached, which works in a socket-plate held against the under side of the lower parallel plate. This plate has a large circu- lar opening in the middle, which permits the socket-plate that secures the whole in- strument to the lower parallel plate to be shifted for position ; thus, for instance, when an engineer desires to locate the transit over a given point, he can do so by means of this shifting device, without changing the position of the tripod legs. The clamp for the horizontal circle embraces theexternal center immediately above its fitting in the shank, and is crnnected with the upper parallel plate by means of the tangent or pushing-screw, opposite to and inline with which is a spnug-box containing a piston worked by a strong spiral spring, imparting a counter motion. Hence, by tightening the clamp, the whole instrument can be moved any small quantity of space by turn- ing the pushing-screw. In like manner the clamp for the vernier plate embraces the external axis immediately below the horizontal circle, and is connected with the ver- nier plate by means of a German-silver tangent screw, thus freeing the circle from all incumbrance. The transit has two cylindrical spirit-levels mounted at right angles to each other, one on the vernier plate, the other on one of the standards. At the top of the standards V -slipped bearings are cut to receive the pivots of the telescope axis. One of the bearings is adjustable and can be raised or lowered by means of two capstan-headed screws opposite each other, the purpose of which is to bring the telescope axis into the horizontal plane, thus securing a motion of the telescoi)e parallel to the vertical axis of the instrument. The telescope may be held in any posi- tion around its axis by a clamp, the collar of which embraces one end of the telescope axis, and when clamped will hold the telescope in a rigid position, which can then be controlled by means of the tangent screw connecting the clamp with the standard. At the opposite end of the axis is mounted the vertical circle (.'i'' in diameter) having a silver ring let into its rim for the purpose of receiving the divisions. The vertical circle is divided to read to 20 minutes and the vernier to read to HO seconds. The tele- scope has an attached level 6" long mounted on the under side, this level having hori- zontal and vertical adjustments for the purpose of bringing it into parallelism with the line of collimation of the telescope. The eye-piece, instead of focusing upon the diaphragm by a simple slide or by rack and pinion, is made to move in a straight line in and out by a milled rotating collar carrying a female screw, which engages with pins upon the eye-piece, giving a slow motion withjont shake, enabling the adjustment for dift'erent eyes to be made quickly and easily, and once made to be retained without liability to disarrangement. This arrangement for focusing the terrestrial eye-piece on the cross-wires is used on all telescopes having a direct eye-piece. Engineer's Wye-Level. — The Y's, leveling-plates, etc., are made as in the engineer's transit, which permits the use of a much longer center than usual, gives greater so- lidity to the instrument as a whole, and materially increases the nicety and accuracy of all work. The level-bar is 13" long and is screwed directly upon the center-flange, immediately below which the clamj) embraces the center, and is connected with the upper parallel plate by means of the tangent screws. At each end of the bar Y's are mounted, one of which has a vertical adjustment for the purpose of bringing the Y's into a line horizontal to the vertical axis of the instrument. These Y's support the telescope, which is confined in them by means of hinged clips at the top. The tele- scope is 17" long, the objective 1^" in diameter, and has a clear opening of If". A valuable and original improvement is made by adding collars of bell-metal to the telescope, in which the latter rotates, instead of iu the Y's. In one of the collars a stop is placed, permitting the telescope to be revolved exactly 180°. When the usual clamps over the Y's are lifted, the disengagement of pins with the collars permits the revolution of the whole combination, as in the ordinary level, except that the collars revolve in the Y's instead of the telescope. The advantages derived from this im- provement are many. It permits a much more rapid and accurate collimation adjust- ment, since, the revolution of the telescope on its axis being exactly 180^^, the time usually spent in placing the wires horizontal and vertical is gained : foe the motion in the collars being concentric, the axis maintains its direction unchanged in any position of the telescop(i in them, and once adjusted, is not liable to derangement from wear; as, instead of the usual two bearing surfaces in the Y's, the telescope re- volves in the accurately-fitting collars, which are so made as to exclude dust, grit, 91 92 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. etc. The life and value of the level are thus indefiuitely increased, siuce there is no appreciable wear ()t\the bearings of the telescope. ' The 6-iiich Theodolite consists of two horizontal plates — the upper or vernier being of less diameter than the lower plate or limb. Within the circumference of the lower plate is let in a silver ring to receive the graduations. On opposite sides of the vernier ])late, or 180° apart, silver arcs are let in, forming the verniers, which are about .002 of an inch lower than the graduation of the circle ; as the reading of the divisions through the reading microscope is performed at an angle of about 60° to the plane of the division, it follows that if the outer division is a trifle higher than the inner a continuous line will be the result when any two of the lines of the divisions are oppo- site each other. The reading of the verniers is assisted by having porcelain shades immediately above them, to mellow and subdue the light. The vernier plate bears freely upon the lower plate, and meets the lower limb within the circle at a distance of nine-sixteenths inches from the periphery, both having a horizontal motion by means of the vertical axis. This axis consists of two parts, the external and internal ; the former is secured to the graduated circle and the latter to the vernier plate. The form of both vertical centers is conical and they are ground into each other, having an easy and very steady motion. The external center also fits into an upright shank having three arras or claws carrying the leveling screws, which rest directly upon the tripod head. The lower limb or circle is graduated to read to 10 minutes, and is subdivided by the vernier to 10 seconds, which are easily read off by aid of the attached microscopes. The lower horizontal limb can be fixed in any position by tightening the clamp- screw, which causes the collar of the clamp to embrace the external axis and prevents its moving ; but if it is desired that it should be fixed in some precise position more exactly than can be done by the hand alone, the whole instrument, when thus clamped, can be moved any small quautity by means of the slow-motion screw which is attached to the shank (this slow motion screw being fitted with a spring box containing a piston controlled by a powerful spiral spring securing a counter motion). In like manner the upper or vernier plate can be fixed to the lower in any position by a clamp attached to the external center of the instrument and connected with the vernier plate by means of the tangent screw, thus freeing the divided circle from any incumbrance. Upon the plane of the vernier plate a universal adjustable level is placed, its use being to determine the horizontal setting of the instrument. On the vernier plate the upright standards carrying the telescope and circle are placed. These standards are slotted for Y's to receive the axis of the telescope. The axis of the telescope is secured in the Y's by catches or clips hinged to the top of the standard, forming a self- actinc, strong, and durable fastening, easy to use and far superior to the swinging bars usually seen on Instruments. The Y in one of the standards is adjustable, and cau be raised or lowered by means of a stout screw which has a plain fitting in the standard, and is held in place by a fine steel pin which fits into a groove turned in the shank of the screw. The Y carries a female thread into which the upper end of the screw works ; hence by turning the screw the Y can be raised or low.ered at will, and especial merit is claimed for this appliance for securing a true vertical motion of the telescope. The clamp for the telescope axis is a hinged collar having two horizontal projec- tions opposite the hinge, said projections being slotted to receive a strong German- silver screw which is fastened to the lower projections by means of a steel pin <>n which it swings vertically. This screw has a milled screw-nut which slips over the projection of the upper half of the collar, and by turning the screw-nut, one revolu- tion may be made to tighten the two half collars on the telescope axis. This clamp is easily operated, being permanent in its place and independent of the axis, and offers no inconvenience or obstruction when the axis is Ixnng reversed in the standards lor the purpose of testing the line of collimation. The fulcrum of the tangent screw controlling the telescope works in stationai'y half balls, into which creases are cut coincident to creases iti the tangent scrcvv, mounted on one of the standards. One end of the tangent screw works in a female thread or bull secured to the tail- piece of, and controls, the clamp. This kind of tan- gent screw is used on all instruments made by George Shilling, except where pushing- screws are used. The telescope is 11" long; the object glass li" clear aperture, having an inverting eye-piece magnifying 16 times; there is a detachable striding level longitudinal with the telescope. The striding level, when properly adijusted, is parallel with the lim^ of collimatiou, and is used to determine its horizontality. The axis of the telescope carries a circle Cy" in diameter, having a silver rim laid in, upon which is indicated the graduations, which are divided to 20 minutes, and subdivided by means of the vernier to read to 30 seconds. The telescope drawer carrying the reticule and achromatic eye-piece is moved out and in, in a straight litie, by means of a rack and ]iinion. 92 MISCELLANEOUS KINDERGARTEN. 93 The gradienier — used in prelitniuary triangulations to measure angles of altitude and aziiiiiub, and also in distance nu-asMreraents (telemeter work). Like Ihe theodo- lite, it lias two horizontal ])latt's ; the lower one, or circle, is hxcd to the shank in which the center carrying tlic vernier jilate revolves. Within the periphery of the circle a silver ring is laid in, upon whiiili the division is ruled. The diameter of the circhi at the edge of reading is lif". Silver arcs are inlaid in the vernier plate oppo- site each other (leO'^ apart), forming the verniers. At the lower end of the shank are thiee equidistant arms carrying the leveling screws, which rest directly ujton the liipod head. The construction is similar to that described for the theodolite, having, however, no repeating motion. The vertical axis and the standard are cast in one coutinuoua piece, the vernier ])late being screwed to the base of the standard. The standards carrying the axis of the telescope being 2" above the vernier plate, allow about '•'>0° of elevation and de- pression. The lops of the standards are slotted for Y's, and, as in the description given of the theodolite, the axis of the telescope is held in ]>lace by movable clips, to permit of ready reversion to ascertain whether adjustment has been secured. A universal level is mounted upon the base of the standard central to the vertical axis, its use being, as readily understo<)d, to determine the exact horizontal position of ' he instrument. The clamp for the telescope axis is the same as that described for the theoflolite, with the exct ption that the tail-pi<'ce has a horizontal projection carried into a slot cut in one of the standards, and is there controlled by means of a pushing-screw and cownt'er-moiion piston in a Itox, working against a strong spiral spring. The telescope resting its axis in the Y's of the standard as above described, is 9" long, having an ol)ject glass of l^" aperture in the clear, with a movable cap, a rack und pinion to secure the inward and outward motion of the drawer which contains the adjusiablc stadia wires for teh^meter observations, and an achromatic eye-jiiece. To one end of the axis of the telescope is rigidly attached a vernier index or iKUiiiis, which follows the motion of the telescope and moves upon the inner arc of a einde which is divided to iO minutes, and is subdivided by means of ihe nonius to read to 3U secoixls. The telescojie carries a detachable com])ass .'')" long, upon whit h rests an ailjnstable graduated ether-level. The compass needle can be secured or released by means of a small pin or lifter. The verni> r plate is'seciired to the lower limb or circle by means of a clamp which travels on the outer edge of the lower horizontal plane, and assists the tangent screw in securing a horizontal motion to the entire instrnment above the horizontal circle. VAN ANTWERP & CO., CINCINNATI, OHIO. McGuffy's revised primary charts; eclectic wall maps. A. G. WHITCOMB, BOSTON, MASS. One teacher's desk; 1 high school lid desk; 1 primary lid desk; 7 graded single desks. KINDERGARTEN. DESCRIPTION OF THE SCHOOL. In the southwest coi-ner of the gallery in the Government building a room 35 feet long by 17 feet wide has been partitioned off for a kindergarten. The walls'are of white cotton cloth with a red border above and a brown one below, each about two feet wide. Pictures illustrating animal life, groups of picture cards, and*the children's fiist lessons in color, form, and number, in theshapeof paper chains, decorate the. walls. Over the mantel-piece hangs a picture of the Madonna and Child, to which little faces lovingly turn as the children sing, "Jesus once was a little child." Opposite this l)i8 a cheerful fire is a center of attraction, not only to the little ones, but to (he lieniinibed fingers and toes of chance visitors, who frequently remark, "This is the most pleasant place I've seen." 93 94 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. In one corner stands a caliinet, well tilled with every variety of kiudergarleii ma- terial, generously loaned by Milton Bradley, Springtield, Mass. Upon the rug, near by, are arranged the beautiful tables and chairs provided by the BuStalo Furniture Company. The munificence of Mr. A. Weber, Fifth avenue, corner of Sixteenth street, New- York, supplies, in addition, an elegant inlaid upright piano, whose sweet, strains sel- dom fail to draw a deligiited throng to the windows, through which the spectators ■witness the marching and gam<^s of the children. The object of this kindergarten, as expressed by the Commissioner of Education, b^ing to exhibit perfection in detail rather than numbers, only sixteen children, between the ages of four and seven, have been admitted. With one exception these children have never before attended a kindergarten. The novelty and pleasure of their occupations seem to render them quite unconscious of the presence of occasional visitors, who cannot resist the temptation to step inside, now and then. Of course, in so short a time only a small jiorthm of the regular kindergarten course can be given ; but it affords at least a glimpse of a living kindergarten to many parents and teachers who have become interested in the subject through books. They see how the theories of Froebel, the founder of the system, are applied to the children, for whose symmetrical development they were elaborated by him. Tore- mind the reader what those theories are, ."Statements of them from recognized author- ities are presented. The theory which considers the universe as an organic whole and man as a member of the whole in all, and which will allow the laws of education to be dictated chiefly by the laws of life, governed Froebel through and through, governs the present time, and will make its influence felt more and more in the educational field. ♦ » » The mission of Froebel is to give to education, not a one-sided, but an all-sided foundation. (Dr. Richard Lange.) The purpose of the kindergarten is to take the oversight of children before they are ready for school life ; to exert an influence over their whole being in correspondence with its nature ; to strengthen their bodily powers ; to exercise their senses ; to em- ploy the awakening mind ; to make them thoughtfully acquainted with the world of nature and of man ; to guide their heart and soul in a right direction, and lead them to the Origin of all life and to union with Him. (Froebel.) Man must not be instructed, but developed. I separate instruction from develop- ment very sharply. (Froebel.) Froebel gives to children experience instead of instruction ; he puts action in the place of abstract learning. (Baroness Marenholtz-Bulow.) Work, which is at the same time fulfillment of duty, is the only true basis of moral culture; but it is necessary that such work should also satisfy the child's in- stinct of love, and the object of it must therefore be to give pleasure to others. With this end in view difficulties will be overcome with courage and cheerfulness, and the only effectual barrier will thus be opposed to selfishness. A true system of national education, such as the reforms of modern times render necessary, can only be estab- lished by making work, such work as shall connect artistic dexterity with the culti- vation of intelligence, the basis of education. (Baroness Marenholtz-Bulow.) Two kindergartners-were employed during the continuance of the Exposition, Mrs. Anna .B. Ogden and Miss May Crosby, both of Washington, D. C. The former has made the application of kindergarten principles in the home and in classes of quite young children the chief object of her life and study for the past twelve years. Prof. E. A. Spring, of Perth Amboy, N. J., rendered valuable help in giving the best quality of artists' clay for the exercises in modeling, and interesting lessons in its use. The eminent success of the kindergarten class is primarily due to the Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education, whose belief in the wisdom of the kindergarten system impels him to give the fullest information of its principles and methods, and whose foresight enables him to embrace every opportunity to make it a power for improvement in the education of children. 94 MISCELLANEOUS KINDERGARTEN. 95 KINDERGARTEN EXHIBITS. MILTON BRADLEY & CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. First gift (6 worsted balls in box) ; two second gifts (ball, cube, and cylinder) ; twelve third gifts ; twelve fourth gifts; twelve tifth gifts; twelve sixth gifts; one package seventh gift, B (right-angled isosceles triangles); three boxes eighth gift (colored sticks from 1 to 5 ii:' lies)^ twelve boxes jointed slats; two bunches colored slats; three boxes rin^s (ninth gift); twelve wooden tiles; two boxes pegs tortile sticking ; two boxes inch straws for chains ; four packages papers for stringing ; four boxes parquetry; two boxes Mrs. Hail man's second gift (beads) ; two boxes wooden balls; eight packages cutting and folding paper squares; one package circular fold- ing papers ; one package triangular folding papers; lifteen packages weaving material, twelve steel weaving needles ; one package (ItiO) pricked cards ; twelve paper folders ; twelve pricking needles; twelve pricking pads; twelve ruled slates; twelve ruled drawing books ; large package picture cards unpricked ; six charts embroidery design cards; one Froebel institute blocks arranged by Mrs. Hailman ; one set plane forms (triangular tablets) arranged by Mrs. Hailman ; one set colored sticks arranged by Mrs. Hailman; one set lentils (wooden, six colors) arranged by Mis. Hailman; Mrs. Hailman's second gift, beads, to illustrate number. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Kindergarten charts, showing location of kindergarten and their increase in ten years. CALIFORNIA KINDERGARTEN TRAINING SCHOOL. Mrs. Kate Smith TViggin, Piincipal. One school each of paper cutting, paper folding, weaving, drawing, sewing, prick- ing, slat work, and paper twining ; one hundred copies report of free kindergiirten. CHEROKEE ORPHAN ASYLUM, INDIAN TERRITORY. Mrs. Phoeie Eiddell, instructor. Four charts of mounted work done by children, paper folding and embroidery ; two charts mounted weaving mats; six sachet bags (weaving mats); two embroidered cardboard wall pockets ; one box clay modeling. NATIONAL KINDERGARTEN, WASHINGTON, D. C. Mrs. Louise Pollock, Principal. One group blocks (fifth gift, B) ; two embroidered work boxes; five embroidered design cards ; one embroidered scrap bag ; one embroidered letter case ; two cornu- copias (weaving); two sachet bags (weaving); one watch case; two parquetry design cards; two specimens cork work ; five specimens folding; two specimens slat work ; three specimens i)aper cutting ; four drawing patterns ; six worsted balls. EMMA MARWEDEL, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Labeled charts, viz : beginning with circular sewing in silk; flowers sewed; circu- lar drawing and cutting; circular drawing inveution; paper cutting; map drawing; circular drawing by children; arithmetic; botanical drawing; geometrical draw- ing ; geometrical sewing. The following material was also exhibited by Miss Marwedel in the Pacific Slope Division of the Woman's Department, under the supervision of Mrs. J. G. Lemon: One series often pieces of children's work ; one series of six pictures of California wild flowers made in paper by the normal class ; two maps— California acd Bay of San Francisco. One picture of the kindergarten school building of Miss Marwedel ; three large photographs of views of the Stanford Memorial Free Kindergarten School, San Francisco; one manuscript form, a concise history of kindergarten work in Califoriiia, by Mrs, . 95 96 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. E. STEIGICR, 2A PAHK P^.ACE, NEW YORK. First pi ft (6 worsted balls in box); second gift (ball, cube, and cylinder); third gift; fourth jjift ; fifth gift; sixth jjift; seventh gift (eight boxes); box connected slats; bunch loose slats; bundle sticks; jiackage seeds ; package shells; package corks; thirty-eight packages weaving material ; three packages book-mark strips; dozea eteel weaving needles; dozen wooden weaving needles; two wrappers for weaving mats; package pajier for cutting; box artists' clay ; box modeling tools and material (wax) ; |)acl-age pajters and straws; package sewing cards; package No. 7.')8, weaving samples ; package No. 712, thread games ; box rings and half-rings, three sizes ; pack- age paper lor interlacing; jiackage drawing paper; package pui»er frames; pacKage perforating material ; boxcolors, brushes, etc., for painting ; three leporello books (for iDonuting) ; one sample book of work; l>ox silver baskets, etc., for perforating; box doll's furniture (cardboard) ; two portraits of Froebel; seventeen boxes '' Occupations for home and lamily"; package paper folding; [)ackage drawing paper ; package kindergarten tracts; copy Kraus's Kindergarten Guide; copy Watson's Calisthenics; copy Watson's Calisthenics and Gymnastics; (opy Rhymes and Tales, Kriege ; copy The Child, Kriege; coity The Kindergarten, 8hirretf; copy The Kindergarten, Douai; copy Kindergarten Guide, Ptabody ; set Douai's Readers; copy "After the Kinder- garten, What?" Mann and Peabody. KITCHEN GAEDEN. A kitchen garden (school) was conducted by Miss Olivia Tracy in the kindergarten room during March and April. Sessions were held in the afternoon four times a week. The pupils were girls from 7 to 10 years of age residing near the Exposition, and ■were quick to learn the exercises of the kitchen garden. Many visitors to the Kxpo- eitiou not only saw the class under instruction, but also studied the princi[)le« and methods of the system. At the close of the term of instruction a review lesson was given for the benefit of the public. It was well attended, and received the commenda- tion of those present. The kitchen-garden system is a combination of songs, exercises, and plays, de- signed to give a practical training in simple housework. It is divided into six parts or occupations, and comprehends the following details of domestic work : Kindling fires, waitiuii on the door, bed-making, sweeping and dusting, arranging and clean- ing a room, laundry work laying a dinner table in the due order of courses, etc. In connection with the arrangement of the table, the parts of beef and mutton, and the best way to cook and cut each, are taught. The material used in the kitchen garden, and forming part elf the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, was as follows: Kitchen g;irden table on standards, length 9 feet by 2^ and 22 incheshigh. Kitchen garden material as follows: Occupation No. 1. Occupation No. 2: 12 tea sets, 12 knives, forks, and spoons, 12 table boards, 12 ta- ble eh)tbs, 4ri napkins aud rings, 12 towels with -f-, 12 towels jilaiu, 12 dish pann- Occupation No 3: 12 brooms, 4 bean bags, dust pan and brush, whisk btoom, feather duster, set of steps, 4 chairs, 2 bedsteads, 'J mattresses, 2 bolsters, 4 square pillows. 0 : 12 dinner sets, 12 portfolios, 24 white papers, set of designs, 24 pricking pads. 12 )>ricking needles. No. 20. Occiiputiou No. (> : 12 pairs of butter pats, 12 rolling pins, 12 baking pans, 12 cookie cutters, 12 bi.scuit cutters, 12 pie plates, 12 knives aud forks, 12 mulhu-riugs, brick of clay, 2 sets bed-clothing, 12 bags washing. FITCH CRfiCHE. This exhibit consisted of, first, aseriesof 17 frames, containing II photographs of the building, etc., a picture of Fitch Institute, a copy of the rules of the criiclie, a copy of onu day's record of the cn\;he, 2 cards with specimens of kindergarten vvoik, and :? pho- tographs, respectively, of the founder, matron, aud benefactor, |)roperly lettered, so a.s to be a title for the exhibit. Second, a glass show-case containing samples of the nniforins, toilet articles, etc., constituting numbers 13-1'J, inclusive. Third, a cradle. Fourth, a crib. 96 MISCELLANEOUS NORMAL SCHOOLS. 97 NORMAL SCHOOLS, MARYLAND STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, BALTIMORE. Sewing was introduced about a year before the specimens were sent to the Exhibi- tion. There were about 200 lady students. Ten per cent, had no knowledge of sewing. Some did not know how to thread a needle. At least one-half of them sowed badly and with difficulty. METHOD OF WORK. A teacher was employed. The time assigned 'was one hour and a half, Wednesday afternoon. The lesson was compulsory. During the time thus occupied, the young men went out surveying. The sewing school was divided into sections of six. The head sewing teacher took one section for half an hour, thus giving a lesson to eight- een students in one week. Each of these students was assigned to a section, and gave them the same lesson that she had learned. In two weeks the whole school was fully and systematically at work — the regular lady teachers of the school acting as assistants to the sewing teacher. This plan has given entire satisfaction. The sections are graded, and no student is permitted to leave her grade until she can do the work of it reasonably well. Cutting is taught as soon as the student is ready to begin to make garments. We propose to teach fitting to those who are pre- pared for it. When a student has acquired some facility in plain sewing and shows some skill in the making of useful garments, no objection is made to her doing fancy work of any kind that good taste will sanction. M. A. NEWELL, Principal. EXHIBIT. Framed picture of State normal school; 5 framed photographs of blackboard work; 2 framed viewsof interior of rooms in normal school building; 3 framed plans for school- houses. Portfolios contaiuing the following: 11 original wall-paper designs, full size ; 35 maps; 53 original designs from flowers in water-colors; 32 history charts and state- ments; 44 rapid crayon and water-color drawings; 11 plats and survey-bills; 293 botanical specimens (.5 portfolios) ; 46 examination papers in bookkeeping ; 73 essays on physiology ; 31 examination papers on grammatical analysis ; 26 original reading charts; 42 plans of normal school building and original plans for school houses; 51 original designs wall-paper, carpets, etc., in water-colors; 48 graded drawings ; model school work (3 portfolios; ; 32 drawing books from regular work. List of articles contributed by 132 different pupils: 14 child's dresses, 10 handker- chiefs, 2 shopping-bags, 2 neckties, 2 corset-covers, 3 buffet-covers, 3 skirts, 27 aprons, wrapper (Mother Hubbard), 6 chemises, 3 pillow-shams, 14 tidies, 2 infant's shirts, towel, 2 stand-covers, 6 child's skirts, child's shirt, 4 child's aprons, child's pants, 2 splashers, night robe, pillow-case, child's bib, toilet-set ,2 collars, purse, worsted edge, shirt, mat, 2 shoe receptacles, drawers, arnold apron, lace, Chinese lantern, stocking- bag, 2 slippers, 2 hoods, child's drawers, tray-cover, cushion, pin-cushion, shoe, fichu, cheuiise-yoke ; samples of running, back-stitching, halfback-stitching, hemming, over- seaming, felling, putting on the band and button-hole, by four pupils. STATE NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL, FARMINGTON, ME. 4 photographs of buildings (from museum of Bureati of Education). TILESTON NORMAL SCHOOL. WILMINGTON, N. C. Photographs of Tileston Normal School (1) with pupils, (2) with teachers and janitor, and (3) with classes in calisthenics; views of interior of building, and pho- 97 7950 COT 7 98 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. tograph of the principal, Miss Amy M. Bradley; 36 specimens of kindergarten work ; specimens of drawing and designing : primary department, first class, 17, second class, 20, higher department, 39; examination papers: botany, 20 vols., physiology, 20 vols., geology, 20 vols., kindergarten department, 9 vols., primary department, 6 vols., intermediate department, 9 vols., grammar department, 9 vols., high and normal department, 11 vols. ; maps of North America (6), N. E. States (2), Maryland, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia (2), South America (5), United States, Greece, and Europe. BUSINESS COLLEGES. I GEM CITY BUSINESS COLLEGE, QUINCY, ILLINOIS. 3 framed specimens of penmanship. KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY BUSINESS COLLEGE, LEXINGTON, KY. 12 framed specimens of penmanship ; system of bookkeeping and business accounts) with papers used in complete course of study. PIERCE'S COLLEGE OP BUSINESS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 2 volumes of papers written in full business course. INSTITUTIONS FOE SEC0:NDARY INSTRUCTION. NEW YORK TRADE SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. Specimens of work in plumbing, pattern making, and stone cutting, neatly ar- ranged in a large case furnished by the schools. SAINT ALPHONSUS' PAROCHIAL SCHOOL, NEW ORLEANS. Mechanical dratvings,. colored. — Steam fire-engine, Baldwin locomotive, French ex- press engine, steam mining pump, Harris-Corliss engine. Architectural drawings, colored. — Plan of the exterior of a railroad depot, plan oMhe exterior of a court-house, scene near New Orleans (oil painting), French villa, bour- geois residence. Saint Alphonsus' church. Saint Alphonsus' school, Lee's monument (India ink), public fountain (India ink). Chateau Vincennes (India ink). New York residence. Maps, 20 inches hy 24 inches (trater colors). — United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, Amer- ica, and the State of Louisiana with its parishes, by boys between the ages of 12 and 16. Busts of distinguished men, etc. (crayon drawings). — Mozart, Haydn, Paganini, Grover Cleveland, Thomas A. Hendricks, child at prayer. Specimens of penmanship. — Business writing by boys between the ages of 7 and 16. A steamboat, 26 by 18, carved with a penknife by Charles Webb, aged 15. Model of a stationary engine, cast iron, by William Johnson, aged 16. SHELDON JACKSON INSTITUTE, ALASKA. [4n industrial training school for Indian hoys and girls."] 8 photographs, viz: Front view of Greek church, Sitka; side view of Greek church, Sitka ; interior of Greek church, Sitka ; totemic carvings and Chilkat shawl ; cus- tom-house, barracks, and castle, Sitka; totemic sticks and ruins of Hydah houses; Juneau, Alaska, 1882; house of native chief; 31 specimens kindergarten work; 6 plans of buildings of Sheldon Jackson Institute ; 5 totems ; eagle bowl ; medicine rat- tle; 2 ducks; child's head; shark bowl; puffin bowl; babe and cradle; bone doll ; model of canoe ; set table mats ; 3 hats ; 2 toy hats ; 20 baskets ; 2 covered bottles ; baby suit embroidered. 98 f INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 99 99 100 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 100 INSTITUTIONS FOR SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN. 101 SOUL^'S COMMERCIAX COLLEGE AND LITERARY INSTITUTE OF NEW ORLEANS, LA. Samples of desks and furuiturc used in the commercial, academical, and English de- partments ; sample of settees used in the lecture rooms ; specimens of apparatus used in the physical and chemical departments ; specimens from the college museum of mineralogy, phrenological busts, comparative zoology, etc. ; astronomical, physio- logical, geographical, and geological maps, charts, etc. ; drawings, models, and mathe- matical objects; specimens of books of accounts and commercial instruments of writing, penmanship, drawing, and grammatical and logical diagrams, work of students ; the stenograph, or short-hand writing machine, in charge of a practical operator. WORKINGMAN'S SCHOOL AND FREE KINDERGARTEN OF NEW YORK, NEW YORK CITY. 9 photographs, viz : Building of Workingman's School and Free Kindergarten of New York; school workshop I, school workshop II, school workshop III, casts in modeling room, modeling room, geography class, reception room, drawing class. Exhibits from Technical Department: Clay cutting, 24 specimens; pasteboard work, 14 specimens ; scroll work, 15 specimens; sawing, 6 specimens ; wood-turning, 6 specimens; carpentry work, 2 specimens; 12 drawings." Exhibits from Art Department : Four framed charcoal drawings, 20 plaster casts. INSTITUTIONS FOR THE SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN. ANDERSON FEMALE SEMINARY, ANDERSON, S. C. Photograph of seminary buildings, 4 oil paintings, 2 crayon sketches. JUDSON FEMALE INSTITUTE, MARION, ALA. This school was founded in 1839, and was incorporated by the legislature of Ala- bama in 1841. It is the property of the Alabama Baptist State Convention. Its affairs are in the hands of a board of trustees appointed by that body. Its officers and teachers all receive stipulated salaries ; so that there is no one who is at all in- terested in having any pecuhiary profits arise from its management. Its object is not that any one shall make money by it, but that the best educational advantages that this country can furnish may be offered to its patrons at the lowest cost attainable for such advantages. Its policy is to employ the most? accomplished and skillful teachers in all its departments, to make ample provision for the comfort and health of its pupils, and to practice a wise economy in all the details of its management. The college building is a large four-story structure of brick, with 250 feet front, and contains about eighty rooms. The Judson exhibit in the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans is intended to show the character of the work done in all the depart- ments of the school. I. Kindergarten Department. — Embossing on paper, embroidery, modeling in clay, drawing in pencil and pastel coloring, and the work done by the children in their study of colors (primary, secondary, and tertiary, illustrating their combinations in plaiting and weaving; aad of geometric forms (surfaces and solids). II. Literary Department. — (a) Fifteen volumes of manuscripts containing examination papers and exercises showing the daily school-room work in spelling, writing, geog- raphy, history, languages, mathematics, physical sciences, and intellectual and moral philosophy. (&) Catalogues setting forth the organization of the school, and its curriculam and. methods of instruction. (c) Monthly issues of Judson Echoes, a paper published under the auspices of its literary societies. (d) Blank forms of reports and diplomas, showing the system of rewards and honors. III. Department of Music. — Compositions in the form of chorals, the bass being given, the other parts (soprano, alto, and tenor) the original work of pupils ; analyses of various sonatas and fugues of Beethoven, Mozart, Clemati, Bach, and others; pro- grammes of monthly recitals and concerts. 101 102 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 102 MISCELLANEOUS COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE. 103 IV. Department of Art. — (a) Decorative art: Kensington, lusira (or iridescent) and tapestry painting, china painting in mineral colors and amber enamel, pastel drawing and painting, ancient and modern needlework, embracing Kensington and French embroidery, Queen Anne's darning, outlining, plush-stitch, arrasene, chenille, ribbon, appliqu6, drawn linen work, a variety of stitches on canvas, crochet, knitting, and darned lace work. (6) Drawing and painting: Outlines in pencil, charcoal, and crayons; studies in pencil, crayons, and charcoal, from the flat and the round, or from object ; drawings from nature, such as fruit, flowers, etc., to which is added color in pastel, crayon, charcoal, water-colors, and oil, and portraiture from plaster casts and from nature. COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE. AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLKGK OF THE STATE OF MISSISSIPPI, NEAR STARKVILLE, MISS. Sis photographs of college buildings, faculty, etc. ; five drawings by students ; charts showing the various courses of study. AMHERST COLLEGE, AM^RST, MASS. Thirty photographs of resident faculty in frame ; 11 photographs of college houses in frame ; 9 photographs of Amherst College buildings and Amherst village in frames 8 photographs of college in frame ; 4 photograph? of former presidents; summary of students and graduates in frame ; plan of buildiugs in frame ; 4 photographs of society houses in frame; 16 bound volumes, viz: Historical reports, addresses, and papers; triennial catalogues 1831-1878 ; annual catalogues 1822-1849 ; annual catalogues 1850- 1869 ; annual catalogues 1870-1885 ; student life ; examinations for admission 1881-1884 ; biographical record of alumni and non-graduates ; reminiscences; history during first half century; physical culture ; commemorative discourses; inaugural aud valedictory addresses of presidents ; schedule of exercises ; exercises at semi-centennial ; catalogue Amherst College 1884-'85. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. College books : Harvard, 2 volumes ; Yale, 2 volumes; Princeton, 1 volume; Vassar, 1 volume; models showing the improvements in ploughs; geological charts; charts illustrating building construction ; representations of crystals 5 illustrations of conic sections by movable models; plans and photographs of buildings, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (from museum of Bureau of Education). FISK UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENN. Two framed pictures of buildings. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, GEORGETOWN, D. C. Large walnut case containing framed photographs of Georgetown College in 1789, Georgetown College in 1812, and Georgetown College in 1884; framed engravings of Et. Rev. John Carroll, D. D., founder of Georgetown College, and William Gaston (died chief justice of North Carolina), first student of Georgetown College; framed state- ment of historical outline, rectors, degrees conferred, requirements for degrees, courses of study, and average number of students ; the Toner medal for collection of woods of the District of Columbia. HOWARD UNIVERSITY, WASHINGTON, D. C. Framed sketch and plans of institution and grounds. NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVAN8TON, ILL. Statement of Institution. — The Northwestern University has 60 professors and teach- ers, and about 900 students. It is located on the shore of Lake Michigan, about 12 miles from Chicago. lu beauty of situation and in moral influence it is unsur- Eassed. The sale of intoxicating drinks within 4 miles of the university is prohibited y its charter. 103 104 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. The university includes : (1) the college of liberal arts ; (2) woman's college ; (3) college of medicine ; (4) college of law ; (5) preparatory school ; (6) school of elocu- tion; (7) conservatory of music ; (8) department of art; (9) Garrett biblical institute; (10) Swedish theological school. In the college of liberal arts are four courses of study, and corresponding degrees are given to those who graduate from them. The privileges of the college of liberal arts and of the jireparatory school, as well as of the departments of elocution, music, and art, are granted to young women on the same terms as to young men. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, SAINT LOt'IS, MO. Specimens of mechanical drawing. STATE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS, COLLEGE STATION, TKX. Three mechation of this paleontological cabinet, which consists of many hundred specimens aud contains many invertebrates (sponges, crinoids, echinoderms, shells, crustaceans, etc.), and large and ty]}ical forms of fishes, marine lizards (mosasaurus, teleosaurus, plesiosaurus, ichthyosaurus, etc.), pterodac- tyl, iguanodou, megalosaurus, labyrinthodon, and other terrestrial reptiles. ^^i Fig. 54. — Great-headed Plesiosaure from the Lias (Plesiosaurus macrocephalus) . Further are many portions — legs, feet, shoulder-blades, jaws, skulls, teeth, etc. — of the mammoth, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, mylodon, megalonyx, hex- aprotodon, tetraprotodon, nototherium, diprotodon, and other terrestrial mammals from the loose surface deposits of the Quaternary period of Europe, India, Australia, and North and South America. Also oreodon, anchitherium, poebrotherium, and others from the " Bad Lands" of northern Nebraska ; with the paheotherium, anoplo- therium, lophiodon, anthracotherium, etc., from which, as found in the gypsum quar- ries of Montmartre, near Paris, Cuvier first announced to the scientific world the ex- 110 MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. Ill istence of forms of life different in kiud and species from those now living on the globe, and thus laid the foundation of the science of paleontology. Invertebrate life is profusely represented by series, each giving many typical forms among the protozoa (including the foramenifera and the sponges) ; the echinoderms, with several score of interesting echinoidea and fossil sea-stars ; the mollusks of all families, including a very rich series of the ammonites with all the type-groups of Von Buch's classiticatiou. Finally there are nearly one hundred crustaceans, notably the important family of the trilobites, of older paleozoic age. These series of fossil specimens — actual and casts — constitute together a complete paleontological cabinet, graduated so as to include the lowest to the highest forms of fossil animal organisms, from the earliest dawn of life upon our planet down to the period immediately preceding our own. The collection is provided with all needful fixtures, and every specimen is accompanied with a handsome printed label giving the full scientific name, the locality, and the geological age of the fossil. It is further accompanied by a series of fifty-two paleontological pictures, representing forms of ancient animal life, which are of especial importance from a zoological or from a geo- logical point of view. These pictures — seven the well-known "restorations" of Waterhouse Hawkins, twenty-two hand copies of the series made by the celebrated English zoologist, Edward Forbes, for the museum of the London Geological Society, and sixteen the Uuger series of geological landscapes — are handsomely framed under glass. There are, finally, several large geological wall- charts, by Hall, Winchell, etc. "Academy Series" of Paleontologij. — From this large cabinet, mentioned above, a careful selection has been made and arranged by itself, in a case 23 feet long -with step-like shelves, to show what can be done by schools and academies having but lit- tle money for collections. The unique and rarer forms are represented by casts, and the common forms by original fossils. All have been so chosen as to" cover the whole field of paleontology, and give an even representation of the forms characterizing each of the different geo- logical periods. This collection or cabinet contains 475 specimens (about one-third casts and two-thirds originals) and is accompanied by a complete illustrated cata- logue, almost full enough to answer for a text-book. MINERALOGY. In the glazed case next pai-allel to the east wall, situated on the right hand of the visitor entering the hall, is a large and very choice mineral cabinet. The speci- mens are handsome, clean, fresh, and beautifully crystallized, and are so chosen as to represent very evenly the whole field of systematic mineralogy. The specimens, which are mainly of large cabinet size, are each mountecT upon a black-walnut block, bearing a handsome printed label, which gives, in scientific fullness, the name of the mineral, its chemical composition, and its crystalline form, while a number in its corner corresponds to the same number upon the back of the specimen (see Fig. 55). In this case are fine specimens of adularia, agate, albite, allanite, amber, amethyst, antimonite, argentite, aventuriue, axinite, barite, beryl, bournonite, brucite, cala- mine, calcite (many varieties), cancrinite, cassiterite, chalcedony, chrysoberyl, colum- bite, corundum, cuprite, cyanite, datolite, diopside, elaterite, emerald, epidote, erub- escite, fahlerz, fluorite, franklinite, garnet, geyserite, gold, hausmaunite, heliotrope, hyalite, hydrotalcite, Iceland spar, itacolumite, jasper, jefferisite, jeff'ersouite, jet, labradorite, lapis lazuli, lepidolite, loadstone, malachite, meerschaum, menaccanite, mesotype, millerite, molybdenite, moonstone, natrolite, nephrite, obsidian, opal, orpi- ment, pectolite, pericliue, platinum, polyhalite, quartz (20 to 30 varieties), realgar, rubellite,rutile, scapolite, sodalite, sphene, spinel, staurolite, stibnite, sulphui', sylvite, talc, topaz, turquois, ulexite, wavelite, wernerite, wolframite, woUastonite, wulfenite, zincite, zircon, and many hundred other species and varieties. Examination of the cabinet shows the abundance of choice specimens, even among such species as are rare for mineralogists to obtain and accounted precious when possessed. The number of polished specimens is large, and this plan of bringing out the structure or the reflect- ing qualities of the species has been liberally availed of in all species which admitted of it. There are a number of actual meteorites, both of the stone and the iron class, one of the latter weighing twenty pounds ; and these are supplemented by a series of seventeen casts of the most interesting meteorites of the British Museum collection. Besides actual specimens of the precious metals there are fac-similes of the celebrated Welcome nugget, the Siberian gold nugget, now in St. Petersburg, and the immense platinum nugget, belonging to Count Demidojf; also, copies of all the great nuggets of gold found in Australia, all of them gilded so as to be exact fac-similes. There are likewise models in cut glass of the celebrated diamonds of the world, containing exact reproductions of 15 of these beautiful historical gems, from the handsome Polar Star — the original of which weighs 40 carats and belongs to the Princess Youssoupoff — to the valuable Kohinoor, of the British crown, and the im- mense diamond belonging to the Great Mogul, said to weigh 297 caratQ. Also models 111 112 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. in glass of all the precious stones. There is, further, a series of crystal models in plate-glass, with axes and angles shown by colored threads within, and illustrating the six systems of crystallization, with the derivative forms. Fir,. o5. — Mineralogical specimen, showing method of mounting. Another suite of solid plate-glass models represents the fundamental forms under which all natural crystals may be ranged. Other artificial crystals, with colored primitive faces, give the more important secondary or derivative forms of minerals. These are several hundred in number, and are mounted in the classification with the various mineral species w^hose crystallographic nature they illustrate. Finally, sev- eral special .series or suites of specimens have been compiled to illu.strate the physical characters of minerals, as shown in their inner structure, their exterior form, and the several features which result from these and from their chemical composition. The specimens composing these series have been selected with great care, in order to give fullest aid to the student of this chapter of the science. This cabinet has been planned, both in its main body of mineral specimens and in its adjuncts, to give a fine, showy and liberal illustration of the science. Its display and its educational scope and comprehension are both of the very highest character. ^'Academy Collection" of Minerals. — To the right on entering, in the case with sloping glazed front, is a smaller series of minerals, consisting of 180 specimens — all choice, though of .smaller size, and mounted and labeled in the same manner as noted for the previous cabinet. A printed catalogue also accompanies the collection, de- scribing each one of its specimens. This collection is particularlj^ calculateu for au academy or a normal school. GEOLOGY. 1. Lithology. — ^Filling a case directly beyond the minerals is a large cabinet of rocks. The series is compiled and arranged with a lithological classification, and presents in typical specimens the various lithological varieties among the recks which enter into the composition of the earth's crust. Among the more important are granite, from Utah, New York, Maine, Scotland, France, Saxony, etc. ; syenite, from Massachu- setts, Saxony, and Syene (Egypt) ; gneiss and mica schist, from Freiberg, Mt. Blanc, Abyssinia, New York, Connecticut, and Minnesota; protogine, from Mt. Blanc; por- phyry, from New York, Massachusetts, Cornwall, and Germany ; greenstone, or diorite, from native and foreign localities ; basalt, from Giants' Causeway (Ireland), Rhine Talley, Italy, and France; lavas, with obsidian, and pumice, from Vesuvius, Prus- 112 MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 113 sia, and the Lipari leles ; diabase, jjabbro, and bypersthenite, from New York, Con- necticut, Saxony, and Italy; apbanite, from Saxony and the valley of the Nile; an- desite, trachyte, rhyolite, etc., from European and American localities; serpentines and steatite, from New England, New York, Maryland, Italy and Saxony; slates, from Vermont and Wales; "Oriental alabaster" and "Mexican onyx," from Algiers, Egypt, California, aud Mexico; gypsum and alabaster, from Italy, England, Nova Scotia, and Michigan; marls, from New York, New Jersey, and France; old and new red sand- stones, from Scotland, England, and France; lias and oolite, from England, France, Germany, etc. Mineral composition — the preponderating, or characterizing, min- eral element — forms the basis of the classification of this cabinet. The specimens are classified in four main series. In the Earthy Series are grouped the feldspathic rocks, trachytic rocks, pyroxenic rocks, amphibolic rocks, hypersthenic rocks, talcose rocks, micaceous rocks, quartzose rocks, and argillaceous rocks. The Haloid Series contains the limestone rocks and the gypseous rocks. Under the ores occur the iron ores, copper ores, and lead ores. Finally, the Combustible Series contains the carbonaceous rocks and the bituminous rocks. Each of these families contains several specimens from all parts of the world. These specimens are of uniform size, neatly trimmed, with fresh surfaces and well-marked characters, aud each specimen is separately mounted on a black walnut block with printed label. A complement to this collec- tion is a choice series of beautiful marbles from American and foreign localities. The slabs are of large size (many of them over a foot square), and are finely polished on face and edges. They show a state of structural density and intimate aggregation of particles which — in rocks of greatly different ages and widely varying composition — give, when cut and smoothed, a clear, reflecting surface. 2. General Stratigraphical Series. — There is here no constancy of lithological consti- tution, or even of structure, in specimens of the same age or period. But it may stiU be observed — thousih in a very general way and with many exceptions — that the older rocks are more compact and of denser structure, while those of the recent formations are more loose and friable. The "ages* of geological time represented are the Ar- chaean, Lower Silurian, Upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary, '.i. Bocks of the New Yoi-k System. — This series is of especial interest to students of American geology who wish to study the lithological character of the rocks which have served as the types of the Silurian and Devonian in America. Great care has been taken in the selection of the most typical specimens to repre- sent each rock, and in nearly ©very instance they have been collected at the localities which give the names to the group or formation. Thus we give the Utica slate from Utica, the Oriskany sandstone from Oriskany Falls, the Moscow shale from Moscow, and so on through the series. On the bottom of the block on which each specimen is mounted, is pasted a small geological diagram with a red line drawn under the particular stratum to which that individual specimen belongs, thus giving at a glance its position in the geological series. In addition to this, each collection is accompanied by a large Chart of Geolog- ical Time, on which all the strata of New York are arranged and classified according to eras, ages, periods, and epochs, and are correlated with the beds of similar geo- logical horizon in other States of the Union, Canada, and Europe. As the approxi- mate thickness is given in each case, one is able to trace their variation in that respect, or their entire disappearance as they are followed from one State to another. 4. Phenomenal Series. — These illustrate many interesting points in dynamical and physical geology, and display many of the phenomena of rock formation, and other wonders registered in the crust of the earth. Here are huge pillars of basalt, from the Giants' Causeway (Fig. 56) and from the Rhine valley; "volcanic bombs," from the extinct volcanoes of central France; lava, showing contortions made in flowing; fulgurites (sand cemented and vitrified by the passage of lightning through it) ; veins of segregation, injection, and infiltration, passing through larger rock masses; con- tortions and foldings of strata; sedimentary rocks altered by proximity to igneous dykes, or by contact with lava current; jointed structure in slates and limestones; "lignilites," septaria, claystones, "cone-in-cone," and other singular concretions; geodes, dendrites, "slickensides," glacial markings, polished and striated rocks; rounded drift, ripple marks, impressions of rain-drops, mud cracks, fossil "tadpoles' nests," coralline and shell limestones, stalactites, stalagmites, flexible sandstone, etc. An adjunct to these actual specimens is a series of six models in wood, which dis- sect in various ways and illustrate in a clear manner most of the more important feat- ures of structural and dynamical geology, both simple and complex, such as the perplexing complication produced by veins and faults crossing each other, and the very diff"erent surface eft'ects produced by erosion, whether at right angles or oblique to the strike of the fault and bedding. A catalogue giving full explanation, and call- ing attention to the different features illustrated by each model, accompanies the (series. 7950 COT 8 113 114 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. Fig. 56. — Columns of basalt, Giants' Causeway, Ireland. A continuation and enlargement of this series includes the — 5. Geological Eelief Maps. — Along the south and east walls of the room, above the cases or shelves of specimens, and standing on tables, are disposed thirteen relief maps, carefully copying to a scale, and representing, by the combination of suitable colors, the physical and geological structure of certain regions of the earth whose geology is of remarkable interest. One of these is the district of — Auvergne, in central France: This is a region which is full of vestiges of most in- tense volcanic action, which transpiied during the Tertiary period. There are mul- titudes of trimcated cones, each with its exhausted crater; also peculiar rounded domes of trachyte, with flows of basalt and plateaus of great extent. This region, displaying as it does so remarkably the grand succession of events in central France since the last retreat of the sea, and illustrated by the masterly researches of Scrope, Lyell, and Murchison, is perhaps the finest field in the world for the stndy of extinct volcanic action. This map is over five feet square. Equally large is the relief map of the — Grand Canon of the Colorado River: This represents an area in southern Utah and northern Arizona, 144 miles square. There is probably no other portion of our globe which exhibits erosion so graphically and on so grand a scale. The Colorado River is seen flowing through a gorge or caiaon which it has cut for itself a mile in depth for a distance of 225 miles, some portions being 6,200 feet below the general surface. To as- sist the mind in grasping the magnitude of the Grand Canon, a binall corner of the model is devoted to representations on the same scale of the Yosemite Valley and the gorge at Niagara Falls. This model was prepared by Edwin E. Howell, geologist, with the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Relief Map of the Henry Mountains of Utah: The Henry Mountains are of volcanic origin, but the lavas were all injected among the strata and cooled in bubble-shaped bodies, called laccolites, which were afterwards exposed to view by erosion. There was no eruption, properlj- speaking, but irruption only, and the strata lying above the zone of irruption were bent up in arches or domes. This peculiar structure was dis- covered by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who made a special study of the mountains in 1876. Relief Map of the high plateaus of Utah: This is another very carefully modeled map of a region especially interesting geologically. It is mainly one of high pla- teaus, separated by valleys of erosion and faults, and the great principles of structure and erosion, and the relation which these bear to each other, are remarkably well il- lustrated. Relief Map of Vesuvius: The map shows a portion of the Bay of Naples, and the slope of the volcano on all sides, from its crater to the plain. The steep, semicircu- lar escarpment of Monte Somma, and tbe modern cone of Vesuvius which it faces, rise in bold relief; and the various lava currents which have been ejected — from that which overwhelmed Herculaueum in 79 to the eruption of 1820 — are represented with their dates. Relief Map of Etna: This celebrated volcano — the loftiest in Europe — rises near the sea to the height of nearly 11,000 feet. The most striking and original feature in its physiognomy is the multitude of minor cones distributed over its flanks. They num- ber about eighty, and throw out sulphurous vapors. Near the summit of Etna is the Val del Bove — a famous gorge of magnificent dimensions, a vast amphitheater of four or five miles in diameter, surrounded by nearly vertical precipices from 1,000 to 3,000 feet high. This very accurate map was modeled after one constructed on the spot by filie de Beaumont, the noted French geologist. Besides the preceding are the relief maps of Palma, Teneriffe, and Bourbon, as fur- ther illustration of regions shaped by volcanic action. 114 MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 115 Relief Map of Mont Blanc : This celebrated nioimtain is the culminating point of the Alps and of all Europe. This relief map, colored geologically, exhibits the moun- tain arch surrounded, by its subordinate peaks, the various coin ox passes, the mag- niticent glaciers — 30 in number — with their lateral and terminal moraines, and the streams flowing from them. An explanatory list of about 200 names accompanies the map, serving as a guide to the topography and geology of this interesting region. ARCH.T^OLOGY. In this department are exhibited models of ancient ruins in Arizona and New Mexico. One of them sh )ws a portion of an old cave town, high up in the side of a steep cliff. This position was undoubtedly chosen on account of its difiiculty of access, and consequent ease of defense against an enemy. This ancient people look advan- tage of a natural cave formed by the erosion of a soft stratum in the clift", and thus but little work was required to make a home suitable for occupation. Another model is of Tegaa, one of the seven Moquis towns. This ancient town, occupied at the present time by Moquis Indians, was built on the salient of a mesa, so as to bo surrounded on all sides but one by steep cliffs. The houses were bnilt without any entrance to the tirst stoiy except through the roof. There are also models to a correct scale of a series of ancient mounds in "Wisconsin, called "animal mounds" on account of their resemblance to animals, such as the squirrel, rabbit, eagle, elephant, etc. The latter is very interesting and suggestive. Did the old mound builders inhabit this country contemporaneously with the mastodon ? If not, where did they get their model for this "elephant mound"? Not the least interesting of the objects in this division is a cast of the Rosetta stone. p'liyigiEisiiiiiiia^jK; pt* »0^.:»rT .4.-. x^r^m^f- l*-IX!rAV«Sti7T7>'i K.O^»/r,MJJ (l/'TN^r: Wc-I.-^ i>i-'/A'\>,;)mi./HAHi-(»w.or.';„.Ti<»i(iy/ Vto^.^rfjpjTJJ, ".tt^lV/lCT/tJv ItM rM'T.lrt»v*II.MAHOM,.niaiVT,,,',tri„XLL,«„- , --■ .,r„->. fll»i;«:A8.v)(ttlC-Ti3,..3!r-.5i/!'iilj«4uuri!flrak.'irn'a.' Fjg. 57.— Cast of the Kosetta Stone. The original of this celebrated inscription, which now occupies a central position in the gallery of Egyptian antiquities, British Museum, was discovered in 1799, in the little town of Rosetta (Rasheed of the Arabs), in the delta of the Nile. It may be described as a very thick, irregular-shaped slab, about 2| feet square, of hard, black basalt, on the flat surface of which is the inscription in three languages — tirst, the Egyptian hieroglyphics, second, cursive Egyptian, and finally, Greek. A translation of the Greek showed that it was an act of the priests assembled in synod at Memphis, 115 116 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. B. C. 196-197, in honor of King Ptolemy Epiphanes, in the ninth year of his reign; and after reciting the events of the period, the birth of the liing, the troubles in higher Egyi)t, the inundation of the Nile, the decease of Ptolemy Philopatei', the at- tack of Aiitioehus, the suppression of rebellion, the remission of taxation, and the gifts to t he IniUs Ai)is and Muevis and the sacred animals, proceeds to order that a tigure of the king shouhl be placed in the temples; that a shrine, with a gilded figure in wood of the monarch, should be placed in the adyta with the other shrines, and be carried in procession on a special festival in honor of the king on the 30tli Mesori, his birthday ; and, above all, that a copy of this synodical act should be engraved on a tablet of hard stone and set up in every temple of the first, second, and third rank throughout the country. Although the inscription was one of very great historical interest, the Rosetta stone derives its greatest importance from the fact that it gave the first clue to the meaning of the hieroglyphics. ZOOLOCxY. On a pedestal directly in the rear of the mammoth is mounted a skeleton of his nearest modern representative, the elephant. This is the Indian species {Elephaa Indicus), shot in 1877, in a forest of Southern India. Its general relation to the mam- moth is very evident ; but the difference in size between that extinct proboscidian and tills modern congener — albeit full-grown and well developed — is very notewoithy and striking. It will be esi»ecially observed how diiferent is the proportion and the curve of the great ivory tusks in the two individuals. Fig. 58.— Skeleton of Elephant. Along the gallery edge, as shown in the cut on page lOfi, stands, elevated high on bronzed iron standards, the bleached and mounted skeleton of a fin-back whale (Bahvuoptera miiscidus). This great monster of the deep was captured off the coast of Massachusetts in the summer of 1884. It is one of the largest of this species of cetacean, being 55 feet in length. The black baleen, or whalebone, which borders each side of the upper jaw, is a point worthy of espe<'ial notice. Through this, as a strainer, the animal passed large volumss of water taken into its opened mouth, and separated from it the myriad small jelly-fishes and other minute marine organisms 116 MISCELLANEOrS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 117 which supplied its sole noiirishiuent. This is an uuusually perfect and entire indi- vidual, and it has been mounted with great care to bring out the peculiar features of cetacean anatomy. Fig. 5'j.— Skeleton of Fin-Back "Whale {Balcenopteratmisculus). Cabinet of Cotnparativc Anatomij. In the long case east of the whale, ([uite filling the shelves and floor of both sides, and with a few specimens — too large to enter it — on top of the case, is arranged a cabinet of comparative anatomy. It consists of beautiful snow-white skeletons, mounted with brass supports on handsome black walnut pedestals. This is a sys- tematic series, chosen with care to i'epre.>-,ent the difterent natural orders in the sev- eral classes of vertebrate animals. Thev are : (1) Mammals. — Primate>< : Gorilla {Trofilodyten (loriUa), Orangoutang (Simla satyrits), Ch\n^]^a,nzee {Troglodi/U 8 nigcr), Dog-faced Baboon (Cynocvphalus porcariiis), Rhesus {.Ifacaciis rhesus). Capuchin (Cebus capuciniis), haugnr {Semtiopitheciis ciicnUatus), Ouis- titi {Hapale adipits), Slow Lemur {Xiicticehus tardigradHs), Slender Lemur {Loris gracilis). Cheiroptera : Ceylon Fruit Bat (Pteropus Edivardsii), Roussette Bat {Pteropus polio- cephahts), Hoary Bat {Vespertilio pruitiosu'i). fnsectivora : European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europceus), Tenrec (Centetes ecaudatus), European Mole {TaJpa europaa), Star-nosed Mole {CondyUtra cristata). Carnivora : Polar Bear( Ursus maritinnis). Dog {Canis familiaris), Leopard (Leopardiis variiis), Wild Cat (Lynx riifus), Red Fox {Viilpes fulvus), Striped Hyena {Ryacna stri- ata), American Otter(Ziecimens are from the river Sadong, in Borneo. Cabinet of Mounted Animals. In the cases through the center and on the east side of the hall, with some on top of cases and in a closed area along the gallery edge, is a large and carefully choseu cabinet of mounted (stuffed) animals, belonging to each of the five classes of verte- brate life. These are handsomely and naturally mounted on ash pedestals, and make together a valuable zoological cabinet, as well as an interesting and graphic display. They are : (1) Mammals. — Primates : Gibbon ( Hijlobates lencixaai), Proboscis Monkey (Nasalii^ lurvatus), Langur (Semnoi)ithecuscitcullatiis). White-tbroated Monkey {Cercopithecua al- bognlaris), Sooty Mangaby {Cercocebus fulitjinosux), Rhesus {Macacus rhcsun), Chacma (Ci/nocephalus jmrcarius), Dog-faced Baboon {CynocfphaJus papio), Hamadryas (CV/m- ocephalus hamadrnax), Coaita {AteJes paniscus), Brown Cuxio {Clieirojwtes satanas). Gray Capparro (Laf/othrix HiimhoJdti), Ouistiti (Midas dereUii), Feline Douroucouli (Nyctipifheciisfelinus), Ruli'ed Lemur ( Fa?-ecirt vai-in), Golden hemuT {Propithccus cor- onatns), Gray Lemur (Hapalemur griseus), Slow Lemur (Nt/cticebus tardigradus). 119 120 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Cheiroptera : Roussette Bat {Pieropua poUocephalus), Gray Kaloiig {Pteropm grigem), Striped Fruit Bat {Pteropus capisiriatun), Duke of York Bat {VephaloUs Peronii), Har- paya, European Brown Bat ( Vespertilio noctula). Fl(i. Gl.— Rousseltc Hut. Insectivora: European Hedgehog- (A'v/H^cf^s europwia), Teurec (Centetes ecaudatus), Euroiiean Mole (Talpa europam), Shrew Mole {Scalops aqmitwus), Elephant Shrew {Macroscelis intufi), Bornean Squirrel Shrew ( Tapaia tana), Colugo ( Galeopithecns rolans). Carnivora: Lion {Felis leo), Bengal Tiger {Felts tiqris), Black Leopard {Felis leo- pardiismelas), Jugunr {Felis onca), Chims {Felis calligaia) , Bengal Cut { Felis ieiigalensis), Leopard Cat {Felis viinuta), Canada Lynx {Lynx canadensis), ZiV)eth ( Viverra zihetha), BinturoDg {Arctictis binturong), Paradoxure (Paradoxuriis typus), Bennett's Cynogale {Cynogale Bennetti), Black-footed Sable {Martes melanopiis), Mink {Putorius vison), Polecat {Putorius fwtidus), Galera, American Otter {Lutra canadensis), Ichuehmou {Herpestes ichneumon), European Wolf {Lupus vulgaris), Red Fox ( Vutpesfulvus), Arctic Fox {Leucocyon lagopus), Raccoon Dog {Nyctereutes procyonoides), Grizzly Bear ( Ursus horribilis), Black Bear {Ursus americanus), Syrian Bear {Ursus syriacus). Sun Bear {Helarctos malayanus), Raccoon {Procyon lotor), Kinkajou {Cercoleptes caudivolrulus). Pinnipcdia: Walrus {Odobcfuus ohcsus). Sea Liion {Eumetopius Stelleri), Sea-leopard {Zalophus californicus), Fur Seal {Callorhinus ursinus), Harp Seal {Phoca groenlandica), Harbor Seal {Phoca vitulina). Cetacea: Porpoise {Phocn:na communis). Sirenia: Manatee (J/awfliHS americanus). Ungulata : Hippoiiotamus {Hippopotamus amphibius). Wild Boar and two young {Su8 scrofa), Collared Peccary {Dicotyles torquatus). Rhinoceros {Rhinoceros Floweri), Bison ["Buflalo"] {Bison americanus), Raviue Deer {Tragops Bennetti), Arabian An- telope {Aniilope cercicapra). Rocky Mouutain Goat {Mazama americana), Saiga {Saiga tartarica). Prong-horn Antelope {Antilocapra ainericana). Koodoo {Strepsiceros kudu), Rocky Mountain Sheep {Caprovis mnntana), Or j :&. {Oryx btisa). Giraffe {Giraffa cam- eleopardalis). Moose {Alces malchis), Elk {Ceriuis canadensis). Mule Deer {Cervus ma- crotis), Musk Deer {Tragulus kanchil). Camel {Camelus arabicus). Hyracoidea : Coney {^Kllpdas] {Hyrax capensis). liodentia: European Squirrel (^ScM/rxs vulgaris), RatHe's S(iuirrel (*Soi«?-«8 liafflesi), Cocoa Sijuirrel {Sciurus plantani), Biu'uean Flying Squirrel {Pteromys nitidus), Prairie Dog {Cynomys ludoricianus), Woodchuck {Arctomys monax), American Beaver — male, female, and 2 young {Castor canadensis). Pouched Gopher (C/eont.i/s bursarius), Shewellel {Haplodontia leporina), Hamster {Cricetus frumentarius), Lemming {Myodes), Dormouse {Myoxus), Golden-bellied Water-rat {Hydromys chrysogaster). Musk Rat {Fiber zibethi- cus), Borneo Spiny Ra,t {Acanthion javanicum). African Porcupine {Hystrix cristata), 120 MISCELLANEOUS MUSEUMS AND SCIENCE COLLECTIONS. 121 American Porcupine (Ereihizoii dorsafiim), Tree Porcupine (Cercolahes prehensilis), Vin- cacha {Layostomus trichoriactyhis), Coyim {Capro7ny8 pilornides), Jack Rabbit (Le/JM* callotis), Cotton-tail Rabbit {Lepns campestrts). Edentata: Two-toed Sloth {Cholocpus Hofmani), Maned Sloth {Bradypus crinitua). Collared Sloth {Bradi/jyus tonjuatiiti), Armadillo (Tatusia peba), Giant Armadillo (Pri- onodoii {lu/as), Great Ant-eater (Mijnnccophaf/a jiihata). Mdrsupialia : Viverrlne Dasyuro (i)fl*//((r«s riren-iiius), Opossnni {Didelphi/s i-irgini- (tna), " Tiger Wolf" (Tliiilac'nnis cipioccjihalus), Giant Kangaroo {Macropus (iiga8),'ReA Kangaroo {Ifacropus )•»/«»), Black-tailed Kangaroo {Hal)ii(iturus nahibaluH), Pademelon Kangaroo {Halmalurus thetidis), Rnfons Rat Kaugaroo (Hj/pfiiprniniius riifescens), Koala (Pha>ifohirctos ciiteri'iis), Vulpine Phalauger (PliaUnifiista vul2)iiia), Sooty Phalanger {Phalaugisia ftiliyinosa), Flying, Phalanger {Petaurista taguanoides), Squirrel Flying Phalanger (Belidexs sciuriis), Wombat {Phascolomgs iirsinKs). Fig. 62.— Koala. Monotremata : Ornithorhynchns, or Duck-billed Platypus {Ornithorlignchus (itKifinnf;), Echidna, or Marsupial Porcupine (Echidna hijstrix). There ar^^, further, mounted heads on black-walnut shields of Virginia Deer, Prong- horn AnteloiJe, Koala, Walrus, and Elk, also antlers of latter. (2) BiKDS. — Avcipitres : African Vulture {Otoggps auricidaris), Lammergeyer {Gyps barbatus), Audubon's Caracara(Po?,(/?>or»s clwriway — 2 specimens), Red-shouldered Buz- zard {Btitto Uneatn-s), Broad-winged Buzzard {Bufeo 2}<'»iisylranicus), Arabian Eagle, Mace's Sea Eagle iCuiicuma Macei), Rock Falcon {CercJuieis ntpieola), Sea Hawk {Thal- asswtus pelagicus), Harpy, Sparrow Hawk {Avcipiter nlsus — 2 specimens). Collared Sparrow Hawk {Urospiza forqitatus — 3 specimens), Egyptian Kite {MUviis O'liypticus), American Goshawk {Astnr atricapUlus), Hen Harrier {Circus cyaneus), Sparrow Owl (Athene noctua), Bengal Owl {Bubo beugalcnsis). Great Horned Owl {Buhu virginianus), Spotted Owl (Spilloglaux maculatus), and others. Pasiiere.1 : Night- Jar {Nyctibius cornutuii), Tawny-shouldered Podargus {Podargus iftrigoidex), Whiskered Tree Swallow {Dendrochelidon mystacea), Madagascar Roller {Eurystomun madagascarensis), Splendid Trogon {'J'rogon splendens), Indian Trogon {Harpactes kasamba), Diard's Trogon {Harpacies Diardi), Entombia {Entombia pileata), Kingtisher {Alcedo ispida), Azure Kingfisher {Alcyone azurea), Giant Australian King- fisher {Dacclo gigas), Spotted Japan Kingfisher {Aleguceryle gutata), Gould's Kingfisher {iJacelo GouJdii), Racqnet-tail Kingfisher {Bectes nro}>ygiaIiii), White-shouldered Rilie Bird {Seleucides niger), White-faced Honey-eater {MeUiphaga phrygia), Parson Bird {ProHthemadera nova; seelandia'), Lyre Bird {ilenura superba — 3 specimens). Flame Breasted Roi in {I'etroiea phahieea). Pied Grallina {GraUina j)icata), Hermit Thrush {Turdus Pallanii), Great-billed Tody {('ynibirliynchus macrorhynchus), Fork-tail {Dicra- rus ), Satin Bower Bird {Plilouorhyuchun holosericeus), Noisy Pitta {Pitta strep- ieciniens), Ophthalmic Cockatoo (C'flcaixa 07)/) f/)aZ»i(Crt),Megal- aima (Megahiiina vtrsicolor), Capito (Capito sp.), Eos (Eos cardinaiis), Banksian Cock- atoo (Cahjptorhiinvhns Banks'n), Yellow-eared Black Cockatoo (Cahiptorhynchiis xav- thonotns), Gang-gang Cockatoo (CaUooephaJon galcatum), Great Black Cockatoo (Mi- croglossuDi aterriinum), Red-shafted Flicker (Co/«j>/<;s ?Hej"ican«s), Centrococcyx (Ceii- trococcyx eurycerciis), and others. Coltimbw: Yellow-bellied Frmt Pigeon {Ptiloims xanthog aster). Magnificent Fruit "EateT (CarpopluKja magnifica). Van Wyck's Globicera (Globicera Van WycMi), Austra- lian Large-tailed Pigeon (Macropygia phdsiaiidld), Goura Crowned Pigeon (Goura eor- onata), Top-knot Pigeon (Lopholaimus antarcticns). Gallinw: Argus Pheasant, male and female (Argusianus giganteus), Amherst Pheas- ant (Chrysolopliiis jnetus), Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophonts I mjyey an us), Golden Pheas- ant (Clirysoloplnis iiicti(.s), Japanese Pheasant (Phasianns versicolor), Stemmering's Pheasant (GraphepliaHiantis Sammeringii), Euplocomns, Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl (Galliis Sonneratii), Silver Pheasant (Gennwus »((/c'ettion crecca), American Widgeon {Mareca americana), Tasuiauian Broad-bill {Sjuitiila rlnjiichotin), Barrow's Golden Eye ( Hucephala Mandica), King Eider (Somaieria spectabilis). Steller's Y,ider {Stelleria dispar), Scoier {Oidemia americana), Australian Musk Duck {Bisiiira lobata). Smew {Alergellus albillus), Red-necked Grebe (Podiceps riificoUis), Crested Grebe (Poditeps cristatus). Crested Pen- guin (Eudyptes chrysolopha). Little Penguin (Eudypiila minor), Sea Dove {Alle nigri- cans), Western Guillemot ( tria columba), Wilson's Petrel (Oceariites oceanica), Ameri- can Mew Gull (Larus crtWHs brack yrliynch as). Laughing Gull {Chroicocephahtx rudibun- dus), Common Tern (Sterna liirnndo), Jaeger (Stercoraritis parasiticus), Caspian Tern (Tlialasseus caspia), Crested Cormorant (Graculus bilophun), White-breasted Cormo- rant (HypoJeucns leucof/aster), American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorkynchus), and others. Besides the above enumerated birds there are iive groups mounted under glass as medallions. (3) Reptiles. — Serpentes: Python, 8 specimens, 2 species, one 22 feet long; Bun- gams (Bungarus fasciatus), Banded Sea Snake {Phiturus fasciatus). Hog-nose Snake (Heterodon platyrliinus), Painted Tree Snake (J)endrophis jyicta), Cobra de Capello {Naja trijtudians), Northern Rattlesnake (Crotalus conjtuentes), Dipsas {Dipsas dendro- j)hila). Lacertilia: Gould's Monitor (Monitor Gouldii), Black and Yellow Cyclodus (C(/c?o- dus nigroluteus), Mastigure ( Cromastix spinipcs). Horned Frog (Phrynosomacornutum), Australian Rugose ^tvim\^-ii\\\(Trachydosaurusrugoms), King's Frilled Lizard (Chlaniy- dosaurus Eingi), Bearded Grammatophore (Grammatophora barbata), Tuberculated Iguaua (Iguana tuberculata). Rhyncocephatina : New Zealand Tuatara [S]jhenodon] (Hatteria punctata). Sauria: Florida Crocodile (Crocodilus jioridianns), Indian Gavial (Gaviulus gan- geticus). Chelonia: Madagascar Rayed Tortoise (Testudo radiata), Musk Tortoise (Ozothecus odorata). Box Tortoise (Cistudo Carolina), Emyda (Emyda giamala), Tryonyx (Tryoni/x rafelit), Bornean Three-keeled Emys (Emys iri-juga). Snapping Turtle (Chelydra ser- pentina), Soft-shelled Turtle (Aspidovectes spinifer), Speckled Terrajdn (Nancmys gut- tata), Salt-marsh Terrapin (Malacoclemys paluslris). Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Indian Carey (Chelonia virgata). Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caounia), Hawk-bill Tur- tle ^ Erehnochelys imbricata), Harp Turtle (Sphargis eoriacca). (4) Batraciuans. — Urodela : Japanese Giant Salamander (Sieboldia maxima). Ahoura: Bull Frog (pana mngiens), Toad (Bufo agua). (5) Fishes. — Hammer-head Shark (Zygana malleus), B\nv> Shark (Carcharias glaucus). Port Jackson Shark (Cesiracion Philippi), Tiger Shark (Stcgastoma tigrinum). Saw Fish (Pristis antiquorum), Australian Wabblygong (Cj'ossoi-hinus barhatus), Rliinobates, Eagle Ray, Protoptex-ns ( Protopterus annectens), European Sturjreou (Acipenser sturio), Paddle-tish ( Polyodon folium), Polypterus (Polypterus bichir), Alligator Gar (Lepidosteus productus), Sejranus, 2 species (Srrranus crythrogaster and Serranus sp.), Sword Fish, 10 feet long (Xiphias gladius), Unicorn Fish (Xaseus unicornis). Angler (Lophius pisca- toritis). Gurnard (Dactylopterus volitans), Flying Fish (Exocetus volitans), Lnm[i Fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), Hog-tish (Lachnolwmusfalcatus), Coris (Coris aygnla), Ling (Lota molva), Salmon ( ith polarized light; black glass mirror on stand for polarizing light; complete apparatus for showing phenomena of polarized light, with adjustable stand ; cube of uranium glass; magic Fig. 73.— Pliennmeri.T of polarized lijrlit. lantern for physical work ; upright attiu hment, polarizer, and microsrope attachment, for physical work ; adjustable stand with prism, for physical work ; Crookes's radi- ometer. 7950 COT 129 130 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Fig. 74. — Toepler-Holtz electric machine. Apparatus for illustrating magnetism and electricity, as follows : Dipping needle on stand ; magnetic needle on stand ; bar magnet, horseshoe magnet, and rolling armature magnet ; large Toepler-Holtz electric machine, German form, with revolving plate 21 inches in diameter, giving sparks of 7 inches (Fig. 75) ; Leyden jar, quart ; battery of 9 half-gallon jars in box ; discharger ; pair of image plates ; images for same ; 2 Geissler tubes ; ^Epinus's condenser ; 2-bell chime ; ivory mortar ; luminous tube 3 feet long ; electric flier; Grenet galvanic battery, pint ; electro-magnet ; gun- powder cup ; water decomposer ; Ruhmkorff coil with commutator, giving sparks of rj««fiDi»Wfifar- ^ Fig. 75.— Euhmkorft' coil. 1 inch (Fig. 75); Ruhmkorff coil, fiue, with commutator, Foucault mercury break, and Deprez vibrating break, giving spark of 9 inches; Rebekeck thermo-electric battery, small size, A fine collection of 25 Geissler tubes of various beautiful shapes and forms, some quite large, and one of them probably the largest in the country. It was specially made for the electrical exhibition of the Franklin Institute held in Philadelphia, September, 1884. A large collection of Crookes's famous radiant-matter tubes, showing the results of some of his researches in high vacua, including No. 1, dark space tube; No. 2, tube showing effect of discharge on ditfereut kinds of glass ; No. 4, ruby tube ; two similar 130 MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 131 tubes with different minerals ; No. 5, potash tube for increasing or diminishing the vaouum ; No. 7, tubes showing ditference between Geissler and Crookes tubes, also Fig. 76.— Shadow tube. independence of positive pole in the latter; No. 9, shadow tube (Fig. 76); No. 11, rail- way tube; No. 16, Geissler tube for deflection by magnet; No. 17, Crookes mill-wheel Fig. 77.— Mill-wheel tube. tube (Fig. 77) ; No. 18, tube showing repulsion of radiant matter ; No. 21, hot platinum tube. 131 132 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. APPARATUS LOANED BY QUEEN & CO. {To be used in connection with that belonging to the Bureau of Education.) Fig. 78. — Archimedes screw. Gyroscope, large "braes" wheel; Archimedes' principle; Archimedes' screw (Fig. 78) ; small table air pump (Fig. 79) ; hand glass ; fountain in vacuo ; sliding rod re- FiG. 79. — Air pump. ceiver ; Bacchus illustration ; stop-cocks and connectors ; sheet rubber ; leather wash- ers ; pair brass Chladui ])lates showing sympathetic vibrations; Claque-Bois ; Tyn- dall's apparatus for showing specitic heat ; Bunseu burner ; 8i)ectroscope in portable case witli stand ; bottles of fluorescent solutions ; table polariscope; 6 specimens of crystals for use with polariscope ; crystal of Iceland spar ; color glass for absorption ; prism on stand ; llofFmann's bottle prism for bisulphide of carbon ; catskiu ; rubber rod; insulated stool; magic circle; helix on stand ; ffirsted's apparatus ; holder for wires ; 2 contact keys ; electro-magnetic bell ; electro-magnet on stand ; tangent gal- vanometer by Simmons, London ; gnlvanometer for projections by Stohrer, Leipsic ; Foucault electric lamp for magic lantern (Fig. 80). SET NO. 2 OF SCHOOL APPARATUS FOK TEACHING PHYSICS, LOANED BY E. S. MTCIIIK & SONS, B .STON, MASS. Laws of matter. — Universal support ; set of balls ; set of wires; set of weights ; co- hesion hemispheres; ailhe.sion disk; gravity block; momentum spring; whirling table; illustration of pulleys; illustratiou of levers; inclined i)lane and car. 132 MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 133 rneumalics. — Air-pump; spherical receiver ; Magdeburg hemispheres ; guinea-and- feather tube ; barometer tube; bell iu Aacuum ; stop-cock; sheet-rubber; mercury; rubber bag ; Mariotte's law. Heat. — Spirit lamp ; bar aud gauge ; compound bar ; lamp-stand ; glass flask ; palm glass; glass tube ; conductometer ; wire gauze ; fire syringe; Wollaston'a engine. Sound. — Sonometer; violin bow; Savart's wheel ; siren disk; Crova's disk ; organ pipe; vibrating rod ; diapason. Dynamics. — Buoyancy vase ; capillary tubes; capillary plates; pressure of liquids ; Nicholson's hydrometer; hydrometer; lifting pump ; force-pump; siphon ; Tantalus's cup; balloon and car ; glass jar. Fig. 80.— Electric lamp. Light. — Kaleidoscope ; thick mirror : convex and concave mirrors ; prism ; set of lenses; prismatic lens; color disk; persistency of vision; incidence aud reflection; magnifying lens. Electricity. — Pair of bar magnets ; bar of soft iron ; crane support ; magnetic needle ; iron filings ; friction cylinder : gold-leaf electroscope ; electrical machine ; electro- scope ; test-needle ; Leyden jar ; discharger : electrical bells ; bichromate battery ; galvanometer ; solenoid ; electro-magnet ; revolving magnet : induction coil ; insu- lated wire. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS, LOANED BY E. B. BENJAMIN, NEW YORK. Barometer ; thermometer (chemical) ; air pump aud receiver for same ; oxy-hydro- gen blow-pipe; 2 lenses, convex and concave ; 2 mirrors, convex and concave; Ley- den jar; medical crank-battery ; magnet H. S.; alcohol lamp ; meter and yard. 133 134 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Two uests beakers, lipped, 1-3; '.i nests beakers, lipped, 1-6; 1 nest beakers, plain, 0-3 ; 1 nest beakers, plain, 0-4 ; 1 nest beakers, plain, 0-6 ; 3 flasks, 1 oz.; 3 flasks, 2 oz.; 3 flasks, 4 oz.; 3 flasks, 16 oz.; 2 flasks, 32 oz.; liter flasks: 1 liter, -J liter, filter, iV liter, 50 c. c, 30 c. c; 2 test-tube racks ; 12 test tubes, 4 inch ; 12 test tubes, 6 inch ; 2 test tubes, 7 inch ; 1 test tube, 8 inch ; 3 funnels, li inch ; 5 funnels, 2f inch ; 2 fun- nels, 3iinch ; 1 funnel, 4 inch ; 1 fuunel,*5 inch. Four funnel-holders ; 3 Bunsen burners : 6 feet rubber tubing ; 2 iron retort stands ; wash bottles: pint, ^^ pint, ^ pint; 6 watch-glasses ; 3 convex covers, 3 inch; Scon- vex covers, 4 inch ; 3 convex covers, 5 inch ; 2 convex covers, 6 inch. Burette, 50 c. c. ; support for same ; specific gravity bottle, 50 c. c. ; 3 ground-glass covers, 3 inches ; 3 grouud-glass covers, 4 inches; 2 ground-glass covers, 5 inches; piece blue glass; 2 calcium chloride tubes; carbonic acid apparatus; 12 specimen tubes, corked : 2 desiccators; 1 lb. glass tubing ; 6 stirring rods; 3 porcelain crucibles, li ounce ; 2 porcelain crucibles, If ounce ; nest evaporating dishes ; 2 casseroles ; 4-inch porcelain mortar: month blow-pipe; retort, stoppered, 16 ounces ; receiver for same, 16 ounces; retort, 8 ounces ; graduated cylinder, 25 c. c. One foot platinum wire ; platinum foil ; round file ; three-cornered file ; set 6 cork borers ; 2 steel forceps ; 2 sand baths, 5 inches ; 3 triangles, plain ; 3 triangles, covered; test tube brush ; bottle brush ; horn spatula; 3 packages, 3-inch, 4-inch, and 6-inch filters; Swedish filter paper ; set filter patterns ; 12 rubber connectors; 2 pieces wire gauze; glazed water bath; pair watcli glass clips; Fletcher's solid flame burner; Bunsen burner attachment ; 6 ignition tubes ; glass scoop for weighing ; box gummed labels ; book labels ; volumetric pipettes, one to 5 c. c, one to 10 c. c, one to 25 c. c, one to 50 c. c, one to 100 c. c. Troemner chemical balance, weighing 100 grammes, showing ^V milligramme, and set fine weights for above to 50 grammes ; Bunsen filter apparatus; lecture eudiometer; hydrochloric-acid apparatus; apparatus for demonstration of oxygen and hydrogen; decomposition of water apparatus; apparatus for bui-niug sulphur; DauielPs hygrom- eter; bell-jar; platinum cone. Chemicals— Sulphur, iodine, iodoform, zinc oxide, strychnia, veratria; sulphuric, acetic, and tartaric acids; mercury, mercury red oxide, potassium chromate, alcohol, ether, atropia; muriatic, nitric, and tannic acids. APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENTS IN STATIC ELECTRICITY, LOANED BY CURT W. MEYER, OF NEW YORK. Frictional electric machine; head of hair; electric bells; pith-ball electroscope; gas-pistol; Ley den jar. APPARATUS TO ILLUSTRATE PNEUMATICS, FROM C. E. MCVAY, MT. HEALTHY, O. Air-pump with reversible valves; detached pump plate and receiver; reservoir for condensed air, and a fruit-jar receiver. A six-cell galvanic battery was kindly loaned by Professor Ayres, of Tnlane Uni- versity, for use in the dark room with the Crookes and the Geissler tubes, and a Toepler-Holtz machine and porte lumiere were also loaned for use in same room by Dr. Macintosh, of the Macintosh Battery Co., Chicago. MODELS OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, WITH CONSTRUC TION PLATES. {Manufactured by J. Schroeder, Darmstadt, Germany.) In these collections of models for examination, exhibited by the United States Bureau of Education, solid pear wood and mathematically accurate models, from the simplest to the most difficult, are combined with jdanes of projection, with accurate drawings corresponding thereto. Models and drawings are worked out in round figures, in millimeters. The selec- tion of solids and their description follow the special requirements of practical use, and have reference throughout to their application in theory and in practice. Projections. — Plate 1. A model to explain the planes of projection, the projections of solid bodies, and their position in space with regard to each other. The model con- sists of a small drawing board, divided into two equal rectangles upon hinges, in order that the vertical projections may be brought into a vertical position, at right 134 MISCELLANEOUS MODELS OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 135 angles to the horizontal projections, by which the solid substances are placed in proper relation to both projections. Plate 2. Straight lines with revolutions and transpositions. Plate 3. Straight lines and circular lines, with revolutions and transpositions. Plate 4. Curving lines and double cone sides, with revolutions and transpositions. Plate 5. Rhomboidal, rectangular, and cirOhlar planes, revolving on axes in different positions. Plate 6. Rhomboidal and circular planes revolving on axes in different positions. Plate 7. Transpositions of the quadrilateral plane. Plate 8. Transpos tions of the octagonal plane. Plate 9. Transpositions of two parallel circular planes. Plate 10. Rolling circular planes revolving on double axes. Plate 11. Cnrved surfaces — quadrilateral and circular on cylinder, circular on cone surface. Plate 12. Warped and helicoid surfaces. Plate 13. Transposition formations of the cube. Plate 14. Transposition formations of the hexagonal pyramid. Plate 15. Transposition formations of the cone. Plate 16. Transposition formations of the hexagonal prism and cylinder. Plate 17. Transpositions of the sphere, with circumferences of the spherical and circular ellipsoid. Plate 18. Construction and transpositions of a dodecahedron and a dihexagonal double pyramid. Plate 19. Roller in form of a double cone, with transpositions. Plate 20. Roller in form of a cylindrical ring, with transpositions. Projections and description of the intersections, junctions, and piercings of the varioui solids. — Plate 21. Lines through lines and lines through planes. Plate 22. Lines through planes. Plate 23. The cutting of the quadrilateral prism and of the cylinder by a plane. Plate 24. The cutting of the cone and the hexagonal pyramid by a plane. Plate 25. Construction of crystal forms from the cubic tetrahedron and octahedron. Plate 26. Construction of crystal forms from the dodecahedron and pentagonal do- decahedron. Plate 27. Three four-sided prisms with various plane sections. Plate 28. Two prisms resting with their bases upon the planes of projection. Plate 29. Three cylinders with various sections. Plate 30. Combination of three cylinders of equal size with an oblique cylinder. Plate 31. Junction of two cylinders with a third thicker cylinder, junction of two prisms with a cylinder. Plate 32. Piercing of a large cylinder by two smaller ones, combination of three oc- tagonal prisms. Plate 33. Three cones with elliptical, parabolical, and hyperbolical sections. Plate 34. Cone pierced by vertical cylinder, cone pierced by horizontal cylinder, cone joined to oblique cylinder. Plate 35. Sphere with section, sphere intersected by cone, and sphere intersected by sphere, Plate 36. Sphere pierced by cylinder, their axes coinciding, sphere pierced by hex- agonal prism, and sphere pierced by quadrilateral pnsm. Plate 37. Sphere pierced by cone, sphere pierced by cylindrical ring. Plate 38. Quarter-cylindrical ring with section for changing shape, cylindrical ring with six parallel sections. Plate 39. Cylindrical ring pierced by cylinder and by cone. Plate 40. Two oblique cones, connected with the two planes of projection by inter- sections, one forming ellipses and the other circles. Models of perspective.— Plate 1. Lines. — Straight lines and two intersecting lines. Plate 2. Surfaces. — Rectangle and circle. Plate 3. Solids. — Cube and cylinder. Construction of lights and shadows. — Plate 1. Construction of the angle of incidence, and of shadows of lines in various positions on the plane of projection. Plate 2. Construction of the shadows of four-cornered and round planes on the plane of projection. Plate 3. Quadrilateral prism with shadow of incidence and shadow of incidence of an oblique line thereon. Hexagonal prism with shadow of incidence and shadow of an oblique plane thereon. Plate 4. Cylinder with shadow of incidence and shadow of a conical plane thereon. Oblique cylinder with shadow of incidence and shadow of a circular surface thereon. Plate 5. Hexagonal pyramid with shadow of incidence and shadow of a vertical surface thereon. Cone with shadow of incidence and shadow of a horizontal surface thereon. 135 136 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Plate 6. Sunk cone with shadow of incidence. Sunk sphere with shadow of inci- dence. Plate 7. Sphere with shadow of incidence. Breaks as an application of the sphere, the hollowed sphere, and the hollowed cylinder, with shadows of incidence. Construction of shadou's of mouldings. — Plate 8. Straight surface with coping, and canted off below. Plate 9. Semicircular moulding with newel. Plate 10. Semicircular hollow with slab. Plate 11. Cornice moulding. Plate 12. Cornice moulding as foot moulding. Plate 13. Reversed cornice. Plate 14. Revised cornice as foot moulding. Plate 15. Bases of columns. Plate 16. Capitals of columns. Plate 17. Plinth. Plate 18. Main moulding. Construction of shadows of parts of machinery. — Plate 19. Direct screw. Plate 20. SecUou of direct female screw. Plate 21. Female screw in outer shape. Plate 22. Head of slide rod. Plate 23. Shaft coupling. Plate 24, Bearings. Plate 25. Section of steam cylinder. GYMNASTIC APPARATUS. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Hand dynamometer; back and leg dyrtamometer; spirometer; height measure; width measure; stretch of arms measure ; mefallic tape measure; set wall parallel bars; pair suspended rings ; set traveling parallels; set chest weights; chest expander; chest de- veloper; neckmachine; back and loins machine; inclined plane; two climbing ropes; ladder; slant rope; horizontal bar; jumping borse. FAIRBANKS & CO., SAINT JOHNSBUKY, VT. One platform scale. GIFFORD BROS., 50 W. 3.'JTH .STREET, NEW YORK. Two home gymnasiums. LIBRARY COLLECTIONS. AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY. One hundred and ninety- seven volumes of the Scriptures, in various languages. AMERICAN UNITARIAN ASSOCIATION, BOSTON, MASS. Channing's Life ; Channing's Works; Dewey's Works ; Sermons by James Walker; Memoir of Mary L. Ware ; Memoir of Henry Ware, jr. ; Life of Samuel J. May ; Memoir of Jas. P. Walker ; Washington Discourses; Essentials and Non-Essentials; Unitarian Principles Confirmed by Trinitarian Testimonies. Wilson ; Orthodoxy, Its Truths and Errors, Clarke ; Studies of Christianity, Martineau ; The Christian Doctrine of Prayer, Clarke; Orthodoxy and Heresy, E. U. Hall; Steps of Belief, Clarke; Doctrine of Christianity, Eliot; Early Religious Education, Eliot; The Doom of the Majority, S. J. Barrows ; Unitarianism Defined, Farley ; Theological Essays, Noyes ; Statement of Reasons, Norton ; Genuineness of the Gospels, Norton ; Forgiveness of Sin, Clarke; Letter and Spirit, Metcalf; Christian Consolation, Peabody ; Translation of Job, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, Noyes; Translation of the Psalms and Proverbs, Noyes; Translation of the Prophets, Noyes, 2 vols. ; The New Testament, Noyes's Translation ; Endeavors after the Christian Life, Martineau ; Formation of Christian Character, Ware ; Lectures to Young Men, Eliot ; Lectures to Young Women, Eliot ; Social Hymn and Tune Book ; Sunday School Hymn, Tune, and Service Book ; Hymn and Tune Book and Services ; Discipline of Sorrow, Eliot ; Altar at Home ; Watchwords for 136 MISCELLANEOUS LIBRARY COLLECTIONS. 137 Little Soldiers ; Little Splendid'a Vacation ; Father Gabrielle's Fairy; Forrest Mills ; Faithful to the Light; Daily Bread and Other Stories; In the Gleanings; Stories for Eva ; Sermons to Children, Greenwood ; Day unto Day ; Channing's Thoughts. APPLETON, D., A CO., NEW YORK. Science Primers, 13 vols.; History Primers, 8 vols. ; Literature Primers, 10 vols.; Johonnot's Teaching ; Baldwin's School Management ; Spencer's Education ; Bain's Education. BARDEEN, C. W., SYRACUSE, N. Y. Mistakes in Teaching, Hughes ; Elementary Question Book, Southwick ; Historical Recreations, Laurence; Verbal Pitfalls ; The Scliool-Room Chorus, DeGratF; Diadem of School Songs, Tillinghast ; Two Months in Europe ; Camps and Tramps in the Adirondacks, Northrup ; De Graff's Practical Phonics; Teachers' Hand Book ; Normal Language Lessons, Sornberger; First Steps among Figures, oral ed. ; First Steps among Figures, teachers' ed. ; First Steps among Figures, pupils' ed. ; The Spirit of Education, Bdesau ; Northam's American History ; Michael's Beginner's Algebra ; The Sentence Method. Farnham : The Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence, Hough ; Roderick Hume, Bardeen ; Methods of Teaching, Hoo.se ; Educational Reformers, Quick; New York Examination Que.stions for State Certificates; Studies in Articula- tion, Hoose ; First-Year Text Book of Arithmetic. Hoose ; First-Year Manual and Text Book of Arithmetic, Hoose; Regents' Questions Complete; Alden's Political Economy ; A Thousand Questions ou American History ; Half a Hundred Songs for the School-Room and Home, Russell; Questions in English and American Literature, Hendrick; Early English Literature, Harlow; A Work in Number, Roe; De GratFs School-Room Guide ; Manual of Mensuration, Hnttou ; History of Education, Payne ; Advanced Question Book, Southwick ; Civil Government, Northam ; Tate's Philoso- phy of Education; Regents' Grammar with Key; Regents' Questions Complete with Key; Chart of Civil Government, Pooler; Regents' Grammar; Regents' Spelling Questions; Regents' Geography; Regents' Arithmetic; Dime Question Books, and miscellaneous pamphlet publications. BARNARD, HENRY, HARTFORD, CONN. Set of Barnard's Journal of Education, vols, i-xxx, 1856-1880 ; educational publi- cations by Barnard, viz. Kindergarten and Child Culture ; Object Teaching and Methods for Primary Schools ; American Pedagogy ; English Pedagogy, first and sec- ond series ; Department of Education, Special Report on the Schools of the Dist. Columbia; Report of Department of Education, 1867-'68; National Education ; Na- tional Education in German States; National Education in France, Switzerland, etc.; Superior Instruction ; Military Systems and Education; Studies and Conduct ; School Architecture ; Papers for the Teacher, first and second series ; Department of Educa- tion, Special Reports ; Technical Education ; Military Schools ; National Education in Europe ; Memoir of Froebel ; Journal of Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 3 vols. ; Connecticut Common School Journal, 5 vols. ; Reformatory Education and Instruction in Europe ; Educational Development in the United States; Normal Training, Russell ; Colt Memorial. BARNES, A. 8., & CO., NEW YORK. Theory and Practice of Teaching, Page ; Teachers' Manuals, numbers iii and iv. BRUNNER, JOHN H., HIWASSEE COLLEGE, TENN. Sunday Evening Talks with Little Folks, by "Uncle John," edited by W. G. E. Cun- ningham, D. D. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WA8HLNGTON, D. C. Publications of the Bureau of Education (see page 38) ; State, city, and foreign educational reports; bound volume of educational periodicals; volumes of State school laws. ELDREDGE A BROTHER, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Manuals for Teachers: (1) Cultivation of the Senses; (2) Cultivation of the Mem- ory; (3) Ou the Use of Words; (4) On Discipline; (5) On Class Teaching. 137 138 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. FOOTE, A. E., PHILADELPHIA, PA. Educational reports and publications. FRENCH & CHOATB, BOND STREET, NEW YORK. Dictionary holder. friends' bookstore, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Friends' Library, 14 volumes ; Sewel's History ; Fox's Journal ; Friends in the SeT- enteenth Century; Worship iu Song; Musings and Memories; Views of Christian Doctrine; Passages from the Life and Writings of William Penu; Bevan'sView; Christian Advices ; Treatise of the Scriptures, E. Claridge ; Eules of Discipline of the Yearly Meeting of Friends; Historical Memoirs of the Society of Friends; Piety Pro- moted, 4 vols. ; No Cross, No Crown ; Passages from the Life and Writings of George Fox ; Examples of Youthful Piety ; Church Government ; Memorials of Deceased Friends from 1788 to 1878 ; Evans's Exposition ; John Woolman ; Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of Friends ; Phipps on Man ; Barclay's Apology for the True Christian Divinity; Memoirs of Daniel Wheeler; John Roberts; Dymond on War; Penn's Rise, Progress, and Key; Biographical Sketch of William Penn; Religious Society of Friends and the Indians; Ancient Testimony ; Immediate Revelation ; The Commun- ion ; Of Universal and Saving Light ; Address of 1868 and Epistle of 1876; Advice of William Penn to his Children; Baptism ; The Doctrines and Ministry of George Fox. GINN, HEATH & CO., BOSTON, MASS. Allen's Reader's Guide to English History ; Allen's History Topics (ancient, modem, and United States history) ; Carpenter's English of the Fourteenth Century ; Church's Stories of the Old World (classics for children); Hall's Methoils of Teaching and Studying History ; Harrison &, Sharp's Essays on Education, English Studies, and Shakespeare; Hudson's Expurgated Family Shakespeare (23 volumes); Hunt's Ex- odus, and Daniel; Lounsbury's Chaucer's Parlament of Foules; Lambert's Robinson Crusoe; Sprague's Two Books of Milton's Paradise Lost, and Lycidas; Yonge's Scott's Queutin Durward; Fisk's Teacher's Improved Class Books, I and II; Hoffman's "Strong Plea for the Classics"; Guides for Science Teaching (13 volumes). HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO., BOSTON, MASS. Works of Longfellow, (> vols. ; Modern Classics, 32 vols. ; American Prose, edited by Scudder; American Poems, edited by Scudder; Tales from Shakespeare; The Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys; Tanglewood Tales; 7 volumes entered as specimens of extra binding done by workmen now employed at the Riverside Press, viz: Vol. 2, Picturesque America, in illuminated vellum ; Gallery of Famous Poets, in inlaid crushed levant; Frithiof's Saga, iu white calf, paneled ; Vols. 1 and 3, Shakespeare, in blue morocco ; Library of Poetry and Song, in blue levant, i^aneled ; Treasury of Thought, in full Russia. LIBRARY BUREAU, BOSTON, MASS. Account book; order book ; register; 2 shelf sheet binders ; 2 filing cases; Clacher pamphlet case ; cherry and oak catalogue cases with fittings; tin card tray; catalogue cards, 9 styles ; book support. MERRIAM, G & C, & CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Copy of Webster's National Pictorial Dictionary. NEW ENGLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY, BOSTON, MASS. Journal of Education, In half morocco, nine volumes; Education, in half morocco, four volumes; Primary Teacher, six volumes ; Public School, one volume; the Ameri- can Teacher, three volumes; portraits of Henry Barnard, John Eaton, Horace Mann, Barnas Sears, Louis Agassiz, George Peabody, A. D. Mayo, W. T. Harris, John D. Philbrick, Francis W. Parker, and Friedrich Froebel. Publications as follows: School-keeping, How to Do It; Talks with Teachers; Graduating System for Country Schools; Life and Education of Laura Bridgman; Life of John Amos Comenius; Quizzism and Key; The National Council of Educa- tion; History for Teachers; Two Premium Essays; The South at School. 138 MISCELLANEOUS ^LIBRARY COLLECTIONS. 139 NO YES, L. W., CHICAGO, ILL. Dictionary-holder ; book-rest. O'SHEA, p., WARREN STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. Lessons ia Practical Science. penman's art journal, Wn BROADWAY. NEW YORK. Bonnd volume of Peumau's Art Jonrual. WELBY, L. D., BOSTON, MASS. Palseographia Sacra Pictoria. Rare Irish books, as follows: Ancient Irish Music ; National Manuscripts of Ireland; Discovery of the Tomb of Ollav Fola ; volume of texts, documents, and extracts, chiefly from the Bodleian and other Oxford libraries; two copies of the Gaelic Journal ; Second Irish Book ; Third Irish Book ; Irish copy- book; German Anthology (translation), two volumes. RALSTON, MRS. H. N. The Spectral Feast. PROGRESS IN SCHOOL BOOKS. Arithmetics — Daboll, Nathan. Schoolmaster's assistant : improved and enlarged, being a plain, practical system of arithmetic. New London, 1811. Dilworth, Thomas. The schoolmasrer's assistant; being a compendium of arith- metic, both practical and theoretical. Printed by Bousal and Niles. Wilmington, n. d. Guthrie, Jesse. The American schoolmaster's assistant ; being a compendious system of vulgar and decimal arithmetic. Printed by Joseph Charless. Lexington, Ky.,1804. Green, Samuel. Daboll's schoolmaster's assistant, improved and enlarged, being a plain., practical arithmetic adapted to the United States, with the addition of the practical accountant, or farmers' and mechanics' best method of book-keeping, for the easy instruction of youth ; designed as a companion to Daboll's arithmetic. Printed and published by E. and E. Hosford. Albany, 1825. McCurdy, D. The Columbian tutor's assistant ; or, a full collection of rules and examples for the several calculations of common, decimal, and duodecimal arithmetic, adapted to the purposes of arts and commerce in the United States. Printed by E. DeKrafft. Washington, D. C, 1819. Pike, Nicholas. New and complete system of arithmetic, composed for the use of the citizens of the United States; abridged for the use of schools by Nathaniel Lord. Published by Evert Duyckinck. Eighth edition. New York, 1816. Walsh, Michael. A new system of mercantile arithmetic ; adapted to the commerce of the United States in its domestic and foreign relations; with forms of accounts, and other writings usually occurring in trade. Published by S. and E. Butler. North- ampton, la07. Watt, Alexander. New, plain and systematic compendium of practical arithmetic, adapted to the commerce of the United States; with a key. Published by John Bioren. Philadelphia, 1814. Geographies — Adams, Daniel. Geography ; or, a description of the world ; in three parts, accom- panied with an atlas. Published by Lincoln & Edmands. Boston, 1826. Doyle, David. Pinkerton's geography, epitomized for the use of schools. Printed by S. F. Bradford. Philadelphia, 1805. " Dwight, Nathaniel. A short but comprehensive system of the geography of the world ; principallv designed for children and common schools. Published by Simeon Butler. Northampton, 1812. Mayo, Robert. An epitome of profane geograi)hy ; being an abridgment of D'An- ville's geography, with additions and improvements ; illustrated by coloured maps. Second edition. Philadelphia, 1318. O'Neill, John. A new and easy system of geogra])hy and popular astronomy ; or, an introduction to universal geography; illustrated with maps. Published by F. Lucas, jr. Fourth edition. Baltimore, 1816. Willard, Emma. Geography for beginners; or, the instructor's assistant, in giving first lessons from maps, etc. Published by O. D. Cook & Co. Second edition. Hart- ford, 1829. 139 140 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Grammars — Alexander, Caleb. Grammatical system of the English laugnage ; comprehending a plain and familiar scheme of teaching young gentlemen and ladies the art of speak- ing and writing correctly their native tongue. Printed by Samuel Hall. Boston, 1792. Carroll, James. The American criterion of the English language ; containing the elements of pronunciation ; for the use of English schools and foreigners. Printed by Samuel Green. New London, 1795. Murray, Lindley. English exercises adapted to the grammar lately published ; de- signed for the benefit of private learners as well as for the use of schools. Printed by Wilson, Spence & Mawmau. York, 1797. Murray, Lindley. Key to the above. Printed by Collins & Perkins. New York, 1808. Murray, Lindley. English exercises, adapted to Murray's English grammar, de- signed for the bent fit of private learners, as well as for the use of schools. Printed by J. Robinson. Baltimore, 1815. Murray, Lindley. Abridgment of English grammar; comprehending the prmciples and rules of the language, designed for the younger classes of learners. Published by Marsh, Capen and Lyon. Concord, N. H., 1830. Murraj", Lindley. English grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners, witb an appendix, containing rules and observations for assisting the more advanced students to write with perspicuity and accuracv. Published by Collins & Co. New York, 1827. Webster, Noah. A grammatical institute of the English language; comprising an easy, concise and systematic method of education ; designed for the use of English schools in America. Part second containing a plain and comprehensive grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language. Printed bv I. Thomas and E. T. Andrews. Boston, 1792, Webster, Noah. An improved grammar of the English language. Published by Sidney Babcock. New Haven, 1842. Readers — Murray, Lindley. Introduction to the English reader; or, a selection of pieces, in prose and poetry, calculated to improve the younger classes of learners in reading, and to imbue their minds with a love of virtue, to which are added rules and obser- vations for assisting children to read with propriety. St. John, N. B., n. d. Murray, Lindley. English reader; or, pieces in prose and poetry, selected from the best writers, designed to assist yourg persons to read with propriety and effect, to improve their language and sentiments, and to inculcate some of the most important principles of piety and virtue. Printed by E. P. Walton. Montpelier, 1823. Picket, A. and J. W. New juvenile expositor, or rational reader, and key to the juvenile spelling book ; comprising the definitions of all the syllabic words in that work; with copious illustrations in English etymology; forming an extensive defi- nition class book for the instruction of youth ; being American school class book No. 4. Published by Picket &, Co. Cincinnati, 1831. Picket, A. and J. W. Introduction to Picket's expositor; containing exercises in English etymology, definition, and reading, being the sequel to the author's spelling- book and part I of the New juvenile instructor. Published by C. P. Barnes &, C. Cropper. Cincinnati, 1837. Ruter, Martin. New American primer and juvenile preceptor; containing easy lessons for spelling, reading, and recitation, together with a short scriptural cate- chism. Published by Martin Ruter. Cincinnati, 1821. Staniford, Daniel. Art of reading : containing a number of useful rules exempli- fied by a variety of selected and original pieces, calculated to improve the scholar in reading and speaking with propriety and elegance ; designed for schools and families. Printed by John Russell. Boston, 1800. Webster, Noah. An American selection of lessons in reading and speaking, calcu- lated to improve the minds and refine the taste of youth, and also to instruct them in the geography, history, and politics of the United States, to which are prefixed rules in elocution and directions for impressing the principal passions of the mind, being the third part of a grammatical institute of the English language, etc. Pub- lished by Isaiah Thomas and Ebenezer T. Andrews. Boston, 1797. Spellers and Primers — Barry, John. Philadelphia spelling book, arranged upon a plan entirely new; with corrections and additions; adapted to the capacities of children, and designed as an immediate improvement in spelling and reading the English language. Pub- lished by David Hogan. Sixth rev. ed. Philadelphia, 1811. Franklin spelling book. Published by R. Porter & F. Lucas, jr. Wilmington, Del., 1822. 140 MISCELLANEOUS ART EXHIBITS. 141 Lamb, J. Child's primer ; or, first book for primary schools. Published by Ed- ward Smith. Jiurlingtou, 1833. New England primer. Improved for the more easy attaining the true reading of English, to which is added the assembly of divines, and Mr. Cotton's catechism. Printed by Edward Draper. Boston, 1777. New England primer ; or, an easy and pleasant guide to the art of reading ; to which is added the catechism. Boston, 1843. Prentiss, Thos. M. Maine spelling book, containing a variety of words, accented and divided, with moral and entertaining lessons for reading, useful tables, etc. Printed by Isaac Adams & Stephen Patten. Portland, 1809. Picket, 'a. Juvenile spelling book : being an easy introduction to the English lan- guage. Printed by John J. Williams. Exeter, 1821. Webster, Noah. American spelling book : containing the rudiments of the English language for the use of schools in the United States. Published by Wm. Fessenden. Brattleborough. 1816. Same. Published by Manahan, Hoag & Co. Concord, N. H., 1817. Same. Elementary spelling book: being an improvement on the American spelling book. Published by N. G. Burgess & Co. Cincinnati, 1829. CURRENT PERIODICAL LITERATURE, FURNISHED BY PUBLISHERS AND KEPT ON FILE. Andover Review ; Atlantic Monthly ; Popular Science News; American Architect and Building News ; Sanitary Engineer ; Journal of Education; Boston Medical and Surgical Journal ; Medical Record ; Kansas City Review of Science and Industry ; Kentucky Deaf-SIute ; American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb; Deaf-Mute Voice; Deaf-Mute Record; Maryland Bulletin; Southwestern Journal of Education; The Carolina Teacher; Southern Workman; The New Method; Deaf-Mute Hawkeye ; American Journal of Education; Academy Journal; Teacher's Institute; Illinois School Journal; School Journal; The Ohio Educational Monthly ; Pennsylvania School Journal ; Dental Cosmos ; Buftalo Medical and Surgical Journal ; School Bulletin ; Normal Teacher ; Wisconsin .Journal of Education ; Vis ^ Vis; The Sanitarian ; The Southern Practitioner; Treasure Trove. The Sanitarian, A. N. Bell, M. D., Editor, New York City. Twenty-one volumes of The Sanitarian (11 bound). ART EXHIBITS. ARCHITECT OF THE UNITED STATES CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. Model of the Capitol. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Bust of George Peabody ; bust of Noah W^ebster. One piece Rogers' statuary — school examination. Set of ornamental designs and drawings. CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE, E. A. SPRING, REPRESENTATIVB. Facade of Greek temple. Portraits in clay. Chautauqua certificates, diplomas, and decorations. Clay modeling. PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM AND SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART. Fifty-six sheets of mounted drawings and designs, 22 inches by 28 inches. Sixteen casts in plaster, or works in terra cotta. PHILADELPHIA SCHOOL OF DESIGN FOR WOMEN, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Six wool-carpet designs ; 2 oil-cloth carpet designs ; 7 oil paintings; 9 engravings; 4 etchings; 2 wall-paper patterns; tile pattern; designs for vase; candlesticks; pitcher; communion service; lace work, and study in water colors; 2 copies of pros- pectus. THE SOULE PHOTOGRAPH CO., BOSTON, MASS. Twelve photographic views of Boston. 141 142 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE. BUEEAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Andrew's anatomical charts. Skeleton. Colored casts of bnman brain, eye, ear, head, heart, and skin. Obstetrical instruments. Pulse tonograph. Laryngoscope. Clinical lens. Silk worm. Male pelvis, female pelvis, femur, scapula, vertebrae, ribs, corpus complete. Disarticulated skull. Dissected preparation injected. Man- ikin foetus. Obstetrical model. Skeleton of rabbit. Skeleton of frog. Skull of dog. Skull of horse. COLLEGE OP PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS, BOSTON, MASS. Frame of photographs of professors and instructors. The exhibit also contained photographs of members of the faculties of the follow- ing institutions: — Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, Cal.; Southern Medical College, Atlanta, Ga.; Medical College of Evansville, Evansville, Ind.; Medical Depart- ment of the State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; College of Medicine (University of Maryland), Baltimore, Md.; Medical Department of Minnesota College Hospital, Minneapolis, Minn.; Northwestern Medical College of St. Joseph, St. Joseph, Mo.; Albany Medical College (Union University), Albany, N. Y.; Starling Medical College, Columbus, Ohio ; Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Med- ical College of the State of South Carolina, Charleston, S. C.; Medical Department, University of Virginia, Va.; National Medical College (Columbian University), Wash- ington, D. C; California Medical College (Eclectic), Oakland, Cal.; Bennett College of Eclectic Medicine and Surgery, Chicago, 111.; Boston University School of Medi- cine, Boston, Mass.; New York Medical College and Hospital for Women, New York City ; Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa. NURSE TRAINING SCHOOLS. CHARITY HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY. Two frames of photographs.' TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, BELLEVUE HOSPITAL, NEW YORK CITY. Photographs. NEW YORK HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, NEW YORK CITT. Frame containing 11 photographs of institution and nurses. woman's HOSPITAL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Two framed photographs: (1) ward in Woman's Hospital; (2) dormitories in Nurse Training School connected with Woman's Hospital. WASHINGTON TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, WASHINGTON, D. C. Photographs of building and of graduates. 'In the Commissioners' room at the Charities and Correction Building, at Eleventh street and Third avenue, yesterday, two large frames containing photographs of scenes about Charity Hospital and the Training School for Nurses, on Blackwell's Island, attracted much attention and were admired by a throng of visitors. The pictures are to be sent in a few days to the New Orleans Exposition. In the center of one frame is a perfect representation of the front of the gray -stone hospital building, with its four long TOWS of windows, rising tier above tier, its square wings and French roof. Above the rep- resentation of the hospital is a picture of a neat stone building and three wooden pavilions. This is the proposed Home for the Xurses. There are also photographs of the interior view of three of the hospital wards. Everything looks so neat and clean, and the rows of white cots aro so soft and tempt- ing, that the observer almost envies the patients whose heads appear here and there aboat tiM rooms. — Tribune. 142 SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE ^NUKSE TRAINING SCHOOLS. 143 Fig. 81.— The human skeleton. 142 144 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. INSTITUTE FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE MUTE, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. Photographs of buildings ; photograph of Dr. R. G. Buckingham ; fancy work made by a girl under instruction three months; examination papers; copies of reports; Dudley's arithmetic; Scripture sermons. COLUMBIA INSTITUTE AND NATIONAL DEAF-MUTE COLLEGE, WASHINGTON, D. 0. Framed drawing of buildings and grounds. Copies of reports and catalogue. FAY, E. A., WASHINGTON, D. 0. Copies American Annals of Deaf and Dumb. FULLER, ANGIE, SAVANNA, ILL. Tidy. Pair black silk mittens. 3 water- color paintings. ILLINOIS INSTITUTION FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB, JACKSONVILLE, ILL. Work done in the art department by pupils: (1) from life, charcoal sketch; (2) from nature, water color; (3) from nature, charcoal; (4) from still life, oil painting; (5) from still life, oil painting; (6) from still life, oil painting; (7) from cast, crayon; (8) from nature, water color; (9) free-hand, crayou ; (10) from life, oil painting; (11) solar print, crayon ; (12) free-hand, crayon ; (13) from objects, crayon ; (14) from ob- jects, crayon; (15) from life, oil; (16) from nature, water color; (17) from still life, charcoal ; (18) fi-om still life, charcoal; (19) from cast, crayon ; (20) from cast, crayon; (21) from cast, crayon ; (22) from life, charcoal ; (23) from objects, oil ; 10 volumes of examination papers; 3 plaster casts ; 11 pairs shoes ; 1 pair boots; desk. The above work was nol^ prepared expressly for the Exposition, and was sent, not as specimens of fine work, but to illustrate the education of deaf-mute children. FARLOW, KATE M., WICHITA, KANS. Two copies of "Silent Life and Silent Language," by Kate M. Farlow. DEAF-MUTE COLLEGE, DANVILLE, KY. One painting. KENTUCKY DEAF-MUTE OFFICE, DANVILLE, KY. Seven volumes publications for the deaf and dumb. CLARK INSTITUTE FOR DEAF AND DUMB, NORTHAMPTON, MASS. Reports of institution. INSTITUTION FOR DEAF AND DUMB, JACKSON, MISS. Crib, 2 paintings, 1 photograph, 7 pieces china, quilt, 2 boys' suits, banner, lac6 handkerchief 2 framed paintings, wall pocket. KIES, ISAAC B., JACKSON, MISS. Black-walnut bureau. SLATE, MISS MATTIE P., OXFORD, MISS. One quilt, containing 7,200 pieces ; 4 handkerchiefs. NEW YORK IN.STITUTION FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. The exhibit consists of contributions by the artistic and industrial departments of the institution. The instruction department is represented by class books, and special works and charts by Dr. Isaac Lewis Peet, the principal. The exhibit was prepared in the in- stitution, within six weeks, under the direction of the principal and M'"^ Le Prince, 144 MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. 145 inauager of llic art tloi)aitiiicnts, alter designs by Prof. A. Lo Priuce, uUo also Buper- inteuded the croctiou of tlio stand at Now Orleans. Other XlxliihHs. 'fM Shelf. s Show Case^ 3 ^ [ 3Ianfel Shelf I' jg Jf'ire Screen. Bench Case. C Bench Case, J) Scnc7(. F h J> Siww Case. Tas&aqe The Illinois IitstLUitton Jiencli. Fig. 82. — Plan of exhibit of New York Institution for tlio Deaf and Dumb. Upright glass cases A and B (Fig. 82) and bench glass cases C and D stand on benches draped with dark maroon cloth, and paneled with " lincrusta" and black walnut mouldings; an oxiening is reserved between cases C and D to allow closer inspection of drawings, panels, tiles, &c., hung on screens E and E, or standing on benches F and H. Other drawing and decorative works are hung on return screens I and G, or stand on shelves and platform at I, as described below. Cascn A and C (Nos. 1 to 18). — Needlework department, superintendent. Miss Lewis: lace, silk, and worsted tidies, flounces, sitlashers, trimmings, collars, pincusliione, etc., by Mary Branfnhr, age 11 ; E. Solomon, age 14; M. Bogatiska, age 14; Mabel Fish, age 15 ; E. F. Taylor, age 17 ; Nellie Long, ago 18 ; Adelia Wolcott, age 18 ; Annie Kug- ler, age 18; B. Vogel, aged 19; E. Coppock, ago 21 ; L. Conkliu, age 2:5 ; Isabel Van Varick, age 18. The two lay figures in case A were also dressed by this department. Case ]). — Printing department, manager, Mr. Hodgson : s]K'cimens of cards, menus, pamphlets, reports, etc., printed by the department; also two numbers of the Deaf- Mute Journal, edited and printed by Mr. Hodgson and his pujtils. Instruction department: class books; specimens of method of writing by Dr. I. L, Peet's system ; vearly reports ; by-laws of the Institution ; works on the deaf-mutes, by Drs. H. P. and I. L. Peet. Caise li (Nos. 19-26). — Shoemaking department, manager, Mr. J. Lechthaler: 1 pair man's shoes, by T. Rudolph, age 19 ; 1 pair boy's low shoes, by E. McKerahan, age 17 ; 1 pair lady's shoes, by A. Sinclair, age 18; 1 pair girl's shoes, by A. Sinclair, ago 18. The small shoes of the lay figures were also made by this depurtment. Tailoring department, manager, Mr. Henry Roth : doll's suit, by J. Toohey, age l(i; doll's suit, by G. Morrisse, age 17; man's suit, by T. E. Carlmau, age 17; boy's suit, by H. Roth, age 18. Carpenters' department, manager, Mr. H. Interman : wood toy pump, by A. Min- otte, age 10 (two weeks in department); walnut table, by D. Zorn, age 17. This department has also executed all the woodwork of the stand, including benches, pan- eling, mouldings, woodwork of mantelpiece, etc. ; some more work is shown on jilat- form I. Screen E. — Fine art, decorative, and technical art dejiartmcnt ; directors Prof, A. Lo Prince and Madame Le Prince: No. 29, d(!corative ]»anel, painted tajicstry, by C. Thompson, age 18; Dr. I. L. Peet's charts of the predicates of the English sentence; No. '.M), mantelpiece (modern renaissance) ; black-waluut shelves and mouldiugs (car- pentering department). 7900 COT 10 145 146 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. Panels, a, i, c, d, e, f, g, h, oxidized silver ou liacrusta; four "old blue" tiles aud velveteen lambrequin decorated iu lustra by technical art department; Nos. 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, ami 43, lincrusta mats by art department; No. 36, panel lincrnsta decorated ware by art department ; No. 39, panel lincrusta decorated ware by art department; No. 40, teapot stand, wild roses, tiles, by Miss Hawkins, age 20 ; frame made by Mr. Wormuth, age 13 ; No. 41, teapot stand, wild roses, tiles, by Miss Wells, age 18 ; frame made by Mr. Wormuth, age 13 ; Nos. 44 and 45, lincrusta panels, deco- rated terra-cotta, art department; No. 46, panel of Jilac and snowballs painted on gilt lincrusta, by Miss Hawkins, age 20; No. 47, panel of apple blossoms, painted by Miss Wells, age iS ; Nos. 48 and 49, teapot stands, morning glory tiles, by Miss Peterson, age 18 ; frame made by Mr. Wormuth, age 13 ; No. 50, wa.ter color, "Flowers," by Miss Peterson, age 18; No. 51, water color pots and tray, by Miss Martin, age 17; No. 52, water color, " Marguerite," by Miss Wells, age 18 ; No. 54, charcoal drawing, Japanese jar, by Miss Peterson, age 18 ; No. 55, charcoal drawing, Japanese jar, by Mr. Thomp- son, age 18 ; No. 56, charcoal drawing, apples, by Mr. Thompson, age 18 ; No. 57, char- coal drawing, flying dove, by Mr. Avens, age 11 ; 101 to 106, lincrusta mats ou mantel board, technical art department ; No. 58 and 59, umbrella stand, decorated lincrusta, technical art department. Screen F. — No. 60, charcoal drawing, "Bust on bodks," by Mr. Thompson, age 18; NOi 61, charcoal drawing, " Pewter pitcher," by Mr. Geary, age 20 ; No. 62, water color, "Horse aud cart," by Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 63, water color, "Cart," by Mr. Avens, age 11; No. 64, water color, "Old arch," by Miss Peterson, age 18; No. 53, "Foxglove," Miss Martin, age 17; Nos. 99 and 100, Lincrusta mats, technical art de- jiartment. Screen G. — No. 65, water color, mediajval figure. Miss Wells, age 18 ; No. 66, water color, medisBval figure, Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 67, oil, "Roses," Miss Gantz, age 17 ; No. 68, water color, "Models," Mr. Geary, age 20 ; No. 69, water color, " Vase and drapery," Mr. Durian, age 19 ; five o'clock tea fire screen, by carpentering and tech- nical art department, dark cherry. ^ Screen H. — No. 76, charcoal drawing, "Servant girl," Mr. Avens, age 11; No. 77, charcoal drawing, "Apple branch," Mr. Durian, age 19; No. 78, water color, "Cow," Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 79, water color, "Jar," Mr. Thompson, age 18; No. 80, water color, "Tower," Mr. Durian, age 19; No. 81, water color, "Small vase," Mr. Avens, age 11 ; No. 34, water color, "Small vase," Mr. Avens, age 11. Bench M. — Nos. 107 and 108, lincrusta mats, technical art department ; No. 97, by Mr. Henry, age 11, one month in carpenter's shop. Screen J. — No. 74, lion's head, lincrusta decorated blue faience, technical art depart- ment; No. 75, lion's head, red faience, technical art department ; No. 93, lion's head, oxidized silver, technical art department; No. 82, portrait of the late Rev. William Adams, D. D., late president of the institution, by Alfred Emmons. No. 70, charcoal drawings; No. 71, charcoal drawings; No. 72, charcoal drawings; No. 73 charcoal drawings. Platform I. — No. 84, desk by L. G. Smith, age 19, carpentry department ; No. 85, bureau by K. Zoru, age 16, carpentry department; No. 86, bureau by G. Glosque, age 18, carpentry department ; No. 87, desk by P. Butterly, age IS, carpentry department; No. 83, frame by R. H. Grant, age 20, carpentry department ; No. 89, frame by G. Wor- muth, age 13, carpentry department ; No. 90, frame by G. Wormuth, age 13, carpentry department. TRESCH, J. F. J.,405 WEST FIFTIETH STREET, NEW YORK CITY. Six framed oil i)aintiugs ; framed ink sketch ; framed crayon drawing ; 6 wood cuts and 3 lithographs in a large frame. INSTITUTION FOR THE IMPROVED INSTRUCTION OF DEAF-MUTES, NEW YORK CITY. Photograph of building ; 7 oil paintings ; 4 pencil drawings ; 5 pen-and-ink sketches; crayon jiortrait of Longfellow by a former pupil of the institution. TENNESSEE SCHOOL FOR DEAF AND DUMB, KNOXVILLE, TENN. Framed photograph of buildings. MILWAUKEE DAY SCHOOL FOR DEAF CHILDREN, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Large framed card with name of school, location, names of oflScers and teacher; plan of Avork aud methods employed ; specimens of work of pupils ; publications of the Wisconsin Phonological Society. X46 MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS FOE THE BLIND. 147 WEST VIRGINIA INSTITUTION FOR DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND, KOMNEY, W. VA. The exhibit consists of the following articles in a black-waluut case : Half dozen brooms; mattress; boy's suit; 2 pairs shoes; 2 specimens of lace; knit hood, knit jacket, pair stockiugs ; copies of reports. FOREIGN EXHIBITS. MACKAY INSTITUTE, MONTREAL, CANADA. Two specimens of printing. ASSOCIATION FOR THE ORAL INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB, LONDON. (1) Time table for the use of day schools for the deaf and dumb ; (2) specimens of pictures used in object and language teaching (20 pictures) ; (3) spelling books, j)art8 1 and 2, by Wni. Van Praagli, jiait 1 illustrated and on boards (IG copies); (4) nu- merical table, by Win. Van Praagh, for the use of deaf and blind children (the deaf see, the blind feel the hollows) ; (5) season table, or illustrated almanac, for deaf children. Papers on the pure oral education of the deaf and dumb : Establishment of day schools for the deaf and dunil), by Wm. Van Praagh, 1871 (Triibner); Oral educa- tion of deaf and dumb, by Sir George Dasent, Society of Arts, 1872; Education of deaf and dumb by means of lip reading and articulation, 1872, and Educational treatment of incurably deaf children, 1880, by W. B. Dalby ; Report of conference held by the Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb at the Inter- national Health Exhibition, June 30, 1884 ; on the Oral education of the deaf and dumb, by Wm. Van Praagh, and on training colleges, by Wm. Van Praagh. (The last two papers are distributed gratis, and any number required can be sent.) Report for 1883 of the Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. SCHOOLS FOR THE BUND. AMERICAN BIBLK SOCIETY, NEW YORK CITY. The Bible in 8 bound volumes for the blind. BRITISH AND FOREIGN BLIND ASSOCIATION, 33 CAMBRIDGE SQUARE, HYDE PAKK, LONDON. (1) Embossed books, printed and written ; (2) relief maps; (3) stereo plates for printing; (4) frames for embossed writing; (5) arithmetic board, type for arithmetic board ; (6) cards for pencil writing ; (7) embossed music. INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO. Two samples of worsted mat work ; 2 8amj)le8 of bead work ; volume of kindergarten work. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Twelve books for the blind, selected from the collection in the Bureau library. LOUISIANA INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, BATON ROUGE, LA. Five brooms; 2 whisk brooms; 2 bead baskets; 3 framed sam[>le8 of reading for the blind; examination papers. MISSISSIPPI INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, JACKSON, MISS. Five samples bead work; composition; dress; flowers in worsted work; 2 hanging bead baskets; pair stockings; 2 tidies; worsted hood; worsted head dress ; 2 cro- chetted tidies; " Death of Little Nell," framed. NEW YORK INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, NEW YORK CITY. Book describing the tangible system of writing and printing literature and music for the blind; the same in raised letters ; slate and movable type for arithmetic, al- j^ebra, and harmony ; tablet for tangible point-print writing ; specimen of mat weav- 147 148 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. iug, kindergarten department; nig, imitation of Turki.sh; imitation Smyrna rug; embroidered rug ; pair pillow covers made on sewing machine; xxiir stockings made on knitting-machine ; pair silk stockings made on knitting machine ; macreni6 lam- brequin, crochettcd; cape, crochetted. Specimen of kindergarten work in frame; model of hair mattress ; cane-seated chair bottom. NEW YORK STATE INSTITUTION FOU THE BLIND, BATAVIA, N. Y. Two bri^sh brooms ; wax cross ; framed bead wreath ; knitted thread tidy ; knitted worsted tidy ; crochetted worsted tidy ; worsted frame tidy ; crochetted lambrequin ; crochetted collarette ; macrem6 broom case ; crochetted pansy mat ; knitted mittens; bead pincushion ; crochetted infant's sacque ; crochetted infant's shoes ; crochetted puff mat; knitted teapot holder; bead basket; bead basket of flowers (^Yhite) ; bead basket of liowers (colored); bead broom case; bead bird; l)cad needle case; bead satchel; 2 bead wash-bowls and pitchers; bead sofa; bead basket; bead round basket; bead i>itcher ; bead napkin ring ; bead cradle. STATE INSTITUTION FOR DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND, KALEIGU, N. C. Thirty-five samples of bead work. OHIO INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, COLUMBUS, OHIO. Crochettinfi and hand lcniftinressure and leave upon it such an impress as would best suit its character. In the subjoined list will be found si)ecimen work from the various grades of schools now established in the United States, the exhibit, with one exception, being exclu- sively from this country. It may be taken as representative of what is accomplished by a body of trained hiborers, working under centralized authority. The large and full exhibit made by the Brothers' schools from various parts of the country proves that the art element is duly appi'eciated by this order. The exhibit of the colleges may be taken as a continuation of the work begun in St. Yon, in the first boarding school. De la Salle Institute and the academies are evidence of the adaptability of the system to the requirements of commercial life. Saint James' School, Brooklyn, the Cathedral, New York, and others are fairly, representative of the parochial schools directed by the Brothers. The school museums of the Sacred Heart Academy, Westchester (preparatory depart- ment of Manhattan College), Buffalo, Yonkers, Syracuse, and Chicopee, are illustra- tive of the aY)plication of instruction to local industries. Drawing, free-hand, mechanical, perspective, and ornamental, is a development in the same direction. The New York Catholic Protectory, Feehanville Industrial School, and Peekskill Farm are repetitions, in part, of the School of Discipline at St. Yon. Saint Joseph's Nornuil College, with its specimens of local herbaria, wM>ods, &c., realizes the instructions of De la Salle to his first normal scholars. The manuals of method, Jiotes of lessons, &c., from Amawalk and Ammendale, give views of the detailed methods of procedure. The whole exhibit is varied, systematic, complete, suggestive, instructive. 152 MISCELLANEOUS BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 153 7 HF l^ H s. ^^ I i I f Sj S a § r 1— zr D ID f5 v> 153 154 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. About forty of the Brothers' parochial schools contributed exBibits for the Expo- sition. We would call attention to the practical character of the work in Christian doctrine, arithmetic, mensuration, bookkeeping, geography and map drawing, history, grammar, and composition. It illustrates the Brothers' methods. Those methods are such as are best calculated to lit youth for business and industrial pur- suits. Cathedral Sclwol, New York City.^-Set of 21 photographs of students and professors in album; Christian doctrine, 1 album, 10 copies; co-ordination of reading and com- position, 3 albums; co-ordination of reading and composition, with photograph op- posite each student's work, 1 album, 19 copy-books ; language lessons, 1 album, 8 copy-books ; miscellaneous class work, 2 albums, 23 copy-books ; arithmetic, 1 album ; maps, 1 album, 22 specimens; maps and description of rock formations in New York State, 1 album, 16 copy-books ; sketches and description of Jeannette expedition, containing a portrait of Lieutenant De Long, a map of the route of the expedition, and scenes in the Arctic regions, 1 album ; penmanship, 1 album, 26 specimens; free- hand drawing, 2 albums, 50 specimens ; 11 maps and description of the Holy Land, accompanied by a short hi.story of the Jewish people in the students' own words. Cathedral tSchool, Philadelphia, Pa. — Grammar, 1 album, 23 copy-books; miscella- neous exercises, 1 album, 15 copy-books ; arithmetic, 1 album, 18 copy-books; algebra, 1 album, 22 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 37 copy-books ; penmanship, 2 al- bums, 46 copy-books. Cathedral and Saint Mary's Schools, Saint Paul, Minn. — Christian doctrine, spelling, grammar, composition, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuration, natural philoso- I)hy, bookkeeping, and commercial law, 1 album, exercises, 48 examination papers, and copy-books; series examination questions, 1 album ; penmanship, 24 copy-books. Immaculate Conception Farochial School, Baltimore, Md. — Grammar, arihtmetic, and mensuration, 1 album, 18 copy-books ; miscellaneous exercises, 1 album, 12 copy- books; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 18 copy-books; penmanship, 3 albums, 36 copy- books ; free-hand drawing, 1 album, 6 copy-books. Immnvulale Co7iception Farochial School, New York City. — Christian doctrine, 2 al- bums, 11 copy-books; si^elling, punctuation, 3 albums ; grammar, arithmetic, and algebra, 5 albums, 48 copy-books; compositions, 1 album ; geography, illustrated by maps, 1 album ; bookkeeping, 2 albums, 18 copy-books ; linear drawing, 2 albums. St. Ann's ParocMal ooks ; bookkeeping, 3 albums, 32 copy-books ; penmanship, 1 album, 6 copy- books; ornamental drawing, 4 books. Sundry parochial schools i'nmi New York City, Philadelphia, Pa., Newark, N. J., Detroit, Mich., and Chicago, 111., sent the following class work for the exhibit : Catechism, grammar, geography, arithmetic, and niensuration, 17 copy-books; mis- cellaneous exercises, 1 album; bookkeeping, 74 copy-books; English' and Germau writing, 64 copy-books ; linear and free-hand drawing, 4 albums aud specimens. 155 156 EDUCATIONAL EXHTBTTS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AND ORPHANAGES. Indiistrial scliools and orphauaoes are also within the sphere of the Brothers' mis- sion. Most noted among these, and the most deserving of the careful study of visitors, is the Male Department of the New Yoi-k Catholic Protectory. This institution was incorporated hy the legislature of New York in 180!^, and is nnder a board of man- agers composed of 24 members, among whom may be mentioned Mr. Henry L. Hoguet, president, Mr. Eugene Kelly, treasurer, and the Rt. Rev. Monsignor Quinn, advisory chaplain. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. New YorJc Catholic Protectory, Westchester, JSF. Y. — Male department (in charge of the Brothers of the Christian Schools). — Set of framed photographic views of the build- ings, grounds, class rooms, membersof the band, music room, drawing class, refectory, boys, and Brothers, also of the workshops for printing, electrotyping, shoemaking, tailoring, chair caning, stocking knitting, and silk weaving. Christian doctrine, 1 album; miscellaneous class work, 133 copy-books; bookkee])- ing, 12 copy-books; ])enmanship, 2 albums and 25 copy-books ; towns and villagcis in Westchester county, New York, 17 maps; ground plan of the Protectory and prolileof its main sewer ; plans of the Protectory and maps of the United States, 15 specimens ; geometrical tracing and linear drawing, 3 albums, 117 specimens; freehand figure and ornamental drawing, 5 albums, 149 specimens. Industrial department. — Wax figure of boy, in glass case, with complete outfit, which was manufactured at the Protectory. Museum showing all material and processes used in printing and electrotyping, and specimens resulting from each process. Sixty-six specimens of job-work done at the Protectory for mercantile firms of New York and other cities. Specimen of bird's- eye view of the Protectory projierty printed in six colors. Twelve volumes printed at the Protectory. A short sketch of the Protectory from its origin in 1863 to the present time. Museum of industry in tanning hides, showing the 87 consecutive operations in preparing a shoe for market ; 23 pairs of shoes of all kinds and sizes made in the Protectory. Museum of chair-caning industry, showing successive operations in caning, and specimens of chair seats and backs completely caned. Three suits of clothes made at the Protectory, with photographs of the boys who made the suits. Stocking factory. — Ten jiairs fancy colored socks and stockings made with knitting machines at the Protectory. Four specimens of silks and satins woven at the Protectory. Female department (in charge of the Sisters of Charity). — Set of photogra]ihic views of class-rooms, dormitory, workshoxis, and girls at work; wax figure of girl in glass case, with complete outfit, manufactured at the Protectory ; 39 specimens of clothing in plain and fancy sewing; table-cloth and lambrequin embroidered with satin in flowers, &c. ; one crochetted toilet set. Museum of kid-glove industry, showing difierent stages m manufacture of gloves ; 6 samples kid skins, assorted colors ; 2 black kid skins, lettered in gilt ; 24 pairs kid gloves, assorted sizes ; 1 pair unsewed kid gloves ; 1 stuft'ed kid. St. Mary^s Trniniiig School, Feehanville, 111. — Specimens of writing by Indian stu- dents, 1 album; 2 lists of names of conn-ades written by Indians; 4 pairs of shoes and 2 suits of clothes made by j)upils in industrial dej)artment ; 2 photographs of 50 Indian pupils. ORPHANAGES. Roman Catliolic Male Orphan Asylum, St. JosepVs School, Troy, N. Y. — Catechism, 4 albums; grammar, &c., 1 album; writing, 76 copy-books ; 28 maps; 1 school museum for object lessons ; 153 specimens representing industries of iron, paper, cotton, woolen manufacture, &c. Roman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, Peekskill, N. Y. — Christian doctrine, 4 copy- books ; writing, 51 copy-books ; 1 framed photograph of buildings and pupils. ACADEMIES. Contributions from twelve academies have been sent. These academies are select pay-schools in our principal cities. It will be noticed that the order of work is of a higher grade than that of the parochial schools. 156 MISCELLANEOUS BROTHEKS OF THE CIIRLSTIAN SCHOOLS. 157 Assumption Academy, Uti("i, N. Y. — Christian doctriui', 1 ulbuiii; ini.scellaueons class- Avork, 1 iilbiim; gcoj;riii)liy illustiiited ])y -Hi maps, 1 all)niu ; lK)okkeci)ii)g, 3 albums, 12 copy-books; 1 framed sot ot'S photo^raiihs of buildiugs, students, aud professors; 1 museum, 17 siiecimcns' cotton-mill industry. Christian Brothers^ Academij, Albany, N. Y. — Exorcises in language and composition, 7 copy-books ; compositions, 2 albums ; arithmetic and algebra, 2 ill bums, 11 cojjy-books ; geometry, 2 albums, 10 copy-books ; 3 largo slieets tracings of buildings — ground plan, oloA'ation, &c. JJe la Salle Institute, New York City. — Development of solids, 1 album (by one of the Brothers) ; Christian doctrine, 5 albums, 20 copy-books ; exercises in language and compositions, 14 albums, 33 copy-books ; rhetoric, 2 albums, 9 copy-books ; English literature, 1 album, 5 copy-books; Milton's Paradise Lost, with stereo]>ticou illustra- tions, 1 album; Shakespeare's Richard III, with stereopticon illustrations, 1 album; ancient history classics, 1 album, 4 copy-books; ancient and modern languages, 12 albums, 57 coi^y-books ; arithmetic and algebra, 4 albums, 16 copy-bt)oks; geometry and mensuration, .5 albums, 28 copy-books; trigonometry and surveying, 4 albums, 22 cojjy-books ; astronomy,! album, 3 copy-books; analytical geometry,! album, . 5 copy-books ; luitural philosopliy, 2 albums, 12 copy-books ; chemistry, 2 albums, 6 copy-books; physics, 1 album, 5 copy-books; miscellaneous exercises, 1 album ; book- keeping, 6 albums ; business forms aud commercial calculations and correspondence, &c., 4 albums; 12 historical maps, with descriptions; maps and description in long- and short-hand, 1 album, 7 maps; ])enmanship, 2 albums, 40 specimens; mochauical drawi ng, 5 specimens (framed) ; mechanical drawing, water color, 1 specimen (framed) ; linear drawing, 3 albums, 44 specimens ; 2 craj'on free-hand drawings (framed) ; museums for object lessons; history of a pen, 18 specimens; vegetables, cereals, seeds, &.V., 31 specimens. La SaUe Academy, Providence, R. I. — Normal department. — Method of teaching com- l)osition to beginners; method of teaching oral and written composition ; lectiones, method of teaching conversation in the ancient lauguages, by aid of short-hand ; notes on teaching short-hand ; essay, A Christian Education ; poem. The Flag of Erin ; 1 set 5 photographs of professors and students. Class work by students. — Christian doctrine, 10 copy-books ; essays by students, 10 papers ; miscellaneous class work, 4 copy-books ; study of words by the use of pho- nography, 2 copy-books ; verbatim rej)ort in short-hand of testiuumy of witnesses, and charge to the jury by the Hon. C. Matteson, in Anson W. Aldrich vs. Geo. H. Slade et ux., and same report deciphered by each student, in long h;iiid, 10 co[)v-books ; bulletin with record of 210, 202, 190, 184, 184, 181, 179, 175, 167, and 167 words per minute, by students in phonograjjliy ; aucient and modern languages, 20 copy-books; geology, 2 copy-books; practical surveying, 5 copy-books. Manhattan Academy, New York City. — Christian doctrine, grammar, geography, rhetoric, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, phonography, and penmanship, 3 albums exercises and examination i)apers ; bookkeeping and mathematics, 4 ali)um8. Sacred Heart Academy, Westchester, N. Y. — Ground plan of the academy property; Spanish, French, and German exercises; geographj'^ and natural jjhilosophy, 2 al bums, 19 copj'-books; majis, 2 albums, 74 maps; linear drawing, 5 copy-books, speci- mens; museum for object lessons, 6 charts, 120 specimens, representing manufacture of lead pencils, j)ins, tobacco, felt, &c. Sacramento Insfitnte, Sacramento, Cal., and St. Josejyh's Academy, Oakland, Cal. — Arilhmetie, algfbra, mensuration, comjiosition, epistolary corrc^spoudt^uce, English literature, physiology, and physics, 3 albums examiuathm papers; penmanship, 1 an)um and specimens; free-hand drawing, 1 album and specimens. 67. Joseph's Academy, Calvert Hall, Baltimore, Md. — Grammar and language exer- cises, 2 albums, 79 copy-books; compositions, 2 albums, 47 copy-books; liome work of students, 1 album, 24 copy-books; arithmetic, 1 album, 24 copy-books; algebra, 1 album, 30 copy-books ; arithmetic and geometry, 1 album, 15 coi)y-books ; mathemat- ics, 1 album, 16 copy-books; phonography, 1 album, 13 copy-books ; bookkeeping, 6 albums, 144 copy-ljooks ; teachers' registers, 1 album, 10 books. St. John's Collegiate Institute, Washington, D. C. — Language exercises, mathemat- ics, business correspondence, «fcc., 13 coi)y-book8 ; crayon free-hand drawings, 17 speci- mens. St. Mary's Academy, Troy, N. Y. — Grammar, language exercises, and ancient lan- guages, 2 albums ; compositions, 1 album, 6 copy-books; geography, 1 album; arith- metic, 1 album; algelua, 4 copy-books; geometry and trigonometry, 3 albums; pho- nograi)hy, 6 albums; business forms, 1 album ; penmanship, i album. St. Patrick's Commercial Academy, Chicago, III. — Two albums with s))ecimen work in Christian doctrine, grammar, arithmetic, commercial bulletin, bookkeeping, pho- nography, penmanship, &c. }57 158 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. COLLEGES. Eleven of the Brothers' collegea sent in exhibits. These colleges are aU incorpo- rated, with full power to confer degrees and academic honors. The work on exhibi- tion from some of these institutions shows that a high standard is maintained in Eng- lish litei'ature and composition, the ancient and modern languages, the higher math- ematics, and the natural sciences. COLLEGE OF THE CHRISTIAN BKOTHERS, aAJJS'T LOUIS, MO. Normal department. — Thirty-six academic free-hand crayon studies. Essays. — All power from God. Skepticism. Excellence and utility of logic. Theo- ries regarding the origin of the world. Divinity of the Church historically proved. Dignity of labor. Nature and source of certitude. Monuments of mind. De intel- lectu atque ejus deijeudeutia a ceteris aniiuie potentiis. De existentia Dei. Anima humana immortalis est. De lingua. Uepl ro'oTTjg cpavrjg 'E/i^??vtK^c 'A^tai^arof. Natural xjhilosophy, 7 copies; bookkeeping, '.i albums, 3(i copies; 6 free-hand crayon figure drawiugs, framed; 17 free-hand crayon hgure drawings, framed; 108 free-hand crayon figure, ornamental, and landscai)e drawings. MANHATTAN COLLEGE, NEW YORK CITY. Normal department. — Paper from professor showing method followed in teaching logic; same, in teaching Latin. Class work by students. — Evidences of religion, 8 essays (selected from those written by students each mouth on subject treated at instruction) ; notes taken by students during catechetical instruction on evidences of religion (transcribed), 6 copy-books. Essays. — Extrinsic evidence not the only source of certitude. Absolute unity an impossibility. Pantheism. Nature of the human soul. The existence of God. The necessity of a First Cause. The necessity of religion. The supernatural. The possi- bility of revelation. Miracles — natural, supernatural. Mesmerism. Prophecy. Ne- cessity of revelation. Primitive man not a savage. Existence of revelation. Prehis- toric man. Moses and geology. Genuineness of the Pentateuch. Christian marriage the conseivative element of society. Influence of the Church on the development of individual character. Influence of climate on character. Influence of Bacon on sci- eatific knowledge. Uses of scientific and industrial expositions. Aims in life. The existence of a visible Church. The right of suffrage. Arbitration vs. war. The early traditions of the human race in proof of monotheism. De ente in genere. De potentia et actu. Discrimen inter ideara entis in genera et ideam cutis infiuiti. De possibilitate — interna, externa. De essentia et de existentia. De principiis qua? a notione entis dimauaut. De communibus entis proprietatibus. De substantia. De supposito et de persona. De qualitate. Dequautitate. De prin- cipiis et causis. De principio causalitatis. De causa finali. De perfectione. De ente simplici et composito. De ente tinito et infinito. De pulchro et de ordine. De natura animaj hnmauae. De natura corporea. De recenti uaturalismo. De absoluta uniiate. Nature et origine du pouvoir civile. Evolutionism (German). Modern journalism. Immortality of the soul. Translations from the ancient authors, 7 classical themes by each of 17 students; English classics — L' Allegro, U Penseroso, Gray's Elegy, Pope's Essay, Hamlet, and Macbeth — copiously annotated by students, some in short-haud work of students as collected from explanations given by professors, 20 copy-books ; extract taken from the "Culture of the Spiritual Sense," translated into ancient aud modern lan- guages, 12 copy-booke (given as a class exercise) ; exercises in scansion (aucient aud modern languages), 20 copy-books; mathematics, surveying, navigation, and analytics, 12 copy-books ; notes taken from lectures on hygiene ; essays in ancient lan- guages, 2 papers; exercises in ancient and modern languages, written by the students during the months of November and December, showing daily corrections by pro- fessors, 40 books; fortnightly essays on various subjects (these essays read oeforethe class), 24 papers; subjects of natural science, showing the ground gone over by the students during half scholastic year, 8 essays ; on orations delivered at the musical aud literary entertainments given by class clubs, 8 essays. CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, MEMPHIS, TENN. Normal departmenl.—lQiWu'wik. sketch of college buildings, by one of the Brothers; crayon drawing after Raphael (fianied), by one of the Brothers; set of 12 photographs of college building, grounds, professors, studentsj cornet by.ud, oichestra, and musio 158 MISCELLANEOUS BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 159 classes; albuui of college papers, blank diplomas, honorable mention, testimonial of merit, reports, programmes, addresses to graduates and alumni, society memorials; set of 28 anatomical motlels for instruction in physiology ; scrap book containing scraps, essays, chapters, reports, and history of education. From its collection of rare books the college exhibits the following: The Pyramids of Gizeh, by J. E. Perring, Esq., C. E. ; Syntagma Juris Universi atque Legum pene omnium Gentium et Reruni Publicarnm ; Bible in Latin and German, with annota- tions in Latin and illustrated by old line coj)per engravings, printed IT.Sl. Clans ivork by the students. — Christian doctrine and evidences of religion, 1 album, 23 examination papers ; language lessons, 3 albums, 53 copy-books, exercises ; rhetoric, 1 album, 9 copy-books, examination i)apers ; ancient and modern history, 2 albums, 28 copy-books, examination papers; ancient languages, 2 albums, 30 copy-books (ex- tracts and translations from authors, with exercises in prose composition and scansion) ; weekly composition and literary exercises, 10 albums; English literature, 2 albums, 13co])y-books, examination papers, and 12 copy-books, exercises supplementary to text book; logic, 1 album, 7 copy-books. Ensays. — The living energy of the Catholic Church. Literatui'e and the line arts as elements of reiinenieut. National morality. Prosperity of the United States. The South. Value of labor. Amusements. The Mississippi Valley. The )>attle of life. Electricity. 'I'he Mis8issip))i River. Education. The curiosities of the press. The resources of the South. The effects of cotton upon civilization. Waste not, want not. The improvement of the Mississippi River. The "Taxing district" formerly "City of Memphis." Monuments of antiquity. A century of progress. Memphis reconstructed. Yesterday and to-morrow. The first strife is half the battle. Road to success. The influence of woman. The language of silence. A trifle, yet a power. Vacation experience.' Good manners. Hogarth's line of beauty. Debates. — " Resolved, that the United States is more indebted to her statesmen than to her warriors " ; " Country life is i)referable to city life " ; " Resolved, that a repub- lican form of government is productive of more good than a monarchy." Arithmetic, 2 albums, 3.5 copy-books; natural philosophy, 1 album, 11 copybooks; chemistry, 2 albtims, 30 examination papers; physiology, 2 albums, 30 examination papers ; algebra, 3 albums, 48 copy-books ; geometry, 4 albums, 46 copy-books, and 23 examination papers ; plane and spherical trigonometry, with applications to sur- veying and navigation, 4 albums, 34 copy-books; astronomy, 1 album, 3 examination papers; analytical geometry and calculus, record of class work, 2 i>apers. Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial calculations, correspondence, &c., 11 bound volumes and 59 copy-books; ornamental penwork, 11 specimens, including one extra large size, illuminated, fourteenth century style, all framed; penmanship, 14 albums, 1,105 specimens, by students since 1878, also 68 copies and prize penmanship from preparatory department of students under 13 years of age. Crayon free-hand ilrawing, figures, groups, and landscapes, 34 specimens in frames; free-hand crayon and linear drawing, 2 albums, 203 specimens; perspective drawing, 1 allmm, 21 specimens. Museum for object lessons. — Cotton, 48 samples of prize and standard grades from the United States, South America, Africa, .and British India; 10 samples of processes iu manufacture of cotton goods from mills ; cotton-seed industry, showing samples of seed, hulls, lint, ashes, pearlash, lye, crushed seed, oil cake, meal, crude, lubricating, lighting, and cooking oils, and soap — all from cotton seed. Specimens of Tennessee woods, marbles, vegetable products, silk, birds' eggs, and Louisiana rice ; specimens of all industries, minerals, cereals, &c., systematically ar- ranged, 'i* charts, 828 specimens. DE LA SALLE COLLEGE, PHILADELPHLA., PA. Christian doctrine, 1 album; examination papers, preparatory department, for March, 1884; language lessons and miscellaneous class work, 7 albums. Essays. — Development of electricity. The Church and science. What the future may bring. Lights at the electrical exhibition. The political campaign. Be true to the dreams of youth. The Papacy vindicated. Growth of juvenile iniquity. The Inquisition. History of the Councils of Constance and Basle. The Inquisition as seen ' in its trae light. Silent cities. The political outlook. Is the Church an enemj"^ to science. False position of materialists. Beer gardens. France of to-day. France of the future. Life and work of Archbishop Wood. Reflections on the " Humauum genus." . Charles Reade. Ancient and modern languages, 7 albums, 47 cojjy-books (translations) ; algebra, 3 albums, 30 copy-books ; geometry, trigonometry, and surveying, 3 albums, 18 copy- books; matln^matics, 3 albums, 37 copy-books (exercises); bookkeeping, 6 albums, 73 copy-books, and additional albuui of balance sheets; penmanship, 3 albums, copy- books, .'ind speciiiieus; linear drawing, 10 bound volumes; crayon free-hand drawing, 2 albums., .jO specimens; mechanical drawing, plain and water color, 6 albums, 142 specimens. X59 160 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ROCK UILL COLLEGE, ELLICOTT CITY, MD. Normal deparlmcnt. — History of Eock Hill Colk^gc, prepared, for the Bureiiu of Edu- cation : ))rospectiis of Hil^ college ; album of college rogulatious, reports, aud testimo- uials ; Philosophy of Literature, a text-book ])ro])arcd for advanced students, by a Brother of the college; Levelopiuent of English Literature, Old Eoglish Period, a text- book prepared upon the Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, period of literature, for the class in English literature, by a Brother of the college; Spencer's " Philosophy of Style," by a Brother of the college ; On Thinking, an address delivered to the senior class, by the president of the college ; Culture of the Spiritual Sense, an address to the senior students, by the president of the college ; Psycliological Aspects of Education, a paper read before the convocation of the University of New York, June 11, 1877, by the professor of English literature. * Class ivork by students. — Explanation of Chi-istian doctrine and evidences of religion, 1 album, 8 copy-books; Christian ethics, being notes upon Culture of the Spiritual Sense, 1 album, 11 copy-books. Theses in philosophy. — ^Ex psychologia. Ex theologia natural!. Ex metaphysica general!. Language lessons, 3 albums, 31 copy-books, exercises and examination papers ; rhet- oric, and ancient and modern history, 9 albums, 87 copy-books ; compositions, 3 al- bums, 35 copy-books ; English literature, 2 albums, examination papers. Students' essays. — (1) Prize essays — Samuel .Johnson, his genius and it lluence. The Renaissance. Pope, his genius and influence. Shakespeare, his historical plays and his times. Martin Luther. Mary Tudor. (2) Commencement essays — Caisar- ism. Science and no science. Progress of nations. Public opinion. The relations of Governments to the Church. Myths in modern science. Contrasts. Godless edu- cation. Financial crises. Wyclifte. Organized charities. Life lessons. Education vs. instruction. Social and literary prejudices. Joan d' Arc. Prince Gallitzin. France and Gambetta. Charles O'Conor. Christianity aud society. The third term. Mo- rality of literature. Charlatanism. The Chinese and their civilization. Social re- form. Idea of liberty in France. Mormonism. (3) Weekly essays — ^junior class: Pope's Essay on Criticism ; sophqmore class : The Norman kings of England; class of special study : Financial crises; second preparatory class : Maryland toleration ; ]iri- mary class : A letter on home. Aucieut languages (exercises and translations), 3 albums, 24 copy-books; chemis- try, 1 album, 23 copy-books; physics, 2 albums, 25 copy-books; miscellaneous exer- cises, 3 albums, 29 copy-books ; algebra, 2 albums, 10 cojiy-books ; geometry, mensura- tion, 2 albums, Itii copy-books ; trigonometry, 1 album, 7 copy-books ; linear drawing, 5 albums, IfiO specimens ; water-color drawing in>shade aud shadow, 1 album, 25 speci- mens ; prohle, 13 feet by 4 feet, route of Panama ship-canal ; profile axis of railroad. SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, CLAPHAM, LONDON, S. W., ENGLAND. Normal department. — Electricity and electrical measurement ; notes on chemistry. Class work. — Notes on physics, 1 album ; biology and chemistry, 1 album ; notes on mechanics, optics, aud heat, 1 album ; notes on electricity and electrical measure- ment, 1 album ; notes on algebraical geometry (Todhnuter's), straight line and cir- cle,,! album; i)robleuis (Todhnuter's Spherical Trigonometry), 1 album; notes on Dynamics of a Particle, 1 album; practical science work in hydrostatics, hydrody- namics, light, and heat, 3 albums; problenas from Godfrey's Astronomy, 1 album ; ex- perimental determination of the specitic resistance of German silver wire, 1 album ; notes on Todhnuter's Conic Sections and Addison's Solid Geometry, 1 album ; difi'eren- tial and integral calculus (Todhnuter's), 1 album. SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, BUFFALO, N. Y., SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, NEW ORLEANS, LA., AND SAINT MICHAEL'S COLLEGE, SANTA f6, N. MEX. One set photographic views from New Mexico; language lessons, 2 albums, Ki papers; ancieut languages, 2 albums, 18 papers, and essay by professor on method of ■ teaching same; phonography, 12 copies; algebra, 2 albums, 14 papers; miscellane- ous exercises in mathematics, 3 albums, 20 coi)y-books; geometry aud mensuration, 1 album, 10 papers ; trigonometry, 1 album, exercises ; bookkeeping, 36 copy-books ; penmanship, 5 albums, 47 copy-books; museum of grape sugar industry, 13 specimens. SACRED HEART COLLEGE AND SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. ■ Christian doctrine and evidences of religion, 1 album, copies, and 17 examination papers; compositions, preparatory department, 52 exauiination papers. 7;;.s8rt.(/.s'. — The Church and science. Toleration. Civil government. The Pope. Do urbauitate. Do amicitia. Do viis ferreis. Jeau Baptiste de la Salie, Resourcou of itio MLSCELLANKOUS BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. 161 Calilbiuiii. Imiv>itauce of the International Exposition. Tlio Pyraiuids. Aiuericau oratory. Caliloruiau scenery. American toryisui. The missionary in America. Trials of Leo XIII. The Desertetl Village. Loj;ie, 12 examination papers; algehra, 2 albums, examination papers; geometry anvelopment of English Literature, Ppencer's Philosophy of Style, On Thinking, Culture of the Spiritual Sense, Psychological Aspects of Education, by Brothers of the normal de- partment. Projections of solids in relief by means of wire and silk threads, 24 models. Linear drawing, 9 albums, 36 copy-books ; free-hand crayon drawing, 3 albums, 12 copy-books; ornamental drawing, 1 album, 19 copy-books ; shades, shadows, and pro- jections, in water color, 24 specimens ; plans and miscellaneous exercises, 2-28 speci- mens. FEEED MAN'S AID SOCIETY, METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHUECH. Bishop J. M. Walden, LL. D., President. Kev. B. S. Rust, LL. D., Corresponding Seciciary. Rev. J. C. Hartzell, D. D., Assistant Corresponding Secretary. Rev. Eaul Ckanston, D. D., Treasurer. Rev. a. F. Hoyt, A. M., S. T. B., Superintendent of Exhibit. Annual reports of F. A. S. from 1867 to 1879, bound volume; annual report of F. A. S. for 1884. Andreas Collegiate Institute, Andrews Institute, Ala. — Examination papers (selected) in algebra, arithmetic, English grammar, physics, and physiology. Baldicin Seminary, Baldwin, La. — Maps (water colors) of Central America and West Indies, Canada, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, California, and Nevada. Exam- ination papers (selected) in geograijhy, U. S. history, arithmetic, and English gram- mar. Technical work in photography and printing, samples. Bennett Seminary, Greensboro', N. C. — Examination papers (entire class) in Latin (beginning), geometry, geography. Anabasis, ancieut history, algebra, Latin, and his- tory; examination papers (selected) in English grammar and arithmetic. Broivn Seminary, Leicester, N. C. — Miscellaneous examination papers in grammar, arithmetic, and natural philosophy. Centenary Biblical Institute, Baltimore, Md. — One catalogue, 1884-'85 ; examination papers (selected) in orthography, arithmetic, grammar, and geography ; (entire class) in algebra and geometry, Latiu, algebra, natural science, aud history ; geography (two classes), history (two classes), grammar (tour classes), arithmetic (two classes), aud orthography (two classes). Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenn. — Examination papers in Caesar, Anabasis, geometry (two classes), algebra (two classes), arithmetic (two classes), "grammar, orthography aud penmanship, Latin reader, physiology, natural history, and U. S. history; photographs — college hall, grouj» of students and teachers, and school build- ing ; two pillow-shams. Meharry Medical Department. — Catalogues, 1884; photograph of Meharry Medical College building, photograph of graduate class ; examination papers in theory and practice, obstetrics, practice in medicine, surgery, anatomy, chemistry, physiology, and materia medica. The exhibit of the industrial department consisted of 16 white aprons, with edg- ing; also 5 fancy aprous, with edging; 14 models, specimens carpentry work; 11 specimens plain and fine darning and patching; 1 pair knit w^oolen stockings; 1 patch-work quilt ; 3 figured holders ; 1 pair crochetted wristlets ; 2 speciuiens C. T. C. Record ; 1 initial- worked towel ; 4 crochetted l;imp mats ; 1 crochetted child's sack ; 1 crochetted cap; 1 pair embroidered pillow shams; 1 tidy, macrem6 lace- work ; 2 fancy collars, with edging ; 1 crochetted thread collar; 1 wood eugraviug, a group of college buildings ; 1 photograph, grouji of industrial class ; 2 x^hotographs, group of medical grtjduatiug class; 3 frames of collected pictures of medical graduating class; 1 photograph. Dr. McKinley ; 1 specimen composition and press work ; examiuation papers (entire class) iu algebra, geometry, and grammar (four), arithmetic, orthogra- phy, Latin, aud Greek. Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C. — Catalogue 1883-'84; the specimens of techni- cal and industrial work (-xhibited were as follows : hand bag ; live collets croch6s ; em- broidered pocket ; embioidored tidy ; haud-painted palette ; table mat in crochet work ; iidy-workcd design; pair of slippers; thermometer holder, embroidered; bedstead model, wood- work; writing desk, wood-work; what-not model, wood-work; panel door model, wood-work; double screen blind for door, wood- work ; oil jiaiutiug, ocean scene; examination papers (entire class) in Greek (Herodotus), Latiu (Horace, Odes), Latin (Cicero against Catiline), and Latin (Horace, Satires and Ej)i8tles); class 801 162 MISCELLANEOUS FREEDMAN'S AID SOCIETY. 163 in grainmur, orthography, arithmetic, geography, chemistry, natural philosophy, alge- hra, physiology, Greek (hegiimiug), rhetoric (entire clasa), Greek (Anabasis), and Greek (Iliad). Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. — Catalogue 1884 ; special papers (selected) : composi- tions (two classes), hills of Inmher for students' building designs, and penmanship; examination papers (entire class) in history, Latin (Virgil), natural science, literature (four classes), grammar, Greek (Pluto's Apology), geometry, Greek lessons, and arith- metic ; examination papers (selected) in gi-ammar (two classes) ; the technical and industrial work exhibited consisted of the college journal, printed by the students ; carpenter work, 24 specimens ; front elevation of house, 5 jjencil designs ; ground :)laQ of house, 4 pencil designs ; ground plan of stable, pencil design; front elevation of stable, pencil design ; (i photographs (by students), house and school buildings; 2 photographs (by s( iideuts), groups ; 4 pieces of female under-clothing. Cookman ImiUute, Jacksonville, Fla. — Examination papers (selected) in arithmetic (two classes) and geography ; special papers (specimeus) in penmanship. East Tennessee Wesleyan tfmversity, Athens, Tenn. — Annual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; spe- cial papers (orations, essays, and sermons) ; specimens of commenceme^it and society programs; specimens of business and ornamental penmanship; examination papers in Latin (selected) : Horace (Odes), ^neid, and Lessons ; examination papers in Greek (entire class) : Odyssey and Lessons; examination papers in Greek (class 801): De Corona, Iliad, anil Plato's Apology ; examination papers in English grammar (two classes), rhetoric, Latin (De Bello Gallico and De Natura Deorum), geology, Chris- tian ethics, physical geography, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, and mechanics. Ellijay Seminary, EUijay, Ga. — Examination papers (selected) in Latin, arithmetic, grammar, and geography. Gilbert Seminary, Winsted, La. — Special papers: Map of Louisiana and Arkansas; essays ; two maps of Mexico and map of North America; examination papers (miscel- laneous) in algebra, Greek, and Latin. Holston Seminary, New Market, Tenn. — Examination papers (entire class) in gram- mar, natural philosoyjhy, Latin, and navigation. Houston Seminary, Houston, Tex. — Anuual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; examination papers (selected) in physiology and geography; examination papers (entire class) in United States history, arithmetic, grammar, and household economy. Kinfisley Seminary, Bloomingdale, Tenn. — Annual catalogue, 1883-'84 ; specimen of penmanship. La Grange Seminary, La Grange, Ga. — Examination papers in United States history ; examination pa])ers (entire class) in grammar (two classes), arithmetic, and natural l)hilosophy ; examination papers (selected) in natural philosophy ; special papers (maps). lAttle Bock University^ Little Rock , Ark. — Examination papers (entire class), in Latin lessons (first and second years), Caesar, and Latin (junior year) ; examination papers (entire class) in Greek (Anabasis, freshman year), jthysiology, trigonometry, .algebra, (two classes), English literature, rhetoric, arithmetic (two classes), and German (sophomore year); special papers (selected): essays (junior college) and German penmanship ; two maps; specimens in botany (two entire classes). Morristown Seminary, Morristown, Tenn. — Examination papers (entire class) in arithmetic, grammar, geograT)hy ; examination papers (selected) in arithmetic. Mount Zion Seminary, Mount Zion, Ga. — Ground plan of seminary; three maps; examination papers in arithmetic, geography, grauimar,_and history. New Orleans University, New Orleans, La. — Annual catalogues, 1882, '83, '84 ; oration ; com))ositions (entire class) ; examination x)apers( selected) in arithmetic (three classes), and in English grammar (two classes). Philander Smith Colleye, Little Rock, Ark. — Examination papers (selected) in alge- bra, arithmetic, and Greek ; examination papers (entire class) in physiology ; maps. Bust University, Holly Springs, Miss. — Annual catalogue, 1883-'84; portrait of R. S. Rust; photograph of buildings; students' paper, The Bnter2rrise,sam]Ae; examination papers (entire class) in natural science, English composition, rhetoric, English gram- mar, geometry, algebra, and Greek; examination papers (selected) in bookkeeping, natural science, and general history ; six drawing books (school work) ; map drawing from memory ; penmanship. Texas Wesleyan College, Fort Worth, Tex. — Pencil drawing, mountain goats ; crayon thawing, rural scene; drawing of fruit in pencil; maps: Middle States, with two |)eucil drawings, Southern States with pencil drawing, Enrope with four pencil drawings, United States with two pencil drawings, Asia with two pencil drawings, Africa with tAvo peucil drawings, Indian Territory with one pencil drawing, and New England States with one pencil drawing. Wiley University, Marshall, Tex. — Annuiil catalogue, 1883-84 ; examination papers (entire class) in physical geogratphy, Latin lessous, mental arithmetic, and geography ; select orations ; essays ; map drawing. 163 164 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. DEPARTMENT OF COLOEED EXHIBITS. James J. Spelaiax, Superintendent. EXHICITOKS. Virginia. — Richmond Normal School, Richmond. Tennessee. — Tennessee Central College, Nashville. Kentiiclcy. — State University, normal and theological, Louisville. North Carolina. — Biddle University, Charlotte. South Carolina. — Schofield School, Aiken ; Morris Street School, Charleston. Alabama. — Cuba Street School, Mobile ; Tuskegee Normal School. Arkansas. — Union High School, Little Rock; Arsenal High School, Little Rock; and public schools. 0/(10. — Wilberforco University, Xenia ; public schools of Gallipolis. District of Columhia. — Sumner, John F. Cook, Lincoln, Stevens, Anthony, Boweu, Chamberlain, and Miner Schools, Washington. Indiana. — Governor, Independence, and Clark Street schools, Evansvillo ; public schools, Indianapolis. New Jersey. — Mt. Vernon School, Camden. New York. — Public school, New York City; Public School No. 1, Brooklyn. Michigan. — Mason High School, Mason. Louisiana. — Leland University, New Orleans. 1«4 FOREIGN EXHIBITS. ENGLAND. Association for the Oral TnslrncUon of the Deaf and Dmnh, 11 Fitzroy Square, London, England (see page 147). Birmingham School Board, EngJand. — 10 volumes of manuscripts of examinations; 1 box illustrating tbo teaching of magnetism ; 4 drawing folios ; 1 kindergarten folio ; 1 map folio; 1 domestic economy folio; 1 box of kindergarten specimens; 1 lot of selected specimens of papers on mechanics; 1 picture of science department; needle- work ; mariner's compass, by G. E. Seymour ; levers, by I. H. Smith ; wheels and cord, by B. Alvey ; inclined plane, by R. Crookes; Chinese windlass, by R. Crookes; to change luotious, by Alfred Dowler ; pile engine, by Alfred Dowler ; mariner's com- pass, by John Iladley ; windlass, by Samuel Hirst ; force of gravity, by F. Llewellyn ; inclined plane, by C. Waters; to change circular motions, by W. R. Adams; 1 lot of m<^chanical diagrams; model of Foundry Road School. British and Foreign Blind Association, Cambridge Square, Hyde Park, London. — Nordenfelt, Tli., 53 Parliament street, London, S. W., England— school gymnasium on the Swedish (Ling) system. Biggs, James, 11 Queen Victoria street, London, E. C, England. — Mechanical mod- els, as follows: Subject II: Machine construction — single-riveted lap-joint; Hingle-riveted butt- joint; double-riveted lap-joint ; 12 examples of bolts and board for same; 4 cast-iron plates, etc.; junction of cast-iron jilates; corner of cast-iron tank; knuckle-joint; proportions of cotters ; gib and cotters ; hydraulic joint ; wronght-iron crank-shaft ; half-lap coupling; disengaging coupling; wall-plate with pedestal; wall-plate and bracket; bracket bearing; wall box for supporting pedestals; foot-step bearing; stepped speed cone ; ordinary strap-pulley ; wrought-iron hook for 6-ton crane ; wrought-iron hook for 2-ton crane; plate link-chain ; hand lever, treadle lever ; winch handle ; wrought-iron crank ; crallk-pin and shaft-journal ; cast-iron crank and crank- pin; disk ciank and pin; strap connecting-rod end ; box connecting-rod end ; coup- ling-rod joint; forked connecting-rod end; wrought-ii"on slide bars; cylinder cover, gland, and stuffing-box; air-pump valve; lift or puppet valve; engine slide-valve; gas jdng-tap. Sul)ject III: Building construction — kingpost; trussed partition; trussed timber beam; iron-roof principle (;{ models). Subject VI: Theoretical mechanics — Professor Willis's arrangement of the mechan- ical powers, including three small iron tripods; skew bevels ; 'A eccentric and elliptic tooth wheels; mangle wheel reciprocating motion; double rack reciprocating mo- tion ; 2 spur wheels of wood; worm wheel and worm; eccentric pen and slit bar ; Roberts' slow motion ; screw returning into itself; Whitworth's (juick-return motion ; triple tooth rack ; wrapping contact ; hoop and pin wheel; transmission of axial mo- tion ; 2 parallel axes; Boehm's motion; rotary or oscillatory motions; oscillations multii)lied ; alternate intermittent motion; silent click ; variable link work. Subject XXII: Steam — compound steam-engine; steam-engine; reversing gear; 5 parallel motions. Roth, Dr. M., 48 Wimpole street. Cavendish Square, W. London. — (1) A large table of elementary positions and exercises according to Ling's system, for the development of the various parts of the body ; (2) models and patterns of hygienic dress, shoes and boots, stays, stockings, etc. ; (3) model showing three different school ventilators; (4) drawing of a Russian bath, including the application of steam, and cold and warm water in various forms ; (.5) diagrams of bad positions during the time of education, causing lateral curvature and other complaints; (»!) diagrams of bad jiositions while v.riting; (7) models of hygienic school benches and chairs, permitting the student to lean comfortably during his occupatlcms in school ; (8) means for the physical educa- tion of the senses. Sheffield School Board Central Schools. — Wood and iron work made by boys from Vi to 1() years of age. Mechanical drawings by day and evening scholars. • 165 166 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. JAMAICA. SELECTED SPECIMENS. 16 sets of scholars' -work in copy-books, dictatiou, and arithmetic (under prescribed conditions), from the following schools:' Belvedere (1st prize), Spanish Town Model School (2d prize), Wesley (3d prize), Friendship (Isl prize, copy-book work alone), Duncans (2d j)rize, copy-book work alone, 1st prize, dictation alone), New Bethle- hem (2d prize, dictation alone, 1st imze, arithmetic alone), Retreat (2d prize, arith- metic alone), Barry Street, Kettering, Elletson, Port Eoyal (Wesleyan), Mizpah, Yallahs (Baptist), Moore Town, Mioo, and Campbell's Castle. 6 sets of maps from pupils of the following schools: Belvedere (prize), Spanish Town Model School, Kettering, Mico, Friendship, New Bethlehem. 13 sets of sewing (under prescribed conditions) by pupils of the following schools: Dry River (Ist prize). Retirement (2d prize). Alligator Pond, Port Royal (Wesleyan), Belvedere, Kettering, New Hope, Wesley, Snowden, Campbell's Castle, Yallahs (Bap- tist), Mizpah, and Friendship. 7 sets samples of fancy work by pupils of the following schools: St. Martins (did not compete for prize), Mount Horeb (prize), IJuncans, Friendship, Mizpah, Spanish Town Model School, Alligator Pond. 11 sets of time-table and extracts from logbook of each of the following schools: Retreat (1st prize), Kettering (2d prize). Friendship, Moore Town, Wesley, Spanish Town Model School, Belvedere, Duncans, Mount Ward, EUetson, Port Royal (Wes- leyan). 4 -sets elementary school reports (1882-83), 12 sets official documents and forms,' 12 sets circular^ and instructions respecting the exhibits, statistical exhibits respecting shilling reading clubs and school reading clubs, established by Assistant Inspector Hicks. JAPAN.2 INTRODUCTION. The following catalogue, with explanatory notes on the more important articles, is pnblished in the hope that it may be of use to visitors as a reference. The oiiicial communication from the United States Government, requesting the Japanese Government to participate in the International, Industrial, and Cotton Cen- tennial Exhibition, to be opened in New Orleans, JLa., in December of the present year, and especially an urgent request from the Bureau of Education of the Depart- ment of the Interior in regard to educational exhibits from this country, Avere only received by the Education Department in August. Though we have made stren- uous efl'orts to prepare as many specimens as possible, so as to meet the request of the United States Government, yet the time allowed (the exhibits were shipped on No- vember 26) was too short to enable us to make a complete collection. Especially it is to be regretted that, during the mouths of August and September, almost all schools are closed for the summer vacation, so that very few schools have been able to accept the invitation of this Department ; and most of the exhibits sent by these schools are incomplete, owing to the want of time. There are many schools established by other Government Departments, but as they are not under the control of this Department, no exhibits are sent from them. It is to be remarked here that articles that are not attractive in appearance, and are simple and rude in construction, have been left in their original state, aud have not been specially prepared for this exhibition. As regards articles the use of which may not easily be understood by visitors, short explanatory notes are placed on the labels accompanying them : and as to the work of students or pupils, their names and those of their schools are appended ; while in the case of elementary schools, the age of pupils is also added, so that visitors may be able to compare aud appreciate the value of the various exhibits. > "Work of 5 classes (II to VI) from each school, 3 scholars from each class. 2 The following list was originally prepared under the direction of tbo Japanese Commissioner for 1 he use of vinitors at the Exposition. 166 FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 167 VisitoTS are especially requested to understand that the articles here exhibited are not intended to give full information in regard to our educational system, and, there- fore, those who are desirous of obtaining fnrther information are referred to another publication, "General outline of education in Japan," which has been compiled and printed in order to give general information regarding our educational systtau. ICHIZO HATTORI, • Covimissionei'. By order of the Minister of Education. EXHIBITS. Eighth (jroup — Educational and Technical Instruments, Apparatus, and Methods CLASS DCCCI. — HOME KUUCATION AND KINDERGARTEN. Nos. 1-3, children's toys, 3 cases. These are "instructive toys." The bows and ar- rows, rifles, and to])s are used by boys; the shuttlecocks and i)attledores, hand-balls, and kitchen utensila, by girls. They are sometimes used for instruction in village schools. No. 4, cards, f^ugoroku and Musashi, 8 kinds. Among th(5 cards, those called Utakaruta (cards on which parts of verses are written) arc* a collection of one hun- dred i)ieces of ancient poetry, by means of which the art of versification is taught. I- ro-ha-tato-hi-karnta (alphabetical cards) are a collection of old Japanese parables, beginning with i-ro-ha (Japanese syllabary). They are used to teach the syllabary at the same time as they inculcate moral maxims. Natural history cards (Tango- Musashi), a kind of checkers, arc used for teaching the forms and names of aninjals and other objects. Sugoroku (a kind of backgammon) are used by both boys and girls, but the varieties now exhibited are used by girls. They teach them about women celebrated for virtue and noble qualities, etc. No. 5, kinds of pictures', 2 books. No. 6, fancy papers, 1 book. These are used to decorate boxes, etc., or are made into envelopes and other wrappers. No. 7, ornamental bos, and wrappers man- ufactured from fancy papers, together with objects enclosed, 1 case. The folded ob- jects in the box are forms of animals and tools, made by cutting and folding the paper. Those in the box coverey. No. 30, photograph of the Yokohama Public Elementary School, Kanagawa- keu, 1 copy. No. 31, photograph of the Oimatsu Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1 copy. No. '.i2, photograph of the Kashiwagi Public Elementary School, Hakodate- ken, 1 copy. No. 33, ground plans of the Nauauoye and Aiuuma Public Elementary Schools, Hakodate-ken, 1 book. No. 34, ground plan of the Mita Public Elementary School, Tokio, 1 vol. No. 35, ground plan of the Meiji Public Elementary Scliool, Tokio, 1 vol. No. 36, photograph of the Meiji Public Elementary School, Tokio, 2 copies. No. 37, architecture of Elementary Schools, Miyagi-ken. No. 38, ground plan of the Anuaka Public Elementary School, Gumma-kon, 1 vol. No. 39, model of the Kamiyama Public Elementary School, Gumma-ken, 1; made by Tskazawa Seitaro, one of the school committee of the Kami Satomi village, in the Usuigori in the prov- ince of Kozuke (Gumma-ken). He is said to exert himself for encouraging education among the children of his village. No. 40, ground plan of the Matsuzaka Public Elementary School, Miye-ken, 1 vol. No. 41, ground plan of the Yo-sei Public Ele- mentary School, Miye-ken, 1 vol. No. 42, photograph of the Kaichi Public Elementary School, Nagano-ken, 1 book. No. 43, ground plan of the Kaichi Public Elementary School, Nagano-ken, 1 vol. No. 44, ground plan of the Takashima Elementary School, Gagano-ken, 1 vol. No. 45, ground plan of the Takuki Public Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 46, gi'ound plan of the Senda Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 47, ground plan of the Tsurucats Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 48, ground plan of the Seirio Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 49, photo- graph of the Seirio Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 copy. No. 50, photograph of the Nissin Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 copy. No. 51, groiiud plan of the Tanabe Elementary School, Aomori-ken, 2. No. 52, regulations of the Elementary School attached to the Tokio Normal Schoe. (Japanese), 1 vol. No. 53, ditto (English), 1 vol. No. 54, regulations of the Fema'ie Elementary School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School (Japanese), 1 vol. No. 55, regulations of the Female Elementary School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School (English), 1 vol. No. 56, the course of study of the Hiogo-ken Ele- mentary School, 1 vol. No. .57, the course of study of theYamanashi-ken Female Elementary School, 1 vol. No. 58, desks and chairs used in the Elementary School attached to the Tokio normal school, No. 1. Accessories of the same : Ink box, dic- tation pa])er, slate pencil, ruler, abacus, copy book (for Japanese pen brush), writing brush. The outer board of the desk is threefold and can be lifted to the upper part, thus affording convenience both for writing and arithmetic, botb of which require a flat-surfaced desk, since in writing wo use a solution of Indian ink in an ink stone, while arithmetical operations are performed entirely by means of the abacus. No. 59, desk and chair (No. 2), 1, Accessories of the same: Paper, slate, abacus, ink box, dictation paper, ruler, lead pencil, blank paper. This desk is for tin* use of senior pupils, and is simpler in construction than the foregoing one. No. 60, drawing table, 1. This table is used for drawing, and two scholars can be accommodated at the same tinie. On the front or near jiart of the table is inserted a copper plate, which is used as a support in sharpening the pencil. The horizontal piece "of wood on the back or ' The Kindergarten attached to the Tokio Foraale Normal Soliool is .sitnated in Tolcio and is nnder the control of the Department of Education. It ia complete in i(s oij;anization and servos as a niodtl for all other Kiudersii'ton. 168 FOREIGN EXHIBTTS JAPAN. 1 G9 fnrtlior pari is for liaiijL^iujj the <1 rawing- book. No. (i1, licnch. 1. Tlii.s is used to- getlicr with Iho tiiblo just ineiitioned. No. n. No. 6.') is used by the teacher in making corrections and in marking written exercises. Iioth kinds are in very general use. No. 6(), hinclieon box lor the use of scholars of the Female Elementary School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, No. 1, No. 2. Accessories of the above: Chopsticks, tea cup, cloth, bag, choj)- stick pouch. No. 1 is for tl-.e use of the senior, No, 2 for junior scholars. The latter is .accordingly lighter, and is inclosed in a bag, instead of being wrapped in a cloth. No. 67, instruments for collecting and preserving insects, 1 case. No. 68, instruments for collecting and drying plants, I case. These instruments are for the use of schol- ars iu elementary schools, who are (iucouraged to collect insects and plants and to study the same. No. 6D, ]iax)er slate. No. 70, pap(;r blackboard, 1 sheet. Nos. 61t and 70, which are made iu Shinseido, Tokio, may be used in common schools, as they are light and not broken easily. No. 71, chalk, prepared in Japan. This chalk, made by Aoki Yasuhu, of Tokio, is xwcd in common schools, and is produced at various places. No. 72, water- writing copy-boy Ikeda Jetsu-taro, of the province of Kaga (Ishikawa-keu). Its peculiarity is that the characters are traced by a brush dipped in water instead of ink. The writing lemains visible sufbciently long to be inspected and corrected by the teacher, and iheu disappears altogether, leaving the jiaper free for the operation to be repeated. This method not only keeps the hands and faces of the young pupils free from ink stains, but it is also a very great saving of paper, since Japanese characters are ol' large size and occupy much space. The ink stone may be used on both sides, one side being for the "water writing," just described, the other side for ordinary ink. The ink here exhibited is very cheap, but of inferior (juality. The very soft pencil and lead ])encil are the production of the province Kaga, and are the manufacture of a man named Kaki/awa Rihei. No. 7:}, wooden slate for school use. This was, manufactured by Karai Boku, Wada Soichi, and Yuno Ilajimu, residents of the prov- ince of Iligo (Kumamoto-ken). It is used by school boys in the place of the ordinary slate, and is very convenient for carrying about; it is hard, but light, and is not easily broken. No. 74, apparatus used in teaching fractions in the Female Elementary School at- tached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 set. Accessories of the same. No. 7r), explanation of Bunsu Keisaiiki. No. 76, cube, I case. No. 77, model of clock, 1. No. 78, apparatus for teaching spelling, 1 set. No. 79, numerical apparatus, 1. No. 80, geomet- rical figures, 1 set. No. 81, cabinet of weights and measures, 1 set. Tliese are Jap- anese weights and measures, and are used to show their use to the pupils. No. 82, zoological specimens, 1 set. These specimens (No. 82) are a collection of Japanese small beasts, birds, lishes, and moUusks, and are used iu teaching the elements of r.oology. No. 6'.^, specimens of wood, 1 case. No. 84, specimens of dried x^lants, 1 case. These specimens (No. 84) are collections of .Japanese pi ants, and are used in teaching the elements of botany. No. 85, specimens of minerals. These specimens (No. 85) are a colli'cti(ui of Japanese minerals, and are used in teaching the elements of mineralogy. No. 86, minerals arranged in scale of hardness, 1 case. These minerals (No. 86) are used to show the scale of hardness, in teaching the elements of mineralogy. No. 87, specimens ol object lessons, 1 cas(\ These specimens (No. 87) are a collection of more than 200 Japanese common ob- jects, and are used in giving object lesson.s. No. 88, simple apparatus of physics aud chemistry, 1 ca.se. No. 81), physical and chemical ap])aratus, 1 case. This ap- paratus (No. 89) is used in teaching the elements of physics and chemistry in ward and village schools, where it is difficult to get good and complete apparatus. No. 90, geared tellurian. No, 91, geographical ai)paratns for common school use. 1 case. No. 92, geograpliical model, 1. No. 93, abacus, 1. No. 94, school-room abacus, 1. The abacus is an apparatus for performing numerical calculations: the teacher hangs it on the \yall or blackboard, and by raising and lowering theliallsihe ])npil is taught how to work with it. Each ball in the upi)er line of No. 94 is uuirked with [ • : • ], and each in the lower line with [ . ], so that the liii])ils can easily under.stand Ibat the former re])resent live, the latter, one. No. 94 is to be used in coni])utatioii when pupil has ac(juiied some familiarity with the a]i- paratus. No. 9.">, physical appaiatns. This apparatus has been manufactured by 169 170 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Kioiknhin Seizo Gaisha (a private company in Tokio), by order of the Tokio Educa- tional Musenm. No. 96, simple physical apparatus for school use, 1 sci. This ap- paratus lias 1»een made out of objects of daily use which can be easily obtained. Among otheis, bamboo can be got everywhere in Japan, and as it is flexible and. hol- low it is veT'y useful aufl convenient as a substitute for glass pipes. These instru- ments are, of course, very rude in point of form and structure, especially the elec- trophorus and the air-pump cylinder; but these specimens have been in daily pracrical use and are not merely theoretical. They have been uuinufactnred by the students of the Tokio Normal vSchool, under the direction of instructors, and two ob- jects have been kept in view in the construction of such ajiparatus; one is to make the students i)erform ])ractical espeii^nents whereby they may discover the truth of physical laws, and the other is to give them sufficient manual dexterity to enable them to construct rough but serviceable apparatus from materials easily accessible to them in rural schools to which they may hereafter be apiiointed teachers, and where t"hoy may not be able to secure the regular apparatus. No. 97, explanatory notes of simple physical ajiparatus for school use (English), 1 vol. No. 98, chemica'i apparatus, 1 set. This ai)i)aratus has been manufactured by Seirensha (a private company that a.akes and sells educational and medical apparatus), by order of the Tokio Educatioual Museum. No. 99, simple chemical apparatus for the use of schools. 1 set. These instruments have also b(^en *nade from materi;i Is readily accessible, such as boxes, earthenware, plates, etc., which are all very cheajt. It might perhaps be doubted whether bamboo pipes or j)aper air l)ags could be of any ]iractical use. But these specimens have, as in the case of the physical apparatus just mentioned, all been examined and tested. Of course, they are not very durable ; but when properly handled they are found to serve their purpose quite well. They have been manu- factured by the instructors of chemistry in the Tokio Female Normal School, and the mode of manufacture, as well as their use, has been explained to the female students. The objects kept in view have been esplaiued above. No. 100, instruments for mak- ing simple physical and chemical apparatus, 1, set. These instruments, which have been selected from those used in wards and vill.ages, are for making simple chemical and ythysical apparatus. No. 101, explanatory notes of simple chemical apparatus for the' use of schools (English), 1 vol. No. 10"i, photograph of simple physical ap- paratus. This is a photograph of the physical apparatiis made by K. Oshima, a teacher of the Kaitatsu Public Elementary School, of Shiga-ken, with materials easily obtained in villages. No. lO;^, drawing copies, 2 cases. No. 104, writing copy for Kaisho (formal hand), 1 vol. No. 105, writing copy for Giosho (easy hand), 1 vol. No. 106, writing copy for Sosho (running hand), 1 vol. No. 107, text books of arithmetic, 3 vols. These books (No. 107) were published by the Tokio Normal School, and are used in the elementary school attached thereto. No. 108, text books of the female element- ary school attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 group. No. 109, outline maps of Japan and continents, 7 rolls. Outline maps (No. 109) are used in the female elementary school attached to the Tokio Female Normal School. No. 110, book on needle work, 2 vols. No. Ill, charts for sewing and cutting, 10 sheets. No. 112, charts for cuttiug. in two pouches. Text books No. 110, charts No. Ill, and charts No. 112 are published by T. Takahama, the principal of the Takahama Private Elementary School in Tokio, and they are used in the sewing department of his school. No. ll:i, text books of abacus arithmetic, 2 vols. No. 114, Hokkai Shobunten (grammar of the language of the inhabitants of the Yezo), 1 vol. The inhal)itants of Yezo are ignorant of letters, and as their ideas are communicated only by means of the spoken language which is peculiar to themselves, in Hokkai Shobunten, which was pub- lished by Hakodate-ken, the two different languages are arranged side by side in order to teach the inhabitants of Yezo the language and idiom of the main land No. 115, elementary school readers, 4 vols. No. lUi, elementary school readers, 6 vols. No. 117, First Lesson in School, 1 vol. No. 118, Charts of Phrases, 10 sheets. No. 119, Charts of Keading Lessons in Elementary Schools, 10 sheets. No. 120, Moral Books for Elementary Schools, 6 vols. No. 121, Manners and Etiquette in Elementary Schools, 3 vols. No. 122, Elementary Natural Philosophy, revised, 3 vols. No. 123, Roscoe's Chemistry (Science Primer), translated by W. Ichikawa, 3 vols. No. 124, Cooley's Easy Experiments in Physical Science, translated by J. Naomura, 1 vol. No. 125, Ele- mentary School Arithmetic, 5 vols. No. 126, Brief Geography of Japan, 4 vols. No. 127, Brief Geography of the World, 4 vols. No. 128, Outline Map of Japan, with Ex- planatory Remarks of the Symbols Used, 1 vol. No. 129, Outline Map of the World, 1 vol. No. 130, Sjmples .Lectures sur les Sciences, par Carrigues, translated by K. Tanaka, 15 vols. No. 131, Botanical Charts, 5 sheets. No. 132, Zoological Charts, 5 sheets. No. 133, Mineralogical Charts, 1 sheet. No. 134, Brief History of Japan, 2 vols. No. 135, Outline of Universal History, 4 vols. No. 136, Drawing Copies for Common use in Elementary Schools: A, 12 vols, B, 12 vols. No. 137, Map Drawing, 3 vols. No. 138, Geological Charts, 2 vols. No. 1;59, Principles of Political Economy, 2 vols. No. 140, First Lessons in Reading, 1 vol. No. 141, Charts for Reading Lessons, 14 vols. No. 142, Vocabulary, 3 170 , FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 171 vols. No. 143, Primer, 1 vol. No. 144, Primary School Reader, 4 vols. No. 145, charts of fhc Japanese syllabary ami others uj) to the iimltiplication table, 8 sheets. No. 14(i, Elomeuts of Writing, 1 vol. No. 147, copy booiis, 59 vols. No. 148, book on gymnastic exercise, 1 vol. Works Nos. 10:? and 147 were compiled and published by the Bureau of Compilation in the Department of Education, for ehunentary schools. However, they arc used not only in many elementary schools, but also in normal schools. No. 149, writing by ])upil8 of the female elementary school attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1vol. No. 1.50, writings by pupils of the public elementary schools, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 151, compositions by pupils of the public elementary schools. Ilakodate-ken, 1 vol. No. 1.5'2, writings and comi)Ositions by the children of the inhabitants of Yezo, 1 vol. No. 153, compositions by pupils of the Koziniachi Publie Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 6 sheets. No. 154, compositions by pupils of the Sakurada Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 roll. No. 1.55, compositions byLpupils of tho Mita Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 roll. No. 15G, compositions of the Ikuyei Public Elementary School, Tokio-fn, 1 book. No. 157, compositions by pupils of the Negishi Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 158, coUiposiiions by pupils of the Oimatsu Public Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1 roll No. 159, compositions by pupils of Kotobuki Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1 roll. No. KiO, composi- tions by pupils of the Geukai Elementary School, 1 book. No. 1(51, drawings and compositions by i)upils of the elementary schools, Miyagi-ken, 2 vols. No. 162, compositions by |nipils of the Tomioka Public Elementary School, Gumba-ken, 1 vol. "No. 163, compositions by pupils of the Annaka Elementary School, Guml)a- ken, 1 roll. No. 164, compositions by pupils of public elementary schools, Miye-ken, I vol. No. 1C5, compositions by pupils of publie elementary schools, Gifu-ken, 1 vol. No. 166, compositions by pupils of the Aouiori Public Elementary School, Aomori-ken, 1 vol. No. 167, compositions by pupils of public elementary school, Shiga-keu,'2 vols. No. 168, drawings by pupils of the female elementary school attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 vol. No. 169, drawings by pupils of Kojimachi Public Ele- mentary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 170, drawings by pupils of Nankai Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 171, drawings by pupils of Sakurada Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 17g, drawings by pupils of Mita Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 sheet. No. 173, drawings by pui)il9 of Shinsei Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 174, needle-work, drawings, and compositions by pupils of Takahama Private Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 175, drawings and comj)ositious by pupils of Toda Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 vol. No. 176, drawings by pupils of Ikuyei Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 2 sheets. No. 177, drawings by pupils of Meiji Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 5 sheets. No. 178, drawings by pupils of N(>gishi Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 2 sheets. No. 179, drawings by pu- pils of Kotobuki Public Elementary School, Kanagawa-ken, 2 sheets. No. 180, draw- ings by jiupils of Tomioka Public Elementary School, Gumba-ken, I roll. No. 181, drawings by pupils of Kumafu Public Elementary School, Kumaraoto-ken, 1 vol. No. 182, drawings by pupils of the Aomori Public Elementary School, Aomori-ken, 1 book. No. 183, drawings by pupils of the Sekizeu Seirio Kenki Public Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 book. No. 184, drawings by pupils of elementary schools, Shiga- ken, 1 book. No. 185, needle work by pupils of the female elemeintary school at- tached to the Tokio I^em.alo Normal School, 1 case. No. 186, needle work by pupils of the Kojimachi Public Female Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 187, needle-work by pupils of the Kojimachi Public Female Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 2 groups. No. 188, needle work by pupils of Nankai, Koto, and Matsuchiyama Public Elementary Schools, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. lt^9, needle work by pupils of the Shi- nobuoka Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 190, needle work by pupils of the Toda Pul)lic Elementary School, Tokio-fn, 1 group. No. 191, needle work by pupils of the Einboku Public Fenuile Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 3 cases. No. 192, needle work by pupils of the Asakusa Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 2 cases. No. 193, needle work by pupils of the Meiji and Negishi Public Elementary School, Tokio-fu, 1 group. No. 194, needle work by pupils of the Oimatsu Public Ele- mentary School, Kanagawa-ken, 1. No. 195, needle work by pupils of the Tomigaoka Public Elementary School, Gumba-ken, 1 group. No. 19(), needle work by pupils of the Gifu Female School, and Kobun, Kausho, and Furukawa Public Elementary Schools, Gifu-ken, 1 grorp. No. 197, needle work by pupilsof Koko and Tokujun Public Elemen- tary Schools, Shiga-ken, 1 group. No. 198, needle work by pupils of Kiosen, Jishiu, and Takuki Elementary Schools, Shiga-ken, 1 sheet. No. 199, table-cloth by pupils of the Kiosen Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 sheet. No. 200, needle work by pupils of the Shindo Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 3 sheets. No. 201, relief work." No. 202, needle work by pupils of the Chishiu Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 2 sheets. No 203, needle work by pupils of the Shisei Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 sheet. No. 204, needle work by pupils of the Kaibun Elementary School, Shiga-ken, 1 sheet. No. 205, cloth for wrapping by jmpils of the Kaibun Elementary School, Shiga-ken, I. No. 206, needlework by pupils of the Seirio Elementary School, Shig.i-keu, 1 sheet. No. 207, needle work by pupilii of the Uehidehama Elementary School, Shiga- 171 172 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Ivoii, 1 group. No. 208, needle work by pupils of the Keuki and Yuriu Elementary .School, Shiga-ken, 1 group. No. 209, needle work by i)upils of the Kenki Elementary School, Sbiga-ken, 1 vol. No. 210, needle work by pupils of the Otawara Public Ele- mentary School, Tochigi-ken, I case. No. 211, needle work by jjupils of the Kiima-fu Public Elementary School, Kumamoto-ken, 1 case. The above work (Nos. 149-1.50 and No. 211) is the result obtained by pupils of the elementary schools, of government, public and private establishments. But it is to be remarked here that we are unable to make a largo collection of these results, as the time of the exhibition is very pressing and we have but a few days for such col- lection, so that we are obliged to show the results of a few schools. Moreover, hand- writing and compositions are all in Japanese or Chinese, and it is regretted that their quality cannot be understood by foreigners. As to the drawings here exhibited' we have made ]io si)ecial selection, and it is to be observed that only ten years have elapsed since the introduction of pencil drawing into our elementary education. In regard to the instruction of female pupils in needle work, according to the ])ro- gramme of elementary schools, a short explanation will be necessary. In .Japan it is considered as the duty of the wives of common peoi)le to make the clothes of the mem- bers of their famdies, and even in rich or noble famili(>s the superintendence of needle- work devolves on wiA^es, though they themselves do not sew. Such being the case, needle-work is nu iversally practiced by both the lower and higher classes, and it is con- sidered an essential element of female education, and it is taught with the same. care as reading, arithmetic, etc. No. 212, table showing examination marks, etc., at the end of the school term of the elementary school attached to the Tokio Normal School, I roll. No. 21^, table showing the physical growth and development of pupils of the same school, 1 roll. No. 214; weekly record of the same school, 1 vol. No. 21.5, specimen register of pupils of the same school, 11 vols. Schools for deaf and dumh and Mind. — Education for the deaf and dumb and other afflicted persons has never been neglected in .Japan, and there are many blind Avho learn nnisic or the art of shampooing or acupuncture ; and in the case of the deaf and dumb, there are many who take some handiwork for their occupation. But it is only in recent time that our educators, as well as philanthropists, have directed their attention towards the improvement of the method of instruction, which has not yet become complete. A number of schools have, however, been instituted specially for this class of persons in Kioto, Tokio, and Osaka ; that of Kioto was estaWished at public expense, while those of Tokio and Osaka are supported at private expense. As to the period of establishment, that of Kioto is the first in order. Now, considering the quality of work by pupils of the Kioto blind and mute insti- tution, it will be observed th.at not only talent and virtue can be developed, but also manual dexterity can be got by the method of instruction now adopted. . Visitors are referred to the articles mentioned below : No. 1, ground plans of a private blind and mute scholind. No. .5, pictuie of finger language for the mute. These are used in a private blind and mute school, Osaka-fu. No. 6, paper cigarettes, 2 cases. No. 7, carved tea tray. No. 8, relief-worked figure, 1. No. 9, composition and drawing, 1 copy. All these are the work of mute pujuls of the pi'ivate blind and mute institution, Osaka-fu. No. 10, screen, 1. This is the joint manufacture of both blind and mute pupils of Blind and Mute Institution, Kioto-fu. To speak more minutely of the respective parts undertaken by them : Firstly, the dragon's head and cloud on the shitau (a kind of wood) board have been carved by four male mutes; the embroidery and a bird on tiio left side of the fore part has been worked by two fcniale mutes, and the embroidery, moon, and pine tree on the right by t hree female mutes : the sun in the cloud and the fittings of gold on tablet board, the engravings of cherry llower, momiji (a red-leaved tree), of pine tree and cone, made with gold ;in(l co])])('r, and th(» figure drawn witli silver on the leg, are the product of six m;il(' inutes; a silk thread nest on the lower y)art has been manufactured by a bliml boy, and the two hanging thread nests by a blind girl ; a class on the back part has been woven by a blind girl with delicate thread made of paper; lastly, a pict- ure papered on the b.ick has l)een drawn by a male mute, and a versehas been com- ])osed and written by a blind boy. Now, this screen may be used either as tsuitale (a kind of screen), or as a two-folding screen ; ii' the legs be iippended and ])ut upright, 172 FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 173 it Itocoiues tsuitatc ; wliilo if* f licy lie taken away and put in a way to make an angle, it bet'onies a Ibkliug screen. As to its uoustruttinn, it difrers from those commouly found, being intended for a room where chair and table are i)rovided. Thus tlowers and leaves engraved on the middle part are mostly horizontal to surface of the table, so that they can be seen directly by one on a chair. The h)wer ])art of the screen has nothing but tliread lumgiug, through which air can freely circulate. Lastly, it can be freely folded on either side, unlike common ones. This last is tlie invention of the institution itself. The institution gives at first elementary education in gen- eral, after which, the blind are taught music and sham])ooing as jiriucipal, and lan- guage, Japanese and Chinese literature, moral lessons, and history, as branch sub- jectfj, and kamiyori imaking thread with ])aper) work and weaving in technics; the mutes, drawing, both Japanese and foreign writing, and writing speech (speech by wu'iting) as principal, ai)d engraving, joinery, gold lacquering, and sashinui (a kind of embroidery) in technics ; and the female mutes, sewing in addit ioji ; all with inten- tion that they can establish themselves with them as their p.oref>sion after leaving the school. CLASS DCCCII. — SECONDA14Y EDUCATION, INSTRUMENTS, APPAUATUS, KTC, OK MIDUI.K SCHOOLS. , Middle schools are those in which higher instruction is given in the common branches of study, and such branches are taught as are necessary to prepare students for liberal pursuits or for the more advanced scliools. One foreign language, either English, French, or German, is Introduced in the curriculum, of these schools. Mid- dle schools are established in most fu and ken, and some private establishments also exist. A model middle school has been instituted by the Department of Educa- tion, Avhich has also issued the standard outline of the course of study of middle schools and the general regulations of middle schools for the guidance of such schools throughout the Empire. The following are the exhibits relating to middle schools: No. 1, exterior and interior view^s of the Osaka Middle School. This is the model middle school, under the control of the Department of Education, referred to above. No. 2, photograph of the Tokio-fu Middle School, 1 copy. No. :5, ]»icture of the Miyagi-ken Middle School, 1 roll. No. 4, picture of the Middle School department of Kayogakko of Gifu-ken, 1 roll. No. 5, picture of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 roll. No. 6, photograph of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 copy. No. 7, regulations of the Osaka Middle School, 1 vol. Text books for middle schools and other institutions published by both the Govern- ment and private individuals are very numerous, yet as they are mostly either in Chinese or Japanese, they are not exhibited. No. 8, compositions by the students of the Miyagi-ken Middle School, 1 vol. No. 9, compositions by the students of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 vol. No. 10, com- ]tosition8 by the students of the Shiga-ken Middle School, 1 vol. No 11, compositions by the students of the Aomori-ken Middle School, 2 vols. No. TJ, com])ositious by the students of the middle school department of the Gifu-ken Kayogakko, 1 vol. No. 1:5, compositions by the students of the Mige-ken Middle and Normal Schools. No. 14, compositions by the students of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School. No. 15, draw- ings by the students of Tokio-fu Middle School. KJ sheets. No. ICt, drawings by the students of the Miyagi-ken Middle School, 1 book. No. 17, drawings by the students of the Gumba-ken Middle School, 1 book. No. 18, drawings by the students of the Aomori-ken Middle School, 2 vols. No. 10, calendar of the Osaka Middle School, 1 vol. Normal Schools. — Normal schools are established in each fu and ken to train teachers of elementary schools. Students are admitted from every gviu (civil division of a province) in the fu or ken, and are trained at the public expense. After the com- pletion of the course of study, they must serve in the elementary schools within their respective fu or ken during a prescribed period. Sometimes students jjursue their studios at their own expense. As models, the Department of Education has estab- lished two normal schools, one for males and the other for females. Outlines of the course of study of normal schools and general regulations of the same are also issued by the Department for the guidance of normal schools throughout the Empire. The following are the exhibits relating to normal schools: No. 1, photograph of the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 copy. Photographs of Kindergarten and the Female Elenu'utary School. No. 2, ground iilan of Jh(>. Tokio Female Normal School, 1 copy. No. :'>, j)icture of the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 copy. The Tokio Female Normal Soliooi is established as a uiodeJ, under the control 173 174 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION- of the Department of Educatiou, and a female elementary school, a female higher school, and a kindergarten are attached to the same, also to serve as models. There is also a normal school for males under the control of the same Department, and two courses of study are organized, one for training elementary school teachers, and the other for middle school teachers. But this school was lately burnt, and is now in course of reconstruction, so that no plans, photograjihs, etc., of it can ^e exhibited. No. 4, ]>icture of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 1 roll. No. 5, photograph of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 1 copy. No. 6, picture of the Mlyagi-ken Normal School 1 roll. No. 7, picture of the normal department of the Kayogakko of Gifu-ken, 1 roll. No. 8, picture of the Ishikawa-ken Normal School, 1 roll. No. 9, photographs of the Akita-ken I^'ormal School, 2 copies. No. 10, photograph of the Akita-kcn Female Normal School, 1 copy. No. 11, pictures of interior and exterior views of the Akita- ken Female Normal School, 2. No. 12, regulations of the normal school course for traiuLng middle school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 vol. No. 13, regulations of the normal school course for training elementary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 vol. No. 14, regulatious of the Tokio Female Normal School, together with tables, etc., 1 vol. No. 15, lecture room desk used in the Tokio Normal School. One desk is given to each student. No. 16, needle- work case. No. 17, ajiparatus for needle-work, 1 case. Accessories — instruments for preparing relief work. These two are used in the Tokio Female Normal School. The needle-work case is for the needle-work apparatus. The apparatus for needle-work is that in common use. The board for cutting is a small model of one-quarter of the original; the smoothing-irons, etc., are different in shape from those used in foreign countries, while they are used in a different manner also. Relief work is taught in the female school, together with sewing and cutting. These instruments and apparatus are not only used in the Tokio Female Normal School, but also in other schools, and generally by the people. They are found sufficient for all prac- tical puriioses. No. 18, iustruments of water-color painting and color painting, 1 case. These are used in the Tokio Female Normal School, and also by painters in general. No. 19, models of the kitchen utensils used in the dormitory of the Tokio Female Nor- mal School, 1 case. This dormitory is established for instruction and training students generally, as well asfortheconvenieuceof those who come from distant places. . There are a kitchen, bath-room, hair-dressing room, wash-house, etc., so that the students may practice the various branches of daily domestic economy. Moreover, these uten- sils are in general use by the people. No. 20, Modern History of Europe (with supplement), 10 vols. No, 21, drawing copy-books, 2 cases. No. 22, drawing copy-books, 1 set. These were published by the Tokio Normal School, for the students. No. 2;5, Japanese verses by students of the Tokio Female Nox-mal School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 tablet. No. 24, compositions by students of the Miyagi-ken Normal School, 1 book. No. 25, com- positions by students of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 2 vols. No. 26, compositions by students of the normal department of the Gifu-ken Kayogakko, 1 vol. No. 27, compositions by students of the Akita-ken Female Normal School, 1 vol. No. 28, compositions by students of the Aomori-ken Normal School, 1 book. No. 29, compo- sitions by students of the Shiga-ken Female Normal School and Middle School, 1 vol. No. 30, drawings by pupils of the middle and elementary normal dep'artments of the Tokio Normal School, 1 case. No. 31, drawings by students of the Miyagi-ken Normal School, 1 book. No. 32, drawings by students of the Gumba-ken Normal School, 1 vol. No. 33, drawings by students of the normal department of the Kayogakko of Gifu-ken, 1 vol. No. 34, drawings by students of the Ishikawa-ken Normal School, 3 rolls. No. 35, handwriting and drawings by students of the Tokio Fenuile Normal School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 book. No. 36, drawings by students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 book. No. 37, drawings in rolls by students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, H roils. These are the work of students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher Female School, the apparatus (No. 18) being used. No. 38, drawings by students of the Aoniori-keu Normal School, 1 book. No. 39, drawings by students of the Nagano-ken Normal School, 1 vol. Nos. 40 and 41, needle-work by students of the Tokio Feuiale Normal School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 2 cases. No. 42, relief-work, weaving-work, knot-work, and folding-work by students of the Tokio Female Normal School and the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal Scrliool, 1 case. No. 43, relief-work by students of the Tokio Female Normal School ami the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 tablet. No. 44, needle-work by female students of the Hakodate-kei? Normal School, 1 group. No 45, needle-work by female students of the Ishikawa- ken Normal School, 1 group. No. 46, relief-work by female students -of the Ishikawa ken Normal School, 1 tablet. This is relief- work representing Isneo Tayu, a maid of 174 FOREIGN EXHIBITS — JAPAN. 175 honor, who is presentiug a verso tofjether with a branch of a cherry tree to an em- peror. No. 47, needle-work hy .stmlcnts of the Akita-ken Feniali* Normal School, 2 uroii))s. No. 48, needle-work by students of the Shiga-ken Female Normal School, 7. No. 49, relief-work by students of the Shika-ken Female Noruuil Si.-hool, 1. No. 50, table showing the term examination marks, etc., of the students of the nor- mal course for training middle school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 roll. No. T)!, table showing the term examination marks, etc., of the students of the normal course for training elementary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 roll. No. 52, table showing the physical growth and develojiment of the students of the normal course for training elementary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 1 roll. No. 53, specimens of school registers, etc., of the normal course for training ele- mentary school teachers of the Tokio Normal School, 5 vols. No. 54, statistical table showing the })hysical growth and development of the students of the Gumba-ken Nor- mal School, 1 roll. No, 55. table showing the ])hysical growth and development of the students of the Hakodate-ken Normal School, 1 vol. Hh/her female schools. — In the higher female schools higher instruction is given to t hose who have complet od the elementary school course. There are many such schools established by fu or ken. They are either independent or are departments of middle or normal schools. The higher female school in the Tokio Female Normal School was organized as a model of this sort of school. The following are the exhibits relat- ing to these schools: In female schools, sewing and cutting, domestic economy, and etiquette ai'e taught, in addition to the common branches of study. In the female elementary school, in- struction on these subjects is only introductory, Avhile in the higher female school it is somewhiit advanced. The domitory teaches the njanagemcut of the kitchen, cooking, &c., and iu addi- tion silk-worm breeding is taught, if the circumstances of locality admit it. Some- times verse-making is added to the course. Poetry being a matter of taste, assists the development of esthetic ideas, and also to compose sentences iu " Kana," and for this reason it is included iu the curriculum of these schools. No. 1, picture of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 roll. No. 2, photograph of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 copy. No. 3, regulations of the Higher Female School attached to the Tokio Female Normal School, 1 vol. (This is combined wiih the t'egulations of the Tokio Female Normal School.) No. 4, regulations of the Kioto-fu Female School, 1 vol. No. 5, compositions by students of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 roll. No. (i, verses written on colored paper by the students of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 book. No. 7, verses written on rectangular pieces of paper by the students of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1. No. 8, compositions and verses l>y students of the Gifu-ken Female Schot)l, 1 vol. No. 1), compositions by students of the female depaitmeut of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School, 1 book. No. 10, handwritiug iiud drawings by students of the Atomigakko (private school), Tokio, 1 l)ook. This school was established by Atomi Kakei ; and the common branches of study, iu addition to lessons iu etiquette, koto (musical instrument), and tea-inakinr ceremony, are taught. Nos. 11 and 12, drawings by students of the Gumba-ken Highee Female School, 5 rolls and 1 book. No. 13, water-color paintings by students of thf female department of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School, 2 sheets. No. )4, draw- ings by studeuTs of the Gifu-ken Female School, 1 vol. No. 15, needle-work by stu- dents of the Gumba-ken Higher Female School, 1 group. No. Ki, needle-work by stu- dents of the Gifu-ken Female School, 2 groups. No. 17, needle-work by students of the Female Department of the Tochigi-ken First Middle School, 1 case. Schools of female handiwork. — Schools of female handiwork are established every- where in the country. The chief object of the schools is to educate Yemales in man- ual work, such as cutting and sewing, weaving, and other tine work, so that they may become useful wives, or that thej' may earn their own living after leaving the schools. In some schools moral lessons, reading, and arithmetic are taught in addition to the above subjects. In the Kioto-fu Female School not only cutting and sewing, but Bashiuui (a sort of embroidery), weaving, tsudzuriori (a kind of embroidery), relief- work, l)ordered relief-work, silk-worm breeding, and drawing from life are taught. The following are the exhibits front schools of this class: No. 1, plan of Sho-so Private Female School, Miyagi ken, and photograph of the school-room arrangement, 1 roll. This school was instituted by Kaslii wazawa Miyogi to teach cutting and sewing. No. 2, regulations of the Sho-so private school, Miyagi-ken, 1 vol. 175 176 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. No :?, specimejis of various liandiwork, I (sasc, (•ontainiii.u; (1) specimen of sasbiuiii (a kind of embroidery); (2) specimen of tsud/miori (a kind of eniljroidory) ; {'A) s])ecimen of velief-work; (4) specimen of bordered relief work; (5) specimen of bami- awase (a kind of embroidery) ; (G) specimen of uuiawase (a sort of embroidery); (7) specimen of sashimono (a sort of embroidery). Tbese specimens sbow tbe order of tbo liandiwork as tangbt in the Kioto-fu Female School. The following is a brief explanation of them : Firstly, sashinni : Sashinni is of very ancient origin. It is of tbe finest and most tasteful description. Figures, such as animals,- plants, etc., are drawn with spelter ou silk cloth or muslin, which is then fastened to a frame and is sewed with colored silk or golden threads. This being done, the spelter outside the figure is wiped away. When carefully and skillfully done this kind of work is very effective. It may be used as a decoration of folding screens, sho-,ji (window or door sashes covered with their, paper), table-cloths, wrapping cloths, and curtains, or of dresses, hats, etc. Although this kind of work is not laborious, nor doiss it require com]»licated apparatus, yet long practice is necessary in order to acquire skill and delicacy in it. Book No. 1 has been worked out with sashinni, strictly so called, and the secoud is of what is commonly called nuitori, a mixture of soranui (which have seams) and keshinui (very minute work), while the other is what is called rosashi, as it has been worked on ro (a kind of gauze silk). Both nuitori and rosashi may be used for table-cloths when the piece is large, and for bags when it is small. Secondly, tsudzuriori : This has also been known from oklen times. It is to weave out figures by inserting various colored silk cloth on the warp. In working this out, skill consists in this, that both warp and woof are correctly interwoven, huigth- wise and across, and do not intermingle with each other. The instruments used are a frame for insertion, a reed loom, a bamboo pipe, comb, and ito-maki (a spool for wind- ing thread on). The result of the work may be seen ou Nos. 3, 4, and 5, in the Hand- iwork Manufacture Book. Cloth of this sort is made into curtains, table-cloths, wrapping-cloths, bags, etc. Thirdly, relief-work: This is worked out by drawing a picture which is then cut out on tiiick ])aper. On it is pasted silk cloth or crape, by which flowers, fruit, stems, or branches of plants or trees are formed, and in case of animals, cotton is enclosed to form the body. The instruments used are a table, cutting-board, knife, scissors, si»atula, smoothing iron, kemetsuke (a small thin plate used for marking), and hana- basauii (;i, kind of scissors). The result of the work may be seen in Nos. 6, 7, and 8, in the lljuidiwork Manufacture Book. They may be made, into tablets, kakemono (pictures hung on walls, etc.), tanzakukake (on which thick paper, used fcr writing verses t)n, is hung), or small boxes. Fourthly, bordered relief-work : This has also been known from olden times. Mii Takayoshi, a resident of Kioto-fu who possesses one manufactured two centuries ago, devised a new method of work in the seventh year of Miiji, which has since been called Takayoshi's bordered relief-work. The mode of working is as follows : at first a colored picture is cut out, on the back of which is pasted cloth in layers according to the size and color of the object itself, and the direction of rays. By this way tbe form, the raised or lowered parts of the object itself, may be clearly represented. The instruments used are nearly the same as in the case of relief-work. The work may be made into folding screens, kakemono, tablets, fans, etc. This woi'k is very compli- cated and needs much practice in pasting the i)icces one by one. For the result, see Nos. i), 10, and 11, in the manufacture book, and other manufacture by students of other schools. Fifthly, hauK^awaae : The process is the same as in the relief-work. The only dif- ference is that tbe former is done by fitting into plain surface, while this is done by pasting one after another. The craft is usually taught in conjunction with cutting and sewing. Tliey may be made into tablets and boxes. The instruments used are the same as in the case of relief-work and bordered relief-work. For the result, see No. 12 of tbe manufacture book. Sixthly, uuiawase: This belongs to the branch of cutting and sewing. It is a kind of patch with woolen thread and is therefore economically important. If, for instance, costly dresses be torn or charred, they may be repaired by this process. It is worked out by cutting thick i>aper into forms of animals, plants, etc., to which size the cloth itself is cut, and sowed together. The instruments used are the same as in the ordi- nary work of cutt ing and sewing. For the result see No 13 in the manufacture book. The above mode is pursued in other schools also. Seventhly, sashimono: By this various designs are sewed out simply by the eye. Accordingly this cannot be made use of in cases where. living objects, such as animals, plants, etc., are to be represented. The only instrument used is a needle. This is taught as one subject in the school, in order to teach students how to work with needles. No. 4, tools for making bordered relief work, 1 cjise. No. Ti, tools for nuiking relief work, 1 case. No. 6, models showing how to cut out cloth, I'J iu all. They are used 176 FOREl(>N EXHIBITS JAPAN. 177 in the Sho-80 priv'.'ifti Setool, MiyaKi-ken,to teach stiulouts how to cut out cloth. No. 7, bordered relief work tablet with peony flower, 1. This has been manufactured in accordnncc with the method devised by Mil Takayoshi, mentioned before, and is in fact the manufacture of Takayophi himself. He is a man seventy-seven years of age. He once taupht bordered relief work in Kioto Female School, and it is in this connection that lie has exhibited his work. No. 8, model of the hanging picture for cutting and sewing course, 1 roll. No. 9, hanging picture of instruments used for cutting and sewing for .school-room use, 1 roll. No. 10, hanging picture showing how to cut out cloth for dresses, 1 roll. These are made use of in the Sho-so private school, Miyagi-ken. No. 11, domestic economy pictures for female schools, H sheets. They have been published by thH Model Female School, Tochigi-ken, to teach pupils spinning and weaving, cutting and sewing, and domestic economy. No. 12, handiwork manufacture book, 1 copy. The specimens have all been made by {)npils of the female school, Kiotofu. Nos. 1 and 2 are of sashinui, Nos. 3, 4, and .5 are of tsiizuriori, Nos 0, 7, and 8 arc relief work, Nos. 9, 10, and 11 are bordered ifolief work. No. 12 is of haraiawase. No. 1:5 is of nuiawa.sc, Nos. 14, 1.5, 16. and 17 are ►drawings from life, Nos. 18, 19, and 20 are .Japanese sentences, and No. 21 is of jsashiuiouo. Compare models in No. 3. No. 13, two-folding screen with sashinui, ;;in.d olijccts drawn from life on both side,*, 1. Tlie sashinui is the joint manufacturo tofrjiupils of the female school, Kioto-fu, and the picture was drawn by Atomi Tamaye, ifcmale teacher of the school. No. 14, relief-work table, with ten flowers, both' of itirees iiud plants, 1. This was manufactured by pupils of female school, Kioto-fu. W.0.. 15, tsuznriori, table-cloth, 1 piece. This is the joint manufacture of pupils in tlif female school, Kioto-fu, on which is sewn representations of okl social customs. "iNo. 16, lace, A, 1 case. No. 17, lace, B, 1 case. These are the manufacture of pupils in the female school, Kioto-fn, and well fabricated after the European method. No. 18, children's hats, 1 case. These are the manufacture of pupils in the above-men- tioned school. Those made of crape are for winter, while tho.se of kanrei.sha (a kind of gauze-silk) are for summer use. No. 19, wrapping-cloth, with figure of Guanshi, mother of Confucius, 1 piece. The picture has been made wiih thread by pupils in the central public school of cutting and sewing, Osaka-fu. No. 20, tablets made out by interweaving silk cloth, 3. They have all been sewed together with thread by pupils in the central public school of cutting and sewing, Osaka-fn. Number 1 is the picture of a court-lady ]>1aying on the koto (musical instrument) in the moonlight; number two that of Fujihara Yasumasa playing the lute in a garden one autumn night ; number three that of the famous Shidzuka dancing ; all representing events in our history. No. 21, round bags fabricated by interweaving silk cloth, 2. They have been sewed with thread by pupils in the central public school of cutting and sewing, Osaka-fu. Number A is a picture of Oyc Masafusa criticising the tactics of Minamoto Yoshiiye, and number B is that of Minamoto Yoshimitsu ])laying the sho (a musical instrument) on Mount Ashigara, Sagami province; both representing events in our historj'. No. 22, round bag worked out by nnikomi (inserting by sewing). This has been sewed with thread by pupils in the public southern school of cutting and sew- ing, Osaka-fn, and represents Fujihara Teika singing a ballad in snowy weather. No. 22, talilets with jiictures of flowers, both plants and trees. This has been fabricated by emliroidering silk cloth by pupils of the private Ai-kei Female School, Osaka-fu. No. 2i, line work by pupils of private Ai-kei Female School, O.saka-fu, 7. No. 24, tablets worked out by inserting crape, 2. These have been sewed together with thread by pupils of the cutting and sewing department of Toto School, 0.saka-fu. Nirmber A represents Ukon, a famous woman in .Jajianese ancient history. No. 25, a long loose robe worn by women over their other garments, made by pupils of the Sho-so School, Miyagi-ken, 1 suit. No. 2G, shiromuku aidagi (a white under-garment), made by the same, 1 suit. No. 27, woman's garment, made by the same, 1 suit. No. :^8, womarf% shirt, made by the same, 1 suit. No. 29, woman's belt, made by the same. These live form one set and are worn by women of high social rank. No. 30, other articlea made by the same, 6. GYMNASTICS. No. 1, photographs of interior and exterior views of the gymnastic institution, 2 copies. The gymna.stic institution, which is under the control of the Department of Education, has been established for the purpose of teaching the art of gymnastics. Lectures on physical education are given, and the manamvers of infantry are also taught. The detailed account of the institution may be seen in "Explanatory Notes on Gymnastics." Tho.se who learn gymnastics are the instructors sent from fu and ken, and the students and pupils of the schools under the control of the Uepartnient of Education, and many of thosii who have learned the art, are now engaged to teach it in various localities. Though archery apparatus and fencing apparatus are not U3"d in the institution, yet as they arc employed in schools for gymnastic purposes, some apecimeus are exhibited. 7950 COT 12 177 178 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. No. 2, Regulations of the Gymuastic Institution (Japanese), 1 vol. No. 3, Regula- tions of the Gymnastic Institution (English), I vol. No. 4, gymnastic apparatus. This is used not only in the gymnastic institution, but also in schools. The bean- bag is only for females. No. o, Explanatory Notes on Gymnastics (English), 1 vol. This is an explanation of the gymnastic apparatus (No. 4). No. 6, the dakiu apparatus, 1 set. The game of dakin has been in existence in .Japan from ancient ited here. No. 26, of a mountain and stream, belongs to the Kano style ; No. 2S, of a woman visiting a Bud- dhist temple, and No. 29, of T.sukigase, to the Nanjiu; No. 45, of Teika passing the Sano ferry. No. 4(J, of Yoritomo in exile. No. 47, of Hiromoto at Shijiaku-mon, and No. 48, Ts'unemasa playing the biwa, to the Sumiyoshi style. These may indicate the different styles ot drawing. No. .'i6, gypsum statue of a child, made by a .student in the private school of fine arts in Tokio-fu. No. ^u, sculpture of three girls i)laying in the garden, by a stud>-nt in the al)ove school. No. .58, sculpt me of a womau dressing, by a student in the above school. No. .'')9, clay bust of a woman, by a student in the above school. No. 60, bust of a farmer, by a student in the above school. This school of tine arts was founded by Buuzo Fujita, who bas com])lett'd the course of line arts es- tablished by the DeparTuient of Pul)lic Work, and provides fustruction in drawing, human anatomy, and scul])ture. The statues No. 5'.» and No. GO represent the people of rural districts. No. 61, bamboo rub s made by tlie students of a private school of tool making. This w;is founded by Tsnneoki Fujishiuia, to instruct students in making tools, insirunients, etc. No. 62, map of Japan, drawn by a stud' nt of Osaka-fu Nau- tical School, No. 63, drawings ot the steam engine, by a student of the above school. 179 180 r.DUOATIOXAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. No. (i4, com posit inns of the . <'>;■>, exciciurs in wrii iii^ by ilie RliidonfHof (be above, scliool. No. ()!i. cxaniii).':! :()ii r-apTs of si ndciils of (he iliyayi-ken Aj^iicnl nra! Institute. No. t>7. (U-cr ipncii of tiic Tokio Iiuliistrial Sclmoi (l^n^lish). The orgauiznfiou of the school, {■to., lire nicntioncil in tiiis (lc«,c.ription. No. (W, calendar of th'- Tokio Foreign LaiiLjiiag Scliodl. No. i'', oiiler of in^^tl■llc(ion in the practical .snbjcctM uivcn in the Osakafii Nantical School. No. 70, liistorical .innmuiry ot the Yokohama privitto school «f cuiiimerce in Kanagawa-keu. CLASS DCCCin.— OHGANIZATIOX. SYSTKMS OF INSTRUCTION, ETC., FOU llIGnER EDUCATION. CvircrfsUi/. 1^0. 1, photographs of tlie several parts of Tokio University. No. 2, photographs of tthe several itarts of Tokio University. Tokio University is sitnated in Tokio, and is under the direct control of the Department of Edncation. It consists of four de- •partments, namely, Law, scienc.'. medicine, and literarnre. The preparatory de- partment belonging to the university provides a course of instruction in those subjects necessary for the preparatioTi of a student entering the university. For detailed in- formation of every department and of the preparatory dejiartment, see the respective calendars. No. 3, calendar of the dei)artments of law, science, and literature of the Tokio University. No. 4, calendar of the departments of law, science, and literature of the Tokio University (P^nglish). No. 5, calendar of the d.-partment of medicine of the Tokio University. No. (i, calendar of the preparatory department of the Tokio University (English). No. 7, manikin. This was made at Tokio University by Scnji Kitagawa, manufact- Turer of the university, under the supervision of Assistant. Prof. Imada Tsnkane, in order to give means of obtaining anatomical knowle.lge to those living in i)lace8 where there is a difficulty in obtaining bodies. This manikin has been greatly im- proved, if compared with the one previously mannractnred. The manikin is nuide mp of one hundred pieces of various sizes. The articulation between two jiieces is effected by a hole in one piece and an iron rod in the other, or, in accordance with po-^ sition, hooks are used. Since every piece is markelant8 are provided for the use of those studying botany in the department of science. No. 12, explanatory notes on the manikin. CLASS DCCCVIII.— BOOKS AND PUHLICATIONS. Piriodicals. There are several periodicals in Japan, and especially such newspapers as contain tthe notifications of the Government, editorial leading articles, current news and ad- -vertisements, are quite numerous. Besides, there are various kinds of magazines, such as relate respectively to education, politics, morality, religion, commerce, law, local productions, science, industry, literature, etc., of which the most important relating to education and science are here exhibited. No. l,Dai Nippon Kiyoiknkwai Zashi (Transactions of the Educational Society of Japan). No. 2, Tokio Kiyoiku Shinshi (Tokio Educational Magazine). No. 3, Tokio Uhigaku Kiokwai Hokoku (Report of Tokio Geographical Society). No. 4, Tokio Sugakakwai Zashi (Transactions of Tokio MathennUical Society). No. 5, Suurishoin >Goppo (Monthly Mathematical Magazine). No. G, Shibu Nippon (Literary Magazine). 180 FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. ' 181 No. 7, N^ipiton Snisankwai Hotoku (Japanese Society of Marino Prodncts). No. 8, Tokio Gakugei Zassbi (Tokio Sciontitic Maj^aziiie). No. U, Horitsu Zassbi (Law Mag- azine). No. U), Tokio Kagakukaishi (Proceedings of Tokio C'beiiiical Society), ^o. 11, Tokio Iji Shinsbi (Tokio Medical News). No. lt.\Yakngaku Zasslii (Pbarniacentic Mag.azine)'. No. 13, Kodokai Sosbi (Magazine relating to iiiorality). No. H.Cbiugai Kogio Simpo (Engineering Magaznie). No. !.'>. Dai Nipiioii Nokwai llokokii (I\i - ports of Japanese Agricnlinial .*^ociel y). No. 16, Toivci Sbinslii (Statist ieal Jlagazine).. No. 17, Hogaku Kiokwai Zassbi (P'roccedings of tbe Law Associal ion). No. 18, Kauano Sbirabe. No. 10, Dai Nijjpnn Bijilsii Sbimpo (Japanet-e Pino Arts Maga- zine). No. 20, Tokio Keizai Zassbi (Tokio Economical Magazine). CLASS CVIII. — MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Music in Japan is of several kinds, namely, music of tbe ancient and modern styles, European mnsic, and Cbinese niueic. Tbe instruments bero exbibited are tbose of botb the ancient and tbe modern styles, wbicb bave been mostly examined by an office called tbe Institute of Music, for conducting business concerning inquiries as to singing and tbe improvement of mn-sic. For tbese purjioses a certain number of stu- dents was admitted to be instructed in all tbe subjects of mnsic;il science, so as to enable tbem in future to take up tbe work of investigating tbe best means of im- proving tbe current music. Tbe same office bas been sending, from time to time, teacbers of music to tbe Tokio Normal Scbool and also to tbe Tokio Female Normal Scbool, to teacb songs and music to tbe students and to instruct tbem in tbe use ot Japanese musical instruments of tbe ancient style, to wbicb some modifications bave. been made, and to teacb tbe use of Eur()pean musical instruments. Eacb of tbese Japanese instruments bas been examined as to tbo barmony of its sounds, etc., ami tbe results of such examinations may be seen in No. 20, Gagaku Zokugakki Cbo-on- bo Kaisetsuzu, and tbe combinations and successions of sounds, etc., may be seen im No. 21, Ongaku Torisbirabegakari Seiseki Hokoku Bassui (extracts from tbe reports. on tbe result of tbe work done bj^ tbe Institute of Music). Mo. 1, regulations of tbe Institute of Music. No. 2, regulations as to 1 he iustiuctiou'. of tbe students in tbe Institute of Music. No. 3, bosbo, 1. No. 4, bichiriki with gisbi, 1. No. .5, rinteki komafuye (flute), 1. No. 6, kagurabfiiye (llute), 1. No. 7, w^gotO' (bari)) with ji, 1. No. 8, koto (harp), 1. No. 9, biwa (lute) with bachi, 1. Tlieseare tbe musical instruments of the ancient style used chietiy on ceremoni.il occasions, and therefore their sounds are noble and mild. No. 10, koto with ji, 1. No. 11, sbauiiseii with bacbiand koma, 1. No. 12, kokiu Avith yuini, 1. No. 1:5, sbaknliachi, 1. Tbese instruments of tbe modern style were made after tbe model of tbo instruments of the ancient style, with some small modifications, and are very commonly i)]ayed among the ])eople. No. 14, Sbogaku Sho-Kasbiu (songs for the primary schools), :5 vols. No. 15, Sboka-Kakezu, 3 vols. No. 16, Sboka-Kake-zu-dai and Kaiiewaku, 1 set. These songs bave been composed by tbe Institute of Music. In composing a song wo use either tbe ancient and modern words put together or tbe ancient words only. No. 17, Ongaku-nioudo, 1 vol. No. 18, Ongaku-sbinan, 1 vol. No. I'J, Gakuten, 1 V(d. No. 20, Gakuzoku Gakki Cho-on-Kaisetsu-Zu, with apy)endix. No. 21, Ongaku Torisbirabe- gakari Seiseki Hokoku-sbo Bassui. Extracts from the re]>ort on the results of the work done by tbe lust^itute of Music, in English, 1 vol. No. 22, Calendar of tbe Institute of Music, in French, 1 vol. LIBRARIES. There are two libraries wbicb are Govemmeut establishments, one being the library of the Department of Education, and tbe other that of tbe museum of the Depart- ment of tbe Interior. There are many libraries in fu aiul ken, of which some are in- dependent i)ublic libraries and some are libraries in certain schools, intended for the use of the resi)ective teacbers and pupils, although Mie public arti allowed to cousnlt the books in such libraries. No. 1, i)botograpbs of the interior and exterior of tlie Tokio lil)'ary. This library is under tbe control of the Department of Education, haviug been built during the time of tbe Tokngawa government and dedicated to Confucius ; it is constructed en- tirely after the Cbinese stybi of building. Tbe library contains books of «'very kind. both new and old. There are l)ooks in Jaitanese, l'jiiro))ean. Chinese, Corean, and other languages, and it is always open to the ])ul>lic. Tbose who are undertaking to, write or translate any works which seem beuelicial to cducatiou. may obtain permis-. 181 182 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. siou from the Minister of Education to borrow books from the library. The catalogue of the European books has not yet been completed, and so we are not able to exhibit it on this occasion. No. 2, Catalogue of the Japanese and Chinese books, 1 copy. No. 3, Historical summary of the library, English, 1 vol. EDUCATIONAL MUSEUMS. There are six educational museums, of which one is a Government establishment be- longing to the Department of Education, the other four are established in fu and ken. Besides, there are some institutions or schools which have for educational purposes collections of physical and chemical apparatus and specimens of natural history, etc., preserved iu some part of their buildings, to which visitors are admitted. No. 1, photographs of the Tokio Educational Museum, 3. This museum is under the control of the Department of Education. In the museum the specimens, models, and all other things necessary for general education have been collected for the use of those who are connected with public instructiou, as well :ts for visitors. Duplicates of zoological, botanical, and mineralogical specimens, and also models of school ap- paratus aud instruments, are always made and collected at the museum, so as to furnish them to schools of every part upon tbeir request. The museum is always ready to give assistance to any school in procuring instruments, apparatus, etc., which have been made under the inspection of the officers of the museum, and so most of the apparatus, instruments, etc., which have been exhibited under the class 801, have been made under the direction of the museum. Sometimes those who are interested in education are invited to meet at the museum and to hear some scientific lectures, illustrated by the specimens or apparatus so as to increase the knowledge of the audience. No. 2,'Catalogue of the museum, 2 vols. No. 3, Catalogue of books in the museum, 4 vols. No. 4, Information as to the museum. REFERENCE BOOKS FOR THOSE ENGAGED IN EDUCATION. Reference books concerning elementary, middle, and higher education, and published by the Government, fu, ken, and private individuals, are very numerous, but they are all in the Japanese language and consequently not exhibited here. The following are a few of the books published by the Department of Education and tbe Tokio Uni- versity, in addition to those which have been exhibited from other quarters: No. 1, General Outlines of Education in Japan, 1 vol. No. 2, Japanese Education, English, 1 vol. No. 3, Wickersham's School Economy (translated), 9 vols. No. 4, Hart's In the School-Room (translated), 1 vol. No. 5, QuelquesMotssur I'Instrnction publique en France, par Breal (translated), 1 vol. No. ti, Kehl's Die Practische in Volksschulen (translated), I vol. No. 7, Spencer's Education (translated), 1 vol. No. 8, Philobileus' History and Progress of Education (translated), 1 vol. No. 9, Northend's Teacher's Assistant (translated), 1 vol. No. 10, Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching (trans- lated), 1 vol. No. 11, Calderwood's On Teaching (translated), 1vol. No. 12, Holbrook's The Normal, or Methods of Teaching (translated), 1 vol. No. 13, Calkins' Primary Object Lessons (translated), 2 vols. No. 14, Sheldon's Lessons on Objects (translated), 2 vols. No. 15, Japanese Liberal Arts, classified and compiled, 8 vols. No. Ki, Haven's Mental Philosophy (translated); 2 vols. No. 17, Thomson's Outlines of the Necessary Laws of Thought (translated), 1 vol. No. 18, Wayland's Elements of Moral Science (translated), 2 vols. No. 19, Moral Lessons, 1 vol. No. 20, Outline History of Japan, 2 vols. No. 21, Dictionary of Japanese Classical Words and Japanese Grammar, 14 vols. No. 22, Botany, 1 vol. No. 23, Treatise on the Polity of the European States, 4 vols. No. 24, Austin's Lectures on Jurisprudence (translated), 2 vols. No. 25, Rogers' Man- ual of Political Economy (translated), 8 vols. No. 26, Statistique, par Jonn^s (trans- lated), 10 vols. No. 27, Thorpe and Muir's Qualitative Chemical Analysis (translated), 1 vol. No. 28, Thorpe's Quantitative Chemical Analysis (translated), 1 vol. No. 29, Anderson's Strength of Materials and Structures, f vol. No. 30, Rankine's Manual of Civil Engineering (translated), 2 vols. No. 31, Lockyer's Elemen.s of Astronomy (translated), 2 vols. No. 32, Complete Map of JajKin, 2 sheets. No. 33, Map of Japan, 4 sheets. No. 34, History of Japanese Products in the Provinces of Yamashiro, Musa- shi, Omi, Mino, and Shinano, 11 vols. No. 35, Crystallography, with the models of crystallism, 1 vol. No. 36, Yaite's Di-awing for Schools (translated), 1 vol. No. 37, Valentine's Girls' Own Book, 2 vols. No. 38, European Agriculture, 8 vols. No. 39, L'Esthetique par Varon (translated), 1 vol. No. 40, Luptou's Elementary Principles of Scientific Agriculture (translated), 1 vol. No. 41, Jevon.s' Money and the Mechan- ism of Exchange (translated), 1 vol. No. 42, Analytical Geometry, 1 vol. No. 43, Smith's Elementary Statics (translated), 1 vol. No. 44, Goodi'ich's Pictorial Natural J8? FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 183 History (translated), 10 vols. No. 4.5, Leudlcy's School Botany (translated), 1 vol. No. 46, Brief Account of Botany, 1 vol. No. 47, Gray's Lessons on Botany (trans- lated), 1vol. No. 48, Parley's Universal History (translated), 1 vol. No. 49^ Geogra- phy of the World, 7 vols. No. 50, History of Greece (translated), 9 vols. No. 51, Marsh's Book-keeping, 5 vols. No. 5'^, School Algebra, 12 vols. No. 53, Outline His- tory of France, 10 vols. No. 54, Goodrich's Pictorial History of France (translated), 2 vols. No. 55, History of England (translated), 11 vols. No. 56, Outline History of Germany (translated), 10 vols. No. 57, Markham's History of Germany, 2 vols. No. 58, Goodrich's Americau Child's History of the United isrates (translated), 4 vols. The above-nuutioned books have been published by the Bureau of Compilation of the Deiiartmont of Education. "General Outlines of Education in .Japan," written in the English language, describes the changes and aftairsof education in Japan, and some idea of the state of education in Japan may be got from it. But since that book has been written some changes have occurred in the organization of the Depart- ment of Education, and it is advisable to compare it with " Outlines of Japanese Ed- ucation." Let it also be remarked that the Bureau of Compilation often commands scholars to produce or translate books which serve as text-books of dift'erent branches of study, or as reference books for officers directly engaged in educational matters, school officers, etc. ; these t)ooks are sold cheaply or given to schools, libraries, edu- cational museums, etc., in fu and ken, to promote the cause of education. No. 59, Tables of the determination of minerals, 1 vol. No. 60, Dictionary of phi- loso{>hy, 1 vol. No. (il, Table showing the results of the experiments on Japanese tim- ber, 1 vol. No. 62, Analytical report on drinking water in Tokio, 1 vol. No. 63, Short notice on Jajjauese minerals, 1 vol. No. 64, Handbook of metnliurgy, 1 vol. No. 65, explanations of the plants of the Koishikawa Botanical Garden, 1 vol. No. 66, Re- sults of experiments on drinking water in Tokio, 1 vol. The above-mentioned books have been published by the Tokio University as reference books. No. 67, Short sketches of ancient sages in Japan, 20 vols. No. 68, Dictionary of the English and Japanese languages, 1 vol. No. 69, Geography of the world, 6 vols. No. 70, Kanano- shiori, 3 vols. No. 7J, Monowariuohashigo, 9 vols. No. 72, Yoj-onoato, 6 vols. No. 73, Shiu Shiiinowuta, 3 vols. No. 74, Kanabunnokakikata, 5 vols. The above- mentioned books have been published by private individuals. NOTIFICATIONS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING EDUCATION. From these notifications and regulations a general idea of educational administra- tion in Japan may be got. The books in the English language are for the conven- ience of the visitor. No. 1, Japanese code of education, 1 vol. No. 2, ditto (English), 1 vol. No. 3, No- titications issued by the Department of Education, 4 vols. No. 4, Standard outline of the course of study of elementary schools (English), 1 vol. No. 5, Standard outline of the course of study of normal schools (English), 1 vol. No. 6, General regulations of normal schools of fu and ken (English), 1 vol. No. 7, Standard outline of the course of study of middle schools (English), 1 vol. No. 8, General regulations of mid- die schools (English), 1 vol. No. 9, Regulations as to the admission to the Tokio Normal School of select students from fu and ken (English), 1 vol. No. 10, The third notification of the seventeenth year of Meiji (1884), "issued by the Department of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 11, Regulations for the establishment or abolition of fu or ken schools, kindergarten, libraries, etc. (English), 1 vol. No. 12. Regu- lations for judging as to the moral conduct of teachers (English), 1 vol. No. 13, Specimen regnlations for the establishment or abolition of ward, or village, or private schools, kindergarten, libraries, etc. (English), 1 vol. No. 14, Directions for grant- ing licenses to elementary school teachers (English), 1 vol. No. 1.5, Specimeu regu- lations for compulsory attendance (English), 1 vol. No. 16, Specimeu regulations for the nomination of school committee (English), 1 vol. No. 17, The sixteeuth nolitica- lion of the sixteenth year of Meiji (1883), issued by the Department of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 19, The thirteenth notification of the fifteenth year of Meiji ()8r!2), issued by the Departu)ent of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 20, General regu- lations of medical schools (English), 1 vol. No. 21, Regulations for establishmeut of medical schools (English), 1 vol. No. 22, General regulations of pharmaceutical schools (English), I vol. No. 23, General regulations of agricultural schools (Euj;- lish), 1 vol. No. 24, General regulations of cou)mercial schools (English). 1 vol. Nti. 25, The tenth notification of the fourteenth year of Meiji (1881), issued by the Dei)arf - meut of Education (English), 1 vol. No. 26, Specified articles for those clerks of gun or ku to whom is intrusted the transaction of educational business (i:uglish), 1 vol. No. 27, The sixi li notification of the thirt^eni b year of Meiji (1880), issued by the i>rivy council (English), 1 vol. No. 28, The directions prescribing the limits within wliicii elementary schools are to be established, and tbo Dumber of schools to be tlicr. in 184 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION.. established (Euglish), 1 vol. No. 29, The thirteenth notificatiou of the fifteenth yearr of Meiji (188-2), issued by the Department of Education (English), 1 vol. No. :50, The i third iiotilicatiou of the'aeventeeuth year of Meiji (1884), issued by the Dopartuient o< ' Education (English), 1 vol. No. 31, The quasi-otficial ranks of the clerUs of fu and ■. ken schools (Euglish), 1 vol. No. 32, The one hundred and Ihirty-tirst noiibcation ol '. the Bevouth year of Meiji (1874), issued by the Department of Education (Euglish), 1. vol. No. 33, The directions prescribing the limits within which elementary schools are to be established (English), 1 vol. No. 34, Regulations as to educational rewards, and regulations as to the reward of prizes for the enconragement of education (Eng lish), 1 vol. No. 3.5, Regulations for compulsory attendance of the Aomori-kon ele- mentary schools, 1 vol. No. 3(i, Regulations for educational meetings of school ofticers of fn and kou, 1 vol. No. 37, Regulations for educational meeting in Yamagata-ken, 1 vol. No. 38, Regulations of Tokio Academy, 1 vol. REPORTS, CALENDARS, ETC. We have to mention here the reports, calendars, etc., coucerning education, from which one may get some idea of education in Japan. " General Outlines of Eduea- cation" will specially show the general condition at the present time. This book laift been translated into the English language for the convenience of the visitor. No. 1, General outlines of Japanese education, 1 vol. No. 2, ditto (English), 1 vol.. No. 3, Eighth report of the minister of education (English), I vol. No. 4, Ninth re-- l)ort of the minister of education, 1 vol. No. 5, comparative table showing per cent., of school population, the number of these receiving or not receiving the prescribed' course of instruction for the fifteenth year of Meiji (1882), 1 roll. No. (J, tableshowing. number of universities, colleges, and schools, and instructors, teachers, and students . 1 roll. No. 7, table showing the number of middle schools, and instructors and stu- dents, for the fifteenth year of Meiji (1882), 1 roll. No. 8, comparative table showing the income and expenditure of the public schools for the fifteenth year of Meiji (18S2), 1 roll. No. 9, tabic showing the amount of actual educational expenses, paid out of the city, district, ward, or village rates, for the fifteenth year of Meiji (1882), 1 roll. No. 10, table showing the estimated amount of educational expenses (among the lo- cal expenses) decided by the fu or ken assemblies, 1 roll. No. 11, comparative table showing the number of'public and private elementary schools, and teachers and pu- pils thereof, and the amount of the public school income and expenditure, property, and contributions, from the sixth to the fifteenth year of Meiji (1873-'82), 1 roll. No. 12, comparative table showing the average number of pupils and students, per cent, of population (English), 1 roll. No. 13, regulations coucerning Government students in foreign countries. No. 14, table showing the present number of students sent abroad (Euglish), 1 sheet. No. 15, table showing tue number of government students sent abroad, who have returned, up to the mouth of October of the seventeenth year of Meiji (1884). No. 16, statistical table showing educational affairs in Gumba-kea, 1 roll. * SUPPLEMENTARY CATALOGUE. GROUP VIII. CLASS DCCCI. Plans and pholographH of schools. — 1. Photographs of the Yawata Higashi and Yawata Nishi public elcujentary school, Shiga-ken, 1 copy. 2. Plan of the Kaichi public ele- mentary school, Shiga-keu, 1 roll. 3. Photograph of the Seitats and Siusei public elementary school, Hiroshima-ken, 1 coi)y. 4. Plan of the same, 1 vol. .5. Plan of the Yoshii public elementary school, Fukuoka-keu, 1 roll. 6. Plan of the Chigio Nishi public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 7. Plan of the Kitagawa nublic elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 8. Plan of the Fukushima public elemen- tary school, Fukushima-kcu, 1 roll. 9. Plan of the Shisa izumi public elementary school, Fuknoka-kru, 1 roll. 10. Plan of the Ukihara public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 11. Plan of the Kurokir public elementary school, Fukuoka- ken, 1 roll. 12. Plan of the Ogura public elementary school, Fukuoka-Ken, I roll. 13. Plan of the Sowe public elementary school, Fukuoka-keu, 1 roll. 14. Plan of the Fuuakashi public elementary school, Fukuoka ken, 1 roll. 15. Photograph of the Iwaya and Oyabu public elementary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 copy. School fiiriiUiireaiid apparatus. — id. Hard slate, Hiioshimaken, 2. 17. Slate-pencil, Hiroshiuui-keu, 1 case. 18, Water-writing copies, Hiroshima-ken, 5, }9. luk-etones made of sulphur, 2, J84 FOREIGN EXHIBITS JAPAN. 185 Work iy pupils. — 20. Compositions by pupils of the Kaicbi public elomentary school, Shiga-keu, 5 sheets. 21. Compositions by pupils of the .Jishiu Kamouo and Koto public elementary schools, 8hip;a-keu. I roll. 22. Compositions by })upil8 of Kash- iwabara public elementary school, Sliiga-ken, 1 sheet. 2.?. Composilious by pupils of the elementary school attached to the I'nknoka ken normal school, I roll. 24. Com- positions by pupils of Yoshii, Haehiguchi, Katagawau'^hi, Funaki, Kuroki. and Fuku- shima public elementary echools, Fuknoka-keu, 1 roll. 2.'). Compositions by pupils of the Aoki and Oyabu public elementary srhools, Fukuokaken, I vol. 26. Couipo- sitious and drawings by the ptipils of the Ogura Higushi public elen)entary school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 27. Compositions and drawings by pui)ilis of the Sone public elementary schools, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. 28. Drawings by pu]>ils of the Kaichi pub- lic elementary schools, Shiga-keu, 5 sheets. 29. Penmanship by the same, 5 sheets. 30. Needlework by pupils of the Kaichi ^lublic elementary school, Shiga-ken, 1 group. 31. Drawings by pupils of the Koku, Benya. and Uchidehaina public elementary schools, Shiga ken. 32. Drawings by pui)il8of the elementary school attached to the Fukuoka normal school, Fnkuoka-kon, 1 tablet. '.\\. Drawincs by pupils of the Yoshii, Fuiakawa, Funakoshi, and Oyabu public elementary schools, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB AND BLIND. School Jiiniittirc and apparntus. — 1. Chart illustrating the arningement of desks and the nu'thod of teaching the blind the art of sliamponiug and the apparatus thereof, Kioto Blind and Mute lusiitutioii, 1 sheet. 2. Chart illustrating the arrangement of . Chart of fifty sounds ibr the blind, 1 sheet. Hi. Chart of lifty sounds by lingers for the blind, 1 sheet. 17. Chart of writing on tho palm of the blind, 1 sheet. Ifci. Ap- pendix to writing on the jjalm of the blind, 1 sheet. 19. Chart of dumb pupils at play, 1 jihert. 20. Chart of tools used by the dumb for working in wood, 1 sheet. 21. Chart of the dumb at wood-work, 1 sheet. 22. Illustrations of the diftereut pro- cesses in teaching wood-work to the blind. 26 kinds. 23. Illustrations of the dilferent t)rocesses of wood-work by the dumb, with a picture of arraugcmeut of articles, IS ands. 24. Chart of tools used by the dumb fur carving, 1 sheet. 2.'). Chart of tho dumb, at carving, 1 sheet. 26. Illustrations of dili'ereut processes in teaching copper engraving tothe dumb, 27 kinds. 27. Chart of apparatus ibr embroidery by thedumb, 1 •heet. 28. Chart of the dumb, at embroidery work, 1 sheet. 29. Illustrations of dif- ferent processes in teaching embroidery to the dumb, 3. OEGANIZATION AND APPLIANCES OF SECONDAllY EDUCATION. (GltOUP DCCCII. ) Middle schools. — I. Ground ])lan of the Iwate middle school, Iwate-ken, 1 roll. 2. Photogra))h of the Hiroshima middle stdiool and normal school, 1 tablet. 3. Com- positions by students of tlui Iwate middle school, Iwate-ken, 1 vol. 4. Compositions by students of the Kuruine middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol. .^>. Compositions by students of the Fukuoka and Yanagawa middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol. 6. Drawing by students of the Iwate middle school, Iwate-ken, 1 roll. 7. Drawing by Htiidents of the Hiroshima middle school, Hiroshima ken, 1 roll. 8. Drawing by students of the Fukushiina middle school, Fukushima-ken, 1 roll. 9. Drawing by the same, 1 roll. 10. Diawing by the same. 11. Drawing by students of the Yana- gawa middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 rdll. 12. Drawing by students of the i'ukuoka middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 3 sheets. 13. Drawing by students of the Amaki mid- dle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol. 14. Drawing by students of the Kurum6 middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 2 rolls. 15. Drawing by students of the Kurnmd middle school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 roll. Normal schools. — 1. Picture of the Fukuoka uoi'mal school, 1 roll. 2. Painting by stu- dent of the Iwate normal school, Iwate-ken, 1 .sheet. 3. Painting by the same, 2 sheets. 4. Drawing by students of the Shiga-ken normal school, 12 sheets. ;",. Drawing by students ot the Hiroshima normal school, Hiroshima-ken, 1 roll. 6. (Composi- tions by students of the Tokushima-keu normal school, 1 ndl. 7. Comjiositions by students of tho Fukuoka normal school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 vol, ti. Drawing by stu- 185 186 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. dents of the Fukuoka normal school, Fukuoka-ken, 1 tablet. '.). Drawing by stu- dents of the Fnkuoka normal school, Fnkiioka-ken, 1 tablet. 10. Drawnifr by stu- dents of the Fnkuoka normal school, Fnkuoka-Ken, 1 tablet. 11. Drawing by stu- dents of the Fnkuoka normal school, Fnknoka-keu, 1 tablet. 12. Needle-work by students of the sewing dei)artment of the Iwate normal school, Iwate-ken, 1 group. 1:5. Ornamental box by students of the sewing department of the Fukuoka-ken nor- mal school, 4 groups. 14. Needle-work by the same, 1 group. Eiglwr female school. — Specimens of child's cloth by student of the Toknshima- ken female school. Professional schools. — 1. Ground plan of the Aichi medical school and the Aichi hospital, 1 roll. 2. Photograph of the same, 1 sheet. 3. Histological specimens, Aichi medical school, 1 case. Reference hooks for schools. — Japanese and German dictionary, 1 vol. FEAIs^CE. SECTION I.— EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES. Soci^te clcs Inches (Pri^sident, M. Marbean, 27 Rue de Londres, Paris). — Reduced model of a crkltc (one-tenth of its real size). Two plans of creches. Photograph of the Creche ance. (2) Specimen of work done by students of the normal school at Courbevoie. (3) Specimen of work done by inmates of the Montaubau Protestant Orphanage and of the Colonic P6nitentiaire de Ste.-Foy. Union Frangaisc de la Jeunesse, 157 Boulevard St.-Germain, Paris. — Album of photo- gr;iphs relative to the teaching of gymnastics in schools. List of free evening classes organized in Paris by this society. Specimens of drawing and other work done by the pupils attending tliose classes. Cercle Parisien de la Ligue Frangaise de VEnseignement, 175 Rue St.-Honor6, Paris. — Documents and diagrams. This society, founded in the year 1867, was incorporated iu the year 1880. The society distributes books, maps, etc., to various libraries (pop- ul.ar, communal, regimental, school), in France, Algeria, and French colonies, and organizes public lectures illustrated by dissolving views. The total number of adhe- reiiis to the Ligue de I'Enseignement is 200,000 members, divided among 1,500 branches spread all over France. The secretary of the Ligue is M. Emmanuel Vau- chcz, 175 Rue St.-Honore, Paris. The Cercle exhibits, (1) specimens of the sets of books distributed to schools or barracks ; (2) specimens of the sets of gynniastic appa- ratus furnished to many country schools by the society ; (3) specimens of the sets of drill-guns (fusils scolaires) and carbines furnished to several schools for encouraging the piactice of drill and target-shooting in elementary schools; (4) collection of the Bulletin du Cercle Parisien de la Ligue Fraugaise de I'Enseignemi-nt, 1867-1684. Societi/ for Promoting the Professional Edncaiion of IVom^n (I'ondation Elisa Lemon- uier) — Secretary, Mademoiselle Toussaint, 3 Rue de Douay, Paris. The 4 schools or- ganized in Paris. — Exhibit: pupils' work; written work: liookkeeping, study of modern languages; specimens of china-painting, glass-staining, dressmaking, paint- ing on silk (4 fans), drawing, wood engraving. Soci6te Patcrnelle et Colonic Agricole de Mettrag, near Tours. Indre-et-Loire. — Album of the school, plans, phorogiaphs of groups of inmates in Ihe class room, at field-work, in the gymnasium, at drill, etc. (No exhibit of scholars" work — only documents.) Societe des Fetes d'Enj ants, 8 Ruelle des Stes.-Maries, Nimes, Gard". — (1") Statutes of the society. (2) The education of patriotism. {'.',) Publications by the society, etc. (4) Programmes of F6tes d'Enfants. 186 FOREIGN EXHIBITS FRANCE. 187 Society des Musecs Can7o7(a»x (regional imiseums)— Presidont, Edni. Gronlt. Lisieux (Calvados).— (1) Six year-books of the society (Annnaire des Mus6es Cantonaux), 1879-1885. (2) Table 'showing .a type catalogue of a regional niiuseniu ; list of the cantonal and regional museums already existing in France, SECTION II.— KINDERGARTEN. :6COLES MATERNELLES. Ministrii of Puhlic Inslntciion and Fine Arts, Paris.- (1) Regulations for the organiza- tion of normal courses for the training of governesses in maternal schools. (2) Doc- uments relative to the organization of maternal schools — decree of August 2, 1881, and minute of July 28, 1882. (;{) Plans. (4) Statistics showing the number of ma- ternal schools actually existing in France. Amiens, maternal schools of the cily of (Somme).— Collective exhibits of children's work. Bcllicr, Mme., IGRue Cabirol, Bordeaux. — (1) Le Moniteurdu Jeune Age, a periodi- cal for kindergartners (numbers for 4 years). (2) Prizes for infants' schools {hons points da jeune doe). Collin, Mile. Laure. — La Lyre Enfantine, method for teaching vocal music to chil- dren of maternal schools. Garcct ct Xisius, 76 Rue de Rennes, Paris.— (1) Froebel's counter and other objects for kindergarten. (2) Plan of a village infants' school. (3) Object lessons for infants' schools ; a calendar by Inspector-General Cadet, reproduced from the Dictionnaire de Pedagogic. (4) Apparatus for hanging maps. (5) Four types of school desks for ele- mentary schools. (G) Simple museum for object lessons for kindergarten pupils. Isere, maternal schools of the Department of. — Collective exhibit of children's work. Lielouf, Mme., 13 Rue de Poissy, Paris.— (1) Instructive games for children; com- pendium for maternal schools. (2) Musical diagram, teaching simultaneously read- ing, writing, and singing. (3) Disk, showing the formation of compound colors. (4) The education of the senses. Marne, maternal schools of the Department of the. — Collective exhibit. Monternaitlt, Mme. J. —French Intuitive Method (Hachette et Cie., l5diteurs). Ma- terial for teaching form and color to young children according to the Froebellian method. Xord, Dcpartement du. — Specimens of kindergarten work by children of town and country schools. (See also p. 192.) Ract et Falquet, 16 Rue Cassette, Paris. — (1) Map of France for maternal schools, by Mile. Veyriferes. (2) Globe for similar schools. (3) Durand's L6gislation des ficoles Maternelles. (4) L'£cole Maternelle, periodical. (5) Table and bench for infants' schools. Seine-Tnfe'rienre. — Maternal schools of the Department of Seine-Inf^rieure. Collect- ive exhibit of children's work. SECTION III.— PRIMARY SCHOOLS. PART 1. — ARCHITECTURE, HYGIENE, AND DECORATION. Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. — Regulations relative to the construction of schools. Various documents bearing on school buildings and school furniture. Collection of documents relating to, (a) hygienic arrangements in schools, (h) medi- cal inspections, (c) physical training of children in and out of school. Rapport de la Commission d'Hygiene, 1884. 6 jjlans prepared by the Comity des Biltiments Scolaires, showing types of schools recently erected in Franco with the sanction of the Comite. 2 portfolios containing plans of schools recently built in different parts of France, also plans of class-rooms drawn by pupils. Plans of primary schools in the Departments of Deux-S^vres, Loir-et-Cher, Lot-et-Garonue, Pas-de-Calais (schools of Marik, Mametz, St. Martin-au-Laert, etc.). Fine Arts Section. — (Ij Specimens of casts and prints to form an art museum for elementary schools, prepared according to the regulations of the ministerial commis- sion on school decoration— (rt) art museum for boys' schools, (b) for girls' schools. Report of M. P. Mantz, with programme of art museums for primary schools, training colleges, and lyc^es. (2) Typeg of school prizes {bons points scolaires) for elementary .schools, sanctioned by the Commission de I'lmagerie Scolaire. Bons points, reward cards, and images, by Ravaisson,Quantin, Hachette, Prunalre, Suzanne, Goupil, Lobet, etc. Report by M. Havard, president of the Commission on School Prizes. (3) Collec- tion of casts for teaching drawing in primary training colleges and schools of secondary grade. Programmes of the course of studies. Drawing test in examinations for the higher certificate, Minute of January 23, 1881 (J. Ferry), fixing the programmes of the 187 188 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. teaching- of drawing in elementary schools. (4) Exaojinatiou for the certificate to teach drawing. Two frames showing specimens of time drawings done at the exam- inations — (a) for the 1st grade, (b) for the higher grade. Two drawings from arelief ex- ecnted in eight hours; perspective done in the same time. Three drawings from the living tuodei done in eight hours. Drawing of anatomy done without documents. (I) Law of January 27, 1680, declaring the teaching of gymnastics oldigatory in the establishments of public instruction. (2) Specimen of gymnastic apparatus and appliances adopted for training colleges and primary schools by the French Education Dei)artnieut. The appliances are provided by Messrs. Fr6t6 and Co., Corderie Cen- trale, V2 Boulevard Sdbastopol, Paris. (:>) Photographs of school gymnasia and groups of children learning drill and gymnastics. (4) Handbooks for teaching gymuastica and drill. Armcnqaud, Aine, 45 Rue St.-S^bastieu, Bonlevard Voltaire, Paris. — School decora- tion—.^) panels of pictures for schools, printed on the wall paper system. Bordeaux, City of. — Plans of several elementary schools. Reports on medical inspec- tion in schools. Btlvuille, Dr. C, ancien adjoint au Maire do Bayonne. — Docu^nents on School Hygiene— (1) Reglement et Organisation do la Commission Muuicipalo d'Hygione et de Statistique de Bayonne. (2) Feuilles Mensuelles Coustatant I'fifat Hygit^nique de chaque Classe. (3) Rapport des Travaux do la Commission d'Hygii^ue pour 1883, i^ar le Dr. Delvaille. (4) L'Inspectiou Mddicale des ficolcs, par le Dr. Delvaille. Frctc ct Cic, Corderie Centrale, 12 Boulevard Sdbastopol, Paris, Foui'uisseurs du Ministere de I'lnstruction Publique. — (I) Specimens of appliances for teaching gym- nastics in schools of primary and secondary grades. (2) Games connected with the teaching of gymnastics. (3) Appliances for teaching fencing — masks, gloves, foils, plastrons, etc., as supplied to several national and municipal hic^es and coUdges. Genesle et Hersehcr, Engineers, 42 Rue du Chemin-Vert, Paris. — (1) Models and plans. (2) Album of plans and drawings of ■n.pparatus and appliances for the warm- ing and v(mtilatiug of schools and various public establishments of education. (See also p. 19 J.) Laijet, Dr., Professeur d'Hygifene k la Facult6 de Mddecine, 42 Rue du Palais de Jus- tice, Bordeaux. — Report on the medical inspection of communal schools at Bordeaux. Anthropometry in primary schools. ^'arjoiix, Felix, Architect, 3 Rue Littr^, Paris. — Works on school architecture — (1) Ecoles Publi(|ues en France et en Angleterre, 1 vol. 8°. (2) l5coles Publiques en Belgiqne et en Hollande, 1 vol. 8-^. (3) ficoles Publiques en Suisse, 1 vol. 8^. (4) ficoles Normales primaires en Europe, 1 vol. 8°. (5) Ecoles Normales et Sallos d'Asile, 1 vol. 18°. (6) Construction et Installation des Ecoles Primaires, 1 vol. 8°. (7) Re- glement pour la Construction et I'Ameublement des Maisons d'Ecole, S°. (8) ficoles Publiques en Europe, 1 vol. 18^. (9) Architecture Scolaire d'Ecoles do Hameaux, 1 vol. 4°. (10) Paris, Edifices Consacr^s a I'lnstruction Publique, 1 vol. fol. Perdriel, Charles Le, 11 Rue Milton, Paris. — Specimen of a school medical chest, con- taining the drugs and instruments most necessary in case of accidents. Price, 95 francs. Uaraissoii, F., Inspector-General for Higher Education. — Reproductions of master- works of art, for school decoration and school rewards. liriber, Itmile, Architect, 54 Rue Vavin, Paris. — Decorative panel— "La G6om6trie en Action," gymnastic bars and hoops ; also panels showing how school-rooms may be decorated by frescos done by the teacher and pupils. Trelal, Jimile, Director of the Special School fur Architecture, Boulevard Mont-Par- nasse, Paris. — School lighting (ktint- Germain, Pam. "I— This firm exhibits the follow- ing geographical works— Meissas (A. and G.): A new map of France (78.7 inches by 82.0 inches), giving the watercourses, mouurains, administrative divisions, railway- lines. Meissas: A new maj) of Europe (78.7 inches by o2. 6 inches), similar in all respects to the above. Meissas : A nia)) of the world (43.3 inches by (i7 inches), giving only the principal difisious of the world. Cortanibort (E.): A, small map of FraqcQ 18Q FOUErOK EXHIBITS — FtlANCE. 189 (35.4 inches by 47.4 inches"). Cortanibert (E.): A small map of Europe (same size), both intended for small schools m rural districts. Vivien de Saint- Martin : A terres- trial globe (1:5 inches in diameter). They also exhibit other globes of various sizes, and the i>ricr8 vary aci'ordmgly. School muscnm, by Dr. Safiruy. School reward cards — (a) botanical, (ft) geographical, (c) various trades. Level's Compendium M6lrique. Material for infant schools. eC7/ Ddagnur, Eur Soiifflot, Paris.) — Maps, drawn by Prof. Levassenr: (1) France Scolaire (scale -gWiTTFTr), &) Europe (scale tttoWit), Vh the World (scale T^rmhnrrrrs)- All these represent the principal physical features, agricultural products, coal mines, metallurgical centers, chief railways, telegraphic and submarine cables, lin^s of nav- igation, and leading political and economical facts. A map of Europe (scale TrnTiVrTTrTr) by Larochrtte, in chromo-litbograiihy (91 inches by 49. "i inches), riMiiarkaide for its clearness of details. A terrestrial globe by the same (1.20 meters, or about 48 inches ill circumference), showing at a glance the seas and rirers and mountains, as well as the lines of navigation and telegraphic and submarine cable's. {Alaison J. Oaulier, 55 Q\t(n fles Grajuh Anguativs, Paris.) — Wall maps: map of France, map of Euro])e, and map of the world, drawn by A. Vuillemin. These niai)s, while ((intainiiig all indispensable details, are remarkable for their clearness. The scale which lias been adojited has made it pos.sible to give greater importance to the lepresentation of the mouutuius. A table of weights and measures, by Henry des N'osges, sums in a convenient form the advantages of th*- metrical system. {Il.clmer, 47 Hue dc^ Francs Bourgeois, Paris.) — A map of the \rorld in hemispheres, measuring 1.85 meter by 95 centimeters (6.06 feet by :ill feet), and giving the results «if the most recent discoveries, the great lines of navigation, th e chief railways, the submarine cables, the telegraphic lines on land in Asia and Australia, the sea currents, and showing the political divisions and the colonial possessions of the various states. A terrestrial globe, 1 meter (39..37 inches) in circumference, prepared by K. Barbot, giving the results of the recent discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley, Caineron, Dr. Nordtnskjold, the telegraphic lines and cables, the great lines of navigation, the mountain systems, the sea currents, and showing the French colonial possessions. {E. Heriavx, 25 Rue Serpertte, Paris.)— A terrestrial globe, byE. Dubail. Thisglobe is 14.96 inches in diameter. The author, late professor of geography at the Military College of St. Cyr, has, by a judicious use of various tints, rendered perceptildc the diflerence in level of valleys and table-lands. The globe represents also the sea cnr- renls and the great lines of navigation and of communication by land. The details concerning political geography have been reduced to what is strictly necessary, and in no way interfere with a proper understanding of the physical geography. {Laner, 8 Pve de la Paix, Paris.) — Three ■wallniaiJS (France, Europe, the World), on which all important details are made conspicuous by a judicious use of a few linis ; also a table giving the weights and measures of the French metrical system. (Challamel aiii^, Paris.)— {1) A map of the colony of Senegal, or of the French pos- sessions on the West Coast of Africa. This map, drawn by C. Mathien, includes all I he country situate between Lake Tauiahi6 and Sierra Leone. It shows the various indeiiendent and protected states, the position of French, English, and Portuguese lorth, and all administrative divisions. (2) A map of the Province of Oran, by Ad. Langlois (scale ^rnnnrir). gives all the places, rivers and thalwegs, altitudes, admin- istrative divisions, roads, railways, telegraphic lines, steamboat lines, light-houses, cultivated jiortions, forests, mines, quarries, mineral springs, a plan of the city of Oran, a small map of the neighborhood of Oran, and is accompanied by interesting statistics. (I) Synoptic table showing the detailed organization of primary studies, their objects, methods, and programmes. (2) Note pour servir h l'6tude des programmes; extracis from the Insiructions et directions p^dagogiques, par M. Gr<5ard, vice-rector of thcAcaddmie do Paris. (3) Specimen of diplomas (certificate of primary studies, &c.), and of merit awards and medals granted to teachers. (4) Collection of text books used in the primary schools of the department of the Seine. Binson, Vandeuvre, Seine-Iuf6rieure. — School museum — several cards .showing a col- lection of samples of raw materials associated with their products. Bouiiard, P., 49 Rue de Grenoble, Paris.— New system of writing music; (1) the " Last Musical Thought of Weber," written according to this new method; (2) ton- ality of instruments compared, etc. Jioiino, I'Abh^, Etrdpilly, Seine-et-Marne. — Largo relief map of the department of Seine-et-Marne. Bonthiaux, Sombacour, Doubs. — Museum for a village school — numerous specimens of coins of France and other countries. Biidoiix, Gaillefontaine, Seine-Inf6rieure. — Geographical maps made by boys of 13 to 15 yeais of age. Cochcris, Mme. Pauline, Bonlevard St. -Marcel, Paris. — (1) Pedagogic desTravaux h rAiguille (Ou Teachingo? Sewing), 1 vol. in 12mo. This work is intended forteachers and pupils, and givesdemoustratious of all kinds of needlo-work, accompanied by 189 190 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. diagrams, which reuder the explanations more easily nnderstood. Hygienic ad- vice holds an important place in this book. A portion of the work contains a re- view of the present teaching of sewing, cntting, and seaming, in tht^ various parts of Europe, and especially in England. (2) Tableau Synoptique des Travaux h I'Aiguille. This table, intended to be hung up in schools, is the indispensable com- panion of the above work. It gives all instruments used in sewing, etc., and explains the formation of all kinds of stitches. CaiUe, Sotteville-les-Baius, Seiue-Iufdrieure. — Material for teaching the elements of natural philosophy and chemistry in elementary schools (IGO instruments or objects, allowing of upwards of 400 exjieriments). Cochet, Ugruy-le-Gay, Seine-Inferieure. — Arboricultural charts. Local flora (col- ored by hand), Coudray, Courville, Eure-et-Loir. — (1) Relief map of the commune of Courville ; {'i) relief map, canton of Courville ; {'.\) relief map of the department of Eure-et-Loir. Couvey, /., Cond6-sur-Risle, Eure. — Herbarium— 5 portfolios iu 1 case ; special ar- rangements for protecting the plants from insects. David, 1/., Grosrouvre par Nouvant. Meurthe-et-Mosellc. — Methods of teaching read- ing, writing, and especially geography. Deyrolle, JEmUe. — Mus^e scolaire, for elementary schools — a series of wall pictures for teaching natural science. This series is divided into three parts. The first illustrates the elements of natural science, and is intended for small schools. The second part illustrates metallurgical processes, coal-mining, glass-making, animals useful and in- jurious to agriculture, mushrooms and fungi, and the most common poisonous plants. The third part, intended for girls' schools, illustrates the historj^ of textile plants, such as flax, hemp, and cotton ; the ceramic processes, faience or earthenware, por- celain or china, stoneware, pottery ; the cereals, and the oleaginous and aromatic plants; the structure of a hen and changes of an egg during the process of incubation. Docquoy, Maromme, Seine-Inferieure. — (1) Relief map of the canton of Maromme. (2) Album of geometrical drawings. Dorangcon. — Scholastic Museum (Ch. Delagrave, publisher) ; this is an interesting collection illustrating the processes of 75 trades, and containing more than 1,200 sam- ples and specimens. Movable spheres for the study of cosmography, by A. Letellier; this apparatus, highly recommended by the eminent scientist Abb6 F. Moigno, rep- resents the real movement of the earth and of .Jupiter around the sun, or else the ap- parent movement of the sun on the ecliptic and the real movement of the earth around the sun at the same time. (See Delagrave's special exhibit, p. 201.) Gaudu, Goderville, Seine-Iuf6rieure. — Charts of arboriculture for elementary schools. Gautier, Rouen, Seine-Iuf6rieure. — (1) Charts for the teaching of the elements of agri- culture i n primary schools. (2) Charts for the teaching of the elements of horticulture. (3) Tables showing the organization of a school canteen (supply of warm food to chil- dren who cannot go home for their lunch). (4) Documents on the relations between the teacher and the children's parents. Henient, Felix, Inspector-General of Public Instruction, Nanterre. — (1) A collection of 12 drawings by Ciceri (23.6 inches by 15.7 inches), iu chromo-lithography, and illustrating the following geographical terms : archipelago, canal, sluice or lock ; cape, cliff, railway, viaduct, tuunel, roads, streams, and rivers ; confluence, hills, streams and rivers, glaciers, strait, gulf, volcano ; isthmus ; lake, glaciers ; harbor ; valley, torrent. Delagrave edition. (2) Cosmographic diagrams designed by Fouch6. (3) Elementary works on the natural and mathematical sciences. Jeannoi, JSmile, Belleherbe, Doubs. — School agricultural museum — 10 charts of object lessons, showing the fabrications of cheese, oil, cider, honey, etc. Lavallee, Tourny, Eure. — School museum containing 35 object lessons. Leroy, Canteleu, Seiue-Inf^rieure. — (1) Scholars' work ; (2) manual work; (3) school museum. Levasscux, E., Membre de I'lustitut (Ch. Delagrave, ^diteur). — Physical maps of France, Europe, French Colonies, etc. Menneglier, M., Navenne, Haute-Sa6ne. — Specimen of herbarium for schools. Mouchel, Criquetot, Seine-Inferieure. — Relief map of the department of Seine-In- ferieure. AInneret, Cusance, Doubs. — 6 cases containing insects ; 1 herbarium ; 4 iiedagogical works. Olivier, M., Bretteville-sur-Laize, Calvados. — School museum. Scholars' work (mauual). Petit, Pierre, Photographer, Place Cadet, Paris. — Translucid window blinds for schools; photographic reproductions of masterpieces of art on linen, new process. Photographs of school buildings, class rooms, and pupils' groups. Fourchot, Mandeure, Doubs. — 2 very large and complete herbariums. Frevost Orphanage, Cempuis, Oise (Director, M. Robin). — Work by scholars. This orphanage, originally founded in Paris during the war of la70-'71 by M. F. Buisson, was adopted a short time afterwards by a generous philanthropist, M, J. G. Pr6vost, 190 FOREIGN EXHIBITS FRANCE. 191 who transferred it to Cenipnis, aud bequeathed his fortnue to the departnieutal au- thorities of the .Seine for the maintenance of it. Specimens of pupils' work : (1) coi)y- books; (2) specimens of printing by boys; the Orphanaire issues a monthly journal, written and ])rinted by the i)npils : (3) specimens of other manual work in wood, iron, modeling', carving; (4) ueedle-work by the girls. Bagemorit, Berchferes-sur-Vergris, Eure-et-Loir. — Largemapof thearrondissement of Dreux. Rainsart, l5cole Bachelet, Rouen, Seine-Inf(5rieure. — (1) School museum, showing the local industries— cotton manufacture, wool manufacture, and calico printing, 300 bottles ; (--J) pedagogical works ; (3) written and manual work by pupils. Begrain, A., Chamblet, near Montiugon, Allier. — Scholastic museum made by the pupils and master. Rousseau (Ancicnne Maison, now termed Soci6t6 Anonyme), 44 Rue des ficoles, Paris. — Materials for instruction in physics and chemistry (finishing course) in pri- mary, secondary, and training schools. Salein, M., Teacher, Elbeuf, Seine-Iuf6rieure. — (1) School museum. (2) Apparatus for teaching drawing. (3) Manual work by pupils. (4) Written work by pupils. Serritricr, Havre, Seine-Int<5rieure. — Pupils' work, 10 vols. Pedagogical works. Magic lantern constructed with a view to economy for school use; can be used either with blowpipe or with kerosene. Price not over $20. Tremeschini, Paris. — Globe showing the movements of the earth and moon around the sun. Book with exi)anations. Fast, JS., Professor, 9 Kuc de Greliuhle, Paris. — Blank maps on slated cloth : France, Europe, Central Euroi^e. I'ART 3. — scholars' WORK. Algeria, schools of. — Specimens of children's work, Arab schools of Boufarik: Arab schools of St. Eugene; Arab and French school of M. Delord. Ecolo de la Rue dn Divan (girls), Algeria; Orphanage at Thaddest-ou-Fellah, district of Must apha ; ficoles indigenes (Kabyles) de Tamazert et de Lagouhat. Amiens, cit)/ of. — Primary schools — written work, drawings, and maps; 10 large vols. Documents on the school savings banks, and the school system generally. Maps by the students of the normal school. Baume-les-Dames, primary schools of, Doubs. — School work by pupils. Bayvel, Mile, (private institution), Rouen, Seine-Inf^rieure. — Maps drawn by the pupils ; specimens of writing. Berthoz, Audincourt, Doubs. — Manual work (wood carving on stone and wood). Besangon, primary schools of, Doubs. — Pupils' work, collective exhibit. Buquet, Oissel, Seine-Inferieure. — Specimens of needle-work by pupils. Chalons-sur-Marue, primary school of, Marne. — Written work by pupils. Caitlle, Rouen, Seine-Iuf^rieure. — Original sketches aud compositions by a pupil; 7 pedagogical memoirs. Clerc, Pontarlicr, Doubs. — 4 panels of manual work — wood, stone, net, string, clay work, etc., by pupils. Coulet, T., Villcrs la Montague, Meurthe-et-Moselle. — Carnet de Correspondance between schools and families, school drawings, exercises, etc., 1883. School work, drawing. Creuse, elementary primary schools of the department of. — Specimens of work done by pupils. Preliminary training in manual work (toys made by children under 10 years of age). Delaruellc, Elbeuf, Seine-Inf^rieure. — Manual wood work done by the pupils. Delaruelle, Rouen, Seine-Inf^rieure. — Manual work done by pupils. Moral and civic tuition. Dijon {C6te-(V0r), collective exhibit of primary schools of the city of (Inspector, M. Deschamps, Dijon). — Collective display of school work, showing the work of .children during one month and one year. (1) Work done in a school with a single class-room (ficole de Bringes). (2) Work done in boys' aud girls' schools containing several class-rooms. Manual work (clay modeling) by the boys of the elementaiy school of Dijon. Doubs, collective exhibit of the elementary schools of the department of. — Maternal schools, elementary primary, and higher primary schools. Dupont, Mme., Maromme, Seine-Inferieure. — Specimens of needle-work by pupils. Emonot, Mme., Naujancourt, Doubs. — 1 doll dressed by pupils. Faivre, H6rimoncourt, Doubs. — Manual work (iron, wood). Gauiier, Rouen, Seine-Inf(5rieure. — (1) Album of geographical maps, by pupils. (2) Album of drawings. (3) Manual work by children of the dittereut classes. (4) Plans of the class-room, by pupils. Gihert, Grande Rue Fontaineblean. — Results of a two years' course of drawing on the Cassagne method. Elementary modeling. 191 192 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS liiXPOSlTION. Hanniet, Neuilly-eu-Thelle, Oise. — Drawings by pupils. Written cescriptions of priuts collected by pupils (chiefly on French Bistory). Havre, elementary schools of the city of, Seine-Inf6rienre. — Collective exibit of pupils' work. Huarcl, Mmr., Rouen, Seine-Infdrieure. — Needle-work, herbarium, and bookkeep- injr, by pupils. Lalonpc, hiqher primary school of, Eure-et-Loir. — Written work by pupils, draw- ings, etc. Lame^le, Mmc.. Barenlin, Seine-Inf6rioure. — Specimens of needle-work by pupils. Lcclerc, Esteviilc, Seiuc-lnfdrienrc. — Manual work, cider press. Lefravc, Mmc, Socur, Aumalc, Seine-Iutcrieure. — Specimens of needle-work bypupils. Leniort, Si. Martin dc Boscherville, Seiuc-Inf6rieuro. — Written work by pupils. Lille, ciiy o/'.— Collective exhibit of public primary and higher primary schools for- boys and girls. Lory, Paul, Dasle (pupil of the primary school of Dasle). — A case containing in-- sects collected and arranged by himself. Alararis, school of, Charcntc-Inferieure. — Fifteen copy-books Mifjnot, Mile, Poutarlier, Uoubs. — Needle-work by pupils. Miserey, school of, Doubs. — One album containing very good needle-work by scholars:. MovtbCliard, primary schools of, Doubs — Collective exhibit of scholars' work. Nord, Departevicnt (ill, M. Brunei, Inspecteur, Director do PInstructiou Piimairc dm Nord. — (1) Plans of schools. (2) Copy-books (primary schools). (3) Manual work, executed in schools: (A) IJoys — Ironwork, woodwork, modeling, bookbinding ; (B)) Girls— Needle-work and embroidery. (4) Similar work from schools of a little higher- grade. Remarks on the exhibit of primary education in the Dt^partemcut du Nord. -Tho Ddpartemeut du Nord (area, 2,19r> square miles; population, 1,603,2^)9 inhabitants)! contains-. 2,1k') public or private elementary schools {c'colcs primaircs), with a stalf of 5,47.5 n)aster8 and mistresses. The public elementary schools number l,tJ70, and their stall' consists of 3,697 masters and mistresses. The objects which are exhibited arei classified into 4 groups: (1) Intellectual and manual work of the higher piimary.' schools (boys and girls) ; (2) intellectual and manual work of the elementary i)rimary' schools (boys and girls); (3) plans of schools; (4) detailed syllabi of the (»ubjcctsi taught in the primary schools of the D6partemeut dn Nord; JBulletiu Adniinistraiii' (a periodical issued by the departmental administration), and Bulletin PedagogiquAj (a 8i)ecial review for primary schoolmasters). I. Higher primary schools (boys). — There are 16 schools of this description in tOo said department. All receive boarders and day scholars. To all of theui arc attacbied a number of entrance exhibitions. The syllabus includes, as a rule, the following subjects: ethics, the French language, penmanship, history, gcogiaphy, modern languages, mathematics, bookkeeping, experimental jihysics, chemistry, natural his- tory, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and workshop instruction. Each school has its own syllabus, modified so as to meet the local requirements. The pupils receive in- struction in adjusting pieces of apparatus in carpentry, in turneiy, in modeling, in sculpture, and are taught to work in iron, wood, stone, marble, and plastic materials. The advantage is twofold: the puiiils learn the use of tools, and discover their natural bent. Objects exhibited by 3 of these schools: copy-books containing pupils' exercises,, drawings (geometrical and free-hand), and specimens of work doLc in the workshops;; syllabus of subjects taught in each school. II. Higher primary schools (girls). — Written work and specimens of uoedle-work. III. Elementary primary schools (boys and girls). — Written work and manual work- IV. Plans of schools and documents. — Pedagogical Bulletin, etc. Ornans, ptrimary schools of, Doubs. — Collective exhibit of school work. Pardonnet, Mile., Colombier-Fontaiue, Doubs.— Needle-work by pupils. Doll dressed in 18 hours by a child of 10 years. Pas-de-Calais, D^partevxent du. — (1) Collective exhibit of scholars' work from the Erimary schools of Contes, Boulogne-surMer, Etaples, Sanity, Auchy-les-Haudiu, •uzi-le-ChAteau, Billy-Bercleau, Croisilles, Hermies, Bnire-le-Sec, Licques, Samer, Lumbres, Campa^ne-h^s-Hesdin, Montreuil, St.-Pierre-lfes-Calais. (2) Plans of the schools of Marck, Mametz, and Martin-au Lacy. Pavthier, Mme., Ecole de Granvelle, Besangon, Doubs. — Needle-work by pupils. Pechin, Mmc, Audinconrt, Doubs. — Needle-work by scholars. Planty ^- Girardot, Doubs. — Specimens of stone carving and clay modeling by pu- pils of elementary schools. Pollet, Presles-et-Thierry, Aisne. — Maps drawn by the pupilsof an elementary school; also written work. Pontarlier, primary -ichoolsof, Doubs. — Collective exhibit of school work. Eouen. elementary schools of the city of. — Collective exhibit of pupils' work. Boy, Glamordans, Doubs. — Manual work illustrating the principles of architecture. 198 ■ POREIGK EXHIBITS — PRANCE. 193 Miissti/, primdt]j schools of, Donbs. — Pupils' work, collectivn oxhihii; Seine- Inferieure, collective exhibit of Ihe Departun'Ht of. — Plans of schools, ,'5|)l.'ciiiieiis of tuanual and written work by pni)i]s of primary, higher primary, and maternal schools, of the cities of Havre, Rouen, Elbeuf, &c., Boscherville, and several rural schools; also school museums and memoirs on pedagogy, by teachers. Thitrry, Mme., Montb^liard, Doubs. — Model school attached to the normal school of Montbeliard (Ecole Annexe deTficole Normale) ; needle-work by scholars. Tunis, schools o/ (Regency of Tunis schools inspectorate, M. Machuel, inspectoi). — Work of scholars in the French and Arab schools at Tunis : Christian Brothers' (boys); College St. Charles (boys) ; College Sadiki (boys) ; Alliance Israelite (boys) ; Ecole Centrale de Tunis (girls) ; Scaurs de St. Joseph de I'Annouciation (girls) ; I^cole de Bab Carthageue (girls); ficole de la Goulette (girls). SECTION IV.— HIGHER PRIMARY AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. Biachoffsheim Foundation (Working school for young Jewesses), 13 Boulevard Bour- don, Paris (M. Maurice Block, director). — Work by the scholars — (1) Work done iu the school and workshops attached to it : 1 basket of tlowers; 1 baby's gown ; 1 che- mise; 1 shirt (reduced model); 4 exercise books (bookkeei)ing) ; 2 exercise books (music); 3 geographical maps; I ditto (larger size) ; .5 exercise hooks (English edi- tion); 10 school exercise books (first division) ; G ditto (second division); G ditto (third division). (2) Plan of the school. Documents on the school. Bordeaux, hoys' higher primary school of (£cole primaire supdrieure de gar^ons; M. Larjeteau, directeur). — Si)ecimens of work done by pupils. Bordeaux, girls' higher i)rimary school of (Ecole primaire supi^rieure de lilies h, Bor- deaux). — Specimens of work done by pupils: needle-work; artilicial flowers ; time- table ; written work. Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais), hoys' higher primary school of . — Specimens of writ- ten work and manual work iu wood and iron by pupils. Bourard, J., architect of the city of Paris, 5.'S Rue de Verneuil, Paris. — Plans of the national higher primary school of Voiron (Isere) : (1) General plan — ground floor — first floor, front ; (2) ground floor of the primary and infant schools ; (3) flrst floor of the same; (4) higher primary school, elevations, ]dan of ground floor; (5) first floor of tlie same school; (6) outside buildings, kitchens, refectories. Cernessoi), Leopold Camille, architect, late president of the municipal council of Paris, 23 Rue Michel-Ange, Paris. — Plan of the higher primary school of Montbard. C/(n«/q//f, "Paris. — Specimens of drawing by apprentices of the school of M. Christofle (gold- and silver-smith workshop). Deyrolle, l^mile. — School museum for higher primary schools. This collection has been prepared in order to meet the requirements of the higher primary schools. It consists of a wall picture (75 inches by 35 inches), representing the human skeleton ; of another picture representing the skeleton of a bat ; a collection of 100 useful and noxious insects, all indigenousto France; representatives of the myriapoda, arachnida, Crustacea, annelida, vermes (amongst which there is to be found the trichina), mol- lusca, echiuodermata, polyps, .and sponges. Geology is illustrated by a collection of rocks, one of fossils, and one of minerals. Botany is illustrated by two herbaria, one of 100 plants, the other of 50 cereals. There are also instruments for collecting and preserving specimens, and a guide-book for carrying on these operations. Dijon, city of (Cote d'Or). — Higher primary school for boys, specimens of written work, drawing, &c., by pupils. Higher primary school for girls, specimens of written work, drawing, &c., by pupils. Evrenx, technical school of. — Work of the scholars — (1) Album of graphic work (descriptive geometry and mechanics) ; (2) mechanical models executed by the pupils in the school workshops : («) apparatus to show effects of eccentrics, &c.; {b) module de petit tour; (c) Oldham joint ; ( tl I'Ecole Primaire. Rouen, city of (Seine-Inf6rieure), £cole Profe^.rionrlle ct Menagere (Mme. Lassire, head mistress). — Specimens of needle-work and other work by the pupils — cutting out, costumes from historical prints; specimens of bookkeeping and general schuol work, maps, &c. Rouen (Seine-Inf^rieure) Appreniiccf school (Lecaude, director), 53 Rue du Pr6. — This institution is a municipal f-chool for the training of apprentices for the trades of blacksmith, turner in metals, locksmith, litting engineer, joiner, engine driver, wood turner, Jtc. The apprentices have the opportunity of completing u general coui"se of studies whilst being trained in manui»l work. The pupils attend the class work four hours a day aud the workshop six hours. They remain in the school precincts from 7 a. m. to 7 p. m., and have to bring their dinner. The tuitiou is free, but the pupils must bo fully twelre years old to ne admitted, and show that they have received the elementary primary instruction. (I) Album containing ornamental and industrial drawings by pupils; (2) albums containing free-hand drawings; (^3) forged iron work by pupils; (4) locks made by pupils; (.'i) wood joining by pupils. Rouen, Mther primary and professional school of (M. T. Delarue, director). — Collec- tion of work by ptipils of the third, second, and first classes. Specimens of drawing, class work, notes and sketches of machinery, graduated series of iron and wood work, by the pupils. St.-Pierre-Us-Calais (P-as-de-Calais), higher primary school for hoys. — Specimens of written and manual work by pupils. Vier son, primary schools of. — Work of thescholars (art teacher, M. C^lerier, sculptor). The entire range of instruction in this school is intended to be introductory to special apprentice schools like the ficole des Arts et M6tiers. Work exhibited: 4 Barbotine frames, T^ plates decorated drawing, «tc. Several of those are exhibited by permis- sion of the owners. Voiron (Is^re), higher primary school of (M. Berthuin, director). — Work from the school workshops: 1 crane, 1 galvanometer, 1 catch, 1 electric bell. This school was founded in October, 188"2, in order to make preparation for the crea- tion of the national school of higher primary education preparatory to apprenticeship, which the town will soou possess. The school, meanwhile, aims at providing the in- dustries and trades of the district with young men possessing the necessary theoretical knowledge, as well as A-aluable practical knowledge. The course of studies consists of lectures on ethics, reading, penmanship, grammar, composition, literature, history, geography, modern languages, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, descrip- tive geometrv, mechanics, physics, chemistry, natural history, geometrical drawing applied to the industries, artistic drawing, bookkeeping, music, and gymnastics. The workshop instruction includes modeling and moulding (clay, plaster, and ce- ment), stone-cutting, joinery, carpentry, turnery (wood and metal), and blacksmiths' work. It is proposed to introduce weaving as a subject for workshop instruction. Special classes are conducted for candidates preparing for the training colleges of pri- mary instruction, the Ecoles des Arts et Mdtiers, and tlie veterinary colleges, as well as for those who wish to enter the administration of public ways, such as the post-office and telegraph dei)artments. SECTION v.— NORMAL SCHOOLS. Miniitry of Public Instruction and the Fine Arts. — (1) Catalogue and specimens of ob- jects relating to scientific instruction furnished to normal schools, as supplied by the following firms : Rousseau (anciennc maison), Tramond, Deyrolle (mus^e for higher primary schools and natural history diagrams for normal schools). Auzour Vve. (clastic anatomy), Lemercior Vve., Liitz (optical instruments for training colleges), and Da- guerro. (2) Collectitui of ;irtifici;il frtiirs for instruction in pomology in training col- leges, supplied by M. Conrtois, 12 Rue Moiitou-Duvernet, Paris. (3) Apparatus for instruction by means of luminous projections in normal and second-grade schools. Pro- jection examples drawn by M. Amand Durand, 69 Rue du Cardinal Lemoiue. (4) Shed 194 FOREIGN EXHIBITS — FRANCE. 195 for rnefeorologiciil instruments, as guppliodto .ill normal schoola by the Edn cat ion De- partment, (hrough tli«^ Bureau Central M{5t«5orolocriqne, 60 Rue de Grenelle, Paris (di- rector, M. Mascart), for the teachiuj^ of meteorology in normal schools. Normal Schools. — Collective exhibit of students' work, as follows: 1. Higher normal school for the training of professors of normal schools, newly or- ganized at St. Cloud, M. Tacoulet, director. — Platisof the school and geometrical draw- ings Ity the student^', with a paper on the school 1)3' M. Tacoulet. 2. Drawings, niayis, herbaria, meteorological observation."!, specimens of mannal and written work, by the students of the normal schools of Alen^on, Angers, Auteuil (near Paris), Besangon, Blois, Bourges, Caen, Cbartres, Chalons-sur-Marne, Limoges, l>e Mans, La Grande Sauve (near Bordeaux), Melon, Moutb61iard, Nice, Orleans, Rouen, Versailles. 3. Specimen.^ of manual work done by the students of the ficole Normals Speciale de Travail Manuel, formerly 10 Rue Thuillier, Paris. This school, organized tinder the ook])inding, phot()gra[)hy, ieces which can be easily adjusted or separated, and removed piece by ])iec<' an in lu tual di.ssection. (Clasti<'. fiom .vAaw, / hr( fenestra ovalis, the fenestr.a lotunda, the membranous canals, the endolymph and perilymph, the double wall of the cochlea, the infnndibu- Inn), and the action of the air inclosed in the central ear, thus representing the won- derful mechaiiiia.'i of hearing in a manner thatcan l)e understood l>y all. (6) Larynx, showing the cartilagt s, uniscles, vessels, nerves, tracheal artery, .and divisions of the bronehiosition of woody l.iyeis, the annular vessel.s— rayed and dotted, lacunie, the duramen and sap wood, cambium separ.ating the woody layer from the cortex; on this last, the 195 196 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. leaflets being separate, can be seen the epidermis, the suberose and herbaceous layers, the laticiferous vessels, and the fibers of the liber. These specimens are supplied to normal schools by the French Education Depart- ment. Courtois, Paris. — Collection of artificial fruits for the teaching of pomology in normal schools. Deyrolle, Jimile, 23 Rue de la Monnaie, Paris. — (1) Natural history diagrams. (2) Typical collections of vertebrate and invertebrate animals, with appliances used for teaching natural history in normal schools. Leviercier, Mme. Veuve, 7 Rue Vavin, Paris. — Illustrations of structural anatomy, by the late Dr. F. G. Lemercier. Models for normal school collections. (The numbers are those of the Lemercier catalogue.) (1) Structural anatomy of Man, by the late Dr. F. G. Lemercier, who was long assistant of Dr. Auzoux ; (2) stomach expanded, 2 parts; (3) structure of the stomach; (4) gastric peptic gland; (5) the same, withered ; (6) a cystose gland; (7) gastric mucous gland; (8) glands of Brunuer; (9) structure of the small intestines; (10) glands of Lieberkiihn; (11) villus of the small intestines ; (17) anatomical model — VEcorclie de Houdon; (19) maxilla, Avith its support; (20) big molar tooth; (22) typical foot of the horse; (24) a bean; (25) a germ ; (26) a small nut; (27) two grains of pollen. Liitz, optical instrument maker, 82 Boulevard St.-Germain, Paris. — (1) Collection of optical instruments in use in the training colleges. (2) Lamps and lanterns for dissolving views ; appliances specially adapted for primary schools. MM. Nicolas et Marcotte, architects, Caen. — Plans of the training college for male, teachers (ficole Normale d'Instituteurs) of Caen (Calvados). Paris, model school for girls annexed to the Paris Female Normal School. — 9 books of children's work; quarterly ex.araination papers; one book of maps from memory. Teachers' Inslitutes. — A collective exhibit of pedagogical memoirs and didactic works b,v schoolmasters, including essays on pedagogical questions by M. Serrurier, of Havre, and local monographs on all the villages and hamlets of the arrondissement of St. Omer (Pas-de-Calais) by public school teachers. Tramond, M., 9 Rue de I'ficole de M6decine, Paris. — Objects for teaching natural his- tory in normal schools, as supplied to the French Education Department. SECTION VI.— SPECIAL EXHIBIT OF THE CITY OF PARIS. I. School ARCHITECTURE. — Plans of schools : (1) Training college for teachers at Auteuil, near Paris; architect, M. Salleron ; finished in 1882; outlay, 2,025,000 francs, including the cost of the school furniture, which amounted to 175,000 francs. (2) Higher primary school, Arago, Place de la Nation, Paris; cost, 980,000 francs. This building coutains 12 class-rooms, 2 large amphitheaters, 1 examination hall, a library, 3 drawing clas's-rooms, 1 modeling-room, &c.; architect, M. Deconchy. (3) Boys' })rimarv school. Avenue Duquesne, Paris; M. Leroux, architect. (4) Infant school {asile) for 220 children. Rne Jourdain, Paris; architect, M. Salleron. (5) Elementary school for boys and girls, Rue Blanche; architect, M. Salleron. (G) Specimen of tem- porary schools ; architect, M. J. A. Bouvard. In order to insure the immediate exe- cution in the metropolis of the law of March 28, 1882, making attendance at school compulsory, the town of Paris was obliged to construct in great haste several tem- porary buildings designed to receive the children for whom there was no accommo- dation in the schools. A system of light construction in wood, with double-existing partitions, was adopted, and enabled the municipality to open, within five months after the iiromulgatiou of the new act, 58 new schools, accommodating 15,000 children. (7) School group (containing a school for boys, a school for girls, and an infant school). Rue Oudiuot, Paris; architect, M. Deconohy. (For fuller details, see the Special Catalogue of the City of Paris.) II. Education — {Direction de VEnneignemevt primaire). — M. Carriot, directeur; M. Du])lan, sous-directeur. (1) Documents relative to the organization of the institu- tion of public instruction of Paris (see specially the Notice sur les etablisseinents d'en- Heif/nemciit puhlic de la Ville de Paris, 1864). (2) Pedagogical works of the male and female teachers. Primarij schoolx. — Teacher's desk; school table (2 seats), combination table for the writing, drawing, or needle-work class, slated blackboard, metrical compendium, counter, 198 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. Marseilles, Mnnlcijyal School of Fine Arts at. — (I) Studies iu oil niiiutiug (Iioud of a ■woman, ligures iroui livin.u- models); (2) yauel of drawiugs li'oiu casts aud living model; (o) portfolio of graduated series of drawings. Nice, National School of JJecorai ire Art at. — (1) Panel of drawings; (y) arobifeetural drawings; (3) portfolifi of drawings. Paris Nalioiiiil School of Decoraiivc Art, .5 Kuc dc I'iScole de Mcdocino, diicctcjr, M. Louvrier dc Lajolais. — This school, a coutiunation of that founded by J. J. iJachelier in l/G."), is entirely free. It contains day and evening classes, and holds also public classes on Sunday. Work exhibited : (1) Speciuiens of original design in decorative art: design for a bath-room, a fountain, a clock, a fan with its box, a casket, candle- sticks, &c. ; (2) figure drawing from the living model; (?>) portfolio conlaiuiug a graduated series of drawings and designs (figure, decorative art, architecture, anat- omy, &c.). Faris National Draiving School for Girls, Rue de Seine. — Specimens of drawing from nature: heads (chalk), dowers, water colors, etchings, engravings, original design (necklace with pearls), &c. Foitia-8, School of Art of. — Specimens of students' work: (1) Panel of drawings, etchings, steel engravings, &c. ; (2) portfolio of drawings. Iiotthaix, Naiioniil School of Indunirial Art at. — (1) Panel of drawings; (2) portfolio. St. Fierre-les- Calais School of Fndustrial Art. — Specimens of drawing and designs for lace. Toulouse, Municipal School of Fine Arts of. — (1) Figure studies in oil painting, from the living model; (2) architectural design ; (3) studies in ornament; (4) portfolio of drawings. Tours, Municipal School of Fine Arts at (especially intended for the training of architects aud artisans iu the building trades). — (1) Specimens of architectural design, study of perspective ; (2) stereotomy, drawings, and models in plaster, done by stu- dents and pupils; (3) T)-ait de hois, wood models, by students; (4) portfolio of draw- ings. Valenciennes, academic schools of art at. — (1) Studies of decorative painting — flowers, vase, figure, &c. — in oil; (2) panel of drawings; (3) portfolio of drawings. APPLIANCES. Avoine, Paris. — Three casts — the three orders of architecture. Cernesson, Leopold Camille, architect, 23 Rue Michel-Ange, Paris. — Elementary- Grammar of Design (Grammairo Eldmentaire du Dessin), 2 vols. 4°, Paris ^Ducher, publisher) ; pupils' drawing charts. Dehrie, (?., Paris. — 11 anatomical figures (casts). Geneitft de Chairac et Cesiy, Bordeaux, Gironde. — Plaster casts to serve as models for geometrical and industrial drawing. Ranvier, Paris. — Drawings (geometrical), designs in zinc. Thomas, Paris.— Geometrical outlines and developable solids. SECTION VIII.— SECONDARY AND HIGHER INSTRUCTION. Lycees et Facult^s. ministry of public instruction and fine arts. Directors of secondary instruction. — (1) Maj) of France, showing the lycees and com munaj colleges, and higher normal schools for the trainiug of teachers of lycdes for boys and girls. (2) Reports and documents on secondary instruction in France. (3) Specimens of woik done by jiupils of the lycdes; essays which have been re- warded in the coi, course fjcneral, or competitive examination, held annually in Paris between the best pupils of the Parisian aud provincial lycdes of France. (4) Speci- mens of architecture of tiecondary schools (see below the names of MM. DeBaudot, Ivambert, Lecceur, Proust, Vaudremer) ; photographs of lycdes ; album o( phot )grai)hs taken at the higher normal school at S(ivres for the training of lady professors for the girls' high schools (7«ce'e« defilles). Directors of supn-ior instruction. — (I) Statistics and reports on higher education in Fiance. (2; Spc^cimens of plans and ))hotographs of buildings for faculties, schools of medicine, law, and theology. (3) Regulations of, and progiammes for admissiou to, the higher proft^ssional schools ; programmes of the examinations for academic de- grees iu the faculties of art (Irttreset science')), medicine, feiw, aud divinity. (4) Speci- mens of original work by members of the schools of inlicali(ius), Delalain fieres (scholastic publi- cations), DesFossez&Cie. (architectural publications), Diulii r \ Cie. (architectural publications), Uuc- rocq (educational publications), I). Duiuoulin & Cie., Dupoiit, Paul (educational publications), Firmin, Didot & Cie. (schola.stic and educational publications), H.achette & Cie. (scholastic and educational jiublications), Henuuycr (educational works), Hetzel & Cie. (educational publications), Jouvot Sc Cie. ' A detailed catalogtie of the publications exhibited by the Cercle de la Librairie has been issued. 200 FOREIGN EXHIBITS FKAI^CE. 201 ^ficholasticpubUcatioDS). A. M;ime & Cio. (niufic), Maseon, Georpes (niedii'iil and scientific i)ublicatioD8), V. Palui6 (schoUiHlic woiks). Em. Perun (scholastic works), Picard IJeiubeini, Plon. Noiiirit & Cie. (cduraTional publications), Pou^ssielgno frercs (educational piiblicaDous), Qnaniiu (aiiistic library), Koret (collection of books on technical education), V. Sarlit (scholastic works), Suzann(> (};eo{^rapliical material). Delagrave, C/*., publishei-, 15 Eue Soufflot, Paris. — Special exhibit of (1) tducalioual pnl)lications aiid text-books used in primary and higliev primary scliools, also in h/ce'ca and colU't/ts. [2) Geographical maps and globes. (3) Special works and models for art edncatiou, iuchuling a collection of ten casts derived from the antique by Professor Sobre ; geometrical outlines by M. Thomas ; a course of drawing in sixty-four sheets ; orders of architecture, by M. Avoine — a collection of casts illustrating the Corinthian, Doric, Ionian, and Tuscan orders of architecture ; Method of Anatomy, by Paul Colin and Debrie — this consists of nine basso-relievos (height 39.37 inches), illustrating os- teology, myology, and general anatomy; museum collection, by Leon Ch6deville, under the direction of MM. Claude Sauvageot, Auguste Racinet, and Louvrier de Lajolais — this consists of models executed, first, according to geometrical formula? ; second, according to types selected from antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the 17th and 18th centuries. Pichc, 31., 8 Rue Montpensier, Pan.— (1) Documents relative to the educational foun- dations of the late M. Tourasse. (2) Documents relating to the Cercle populaire d'ed- iicalion atLun6ville, presented by the sous-pr6fet at Lun6ville, M. E. Lafargue. Rothsckild, M., 13 Rue des Saints Ptires, Paris. — Scientific works for school libraries antl rewards. 201 AWARDS BY THE JURY ON EDUCATION, WORLD'S INDUSTRIAL AND COTTON CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, NEW ORLEANS, LA., 1884-'85. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, July 31, 1885. Dear Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith the list of awards made by the jury appointed to examine educational exhibits at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition. organization. The jury commenced work on the 13th day of April, and about six weeks were required for the completion of their labors. The chairman was designated by the chairman of the committee on awards, Col. Gus. A. Breaux, and a secretary was elected by the jury. The members of the jury were Hon. J. W. Hoyt, ex-governor of Wyoming; Hon. J. George Hodgius, LL.D., deputy minister of education, Ontario, Canada; Mon. B. Buisson, of France ; Mr. Ichizo Hattori, of Japan; Eev. Walter Hillman, LL.D., president of Central Female Institute, Clinton, Miss.; and William O. Eogers, Esq., for many years superintendent of city schools, New Orleans. classifioation op exhibits. The first subject considered by the jury was the classification of ex- hibits. Certain classes of exhibits were assigned to them. These classes contained an enumeration of many articles that would naturally be found in an educational exhibit, but it was diflicult to say to which class much of the material belonged. Grouping the exhibits in three classes cor- responding with the principal educational divisions adopted by the ex- position management seemed more difficult than the preparation of a new classification based on the divisions commonly used in the collec- tion of educational statistics. The following classification proved of service in bringing exhibits to a common plane for comparison: 1. City schools. 2. Kiudergiirten. 3. Normal schools. 4. Business colleges. 5. Private and public schools for secondary instruction. 6. Institutions lor the higher 202 LETTER ACCOMPANYING LIST OF AWARDS. 203 instruction of women. 7. Colleges and universities. 8. Schools of science. 9. ^Man- ual training schools. 10. Schoolsof luediciueand uurse-traiuingschools. 11. I^ibrary collections and appliances. 12. Schools of art. 13. Schools for th«! blind. 14. Schools for the deaf and dumb. Or,. Schools for feeble-minded children. 16. Reformatory in- stitutions. 17. Charitable institutions. 18. Subjects for special consideration : (a) Drawing; (fi) ornamental pen work ; (c) sewing work; (d) instruction in practical mechanics; (e) herbaria; (/) museums, lit. Appliances: (a) Furniture; (/>) maps, globes, and casts; (c) drawing models, charts, and copies; (rf) pedagogical, literary, and scientific works; (e) object lessons, material, etc.; (/) gymnastic apparatus; iO) special devices. It is to be hoped tliat a committee of expert educators will determiiu^ upon an American classification of educational exhibits, that it may be used in the arrangement of pedagogical museums, and adopted by such future expositions within our national boundaries as give attention and place to school exhibits. STANDARD OF JUDGMENT. It was found impossible to adopt absolute standards of compaiison. There is no list of points of excellence that should appear in each ex- hibit of an educational nature, nor any estimate of the relative imi)()r- tance of qualities necessarily possessed by such exhibits. It was voted at one of the first meetings of the jury that, without instituting a formal comi)arison between one exhibit and another, all should be carcliillx considered and awarded recognition aceordingto merit. The jiidgijicnr and experience of the jurors enabled them to set a value upon exhibits according to intrinsic merits, and to see in them cither the results of wise instruction, or material for aiding the teacher, or means for dm-el oping the jnipil. The conclusions reached by the several mecibers of the jury showed that the standards of judgment (ieveloi)ed by their ed ucational experience ])roduced similar results when apj^lied to exhibits not i)0ssessing marked peculiarities. GRADES OF AAVARDS. The extent and variety of educational exhibits made necessary quite a number of different awards. Collective and individual displays, com- mercial and instructive exhibits, could not be brought into two or three classes without ignoring ujany fundamental distinctions. The awards provided for by the committee in charge of jury woik were not sutTl- cient, and the jury on education was permitted to make its own ilassi- fication and nomenclature of awards. Five grades of award were agre«'(l upon as follows: Grand diploma of honor, diploma, of honor, diploma, certificate oi' merit, and honorable mention. Large, compU'te, and sat- isfactory collective exhibits received the grand ^, Jnuies, London : Models for teaching mechanic arts. Roib, Dr., London : Models of appliances for physical training of children. Sbeflield Board Schools: Manu;i] \\ ork, diawinga, &c., by pupils. !>i;)lo»ia. AsKoci.alion for Ibe Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, London : Educational appliances. British and Foreign Blind Association, London: Books, relief maps, appliances for the blind. Stayne, Henry, Technical College, Loudon: Models and drawings of wood con- structions. HONDUKAS. Diploma. Spanish Honduras: Educational exhibit. JAMAICA. Diploma of honor. Jamaica : Collective educational exhibit. JAPAN. Grand diploma of honor. Educational Department of Japan : Collective exhibit, collection of teaching ap- pliances, school results, statistical charts, educational documents, books and journals of learned societies. 206 LIST OF AWARDS MEXICO. 207 Diploma of honor. Agricultural Collegr of Koiiiaba, Tokio : Complete coUecl ions of .lapaiiese afrricnlt- irral seeds, collection of insects and of dye stuffs, analysis of agricultural products, &c. Engineering College, Tokio : Models of steamships, testing machine, marine boiler, etc., thirteen in number, all made by students; collection of Japanese minerals; eighteen volumes of stndents' draTriogs, and a number of the college publications. Kitaga'sva, O., of Tokio : Manikin and special anatomical models. Musical Institution of Tokio : Musical charts, musical instruments, and publica- tions of the institution. Pedagogical Museum of Tokio: Educational appliances. School for Deaf, Dnnib, and Blind, of Kioto-fu : Large number of charts illnsl rating methods of teaching; also art and industrial work of pupils. Tokio Female Normal School : Students' drawing, jirose and poetic compositions, eewing, embroideries, paintings, kindergarten work, and simple cluniical apjiaratiis and books. Tokio Normal School: Desks, chairs^, blackboard, students' drawings, statistical charts, books, and simple physical apparatus, &c. University of Tokio : Photographs of museum, botanical garden, and university buildings; thirteen volumes of memoirs containing results of scientific investigations by professors and students, manikin and anatomical models. Fnrukawa, E., of the School for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, of Kioto-fu ; Methods of teaching the deaf, dumb, and blind. Diploma. Educational Appliance Manufacturing Company, Tokio: Chemical and physical apparatus. Kindergarten attached to Tokio Female Normal School : Teacliing appliances, play- things, and children's work. Kioto-fu Female School: Embroideries, relief work, laces, and water-color paint- ings, &c. Naka, T., of Tokio Female School : Apparatus for teaching fractions. Pedagogical Museum of Tokio : Folding geometrical figures. School of Gymnastics, Tokio: Gymnastic apparatus and publications. Tokio Female Normal School : Simple chemical apparatus. Tokio Normal School : Simple physical apparatus. Ushigome Fine Art School, Tokio: Work of students. Ccrtijica'te of mfrit. Awouori-ker, Gifu-ken, Gumba-ken, Hakodate-ken, Tshikawa-ken, Kanagavva-ken, Kumamoto-ken, Miye ken, Miyapi-ken-, Nagano-ken, Shiga-ken, Tocliigi-ken, To- kio-fu, Hiroshima-ken, Fukuoka-ken, Tokushima ktu, Iwate-ken: School i)lans and pujiils' work. MEXICO. Grand diploma of honor. Geograjthical and Exploring Commission, Vera Cruz, State of Jalai)a : Natural his- tory collections. Diploma, of honor. Academy of Fine Arts: Free-hand and architectural drawing. Ciibas, Antonio Garcia, City of Mexico: Ma[)s showing instruction in agriculture, hydrography, and political divisions. 207 20S EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Piploma. D'Acrosto, Lorenzo, City of Mexico : Natural history collections (auitnals and rep- tiles). Fournier Lyceum, City of Mexico : Specimens of penmanship and drawing. National Preparatorj' School of Art, City of Mexico: Drawings from copies. Nieto, Jose A., Cordova, Mexico : Entomological collections. Nuntes de Oca, Raphael, City of Mexico: Herbaria, animals, &c. Certificate of merit. Clemente, Antonio, Neve, Mexico : Pedagogical chart and specimens of penmanship. Gobierno del Estado, Vera Cruz, Mexico: Collection of shells. MEXICAN EXHIBIT IN WOMAN'S DEPARTMENT. Diploma of honor. City of Mexico : Representation of its national, municipal, and private schools. Diploma. Cordova Girls' School, State of Vera Cruz : Ornamental needlework. La Paz College, City of Mexico : Plans and views of college buildings. Mexico, Girls' Art and Professional School of City of: Art work, laces, embroid- ery, &c. Mexico, municipal schools of City of: Industrial and ornamental work. Mexico, national schools of City of: Views, embroidery, lacework, &c. Oaxaca, Girls' Academy of City of: Industrial and ornamental needlework. Zacona, Girls' School of City of: Ornamental needlework. FRANCE. Grand diploma of lionor. Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : Collective display illustrating public instruction generally, and especially primary, higher primary, and art education in France. City of Paris: Collective exhibit illustrating the methods, appliances, and results of primary and higher primary instruction and system of evening classes in Paris. Diploma of honor. Algeria, schools of: Collective exhibits from the French and Arab schools. Alvergniat Freres, Paris: Instruments for teaching natural philosophy (acoustics, hydrostatics, electricity, &c.) in normal schools. Amiens, Somme: Collective exhibit of primary schools. Aiizoux (Madame Veuve) et Montaudon (nephew and successor of Dr. Anzoux), Paris: Models of clastic anatomy as supplied to all normal schools. Bordeaux School of Drawing, Painting, and Architecture : Drawings and paintings by students. Bordeaux, Gironde : Plansof municipal buildingsfor primary, secondary, and higher instruction. Bordeaux Girls' Higher Primary and Professional School : Specimens of written work, needlework, embroidery, and artificial flowers by pupils. Bouvard, J., Paris: Plans of the national higher primary school of Voiron, &c. Cercle de la Librairie, Paris: (1) Collective exhibit of text books and educational works. (2) Collective exhibit of books on art. (3) Collective exhibit of maps and school appliances. 208 LIST OF AWARDS FRANCE. 209 Cernessou, L. C, Paris: Plans of higher primary school of Montbard, grammar of design and pnpils' drawing charts. Do Baudot, architect, Paris: Plans of French high schools (lyc^es). Debrie, G., Paris: Anatomical models for art schools, 11 casts. Delagrave, Ch., Paris: Collective exhibit of books, maps, globes, and drawing models. Deyrolle, fimile, Paris : Charts for object lessons in primary and higher primary schools; collection of models of natural history of normal schools. Diderot School, School of Apprentices, Boulevard de la Villette, Paris: Specimens of manual work by the pupils. Dijon, primaiy schools of: Collective exhibit of pupils' work. Doubs, elementary schools of the department of: Collective exhibit. Ecole Rationale de Dessin pour les Jeunes Filles, Paris : Drawings, water-color sketches, engravings, original designs, &c., bj' pupils. ficole Xormale Sp6ciale de Ti'avail Manuel, formerly at Paris, how at St. Cloud : Specimens of manual work and drawings by students. Geneste et Herscher, engineers, Paris : Plans illustrating the system of ventilation and heating in schools. H4vre Apprentices' School (M. Lefebvre, director): Wood and iron work and mechan- ical drawings by the pupils. H4vre elementary schools : Collective exhibit of pupils' work. Hdvre Higher Primary School (M. P^rier, director) : Specimens of industrial and other work by pujiils. Institution Livet, Nantes : Specimens of industrial work, including watchmaking by pupils. Levasseur, E., Paris: Physical and political maps of Europe, Fi'ance, French colo- nies, &c. Ligue Frangaise de I'Enseignement, Paris branch : Specimens of books, gymnastic appliances, drill guns, &c., distributed to schools by this society. Lille, academic schools of art of: Drawings and paintings by students. LiUe, city of: Collective exhibit from public, primary, and higher primary schools for boys and girls. Limoges Normal School : Students' work. Limoges National School of Decorative Art : Drawings, water-color sketches, and engravings by pupils. Lyons National School of Fine Arts : Drawings, paintings, and engravings by stu- dents. Marseilles, ficole Municipale dea Beaux Arts : Drawings, paintings, «fec., by stu- dents. Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts, Paris: (1) Collective exhibit of draw- ings and other work, from students in the normal schools of St. Cloud, Paris, Rouen, Montb^liard, Besangon, La Grande Sauve (Bordeaux), &c. Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts: (2) Selections of plans of several pri- mary, higher primary, and normal schools, plans of lyc6es, colleges, and faculties (universities). Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (3) Specimens of the didactic mate- rial, books, maps, globes, scientific apparatus, &c., distributed to primary and nor- mal schools. Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (4) Statistics and documents bearing on primary, secondary, and higher education in France. Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts : (.5) Types of art museums and re- ward cards for elementary schools, collection of casts for teaching drawing, drawings by candidates for the certificates of drawing master, collective exhibit of drawings and paintings by students of several schools of art. 209 210 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Mus6e P^dagogique, Paris : Documents illustrating its origin and collections, speci- mens of circulating library, and monthly periodical {Revue P6dagogique) issued by the authorities of the museum. Nice, ficole Nationale des Arts Decoratifs: Drawings and original designs by stu- dents. Nord, department of : Collective exhibit of primary and higher primary schools. Paris, city of: (1) Specimens of manual and other \rork done by pupils in element- ary schools. Paris, city of : (2) School work and drawings by pupils in higher primary schools for boys. Paris, city of: (3) School work, drawings, specimens of needlework, embroidery, artificial flowers, painting on silk and china, by pupils in higher primary and profes- sional schools for girls. Paris, city of: (4) Specimens of drawings, modeling, and other work done by pu- pils of the free evening classes and commercial courses (cours d'adultes). Paris, Ecole Nationale des Arts Decoratifs : Drawings and original designs by stu- dents. Ravaisson, F., Paris : Series of reproductions of master works of art. Roubaix, Ecole Nationale des Arts Industriels : Pupils' work, drawings, and origi- nal designs for laces, &c. Rouen, ficole Manuelle d'Apprentissage (M. Lecaud6, director) : Wood and iron- work, and drawing by the pupils. Rouen, elementary schools: Collective exhibit of pupils' work. Rouen, Higher Primary and Professional School for Boys (M. Delarue» director): Specimens of industrial and other work by pupils. Rouen, higher primary schools for girls: Specimens of needlework, dressmaking, millinery, &,c., by pupils. Seine-Iuf6rieure, department of the: Collective exhibit of primary schools — plans, scholars' work, documents, &c. Society des Creches, Paris : Model of a crfeche, plans, photographs, and documents relating to the French crfeches. Soci6t6 des Ecoles Enfantines, Paris: Model and plans of infant schools, appli- ances, and methods. Soci6te pour I'Encouragement de I'lnstruction Primaire parmi les Protestants de France, Paris : Documents, specimens of drawing, and other work by students of the Protestant Normal School at Courbevoie. Soci6t6 pour I'Enseignement Professiouel des Femmes, Foudatiou Elisa Lemouuier, Paris: Collective exhibit of art work by pupils. Soci6t6 pour I'lnstruction £l6mentaire, Paris: Specimens of work done by stu- dents in the normal courses organized by the society. Toulouse, ficole Municipale des Beaux Arts : Drawings and original designs by stu- dents. Tours, ficole R^gionale des Beaux Arts : Drawings and architectural models in wood and plaster by students. Tr61at, Emile, director of the Special School for Architecture, Paris : Plans illustra- ting the lighting and ventilation of school-rooms. Tunis, Schools of: Collective exhibit from French and Arab schools. Union Frangiaise de la Jeunesse, Paris: Documents, specimens of work, and draw- ings by students. Vaudremer, architect, Paris: Plans of French high schools (lyc^es). Diploma. Algiers, ficole Nationale des Beaux Arts: Students' work, drawings, «fec. Amiens, city of: Documents and statistics showing the system of school savings banks. Armengaud Aln6, Paris : Panels for the decoration of class-rooms. 210 LIST OF AWARDS FRANCE. 211 Auteiiil, Normal School of, near Paris : Linear drawing by students. Besanfon, primary schools of: Collective exhibit. Bontheaux, Sombaconr, Doubs : School museum. Boulogne-sur-Mer, higher Primary Boys' School of: Specimens of manual and other work. Bourges, ficole Nationale dea Beaux Arts : Drawings by students. Bridoux, Gaille-Fontaine, Seine-Infdrieure: Geographical maps by pupils. Christofle, silversmith, Paris : Drawings by apprentices of the school attached to hia workshop. Clermont-Ferrand, ficole R^gionale des Beaux Arts : Drawings by students. Creuse, primary schools of the department of: Specimens of pupils' work and pre- liminary training in manual work. Dijon, ficole Nationale des Beaux Arts : Original designs and xiaintings by students. Dijon, elementary schools of: Manual work and clay modeling by boys. Dijon, higher primary schools of: Drawings and manual work. Dorangeon, Mu86e Industrie], Paris : Charts for teaching object lessons in elemen- tary schools. Douai, academic schools of arts of: Drawings by students. Doubs, maternal schools of: Collective exhibit. Doubs, girls' primary schools of: Collective exhibit of needlework — (1) School at Miserey; (2) school at Naujancourt (Mme. Emonot) ; (3) school at Pontarlier (Mme. Mignot); (4) Colombier-Fontaine (Mme. Pardonnet) ; (5) Granville School, at Besan- 5on (Mme. Peanthier) ; (6) school at Audincourt (Mme. P6chin) ; (7) school of Mes- dames Planty and Girardot. Ecole de Travail, Bischoflfsheim Foundation (working school for young Jewesses), Paris : Scholars' needlework and artificial flowers. Fr6t6 & Cie, purveyors to the ministry of public instruction, Paris: Specimens of gymnastic apparatus for primary and normal schools. Garcet et Nisius, Paris : School desks and material for object lessons in infant schools. H^ment, F61ix, et Cic6ri, Paris : Collection of twelve drawings illustrating the principal terms of geography. Ikelmer, Paris : Terrestrial globe for schools. Isfere, maternal schools of the department of: Collective exhibit. Jeannot, fimile, Belleherbe, Doubs : School museum (agricultural). Lecceur, architect, Paris : Plans of high schools for boys (lyc^es). Lecoq, Paris : Model of an adjustable drawing table and seat, and apparatus for dis- playing maps. Lemercier, Mme. Veuve : Illustrations of structural anatomy ; models supplied to normal schools. Liitz, Paris : Instruments of optics as supplied to normal schools. Marne, maternal schools of the department of : Collective exhibit. Melun, Girls' Higher Primary and Professional School of (Seine-et-Marne) : Speci- mens of needlework and millinery by pupils. Menneglier, Navenne, Haute-Sa6ne : Herbariuu). Montauban Protestant Ori)hanage : Specimens of industrial work (printing) by the orphans. Montb^liard, Doubs : Collective exhibit of the Montbdliard primary schools. Narjoux, F61ix, architect, Paris : Works on school architecture. Nicolas et Marcotte, architects, Caen, Calvados: Plans of the Normal School at Caen. Nord, department of: Specimens of the work done in the infant schools. Nord, higher primary schools of the department of (Fournes and Hautbourdiu) : Specimens of manual work by pupils. Paris, Model School of the Female Normal School : Pupils' work. 211 212 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Patronage des Enfants de I']6b6ni8terie, Paris : Ornamental Tvood carving by ap- prentices. Petit, Pierre, Paris: Photographs of school buildings, class rooms, &c., and trans- lucid photographs on canvas for window blinds in schools. Poitiers, Ecole R^gionale des Beaux Arts : Drawings and engravings by students. Pontarlier, Doubs : Collective exhibit of school work. Poulain, M., Higher Primary School at lUiers, Eure-et-LoLr : Specimen of manual work by pupils. Provost Orphanage, Cempuis, Oise : Specimens of school work and industrial work by orphans of both sexes. Eainsart, Rouen, ficole Bachelet: School museum showing the local industries. Rauvier, Paris: Geometrical drawing models in zinc. Reiber, fimile, architect, Paris : Panels of school decorations and drawing method. Rousseau (Ancienne Maison, now termed Soci6t6Anonyme de ProduitsChimiques), Paris : Apparatus for teaching physics and chemistry in primary and normal schools. St. Omer, Pas-de-Calais : Local histories by elementary school teachers. St. Pierre-l^s-Calais, ficole Municipale d'Art D6coratif : Drawings by students. Ste. Foy, Colouie Protestante de : Specimens of written and industrial work by in- mates of the reformatory. Seine-Inf6rieure, elementary schools of: Collective exhibit of needlework: Mme. Bnsquet, Oissel ; Mme. Dupont, Maromme ; Mme. Huard, Rouen ; Mme. Lamesle, Ba- reule ; Mme. Sceur Lefranc, Aumale. Seiue-Inf6rieure, maternal schools of the department of: Collective exhibit. Serrurier, HAvre: Pupils' work, pedagogical works, scientific material, , N. Y. : Excellent museum. St. Mary's College, New Orleans, La. : Students' work and phonography. St. Mary's Training School, Feehanville, 111. : Industrial work, shoemaking, and tailoring. St. Patrick's School, Hartford, Conn. : Pupils' work. Honorable inention. Assumption Academy, Utica, N. Y. : Pupils' work. Christian Brothers' Academy, Albany, N. Y. : Pupils' work. 230 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Immaculate Conception School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. Maubattan Academy, New York City : Pupils' work. Sacramento Institute, Sacramento, Cal. : Pupils' work. St. Ali^honsus's School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. St. Ann's School, Philadelphia, Pa. : Pupils' work. St. Bridget's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. Gabriel's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. John's Collegiate Institute, Washington, D. C. : Pupils' work and drawings. St. John's School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. St. John's School, Chicago, 111. : Pupils' work. . St. Joseph's College, Buffalo, N. Y. : Students' work in languages. St. Joseph's School, Chicopee, Mass. : Pupils' work and museum. St. Joseph's S:;hool, Detroit, Mich. : Pupils' work. St. Joseph's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. Michael's College, Santa F^, N. Mex. : Photographs aud photography used in teaching. St. Michael's School, West Hoboken, N. J. : Pupils' work. St. Mary's School, Melrose, N. Y. : Pupils' work. St. Mary's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. Mary's School, Yonkers, N. Y. : Pupils' work and museums. St. Mary's School, Jersey City, N. J. : Pupils' work. St. Nicholas's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. Patrick's Commercial Academy, Chicago, 111. : Pupils' work. St. Patrick's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. Patrick's School, Newark, N. J. : Pupils' work. St. Paul's School, Philadelphia, Pa. : Pupils' work. St. Teresa's School, New York City : Pupils' work. St. Vincent's School, Baltimore, Md. : Pupils' work. DEPARTMENT OF COLORED EXHIBITS. Diploma. Colored School of Washington, D. C: Pupils' work, drawings, &c. Lowery's Industrial Academy, Huutsville; Ala. : Silk culture. . State University of Kentucky, Louisville, Ky. : Class and industrial work. Tuskegee Normal School, Tuskegee, Ala. : Students' class aud industrial work. Certificate of merit. Colored schools of Little Rock, Ark. : Pupils' work. Colored schools of Wilmington, Del. : Pupils' work. Colored schools of New York City : Pupils' work. Roger Williams University, Nashville, Tenn. : Pupils' work. Honorable mention. Colored schools of Evausville, lud. : Class work. Colored schools of Indianapolis, Ind. : Puj)ils' work. Colored schools of Brooklyn, N. Y. : Drawings. Colored schools of Charleston, S. C. : Maps, drawings, &c. Colored schools of Knoxville, Tenn. : Pupils' work. Mt. Vernon School, Camden, N. J.: Class work. Stark, Turner, Mobile, Ala. : Mechanical contrivance. Wilberforce University, Wilberforce. Ohio: Students' work and herbaria. 230 LIST OF AWARDS COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT. 231 FREEDMAN'S AID SOCIETY. Diploma of honor, Freedman's Aid Society of the M. E. Church : Collective educational exhibit. Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenu. : Class and industrial work. Diploma. Claflin University and South Carolina Agricultural College and Mechanical Insti- tute, Orangeburg, S. C. : Class and industrial work. Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. : Class and industrial work. Certificate of merit. Baldwin Seminary, Baldwin, La. : Class work, maps, &c. Burrell Seminary, Selma, Ala. : Pupils' work. Houston Seminary, Houston, Tex. : Class work. Little Rock University, Little Rock, Ark. : Class work, maps, &G. Rust University, Holly Springs, Miss. : Students' work. Honorable mention. Bennett Seminary, Greensborough, N. C. : Class work. Centenary Biblical Institute, Baltimore, Md. : Students' work. Cookman Institute, Jacksonville, Fla. : Pupils' work. East Tennessee Wesleyan Seminary, Athens, Tenn. : Class work. Holston Seminary, New Market, Teun. : Students' work. La Grange Seminary, La Grange, Ga. : Pupils' work. Mount Zion Seminary, Carroll County, Ga. : Pupils' work. New Orleans University, New Orleans, La. : Class work. Philander Smith College, Little Rock, Ark. : Students' class work. Wiley University, Marshall, Tex. : Class work. COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT. Grand diploma of honor. H. A. Ward, Rochester, N. Y. : Collective museum of zoology, paleontology, and mineralogy. Diploma of honor. BauBcb & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y. : Optical instruments. Foote, A. E., Philadelphia, Pa. : Museum and collections in mineralogy. Mackintosh, Dr., Chicago, 111. : Solar microscope, optical instruments, &c. Mason, L. W., Boston, Mass. : Music charts. New England Publishing Company, Boston, Mass. : Pedagogical works and period- icals. Queen, James W., & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. : Physical apparatus. Sargent, D. A., Cambridge, Mass.: Gymnastic apparatus. Scribner's, Charles, Sons, New York, N. Y. : Astronomical charts (Trouvelot). Shilling, George, Washington, D. C. : Theodolites, surveying instruments. Union School Furniture Company, Battle Creek, Mich. : Collective exhibit of school furniture. 231 232 EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Diploma. American Globe and School Supply Company, Seneca, N. Y. : Globes. Appleton, D., & Co., New York, N. Y. : School charts. Bancroft, A. L., & Co., San Francisco, Cal. : Charts and maps. Bardeen, C. W., Syracuse, N. Y. : Educational publications. Benjamine, E. B., New York, N. Y. : Chemical apparatus. Bradley, Milton, Springfield, Mass. : Kindergarten material. Buiitalo School Furniture Company, Bufialo, N. Y. : Collective display of school furniture. Butler, E. H., & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. : Charts and maps. Colby & Co., New York, N. Y. : Historical chart. Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. : Charts (Monroe's). Ginn, Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. : Globe and charts. Hartshorn, Stewart, New York City. : Map roller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. : Special collection of publications. Johnson, A. J., & Co., New York, N. Y. : Cyclopaedia. Luckhardt & Alten, Cassel, Germany : Surveying instruments. Musselmau, D. L., Gem City Business College, Quincy, III. : Penmanship. New York Silicate Book-Slate Company, New York, N. Y. : Slates and blackboards. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland: Object lesson charts. Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 111. : Maps and atlas. Ritchie, E. S., & Sons, Boston, Mass. : Physical api>aratus (common school set). Steiger, E., New York City: Kindergarten material. Union School Furniture Company, Battle Creek, Mich.: Dustless crayon. Wbitall, Heniy, Camden, N. J. : Tellurium and planispheres. Whitcomb, A. J., Boston, Mass.: School furniture. Ceriificate of merit. Cooper, J. Ramsay : Readiug chart. Cram, George F., Chicago, 111. : Maps. De Garis «fe Paine, Milwaukee, Wis. : Aid to bookkeeping, Parmenter Crayon Company, Waltham, Mass. : White and colored crayons. Pratt, D. C, & Co., New York. City : Erasers and school slates. Rocklotf, Johannes, Cassel, Germany : Relief maps. Zimmerman, C. F., Philadelphia, Pa. : Chart of -musical notation. 232 INDEX TO PART I. Academy of the Sacred Heart, Jersey City, C3. Academy of the Sacred Heart, Omaha, 22J. Accomac County, Va., public schools, 72. Acklev, Iowa, public schools. 40, 219. Adclbcrt College of Western Reserve University, 69. Apassiz, Mrs., 217. Abreus, Frdie Antoinc, 200. Akcrs, John W., 20. Albany, N. T., public schools, 74, 224. Albert Lea, Minn., public schools, 55. Albia, Iowa, public schools, 46, 220. Alcan, Felix, 200. Alden, Mrs. C. M. N.. 71, 226. Alexandria County, Va., public schools, 72, 73. Alexandria, La., ])ublic schools, 50,221. Alexandria, Va., public schools, 72,73,74. Alexis, Brother, 228. Aleeria, schools of, 191, 197, 208, 210. Alleghany Countv, Va., public schools, 72. Allyn, John, 85, 2i4. Alverginat Frdres, 195, 208. American Bible Society. 1.36, Ml. American Globe and School Supply Company, 232. American Missionary Association, 22, 149, 151, 228. American School Book Company, 85. American Unitarian Association, 136. Amherst College, 103. Amiens, city and schools of, 187, 191, 208, 210, 212. Ammendalc Institute of the Christian Brothers, 162, ::2S. Anderson Foii'alo Seminary, 101,226. Anderson. Iiid., public schools, 219. Andrews Collegiate Institute, 167. Antioch College, 69. Appleton & Co., D., 85, 89, 137, 214,232. Armeugaud. Ain6, 188, 210. Armstrong, H. Clay, 7. Art Union. Sf>uthorn, 50. Ashland, Va., public schools, 72. Association for till' Oial Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, London, 1 17, 206. Assumption Academy of the Christian Brothers, 107, 229. Atlanta, Ga., public schools, 74, 218. Atlanta Univeisity, 149,228. Atlantic County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. Atlantic, Iowa, public schools, 40, 219. Augusta County, Va.. public schools, 72. Aurora, 111., public schools, 45, 218. Austin, Tex., public schools, 227. Auteuii, normal school of, 21). Auzoux, Mine. Veuve, and Montaudou, 195, 208. Avery Institute, 150,228. Avoine, M., 198, 212. Baili^re et Fils, J. B., 200. Baldwin, Miss J., 216. Baldwin Seminary, 162, 231. Baldwin University, 69. Ballingall, P. G., 46. Ballinioie Manual Training School, 221. Baltimore public schools, 221. Bancroft & Co., A. L., 85, 89, 214, 232. Banes, J. de, 46. Bardeen, C. W., 137, 232. Barnard, Henrv, 37, 137, 214. Barnes & Co. ,'A. S., 85, 137, 214. Baschet, L., 200. Bath, city of, 206. Bath County, Va., public schools, 72. Baumc-l^s-Dames, schools of, 191, 212. Bausch & Lomb, 37, 127, 231. Baylies' Commercial College, 47. Bavvel. Mile., 191,212. Beach Institute, 150,228. Beatrice, Ncbr., public schools, 60,223. Bedford County, Va., public schools, 72. Beech Grove School for Girls, 72, 226. Belin, Vouvo et Fils, 200. Bellevue Hospital Training School for Nurses, 142. Bellevuo, O., public schools, 65. Bcllicr, Mme., 187, 212. Bell Plaine, Iowa, public schools, 40, 219. Belpre, O., public schools, 65. Benjamin, E. B., 37, 133, 232. Bennett Seminary, l(i2. 231. Benwood, W. Va., public schools, 73. Bergen Countv, N. J , public schools, 62, 63. Bertaux, E., 189. Bertboz. M.. 191. 212. Besan^on, schools of. 191, 211. Bethune, Mrs. R., 216. Bickuoll. T. W.. 7. Biddlo University, 164. Birmingham, England, school board of, 165,206. Bis(;hotfsheim Foundation, Frauce, 193,211. Bishop Scabury Mission, Minn., 59. Bi.s.son, M., 189, 212. Blackburn, Miss S., 46, 219. Blind, institutions for the, 14, 147, 172. Blutltou, O., iiublic schools, 65. Boardman, Miss E. D., 217. Bonasse, Lebel, 200. Bond, Frank, 219. Bonnard, P., 189,213. Bonuo, Abb£-, 189, 212. Boonton. N. J., public schools, 62. Booth, Miss M. A., 217. Bordeaux, city and schools of, 188, 193, 197, 199, 208. Boston, ilass.. Library Bureau of, 10, 138. piibjic schools of, 84, 221, 222. College of Physicians and Surgeons of, 142. Fieo Evening Drawing Sclxiol of, 221. Boulogi)e-sur-Mer, .school of, 193,211. Bouiges, schools of, 195, 197, 211. Bouthiaux, M , 189,211. Bouvaid, J., 19!, 208. Boyden's Kindergarten, Miss Alice, 50,222. Bradley, Milton, 94, 95, 232. Bridgeton, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. Bridbux, M., 189,211. British and Fcieign Blind Association, London, 147, 165, £06. Brooklyn coloied schools, 164,230. Bio'iks, T. H.,61. Btothcrs of the Christian Schools, 23, 151-162, 228. Brown, Lo Roy D.. 21, 64, 70. Brown Seminary, 162. Brown's School, 55. Brown University, 71. Brunuer, John H., I."i7. Brunswick County, Va., public schools, 72. Bryan, Tes., public schools, 227. Bu'cblel Colleffe. 69. Buckley. A. E . 21. Buffalo"School Furniture Company, 89, 232. Buisson, B., 27. Buquet, M.. 191. Bureau of Education, U. S., 9, 19, 34, 39, 89, 95, 103, 127-131, 134, 130-137, 139-141, 142, 147, 214. 233 234 INDEX TO PART I. Burke, E. A.. 7. Burliugton Countj', N. J., public schools, C2, 63. Burlington, Iowa, public schools, 40, 219. Burnham, Miss S., 217. Burrell Seminary, 231. Business coUejies, 98. Butcher, B. L., 7. Butler, J. H., 86, 214. Butler &. Co., E. H., 80, 89, 214, 232. Caen, normal school of, 195. Caille, M., 190, 212. California Kindergarten Training School, 95, 217. Calvert, Tex., public schools, 227. Cambridge, Minn., village schools, 55. Camden County, N. J., public schools, C2, 63. Camden, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. Campbell County, Va., public schools, 72. Cape May County, !N. J., public schools, 62, 63. Carleton College, 55, 222. Carlisle Indian School, 41-42, 215, Carlstadt, N. J., public school, 63. Carroll County, Va., public schools, 72. Carter, Mi.ss S., 216. Cass County, lowu, public schools, 46, 220. Cassell &Co., 86, 214. Cathedral and St. Mary's Schools, St. Paul. 154. Cathedral School, New York City, 154, 229. Cathedral School, Philadelphia, 154, 229. CauUe, M., 191, 212. Cedar Kai)id8, Iowa, public schools, 46, 219. Centenary Biblical Institute, 162, 231. Central Tennessee College, 162, 231. Cercle de la Librairie, de I'lmprinierio, et de la Papeterie, 20U, 2o8. Cercle Parisien de la Ligue Fraji^aise de I'En- soignement, 186, 209. Cernesson, Leopold Camille, 193, 193, 209. Challaniel, Ain6, 189. Chalou8-sur-Mr.rne, schools of, 191, 195. Charavay Fr^rea, 200. Charity Hospital Xurse Training School, 142, 214. Charles City, Iowa, public schools, 46,219. Charleston, "S. C, colored schools. 230. Charlotte County, Va., public schools, 72. Cbartres, normal school of, 195. Chatfleld, Minn , villnge schools, 55. Chautauqua LiteravyandScientiticCircle, 141,214. Cheney, Margaret S., and E. H. Richards, 216. Cherokee Orphan Asylum, 95, 214. Chicago, 111., 37, 74, 218. Chillicotbe, O, public schools, 65, 225. Christian Brothers, 23, 151-162, 228. Christian Biothers' Academy, 157,229. Christian Brothers" College, Memphis, 158, 228, 229. Christian Brothers' Colle'ge, St. Louis, 158, 229. Christian Brothers' schools, New York City, 229. Christian Brothers' schools, St. Paul, Minn.]l 229. ChrLstofle, M., 193,211. Cincinnati public schools, 65, 225. Cincinnati University, 69. Circleville. O., puldic schools, 66, 225. Claesen. M., 200. Claflin University, 162,231. Clark, Edward, 141. Clarke, MissC. H., 217. Clarke County, Va., public schools, 72. Claik Institute for Deaf and Dumb, 144. Clark University, 103,231. Clemente, Antonio, 208. Clerc, M., 191,212. Clermont-Ferrand, school of art o^ 197, 211. Cleveland, O., public schools, 66. Clinton Academy, .50,221. Clinton, Iowa, public schools, 46,219. Coclieris, Mme. Pauline, 189, 212. Cochet, M. 190.212. Cochrane. Hatfie, 219. Colby & Co., 232. Colin et Cie.. Armand, 200. College of Christian Brothers, St. Louis, 158,229. College of Physicians and Surgeons, Boston, Mass., 142. College Saitite-Barbe, 199. Collin, Mile. Laure, 187,212. Colorado Institution for the Blind, 147, 218. Colorado Institute for the Education of the Doaf, 142, 218. 234 . Colorado State Agricultural College, 217. Colorado State Industrial School, 38, 148, 215. Columbia AtheuiBum, 71, 226. Columbia Institute and National Deaf Mate Col lege, 144. Columbus Junction. Iowa, schools, 46, 219. Columbus, Ind., public schools, 219. Columbus, Nebr.. public schools, 60, 223. Columbus, O., public schools, 66, 225. Comstock, Mrs. A. B., 217. Concord, N. H., public schools, 61, 223. Connecticut State Reform School, 38, 148, 215. Cookman Institute, 163, 231. Cooper, J. Ramsay, 232. Cordova Girls' School, Vera Cruz, 208. Cornell College, 46. Coudrav, M., 190, 213. Coulet.'T., 191, 212. Courtois, M., 196,213. Couvey, I., 190, 213. CowpeVthwait &, Co., 86, 89, 232. Crab Orchard, Nebr., school, 60. Craig County, Va.. public schools, 72. Cram, George F., 232. Crawfordsville, Ind., public schools, 219. Creches, Soci6t6 des, 180. Creighton CoUege, 61. Creston, Iowa, public schools, 40, 219. Crete, Nebr., public schools, 60, 223. Creuse, schools of the department of, 191, 211. Crosby, Miss May. 9, 94, 214. Cuba Street School, Mobile, 164. Cui>as, Antonio Garcia, 207. Culpeper County, Va., public schools, 72. Cumberland County, N. J., public schools, 62. 63. Curtiss Business College, 56. Danville County. Va., public schools, 72. Danville, Va., public schools, 72. Davenport, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. Davey's School, Vernon L., 63, 224. David, M., 190, 213. Davis, Mrs. A. L.,216. Dayton, O., 68, 225. D'Acrost©, Lorenzo, 208. Deaf and dumb, schools for the, 14, 144, 172 De Beaudot, M., 199, 209. Dobrie,G.,198, 209. De Garis & Paiue, 232. Delagrave, Ch., 189, 201, 209. Delahaye et Lecrosnier, 200. Delalai'n Fr^res, 200. Delaruelle, M., of Elbeuf, 191, 213. Delaruelle, M., of Rouen, 191, 213. De la Salle College, 159, 228. Do la Salle Institute, 157, 228. 229. Delphi, Ind., public schools, 219. Delvaille,Dr.C., 188. Denison University, 69. Denver, Colo. , 74. Deptford School, 63. Des Fossez et Cie., 200. Des Moines, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. Detroit Radiator Company, 89. Detroit, Minn., village schools, 56. Detweiler, L.. 69. De>Tolle, Emile, 190, 193, 196, 209. Diderot School, 209. Dijon, schools of, 191, 193, 197, 209, 211. Dinwiddle County, Va., public schools, 72. Dobyns, Prof. J. R., 14, 38. Docquoy, 190, 2i:t. Dodge Center, Minn., village schools, 56. Dorangeon, M., 190,211. Douai, academic schools of art of, 197, 211. Doubs, 191,209, 211. Doucher et Cio.. 200. Doughertj', Prof. N. C, 45. Dubuque, 47. Ducrocq, M., 206. Duluth. Minn., city schools, 56. Dumoulin et Cie., D., 200. Dupont, Mnie., 191. Dupont, Paul, 200. Duval High School, 44, 218. Duvall. A.,27. East Florida Seminary, 44, 218. INDEX TO PART I. 235 East Jacksonville, Fla., graded school, 44. Eastou , Warren. 50. Eiist Tennes.seo Wesleyan University, 103, 231. E-iton, Jolin. 8, 31, 51, 04, 04, i:02, 214. ficole Alsaciciinc, 1U9. T?oolo Libro des Sciences Politiqaes, 199. ficole Mouse. 199. ficole Municipale dc Physique et Chiniie liidus- tiielles, Paris. 197. Ecole Natiouale dc Dessin pour lea Jeunes Filles, 209 £cole Norniale Sp6ciale de Travail Manuel, 195, 209. Eldora, Iowa, public schools, 47, 219. Eldtedgeeniinary, lOf, 231. Honduras, Siianisb, 206. Houubton, Mifflin &. Co., 37, 138, 232. House of Refuge, Kandall's Island, 224. Houston Seminary, 163, 231. Howard Female College, 71, 226. Howard University, 103. Howe. Miss Maude, 215. Howell and Ward, 111-116. Howell graded schools, 71, 226. Howes, Miss H., 216. Hoyt, Rev. A. F., 162. Huard, Mme., 192. Hubbard, Lucius F.. 51. Hudson County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. Huiscamp. J. <3., 47. Humboldt, Nebr., public sehools, 60. Hunterdon County, N. J., pul)lic .schools, 62, 63. Huutsville, Tex., public schools, 227. .Hutchinson, Minn., village scbools, 56. Ikelmer.M., 189,211. Illinois Industrial University, 45, 218. Illinois Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 38, 144,214. Immaculate Conception Parochial School, Balti- more, 154, 230. Immaculate Conception Parochial School, New York City, 154, 259. Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa., 25, 41-42, 215. Indian Office, 41-43. Indiana, State of 21, 218. Indiana Asylum for Feeble minded Children, 218. Indianapolis, Ind., colored scbocd.s, 164, 230. Indiana Reformatory School for Women and Girls, 218. Institute of the Holy Angels, 63. International Missionary Association, 22. Iowa, State of, 20, 46, 219'. State Department of, 49. Iowa Agricutural College, 47, 219. 235 236 INDEX TO PART I. Iowa College for tlie Blind, 47, 219. Iowa Falls schools, 47, 219. lowii lusiitution lor the Deaf and Dumb, 47, 219. Iowa Stuto Noi ni:il School, 47, 219. Iowa State University, 49,219. Is^ie, schools of the department of, 187, 211. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 88, 214. Jack, Miss M. E.. 216. Jackson, 'fenn., public schools, 71,226. Jack8(invillo Graded Grammar School for Whites, 44,218. Jamaica, 1C6, 200. James City County, Va., public schools, 72. Janesville, "Wis., public schools, 73, 228. Japan, Educational Department of, 166-186, 206. Jeannot, Emile, 190, 211. Jefler.son, low.i, public schools, 48,220. Jersey City public schools, C2, 224. Je.sup, Iowa, public schools, 48. Jo.biMou & Co., A. J., 232. Jones, W. W. W..8. JouvetetCie.,200. Judson Female Institute, 25, 101, 103, 217. Kansas State Agricultural College. 220. Kearney City, Nebr., public schools, 60. Kennedy, A.' M ,219. Kentucky Deaf-Mute College. 144. Kentucky Deaf-Mute Office, Danville, 144. Kentucky Institute for Feeble-Minded Children, 38,149,214. Kentucky State University, 164.230. Kentucky University Business College, 98. Kenvon College, 09. Kiehle, D. L., 20, ,'jl. Kimball, Thomas Roger.i, 61. Kimlerearten, 13, 35, 95, 167, 214. King, A. F, A., 15. King George County. Va., public schools, 72. Kingsley, Iowa, public schools, 48. Kingsley Seminary, 163. Kiotii-fii, Deaf, Du'mb, and Blind School of, 207. Female School of, 207. Kirkwood, Louisa J., 90, Kitagawa, G.,i07. Kitchen garden exhibit, 13, 36, 95, 214. Knoxville. Tenn., schools of, 71, 226, 230. Komaba, Agricultural College of, 207. Kossuth County, Iowa, public schools, 48. La Crosse, "Wis., public schools. 73, 227. La Fayette Ind., public schools, 218. La Grande Sauve, normal school of, 195. La Grange Seminary, 163, 231. Lake City, Minn., schools, 56. Laloupe, school of 192,213. Larabei t. Marcel, 199. Lamesle, Mme.,192. Lan^e, M,, 189. Laueslioro, Minn., city schools, 56. La Paz Collei^e, 208. La Porfe, Ind , public schools, 218. La .Salle Academy, 157,229. Lavallte, M., 190, 213. Layet, Dr., 188. Leavenworth, Kans., 74. 220. Lolianon, Ohio, public school, 68. Lebon, I.6on, 206. Le Claii-, Iowa, jiublic schools, 48. Leckenbv. Mr., 127. Leclerc, M., 192.213. Lecceur, M.. 199,211. Lecoq, AL, 211, Lee County, Va . public schools, 72. Lee Univer8ity,*73. Lefraiic. Muie,, 192. Lelaud University, 164,221. Le Mans, normal school of, 195. Le Mars, Iowa, public schools. 48,220. Lemercier, Mme. Veuve, 196,211. Lemmon, Mr. and Mrs. J. G., 217. Leraort, M., 192,213. Le Movne Institute, 150, 228. Leon (lounty, Fla , public schools, 218. Le Perdriel.' Chailes, 188, 213. Le Prince. Madame, 144. Le Prince, Prof. A., 145. 236 Lerov, M., 190,213. Levasseur, E., 190, 209. Lewis, Grace Anna. 217. Lewis Normal Institute, 150, 228. \ Lewis, Iowa, public schools, 48. Lewistoii, Me., public schools, 221. Lexington Normal Institution, 150. Libraiy Bureau, Boston, Mass., 16,138. Li6bout, Mine., 187,213, Lille, schools of, 192, 197, 209. Limoges, schools uf, 195, 197,209. Linton. Miss L., ; nd Miss A. Stantial, 216. Lippincott Co., J, B.. 88, 214. Litchtield, Minn., city schools, .'.6. Little Eock, Ark,, colored schools, 164, 230. Little Koik Univi-rsity, 163, 231. Livet Institute, 193, 209. Louisiana, State of 20, 50, 220. Office of the Slate Superintendent of, 50. Louisiana Institution for the Blind, 147 Louisiana State Agricultural and Mechanical College, 221, Ix)uisville. Ky., public schools, 220. Louisville School of Pharmacy for "Women, 217. Lovy, Paul, 192,214. Lowery's Industrial Academy, 230. Luckhardt &- Alten, 232. Liitz, M.,19J, 211. Lynchburg, Va., public schools, 72, 72._ Lyons, National School of Fine Arts of, 197, 209. Lyons, Iowa, public schools, 48. McBride,T. H., 20. McGiegor, Iowa, public Bchool8v48, 220. MacInto,«h, Dr,, 134. Mackay Institute, Montreal, Canada, 147. Mackintosh, Dr., 231. Maeiuillau & Co,, 88, 214. McVay, C. E., 134. >!adison County, Va., public school.*, 72. Madison, Wis.,'public .schools, 73,228. Maine State ('(diege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 221, i Maine State Normal and Training School, 97. Maison J. Gautier, 189. Mame et Cie, A., 201. I Manchester, N. H,, public schools, 61, 224. 1 Manchester, O., public schools. 68. Manchester, Ya,., public schools, 72. Manhattan Academy, 157,230. Manhattan College, 158, 228. Mankato, Minn., city schools, 56. Mansfield Female Colle£e, 50. 221. Mautorville. Minn., village schools, 56. Marans, school ot, 192, 213. Marble Kock, Iowa, public schools. 48, 220. Marengo, low.a, public schools, 48, 220. Maiietta College 09, Marion County, Fla,, public schools, 44, 218. Manie, schools of the department ot", 187, 211, 213. Marseilles, Municipal School of F'ine Arts at, 198, 209. Mar.shall County, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. Marshalltown, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. Martha's In.stitute, 63. Marwedel, Emma, 95. Maryland Si ate Normal School, 97, 214, 215. Mason. L. W., 231. Mason, Mich., Hiah School, 164. Massachusetts, State of, 221, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 221. Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble- minded Youth, 2'.'1. Massachusetts State Normal Art School, 221. Masson, G , 201. Mecklenbui si County, Va., public schools, 72. Medford, Minn., village schools. 56, Meharry Medical Department of Central Tennes- see (College, 152. Melun, professional school of, 194,195,211. Melville, Miss M. A., 61. Menneglier, M., 190,211. Mercer County, N. J., public schools, 62,63. Merriam & Co"., G. & C, 138. Mexico, Academy of Fine Arts of, 207. National Preparatory School of Art of, 208. schools of the city of, 208. Meyer, Curt "W., 134.' INDEX TO PART I. or 37 Miohi'zan, State of, 51,222. Michifiau Slate Asricultuial College, 51, 222. Micliijian State I'ublio St liool, 222. Miclii<;an University, 51. MiiUllesi'S County, N. J., public schools, 62,63. Mi^not, Mile., 192. Miller AlaiHial Labor School. 72,^27. Millvillo, N. J., public schools, 02,224. Miltou liradlcy & Co., 9.'). Milwaukee Day School for Deaf Children, 147. Milwaukee, Wis., public .■schools, 73,227. Minneapolis. Miun., public schools, 50,222. Minnesota. State of. :;ti, 51.2.2. Stale Department of Public Instruction of. 58. Minnesota Institution for Education of Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, 58, 5!t, 222. Minnesota Keforni Scbool, ;!H, 148, 215. Minnesota Stale Normal School at Mankato, 58, 222. Minnesota State Kormal School at Saint Cloud, 58, 222. Minnesota State No:-mal School at Winona, 58, 222. Minnesota State School for Idiots and Inebriates, 38,149,222. Minnesota Uni'versitv, 59, 222. Minns, Misa S., 216,217. Miserey, school of, 192, 211. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege, 103,223. Mississippi Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 38, 147, 214. Mississippi Institution for the Education of the Blind. 147, 214. Mobi'e. Ala., Cuba Street School of, 104. Monmouth County, K. J., public schools, 62, 63. Monroe, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. Monroe, La., public schools, 5U, 221. Montauban Protestant Orphanajre, 211. Montbolinrd, schools of, 192, 19,j, 211. Monteruault, Mme. A , 187,213. Montgomery Bell Academy, 71,226. Mooihead, Minn., public schools, 50, 222. Morgan, Mrs. L. V., 216. Morris County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. Monistown borough, N. J. public schools, 62. Morristown Seminary, 1C3. Mor.se, S.K., 63, 224. ' MonchelM., 190,214. Mount Vernon School, 164, 230. Mount Ziou Seminary, 163,231. Muncii', Ind., public schools, 219. Muneret, A., 190,213. Murphy, John, 88. Mus6e I'edagogique, of France, 200, 210. Mnsselman, D. L., 232. Nalia,T.,207. Nansemond County, Va., public schools, 72. Nar.ious, Felix, IbH, 211. Kashua, N. H., public .schools, 61, 224. Nashville College for Young Ladies, 72, 220. Nashville, Tenu!, publicschool.s, 71. National Kindergarten, Washington, D. C, 95, 215. Nebraslia, State of, 21, 59, 223. Nebraska City public schools, GO, 223. Nebra-ska Institute for the Blind, GO, 223. Nebraska Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, CO, 22:?. Nebraska State Normal School, 61, C23. Nebraska University, Gl. Nelson and Sons, Thomas, 88, 214. Newark City Home, 38, 148, 215. Newark, N. J., public schools, 62, 63, 224. New Brunswick. N. .1., public schools, 62, 224. Newell, M.A.,97. New England Publishing Company, 138, 231. New Hampshire, State of, 18, 61. Now Iberia, La., public schools, 50, 221. New Kent County, Va., public schools, 72. New Jersey, State of, 21, 02, 224. New Jer.sev State Normal and Model Schools, 63, 224. ■ New Jersey State School for Deaf Mute.s, 63. New Orleans public schools, 50. 220, 221 New Orleans University, 103,231. New PI iludelphiii., O., public schools, 68. New York, State of, 224. New York Catholic Protectory, 156, 228, 229. New York City, Associateublic schools, 72. Northwestern Normal School, 08. Northwestern University, 103. Norwalk, O., public schools, 08. Nottoway County, Va., public schools, 72,73. Noycs, J. L., 14. Noyes, L. W ,139. Nuntes do Oca, R.aphael, 208. Nurse Training School of Chanty Ho.spital, 142, 214. Nurse Training School of Woman's Hospital, 25. Oakland, Fla., Colored Graded School, 4f. Oak Park, 111 , public schoo'.s, 74. Oaxaca, Girls' Academy of the city of, 208. Oberlin Collegia, 09. Oberliu, O , public schools, 68, 225. Ocean County, N. J., public schools, 62. Otflce of Indian Atfairs, 41-43. Ogden, Mrs. Anna B., 13, 35, 94, 214. Ohio, State of, 21, 64, 22.5. Ohio Institution tor the Education of the Blind, 38, 148,215. Ohio State University, 69, 225. Ohio University, 69. Ohio Wesleyau University, 69. Oliver & Bovd, 232. Olivier, M.,"l90, 214. Olmstead County, Minn., schooLs, 56, 222. Olsen, Klaus, 15. Omaha public schools, 61,223. Opelousas, La., 50. Orange County, Fla., public schools, 218. Orange County, Va., public schools, 72. Orange, N. J., public schools. C2, 224. Ordway, Mrs. Evelyn M. Walton, 216. Orlando, Fla., public .school. 44, 218. Orleans, normal school of, 195. Ornans, schools of, 192, 213. Oronoco, Minn., village schools, .57. Orr, G.J., 7. OShea, P., 1,39. Oshkosh, Wis., State Normal School at, 73. Oskaloosa. Iowa, public schools, 48. Otterbein University. 09. Ottumwa, Iowa, public schools, 48, 219. Oxford, O., public schools, 68, 225. Pacific Kindergarten Normal School, Page, Miss A, L., 210. Paine, W. W. 20. Painesville, O., public schools, 68. Palra6, v.. 201. Palmer, Miss A., 216. Pardonnet, Mile., 192. !17. 237 238 INDEX TO PART I. Paris, city and sclioMs of, 19C, 198, 208, 210, 211. Paimentt-r Crayou Compauy, 90, 232. Parr, S. S., 57. ' Pas-de-Calais department of, 192, 213. Passaic County, N. J., public scbools, 62, 63. Passaic, N. J., public sdiools, 62. Paterson, N. J., public schools, 62, 63,224. Patrick ('ounty, Va., public schools, 72. Patronan;c des'Enfants do I'Eb^nisterio, 194. 212. Pautbier, Mme., 192. Payno, Prof. W. W., 51, 57. Peabodv, Miss L., 216. PeabodV Hisb School, 72, 226. P6chin, Almo., 192. Peet, Dr. Isaac Lewis, 144. Penman's Ait .Tournal, N. T., 139. Pennsylvania, State of. 18. PennsVlvauia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 226. Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art,.37, 141, 215. Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble Minded Children. 149,215. Pennsylvania University, 37, 104, 215. People's Publishinc Co., 90. Peoria, 111., public scbools, 45, 218. Perkins Institute and Massachusetts School for the Blind, 221. Perrin, Em., 201, Perry, Mrs. N. H., 217. Petersburg, Va., public schools, 72,73. Petit, Pierre, 190, 211. Phelps, W.F., 20, 51,57. Philadelphia Cathedral School, 154,229. Philadelphia Normal School for Girls, 225. Philadelphia School of Design for Women, .37, 141, 214. Philadelphia "Woman's Hospital, 142, 215. Philander Smith College, 163,231. Plcard-Bernlieim, Plon, Nourrit, et Cie, 201. Piche, M.,201. Pierce'.^ College of Business, 98, 215. Pine Level, I'la., school, 44. Pittsylvania County, Va., public schools, 72, 73. Plack, W. L., 48. ' Plainflpbl, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. Plainview, Minn., village schools, 57. Plant V & Giiardot, 192. Plattville, Wis., State Normal School, 73. Pleasant G rove, Minn., schools, 57. Pocahontas, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. Poitiers, School of Art of, 198,211. Polk County, Iowa, public schools, 220. Pollet, M.,192,213. Pollock, Mrs. Louise, 95. Pontarlior, schools of, 192, 212. Poolo Institute, 72. Porter & Coates, 88, 214. Portland, Mo.,'publiic schools, 221. Portland, Oreg, public schools, 74, 225. Portsmouth, N. H., public schools, 61. Portsmouth, Ohio, public schools, 68,225. Poiter, A. W., 18. Potter, Ainsworth & Co., 88, 214. Poulain.M., 194,212. Pourchot, M., 190,213. Poussielguo Fr^res, 201. Powell. Prof. W. B., 45. Powhatan County, Va., public schools, 72. Pratt & Co., D.C:, 232. Prevost Orphanage, 190, 212. Prince Edward County, Va., public schools, 72. Princo George County, Va., public .schools, 72. Princess Anne County, Va., public schools, 72. Princeton, Ind., public schools, 219. Proust, M., 199. Providence, R. I., public schools, 71,226. Pulaski County, Va., public schools, 72. Qnantin, M., 201. Queen & Co., Jas. W., 37, 132, 231. Ract et Falquet, 187, 213. Ragen^ont, M., 191,213. Railway, N. J., public schools, 62, 224. Rainsart. M., 191, 212. Ralston, Mrs. H. N., 139. Rand, McNally & Co., 88, 90, 232. 238 a Ranvior, M., 198,212. Ravaisson, F., 188, 210. Red Cloud, Nobr., public schools. 61. Red AVing, Minn., city schools, 57. Redwood Kails, Minn., schools, 57. Reform schools, 14, 148. Regrain. A.. 191,213. Reiber. fimile, 188,212. Rensselaer PoU technic Institute, 224. Rhode Island. State of. 71, 226. Rhode Island School of Design, 71, 226. Richards, E. H., 216, 217. Richmond County, Va., public schools, 72. Ricbmond, Ind., public schools, 219. Richmond, Va., Normal School, 164. Ricbnioud, Va . public schools, 72, 73, 227. Riddell, Mrs. Phoebe, 95. Kies, Isaac B., 144. Rigiis, James, 165. 206. Ritchie & Sons. E. S., 37, 132, 232. Roaooko County, Vn., public schools, 73. Rocbi;.-4ter, Minn., public schools, 57, 222. Rockbridge County, Va., public schools, 72. Rockford, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. Rock Hill College, ICO, 229. Rockingham County, Va., public schools, 72, 73, 227. Rockloft; Johannes, 232. Rogers, W. O., 7, 9. Roger Williams University, 72, 230. Roman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, PeekskilL N. T., 156, 229. Romau Catholic Male Orphan Asylum. Troy, N. T.. 156, 229. Roret, M., 201. Roth. Dr. M., 165, 206. Rothschild, M., 201. Ronbai.T, ^ficole Nationalo dcs Arts Tndnstriels at, 198, 210. Rouen, city and schools of, 192, 194, 195. 210. Rousseau, Ancienne Maison (now Soci6l6 Anony- rae), 191, 212. Roy, M., 192, 213. Rush ford, Minn., city schools, 57. Russey, schools of, 192,213. Rnst University, 163, 231. Sacramento Institute, 157, 230. Sacred Heart Academy, Omaha, 61, 223. Sacred Heart Academy, Westchester, N. T., 157, 229. SacredVeart College, 160, 229. St. Alphonsus's Parochial School, Baltimore. 154, 230. St. Alphonsus's Parochial School, New Orleans, 98. 221. St. Ann's Parochial School, 154, 230. St. Bridget's Parochial School, 154, 230. St. Catherine's Academy, 61, 223. St. Cecilia's Academy, 72, 226. St. Chailes Parish, La., schools, 50. St. Claire Convent, 223. St. Clair Hall School, 223. St. Cloud, Minn., city schools. 58 Ste. Foy, Colonic Protestantc de £12. St. Gabriel's Paroeh'al School. 1.54, 230. St. James Parish, La., schools, 50. St. James's Paiochial and Commercial Schools, 1.54,229. St. James's Parochial School. New York City, 154,229. St. Johnsburv Academv, 227. St. John's Collegiate Institute, 157,230. St. John's County. Fla., public schools, 218. St. John's Parochial School, Baltimore, 154,230. St. John's Parochial School, Chicago, 230. St. John's Parochial School, Syracuse, N. T., 154, 229. St. John's University, .59. St. Joseph (,'ounty, Ind., schools, 219. St. Joseph's Academy, 157,229. St. Joseph's Cathedral School, 155,229. St. Joseph's College, Biifl'alo, 160,230. St. .losoph's College, London. 160,229. St. Joseph's Convent school, 44, 218. St. Joseph's Normal College, 161,229. St. Joseph's Parochial School, Chicopeo, Maes., 155, 230. INDEX TO PAET 1. 239 St. Joseph's Parochial School, N. Y. City, 155, 230. St. Joseph's School, Detroit, 230. St. Joseph's School Roman Catholic Male Orphan Asylum, 156. St. Mary^s Academy, Troy, N. T., 157, 229. St. Mary's and Sacred Heart College, 160, 229. St. Mary's College, Xew Orleans, 160. 229. St. Mary's (.'oUeire. San Francisco, 160,229. St. Mary's Parochial School, Jersey City, 155, 230. St. Mary's Parochial School, MelroscN. Y., 155,230. St. Mary's Parochial School, Xew York City, 155, 230. .St. Mary's Parochial School, Yonkers, N. Y., 155, 230. St. Mary's Training School, 156, 229. St. Michaels College, 160, 230. St. Michael's Parochial School, 155, 230. St. Nicholas's Parochial School, 155, 230. St. Omer, Pas-de Calais, 212. St. Patrick's Commercial Academy, 157, 230. St. Patrick's Parochial School, Hartford, Conn., 155, 229. St. Patrick's Parochial School, New York City, 155, 230. St. Patrick's School, Xewark, N. J., 230. St. Paul, Minn., public schools, 57. 222. St. Paul Cathedral and Saint Mary's School, 154. St. Paul Kindergarten, 56. 222. St. Paul's Parochial School, Philadelphia, 155, 230. St. Peter, Minn., city school, 59. St. Peter's Parochial School, Baltimore, 155, 229. St. Peter's Parochial School, New York City, 155, 229. St. Peter's Paiochial School, Philadelphia, 155, 229. St. Pierre-lfesCalais, schools of, 194, 198, 212, 213. St. Teresa's Parochial School, 155, 230. St. Vincent's Parochial School, 155, 230. Salein, M., 191, 213. Salem County, N. J., pnhlic schools, 62, 63. Salem, N. J.,' public schools, 62, 221. Sam Houston Normal Institute, 227. Sanborn, W. W., 48. Santord, Fla., public school, 44,218. Santec Normal Training School, 150, 228. Sargent, D. A., 15, 231. Sarlit, v., 201. Sauk Centre, Minn., village schools. 58. Saunders, Miss M. T., 216. Schools for the deaf and dumb, 14, 144, 172. Schrocdcr, T., 134, 215. Scranton, Iowa, public schools, 48, 220. Scribner's Sons, Chas., 90, 231. Searing, Edward, 58. Searslibrough, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Seine-In ferieure, department of, 187, 193, 210, 212. Serrurier,M, 101, 190,212. Seth Thomas Clock Co., 90, 93. Sheffield School Board central schools, England, 165, 206. Sheldon Jackson Institute, 98, 215. Sheldon, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Shenandoah, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Shepard, E. K., 57. Shepard, Irwin, 20,51. Sherwood & Co., Geo., 89, 214. Shilling, Geo., 90-93, 231. Shimek, Bohurael, 49, 220. Shoup,G.E.,49. Slyevepnrt, La., public schools, 50, 221. Siuney, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Sioux'City, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Six Oaks, Minn., public schools, 55. Slate, Miss Mattio P., 144. Smart, J. U., V. Smith. Lyndon A.. 31. 202. Smith's Business College, 220. Smithvillc, Ohio, public schools, 68. Soci6t6 Anonymede la Constructiou Industrielle, 206. Soci6t6 des Creches. 186, 210. Soci6t6 des Feies d'Enfants, 186, 214. Society des ifict Us Eufmtines, 186, 210. SociCt6 des Mus6e8 Cautonaux, 187. Soci6t6 Paternelle et Colonie Agricole de Met t ray, 186. Soci6t6 pour I'Encouragement de I'Instruction Primaire parmi les Protestants de France, 186, 210. Soci6t6 pour I'Enseignement Professionnel des Femmes, 186.210. Soci6t6 pour I'Instruction ill6mentaire, 186, 210. Soldau, F. Louis, 14. Soldiers' Orphans' Institute, 226. Somerset County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. Soule Photograph Co., The, 141. Sonle's Commercial College and Literary Ineti- tuto, 101, 221. South End Industrial School, 148. Southern Ait Union, 50. Southern Indiana Normal Institute, 219. Southern University, 50, 221. Spelman, James J., 164. Spillman, Dr. 'William, 223. Spirit Lake, Iowa, public schools, 49. Si)ring,E.A., 94. 141,21,5. Springfield, Iowa, public schools, 49. Springtield, Ouio, public schools, 68, 225. Spring Garden Institute, 22.5. Springyillo, Iowa, public bchools, 49. Statl'o'Td County, Va., public schools, 72. Stanford Memorial Kindergarten, 207. Stanlial, Miss A., 210. SI ark. Turner, 230. Staunton, "Va., public schools, 73. Stayne, Henr^-, 206. Steamboat Eock, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Steiger, E., 96. 232. Steubenyille, O., public schools, 68. Stewait. JohnQ. A., 149. Stich, John M., 49. Stillwater, Minn., public schools, 57, 222. Storrs School, 150, 2-28. Straight University, 150, 228. Summerville, Fla., schools, 218. Summit, N. J., public school, 03. I Sussex County, N. J., public schools, 62, 63. I Suzanne, M., 201. Symms, Miss A., 216. Taintor Brothers, Merrill & Co., 69. Talladega College, 150,228. Tama County, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220 Tell City, Ind., public schools, 219. Tennessee, State of 21. Tennessee Central College, 164. Tennessee Female College, 71. 226. Tennessee School for Deaf and Dumb, 146. Tennessee University, 104. Terre Haute, Ind., public schools, 219. Texas, State of, 227. Texas State Agricultural and Mechanical Col lego, 104. Texas Wesleyan Collegei, 163. Thierry, Mme., 193, 213. Thomas, M., 198, 212. Thomas Clock Co., Seth, 90, 93. Thornton. Ind., public schools, 219. Tileston Normal School, 97, 225. Tillotson Colleciate and Normal Institute, 151, 228. Tokio, Educational Appliance Manufacturing Company of, 207. Engineering College of, 207. kindergarten of the Female Normal School of, 207. Musical Institution of, 207 Normal School of, 207. Pedagogical Museum of, 207. School of Gymnastics of, 207. University <;f, 2U7. Toledo. O , public schools. 225. Tonei-, D.-. J. M.. 15. Tongaloo Ciiiversity, 151, 228. Toulouse, Municipal School of Fine Arts of 198 210. Tours, Municipal School of Fine Arts at, 198, 210. Tracy, Miss Olivia, 35, 90, 214. Traniond. M., IGO. 212. Ti61at, :fimile. 188. 210. Tremeschini, M., 191, 213. Trenton, N. J., public schools. R2, 224. Tresch, ,L F. -J., 140, 215. Trinity School, 151. 'I'linity University, 227. Troy, O., public schools, 68. Tsciiudi. Henry.-148, 21,5. Tulano University, 221. 238 b 240 INDEX TO PART I. Tunis, schools of, 193, 210. Tuskegee Normal School, 230. Tuttle, A. n., 21, 09, 70, 225. Twitchell, Maria, 216. Union County, N. J., public schools. 62. 63. Union, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Union Franyaise do la Jeunesse, 186, 210. Union School Furniture Company, 231, .232. Ushigome, Fine Art School of, 207. "Valenciennes, academic schools of, art of, Ji©8, 212. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 89, 93. 214. Vanderbilt University, 72, 226. Tan Wio, D.D., 219. Vassar College, 217. Vast, H., 191, 213. Vaudremer, M., 199, 210. Vera Cruz, 207. Gobiemo del Estado de, 208. Vermont Academy, 227. Vermont State Normal School, 227. Versailles, normal school of, 195. Vernon L. Davey's School. 63. Vevay, Ind.. public schools, 219. Vicksburg, Miss., public schools, 223. VierzoD, schools of, 194, 212. Virginia, State of, 227. Virginia Nonnal and Collegiate Institute, 72. Virginia University, 72, 104. Voice and Hearing School, 45, 218. Voiron, schools of, 194, 213. Walker, Miss, 216. "Ward, H. A., 22, 106-127, 231. Ward's Seminary for Young Ladies. 72, 226. Warner Institute, 151, 228. Warren County, N. J., public schools. 62,03. AVarrcn, O., public schools, 68. Waisaw, Ind., public schools, 218. Washinctou, D. C, public schools. 75-84,164,214, 213, 230. Washington Training School for Nurses, 142. Washington University, 104, 223. Waterloo, Iowa, public schools, 49, 220. Watkin.4 Seminary, 72. Watson, Miss Kosa Bnllis, 216. We.ber, A.. 94. Welby, L.D.,139. Welch, C. H., 56. 238 c Well.svillo, O., public schools, 69. West Denver, Colo., public schools. 84. West Florida Seminary, 44, 218. West Jersey Academy, 63. West Liberty, Iowa, public schools, 50, 220. West Milton, O., public schools, 69. West Point, Nebr., public schools, 61, 223. West Virginia, State of, 73. West Virginia Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, 147, Wheeling, W. Va., public schools, 73, 227. j Whitall, Uenry, 232. j Whitcomb, A.G., 93, 232. I Whitewater, Wis., State Normal School at, 73. Whitworth Female College, 223. Wi<;gin, Mrs. Kate Smith, 95. Wilberforce University, 164, 220. Wiley University, 163, 231. Wilkes Barre, Pa., 18, 84, 225. Wilmington, Del., colored schools, 230. Wilmington, N. C, Normal School, 151. Wilson, J. Ormond, 75. Winona, Minn., public schools, 59, 222. Wisconsin, Stale of, 73, 227. 0.sko.sh State Normal School of, 73, 227. Plattevillo Statu Normal School of, 73, 227. Whitewater State Normal School of, 73, 227. Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls, 14, 38, 149, 215. Wisconsin State Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 227. Wittenberg College, 69. Witter, F. M., 50. Woman's Hospital, Nurse Training School of, 142, 215. Woman's Institute for Technical Designs, 217. Women's Club, "BotanyGroup" of New England, 216. Wooster, University of, 69. Worden, W. S., 223. WorkLngman's School and Free Kindergarten, 101, 224. Xenia, O., public schools, 69, 225. Tutan, Nobr., public schools, 61. Zacona, girls' school of the city of, 208. Zaleski, O., public schools, 69. Zimmerman, C. F., 232. SPECIAL REPORT U--. BUREAU OJ EDUCATION. EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AND CONVENTIONS WORLD'S INDUSTRIAL AND COTTON CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, NEW ORLEANS, 1884-'85. PA^RT IT. PROCEEDIJ^GS OF THE IIS^TERNATIONAIi CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS, WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PBINTING OFFICE. 1886. 239 CONTENTS OF PART II. Page. Letter of the Commissioner of Education to tbc Secretary of tlie Interior 7 Programme of the International Congress of Educators 9 PROCEEDINGS. Reception at Werleix Hall . 11 Address of welcome, by Hon. Chas. E. Fenner 11 Address by Col. Wm. Preston Johnston 14 Address by Hon. JoiiN Eaton 17 Address by Hon. John Hancock 30 Address by Rev. A. D. Mayo, D. D 31 Address by Prof. F. Louis Soldan 34 First Session 35 Second Session 3G Remarks by Hon. John Hancock 36 Address by Prof. James L. Hughes 38 Discussion 39 Third Session 41 Fourth Session 41 Petition for opening Johns Hopkins University to women 41 Address by Prof. E. A. Spring 43 Fifth Session 48 Sixth Session '. 48 Seventh Session 49 Eighth Session 49 Discussion 49 Remarks by Hon. G. J. Orr 50 Address by Professor Bartholomew 52 PAPERS. SECTION A— ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. Educational Progress in Jamaica; by Col. George Hicks, Inspector of Schools of Jamaica 59 Progress of Education in the Province of Ontario, Canada; by .1. George Hodgins, M. a., LL. D., Deputy Minister of Education 77 The Applicaliiou of Kindergarten Principles to Primary Education ; by Prof. W. N. Hailmann, President of the Kindergarten Union 92 The Ap)>lic:itiou of Kindergarten Principles to the Child's Earliest Develop- nieut; by Mrs. Anna B. Ogdkn 94 The Massachusetts Public School System; by Hon. J. W. DiCKlNSOX 103 The I'uljlic School System of Japan; by IcHizo Hattori, Commissioner of Japan 109 241 4 CONTENTS. Page. The Recent Reforms in Public Instruction, and especially in Primary Instruc- tion, in France ; by Mens. B. BuissON, Commissioner of France Ill Our Country Schools; by Miss A. Tolman Smith, U. S. Bureau of Education.. 120 The Public Schools of the Pacific Coast ; by Charles S. Young, State Super- intendent of Public lustruction, Nevada ^ 128 Stick or no Stick; by Edwin Chadwick, A. B., Chairman of the Education Committee of the Society of Arts, London, England 133 Morals and Manners at School ; by D. L. Mansfield, Superintendent of Schools, Dummerston, Vt 137 Religious and Moral Training in the Schools of Ontario ; by J. E. Wells, M. A., Editor of the Canada SchoolJournal 139 Reasons why Natural History, including Botany, should be Taught in every Common School ; by Prof. William Hudson, Trinity University, Tehuacana, Tex 147 Uniform Promotion Examinations in the Public Schools of Ontario; by Donald J. McKiNNON, Public School Inspector, County of Peel, Ontario 150 The Influence and the Effects of a System of Uniform and Simultaneous Exami- nations on Schools and Teachers ; by William Carltle, Inspector of Public Schools, County of Oxford, Ontario 154 Short Account of the System of Experimental Science lustruction Introduced by the Liverpool School Board in Connection with its Public Elementary Schools ; by Edward M. Hance, LL. B., L. C. P., Clerk to the School Board for Liver- pool, England 158 Study of Music in New Haven ; by B. Jepson, Teacher of Music in the Public Schools of New Haven , 106 County Model School System of the Province of Ontario ; by I. I. Tilley, In- spector of County Model Schools, Ontario 169 SECTION B— SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. A Southern Graded School ; by Rev. A. D. Mato, D. D 177 Secondary Education in Ontario; by D. C. McHenky, M. A., Principal of Col- legiate Institute, Coburg, Ontario 185 How can Instruction in Public High Schools be Made more Efficient? by Clar- ence W. Fearing, Boston, Mass 196 Female Education in Ontario ; by Rev. Alex. Burns, D. D., LL. D., Principal of the Wesleyan Ladies' College, Hamilton, Ontario 199 Agricultural Education in Ontario; by J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., Deputy Minister of Education 204 Technical Education; by E. B, Wilson, Instructor in Drifton (Pa.) Industrial School for Miners and Mechanics 209 The Mechanics' Institutes in the Province of Ontario ; by Otto Klotz, President of the Association of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario 213 SECTION C— SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. The Normal Schools and their Work in Ontario; by Joseph H. Smith, Esq., Public School Inspector, County of Wentworth 223 Berea College, Kentucky ; by Rev.E. H. Fairchild, D. D. , President 230 The University System of Ontario; by J. George HoDGiJfS, M. A., LL. D., Deputy Minister of Education 233 How to Increase the Proportion of Liberally Educated men ; by C. H. Payne, D. D. , LL. D., President of Ohio Wesleyan University 251 Theological Education in Ontario; by Prof. Albert H. Newman, LL. D., To- ronto Baptist College ..,, 204 242 CONTENTS. 5 SECTION D— INSTRUCTION OF THE DEFECTIVE, DEPENDENT, AND DELINQUENT CLASSES. Page. The Classification of Deaf Pupils; by Samuel Sexton, M. D., Aural Sargeon to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary 285 On the Necessity of Providing for the Better Education of Children with Defect- ive Hearing in the Public Schools ; by Samuel Sexton, M. D., Aural Surgeon to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary 291 Education of the Blind in the Province of Ontario ; by Alfred H, Dymokd, Principal of the Ontario Institution for the Blind .. 299 Present Condition of the Indians; by Maj. J. M. Haworth, late U. S. Superin- tendent of Indian Schools 303 Education of the Indians in the Dominion of Canada; by Samuel Woods, M. A. , Principal of Ottawa Ladies' College 307 Eeport on the Condition of Indian Schools in Ontario ; by Hon. Adam Crooks, LL. D., Minister of Education 324 SECTION E— ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE OF BUILDINGS FOR IN- STRUCTION, LIBRARIES, AND MUSEUMS. School-Room Air, with Directions for Analyzing It ; by R. L. Packard, Wash- ington, D. C 349 The Alleged Increase of Near-Sightedness among School Children; Report of a Committee of the National Educational Association 393 On the Causes of Increasing Near-Sightedness among School Children; Report of a Committee of the National Educational Association 398 School Hygiene in Ontario; by D. Fotheringham, Public School Inspector, North York County, Ontario 404 School Architecture in Ontario; by John Dearness, Public School Inspector, County of Middlesex East, Ontario 408 A. L. A. Catalog; by Melvil Dewey, Chief Librarian of Columbia College .. 412 Libraries and the Library System of Ontario ; by John Hallam, Chairman of Toronto Public Library 418 The Rise of College Gymnasia in the United States ; by Edward Mussey Hart- well, Ph. D., M. D., Associate in Physical Training and Director of the Gym- nasium, Johus Hoijkins University 425 Plan and Arrangement of Primary Schools ; by M. Edouard Louis Charlks JOSSE, Br^tigny, France, Member of the Dunois Historical and Archaeological Society, etc 437 SECTION F— MISCELLANEOUS. Respect for Authority Developed in the School Room ; by Brother Justin, of the Christian Brothers 447 Literary and Scientific Habits of Thought ; by Brother Azarias, Rock Hill Col- lege, Ellicott City, Md 456 The Modern Growth of Cities and the Education Demanded by It ; by W. T. Harris, LL. D., Concord, Mass 474 Some Practical Suggestions Relating to National Aid to Education ; by Thomas W. Bicknell, LL. D., Boston, Mass 482 The Railroad as an Element in Education ; by Prof. Alexander Hogg, Fort Worth, Texas 493 An Historical Sketch of Indian. Civilization and Education ; by Miss Alicr C. Fletcher, of Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass 508 243 b CONTENTS. Pag* History of Educational Journalism in New England ; by Thomas W. BlCK- NELL, LL. D., Boston, Mass 517 Competitive Studies and Resultant Prizes ; by Prof. L. G. Barboxjr, M. A., D. D., Eicbmond, Va '. 53-2 Some Reflections on Race in Education, with Special Reference to the Negro Problem ; by Prof. William Taylor Thom, Virginia 537 Memorandum Respecting Simultaneous and Uniform Examinations in Ontario; by Alexandkr Marling, LL. B, Secretary to the Educational Department.. 544 How shall we Americanize and Christianize the Incoming Tide ? by D. A. Long, A. M. , President of Antioch College, Ohio 554 The Harmonious Development of the Faculties ; by Brother Barbas, of the Christian Brothers 559 On Variations of Mental Receptivity; by Edwin Chadwick, A. B., Chairman of Education Committee, Society of Arts, London 567 244 LETTER Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, JSTovemher 25, 1885. Sir : The accompanying papers,' which are hereby transmitted for publication, give the best view, doubtless, that it is possible to preserve, of education at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposi- tion. It was early manifest that the exhibition would present a rare opportunity for the promotion of the advancement of education. The desire on the part of the Management to improve this opportunity to the utmost was expressed in the most explicit and emphatic terms by the Director-General, Hon. E. A. Burke, when he declared that they sought not only that the exhibition should be thoroughly national and international and in all its aspects educational, but that education itself, its systems, institutions, principles, methods, and results should be shown as far as possible by its literature and appliances, by models, by graphics, by actual class work, and by i^apers and discussions from the ablest educators. The following papers will make known how far the purposes of the Management have been realized, and their publication will preserve and extend the usefulness of whatever was accomplished in this behalf. The fullness of the papers and of the report of Lyndon A. Smith, Esq., my representative and chief assistant in immediate charge of the Department of Education at the exhibition, renders it unneces- sary that I should here enter into details which would otherwise require more specific reference. I desire to tender most hearty thanks to all those who have in any way aided in the work here reported, but it would require a catalogue larger than Homer's to specify each one by name. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOHN EATON, Commissioner. The Hon. Secretary of the Interior. ' The calalogne of exhibits and list of awards may be found in Part I of this Report ; the proceedings of the Department of Superintendence and addresses on Education Days in Part III. 245 PROGRAMME OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION, FEBRUARY 23-28, 1885. BIONORARV PRE SIDE IVT. His Excellency CHESTER A. ARTHUR, President of the United States. PRESIDONT. Hoii, JOHN EATON, United States Commissioner of Education. TICE-PRESIDENTS. Lord Reay, England. J. L. M. Curry, LL. D.. Agent of the Trustees of the Pedbody Education Fund. Hon. Hugh S. Thompson, Governor of South, Carolina. John D. Philbrick, JAj.I)., Ex-Superintendent of Boston (^Mass.) Schools. James B. Angell, LL. D., President UrMersity of Michigan. Hon. Henry Barnard, 'Lh.'D., former U.S. Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Hon. Andrew D. White, LL. D., President Cornell University. Hon. William H. Ruffner, D. D., Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Fa. Hon. Chas. S. Young, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Nevada. Hon. T. W. Bicknell, LL. D., Boston, Mass. Wm. F. Phelps, LL. D., Winona, Minn. HONORARY SECRETARir. Hon. J. George Hodgins, Deputy Minister of Education, Ontario. SECRXITARIES. Hon. B. L. Butcher, of West Virginia. Hon. Aaron Gove, of Denver, Colorado. Dean Jesse, of Tnlane University. L. a. Smith, of Washington, D. C. J. L. Pickard, loiva State University. COimniTTEE OF ARRANOEITIEIVTS. Hon. M. A. Newell, LL. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Maryland, Chairman. Wm. T. Harris, LL. D., President Concord School of Philosophy, Concord, Mass. Hon. A. Coward, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, South Carolina. Hon. Le Roy D. Brown, State School Commissioner, Ohio. Prof. W. H. Payne, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 247 FEOCEEDIlSraS. EECEPTION AT WEELEIX HALL. The International Congress of Educators met at Werlein Hall, Mon- day, February 23, 1885, at 1 p.m. Among the educators present were Hon. John Eaton, of Washington, D. C, Kev. B. M. Palmer, D. D., Hon. Chas E. Fenner, Col. Wm. Pres- ton Johnston, Hon. T. W. Bicknell, Hon. W. E. Sheldon, Rev. A. D.. Mayo, Hon. J. W. Dickinson, Hon. E. E. White, Hon. John Hancock, Hon. r. L. Soldan, Hon. B. M. Tillotson, L. A. Smith, Esq., Mons. B. Buisson, of France, I. Hattori, Esq., Commissioner from Japan, Prof. J. L. Hughes, of Canada, Hon. N. C. Dougherty, Col. Geo. flicks, of Jamaica, Hon. J. G. Parham, W. O. Eogers, Dr. T. G. Eichardson, Hon. Warren Easton, and others. The meeting was opened with prayer by the Eev. B. M. Palmer, D. D. Hon. Louis Bush, President of the Louisiana Educational Society, in the chair, then said : Ladies and Gentlemen of the International Congress — We had hoped that it would be our pleasure to have our address of welcome delivered by the Governor of our State, but circumstances have interposed to pre- vent his attendance, and in consequence we have called upon the Hon. Charles E. Fenner, one of the judges of the supreme court of Louisiana, to address you in our behalf and to extend to you the welcome we wish. Judge Fenner then addressed the Congress as follows : • Ladies and Gentlemen — I am here to occupy, and not to fill, 'the place assigned to our distinguished chief magistrate. To him it would have been a pleasure to perform the grateful task of welcoming you here in the State in which he presides. It would hardly be expected that under these circumstances I should say anything of the great general subject which calls you here to- day which would be of sufSciont interest or weight to command the attention of the cultivated and skilled minds which compose this audience. I shall therefore confine myself to the more easy and natural task of extending a most hearty welcome to our State and to our city. By a highly fortunate coincidence, we have in our midst to-day a most remarkable congress of the arts, industries, institutions, and natural resources of nearly all the peoples and all tli(^ <-ountrios of th(» earth, 249 12 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. and that, perhaps, has been one of the causes which has influenced your meeting here to-day. It is an amazing spectacle, even to a man of this generation, with all its unparalleled facilities for keeping abreast of the development of ideas and the march of events and the cause of discovery, through the medium of the daily newspapers and magazines and of books. When he goes there, he stands wonder-stricken at the tre- mendous achievements of man's intellect and energy, which that great Exposition exhibits to his view. Let us suppose that the most advanced scientist of a period not further back than fifty years could be resur- rected from the dust, and could be placed in the midst of the wonders and marvels of this Exposition. JSTo doubt the imagination of such a man would have already attempted to forecast the histor^^, the develop- ment, and progress of knowledge and invention, science and art ; no doubt he would have thought himself prepared to anticipate with some degree of accuracy and correctness the great results which a half century of the progress of the spirit of invention would bring forth; but he would have stood amazed and paralyzed in the midst of the wonders and marvels which he would see around him there to-day. I have made this little episode because it seems to point a moral which is appropriate to this occasion. Whence come all the achieve- ments of which we see such wonderful evidence here ? From educa- tion! That is the source and author of them all. Education pointed and directed the way to the aspiring thought. Education lent the sweep of telescopic vision to the human eye. It seems a fitting occa- sion to add warmth and heartiness to the welcome which we extend to you, when we find you here engaged in the work of forwarding and devel- oping and systematizing and methodizing the great purposes and aims of the noble cause of education in which you are engaged. It chanced that onlyyesterday there appeared in the columns of one of our newspa- jjers a noble oratiou which was delivered forty .years ago in this State, upon the occasion of the meeting of the Kew England Historical Society, by a son of ^ew England, but who had become a Southerner, and who in the wonderful adaptability of his nature became perhaps the most typical Scvutherner of Southerners, the gifted Sargent S. Prentiss, per- haps the noblest and the most eloquent orator, I may say almost without exaggeration, that ever lived in our time. As we recall the familiar words of that grand piece of eloquence and read them again, it seems to me that the orator was inspired with the spirit of prophecy ; it seems to me that he already realized what was the true source and foundation of the development of this great country, that he was already able to see what would be the results of that develoi^ment ; and it seems to me that if he were here to-day, even his able mind could hardly have orig- inated any words in which he could have addressed you, which would have been more appropriate to this occasion. You will pardon me, then , if for a few moments I substitute his words for my own, After a most 250 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 13 picturesque and poetical description of a New England village school, he said : " Behold yon small building near the crossing of the village street. It is small and of rude coustiuction, but stands in a pleasant and quiet spot. A majrnificent old elm spreads its broad arms above it. A brook runs through the meadow near by, and there is an orchard, but the trees have suffered much and bear no fruit. From within its walls comes a busy hum, such as you may hear in a disturbed bee-liive. It is the public school, the free, the common school, provided by law, open to all, claimed from the community as a right, not accepted as a bounty. Here the children of the rich and poor, high and low, meet upon per- fect equality and commence under the same auspices tlie race of life. The sustenance of the mind is served up to all alike, as the Spartans served their food u])on the public table. Here young Ambition climbs his little ladder, and boyish Genius plumes his half fledged wing. From among these laughing children will go forth the men who are to control the destinies of their age and country ; the statesman whose wisdom is to guide the Senate; the poet who will take captive the hearts of the people and bind them together with immortal song ; the philosopher who, boldly seizing upon the elements themselves, will compel them to his wishes, and, through new combinations of primal laws, by some great discovery revolutionize both art and science. The common vil- lage school is Xew England's fairest boast, the brightest jewel that adorns her brow. The principle that society is bound to provide for its members education as well as protection, so that none need be ignorant except from choice, is a most important one. It is essential to a repub- lican government. Education is not only the best and surest, but the only wise foundation for our free institutions. True liberty is the child of knowledge ; she pines away and dies in the arms of ignorance." Look around you, gentlemen, not only over the wonders of this Ex- position, but over all this broad land, with its unnumbered and inesti- mable blessings, with its free speech, with its free thought, with its free institutions, with its happy homes, its boundless areas of cultivated lands, all the powers of nature rendered subservient to the uses and comforts and necessities of man — a country blessed with everything in greater measure than any other country ever was blessed with before. And to what do we owe it all?^ Subject to the bounty of the Giver of all good gifts, we owe it to education; it was in the common schools of New England that was nourished and preserved and perpetuated the sa- cred fire at which education kindled the torch that from that day to this has been fed with increasing flame, has been borne higher and higher, until at last it has driven away the night of ignorance from every por- tion of the domain of science, and still is marching on, going higher and burning brighter, and the future of which in another century will be more astonishing to those of that age than would be the spectacle it exhibits to-day to the inhabitants of this earth one hundred years ago. You, gentlemen, are engaged in the noblest work of all, the work of education. This great Exposition teaches a double lesson : First, the tremendous use and value of knowledge; second, how much there is to learn. Education is becoming a great and progressive science; the field is opening broader and broader before us ; old methods hu\e be- 251 14 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. come inefficient and must pass awB,y ; old habits and associations and ideas, with regard to the kinds of knowledge that are required, must submit to modification; and you, gentlemen, as I understand, are en- gaged in that great work of studying the philosophy of education, of improving its methods, of increasing its divisions, and of preparing it for the great work which yet lies before it in the future. Under these circumstances, we of Louisiana, humbly confessing our sore need of its benefits, take i)leasure in extending to you a hearty welcoming hand, and of wishing you " God speed " in your noble work. The Pkesedent : Gentlemen, allow me to introduce to you Col. Wil- liam Preston Johnston, of Tulane University, who will now address you. Colonel Johnston said : Ladies and Gentlemen — I had intended to prepare what is called an " extemporaneous" speech, but the cares of earth have pressed so heavily upon me that I have not been able to do so, and I have therefore been obliged to jot down very hastily the wopds of welcome which I wish to extend to you gentlemen, and which I thought deserved to be more duly and fully considered. I should hate, after the able and eloquent address of the gentleman who has just spoken authoritatively for the Commonwealth and for the larger interests of education, to venture upon the field of extemporaneous speech. It does not look well for a man who merely lectures to speak after an orator. Though speaking for but one of the great interests to which Judge Fenner has alluded, the educational one, our guests cannot regard this as less important to themselves, since it includes so much of their life work. In the spirit of the gentleman who preceded me, I offer you our simple hospitality, academic and otherwise, freely and without reserve, and I trust that the gentlemen here present, and other educators now visiting us, will accept them literally, and consider Tulane Hall as their headquarters during their stay in this city. Let it be your educational exchange. Our library, lecture, and reading rooms are open to you, and you must de- mand without hesitation the services of our faculty and of myself. I know that you are not here for amusement only; the spirit of ob- servation is wide awake in you. You will therefore pardon me for point- ing out to you that you will find in our university a curious analogy to, or rather a great reproduction of, the present conditions of the Southern country. You have heard of the Old South and the New South, and these are pictured, according to the fancy of the painter, with all the shades that pessimism or optimism might suggest. But believe me, we are the same people we always were, though with a harder and wider experience and under changed conditions. You need not believe the sneaks who will tell you we are sorry for what we have done. It is not true. You will also be unwise in believing those panderers to power who will tell you that from the first, since the close of the war, we have not honestly accepted our duties and responsibilities as American citi- zens. One of these duties is to manage our own alfairs in our own way. 252 INTEKXATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 15 This we have proposed to do. We have understood the actualities of our situation better than any straujjer can teach them to us, tor they are matters of life and death to us, and merely political experiments to them. We have been obliged to govern ourselves by the hard and practical rules of common sense, which do not alway conform to the theories of social reformers. One of these rules with us has been that the intelligence of the community, as at present embodied in the white race, must in some form or other govern in these Southern States. We have been working out this problem under various difficulties, but with the help of Providence we hope we will succeed. But we have to adjust our social and educational relations according to our own standards, our own prejudices, if you will. These standards look to and include the welfare, progress, and development of every race and color on our soil, and if they seem to you in some respects to smack of conservatism, nevertheless 1 trust you will believe us to be sincere in our wish to give the light of knowledge to every color and condition in the land, and to promote the intelligence and virtue and happiness of every individual upon our soil. We desire to educate all. We wish the broad foundations of our common schools to be full of vital- ity and energy. We want higher institutions also, and we believe in the beneficent influence of great universities, broad, solid, and rearing high their pinnacles into the pure air of liberal thought and culture. I alluded to the analogy between our university and the South. We are both building on the old lines, instead of casting down the altars and temples of our fathers ; but we — the whole South and our young university here — are seeking thoughtfully and earnestly for the best things applicable to our condition, wherever they can be found. We are not ashamed to acknowledge our shortcomings, for we mean to remedy them. We know we are not all alike, and that we can learn from each other, and I confess with all humility that I think we can learn more from Massachusetts than she can learn from us, and she thinks so too. But knowledge, which is more precious than rubies, is a sort of wealth which its holder is always willing to share. Our World's Exposition is now keeping school for the nations, and Louisiana will, 1 trust, be one of its aptest pupils. Your presence hereto-day we accept as an augury of good. We hope to pump you dry before you leave. We shall spoil the Egyptians of their fine gold of knowledge and their rubies of wisdom, and we expect to be rich enough to go into the jew- elry business. I have said that we blended the old and the new. Tulane University includes a medical college which for more than half a century has been famous in the land ; it has a law school which has long taught the civil law with the same ability w'hich has made Cambridge famous as a seat of common law instruction ; its academic department is more recent, and your sessions here are coincident with the addition of industrial and manual training as a feature of our work. This we exi)ect to be- ii53 16 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. come an important factor in a thorough system of education of the whole man for himself and for society. Our very buildings illustrate the old and the new in the way of architectural design, from the Greek temple to the "New Orleans" style, which combines the classic and Creole. 'Jur most beautiful buildings, however, are planned with matchless skill and furnished with faultless taste. Therein are grouped all things that utility can suggest, science demand, or wealth bestow. These stately structures are in the Spanish style of architecture ; in- deed, they are " castles in Spain." All that they need to take form and substance is for our wealthy citizens to emulate the generous heart and open hand of the great benefactor of education in Louisiana, Paul Tulane. His princely hand has bestowed the money and means to achieve the desired end, and the sage counsel and potent voice of tliis Nestor, who has survived three generations of men and women, sum- mon and cheer the youth of his beloved State and city in the path he has opened for them. I beg to repeat and enforce the hearty welcome which is felt by all for the teachers, whose feet are beautiful upon the mountains and shod with the golden sandals of truth. You are the captains and generals who are to discipline that army which twenty years hence will be fightiug in the mighty Armageddon, the strife be- tween good and evil. Welcome! soldiers in a good cause, for you bring to us the prescience of a better time coming. May your stay with us be as agreeable to you, gentlemen, as it is to us, and may you take away a pleasant memory of our fair and sunny Southern land. The president then introduced Hon. John Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education, who delivered the following address. 254 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 17 ADDRESS OF HON. JOHN EATON. Ladies and Gentlemen — A formal response to these words of welcome more especially committed to others, excuses me from a duty which would otherwise bo delightful, and I shall, therefore, oulj' express my own sentiments of gratitude and pleasure. The time has come when the educator is not limited to his school, to his district, or to his nation. There are to him to-day no distant places in foreiiiii lauds, and those of us who come from cold and perhaps ice-bound regions, re- ceive with gratitude this welcome to your delightful climate, and we rejoice that here we can assemble in the neighborhood of such a great school as this great Exposition, now erected in your midst for the benefit of the world. I now ask your particular attention to " Education as a Factor in Modern Civilization." One thing is clear, that the interpretation of education in the minds of the present directors of its great forces is not limited to its operations in any department of man's nature. It is indeed education, but not all of it, to cultivate human powers physically and to develop them in beauty and strength, as did the Greek. It is indeed education, but not all of it, to cultivate the moral and religious nature of man, as did the ancient Hebrew. It is indeed education, but not all of it, that informs and strengthens and develops man's mental faculties. It is indeed education, but not all of it, that directs and shapes and molds the natural forces of any one of the peo- ples or races in any one of the ancient or modern nations, and develops those tendencies, unfolds pre-eminently those powers, and establishes those characteristics which we describe as Chinese, or Indian, or Eus- sian, or German, or English, or French, or American. All these no- tions must be taken into account if we are to comprehend the full force of education as a factor in modern civilization. Much harm often re- sults in writing and speaking of education by using the term in a too limited sense. Entering a gymnasium and practicing with its various appliances for the lull development of the diflerent parts of the body may be phj'^sical culture, but how incorrect and injurious if the atmo- sphere in which these exercises are performed is poisonous, or if the character of the nourishment is disregarded! It is equally misleading to speak of intellectual culture in a school of philosophy or mathe- matics, if the necessary conditions for the healthful development of the other portions of man's nature are disregarded. Many questions are debated: " Can education do this?" "Does edu- cation prevent crime?" when the proper definition of the term includes the result debated. The complete definition of education must be kept in mind in considering it as a factor in modern civilization. Its opera- tions cannot be limited to any jjarticular period of life, although it may and does go on, of course, more rapidly in youth. Its influences per- vade all the changes in man's nature that can be produced by training or instruction, from the cradle to the grave. Is'^ay, the pre-natal respon- 7950 COT, pt. 2 2 255 18 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. sibilities of the parent may be more essential to the character of the individual than any schooling in after years. The common sense of mankind, which makes it murder to take the life of the individual before birth, with the same exactness and strength will hold the line to the parental influences exerted after that date. Moreover, we must divest our minds of the idea that education is the same for every individual, for the very opposite is true ; its methods should not be alike in any two instances, but as diverse as are the char- acteristics of one person from those of every other. Under this larger idea of education the sciences and classics would not be set in battle array against each other, for it would be seen that the highest science under these conditions has need of the classics, and that instruction in the classics would be indefinitely improved by the scientific method. Archimedes would move the earth if he could find a fulcrum; the poet would leave all other literature to chance if he could be allowed to fur- nish the ballads for a people; but in modern civilization the educator has at his command the fulcrum and controls the ballads. Shape the educational forces so that they shall include the home of the child and the material and spiritual conditions in which it moves, the influences that operate upon it through parent and teacher and associate, and whatever man may do for his fellow will be accomplished. This view of education leaves to man's nature and heredity all the powers that can be claimed for them, but it should be remembered that one of the essentials of his nature and heredity is the possibility of modification, and that this modification is the work of education. The child may have more or less capacity of body or mind; its chest or lungs or eyes, or its perception or memory or moral sense, may be defective. Education cannot be expected to supply wholly what nature has not given, but our doctrine is that it modifies. The bodily, mental, or moral weakness may be strengthened, the disease that preys upon body or soul may be prevented or cured. In this view the organs of the body by which we walk, handle, hear, see, and speak, and those faculties of the mind by which we perceive, remember, reason, and will, may be improved by training. This training is secured by proper and fit action or exercise, which is most effective in youth, when habits which are well called our "second nature" may be most readily acquired. The progress of life does indeed afford opportunity for education, even when unshaped by the professional teacher, as is illustrated by our so- called " self-made" men. Kor should it be forgotten that the child who lives, whether he will or not, grows in stature and mental strength per force of nature. Moreover, he has a certain power of choosing out of his surroundings results for himself. His first teacher is his parent, from whom he advances through the circle of his natural and spiritual environment. But the professional teacher introduces skill, and adds vastly to the results of childhood in forming the child and shaping healthfully his body and mind ; and the teacher, too, may greatly mul- tiply these results by establishing a school in which the unconscious 256 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 19 and conscious influences -of the scholars upon one another, which the teacher may in a measure shape, may become the most potent forces at his command. A child is pre-eminently social, and thus is specially in- fluenced by what reaches him through his companions, a truth so fre- quently enforced by the phrase, " A man is known by the company he keeps." The comprehensive and just interpretation of the term "edu- cation" conveys to the teachers of to-day a more correct idea of the extent of the power they wield for the weal or woe of the child, and therefore for the good or ill of the family, the Church, society, the State, and the general welfare of mankind. They do not propose to them- selves the imijossible, they do not expect that man can accomplish what alone belongs to God; but when they accept the responsibility of the trust of the teacher it is well that they should know the full meaning of their responsibility. They do not reject the past, save only as it is outgrown by the present. They acknowledge, according to the stat- ute we so frequently hear, that they do indeed stand in loco parentis. But when fully alive to their responsibilities, teachers are conscious that they also stand in the place of the State, and in the place of all the influences that pass through their hands upon the child in forming his habits of bodily or mental action, in giving skill to his hand or his perception, in increasing the retentive or recollective power of his memory, the scope and precision and justness of his reason, tlie flights and coloring of his imagiijation, the tendencies and affections of his sensibilities, the uprightness of his conscience, the force and endur- ance of his will. Thus, out of this larger and clearer idea of what edu- cation is, teachers find an overwhelming motive for their adequate prep- aration, and we reach one of the distinctive characteristics of education as a factor in modern civilization. There is an increasing repugnance to the laying of unqualified hands upon the destiny of a human being. Teachers may be the servants c f all in the Christian spirit, in the sense that they do good to all, but they should be the menials of none. Their work is not inferior to the highest required of human hands. There is no superior to Him who was called " the Teacher of men." Here, too, we should not be led astray, as too many have been in the past, by the idea that the knowing faculty is the same as the teaching faculty. Even now how many teachers are selected for their positions mainly, if not wholl}', because they are understood to know the subjects they are to teach! How many children have been sacrificed by this fallacy ! It is not enough to set knowledge before the mind ; there must be in the facts and methods adaptation to aptitudes; the attention, the interest, the choice, of the learner must be secured. Herein there is room for the profoundest science and the most marvelous art. In the discovery and growing realization of the necessity of the science and art of teaching, we find so many cautions thrown around the selection of teachers, and the devotion of money and time and effort to the in- forming and training and inspiring of teachers in normal institutes, 257 20 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. normal schools, aud chairs of pedagogics, wherever education is mak- ing most marked progress. This tendency should go on until the teacher of every child has adequate opportunity and qualification. Still another characteristic of education as a factor in modern civiliza- tioD is seen when we consider the knowledge available for the right direc- tion of the child, ^ow much more definitely the child himself can be known in his points of strength or weakness! How vast the knowledge required to comprehend even the well approved devices and remedies available to aid the teacher to overcome the child's weaknesses or defi- ciencies ! How are instruments of precision brought into use to aid all the observations of the parent, and teacher, and friend, in accuratelj^ measuring these defects of organs of the body or mind, the far or near sightedness or color-blindness of the eye, the power of the ear to dis- criminate the remoteness or nearness, or pitch, or volume, or other characteristics of sound, and the healthfuluess of the respiration, or circulation, or temperature ! How accurately may we know what should be the moisture, the temperature of the air, the quality of the food and clothing, the amount and direction of the sunlight, the size and distance of the type, the angle at which it should be read, the distance aud size of illustrations on the wall, for healthful school conditions ! How much health may be saved, n^y, how often may pestilence be arrested, by a knowledge of contagious diseases and an administration of the means of prevention in connection with the school aud family ! Alas! this knowl- edge is now possessed by too few. Indeed, were it properly used by every parent, and teacher, and officer of education, we should be em- ploying none too wisely the means placed in our hands to protect us against the new diseases, aud the old diseases in new forms, adxancing in terrible array against the bodies and minds of the peoi)les of modern civilization. Do we anywhere sufficiently count the liachels mourning their first-born who might have been saved ^ Aud how many of those who survive, draw out a lingering death that might have been pre- vented by proper treatment in childhood ! Very often we are told that the insanity of two-thirds of those confined in our asylums could have been prevented Again, how much of the knowledge already well authenticated by experts, in regard to the prevention of pauperism or prevention of crime, has no weight with our teachers and administrators of education ! How often the educator in the school or college stands aloof from these evils of society, and sees no connection between them and his responsibility! It is as if he cast out of thought as useless waste in social d6bris the boy or girl that was too defective physically or mentally, too deaf or blind or feeble-minded, too dull for his highest marks or his promo- tion, too wayward or too much weighed down by poverty, too ill fed or clothed to come within the enrollment of his instruction. Whereas, everything that concerns humanity concerns education, and should in- terest every educator. 258 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 21 The Tastness of education as a factor in modern civilization is still further apprehended when we consider the progress of the arts and sciences, and the consequent advance of invention and discovery. What was the knowledge of the earth's surface, its laud and water, its rivers and lakes and seas and oceans, its coutioL'uts, mountains, and valleys, its forests, its climate, or the rocks under the earth, or of the stars a^nd heavens above it, or of the races, peoples, nations, their locations, con- ditions, and occupations, to the Egyptian, the Hebrew, Greek, or Roman, compared with the knowledge of these things within the reach of the teacher of to-day? What is left to be distant or foreign 1 Science and art put their hands on the iron and the wood for the material of ma- chinery, and furnish the car and the track or the vessel, and adjust the relation of coal and water, and we travel in comfort around the world before the season has changed. Geography- may now be taught as a science, no longer a mere collection of names without meaning, but com- plete and comprehensive, showing with absorbing interest the relation of the earth's surface to man's conditions and occupations. The child, moreover, by no greater activities than those required in savagery, may by his own eye, with thfe aid of one character of lens, penetrate the se- crets of the heavens, and by the aid of another class of lenses revel in the secrets of the microscopic world beyond man's unaided natural per- ception. He may put his ear to the telephone and hear the voice of the distant stranger, or touch the key of the telegraph and speak to the peoples of the world. Can it be possible for the teacher today to teach by the methods that prevailed before gunpowder, or the mariner's compass, or printing, were known, by the methods that prevailed before Bacon philosophized, or Newton wrote his "Principia," or Rousseau his " Emile," or Comenius his "Didactica Magna"? before Pestalozzi brought teaching into har- mony with the child, or Froebel established the kindergarten ? A still further marked characteristic of education as a factor of mod-> ern times is the tendency to regard every child as of value, and his ed- ucation as of importance to himself and to the family, to the Church and to the State. We read of a period when the so-called " civilized " society cast out the idiotic, the deaf, the dumb, the blind, and left them to perish. But according to the doctrine of modern civilization, all these can be taught and should be. It is pronounced inhuman to neg- lect them. The idea of the value of every soul is so extended that no father, no potentate or human power, is permitted arbitrarily to destroy the child, however imperfect, or whatever may be his color or his race. The Christian doctrine of man's obligation to his fellow may not be ad- mitted, but the brotherhood of mankind is enforced. Out of the more intelligent apprehension of the relation of man to man has come a clearer idea of the relation of nation to natioii ; and among those nations where education has done its work best, international law prevails over seas and continents with greater force than in earlier times over small areas of the Srime country between tribe and tribe. Formerly nations took "22 EDUCATIONAL CONVF^NTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. accoimt of their population mainly to ascertain their strength in war, now to ascertain their progress in the arts of peace ; and philanthropists are encouraged in the hope that by mutual agreement between the na- tions, great bodies of evil common in the past will be unknown in the future. War may not be at once annihilated, but over against its evils will be set limitations and humane reliefs. Education becomes the true initiative of internationalism. It so advances intelligence, increases the power of reason and conscience over the passions and appetites of man, that it makes it possible for a larger number of people to live to- gether under the same laws. In the midst of these great changes another marked characteristic of education as a factor of modern civilization is disclosed. I have else- where said that the teacher now stands, not alone in the place of the paVent, but in the place of the State and of all other influences that aifect the child ; and here it is proper to say that education as a greater factor in this resi)ect in modern civilization does not make the office of the family less, but more; it does not make the influence of the teacher less, but more, nor the influence of the Church less, but more; but it y Great Britain, or to create a British aristocracy, or do anything like that, for we could not if we tried a thousand years j or to maintani a military government like the Government of Germany. But we can do a new thing, and that is, have a nationality which shall express the feeling and convey the thought of the whole people, a nationality in which citizenship shall be the synonym for intelligence, for industry, for manhood. We propose that the people of the United States sliall not only form one nation, but that every citizen of that nation shall be a true man or woman, and as a basis of this we must have intelligence, and therefore the people of the United States are saying to you gentle- men of the Congress of Educators : " We want you to hurry uj) your movements in this matter of educa«on, and give to us that intelligence without which, as we have been told by all the fathers from Washing- ton down, our republican institutions will be a failure. Of course we waut first the common school everywhere, and then every other kind of school that the wit of man can devise. Now we look to you educators to* help us in this matter." I come to bring to you this wail, this great wail of desire for the education of our people. It is a rising tide every- where in the country. Especially in your Southern land we find new ^70 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 33 evideuces of it every day. I find that there has been an awakening there. I find a revival among the people, and that there is a desire for new schools and new methods, and I find this also, teachers, which may be of interest to you, that the people of the United States are fast making up their minds that school-keeping shall be carried on in the same way as every other good thing of this kind. The people of the country have given up riding in coaches, they ride in Pull- man cars; they have given up carrying their money in saddle-bags, and they use drafts and checks; they have the telegraph and tele- phone, and they expect that school-keeping will take the same rank as skilled labor in everything else. The people are making up their" minds to put a good teacher in the place of every poor one, though she may be the wife, daughter, or sister of the most illus- trious man in the country. We must have the best that can be ob- tained. The people of this country have determined to place a good school in the place of every poor one. I rejoiced, in coming through Washington, that gradually some idea of the rights of the people in this respect is getting possession of that illustrious body, the House of Eei)resentatives. I find that men who two year^ ago would not listen to what I had to say in regard to national aid to education, are very glad to listen to me now. It is said that the Senate of the United States is the most remarkable legislative body in the world. After one of the most admirable, profound, and far-reaching discussions that has ever been held in the United States Senate, it passed the Blair Bill for national aid to education by an overwhelming majority, i^ot more than three or four Senators of any national reputation had the courage to stand up and oppose that bill. I wish that the House of Representa- tives was as open to receive the message of the people as the Senate, but unfortunately they have not been, and I fear that the present ses- sion of Congress will pass away before that bill goes through the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives perhajjs more di- rectly represents the popular notions and ideas than the Senate, but it seems to me it is of the greatest importance that these gentlemen should be informed what the 49,700,000 people of the United States are de- manding; that the Government, which has for the last hundred years been looking after every other interest under heaven, should now take some cognizance of the people's need. I find in Congress two sets of men, politicians and statesmen. Now I take it that in the House of Representatives statesmanship has its place, but I am sorry to say that owing to the preponderance of the other element we will not get our bill through this year, but I can say to you, gentlemen, that I believe a majority of the House of Representatives is to-day ready to pass that bill. I believe that twenty men of that lower House are preventing its passage, I do not know who they are, but 1 tell yoti, my friends, that the politician or statesman of to-day who proposes in any way to turn his back upon the demands of this people of the United States for uni- 7950 COT, pt. 2 3 271 34 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. versal education commits a folly which he cannot afford, because he will be gathered to his fathers in the great cemetery of the departed politicians whom the people of the country have no further use for. I trust that the time is coming when we shall have done with them. Let me say, in conclusion, that every other good thing depends upon education. But we must have a higher average, and it is education alone which can give to us this average, and so I welcome you again, gentlemen of the Congress of Educators, to-day. You have come as representatives, not of the sundown of American interests, but you have come as representatives of the sunrise. The warrior has had his day, the priest has had his day, the politician has had his day, and iinally in the fullness of time has come the Chil- dren's Day, and you are now standing at the rising of the sun on that children's day. I see the flush of that rising sun, I see the lighting up of the firmament above. May God speed the coming of that children's day. Colonel Johnston: I can now answer Dr. Mayo's question as to why he was selected. He was chosen as an apostle to the Gentiles. The President: Allow me to introduce to you Prof. F. Louis Soldan, President of the National Educational Association, who will deliver the closing address of this evening. Prof. SoLDAN said : Mr. Fresident and Ladies and Gentlemen — I was informed an hour or an hour and a half ago that I was expected to make a speech. I must say that the invitation, kindly as it was meant, was more abrupt than acceptable. I hesitated, because I thought not only of myself and of the pleasure I would take in speaking to my fellow-teachers and in speaking to this audience, but I also thought in a sympathetic way of the audience themselves. Mr. President, allow me to say here, in order to secure the most favor- able reception of my poor words, that I shall be very brief. Among the recollections of my earliest boyhood I remember a clock in our room which had for an ornament a head, modeled and shaped in a peculiar way. It had two faces — one beautiful, thoughtful, hopeful, looking for- ward and upward, and another a face representing advanced manhood or old age, looking backward and downward; and I learned later that it was an emblem found in that Eoman temj)le which was always open during time of war but closed during the time of peace. If I were to find a face emblematic of our day and of the advantages of education, it would be the face of that youth looking forward and upward, and I would cast into the past that face of woe that looks backward and downward. We are come here to-day to discuss educational questions, and many of us have come with a double purpose in view — first, to listen and to learn from the lips of those older and wiser than we are about those problems in education which beset every teacher. We have also come to witness this great Exposition in which all nations have rivaled to show their best, in which the treasures of the world are exhibited to 272 INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 35 the admiriug gaze. In olden times they spoke of the treasures of the Indies. To-day one of the tasks each nation has is to develop its re- sources, to build roads and bring the treasures of one clime and one country to another, to open new avenues of trade, to sead into the deepest mines and bring their treasures to lightj but notwithstanding all these mines of untold wealth, there is one mine deeper than all, one mine containing more treasures than all, and that is the mind of the American people, and to get the treasures from that mine is the work of education. Education will develop new resources, will develop a new future, will develop more wealth than any of those famous mines of the past. It develops not only the wealth that gifts the hand with skill, that train- ing and education which makes material which is almost worthless into material which is worth more than its weight in gold, but also that in- struction which surpasses the education and training of the hands. Education is a force which not only educates the child, the one who receives it, but which also educates the one who imparts the instruction, because it aims to break up that savage, uncivilized life of each man for himself. It means the giving up of self, it means the diversion of our efforts to the welfare of another. Education itself is an emblem of un- selfishness, it is the emblem of brotherly love. I cannot point to a better emblem of this than the arms of your noble old State: "Kindness, self-sacrifice, and love for the young." As the old stories tell us that the pelican fed its young with the blood of its heart, so the nation to- day holds out a helping hand to the young. And so, all I can say is that I thank you for the words of welcome extended to us to-day. FIB ST SESSION. The First Session of the International Congress of Educators was held in Tulane Hall, Tuesday, February 24th, at 7.30 p.m.. Col. William Preston Johnston occupying the chair as president, and William E. Sheldon, of Boston, acting as secretary. The first thing in order was the reading by Col. George Hicks, In- spector of Schools of Jamaica, of a paper on "Educational Progress in Jamaica." (See p. 59.) The Chairman : You will all agree with me that we are gratified and instructed by the account that Mr. Hicks has given us of the formation of clubs in Jamaica. The next paper will be on " The Ontario School System," prepared by the Hon. J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., Vice-Minister of Education of Ontario, and to be read by Mr. Sheldon. Here ensued the reading of Dr. Hodgins's paper. (See p. 77.) The Chairman : The next subject for discussion is a paper by Brother Justin, of the Christian Brothers, on " Eespect for Authority Devel- oped in the School-room." It will be read by Brother Noah. Here followed the reading of Brother Justin's paper (see p. 447), at the conclusion of which the session adjourned. 273 36 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. SECOND. SESSION. The Second Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Wednes- day, February 25th, at 2 p.m. The Chairman, Dr. John Hancock, said: I have been designated to preside over the Elementary Section, and it has been suggested that I should make a few remarks, either from a paper or from notes. I took it literally when it was said a few remarks, and I am now going to make 2k few remarks. What I shall say may not be an example of concentration, but it will be an example of brevity. In proposing the establishment of a new association the essential question is. What right has it to exist ? If it is to serve no purposes be- yond those met by associations already in being, then there is no reason for the proposed organization. Is there, then, any ground not now occupied, requiring an additional association for its cultivation? Strictly speaking, perhaps not. But old organizations are constantly in danger of falling into lifeless formal- isms. Besides, most thoughtful educators will agree that enough sur- face ploughing has alreadj^ been done in their field of labor. The same questions are discussed in our meetings that were discussed by Horace Mann and Samuel Lewis nearly fifty years ago, and discussed in pretty nearly the same language, excej)t that earnestness and enthusiasm were on the side of those eminent educators by a large balance. As new generations of teachers come up to be instructed, doubtless the discus- sion of the old themes, and the enunciation of the old truisms, will be helpful to them as they have been to us. But shall this end all % Are there no new and more thorough investiga- tions to be entered upon? No deeper or broader views to be obtained? It has been believed that an affirmative answer could be made to these questions, and for this reason : Some five years ago was formed that inner circle of the National Educational Association, now well and favorably known as the National Council of Education. The purpose of tllis body of selected educators is to leave to the parent association the popular treatment of educational questions, whilst it reserves to itself the discussion of questions which lie deeper, and in such detail as would be impracticable in the larger body. That there was room for such an organization has been amply proved by its popularity among our lead- ing men, and by the value of the work it has done. If I am correct in my views, the International Congress of Educators will be but an extension of the work of the National Council. If we shall not be disappointed in our hopes of the establishment of the new association, and shall succeed iu drawing into it any considerable num- ber of foreign educators, we shall unquestionably have as a resi^lt dis- cussions and investigations of still greater worth than those of the National Council. Broad as our country is, our fellow educators may be 274 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 37 pardoned if, after a few years of the enjoyment of the society of their own intimates, they shonUl \oi)g a little to know what educators out- side the limits of their own boundaries are thinking and doing, and tbis through personal contact in the freedom of informal question and an- swer, rather than from the unsympathizing printed page. What, then, shall be the special line of work for this international congress, if established? The best organization of a public-school sys- tem, the best methods of teaching the several branches and of arousing the mental and moral forces of the child, have been constant topics for discussion in the old organizations, and progress may be reported in them all; but, strange as it may seem, no serious effort has been made until quite recently to know the child for whose benefit all these things are intended. By this I do not mean that efforts have not been made in a desultory way to find out something about this heir of all the ages, but no minute study, conducted on scientific principles, has been made of him. Too much credit cannot be given to the few workers who have entered upon this study. But it is not a work to be done by a few. It it so extensive that it must be parceled out to obtain valuable ends. In all psychological experiments the results are so affected by the personal equation of the experimenter that a given line of experiments ought to be carried through by one individual, for if several are employed, their lines of personal equation will so cross each other as to render any con- clusions reached uncertain and confusing. It is evident that until this child nature is understood, our methods of school orgimization and teaching, and of proper stimulation, must rest upon an unstable foundation. Even the few experiments already made go far to overturn some principles in education long considered axio- matic ; and we know not what may follow as the work of experimenting goes on. This process of child study is especially the work of the Elementary Section of the International Congress of Educators. It is a trite thing to say, but it is to be held in constant memory, that upon the teaching of the little child rests all the higher education ; and upon the successful solution of the problem committed to us depends the success of those working in higher fields — higher in the branches taught, but not in im- portance. In what has been said have been held in mind the work of our own section mainly, and the point at which the rebuilding of our educational theories must begin. It may be that the investigation I have designated as necessarily the chief should not be the only one pursued by this body; for, if we could come to know the child completely, there would yet arise many grave questions as to the methods by which this child may be made to grow into the highest manhood, questions which will perplex many generations, and must depend themselves for their correct solu- tion very largely npon experiment. 275 38 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. We may calculate, therefore, with a perfect assurance that we shall not, under the most fortunate circumstances, run short of work during' our generation, for we shall in no way arrive at a true philosophy of education except by the long and dispassionate efforts of a union of earnest minds working' to a common end. Prof. J. L. Hughes, of Ontario : After hearing these remarks, is it proposed that we rnove that an international educational society be formed here? The Chairman : I do not know what Dr. Newell designs in regard to that matter, wliether he designs to have the question acted upon or not. Dr. j^EWELL : This is merely a section, and that matter should be acted upon in a session of the International Congress. Mr. Adams moved that the subject be laid upon the table, to be taken up at the pleasure of the meeting to-morrow ; which motion was agreed to. The Chairman : The session of the Elementary Section is now open, and I have the honor to introduce to you the President of the Kinder- garten Union, Prof. W. N. Hailmann, who will now address you. Professor Hailmann then delivered an address on "The Application of Kindergarten Principles in Primary Education." (See p. 92.) Mrs. Anna B. Ogden then addressed the Section on "The Applica- tion of Kindergarten Principles to the Child's Earliest Development." (See p. 94.) The Chairman: I now have the great pleasure of introducing to the audience Prof. J. L. Hughes, Superintendent of Schools of Toronto. I do this with great personal gratification, because a good many years ago I had the pleasure of visiting his school at Toronto. Mr. Hughes : I deem it an especial pleasure to stand upon this platform as one of the male kindergartners who have been alluded to. I am glad to be here. My mission here is merely to report — not to explain, not to describe — but to state the facts we have accomplished. We have in To- ronto, to a certain extent, solved the problem between the kindergarten and the public-school system. Three years ago we had one of the most liberal school boards in the world, an ideal school board, not one-member of which professed to know what he did not know,menof business, who thought that the superintendent ought to understand his business bet- ter than they did. Well, they accepted my suggestion to introduce the kindergarten into our system when I thought we were ready for it. They looked at the thing in a business-like way. I had already written to New York to obtain the best idea of a good kindergarten. A lady was selected who had been through the Albany Normal School, who had had some years experience in primary work and had spent two years teaching. When we decided to introduce the kindergarten into our schools, we decided to introduce it permanently, and not as an ex- periment merely. So we took this teacher, paid her $600 a year, and sent her to Saint Louis. She came back fully prepared to fulfill her work. She is doing it now, and doing it admirably. We have now 276 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 39 t\ro distinct kindergartens in our city instructed by her, in which she spends alternate weeks, and we would have more if we had teachers prepared to conduct them. We have twelve ladies engaged in the study of the principles of the kindergarten, and they practice under the guid- ance of our superintendent. In addition, we have some who are in train- ing to be teachers and mothers as they should. Our work is a success so far as it has gone. Two years is altogether too short a time to settle it as a success. In addition to the public-school work of the city, our kindergarten superintendent has devoted some attention to the normal schools. She has been employed by the Government of the Provinces to give lect- ures to the students at the normal schools. We expect a great deal from this. During the present session of the Legislature in our Prov- ince money has been voted by the representatives of the people to place the kindergarten in the Toronto Normal School. I am also glad to an- nounce that we have taken another departure by establishing free kin- dergartens. Outside of Toronto, the only town or city in Ontario in which the kindergarten has been placed is the town of Portland. It has been conducted there for three years, and gives. complete satisfac- tion to the trustees and to the parents of the children. We have in Toronto two ladies who are studying with a view of introducing the kindergarten in other schools. They are sent to our city by the Boards of their towns. We expect that the kindergarten will be introduced into all the other cities and towns of the Province as rapidly as we can procure trained teachers. We believe in it. We believe in the organic union of the public school and the kindergarten, and we believe in ac- complishing that union by the modification of the public school instead of by the modification of the kindergarten itself. The Chairman : I am quite sure that we all regret that Professor Hughes did not bring his Board down in a body, so that the educators of the United States might have ajook at them. I understand that ar- rangements have been made to carry forward this discussion into the meeting to-morrow. Unless there is some special work to be done, this will be the only meeting of the Elementary Section of the Congress. We shall meet hereafter as one body, there not being enough to justify our meeting as a Section. Mr. W. E. Sheldon: I want to say a word. As a representative of the Elementary Section, I was much pleased with the remarks of the gentleman from Ontario when he said that the organic union of the kindergarten and the public school was to be secured by the modifica- tion of the public school to the demands of the kindergarten. I want to say that, having for the last ten or fifteen years listened to the words of wisdom that came from the lips of kindergartners, they now have modified some of their principles, so that the organic cementation of the two schools can be attained with the heartiest* good- will of us all. 277 40 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Mr. W. jST. Hailmann: I do not agree fully with the proposition of making an organic union between the kindergarten and the public school. I do not think such a thing possible. In the first place it seems to me that the public school is complete in itself, thoroughly me- chanical to a large extent, while on the other hand the kindergarten is not completed. The kindergarten, as it is, is not so complete in all di- rections as to fully know the needs or wants of a little child. It seems to me that what we want is not the imperfect union of the two on the basis of the kindergarten, but the infusion of the public school with the same spirit of inquiry for the best ways to do the work in accordance with the child's needs, that, I suppose, prevails in the kindergarten to a large extent. At the conclusion of Mr. Hailmann's remarks the chairman read a let- ter from Miss Susan E. Blow, of Saint Louis, Mo., acknowledging the receipt of an invitation and expressing regret that she was unable to be present. Mr. John Hitz, of Geneva, Switzerland, said : In Geneva, with a population of about sixty thousand, it is surprising how many children attend the kindergarten. There are about four thousand. The super- intendent has nothing else to do but to supervise the kindergarten (they call them infant schools there) ; and furthermore, these schools are so esteemed that in some of the little suburbs of Geneva you will find the church and the kindergarten in one and the same building, and there, I think, is Avhere they should be. Mr. L. W. Mason, of Japan, said : It is my good fortune, in connection with my duties in teaching music in Japan, to teach in the kindergarten. After serving for three years in Japan, I went through Europe i^retty thoroughly, and I have seen the improved kindergartens of tliis country; but we have the best Froebel kindergarten that I have ever seen, in Tokio, Jajjan. I will give you the history of it. A native of Japan married a German lady. She was \>ighly accomplished in many things, and, among others, she knew the kindergarten. She also knew the Eng- lish language, and as the Japanese were determined to have the best things that they read or heard of, after she had established the Tokio school for young ladies it was proposed that this lady should open in con- nection with the school a kindergarten. She consented to do so, and planned out a building with large grounds; and you will find ther« to-day a kindergarten of one hundred and fifty children, the best style of build- ings made on i)urpose for it, with teachers trained by this lady; and now the graduates of the ISTormal School become students in the kindergarten for the purpose of learning the art of teaching its methods. In that in- stitution there is a building about 50 feet long and 30 feet wide, for chil- dren's plays. You will find rooms for the different ages of childhood, from the little children with nurses to the older ones. You will find there about sixty nurses who come with the children, and a building outside of the main building is set aside for the accommodation of these nurses. 278 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 41 You will find in the yard, which surrounds the building and covers about two acres, a fish pond about as large as this platform, where the children amuse themselves by feeding the fish. They have all the improvements .and all the means for amusing chil- dren that are found in Germany, in England, or in America, so far as I know ; and they know how to use them. For myself, my best success was in this school. The younger the children, the more easily they were taught. I hope when you visit the Exposition you will not fail to see the work of the children of the Tokio kindergarten. The Chairman: I will say that our friend, Professor Mason, who has just spoken, has faith in children. I can remember when he first began teaching children to sing. Other teachers thought they could not be taught, and the way he met this argument was to go to work and teach them. He proved that they could sing, and on the genuine kinder- garten princii>les, too. There being no further papers on the programme, the meeting at 4.45 p. M. adjourned. THIRD SESSION. The Third Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Wednes- day, February 25th, at 7.30 p.m. The Chairman, Col. William O. Eogers, announced, as the first pro- ceeding in order, a paper by Hon. J. W. Dickinson on "The Massachu- setts Public School System." (See p. 103.) Mr, Dickinson was followed by Mr. IcHizo Hattori, Japanese Com- missioner at the Exposition, who delivered an address, in which he gave the outlines of the public school system of Japan, (See p. 109.) Mr, Hattori was followed by Dr, A. D, Mayo, who presented a paper on "A Southern Graded School." (See p. 177.) At the conclusion of Dr, Mayo's remarks, it being 9 p.m., the session adjourned, FOURTH SESSION. The Fourth Session of the Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Wednes- day, February 25th, at 2 p.m. The first paper read was by Mr. R. L. Packard, of the Bureau of Ed- ucation, Washington, D. C, on " School-room Air, with Directions for Examining It.'' (See p. 349.) At the conclusion of Mr. Packard's paper, Mr. W. E. Sheldon pre- sented the following petition : One of the greatest needs in onr grammar and high schools is a higher order of scholarship in the teachers in these institntions. While hut relatively a short time since women were employed chiefly in primary grades, and but rarely in higher work, the tendency of the present time is toward giving the instruciion part of grammar and high school work also in the hands of women. Owing to their natural tact, and to the degree by which this is augmented by normal school training, the skill of women 279 42 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. teachers is very considerable ; it is not, however, to be denied that their skill in im- parting knowledge is often much greater than the knowledge which they have to im- part. It is, therefore, a matter of public moment that all means for enlarging their knowledge should be made accessible to women. The best women's colleges, Vassar, Wellesley, and Smith, do not afford equal facilities to the best colleges for men, snch as Yale and Harvard. The experience of Cornell and Michigan Universities is suflS- cient to dispel the doubts of most of our people concerning the propriety of bringing undei'graduates of both sexes together in class and lecture rooms; but if some doubt remain upon this point, the grounds of it cannot be urged in respect to post-graduate study, where the greater maturity and experience of those pursuing it would seem to insure safety. The only institution in this country offering special advantages for post- graduate study is Johns Hopkins University, and it would seem that the admission of women to the opportunities offered by it would in no degree impair its dignity, and would increase its usefulness. The Western Association of Collegiate Alumnse has lately petitioned this university to admit women to its courses of study, to its lectures, and its examinations. A very large number of the officers and most active members of this association are teachers; and inasmuch as the granting of their petition would tend directly toward the elevation of the standard of scholarshiji among the women teachers in our schools, it seems not improper that this national association of teach- ers should indorse the petition of the W^estern Association of Collegiate Alumnse, and formally express its conviction that, by admitting women to its superior privileges, Johns Hopkins University would advance the interests of education in this country, and would in no way deteriorate its own fame or degrade its high standards. Be it therefore Resolved, That the National Educational Association petition Johns Hopkins Uni- versity to open its doors to women, giving to them all of its privileges, opportunities^ incentives, and honors, on the same conditions that these now are, or may be, given to men. That is tlie petition. I am sure that this Congress of Educators will recognize it as one of the important steps in the advance toward secur- ing for women, who are largely, so far as an exijerience of thirty years of observation and practical work in the school-room leads me to judge, generally qualified to do the noble work of education. I take pleasure in offering this petition and submitting it to the gentlemen present. If it is not deemed wise to act upon it now, I give notice that at Saratoga next summer it will be presented to the consideration of the entire body of the National Educational Association. I have the testimony of the lady who presides with a dignity and ability equal to that of any college president in this country, Miss Freeman, of Wellesley College, that as she was educated in the University of Michigan, she derived her power and strength from the association there in education with the young men. Her great success is largely due to the advantages thus obtained. The author of this petition is Miss May Wright Sewell. On motion a committee of three, consisting of W. E. Sheldon, Esq., Miss May Wright Sewell, and Dr. W. T. Harris, was appointed to take charge of the resolution. The Chairman: I now have the pleasure of introducing Prof. Ed- ward A. Spring, of New Jersey, Director of the Chautauqua School of Sculpture and Modeling. 280 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 43 Mr. Spring then addressed tLe Congress as follows : Ladies and Gentlemen — As there are so few of us let us adjourn to the corner temporarily, and I will hare a better light to show a little clay modeling in a practical way. It is very pleasant to come to Kew Orleans and see so much of its quaint and curious things. Our eyes take in at once what is peculiar, what is strange. If we should go on a journey to Turkey or Japan, we should see still more what was strange and peculiar, and the stranger in that far-off country is struck by the likeness of the people to each other. It is hard for him to tell them apart. For instance, in Japan it is hard for him to see the difference, but the Japanese see the difi'erence. The stranger mistakes the brothers and sisters of families. The parents see no similarity between them. How can a stranger be so stupid as to mis- take two boys who are so entirely difierent? We are all strangers. We are come here from some unknown country, and when we have arrived in this life we see things typically, we see the generic rather than the indi- vidual, so that when the child is brought under educational influences he has a special fitness to study what is generic, and if you put him in con- ditions in which he can study the generic or typical in a clear, wise way, you will gain for him what he will soon lose, the power of doing so for himself. It would be just as stupid for a doctor to tell a child that an animal did not move so and so, that such and such things were not alike, as for the parent to say to the stranger, " How stupid you are to thiuk that my two sons are alike! They are different." The child sees first that the world around him has outside objects. One of the most pleasant things for a child, one of the things which it will first do if you give it plastic clay, is to pick a piece oft', and after finding that it can pick it to pieces, it begins to make balls, and the balls will run. It seems to have produced life, a.nd nothing is pleasanter for a little company of children than to give them clay and a plate and let them make little balls and run them about. They will be fascinated with it, and from that simple exercise, which may be continued for months in a family or kindergarten, there can be developed a great deal of natural history or scientific work, and it could be carried by this sim- ple material through all education. In the technical school for young men, in the profeSvsional school where the sciences and arts are studied, the clay comes in everywhere, at every turn, as a valuable help. Froebel saw this and appreciated the fact that a plastic material in the hands of a child was a valuable addition, and it is always in the true kinder- garten one of the exercises which is most delightful to the child and useful to the teacher. Clay can be used to illustrate anything, almost. It can be used to show plasticity ; it can be used to show many of the operations that are going on at the surface of the earth. Take a lot of glasses and put a little dry clay into one and a little more into another, measuring olf and filling them with water; stir them and let them settle, and you will see 961 44 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the different grades of deposition. Mix* a little sand, marble dust, &c., and you can go through a long series of experiments. There are hun- dreds of schools now where mj' pui)ils are using clay with the greatest success in keeping the child happy and quiet at times when, perhaps, the teacher is occupied with another class. A room at one side with clay, and a little instruction as to how to use it, will be a great source of help to teachers. There was one teacher who told me last summer, when I asked her for a report, that the principal had formerly com- plained that the primary children when at their recess in the yard dis- turbed the other classes ; and now, instead of having them go out, she had a little room with clay, and they go in there and amuse themselves with the clay, and some of them have done remarkable work. She was astonished at it. The principal has no longer any cause of complaint, for they are as quiet as mice. Here are four lumps of clay of equal size. I draw them out into an elongated form. Now I will do what any child without any practice in modeling at all might do. There is a bird. Suppose I want to make a long-legged bird. There, that looks like some kind of a bird. In order to make that a bird with long legs, I find by experiment (and the ex- periment is one that can be perfectly well shown by taking time and going through a series of experiments), I find that that looks better. You experiment a little, and you find that while a head goes on that bird, you cannot have that sized head. I take a smaller head, to see if it does not look better with a long neck. That is much better. Now I will make a bird that has a shorter neck, smaller head, and shorter legs — something between that head and this. Now I see that there is a law that the shorter the neck of the bird, the larger the head can be. Now I will change this again. Thus the child finds out by its own ex- periment. I find out the natural law in each case. I take the same piece of clay now and try a human form. Keeping the same mass for the head in each case and the same mass for the body, I find by careful experiment and time spent upon it that the larger the head, the younger the person, and the smaller the head, the older the person. 1 will go farther. I take my same quantity of clay for the body, but make the head larger still, and you see I intentionally only make the clay as any child might make it, but I get at once a sug- gestion which, although my hearers may not see it, the child will see at once, that it is not a grown person but a baby. There is where it be- comes very difflcult to convey to adults ideas on such a subject, because it is already too late for you. You see only the conditions, you do not see the characteristics. Now, the characteristic of the human being is that we are upright, or ought to be ; the characteristic of the quad- ruped is the opposite, and the child lays the thing down and calls it a dog or cat or mouse ; he stands it up and calls it a man. Take, for in- stance, the type Cetacea. The axis of the mass of the brain and the direction of the spinal column are coincident. Raise this a little and 288 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS-^PROCEEDINGS. 45 you tend to a higher type of life, the manatee or something of that sort. Eaise it a little more and you get to the seal or walrus tjpe. The seal and walrus have anterior limbs at the outset, the seal having a clumsy hind leg which is easily mistaken for a tail. The walrus walks much more than the seal. He has a more distinctive neck. From the walrus you can rise through the scale just as you like/ You can go up a ladder of short or long steps from one end to the other ; but take the extremes, from the lowest cetaceans to human be- ings, and you can go up through a series of as many steps as you please. When you get up among the higher quadrupeds, the monkey for in- stance, they are by no means a human type. The mistake is that any piece of clay which has three holes will have some expression. You can see that these three holes have an expression. Make the holes any- where and they will still have some expression. Turn it around so that one or the other of the holes becomes the mouth and the two others the eyes. In any way there is an expression. This is why the monkey and a great many animals have an expression, but it is entirely different from the expression of a human being. Every monkey is alike — that is, its expression is the same — because it has the right number of eyes, a nose, and a mouth, but the face is elongated, as all animal faces are. The brain is very small. Now, to model the face of a human being I just reverse the operation, and take the lumj) that makes the face of the animal and make the brain of the man, and I take that calculated to make the brain of the animal and make the face of the man. I merely give a few of these instances to impress upon you the idea that with this clay the child can see the generic or typical in nature, aud can emphasize and become familiar with things which the adult finds it difficult, if not altogether too late, to go about. In questions of action or motion the child is very quick, and just as the child's tongue is easily turned to a new language aud the ear understands readily a new kinme here to begin anew in that direction ? Will you promise to take hold and labor with us ? I ask you as brethren to give us help. I feel that I can say that there is no longer a North and a South, no longer two sections. We are one people. While I say that, let me say a few words more in the same con- nection. I wish to make an appeal to you tonight that you take the same ground upon this question, which we feel to be essential. I said a while ago that this was our question. True, Massachusetts and Min- nesota and all the States are interested, and if we go down we drag them down; we either sink or swim together; but while this is true, we are more immediately affected, and we will go down first. What I wish to say is this : — Xumbers of us are studying the question. We are do- ing all that can be done, and we ask you simply for help. We feel that whatever is done must be put in the hands of some one. Now I do not object to discussion by my brethren from the North. They can give us valuable suggestions. But let me say to-night that it is ira- 289 52 EDUCATIONAL COXVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. possibl*^ for you to anderstaiid this question as those of us who are connected with it understand it. I should not feel that I was fully qualified to deal with the question of how the city of Boston should be managed in her school interest. I should feel that my friend Dr. Bickuell and others understood that question better than I did. But reared on Southern soil, and having mingled with the population from my earliest infancy to this hour, I think I know them. There are certain things connected with the ques- tion that no man can know who has not been a long resident among- them. The Southern States are the States to work out this great ques- tion. We welcome aid from abroad, we feel that you are acting mag- Mauimously when you rise up and help us. I think I understand the temper of the people of my own State, and I feel just as well assured as I can be of anything that is not an actual occurrence, that they would not accept outside help unless they are left to work it out themselves. He who assumes to put conditions upon us will injure the people whom he seeks to benefit. I feel that we ought to be trusted. Let me say what I said to Senator Blair. I found him with a bill creating a com- mission, and I said this to him in reply to a conversation : ''I am known all over the South as an advocate of universal education. I have labored in that field for thirteen years, but if you pass such a measure as that I tell you the people would not accept the tendered aid ; it would be re jected." Twelve months ago, as a member of. the sub-Committee of Edu- cation and Labor that traveled over this Southern country, he tele- graphed me to come to the Parker House in Atlanta, as they wished to examine me. I went and was examined for an hour and a half. When I finished giving that testimony he said : " When 1 was here a few years ago 1 felt that we could not trust the South. I have been traveling over your Southern country. I have had men before me representing all conditions of society, and I feel thoroughly convinced that I was wrong in my estimate." He went back to Washington and framed a bill which the great majority of people in my State will accept gladly. Professor Thom: I desire to correct a misapprehension. As far as 1 gathered from the remarks of the gentleman who followed me, it seems to have been understood that I was not in sympathy with the work done by the several denominations in the South. It is exactly this which I do appreciate. If I may be allowed to say so, I think they have wisely pursued the right course, and I am heartily in sympathy with them. Professor Bartholomew next delivered an address, in which he made some remarks on educational j^rogress in Kentuckj*; he said: The work in Kentucky is to be judged by its results; and when you come to our State and see the results produced, that is suffi(;ient to de- termine the character of the work. There is no man in this country to- day who stands higher morally than does Albert S. Willis, of Kentucky, and he is a graduate of the public schools of Louisville. We met with 290 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 53 opposition, but education was the victor; and when the Superintendent of Public Instruction made his report, after an earnest contest of nearly eighteen years, then it was that the existence of great illiteracy was demonstrated; then it was that the people appointed a. convention to meet at Frankfort, out of which grew the inter-State convention of Louis- ville, and the State of Kentucky called to its aid in the solution of this problem gentlemen who are here tonight, the Chairman, Professor White, Mr. Hancock, Mr. Harris, and gentlemen from the South. A committee was appointed to memorialize Congress in reference to Federal aid to assist us to bring our jieople up to the jjroper standard, and Kentucky to-night extends to you her profoundest gratitude for the work which you have done in influencing the State Legislature, which gave to the State a new law which has incorporated all good features, which has established systems of instruction, and which takes an in- terest in favor of popular education. If you will pardon me, I want to say something in regard to my native State, and I want to mention ofie point here which seems to me works in beautifully in reference to the discussion just had. If you are agreed that popular education is nec- essary for the white man in order that he may proi)erly be prepared to exercise citizenship, how does it come to pass that the white man should have it and not the negro ? If it is necessary in one case, it is necessary in the other. In Kentucky a colored man stands upon the same level as a white man. I desire to say that we are proud of our system of public instruction. The city of Louisville has its primary schools, its intermediate schools, and its high schools, extending to the same level for each race, except that the negro is in a separate school. The same qualifications for teachers are required, the same rules are in force, the same course of study is pursued, and the same salary is paid; and I believe that the public school system of the city of Louisville to-daj^ is built upon a foun- dation which will reflect honor and credit upon itself and upon the State. It is not necessary for me to enlarge further in reference to the pro- visions which have grown out of the last convention held at Louisville. Nearly everything recommended by that convention was incorporated in the new school law. It only remains for me, in the spirit of our great son, Henry Clay, to place the hand of the northern brother in the hand of the southern brother, and say that the teachers of this country are the saviors of this country, and that in the work of removing illiteracy and elevating the intellectual and moral standards you must adopt the motto of my State, " United we stand, divided we fall." Dr. Hancock, from the Committee on Eesolutions, reported the fol- lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : To the International Congress of Educators : The undersigned committee, appointed to draw up suitable resolutions to express the pleasure and interest which the members of this body have derived from their in- spection of the extent and perfection of this, the largest of world expositions ever 291 54 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. held, and to set forth in fitting terms their gratification at the friendly zeal and as- sistance manifested by its managers in the cause of education, which has thus been enabled to offer for study so complete a display of educational work and appliances^ hereby offer the following resolutions : Resolved, That this Congress bears its testimony to the fact that the World's Indus- trial and Cotton Centennial Exposition is not only more extensive in its buildings and space occupied, but may claim precedence on the far more just grounds that it has ap- plied the skill gained by former experience in similar expositions in such a way as to bring together all the valuable devices heretofore discovered for showing to the eye at a glance the resources of a country, the quality and peculiarities of mechanical construction, and usefulness of goods and machinery, offering in this respect an exhi- bition of new phases and aspects of national wealth not before thought possible to make objects of display. Resolved, That this Congress expresses its feelings of grateful acknowledgment to the managers of this Exposition for the recognition they have extended to education as one of the important elements of national strength and development, especially as related to industry and the production of wealth. Resolved, That this Congress hereby returns its sincere thanks to the citizens of New Orleans, to the members of the Louisiana Educational Society, the New Orleans Teach- ers' Association, and especially to the President, trustees and officers of the Tulane University, for the warm hospitality and obliging attention with which they have wel- comed it to their city and provided it with all the facilities for holding its sessions. JOHN HANCOCK. WM. T. HARRIS. J. W. DICKINSON. Dr. M. A. Newell then read a list of papers which were received by the Congress, but which were not read. Dr. M. A. Newell then said : Before we adjourn I wish to express my personal thanks to the mem- bers of the Congress for the great kindness they have shown me in the arduous task I had in making the necessary arrangements, and also my gratitude to the citizens of New Orleans for the attention which I have received from them. At the conclusion of these remarks, at 10 P. M., the Congress adjourned sine die. 292 293 SECTION A— ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. HONOEAllY CHAIRMAN. F. BUISSON, Inspector- General of Elementary Instruction, PariSj France. HONORARY SECRETARY. J. G. FITCH, H. M. Senior Inspector of Scliools^ London, England. CHAIRMAN. Hon. JOHN HANCOCK, late Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio, VICE-CHAIRMAN. Brother NOAH, of the Christian Brothers. SECRETARY. Hon. W. O. ROGERS, New Orleans. ASSISTANT SECRETARY. Hon. a. p. marble, Ph. D., Worcester, Mass. 295 EDUCATIONAL PEOGEESS IN JAMAICA. By Col. George Hicks, Assistant Inspector of Schools of Jamaica. When the Island of Jamaica shall become more fully known it will be noted for its wondrous beauty, its delightful and health-restoring climate, its fruitful soil, and the variety of its fruits and other produc- tions. At present it is chiefly noted as that one of the West India Islands which was the main battle-ground for fighting out, from time to time, all the great questions which arose respecting slavery in the English colonies, and also as the Island where, more than in any other, the results of emancipating the black man from the bondage of the white man have been investigated, analyzed, and discussed from diverse points of view and for the purpose of establishing diverse conclusions. My theme is " Educational Progress in Jamaica," and the great event of emancii^ation gives me my starting point. Speaking generally, the educational progress of the people of Jamaica dates from that ej)och ; for " the abolition of slavery rendered it possible to offer education to the children." The Church of England, at that time established by law in Jamaica, had had its churches and ministers in the island lor many years. The Moravians had been patiently doing what was permitted to them for eighty-four years, and the Wesleyans and Baptists had also planted their churches ; but until emancipation elementary education was un- der ban. When the restrictions were removed, all these cburcbes en- tered upon educational work, — some of them with very great zeal. Other organizations also entered the newly-opened field. The London Missionary Society, the Presbyterians of Scotland, and the American Missionary Society sent their missionaries and schoolmasters to take part in supplying the religious and educational needs of the enfran- chised people. It yet remains for some one to write the first chapter in the history of educational progress in Jamaica with an adequate appreciation of the educational laborers. Briefly, this can be said : A number of educated men and women, taking with them the habits, tastes, and character of civilized and Christian descent and training, went to Jamaica upon the great event of emancipation, eager to impart that which the people, just treed from bondage, seemed eager to receive. The number of such men and women was few compared with the great need, but so far as their work extended it was very valuable. What they were doubtless pro- duced results of no less worth than what they did. With their civil- ized habits and Christian character, the indirect influence for good of their daily life among the people caunot be reckoned of less value than what was accomplished by direct instruction in school and elsewhere. But the demands of the churches upon their ministers increased, and, as speedily as possible, the missionaries who had engaged in school 297 60 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. work gave it over iuto other hands, and those who had been sent out as school-masters entered upon ministerial work ; and even the ablest and best educated of the native school -masters were very soon transferred from desk to pulpit. The schools suffered, while the churches gained f for very many able ministers now in the island were, at one time, school- masters. The second chapter in the history of educational progress in Jamaica would show some increase in the number of schools, corresponding to the increase of the churches, but a less number of thoroughly capable teachers, and less zeal for education on the part of the people. At first the expense of establishing and maintaining elementary schools in the Island was defrayed by the contributions of missionary societies and philanthropists (especially English Quakers), by the in- come from some bequests, by a small amount of fees paid by parents, and by a very small government grant. This government grant seemed at first to be distributed upon no definite system ; but afterwards an in- spector, Mr. John Savage, was appointed, and the small sum granted by Government was awarded according to his report of merit. Then came the outbreak of 1865 in one of the parishes, formidable not in itself, but in the fear of a general insurrection ; and consequent upon this the Island legislature yielded up the reins of government iuto the hands of England. With the establishment of Crown government the third chapter in the history of educational progress in Jamaica begins. As one means of bringing the Island into a better state, so that such an outbreak would not again occur, the Government recognized the fact that a more systematic effort mustbemadeto promote education among^ the people, and it instituted a system of government grants, upon a plan devised by Mr. Savage, to aid established schools and to encourage the opening of new schools. The scheme provides for organizing each school so that, as far as possible, the pupils will be placed in six dis- tinct classes; it defines the attainments expected of each class, and it makes provision for an annua) inspection and examination. The amount of grant to each school is determined annually, and depends partly upon the number of pupils in average attendance, and partly upon the quality of the work as tested at the examination and reported by the inspector. The essential features of the scheme adopted were^those of the English system. Instead, however, of providing for indiviast few years the number of church edifices, with school-houses, parsonages, and teach- ers' residences, have been largely increased, the expense being met, mainly, by the labor of the })eople. The greatly increased expenditure for the education of their children has been made- possible by labor. Besides what they invest in lands and stock and expend for house com- forts and schools and churches, they make use of the savings bank, de- l)0siting small amounts of money obtained by labor, and the number of small depositors is steadily increasing. In the main, the cost of the public works — the roads, bridges, railway, telegraph, markets, hospi tals, water-works, &c. — is ])aid, ultimately, by the people by their labor. In extending the railway, lately, laborers have been in demand, and there has been no lack. In Jamaica, as everywhere, high wages attract labor; and the Panama Canal, bidding for Jamaica laborers, gets them by thousands. They leave their homes for a strange land, endure many privations, run many risks, toil laboriously, and return (many of them) with considerable amounts of money earned and saved. Manifestly, the schools have not wholly spoiled the people for labor.^ These are facts respecting the condition of the people of Jamaica which careful inquiry would bring to your knowledge. When I recall 1 See Appendix D. 71)50 COT,, PT. 3 5 303 G6 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. these facts, the steady growth of the populatiou, the lessened hours of toil, with the vast iucrease of what toil can procuie of the comforts of life, and all that ministers to the physical, intellectual, and spiritual wel- fare of the })eoplc, and, in a word, the great increase in Jamaica in the jjast few years of the elements aud the means of civilization, and then read the statements of English newspaper correspondents and maga- zine essayists that Jamaica lies in a state of ruin, 1 am both curious aud impatient to know what they mean by " Jainaica," and what they mean by " ruin." If by "Jamaica" they mean the small class of landed ])roprietors, a large i)roportion of whom lived in England, spending there the fortunes realized from Jamaica sugar and rum,^ and if by ''ruin" they mean the loss of luxuries dependent upon the receipt by this small class of £25 annual profit from every able-bodied laborer iu the Island, it may be conceded that to such extent "ruin" has come upon Jainaica. But when they tell me that the country is " gone to the dogs," I must dispute that. The country has not gone to the dogs. In i)art it has gone, and more and more it is going, to the laborers. The day I left Jamaica for New Orleans a government surveyor told me that the laboring people now hold, as owners or as tenants, more than one-half of the utilized land in the island, aud that the major part of the work now done by the government surveyors is to divide the large properties into small holdings of a few acres each, to be sold to the peasantry. The number of property-holders aud tax-payers is steadily increasing. From 1874 to 1884 the iucrease of x^opulation was 14 per cent., while the increase in the number of tax-payers for the same time was 17 per cent. — 86,(>55 iu 1884, as against 73,924 in 1874. And now, perhaps, some one, hoping the best from the educational and other efforts made on behalf of the emancipated p(iOi)le of Jamaica, will say, "The results, then, are satisfactory?" I^o, nol^ altogether. And some one, of opposite prepossessions, hearing this reply, will say, " After all, theu, the results are disapiiointing"?" To those wiio looked for greater results the results actually achieved aie, iu part, disappoint- iug. Some seemed to think that the change from compulsory to volun- tar3Mabor would of itself change inherited tastes and tendencies and life-long habits and desires ; that the privilege to enjoy the highest fruits of civilization would create a strong desire for them iu natures habituated to be quite satisfied with what is lowest. Not a few, know- ing that the public school is characteristic of New England, and know- ing what New Buglanure. simple. justice between man aud man." What is true of. humanity, according to Goethe, is true of the negro, accoiding to Stan- ley. In many cases, 1 think, planters and missionaries have both erred, the one in not awarding to the Jamaica laborer what was duo to him, and the other in not exacting from the Jamaica laborer what was due from him. Undue partiality has had its ill-effect, as well as undue severity. I think 1 have observed in some quarters a tendency, when dealingwith the Jamaica people, to estimate the small as if it were large; the crude as if it were perfect; a partial i)erformaince as if it were full performance ; an attempt as if it were a thing accomplished ; and to ac- cept an easily nuule excuse and a readily made promise as sufficient sat- isfaction for untulfilled engagements. Some of my friends among the ministers of religion in Jamaica confess that their kindness has often defeated its own purpose ; that their gifts have not proven to be bene- fits, and that, by the ill-judged bestowing of favors, a spirit of depend- ence has been tbstered where a sj^irit of self-reliance should have been developed. Doubtless, if some mistakes had not been made, greater re- sults than those accomplished might have been achieved. Still (to use Daniel Webster's phrase), one "would disi)ute against the sun," who would deny that the change for the better in Jaujaica is a very great chanc;e, and the results achieved for good exceedingly valuable. 1 recognize how difficult it is to frame a statement that shall satisfy my own mind as being the exact truth in this matter, and how much more difficult it must be to communicate the exact truth to another mind. 1 may say simply this: Standing here, where the question is to be answered whether educational progress in Jamaica has been accom- ])anied by a general ])rogress of the people, I put the em})hasis upon all that has been achieved by a considerable number of the people, and, iu some neighborhoods, by the greater number. When I am in Jamaica, as occasion offers, I put the emphasis upon what remains to be accom- ])lished to bring up the many to the heights reached by the lesser num- ber : to imi)rove the home life ; to elevate the condition of woman ; to arouse a deeper interest in the education of children ; to have the homes sui)pli('d with books aud i)apers ; to break the bonds of heathenish customs and superstitions, and to create a more general moral i)ublic sentiment which shall be founded upon the truth that that tree of re- ligion that is barren of the fruits which include the moral virtues abides under the curse of the Master. THE NEW EDUCATIONAL ERA. Within the last four or five years Jamaica has entered u[)OJi a new era in her educational ]>rogress. There is an julvance all along the line. We have now the ladder which reaches horn the elementary school to the English university. During the governorship of Sir Anthony Mus- grave, and at his instance^ the Governnjent Ibunded a university scholarship ot the annual value of $1,(K)(), oi)en to thecomi)etition of all Jamaica l)ovs. Tlie .Jamaica High S(.'lu;ol has also been established, iu which boys are prepared for the university, and admission to this school •m G8 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. isdeterniined by competitive oxamiiiatiou. Our best elementary schools will soon be sending boys to the high school, and they will have their chance for the university. There is an iucrease in the number of schools for secondary instruc- tioD, some of which have been established for many years and are of high repnte. The Cambridge local examination is now extended to these schools, and there is no doubt that they will feel a beneficial effect from submitting their pupils to the same tests that are applied to the l)upils of similar schools in England. Some of the Jamaica pupils have gained high honors at these examinations. Greatly increased attention is given to female education in Jamaica. Our new Governor, Sir Henry W. Norman, makes the first year of his administration memorable by establishing upon a liberal basis a normal college for the training of female teachers, an event which is to have a most imi)ortant influence upon the educational future of the Island. The VVesleyans have recently added to their educational institutions a high school for girls, which at once reached a success requiring enlargement of the premises, and the Baptists have just established a similar school of a less advanced grade and designed to meet the needs of the less wealthy members of the community; this school, also, is filled to the limit of its capacity. Increased effort is made to supi)ly trained and competent teachers for the schools. Soon after emancipation some normal schools were estab lished, and a few years ago the Government instituted a normal col lege. This is now to be enlarged, and as other training institutions are subjecting themselves to the government examination, their efficiency will doubtless be increased. These uormalschools include oneforfeinales. established upon a limited scale by the Moravians, to meet their own Avan ts. The larger institution for the training of female teachers just estab- lished by the Government will meet a more general want that has been greatly felt throughout the Island. One of the most important ste})s taken by the present chief inspector of schools, the Hon. Thorn ;is Cap per, to imi)rove the educational system, is the admission of teachers to the examination of normal students, and providing for the grant of a bonns of from $25 to $75 yearly to each teacher who passes,— thus giv- ing teachers substantial inducements to fit themselves more thoroughly for their work. Within the ])ast three years teachers' associations have been formed in ten of the fourteen parishes of the Island. Wfiile the existence of most of them is dne, in some measure, to efforts put forth by myself, it gives me great pleasure to state that the last one formed, a veiy good one, is the result of the spontaneous action of teachers themselves. These associations hold quarterly meetings for essays and discussions, and circuhite among their members the best works on teaching ai;d such edncational periodicals as the Jonrnal of Education^ American Teacher^ Canada tSchool Journal^ and some from England. In soin; of the parishes the Church of England has also formed parochial tench ers' associations, doing work similar to the others. As one nit'ans to aid teachers and students in the normal colleges to become thoroughly acquainted with the literature of the teacher's i)rofession, the ])ubHc, library in Kingston has added an educational section, which now con- tains several hundred edncational works. I beg to express my persmal thanks to the many members of this International Congress who, in le- sponse to my request, have contributed to this librarj^ mau^ and valu- able educational reports, 306 International oonghess of educators — tAPfiRs. 69 During: these past three or four j^ears there have been held more edu- cational meetings in Jamaica, and there has been more discussion of educational topics in the local ])ress, than in all the previous history of the Island since the first African was brought to its shores. At some of these meetings planters and landed proprietors have taken a i)r<)mi- uent part, expressing their cordial sympathy with the educational etibrts made on behalf of the people. Among the chief questions engaging the attention of the legishitive council, now in session, is tliat of perfecting the educational system so as to extend its benefits to all the children in Jamaica. During the ])ast year an effort has been made to introduce into the homes of the people, and into the schools, a continuous supply of suitable and attractive periodical literature — a movement which many regard as one of the most important which' has been made for many years. Finding that much of the work of the schools seemed to be lost because of the dearth of literature in the homes of the people — the children who had learned to read in the schools afterwards losing the desire, if not the ability to read, because of the lack of anything to in- terest them after leaving the school — I have suggested to'the working peoi)le of Jamaica that they should supj)ly themselves with some of the penny and halfpenny illustrated monthly papers published for the benefit of the working people of England. To some extent this has been done by the forming of shilling reading clubs among the people.^ A few members of a congregation send for several different periodicals and exchange them every week among themselves, so that each has the reading of several at the expense of paying for one. Similar clubs are formed in schools, so that at a slight expense Jamaica boys and girls may have the advantage of reading the beautiful and interesting peri- odicali5 prepared for the instruction and delight of English children. A few " clubs of four" have also been formed among young men, to obtain monthly periodicals of a higher price, each contributing the price of one, and all having the privilege of reading the four during the mouth. Just before leaving Jamaica I had a small pamphlet printed, giving fuller information respecting these clubs, and I have a few copies with me, which I shall be happy to furnish to such members of the Congress as may feel a special interest in the subject. Samples of the periodicals which are circulated among members of the shilling- reading clubs and the school clubs can be seen in connection with the school exhibit from Jamaica, at the Jamaica Court in the Exposition. Having referred to our school exhibit, I may say that after seeing the very extensive and admirable educational exhibits from many States iu America and from foreign countries, constituting one of the most inter- esting features of this great Exposition, I could hardly venture to make mention of the small exhibit from Jamaica if it were not that, small as it is, it is fairly representative. Owing to various causes, the notice given to the schools was very brief, and only a few schools pre- pared exhibits to be sent to the Exposition ; but these exhibits were all l)repared under such strict conditions and with such careful precau- tious to secure the individual, unassisted work of the pupils, that they are of considerable educational value, for they furnish a fair sample of the w^ork that can be done in the ordinary first-class and second-class elementary schools of Jamaica on any day without any special prepaia- tion. ' See Appendix E. 307 70 EDUCATIONAL CONVl^NTlONS At NEW ORLEANS EXfOSlTlON. CONCLUDING WORDS. In couclusion, I beg to express tbe gratiflcatiou it affords me to be preseDt at tliis Congress and to participate in tbe i)roeeedinos of sucb an assembbige of educators, and I beg also to ex}(ress tbe hope that some of yon, with your thorough knowledge of tbe best methods of school work and your enthusiasm in promoting educational progress, may, in the course of some of your holiday excursions, find your way to our beautiful island in the Caribbean Sea, for we need the instruc- tion and the stimulus you would bring to us. In return, Jamaica would , give to you upon her myriad hills a constant succession ot your most perfect June and October days, with scenery which at one and the same time displays the beauties of verunl bloom and summer loveli- ness and autumnal fruitage: And if any, suffering loss of health from the rigorous climate of the North or from extreme changes of tempera- ture, should tly to our sunny and equable clime, I am warranted in ex- pressing the hope that Jamaica, my adopted home, would deal as kindly with you as it has with myself, in restoring in large measure the lost and inestimable blessing. APPENDIX A. Jamaica School System. All elementary schools aided by Government are required to Tiave an average at- tendance of at least 20 scholars and to be kept iu operation 180 days in the year. In ordinary practice the latter requirement is met by keeping the school open 4 days iu the week for 45 weeks in the year. The inspector of schools and the assistant inspectors make special unannounced visits to the schools, as often as convenient, and an annual visit, when the school is fully examined. For the purpose of this annual inspection the teacher prepares for the inspector a class list, giviug the name of each pui)il, with the following particu- lars: age; date of admission; class in reading, dictation, and arithmetic, iu which the pupil was placed upon admission; the class in these subjects in which the pupil appeared at the last previous inspection ; number of days of attendance at school since last inspection ; class in these three subjects in which the pupil is placed for ex- ami nation. The inspector (or assistant inspector) reports the condition of the school, giving marks for each subject, upon a graduated scale, according to merit. The three chief subjects are reading, writing from dictation, and arithmetic, for each of which the maximum of marks is 12. For the secondary subjects the maximum of marks is I), the secoudary subjects being scripture knowledge, general knowledge (common things), grammar and composition, geography and history, handwriting (including map-drawing), and singing. Marks are also given for discipline and for organiza- tion upon the same scale as for secondary subjects. The marks for organization are awarded partly with regard to the state of the school-room, school appliances, etc., partly with regard to the proper classification of the pupils and a judicious time- table, and partly with regard to the state of the school records. These records com- prise a journal or logbook, an admission register, an attendance register, and (where sewing is taught) a sewing-class register. For the puri>o.se of giviug instruction in the secondary subjects the pupils are usu- ally grouped iu two or three graded divisions. The standards of classification for the six classes of a school, for the chief subjects, are as follows: READING. I. The alphabet and easy words of from two to five letters ; primers. II. The First Reader.* III. The Second Reader. IV. The Third Reader. V. The Fourth Reader. VI. The Fifth and Sixth Readers; any kind of reading, poetry or prose. ' The "Koyal Series" of readers la in general use. 308 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 71 WRITING FJiO.M DICTATION. I. Foriuing* letters and cnsy words on slates, from copies set on the blackboard, or from Avriting sheets. II. Copying words and sentences on slates, from copies set on the blackboard, or from writing sheets; transcribing from the (hiily Reading Lesson. III. Writing on slates a portion of the daily reading lesson, from dictation. IV. Writing on slates, from dictation, sentences containing words liable, to lie mis- 8])elled: also from Reading Lesson. V. Writing on slates or paper sentences or short paragraphs, dictated from the Reading Lesson ; exercises ilJnstrative of the rnles of orthography. VI. Writing on paper selections dictated from the highest readers and from news- papers; or, from memory, business forms, notes, bills and receipts, etc. ARITHMETIC. I. Counting objects ; making figures; addition and subtraction to 100 from dicta- tion. II. Simple addition and subtraction on slates, from dictation, to humlreds of thou- sands. III. Simple multiplication and division, on slates, to hundreds of millions. IV. The four compound rules in money, weights, and measures; also reduction. V. Simple proportion, practice, and simple interest. VI. Compound proportion, j)ercentages, fractions, etc. Schools are ranked according to the number of marks awarded in each of the three chief subjects, together with the total number awarded altogether, as follows: First- class schools, a minimum of 8 marks m each of the chief subjects, and a total of r)6 marks — two-thirds of the total maximum ; second-class schools, a minimum of (5 marks in each of the chief subjects, and a total of 42 marks; third-class schools, a minimum of 4 marks in each of the chief subjects, and a total of 28 marks. New schools which fail to reach third class, but oljtain '.'4 tiiarks, areiauked as exceptional. Grants are allotted to the schools according to the number of pupils in attendance (the cai>itation grant), and the attainments of the school as indica,ted by the marks (the class grant). Because the pimento-picking or the coffee-picking season, or the rainy seasons in May and October, or special seasons of labor on the sugar estates, seriously aifect the attendance and diminish the ordinary average attendance, the teachers are permitted to select 144 of the best days of school attendance for the year as the basis upon which to calculate average attendance. The capitation and class grants are as follows : Capitation grant. For each pnpil in average attendance during the year. .. Class grant. Por each mark obtained at the annaal examinations Second- class schools. s.d. 5 Third- Exceptional class I schools, half schools, of third class. s.d. 4 s.d. 2 Sewing is not compulsory, but is taught in nearly every school, one hour per day being devoted to it. The grant for sewing is three shillings to each gii'l in average attendance at the sewing-class, the basis for calculating average attendance being similar to that for calculating the average attendance of the school. Annual grants are also given by the Government to first-class schools only, for the training of pupil teachers, who shall personally pass a satisfactory examination in accordance with the government regulations relating thereto. The following are the rates : Year. First year . . Second year Third year . To each pnpil teacher. £«. d. 4 5 6 To the teacher for instructing them (each year). For one For two | For three in the same in the same in the same school. school. school. £s.d. £ s. d. 3 I 4 10 £s.d. 6 309 72 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. In addition to these grants, tlie snni of £1,500 is distributed annually among school niatiagers to aid in the erection, enlav.s;eu)ent, and repair of schocd biiildings. Asa rule, the government grant U0, and fiuiii.shed it very elegantly. 1 have heard of a similar instance in the parish of St. Audiew. Hev. W. M. Webb, of Stewart Town, wrote to me in 1879 respecting the improved cottages in the Gibraltar district, on the border of the parishes of St. Ann and Tre- lawny, where the people are "small settlers and growers of coifee." Mr. Webb said: " I was counting np with one of my deacons there the number of new and improved houses which have been erected within the last ten years in his district alone—a dis- trict called Watt Town. We counted no less than fifteen new houses, and others in course of erection — all upon an improved scale — real neat, commodious, peasant family cottages. * * * I will now de.scribe one of these nice cottages that have sprung up in these mountains within the last ten to twelve years. There is a solid base wall, 2^) leer by 15 feet, 7 to 8 feet high — [»robal)ly on a hillock or on the slope of a hill. In any case there are two rooms below ; the sons occupy one as a sleeping room, aud one is used as a lock-up for cotfee or ground provisions for market, etc. Upstairs there are two sleeping roome — one for the parents, and the other for the daughters.' There is what is called a hall, where a few pieces of mahogany furniture show off to advantage. Uijon a corner table are cups aiul saucers, mugs, etc., all of the latest and most approved designs, placed there more for show and ornament than for use. There is also another hall which is used for dining and for general family chit-chat. A i)a,ssage, which in many cases leads into a neat portico in front of the house, coiu- pletes the design." Instead of quoting from a number of similar letters from other ministers, received at about the same time, I will append here a letter received from Mr. Webb since prei^ariug the paper read at New Orleans. Replying to my request for later infor- mation, Mr. Webb has written as follows : " In response to your request that I wonld furnish you as early as possible with a supj>lenientary -statement to that which, along with others, I made some few years ago on ihe improved dwellings of our peasant farmers or small settlers, I now submit a few facts on the subject. " I conliue my remarks to the districts with which I am best ac(iuaiuted (though I liave no Doubt that they api>ly pretty generally), where our people have become in- depemlent of the small wages per diem oil the sugar estates, have bought aud gone to reside upon their own small holdings, and have had sufficient time audopportunity to develop the resources of th»ir laud on their own account. 1. — WA'rr Town. "I begin with this district, having referred to it in my former communication to you. Here I have a class of intelligent, thriving people, connected with the Gibraltar Church. The marked progress in their dwellings is very gratifying. Since my I'ormer letter to you, about t welve now houses upon the same improved scale, and if anything a. little better, have been commenced, most of which have received their tiuishing touch in colored walls and paint. Let me describe three of the largest and best, good enough for persons in uiuchiiigher stations of life. " Iloiise Ao. 1. — This is a large t\yostoried house, with three sleeping rooms above, a sitting hall aud a dining hall. On the first floor there are two sleeping rooms and 311 74 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OftLEAN8 EXPOSITION. a lock-up room for coffee and bread kind for market, etc. There are five sash win- dows in the house besides jalousies. This is one of the iinest houses in the district, and occupies a commanding situation on a hillside. " House No. 2. — This house is near completion ; is situated upon the top of a small round hill, and belongs to one of the young men of the Gibraltar Church, who has, not long ago, taken to himself in a respectable manner a wife. It is also an upstairs house with a front portico. There are in it three sleeping rooms and two halls, and will be when quite completed a nice comfortable home for our young lri(3nd and his wife. " House No. 3. — This is one of the lately finished houses in the district. It is, like all the rest, built upon a hill, and presents a fine appearance from the road. There are. two sleeping rooms upstairs, a large sitting room or hall, and a passage, with the necessary rooms below. Its colored walls, painted jalousies and blinds, barbecues in front, and outbuildings, make up quite a pleasing picture of a peasant's cottage in the St. Ann's Mountains of Jamaica. I visited unexpectedly the friends residing in this house a few weeks ago, and was very pleased to observe the general neatness and order of all the internal arrangements. Had they expected me, I should have inferred that they prepared the house to receive " minister" ; but as my visit was unexjiected it was to me no ordinary pleasure to observe the nicely-polished floor, the cleau furni- ture, tables and chairs all in order, and the inside of the house quite in keeping with its outward appearance. " Oue noticeable feature of progress in this district is the attention that necessary family conveniences are receiving, in addition to the improved dwellings of the peo- ple. These are seen in the erection of better kitchens and closets, so long neglected by most of our people, and provision for water supply by the erection of tanks. This water supply is of great importance in those districts of the island where there is the limestone formation ; fissures in the rocks above and under ground, and cavities here and there in the earth, prevent a collection of surface water in ])onds, and are equally inadmissible of running streams in the shape of rivers and si)rings, so abundant in more lavored parts of the island. Many of the lately erected tanks of the people contain sulficieut water to sustain a reasonably long drought. 2. — Madras. "A similar progress in the dwellings of our people is observable in this district. Madras is an old coffee plantation, and was some years ago cut up into small holdings, which the people purchased. More recently Bryan Castle and Brampton, Bryan Mountains, have undergone a similar process, to the great advantage of the people. Here some very commodious and neat houses have been erected, with the family con- veniences already described. The water supply of our people here is very plentiful, nearly every house having a tank or wooden butt, so that in the late prolonged drought the people had enough for themselves and to spare. "The first indication of a new house is the burning of a lime kiln ; next, a spot is selected and cleared ; then timbers and other building materials are collected, after which a mason is employed to build the foundation walls and the carpenter's work progresses according to the means of the owner. Judging from the number of lime- kilns lately burnt in this district and spots cleared, we shall in the near future have quite a number of improved family dwellings. 3. — GOMEESAL. " Here lived for a number of years, and died lately in a good old age, Mr. Benjamin Hilton, whom we delighted to call " Fathei Benjamin." He was one of God's nobility, though at one time a poor slave. He was an humble and genuine Christian, in all the relations of life. By dint of industry and force of character he bought from his old master the coffee plantation on which he was formerly a slave. He lived to see gathered around him a host of children and grandchildren, walking in the hallowed footsteps of their aged father and mother. Benjamin* Hilton died a few years ago, and left at the death of his aged widow his property to be divided equally between his six daughters.. The widow followed to an honorable grave not long after. The property has been divided according to the tenor of the will, and upon each share there has been erected a real comfortable family dwelling of the most approved style. The younger men, who bought portions of the property from Mr. Hilton, have also erected, or are now engaged in erecting, similar houses on their freeholds. " 1 might name the Ulster Spring and Sherwood districts of the parish of Trelawny, where to my knowledge similar improvements in the dwellings of the people have within a comparatively short time taken place, bttt probably those residing in the districts will be better able to describe such improvement* than I. " I will now point to three results which I have noticed fts following in the wake of improvements in the dwellings of our people. 312 INTERNATIONAL CONGRKS^ OP EDUCATORS — 1>APERS, 75 "(1) The vwral stavdard in at oixc chraUd. v "I have for several years observed that my cbuicli exclusions for the sin of iraiiio- rality increase or remain tlio same, ])aiufnlly nnmerous, wLierc the people continne to live ill so-called houses, in -nhich no decency can bo maintained and no religions vir- tue cultivated ; -nhile, on the other hand, in snch districts as I have named, where the ]ieople are rai»idly improving their dwellings, exclusions for imnioiality decrease in the ratio of such ini])rovenients, and in the houses I have already described exclu- sion from church fellowship for this social sin is very rare. ''(2) The reUyiouH and educational advantages at command are more readily laid hold of and appreciat''d. "The small settlers owning their own plots of land, and who are fast rising up into a respectable niiddh; class, are the strength of the Church and State. They contribute li bcrally to erect their places of worship, to support gosi>el institutions, to erect their school-houses and teachers' residences. For such there is no need of a compulsory scheme of education, as they voluntarily and gladly keep their children at school during a reasonable period of the year. "(3) Trade in benefited by such, and the r( venues of the country proportionately increase as the j)eopIe arc induced to improve their dwellings. "These householders are the most honest dealers the shopkeepers have on their books. Having their hard-earned property at stake they cannot aiford to be sued and levied on, while in their dress and food they add consideral)iy to the intlirect reve- nue of the country, not to speak of their direct contribution to local or parochial rates. "In conclusion, I would ol)serve that whatever can be done by the Government to assist this growing desire among our better-class people for "better homes" will be substantia'l gain to all concerned in the very near future." APPENDIX D. Jamaica Laborers. Sir Anthony Musgrave, late Governor of Jamaica, made an address in 1880, before the Royal Colonial Institute, London, in which he said : " I am convinced that the same great laws which regulate the action of capital and labor everywhernr cent, above the Loudon price. Thus a club of two dozen members could obtain, with their "24 shillings, 16 penny periodicals each month, amounting to 192 periodicals during the year. The order should be so given tbat the periodicals for tno months will be in- cluded in the first parcel. The periodicals are to be distril)nted weekly (usually on Sunday) by some one appointed to take charge of tbe matter (usually tbe scliool- master), each member receiving one periodical. This is to be retained for a week (and not over two weeks under penalty of a fine to be fixed by tbe club), and when returned the member will receive anotber ; and so, week by week, the periodicals are lead and exchanged. By the time any one member has read four or five of the peri- odicals first received, the supply for anotber month will bave come, and thereafter during tbe remainder of tbe twelve mouths there will always be on liand i)eriodicals uiore than enough to give fresh reading matter cverj^ week to each member. After the first quarter, when tbe periodicals will have accumulated, if any members de- sire to read two in one week they should be permitted to do so. At tbe eud of twelve months all tbe periodicals for tbe year will be divided equally among tbe members of tbe club. Tlie plan for school clubs is similar ; but as many children's papers and magazines cost ouly a half- penny raouthly, tbe rate of payment for tbe year is fixed at sixpence; and because many children might find it difficiilt to obtain a sixpence, the school clubs are organized for six months, and each member pays threepence, tbe club to be re- newed half-yearly instead of yearly. Frequently tbe teacher contributes one shilling or more, so that some of tbe penny magazines for children may be included in tbe order for the school club. On one day in the week tbe periodicals are exchanged, and on tbat day it is intended that a portion of the reading exercises be selected from the ^periodicals instead of the ordinary school books. In a few clubs tbe fee is increased so as to procure a larger supply of the penny, magazines. When circumstances will permit, this increase would be desirable. Most of the religious denominations publish attractive periodicals for adults and for cbildreu. Among tbe most interesting of tbe nndenominatioual penuy and half- ]>enny periodicals are the following: For adults : At one penny — British Workmen, Coitapcr and Artisan, Friendly Visitor, Nome Friend, Light and Lore, Motlwr's Friend, Mother^ s Treasm-ji, National Temperance Mirror, Tract Marjazine, Welcome Hour. For children : At a half-penny — Band of Hojie Bevien-, Band of Mercy. ChihVs Oivn Magazine, Children's Paper, Darjspring, Gleanings for the Young, iiunrise, Young Stand- ard Bearer. At one penny — Child's Companion, Children's Friend, Little Gleaner, Our Own Magazine, Prize, School Newspaper, Young Days, Youth's Miscellany. 'Gueat, Hayworth & Co., 29 Paternoster Row, Lonilon, E. C, atteud to onler.s which I send. 314 PROGRESS OF EDUOATIOI^ IN THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO, CANADA : AN HISTORICAL SKETCH. By J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL D., Deputy Minister of Education. The ediicatioual history of Ontario (formcrJy Upper Canada), natu- rally divides itself into three periods, viz : I. The Early Settlement, or United Empire Loyalist, Period. ir. The period preceding the union of the two Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. IIL The period since that union, and includiug the administration of the Rev. Dr. Egerton Ryerson, Chief Superintendent of Education. During the early settlement period, and that preceding the union of the two Provinces (in 1841), two social forces were slowly taking form and shaping themselves into antagonistic relations to each other. This' was apparent from the attitude which each assumed on the religious, ])olitical, and educational questions of the time. And, although they frequently expressed strong and opposite views on educational topics, yet the question of an educational system for the Province had, during all this time, taken no definite shape in the public mind. Indeed, such a thing was not deemed practicable, except by men who were years in advance of their times. It will sim]ilify my statement of the case if I take a somewhat pros- pective view of events in the order in which they afterwards transpired. For convenience, therefore, I select two noted men of their times as rep- resentatives of the two social forces to which I have referred, and of the opposite opinions on education and other subjects which tlien prevailed. The first was the Rev. Dr. Strachan (afterwards first Church of Eng- land Bislioj) of Toronto), and the other was the Rev. Dr. Ryerson, the trusted leader of the Methodist body. Dr. Strachan was the undoubted representative of the English and European views on popular education. Dr. Ryerson, on the other hand, was the equally true and faithful exponent of the British Colonial, or United Empire Loyalist, views and opinions on the same subject. What these latter views and opinions were may be gathered from a reference to the early colonial history of the thirteen colonies. The first real systematic efforts put forth in America to promote popu- lar education began in New England, and thence spread in all directions. In 1635 the first school was opened in Boston, and in 1(347 the first leg- islative enactment in favor of schools was passed in Massa(;husetts. In 1G70 the Governor of Connecticut declared that "one-fourth of the reve- nue was devoted to schools." Geueral Eaton, in his valu'ible and com- prehensive report for 1875, says : History, with hardly a dissenting voice, accords to the English colonisls of Now EiigUiud the credit of having developed those forms of action, in reference to the edu- cation of children, which contained more distinct features adopted in the systems of the country, than any other. 315 78 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Tiaiiied iu such au educational school, aud hUed with the educatioual traditions of these old colonial times, the "United Enipiie Loyalists," or "defenders of the unity of the Empire," as they were called, brought with them into Canada their zeal for education aud their devotion to the sovereign. The first settlers of Upper Canada were " exiled tories," so called, from the revolted colonies. In that, and in the other Provinces, they were warmly received and welcomed as the heroic defenders of the royal cause. They sacrificed everything but their principles and their honor iu maintaining " the uuitj^ of the Empire." Even after the struggle was ended, they adhered to the " lost cause" with the same devotion as they had shown in following the royal standard, not only to victory, but even to disaster and defeat. They were men of wonderful resolution and daring, as well as of superior intelligence. iSuch were the first set- tlers of Upper Canada. There were nine colleges founded in the thirteen colonies before the Be volution of 1776. ^ Dr. D. C.Gilmau, President of Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, speaking of these old British colonial colleges, pays the follow- ing high tribute to their value in giving breadth and culture to the dis- tinguished colonists who afterwards shaped the destinies of the American Republic. He says: These nine colleges were nurseries of virtue, intelligence, liberality, and patriotism, as well as learning; so that when the Revolution began, scores of the most enlight- ened leaders, both in the council and on the field, on both sides, were found among their graduates. Soon after the arrival of the " U. E. Loyalists" in Upper Canada, a tide of emigration set in, chiefly from the three kingdoms. These im- migrants brought with them the feelings and habits of home life in the old world, with the opinions and ijrejudices of their class, illustrating the truth of the old Latin quotation, '•'■Godlum, non animum, mutant qui trans mare currunty By degrees portions of the U. E. Loyalists and of these immigrants, whose views on " Church and State" coincided, united their forces and formed a powerful and dominant party. They ruled the Province with a high hand for many years. From their social position and frequent intermarriage they became a compact and exclusive party, aud were distinguished by the sobriquet of the "Family Com[)act." Against this powerful party was arrayed the majority of the U. E. Loyalists and their descendants, and the entire liberal and progressive party, under the leadership of Dr. Ryerson and other noted men, some of whom after- wards left his standard and became involved iu the political troubles of the rebellion of 1837-'38. It is sufficient to say in this connection that under the skillful leadership of Dr. Ryerson aud other prominent men of moderate views who acted with him, the power of this Family Com- pact was broken, the compact itself dissolved, and its oi^ponents be- came in turn the ruling ])arty in this Province, a position which their legitimate successors still occupy. The Family-Compact party, in the heyday of their power aud influence, were not averse to education. Far from it; for they were men of edu- cation themselves. But it took the form of zeal for higher education and for the higher classes. Rev. Dr. Strachan, who was the most ener- getic aud powerful leader of this party, occupied a seat in the Legisla- tive Council (Senate) by appoiutmeut of the Governor. He devoted all ' Tliese were Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, Brown, Pennsylvania (Univ.), Rutgers, Williii,m and Mary, and Partiuoiith. 31U INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 79 his energies to the establishment of a universitj', with district classical Bchools as feeders. He entirely itrnored elementary schools, or rather made no provision for them ; and it was not until nine years after these district classical schools were established that the TJ. E. Loyalists, combined with the i)rogTessive party, of which it formed no inconsider- able i)ortiou, were able to get a measure passed by the Legislature for the establishment and maintenance of common schools. The chief rea- son for tbe perpetration of this educational anachronism was, that the friends of popular education, while all-powerfnl in the House of Assem- bly, were few and consequently uuinfluential in the Legislative Council, and were, therefore, not able at all times to influence that body so as to secure its assent to the education bills i)assed by the i)opuIar branch. But in order co understand more fully the sequence of events which led to the development of the educational spirit in this Province, it will be necessary to give a condensed summary of the facts. With this his- torical background in prospective view, the distinguishing features of that comprehensive system of education which, in later years. Dr. Kyer- son was privileged to found, can be more clearly seen. The U. E. Loyalists settled in British America in 1783, the date of their exile. Most of them settled in Upper Ca,nada along the north shore of the St. Lawrence Kiver and the corresponding margin of Lake Onta- rio. They brought with them from the old colonies their zeal for edu- cation and their devotion to the flag of England. Those of them who had settled along the Bay of Quinte united in 1789 in framing a memo- rial to Governor General, Lord Dorchester (Sir Guy Carleton), in which, lamenting .the educational privations which they had endured, they ]n'ayed the Governor to establish a "seminary of learning" atFronte- nac (Kingston), at the east end of Lake Ontario. Their prayer was granted, so far as the setting apart of lands for the sui)port of the sem- inary was concerned, as well as for the support of schools wherever the expatriated colonists had settled (or might settle) in the country. Immediately after the passing of Ihe Constitutional, or Quebec, Act of 1791, by which, among other things, Upper Canada was separated from Quebec, the Governor of the new Province (J. Graves Simcoe) sought the co-operation of the Church of England bishop having jurisdiction over both provinces, in urging upon the Home Governujent the necessity of providing for a university and for classical schools in Upper Canada- Provision for elementary schools formed no part of this plan. The Brit- ish colonial idea of ]>roviding for such schools first never crossed the minds of the leaders of i)ublic opinion in these days nor that of the bisliop. They were chiefly Englishmen, with the old-fashioned English ideas of tiiose times, that the education of the masses was unnecessary, for it would tend to revolution and the upsetting of the established order of things. After the retirementof Governor Simcoe the Legislature of Upper Can- ada presented an address to the King in 1798, praying that a poilion of the Crown lands should be set apart for the maintenance of higher edu- cation, as proposed by Governor Simcoe. King George III, in the same year, gave a gracious answer to this address, and instructed his colo- nial minister, the Didce of Portland, to issue directions to the Acting Governor (President liussell) to have the lands asked for set apart. This was done, and 549,1217 acres were devoted to thepuri)oscs set forth in the address. The share which afterwards fell to the university was 2L>5,1>7,S acres. ' As these lands thus set apart were, in those ea?ly days, unpro and religious equality. His chief antagonist was Dr. Strachan. The subjects in dis])nte related to a dominant church, tlie a])])lication of clergy-reserved lands to the i)ur- poses of education, and the liberation of tlie provincial university from exclusive control under the presidency of Dr, Strachan, first as arch- deacon and afterwards as bishop. Xot being eligiWe to the poi)u]a!' branch of the ];egislature (being a minister), Dr. Ryerson had to develop his powers of resistance to the dominant and ruling jiarty in other di- INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 81 rectious; and this he did with wonderful success. As a writer and de- hater few equaled hiiu in his presentation of facts, and in his skill in de- tectinji' the weak points of his adversary's position or argument. As a coutroversialist and pamphleteer he had confessedly no rival. He, thercibre, was able to furnish his friends in the House of Assembly with facts and arguments Avhich were irresistible. There were, too, in that Assembly some men of rare power and ability, who did noble service in the poi)uhir cause. They passed resolutions and school bills time and again, but could not always induce the Legislative Council (Senate) to concur in their adoption. This state of things continued for many years, and with disastrous effects on the intellectual growth and well-being of the Province. This fact is attested by indubitable witnesses, and is re- corded in the proceedings of the House of Assembly of the time. I shall quote a few examples : In a i)etition of the United Presbytery of Upper Canada, presented to the House in 1830, the clergy who signed it say : It is with deep regret that your petitioners (in their ministerial capacity, as con- nected with a very large portion of His Majesty's subjects in this Province) are com- pelled to say that the state of education is, in general, in a deplorable condition. The House of Assembly itself, in a report of a committee on a peti- tion laid before it in 1831, says : The common schools of this Province are generally in so deplorable a state that they scarcely deserve the name of schools. The reason for this state of things is thus set forth by the House of Assembly in an address to the Governor, adopted in the same year: We, the Commons of Upper Canada, in Parliament assembled, most respectfully represent that there is in this Province a very general want of education ; that the insnfficiency of the school fund to support competent, respectable, and well-educated teachers, has degraded common-school teaching fiom a regular business to a mere matter of convenience to transient persons, or common idlers, who often teach school one season and leave it vacant until it accommodates some other like person, whereby the minds of our youth are left without cultiA^ation, or, what is still worse, freqnently with vulgar, low-bred, vicious, or intemperate examples before them, in the cai)acity of monitors [i.e., teachers]. Per contra, the House, in its address to the Governor, further says : If provision were made for the liberal and punctual payment of teachers, * * * gentlemanly, well-educated persons would not be ashamed to take charge of our youth, our schools would be no longer vacant, nor our youth ignorant, etc. In the Third General Report of the Education Committee of the House of Assembly, presented in the session of 1832-'33, the committee present the financial aspect of the question in the following graphic language : Your committee most earnestly draw the attention of your Honorable Honse to the astounding fact that less is granted by the provincial Legislature for educating the youth of 300,000 people than is required to defray the contingent expenses of one ses- sion of Parliament. To place this in a ])oiut of view more striking, it may be observed that one-third oil" the population of any country are subjects of school education, but, allowing one- fourth, we have a grant from the provincial treasury of !};1(),000 for educating 75,000 cliildreu (a little more than 20 cents per annum for tlie instruction of each scholar), a provision so jjitiful, so miserable for this most important of all objects, that it cannot i'ail, when thus i>rescnted, of exciting astonishment; and when contrasted with the vast sums ex))euded by other countries in support of public in.structiou, reflects no credit on the Province. The chairman of this committee of the House of Assembly, in a per- sonal memorial which he presented to the (Joveruor of the Province in 1835, uses the following language : This riipidly-growing colon>' * * "^ may be iirononnced ai ibis moment totally uncduc;i1>-(l, !or ilie little instruction given to the children, under the name of educa- IdoO COT; PT. II U 319 82 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSlTIoisi. tiou, has uo influence over their morals — does uotliiug to open or exi>aud their intel- lectual faculties, much lees to direct theui in their conduct through life. English reading, imperfectly taught ; something of writing, and the tirst tive rules of arith- metic, which the teachers Ave port common schools; and as Acts have lately passed imposing additional rates I'orthr ))urpose of defraying the expense of building jails and court-houses and macadamized roads, the Council fear that the a.ssessment for common schools might be found bnideusome, *fcc. Thus, and because jails, court-houses, and even roads were considered of more importance tban schools and teachers, the last measure for the promotion of education ever passed by the House of Assembly of tTi)per Canada was rejected by the Legislative Council. In three years afterwards the House of Assembly and Legislative Council of Upper Canada ceased to exist, and the two Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were united under one Legislature^ Such was the untoward aspect of affairs when this legislativ^e union took i)lace. The momentous political events which preceded this union, and which led to the total disruption of all political parties and combinations, were very salutary in their effects. Under the liberal policy pursued by the Home Government grievances w^ere redressed, and a broad and com- prehensive scheme of popular government inaugurated. The result was that the wise and statesmanlike measures, designed to promote public tranquillity and local self government, were ])roposed to and adopted by the Legislature. Amongst these was a measure providing for the establishment of a municii)al council in each local division of the Province of Upper Canada (and ])artly so in Lower Canada) for the regulation of internal matters. On this system was ingrafted, by means of a separate Act applicable to the whole Province, a scheme of public education, with a liberal pro visiou for its maintenance. In recommending this scheme to the favorable consideration of th<- first Parliament of United Canada, in 1841, Lord Sydenham, the first Governor-General, used the following language: A due provision for the education of the people is one of the first duties of the state, and, in this Province especially, the want of it is grievously felt. The establishment of an efficient system, by which the blessings of instruction may be placed within the reach of all, is a work of difficulty, but its overwhelming impwtance demands that it should be undertaken. I recommend the consideration of that subject to your best attention, and I shall be most anxious to afford you, in your labors, all the co- operation in my power. If it should be found impossible so to reconcile conflicting opinions as to obtain a measure whii^h may meet the a])probation of all, I trust that, at least, steps may be taken bj- which an advance to a more perfect system may be made, and the difliiculty under which the people of this Province now labor may be greatly diminished,' subject to such improvements hereafter as time and experience may point out. The enlightened expectations of the Governor-General were, happily, realized. But so diverse were the poi)ulations of the two Canadas thus united, and so different were their social conditions, that the School Act 320 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 83 then passed was repealed two years afterward (in 1843), and a school bill for each Province was passed by the Legislature in that year. Up to this time Dr. Ryersou's energies, as 1 have shown, were wholJy engrossed in contending for the civil and religious rights of the peo])le. He had also ten years before projected and collected money for the es- tablishment of an academy or college for higher education at Coburg, on the north shore of Lake Ontario. This he did so as to provide a superior institution for meaibers of his own church and the public gen- erally, and as a protest against the exclusiveness of King's College (to which I have referred), which was projected and afterwards established at Toronto, by Bishop ytrachcin. His efforts in this, and in the estab- lishment of the Victoria College at Coburg, as a university, in 1840, aroused a widespread interest in education generally, which boi^ good fruit afterward. This university has now been in operation forty-five years, and from it the first arts graduate in Upper Canada was sent forth in 184G. Its first president was the Kev. Dr. Ryerson. Its pres- ent distinguished president, the Rev. Dr. Nelles, was his pupil, and has held his position with honor to himself for the last thirty-five j^ears, an uni)recedentedly long period in the history of colleges in this country. Dr. Ryerson enjoyed much of the confidence of the Governors during these times, and was often consulted by them. He would have been appointed to take charge of education in 1842 had not the then Governor- General (Lord Sydenham) suddenly died, as the result of an accident. He was, however, appointed in 1844, and for thirty-two years was, first the founder, and afterwards the successful administrator, of the school system of Upper Canada, now Ontario. It was my good fortune to be associated with him from the time of his appointment in 1844 until he retired from office in 187G. Immediately after his appointment, Dr. Ryerson went to Europe, re- maining for over a year to familiarize himself with the systems of edu- cation there. On his return he published an elaborate report on his projected scheme of " Public Instruction for Upper Canada," That re- port was approved by the Governor-General in Council, and he was directed to prepare a bill to give effect to his recommendations, which he did in 1840. A brief analysis of that report may be interesting, and is as follows: It is divided into two parts: 1, Principles of the system and subjects to be taught ; 2, machinery of the system. After defining what was " meant by education," the principles of the system were laid down as follows : 1. It should be universal. 2. It should be practical. 3. It should be founded on religion and morality. 4. It should develoj) all the intellectual and physical ])0wers. 5. It should provide for the efficient teaching of the following sub- jects: Biblical history and morality, reading and spelling, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, linear drawing, vocal music, history, natural history, natural philosophy, agriculture, human physiology, civil government, political economy. Each of these topics was fully discussed and illustrated in the first ])art of the report. The second part explained the machinery of the system, which was summarized as follows : 1. Schools — their gradation and system. 2. The teacher arc! his training. 3. The text- books recommended. 4. Control ai.d inspection on the part of the Government, o. Individual and local eflbrts. 321 84 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. These several topics were also fully discussed and illusliated, so that the whole compreheusive scheme of education proposed bj- Dr. Eyer- sou was clearly and fully understood. The report occuivied nearly 200 pao-es. The school law fbuuded upon this report provided, amongst other things, for — J . A general Board of Education for the Province, to take charge of a normal school, and to aid the chief superintendent in certain matters. 2. A normal school, with practice or model schools attached. 3. The establishment of school libraries. 4. Plans of school-houses. 5. Appointment of district school superintendents. 6. Apportionment of school moneys to each school according to the average attendance of pupils at such school. 7. Levy of a school rate by each district (county) municipal couucil, of a sum at least equal to the legislative grant to each such district. 8. The collection, by the local school trustees, of the balance lequired to defray the expenses of their school, iu any way which the school-rate papers (at the annual meeting) might detoruiiue. 9. The recommendation of a uniform series of text-books, with the pro- viso that no aid would be given to any school iu which books disap- proved of by the general Board of Education niight be used. 10. The establishment of district model schools. 11. Examination and licensing of teachers. 12. Visitation of schools by clergymen, magistrates, municipal coun- cilors, etc. 13. Protection of children from being "required to read or study in or from any religious book, or join iu any religious exercise or devo- tion, objected to by parents." 14. Establishment (as provided in the law of 1841) of Eoman Catholic separate schools, where the teacher of the locality was a Protestant, and vice versa. (These schools received grants in accordance with their av- erage attendance of pupils.) 15. Levy of rates by district municipal councils, at their discretion, for the erection of school-houses and teachers' residences. Such were the principal provisions of the tirst School Act, proposed and adapted from other school laws by Dr. Eyerson in 1846. It was not to be expected that so comprehensiv^e a scheme of educa- tion would meet with universal acceptance. The very reverse was the jact, and it was assailed as revolutionary and oppressive. It certainly was revolutionary in the best sense, but not oppressive, for it was largely permissive and wholly tentative. It authorized councils and trustees, at their discretion, or with the assent of the rate payers, to do certain thiugs, but it did not compel them to do them. The new system was so far revolutionary that it was almost wholly different from the former one. It was comi^osite. One of the ablest of the leading papers of the day assailed the new system and its promoter in the strongest terms, chiefly with a political animus in its assaults, and urged the dismissal of the offender from office. The Government of the da>y, being personally friendly, stood firm and gave the assailed superintendent of education all necessary support. The machinery of the system was adapted chiefly from Kew York, the princ'iple on which the schools are supported was taken from J^ew Eiighuid, normal schools from Germany, and the uniform series of text- books from Ireland. All were, however, so blended and harmonized to 323 iJfTEElTATlOis^AL CONGRESS OV EDUCATORS PAPERS. 85 meet the requirements and circumstances of tbe country that they be- came, in Dr. Ryerson's molding hands, " racy of the soil." It was fortunate that just at this crisis Canada was favored with the presence of one of the most accomplished, in every sense of the term, of the Queen's representatives, the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine. That (list higuished statesman, who afterwartls tilled with great dignity the highest post in the civil service of Great Britain, that of Governor- General of India, reached Canada at a critical transitional i)eriod in onr history. Few can recall the incidents of those days without a feel- ing of admiration for the fearlessness, tact, and ability with which he discharged the delicate and diilicult duties of his high office. When Lord Elgin arrived in Canada in 1847, and when he removed to Toronto, after the riot aiul burning of the Parliament-House in Mon- treal in 1849, educational affairs were fiercely discussed and were yet almost at the low ebb at which Dr. Ryerson had found them. Not that they had previously reached a higher plane and had gradually settled down to a lower one. The reverse was the fact, but the question of ed- ucation had oidy then (in Dr. Ryerson's hands) begun to attract serious pul>lic attention. It was, however, as 1 have explained, in an adverse direction, for the whole subject, in the advanced form in which it was presented l)v Dr. Ryerson, was unpopular. It involved taxation and other unpalatable " burdens," as its opi)onents averred. Up to this time no one else had ventured to give a practical turn in the public mind to the crude theories then held in regard to systems of popular education. Dr. Ryerson paid the penalty of all reformers like him, but yet lived to see that the after-details of the system of education were worked out "on his lines." It is needless to say that Dr. Ryersou's scheme was assailed as im- prac^ticable. This I have explained. It was held to be too comprehen- sive for this country. Even his referented in Prussia was seized upon as an indication of his covert design to introduce the (as then so considered) baleful system of " Prussian «lesj)otism." His commendation of " free schools," as a pros- pective feature in onr educational system, was denounced as an attempt to legalize an "outrageous robbery," and as a " war against property." It was at this period of our educational history that Lord Elgin first came into othcial contact with our educational system. He at once mastered the whole subject, and soon perceived the great importance to the whole country of the question which was then being so fiercely dis- cussed. I shall not dwell upon the great services which Lord Elgin then ren- dered to the cause of education at a critical period of its history in this Province. Suffice it to say that his speeches and addresses on tliat subject and at that time had a wonderful effect in moderating the opposition which Dr. Ryerson received in laying the foundations of our system of education. They had also the potent effect of popu- larizing that system in the estimation of the people which it was de- signed to benefit. That popularity has, happily, continued to this day, thanks in a great degree to the dignity imparted to the subject by the persuasive eloquence of Lord Elgin. His eminence as a distinguished graduate of Oxford, and his general knowledge of European systems of education, enabled him to speak with a precision and certainty which few could gainsay. It was a gratifying fact that he identified himself per- sonally, as well as officially, throughout the whole of his seven years' administration, with the general edu(;ation and intellectual improve- ment of the people of Cana< — Piri.KS. 87 ance of tliG resignatiou, and was so convinced of the Justness of Dr. E.yerson's views, and the reasonableness of his remonstrance, that he took the unusual course of advising- the Governor-General, Lord Elgin, to suspend the oi)erations of tlie new act until Dr. llyerson could pre- pare a draft of a school bill on the basis of his ibriner a(;t, embodying in it the conclusions suggested by his own ex])eri(*ncc up to that time. The result was that a school law was passed in 1850 adapted to the municipal system of the Piovince, and so popular in its character and comprehensive in its provisions jind details that it is still (in a consoli- dated form) the primary basis of the Ontario school system. In 1850-51, Dr. Ryerson, while iu En;'.>land, made preliminary ar- rangements for estabiishing a library, and a prize book and map and apparatus depository in connection with his department. His reasons for doing so may be briefly stated : 1. He felt it to be practically useless to train teachers in the best methods of imparting instruction, and in the use of apparatus and other school appliances in the normal school, and not provide for them, when in charge of schools, a constant and abundant supply of these necessary appliances at the very cheapest rates. 2. He held it to be equally necessary that the pupils, who had ac- quired a taste for reading and knowledge in the schools, should have an equally abundant and i)erennial supply of the best and purest litera- ture as it is issued from the press; otherwise they would be sure to pro- cure reading matter (often pernicious, as he had painful proof) for them- selves. 3. He could see no distinction, and therefore could not admit of any, in the principle of providing such a twofold supply of school mate- rial and reading matter, and in that of {)roviding trained teachers and skilled inspectors at the expense of the Province, as well as a money bonus to aid in maintaining the schools in a state of efScieucy. 4. He further felt that it was immaterial whether the money voted by Parliament was expended in one direction or the other, so long as in each department of the system the Itest interests and necessities of the schools were consulted, and the symmetry and efficiency of the school system, as a whole, were preserved and promoted. 5. He projected this plan of supply on a purely commercial basis, and so arranged and successfully carried out his scheme that while there was distributed nearly a million dollars' worth of school material and books up to the time when the depository was closed, it did not cost the country anything for the expenses of its management, as it more than paid its way.^ I might mention in this connection another of the agencies which Dr. Rj-erson employed to diffuse valuable information in regard to ed- ucation generally, and to inform the school authorities throughout the Province (trustees, teachers, inspectors, &c.) of the proceedings of the Department. This was a montbly Journal of Education of sixteen pages, which he established in 1848, but which ceased to be published the year after he left the Department. During the early years of the Journal I acted as associate editor with Dr. Ryerson, but during twen- ty-five years of its existence I was its sole editor. The following is the estimate of its value, as expressed by that veteran educator, Hon. Henry Barnaid, LL. D,, himself for many years the able editor of the American Jour^ml of Education. > This subject is discussed and illustrated in the accompanying paper on Libraries and the Lihranj Sys^frm of Ontario, by John Hallani, Esq. 325 05 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. He said : Your Journal of Education is so full of the history, the principles, the methodology, the biography, audliterature generally of schools and education, why do you not have a minute topical index of it prepared? Such an index will make your sets valuable not only to your own scholars, teachers, and statesmen, but to educationists every- where. It is a morument of intelligent and practical editorship. In 1855 Dr. Ryerson established meteorological stations in connec- tion with twelve selected county grammar schools, ten following the coast line of the Lakes and on the large rivers, and two entirely inland. In this he was aided by Colonel now General Sir (J. H.) Lefroy, R. E., for many years director of the Provincial (now Dominion) Magnetical Observatory at Toronto. Sets of instruments, having been purchased in London and tested at the Kew Observatory, were sent out to the twelve stations, duly equipped and provided with all necessary appli- ances. In 1857 Dr. Ryerson made his third educational tour in Eurojje, where he procured, at Antwerp, Brussels, Florence, Rome, Paris, and London, an admirable collection of copies of paintings by the Old Masters, statues, busts, etc., besides various other articles of a typical character for an educational museum in connection with the Department. In 1867 I was deputed to largely add to this musetim collection, which I did in Paris, London, etc., especially in the direction of Egyptian and Assyrijin antiquities, busts, casts, fictile ivory, etc. In 1858-61 Dr. Ryerson took a leading part in a protracted public discussion before a committee of the House of Assembly, in favor of grants to the various "outlying" denominational universities, chiefly in terms of Hon. Robert Baldwin's liberalized University Act of 1853. He maintained that these colleges "did the State some service," and that it was right that their claims should be recognized in a substantial manner, as colleges of a central university. He deprecated the multi- plication of universities in the Province, which he held would be the result of a rejection jof the proposed scheme. His plan was not adopted, owing to personal feeling and prejudice. Events proved the truth of his l^rediction, and universities were increased from five to eight subse- quently. Twenty-five years after the close of tliat discussion a scheme for the confederation of these colleges was again considered, and has been fsivorably reported upon by most of the colleges concerned. In 1S67 Dr. Ryerson made his fourth and final educational tour in Europe and America. roduction of some common end. By a system of schools is meant a collection of different grades, so related as to be the means of education. The Massachusetts system consists of four grades, called the primary, intermediate, grammar, and high school grades. The different grades may bi' distinguished from one another by the difference in the kinds of knowledge taught in them, and in the kinds of mental activity exerted in acquiring that knowledge. All the grades below the high school furnish elementary instruction. The high school, theoretically, confines its work to scientific instruction. As our system of schools includes those that teach the facts of science and those that teach the sciences themselves, it may be seen to be com- plete. The statutes of the Commonwealth require every town to maintain a sufficient number of schools for all the children who may legally attend school therein, and the school committee have the sole authority to de- termine what is a sufficient number. These schools are to be main- tained for at least six months in the year. They are to be taught by teachers of good moral character, and of competent intellectual abiiity to give instruction in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United States, and good behavioiK In addition to these branches, algebra, vocal music, agriculture, sewing, jihysiology, and hygiene shall be taught by lectures or otherwise in all the public schools in which the school committee deem it expedient. Schools that teach these subjects are to be main- tained in all the towns, and are called common schools. There are in the system two grades of secondary, or high schools. Every town containing five hundred families or householders is required to maintain a high school, to be taught by a master of comi)etent ability and good morals, who, in addition to the branches of learning pursued in the elementary schools, shall give instruction in general history, book- keeping, surveying, geometry, natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, the civil polity of the Commonwealth and of the United States, and in the Latin language. Such high school must be maintained lor the ben- efit of all the inhabitants of the town ten months at least, exclusive of vacations, in each year. This high school Is of the second or lowest grade. If the town contains four thousand inhabitants it must maintain a high school of a higher grade, in which shall be taught, in addition to the branches of instruction already named, the Greek and the French 341 104 EDUCATIONAL OONVENTIOKS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. languages, aslrouoiny, geology, rhetoric, logic, intellectual and moral science, and political economy-. All pupils passing thoroughly and suc- cessfully over the studies taught in the public schools, are fitted to enter the superior schools or colleges of the State. The public schools of the Commonwealth are organized and controlled by xjublic officers called town school committees. These committees are chosen by the towns, but they derive their authority from the statutes of the State, and are controlled in their action by them. The towns are required to elect school committees, but they have a very limited control over their conduct. The school committees elect the public school teachers and fix their salaries. They have the authority to dismiss a teacher whenever they see fit, and his salary does not continue beyond the time of his dismissal. Thej^ determine how many schools shall be maintained iu the towns, and they distribute the children among the schools established. They decide what text books shall be used, what courses of studies shall be taught, and what method of teaching shall be practiced. It is their duty to keep the school-houses in good order, and to provide the schools with all suitable means of teaching. They are to visit the schools frequently, to inquire into the manner in which the school work is done by the teachers and pupils. They can spend more money for the schools than the towns appropriate, if the towns neglect or refuse to raise enough to support such schools as the laws require. At the end Of the school year, it is their duty to make a written report to the towns of their own acts and of the condition of the schools, and to make an estimate of the amount of money to be raised to meet the expenses of the coming year. It is their duty, also, to fill out the blank forms of inquiry sent to them by the State Board of Education. From the nature of the duties which the statutes have imposed, it will at once appear that no one can properly fill the oflice of school committeeman unless he has been well trained, both by study and experience, in school work. The great problem for the friends of popular education to solve, is to determine by what ar- rangement all the public schools can be placed under the direction of a competent supervision. Having spoken of the organization and control of the schools, I de- sire to call your attention to the rights and duties of the children. Every child in the State between the ages of eight and fourteen years is required to attend some public day school, or some school approved by the school committee, at least twenty weeks every year. No child under ten years of age shall be employed in any manufacturing or mer- cantile establishment in the Commonwealth. No child under twelve years of age shall be so emj^loyed while the public schools are in session. No child under fourteen years of age shall be so employed, except dur- ing the vacations of the public schools, unless during the year next preceding such emj)loyment he has attended for at least twenty weeks some public or private school approved by the school committee. Par- ents, superintendents, and overseers of mills, are liable to heavy fines if they violate these laws. A child wandering about the streets, not attending school nor subject to parental control, is a truant. The towns are required to provide suit- able places for the confinement, instruction, and discipline of truant children. The school committees must appoint two or more truant offi- cers in every town, whose duty it is to secure a regular attendance of all children of school age upon the public schools. Allow me, now, briefly to direct your attention to some of the results that have been produced by the administration of our school affairs. 343 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 105 The returns of last year show that there were in the State 330,195 children between five and fifteen years of age, and that the number of pupils of all ages in all the public schools was 242,012. The ave^ age membership in all the public schools was 277,241, and the per cent, of attendance, based upon the average membership, was 89.5. These statistics show that the school children of the State are in school. The number of persons employed as teachers in the ])ublic schools during the year was 9,398, 1 for every 36 pupils. Of the 9,398 teachers employed, 1,058 were men, 8,340 were women. The average wages of male teachers was $108.02, of female teachers $44.18, per month, being higher than in any other year of our history. The towns are required by law to raise by taxation, for the support of schools, a sum equal at least to $3 for every child between five and fifteen years of age. Last year they raised by a voluntary tax $6,502,359.24, a sum equal to $19.34 for every child of school age, or to 3| mills on every dollar of our taxable proi)ert3\ The statutes require the schools to be kept for at least six months in the year. The last returns show that they were kept an average of nine months. The secondary, or high, schools of the State stand at the head of the system. They offer to every child in the Commonwealth the advantages of scientific knowledge, and that training of the reflective powers which is the foundation of self-control and good citizenship. There are now in the State 228 high schools. Sixty-nine towns having less than five hun- dred families are voluntarily supporting such schools. This shows that secondary instruction is in great favor with the people. The present ])op- ulation of the State Is 1,783,000; of this number 1,619,000, or over 90 per cent, of the people, are residing in towns maintaining high schools. These institutions are deservedly popular. They complete our system of schools by including in it the elementary and scientific schools. They stimulate the schools below them by encouraging tiie pupils to pass through their elementary courses of study, that they may enter the upper schools for scientific study. They furnish an opportunity for all to ob- tain a good English education, and they prepare all who may desire it to enter our superior institutions of instruction. They make it possible for the children to remain at home while they are jjursuing their studies, and, what is of vital importance to a free state, they make it possible for all the children of the State to grow up together during- that period of their lives when their habits are forming and their characters are becoming established. The medium through which the State communicates its will to the towns is the Board of Education. This Board was established in 1837. It consists of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor of the Common- wealth, and eight persons appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Council. The powers and duties of the Board are defined by the statutes, and its members are appointed to hold ofiSce for eight years. They are to hold in trust for the Commonwealth any grant of land, any donation or bequest of money or other personal property, made to it for educational purposes. They prescribe the form of registers for the schools, and the blank form of inquiries on which the returns are to be made by the school committees. On or before the third Wednesday of January they are to lay before the Legislature a report containing a printed abstract of returns from the towns, and a detailed report of all the doings of the Board, with such observations upon the condition and efficiency of the system of popular education, and such suggestions concerning the best means of its improvement, as the experience and reflection of the Board may dictate. They have 34:5 106 EDUCATIONAL CONVEXTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. full charge of the six normnl schools of the State, in which teachers are trained in the philosophy and art of teaching. There are now 2,700 trained teachers in the public schools. To excite and keep alive an intelligent interest in popular education among the people, the Board is authorized to conduct teachers' insti- tutes in the towns of the State. Last year 35 institutes were held, with a total attendance of 2,770 teachers, representing 152 towns. The day exercises of the institutes are conducted with especial reference to school work, those of the evening have for their object the diffusion of a knowl- edge of the public schools among the people. The executive officers of the Board are a secretary and three agents. It is the duty of the secretary to inierpret the school laws and see that they are everywhere observed, to suggest to the Board and to the General Court improvements in the present system of public instruction, to visit ditlerent parts of the Commonwealth for the purpose of awaken- ing and guiding public sentiment in relation to the practical interest of education, to collect in his office specimens of the best means of teach- ing, to arrange reports and returns of school committees, to distribute the State documents relating to the })ublic schools, to hold meetings of teachers and school committees, and to send out the annual report of the Board, secretary, and agents to the various towns of the State. The agents are to assist in accomplishing the same ends. The school fund of the State was established in j 834. It now amounts to $2,710,241.30, with an annual income of $136,035.55. The income is divided into two parts. One part is appropriated to defray general educational expenses, the other to aid the small towns in suj)porting their j^ublic schools. The establishment of the school fund, in connection with the organization of the Board of Education, has been the occasion of a great reformation in our school affairs. By furnishing material aid the State has established a necessary rela tion between its own control and the control of the towns over the man- agement of their public schools. The income of the Fund may be with- held from those towns that do not comply with the school laws. Governor Boutwell said that the establishment of the school fund was the most important educational measure ever adopted by the Gov- ernment of the Commonwealth, and that, in connection with the organi- zation of the Board of Education, it had wrought a salutary change and reformation in the character and intluence of our public schools. " With the Fund," he went on to say, "it is ])Ossible to obtain accurate and complete returns from every town in the State; without it, each town is kept ignorant of what its neighbors ar-e doing. With the Fund, we have a system; without it, all is disjointed and disconnected." At the time of the establishment of the Board of Education in 1837 the schools were in a low and inefdcient condition. A seneral indiffer- ence existed toward popular education. There was no department of the State Government organized to look after the interests of the pub- lic schools. One of the first acts of the Board after its organization was the e>tablishment of normal schools for the professional training of teachers. Tliese schools have i)roved the sources from which have emanated all our reforms in methods of teaching. They have intro- duced the study of the philosophy of education and of those general principles upon which all true teaching must be founded. The Board have also sent out into every town and school district of the Common- wealth its agents, who have visited the schools, consulted with the teachers and school committees, and have awakened the school spirit in the minds of the people. The Board meets once every mouth for the 344 INTER^^ATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS ^PAPERS. 107 discussion of all topics pertaining to the general welfare of the public schools, and on or before the third Wednesday of January of every year it presents to the legislature its annual report, upon which is based all our school legislation. Our public educational institutions are conducted in accordance with the theory that it is their province to furnish an opportunity to all the children of the State to acquire so much knowledge and so much dis- cipline of the faculties as are necessary to prepare all to enter with a good chance for success upon any of the practical affairs of either pri- vate or social life. Our public schools do not propose to train their members directly for the practice of any trade or any profession. They propose to do much more than this — to give to the children an oppor- tunity of obtaining that knowledge and that cultivation of their mental powers which will in due time bring them to the various occupations of life ready to pursue these things in the most intelligent and productive manner. John Stuart Mill says: "What professional men should carry away with them from the public schools is not professional knowledge, but that which should direct the use of their professional knowledge, and bring the light of general culture to illuminate the technicalities of any special pursuit. Men are men before they are lawyers, or merchants, or manufacturers, and if the schools make them sensible men they will make themselves sensible laborers." The public schools should aim to cultivate that general intelligence and that philosophic spirit which will bring the youths of the country to their particular pursuits in life with strong minds and good hearts. By doing this, with all that is implied in it, they will accomplish enough, for they will furnish an education which will prove the source of endless progress in all the affairs of human life. A liberal education has always been considered necessary to a respectable position in the professions, but unnecessary to success in the manual occupations of life. Young people intending to go into business, as it is called, frequently leave school i3e- fore their courses of study are completed, believing that the abstractions of science and the refinements of literature have no appropriate place among the acquisitions of business men. The experiences of business men are leading them to choose the graduates of our high schools and colleges for important work, on account of the business capacity which a generous culture is adapted to produce. Secondary instruction, rliey find, is as necessary to guide the hands to successful physical, as it is to guide the faculties to successful mental, labor. The artisan as well as the artist, the business man as well as t.he professional, the private citizen as well as the law maker, must be lifted above the mechanical operations of their work by a knowledge of causes and by skill in the application of principles. If one passes successfully through all the grades of our public schools, he will be fitted to make, under the guid- ance of his own acquired knowledge and trained powers, all other acqui- sitions necessary to enable him to occupy, with credit to himself, his place in life. The schools are severely criticised. Almost every month there may be found in the jiublic journals labored articles, written to show that the public schools are destroying the health of the young children who attend them, that they are crowding into the learner's mind an indigesti- ble mass of useless knowledge, and that they stimulate the intellectual faculties to an unnatural activity, while the moral nature is left to grow wild in all its inherited tendencies to evil. These criticisms are not un- Irequeutly passed by those who derive their facts by the activity of their 345 108 -EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. imaginatioDs, rather than by a careful and extended observation of those things upon which they pass their judgments. The work of the schools, as conducted by our skillful and conscientious educators, has no tendency to destroy the physical health, or to demoralize the intellectual or moral nature. Such results, if produced at all, are caused by influences out- side the school-room and beyond the influences of the schools. The amount of illiteracy in the State is large, but it is found among those who have been sent to us from other lands, and among those upon whom our public schools have had no chance to produce their legitimate results. Less than two-fifths of one per cent, of our own native children belong to the illiterate class. We do not need a revolution in our educational affairs; we need re- forms and ijrogress; and we may be encouraged in the great work by remembering that our public schools have given to our free State an intelligent and virtuous people. 346 THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF JAPAN. By Ichizo Hattori, Japanese Commissioner at the Exposition. The Japanese Empire is divided'irto forty-four divisions, or /lew.s, and three/w, and has a population, according to the last census, of 37,041,3(58. All the educational affairs of the country are under the control of a minister of education, who is a cabinet ofiUcer. Under him are a vice- commissioner and several secretaries. Each of these Teens has a super- intendent. Each Aen or fu is divided into a large number of school distri<;ts. At first six hundred inhabitants composed a school district, but this plan would not answer, and now small districts are arranged according to the needs and location of the population. Owing to the fact that families in Japan occupy the same place for many centuries, the school district is a fixed one. The plan of selecting a school com- mittee is somewhat peculiar. The people elect many more committee- men than are required, and from these the Governor selects such as he deems best for the office. The school age is from eight to fourteen years, and education for at least three sessions a year of sixteen weeks each is compulsory. Parents and guar-dians are responsible for the attendance of their children. Private tuition is permitted, but pupils thus instructed are examined with the children of the public schools, and if they fail to pass after three trials they are forced to attend the ])ublic schools. The standard programme of elementary studies comprises three courses — a lower course of three years, an intermediate course of three years, and a higher course of two years. The lower course comprises morals, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history, but the last two may be omitted. The intermediate course comprises, in addi- tion, geography, history, drawing, natural history, and physics, with sewing for girls. After completing this course a pupil is prepared to enter the middle or normal schools. There are in Japan 78 normal schools, 29,254 grammar, intermediate, and high schools, with an at- tendance of 3,017,088 pupils. There are many boys and girls who desire a little higher schooling without going to the normal school, and for these there is provided a higher course, in which, in addition, chemis- try, physiology, geometry, political economy for boys, and domestic economy for girls are introduced. The Government has also allowed the introduction of English in the course of studies. Teachers may be of either sex, and should be over eighteen years of age. All teachers must possess a certificate from the Governoi*, from a public or normal school, or a teacher's license. Normal certificates hold for seven years, and teachers' ciertificates for five years. At the end of this time all teachers are re examined to ascertain whether they are keeping up with the progress of the age. While the Government is ex- act in examining the quality of teachers, on the other hand it is trying 347 110 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. to make the teachers' positions more attractive. All teachers are exem[)t from military conscription. Titles, quasi-oMces, and ranks are given to teachers, so that the profession may not be treated as a low or un- important one. According to the statistical report of 1882, there are 29,081 elementary schools, with 300,400 pupils. These schools are in- spected from time to time, and no school, public or ])rivate, is allowed to shut its doors against private inspection. These inspections are pro- ductive of much good. There are 173 middle schools, with 13,088 pu- pils. There has been a sudden increase in the attendance on the schools within the last two years on account of the revision of the military con- script laws. According to the new law, a student in the middle schools after a one year's course is exempt from conscription for six years, if he remains in the school. If he goes to the university or high professional school, after a two year's course, and being a graduate of the middle schools, he is relieved from military service altogether. If he does not pursue studies higher than those of the military schools, then he has to serve only one year in the army, and his service and treatment are dif- fierent from those of the other soldiers. There has been a tendency to establish too many middle schools with- out sufficient funds to support them, a course which tends to lower the standard of national instruction. The Government, therefore, would rather have fewer middle schools, and have those well organized, than have many poorly organized. It is desired to have in middle schools well-maintained physical and chemical laboratories and gymnasia. At least three of the instructors in each school are to possess university or middle normal-school degrees, otherwise the Government does not allow the institution to be called a middle school. The Japanese Government is encouraging education in every way in its power, and the people are eager to send their children to the schools. There is a bright educational future for Japan, and when another inter- national exposition is held, I think Japan will be able to show better results from its educational system. 348 THE KEOENT EEFOKMS IN PUBLIC INSTEUOTION, AND ESPECIALLY IN PEIMAEY INSTEUCTION, IN FEANCE. By Mons. B. Buisson, Commissioner of France to the Exposition. I regret very much that, owing to unavoidable circumstances, France, ultbon.uh it lias readily answered the call of America to co-operate in the educational display so happily connected with the extensive World's In- dustrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans, has not been abk' also to send delegates to this i)edagogic convention. It is not, I have authority to tell you, that your committee's flattering and enticing invitation has not been well appreciated in France; nor is it that French educators fail to realize the pleasure and profit wliich they would have been sure to derive from a visit to your wonderful land, a land which deserves being called the New World, not so much, in 1iict, because it has the advantage over ours of being younger, but especially because it is, ])roperly speaking, the land of new and ])rogressive ideas, the land of new and continual experiment and unlimited improvement. But first, Frenchmen, as a rule, are not so ready travelers as the citizens of Amer- ica, or even as their neighbors of England and Germany. Besides, you will understand that in Europe, at this time of the year, all the most promi- nent teachers and educators are engaged in professional duties which it is almost impossible for them to interrupt for an absence of several weeks, if not months. It was different last summer when, in connec- tion with the health exhibition held at South Kensington, an interna- tional congress of educators was called in London. There the French Edu(;ation Department was represented by several delegates, not only on account of the facility of the journey, but also because the busy aca- demical and scholastic year was then closed, and our educators, teach- ers, and officials had entered upon their regular vacation. But I repeat that the French educators, who will surely follow and watch with interest your deliberations, are thoroughly at one wiih you, and most sincerely sympathize with the objects of these meetings, so eloquently explained by several of the most gifted and renowned of your educators — for instance, in the exhaustive paper of General Eaton ; in the generous and beautiful address of Dr. White, of Cincinnati ; in the so-called conservative, but really most liberal, discourse of the em- inent president of Tulane University; in the winning speeches of Dr. Mayo, where British humor and pathos are so hapi)ily blended ; and in other speeches of other great men, whom it has been a great privilege for me to meet and see here after having heard so much of them beyond the sea. I scarcely need say, gentlemen, that after all we are ti.£ihting yonder the same battle you are fighting here. We have the same aspirations which make your solidarity and bond of union, the same ambition of bringing about the true emancipation of mankind by education, and by an education more and more comprehensive and suggestive, whilst at •J4U 112 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. tlie same time more aud more simplified, free from incumbrances, acces- sible to all sound minds capable of will and perseverance ; an education which, instead of widening the traditional separations between castes, creeds, and countries, will on the contrary bring men and nations closer to one another, accustom them to vie with each other in the pursuit of trade and industry instead of making war, and gradually efface the bar- rier of classes, enabling all intelligent and energetic members of society to have their place au soJeil, as we say, to better their condition, share proportionally in the enjoyments of science, literature, and art, and find their highest pleasure and reward in cooperating to promote the welfare of their country and of mankind at large. I am very happy, gentlemen, to be able to say that all our recent re- forms in public instruction in France, of which I am going to give you a short sketch, have been achieved in this spirit, in this true democratic and republican spirit. Pardon me if I use thus these two words in con- nection. I know here they seem to you contradictory terms, whilst for us they are almost synonymous, and the principal difference we see be- tween them is that one is of Latin, the other of Greek derivation. When I say that our reforms have been made in a republican or dem- ocratic spirit, I mean to say that they are of recent date, a few years only having elapsed since we succeeded in defeating the intrigues of the coalesced enemies of popular government. Although since 1870 we have had the name of Eepublic, it is only since 1877, and especially since the election of our actual President, M. Gr6vy, that our Parliament, carrying out the wishes of the country, has been able to give up discus- sions on the Constitution itself, as sterile as they were stormy, and ap- proach those most needed reforms which were to be the foundation of all others — those of public instruction. The history of these recent times is not yet well known outside our country ; but I have a firm belief that the impartial historian of the future will consider it a very remarkable fact, and a very creditable one to our republican legislators, that they at once understood that priority and precedence was to be given, over all questions, to that of education, and especially that they conceived and carried out so daring and radical reforms in the domain of national education. It is an undeniable fact that a very great step has been accomplished. To say this is not boasting; rather is it humility, being a candid avowal that we had long been backward and far away from that goal toward which free nations, and yours among the foremost, had been gradually j)rogTessing. Happily for the honor of our country, if we had not suc- ceeded in organizing sooner that popular education without which there is no true democracy, it was not that statesmen and thinkers had been lacking in France to devise plans and schemes of what it ought to be. You recollect the beautiful quotation which an eloquent judge of this city read to us in his admirable address on the opening day of this Con- gress, and which showed that America had prophets who, forty years ago, had already dreamed of and minutely described the ideal school- house of the future, the ideal school system, and most of the fine results recently achieved in several parts of your land. •. In the same way the gospel of good education had found in France early apostles. I do not speak of the purely speculative and philosophic minds, such as Mon- taigne or Rousseau ; but open the petitions, or, as they are called, the cahiers du tier.s-e(atot' 1789 (a date, by the way, the centennial of which we hope to celebrate by a universal exposition, and j)robably also by a monster educational congress, at which your attendance will be urgently requested), read the reports presented to the Legislative Assembly by 360 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 113 Condorcet, or those of Romme, Rabaut St. Etienne, Arbogast, Bar6re, and especially that of Lakanal, to the Convention. You will see that we also had our i)ror)hets, our early seers, of the ideal type of what ought to be a national system of education in a. republican country. I beg especially to dwell on the name of Lakanal/ well known in this city, where he came in his old age during the monarchic Restoration and organized a university. His scheme, presented to the Convention in 1794, demanded at least one school, containing two separate classes for boys and girls, for each 1,000 inhabitants, a board of school inspectors in each district, and a central committee of public instruction under the immediate control of the popular branch of the legislature. To the elementary teaching, the three R's, I should say, if it were not an anach- ronism to apply to that time a phrase coined subsequently, he added the elements of the sciences, geography, and the history of free nations. ISTotice that this scheme of Lakanal was considered as too opportimist (if I may venture upon another anachronism); that is to say, not radi- cal, not comprehensive enough, and w^as rejected by the Convention, which, however, passed later on a bill very little different from it. You see, at all events, that our first republic and republicans, in spite of tlieir faults and drawbacks, had a sound instinct of the princi- ples upon which national education was to be established. They un- derstood that teaching all children was not to be considered as a far remote ideal, left to the zeal of religious corporations or to private en- terprise, but was the paramount function of the State. In the same way great foresight had been shown by the legislators of our first republic, or, as they are usually called, our convent! onnels, concerning the question of the part to be taken by the Central Govern- ment in secondary, technical, and higher education. Most of our great- est, and still now most flourishing artistic, literary, and scientific insti- tutions, which, in reactionary periods, have remained the centers of high culture and independent research, the refuge of generous and liberal minds, were the offspring of the Revolution. They were devised and created as^ national institutions by the Convention. That is the case with the I^cole Poly technique (primitively called Ecole Centrale des Tra- vaux Publics)^ the £cole des Langues Orientales, the Bureau des Longi- tudes, the Bibliotheque Natioiiale^ the Archives (Record Office), the Musee du Louvre, the Conservatoire de Musique, the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, and last, but not least, the Institut National, comprising the five academies of belles-lettres, arts, sciences, medicine, and moral and political sciences. I shall not follovv up this history of education. Let it suffice to say that whilst most of the institutions of intermediate and higher instruc- tion survived the fall of the republican government, and managed to thrive (though with many vicissitudes) through reactionary periods, imperial and monarchical, popular education, for which the help of the .national exchequer was most wanted, was almost entirely abandoned to religious corporations and reduced to very little till the time of Louis Philip[)e, when a kind of constitutional government, an imitation of that of England, was adopted. To this awakening of public spirit corre- sponded, as you know, a remarkable reform in primary instruction, and M. Guizot, then in charge of the Education Department, immortalized his name by presenting a bill, enacted in June, 18.i3, which organized a comparatively very efficient system for the recruiting and training of ^ See Lakanal, par Paul Tjegeudre, avec preface do Paul Bert. Paris. 7950 COT, PT. H 8 351 114 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. school-masters, widened the progTamnie of primary instruction, and added to the elementary course some sort ot a complementary one, a course of higher primary instruction. Before we reach the quite recent and organic reforms of the Third Eepublic, tljere are still two important dates to mention in the history of French public instruction, viz, 1848, when Carnot, during a too short tenure of office, tried to make elementary education compulsory and to improve the position of the teachers, and 18G7, when M. Duruy, a well- intentioned leformer, greatly improved elementary instruction and again ameliorated the i)osition of the i)ublic teacher, whilst greatly developing . the secondary education of boys and girls, and especially giving a great stimulus to higher culture and independent research by ihe foundation of the Ecole des Eautes Etudes. But the extended programme of popular education which had been sketched out by the National Convention and resumed by the too short- lived Eepublic of 1848, was only to be realized in its entirety by our Third, and I hope our definitive. Republic. The money — for reform means always increase of expenditure— the money which in time of prosperity neither the liberals of the constitutional monarchy, nor the Corps Legislat'if of the Second Empire had been able to find for popular education, the republican Parliament has not feared to demand of the State, department, and municipality, seven years after a terrible for- eign and civil war, when the burden of the war indemnity was still heavily pressing on the nation. At last the wishes of enlightened public opinion, so long frustrated, have been satisfied. In not more than three years eleven important bills concerning education have been i)a8sed by our Houses of Parliament. First (and it was in fact the most difficult as well as the first thing to do), a considerable fund for building schools has been constituted by a law with which will remain connected the name of M. Waddington, our present ambassador in England. It was calculated that in order to put education on a good footing it was necessary to build 17,320 schools, enlarge 5,458, repair 7,381, and buy school furniture for 19,857 schools. To carrj' out this vast scheme without draining too much the national exchequer, a sum of ojie hundred and twenty millions of francs was allotted to the Ministry of Public Instruction to be spent in five years, half in donations to municipalities, half in loans and advances repayable within a period of 31 years. In 1881 an additional sum of one hundred millions was again placed at the disposal of the Education Department for the same purpose. Many critics have clamored that this was too much, that the State ■was making extravagant sacrifices for the instruction of the people; but facts will show that, except in very few cases, areached by Kousseau, Froebel, Pestalozzi, HUil many others. The novelty consists in having tried to generalize this method for a whole country. As good beginnings are often decisive in the formation of the minds of childretf, many public kindergarten, or maternal schools, are open to 355 118 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. children who have not yet reached the school age, and they are trained in them according to this intuitive or Froebellian method. Primary education has not done all its function if, in developing the mind, it does not also tend to invigorate the body, to strengthen the constitution of the child, to surround him with all favorable hygienic conditions, at the same time increasing his agility, dexterity, and phys- ical activity — qualities which, valuable at all times, are more particu- larly necessary to the children of primary schools, destined for the most part to professions of manual labor. The principal object in intellectual instruction is not that the child should learn much, but should know well and in a lasting manner what he does learn; his knowledge must necessarily be limited, but not super- ficial. Therefore the teacher must from tbe beginning make use of sensible objects, proceed by ocular demonstration with the pupils rather than by affirmation, cause them to see and touch sensible things, and only little by little lead them from concrete realities to abstract ideas, to reasoning and generalization. The Education Department has made great sacrifices in order to help the school-masters in that direction. As they had, if not a harder, at least a more delicate task to perform than their predecessors, and a rather novel one, it was only just to provide ■ them with improved tools; and therefore, as you will see at the Expo- sition, many good maj^s, globes, magic lanterns aud slides, cheap sets of l)hysical aud chemical instruments, specimens of raw material or manu- factured i)roducts for object lessons of every kind, have been distributed to schools. At the same time the teachers were recommeuded (and you will find proof that they have followed the advice) to try to make for themselves, with the cooperation of their jnipils, their own school mu- seum, herbarium, collection of insects, even their own maps, in flat or relief, and drawing models. Linear and free-hand drawing occupy a more important place in the ordinary curriculum, which also contains manual work, not with the view of preparing children from a tender age for any especial manual profession, but in order to develop the dexterity of their fingers, and to familiarize them early with the handliug of the princijial tools used by workers in wood and iron. This practice, already well organized in the schools of Paris, as you will see, is also spreading rapidly and with good results in many of our i)rovincial towns and villages. We expect it will exert a good influence, because it inspires children of all classes with a taste and a due respect for manual work, and besides, in a hygi- enic point of view, the hours spent in the school workshop are eminently healthy for town children. The entire programme of elementary instruction, which is rather too extensive than too narrow, includes, besides gymnastics, drill, notions of hygiene, and manual work, the following subjects: 1, reading; 2, writing; 3, native language; 4, history; 5, geography; 6, civic instruc- tion, common law, principles of political economy; 7, arithmetic, mathe- matics; 8, geometry; 9, drawing and design; 10, elements of physical and natural sciences; 11, agriculture and horticulture; 12, singing. You will see by the exhibit of a special commission on school decoration, that we do not despair of disseminating, even in the elementary schools, some appreciation of the beautiful, some taste and zeal for good art. The introduction of regular moral and civic instruction in the common school has been denounced as an attempt to make the schools godless. If you have time to examine, first, the recommendations issued by the Dej^artment to teachers on the method of teaching tliat new subject, and then to look at a few of the manuals written by several of our most 356 International congress of educators — papers. 119 eminent tliiukers to serve as guides to school- masters, you will agree, I am sure, that this new task intrusted to the ]>ublic teacher, who rep- resents the civil aud lay society and the family, and stands neutral between creeds and confessions, has, on the contrary, a very noble, elevated, and in some sense a reli,iiious character, and cannot fail to exercise in due time a healthy influence on the hearts of children tanj^ht to understand that besides theological opinions, which vary greatly, there is a common ground, an indisputable worship accei)ted every- where by all the leaders of n)ankirid, the worship of honesty. Among the points on which 1 should like also to touch, if I had not already abused your patience, is the great development lately given to higher juimaiy insti action. It is already a long time since several IStates of the Union have added the free high school to the elementary, primary, and granmiar grades. We had also for many years pretty good resources in some great towns for the continuation of primary studies, but it is only in recent years that free complementary courses of one and two years aud higher primary schools ])roi)er, including a good develoi)ment of essential subjects theoretically taught '^s well as l)ractical initiation in some of the principal x>rofessions, have been or- ganized on a large scale all over the country. All schools of appren- tices for manual work have also been adoi)ted by the State and declared ])art of tbe free national system of ])rimary instruction. I hope you will see in our g.illeries, in the Paris exhibit, and also in those of the towns of liouen and Havre, very good specimens of what we understand on the one hand by a higher primary and professional school, on the other by an ai)[)rentice school. To facilitate the access to those schools of children belonging to families of limited means, numerous national scholai'ships (courses of 500 francs) are every year open ior competi- tion — this money being intended, not for tuition, which is free, but fe used to advantage in country schools ; but one was prepax'ed and placed in the hands of teachers and school officers ; local teachers' meetings were held to explain and urge its use; an educational department was conducted in one of the country papers lor the same purpose, and the results have been so satisfactory that teachers, at least, now almost unanimously favor the plan. Owing to short terms, poor teachers, or other obstacles, the use of the course in some schools is, as yet, scarcely more than nominal ; but it is apparent that nothiug has anywhere been lost by attempting to introduce it, and that even its partial introductiou has been beneficial, while in about fifty per cent, of the schools — those where it has beeu most faithfully tried — its use has saved time, driven out listlessuess and stagnation, secured better teaching, especially in the primary grades, and increased the regularity of attendance. Its eftect upon attendance is shown in the fact that the average daily attendauce, as compared with the total enrollment, "was five per cent, higher for the summer term of 1884 than for the corresponding term two years- before. That this will be still further increased, at least five per cent, within a year, seems altogether likely. In endeavoring to introduce and enforce the use of a course of study several things have been done that are, perhaps, worthy of mention. Each year a manual and guide for teachers and pupils has been issued, containing a course of study, with directions and suggestions as to its use. Five hundred copies were printed the first time, 1,.500 a few months later, and now an edition of 2,r>00 is in press. These are distributed to all school officers and teachers, and to pupils of the grammar grade. Circulars have been issued from time to time. Last spring 4,000 were distributed to teachers, school-officers, and parents, upon the use of a course of study in country schools. The hektograph has beeu freely used in prepariun these Argonautic expeditious westward there were represented all peoples, from the veriest Chinese serf to the most intellectual Cau- casian sovereign. The following table will show the native and foreign population of some of the Pacific Coast States compared with that of the United States and with Ohio and Virginia: State or Territory. Native. Foreign. Native. Foreign. United States Ohio Virginia -. Oregon Washington Territory California Arizona Nevada 43, 475, 840 2,803,119 1, 497, 8(il 144,265 59, 313 571,820 24, 391 36, 613 6, 679, 943 394, 943 14,696 30, 503 15, 803 292, 874 16, 049 25, 653 Per cent. 86i 88 99 82i 76 66 60 59 Per cent. 13i 12 1 24 34 40 41 While the foreign population in Ohio is 12 per cent, and in Virginia 1 per cent., in California it is 34 per cent., in Arizona 40 i)er cent., and in Nevada 41 per cent. Here and there, as at Santa Clara and Los Angeles, may be found the old Spanish schools under the dominion of the Church, but Spanish children form no considerable element in the public schools. The Indians are on the Government reservations, while the Chinese are content to receive a Chinese education and to live in their peculiar manner apart from the American civilization. There are 12,000 Chinese children, of school age in the one city of San Fran- cisco, but not until very recently has it been decided that any Chinese child, even though born in California, could be enrolled as a public school pupil. The Spaniard, the Indian, aud the Chinese do not form, as some think, the chief element in our school population; on the con- trary, they have scarcely a representation in the schools. But iu attend- ance there are representatives of families the most energetic aud pro- gressive of each one of the Celtic, Anglo Saxon, and Teutonic iieoi)les. Since the first school, which was commenced thirty years ago by Thomas Douglas, a graduate of Yale College, in the "nut-brown" school house of San Francisco, the problem of making for the Coast a school system that should meet the varied, wants of this new civilization has been given for solutiou to such educators as John Swett, A. J. Moulder, aud James Denman. As to the correctness of the solution the educa- tional results are ample proof. Less dense in population is the West, and in consequeuce the expense per capita of educating the children here is much greater than in the East. To the s'piare mile in New Jersey there are 151.7 persons, in New York 100.7, iuOhio 78.5; in California there are to the square mile an average of 5.5 persons, in Oregon 1.8, in Nevada .0, in Arizona .4. Nye- one of the 14 counties of Nevada, contains 20,430 square miles, an- area greater than that of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Ehode Island. Nye County has but 01) school children, while those three New England States have over 500,000 school children. Alpine County, California, is nearly as large as is the State of lihode Island; yet iu the former there are but four schools, with an average attendance per school of 7950 COT, PT. II 9 ^67 130 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 12^ pui)il8. The cost of educating this number is as much as if there wel-e an attendance of 50 pupils. As many hours of the teacher's time are employed, as large a salary is paid the teacher, and the other ex- penses are the same as in a larger school. From the State school fund each one of these four districts receives annually not less than $400, or $32 per child in attendance. To every district of 10 census children the State contributes from the State school fund $400; to every district of 20 or more census children, $500. Such State aid is in addition to the amount received from local taxation. Thus the State assumes the re- sponsibility of educating the children; thus it is provided that every district, without local taxation, annually may have six months of school under the tuition of the very best paid teachers. Generous, indeed, is Calilornia towards her impecunious school districts. In this feature she leads all of the other States. So earnest are the i>eople that even away out on the frontier the child of the gold-hunting pioneer may enrich his mind from golden opportunities for an education. There is no other section of the United States whose population is so changing as is that of the Pacific coast. The spirit of the Argonauts of '49 is everywhere manifest. In the mining sections especially ihe fluc- tuations are such that provision must be made for the organization of districts to supply the immediate educational wants of immigrants, and for withholding the school moneys upon their departure, which departure often is as unceremonious as is the arrival. These anomalous exigen- cies have been provided for wisely and generously. Were the school funds unavailable, always available in the cause of education would be the golden shekels of the intelligent miner. Subscriptions of hundreds of dollars for educational purposes in a small mining town have been secured in a single day. The temple where dwells the God of our Fathers may be slow in building, but not so the temple where dwells the Goddess of Learning. In every inhabited camp, canyon, and mountain dale there is a school, and not infrequently a school so situated has for the presiding genius a graduate of the Oswego Normal School, of Wellesley, or of Heidelberg. In some of the States there are school libraries. In California ten per cent, of the State school fund annually apportioned to each district, un- less ten per cent, exceed $50, in which event the sum of $50, is expended in the purchase of books for a library. lu Arizona ten per cent, of the Territorial school fund apportioned to each district constitutes a library fund, which is apportioned by the county superintendent as the other school moneys are apportioned. In the cities and larger towns there are other free libraries, to which the children and the people generally have access. Not as in the older States, where library books have been collecting for more than a century, is the rising generation favored ; but in this civilization, cosmopolitan in character, for this people, who have traveled more than the same number of people living anywhere on the globe, the increase in the amount of good literature within the 37 years since the discovery of the gold fields is even more surprising than the increase in the population. The number of teachers in California is 4,082, in Oregon 1,412, in Ne- vada 230. The average monthly salary paid male teachers in Nevada is $100, in California $81 J, in Montana "$80, in Oregon $46^ The aver- age monthlv salary paid female teachers in Nevada is $08.07, in Cali- fornia $05.37, in Montana $G2, in Oregon $35.45. Of the 4,082 teachers of California, 472 have been educated in the State Normal School at San Jose; 150 of the 000 teachers of San Francisco in the city training school under the supervision of John Swett. Fully 1,000, or 25 per cent. 368 INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 131 of the teachers of CalifcH^nia, have received normal training; and it is estimated that an equally large percentage of the teachers of Oregon and Nevada have also had special preparation for teaching. Last year in Montana therip was but one county that did not hold an institute. The teachers of California receive pay for each day of their attendance on the institute, and last year nearly every teacher (in all 3,385) was a member of some county teacbers' institute. In that State there are ])ublished two journals of education, the Pacific School Journal and the California Teacher. The large salaries paid in the schools of the Coast command the very best talent in the profession. To such an extent do Eastern teachers deluge the offices of State and county superintendents with applications for positions that it has been found necessary to keep on hand some such printed circular as follows: "Your favor of the received. Know of no vacancies at present in the State. Will place your application on file, but can oflfer no encouragement." The sanw spirit shown by the people in the other occupations is shown in that of teaching — energetic and progressive, eager to accomplish the greatest possible good in the least possible time. The children of the Coast mature younger than they do in Puritan ^Niew England. Possibly the former are less studious than are the lat- ter, but certainly the former are more precocious. They know less of Dante, Macaulay, and Longfellow, but more about business, virtue, and vice. The moral test is applied to the child before he passes the Sun- day-school age or leaves the parental roof. If virtue continue through adolescence, in maturity it becomes im])regnable. There may seem to be fewer moral children in such places, but the ethologist will find his ideal character maturing in the mining sections of the West. In the open air of temptation, and not in the orthodox hot-house, character grows and strengthens. As a historic fact, it is known that the Spartan principle of training the child to virtue with its eyes open on vice de- velops true manhood and true womanhood. From the intelligent parent the child learns to shun vice because of its consequences, and never should it have cause to embrace vice by reason of its novelty. Though contrary to the prevalent belief, yet it is true that the children of the West are more easily disciplined than are the children of the East. In the visits to schools in every part of this broad Union, north, south, east, and west, nowhere else have I seen such perfect discipline among pupils as that among those in the mining sections of California and Nevada. That mind which imagines "hoodlumism" in the schools of the Coast to be rampant requires an imagination as extravagant as that which believes all the " blood-and-thunder" stories that have been written about " Buffalo Bill " or " Kit Carson." Each one of the Coast States has a State school superintendent and a county superintendent of schools. In comparison with the salary of the other county officers, however, the county superintendent is poorly j)aid. In fact, between the salary of the professional politician and the l)rofessioual teacher, as elsewhere in the United States, a comparison can scarcely be instituted. In California as high as $15,000 annually is l)aid to one county sheriff; in Nevada, $5,000 annually to one county sherif[". In California the average annual sahiry of the county superin- tendent of schools is 81,000, in Oregon $370, in Nevada $330; in Mon- rana the maximum salary is $1,000, the same being graded in propor- tion t(» the nund)er of census children down to a mere pittance. Except in some of the counties of California, county school supervision on the Coast is a failure — a failure not because of defect in the principle, but because of adverse legislation respecting the salaries and the super- 360 132 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. visory powers of the saperiuteucleut. TLe average superiutendenr is educated, but not an educator ; he is a lawyer, a doctor, or a clergy- man, but not a teacher; he may be well versed in hi.s profession, but he knows nothing about teaching. In the nieager salary paid the whole explanation of this de])lorablefact is to be found. A principal of a city school receives from $1,500 to $3,000 i)er annum, aneople, infinitely greater than all else in nature and art is our free-school system, for tlie free school is the tem[)Ie where dwells the oracle that foretells to all who consult her the future grandeur of that western social and educa- tional empire. ;i7U STICK OR FO STICK. By Edwin Chadwick, A. B., Chairman of the Educatiou Coinmitt''e of the Society of Arts, London. I perceive from educational returns, and from discussions at educa- tional meetings, and from continued cases before magistrates of charjies against teachers of assaults upon school children, that the question to be put of " stick or no stick " is in continued agitation as a question of school discipline in England ou which I should be glad to submit some experience for the consideration of our related educationists in the States, as involving a question of primary importance in education. Some years ago I met the late Lord Fit^hardinge in s;ociety, when I complimented him on being an advanced educationist. " What do you mean?" he said, "I have nothing to do with schools." <' No," I an- swered, ''but you have, I hear, set an exajnple in your education of horses that iwdy serve for the education of the human. You have for- bidden the use of the stick." "That is so," he replied; "if I see a groom beat either horse or dog I dismiss him. I must say, however, that in some twentieth case we meet with a depraved brute who is only to be subdued by physical force on a conflict; but in allowing the use of the stick nineteen out of twenty horses are spoiled." We had in Poor-Law administration a convocation of head school- teachers, at which the question of "stick or no stick" was considered, when a conclusion was arrived at in accordance with Lord Fitzhard- inge's doctrine. It was pleaded for the use of the stick that some twentieth case was one of extreme depravity, which could only be sub- dued by strong force ; but for the rest the stick should be taken from the hands of the pupil-teachers, and only reserved in the cupboard for very special occasions. A friend, Mr. James Blackburn, of Bysshe Court, a squire, who keeps a stud of horses and devotes himself very much to their training, dis- plays an advance upon Lord Fitzhardinge's practice in the education of horses. He declares that the twentieth case spoken of by his lordship is in itself the result of bad early training. Mr. Blackburn looks care- fully to the education of the colts in the infantile stage. He forbids his grooms not only to beat them, but to swear at them, or to speak to them in other than kind and gentle language. They are taught to at- tend and jto act upon gentle speech. It is pleasant to see them come up to him, and follow him in the field, and put their heads over his shoul der. The carriage whip is only used for guidance or to remove a fly. Others, I am told, follow a like course with entire success as to horses. In the best of our district half-time schools they have advanced with like success to entire disuse of the stick as in the education of horses. Mr. Uillyer, of the Central District Half-time School at Harwell, who during the last twenty years has had twenty thousand children of the lowest type pass through his hands, says that he has not used the stick 371 134 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. twenty times during that time. Other teachers in our half-time schools, although they receive very hardened subjects at advanced ages, strive with equal success to dispense with the use of the stick. There is one point on which I think it highly important that the edu- cation of children should be brought up to the good education of colts, namely, in the use of the most kindly and gentle language to them. On visiting a common school you will hear the teacher ''rend the com- mon air with angry and horrid speech" to them, which is in itself bad education. This in itself makes it worth while to engage ladies as teachers for this the most impressionable and formative period of life. Experienced inspectors have marked the great difference which it makes, and have expressed strong opinions of its importance. For the relief of such teachers Mrs. Fielden, of Todmorden, has invented a sort of Castanet, which is very successful for the direction of the chief move- ments of the school. I should mention that in the high schools for horses conducted under the rule of kindness, it is found by our squires that teachers of superior quality — kindly, patient, gentle speaking, and judicious men — are nec- essary ; and that the requisite qualities are only obtainable at higher salaries than are given to the teachers of the human in the rural dis- tricts. The grooms have more than double the salaries of pupil- teachers of the schools, and to the head teacher in the school of a stud of some forty horses, such a salary as three hundred pounds per annum is given, nearly double the salary regarded as adequate for the head teacher of a rural school, and more than three times the average pay of a curate. By some of my correspondents it is pleaded that some element of fear should be preserved. To this it is answered that for the fear of the infliction oi pain by the stick, the fear of the privation of a pleasure may be efl'ectually substituted in some of our best district half-time schools. In one half-time school, where the exercises on a ship's mast were pursued with great energy and delight by the boys on their liber- ation from the book lessons, the master would only let good boys that had pleased him go on the main yard arm to loose and furl sails, and it was his special favorite only that he allowed to be " mast-headed." In other schools, if any boy is inattentive he is sent out into the yard, where he tinds his own company weigh heavy upon him, and the pri- vation is more severe than a flogging, so that the offense is not repeated. In one school on Saturday afternoon there is a special gymnastic exer- cise, with song and music and dance, in which the girls take great de- light, to which those whose attendance during the week has been remiss are not admitted, and the privation is found to be very effective in maintaining regularity of attention to the book lessons, such as are con- tinued to be given. It must be admitted that the disuse of the stick, or of the cane, or the '• tawse," is a deviation from very old and yet accredited practice. Dame Paston* writes to inquire for a tutor by whom her son may be well "belashed," and when she bas got a tutor she writes to him other son : " If he hath not done well nor will not amend truly, belash him till he will mend." As to her daughter, it appears she was beaten once in the week and sometimes twice a day, and had her head broken in two or three places. Lady Jane Grey told Ascham that she was "sharply treated, cruelly thrashed and punished — in other waies I will *Pastoa Letters, temp. Edward IV. 372 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 135 not name," and tbought herself in hell when she was with her school- master. The stick was the accredited instrument of rule of the head of the household of our ancestors, or the husband. There is a homily (I IJe- lieve of Bishop Latimer) that I have seen, where the husband is exhorted to exercise his rule with moderation toward his wife, and not use a stick " thicker than his thumb." Now, a " wife-beater" is condemned tbrough- out the realm, no matter whatsoever may have been the provocation. My belief is that the time is coming when the habitual " child -beater," whether teacher or parent, will be no less reprobated. In a memoir by the Hon. Amelia Murray, maid-of-houor to Her Maj- esty, she says, speaking of His Majesty George III, " that he adhered unflinchingly to what he considered the path of duty," and that he placed his sons "under tutors who engaged that the rod of Scrii)ture could mean only bodily punishment. The Princess Sophia told me that she had seen her two eldest brothers (that is to say, His Majesty George IV and His Majesty William IV), when they were boys of thirteen and fourteen, held by the arms to be flogged like dogs with a long whip." " Was it wonderful," says Miss Murray, " that the results proved any- thing but satisfactory?" Asking a young Etonian recently whether the use of the birch still continued, " Yes," he said, " it still flourishes ; we had a duke horsed the other day, but we don't mind it." Then of what good is it? There is, however, a very large distinction of bodily condition to be observed between boys of the Eton class, who are unmoved by the in- fliction of a punishment which "they do not mind," and who get their lessons how and very much when they please, and children of the class now brought into the Board schools — children of the lowest physical type, frequently ill-fed, and bodily as well as mentally depressed, and incapable of bearing long hours of detention. With them a stripe which the others do not heed is a festering wound and a long and seri- ous injury, which mothers frequently show to magistrates and which excites their compassion. Nevertheless, it is to be admitted that much may be obtained by the rule of terror. My colleague in Poor-Law administration. Sir Francis Kead, recounted to me the results of the rule of terror on wild horses in the pampas, and how much was effected by it ; nevertheless, it requires constant, incessant, and severe energy and great force, and attains only inferior results with men as well as with animals, the subject hav- ing to be constantly guarded against as a treacherous enemy, instead of being, as under the rule of kindness, regarded as an agreeable and trusted companion. Where a school has been changed from a long-time to a well-organized half-time school, with appliances for physical training, the non-attend- ances have been reduced to one-tenth the previous number. They are reduced largely through the decrease of absences from sickness, occa- sioned by detention during long hours amid filthy-skinned and filthy- clothed children, and also by lessons little adapted to their mental receptivity, by the amelioration of all of which, irritation and the provo- cation of the pupil-teachers and the head-teachers to the use of the stick is in the half-time schools abated, and school headaches diminished in the case of teachers as well as that of pupils. Complete success may be assured by commencing in the most forma- tive period of life — the infantile stage. The kindergarten, or the kitchen garden system, as introduced in the United States, I consider to be one 373 136 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of the greatest educational iniprovemeuts of our time, Avliich we must strive to get iutroduced in England. Another advance will be in pro- viding that no lessons shall be introduced into any school that have not been tried on children of the classes to be taught, and have sustained attention by their own interest, as demonstrated by one of our foremost educational improvers, Mr. Horace Grant, whose memoir I herewith submit. On the whole, it will be found after sufficient experience that the stick, and the " tawse," and the rule of terror will have to be abandoned for the more efficient rule of kindness in the treatment of children in every, stage of school life. 374 MORALS AND MANNERS AT SCHOOL. By D. L. Mansfield, Superiniendciit of Schools, Dummersfon, Vt. The school laws of Vermont require, in addition to the common studies, instruction also in good behavior. Recognizing that requirement of the law, the textbook committees of the several towns in the county, when ujet together in council in 1878, adopted Gow's "Good Morals and Gen- tle Manners" as a suitable text-book ou the subject of good behavior. Josei)h Steeu, a venerable bookseller in Brattleboro', Vt., concluded that so good a book on a subject so necessarj' to be taught in the schools at the present day would have a good demand, and sent for a suitable number of books for introduction. After the books remained on the counter several weeks, exposed for sale and examination, he was forced to return the same to the publishers because there was no sale for such books. Mr. Steen, in a few words of comment, said to the writer that " most parents nowadays do not think their children need to be taught manners at school. Children are all very good." Ask teachers and school officers of experience, who keep their eyes and ears open to the evidence of good morals and manners in the schools or elsewhere, whether it be true or not that most boys and girls show a disposition to become truly polite. What say the families or persons of refinement who live in close proximity to the district schoolhouse? Does the air ever resound in your ears with the evidence of unclean language and l)rofane utterances emanating from juvenile lips? In my school boy days I used to hear about the roughness and incivility of village and city boys; but, so far as I am informed, the village and the city juveniles are much more refined and civil than the common rustic school-boys are. And the average Irish day-laborer will answer you civilly when ques- tioned, while the ordinary American "chap" thinks you beneath his notice. Most school-boys are rough in their treatment of each other. Woe to the stranger boy who goes in among them^ unless he is able to fight his way. I cite a case from personal knowledge : A peaceable school lad of my acquaintance, whose circumstances caused him to be sent to a school where about thirty Indian boys and girls were being educated on an Indian reservation in the Far West, said he received much worse ill- treatment from the boys here in a district school during one term than he ever experienced befon;. In fact, white boys are worse than savages in the treatnient of their schoolmates. Not long ago a bright little boy, five years old, was asked whether he attended tlie district school which was ke[)t near his home. He said that he did not, but he knew what the children learned at school. "They learned to siceared.^^ Sure enough, when he went to school for the first time the following summer, he was not long in acquiring a supply of pro- fane words. In a few days after beginning school the father heard his boy 375 138 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. swear for the first time. He was exceedingly pained, for he did not use profane language himself, and to hear a child of his swear thus early in life was mortifying to his pride. The bad habit of his boy must be broken up. > Reproofs and threatenings of punishment were unavailing. After the child was reproved he was careful not to swear in his father's presence. Still he continued the habit of swearing when he thought his father was not near enough to hear what was said. He was determined that his child must not swear at all. Various punishments were resorted to, such as shutting him up, putting him in a barrel down cellar, whipping, &c., but all in vain. At last a happy expedient occurred to him. He remembered that his boy always disliked very much to have him touch his face with a lather brush, which he had sometimes playfully done when shaving himself. The child's dislike to it put him almost in a state of frenzy whenever his face was lathered with a brush. There- fore, when the father heard the boy utter his next oath, he not only lathered the boy's face, but thoroughly swabbed out his mouth with the brush. The remedy was effectual, and no more swearing has been done by the boy to the father's knowledge. Moral : If every parent would be thus persistent in breaking up the very bad habit of children's swearing, morals in children at school would be less impure, and the school a better place of instruction. 376 RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS OF ONTARIO. By J. E. Wells, M. A., Editor of the Canada School Journal. The question of moral, training? in the schools is pre-eminently the most important educational question of the day. It transcends every other by reason of its closer bearing, not only upon the highest inter- ests of the individual pupils themselves, but upon those of the whole community or State. An uncomfortable suspicion seems to be taking- hold upon the public mind that the schools are not doing all they ought to do in elevating the national character. The opinion is often ex- l)ressed, with no doubt partial truth, that when unaccompanied by sufficiently powerful moral influences, increase of intelligence and mental acumen means simply increased capacity for evil. An impres- sion is, in certain quarters at least, gaining ground that free schools and universal education are failing to prove a i>anacea for moral evil to the extent that was hoped for by their enthusiastic promoters a genera- tion or two back. Ignorance, it is being shown by facts too clear to be denied, at least that kind of ignorance which can be driven out by the study of the " three R's," is not the mother of all vice and crime, and some more potent agent than the truant officer must be called in to stay the course of youthful depravity, if the next generation is to be raised to a much higher plane in regard to sobriety, honesty, truth, and purity, than any of its predecessors. In this, however, as in other matters, there is a tendency in the public mind to generalize too hastily. The fallacies of assigning a wrong cause, and failing to make account of changed conditions, are very easy to commit. In comparing the achievements of the schools with the ideal standards of attainments that may have been set up for them, we are very liable to forget to give due weight to all the adverse influences at work. Many of these influences are new and unforeseen. The influx of population from all quarters of the globe into these western lands com- plicates every problem — political, social, or moral. In order to do jus- tice to the schools as an agency for the improvement of national char- acter, it is necessary to compare the state of youthful morals actually existing under the present school systems with that which there is evei'y reason to believe must have existed to-day but for the restraining and elevating influences exerted by those schools. Tried by such a standard, it will be found that free schools, if they have not accom- plished miracles, are at least every day accomplishing wonders for the moral as well as intellectual elevation of the masses. In endeavoring to form some estimate of what is being done in the way of moral and religious training by the public schools of Ontario, it will be convenient to speak of that training under the two heads of direct, and indirect, or incidental. 377 140 EDICATIONAT. CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. By (liroc't moral and relij^ious trainiog 1 mean that part of the work of the .schools whieh aims directly and conscionsly to improve the moral charactei- of the young-. And here the important i)art performed 1>\ the Sunday-schools cannot be passed over. It would be difficult to overestimate the value of the work done by the modern Sunday-school. Jn order to get some adequate conception of this, it is necessary to tike into account not only the positive impressions produced by the teach ing and other direct agencies employed, but the moral effects of the halnts formed, the associations created, the gentle but powerful re- straints exercised, the temi)tations and dangers escaped. Notwith- standing all its hallowed intluences and golden opportunities, it is sadly true that to the idle and vicious the day of rest is the day of tempta- tion. One has but to imagine how the time would be employed by tiiousands of the children who now gather in the Sabbath-schools and spend hours of the day in reading the interesting books and ])apers re- ceived there, were there no such institution. In this important respect of furnishing occupation, forming good habits, and preventing the forma- tion of bad ones, the Sabbath-school is the indispensable supplement of the day school. It may, no doubt, be safely assumed that from one-half to two-thirds of all the ])ublic school population of the Provinces are members of some Sabbath-school or Bible-class.* These they attend more or less regu- larly from Sunday to Sunday. Here the great truths of the Christian religion are pressed upon mind and heart and conscience. All the beueticent agencies which the Christian culture and activity of the day have been able to devise are enlisted in this good work. Earnest and, in many cases, able and skillful teachers explain, illustrate, anlanation of the comparative failure of the scheme is afforded in the fact that the time set apart for these exercises was after tlie close of the regular school work. Any one who remembers the eagerness with wliich the average child, wearied with the work and restraint of the school routine, looks forward to tbe hour of release, will readily under- stand the difficulty under which tbe clergyman would labor in inviting the i)upils to remain for an extra half hour of religious instruction. The children are naturally impatient and in a mood very unfavorable to seiious and profitable attention. Unless tbe clergyman were possessed of cxcei)tional tact aufl ability, he would fail to arouse any interest, and would not care to rej)eat tbe experiment very often. Since the accession to office of tlie present JMinister of Education, Hon, (J. \V. Itoss, certain changes have been made iu the act and reguhirion4 respecting both these ])rovisions foi- religious education iji the schools. It has been very strongly urged by a number of clergynuni and others that the use of the Bible in our i)ublic schools should be no longer optional with trustees or teacbers, but shoidd be made obligatory in all cases, liegardmg tbe Sacred Scriptures as the only sure foundation ol national morals, advocates of this view contend earnestly that the> ■^7d 142 EDUCATIONAL C@NVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. should be euthroned in every school-room and have a recognized place in the daily routine. It is not my purpose to discuss here the soundness of this proposi- tion, or to set over against it the arguments of those who believe it both more in accord with the spirit of the l^ew Testament and of relig- ious liberty, and better adapted to accomplish the moral ends aimed at, that the voluntary principle should be maintained. In deference to the wishes and convictions of those who believe that in a Christian State the Bible should have a place in every school, it has been decided that a collection of extracts from the Old and Xew Testaments should be placed in the hands of all teachers for daily readings in the schools. These selections are intended to include such passages as are most suitable for moral and devotional uses, and at the same time free from occasions of sectarian controversy. The scheme of lessons prepared is understood to have the approval of leading clergymen of all the Prot- estant denominations. In view of the diversities of opinion among the members of the various churches, it is prescribed that the Scripture les- son for the day shall be read by the teacher without note or comment. As now amended, the regulations provide that the clergymen of any school district may select any 4>ne of their number, or delegate each in tarn, to represent the whole in giving religious instruction in the schools. In the event of this being done, arrangements are to be made for haviug the exercise take place within the regular school hours, and as a part of the routine of the day. In order, however, to guard against any infringement upon freedom of conscience, it is provided that any pupil shall, at the request of his parents or guardians, be excused from attendance during such instruction, and also during the daily reading of the Scriptures. Whether these changes will prove more effective in promoting Christian morality and enlisting the co-operation of the Christian ministry, remains to be seen. It is, of course, regarded as one of the duties of everj' teacher to instruct his pupils in right conduct, and to strive to cultivate and strengthen the moral as well as the intellectual faculties. In the ab- sence of any prescribed text-book or routine, the extent to which this is done must depend entirely upon the character and aptitude of the individual teacher. While the beneficial results of any formal and stated lectures, or other exercises witli a view to moral training, would be, to say the least, doubtful, there can be no doubt that the teacher who is really impressed with the importance of the matter, and pos- sessed of average ability and tact, will find a thousand occasions for in- cidental instruction which may be turned to excellent account. There is good reason to believe that very many of the teachers in the Prov- ince are earnest Christian men and women, on the watch for opportu- nities to make salutary impressions upon the minds and hearts of their pupils. No doubt a good work is every day being accomplished in this way which cannot be set down in any school returns or embodied in any statistics. Those teachers have their reward in the approbation of con- science, and often in seeing the improved behavior of their pupils. Of this I may say a word again. In addition, however, to this incidental moral instruction, which must always be the, chief reliance, it is questionable whether some simple text-book of practical morality should not have a place in the school curriculum. The science of morals may certainly be reduced to simple principles, as easy of comprehension by the child as those of any other science, and such a study might be made the means of not only incul- cating the supreme importance of the right and wrong as qualities of 380 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 143 every action, but also of iuducing the habit of moral reflection, which certainly needs cultivation quite as much as the power of thinking, in any other form of exercise. At present, so far as 1 am aware, no such manual or exercise has any place on the regular school curriculum. It is true. Dr. Kyerson recognized the need of such instruction, and shortly before retiring from the superintendeucy himself prepared a manual for the purpose. He was unsuccessful, however, in shunning the abound ing snags of sect and dogma, which make the stream of Christian mor- als of so difQcult navigation. His little work was subjected to a cross fire of criticism from different quarters, which quickly destroyed all hope of its usefulness. It may be that some future hand-book of practical Christian ethics may have better success. Under the head of indirect agencies for the moral training of the young 1 would place first the discipline of the school room in its whole effect on the formation of bodily and mental habits. These habits or their results will, in very many cases, remain through life. They really form one of the most effective agencies in the shaping of character. The influence of the school in this respect is of greater or less importance, according as it merely coincides with and supplements the home train ing, or, as is too often the case, supplies the lack of such training. It has been well observed that the essence of moral training consists in its effect upon the will. To be compelled to keep the hands and face clean and the clothing neat, to be present at a stated place punctually at a fixed hour, to attend to this, that, and the other duty at the pre scribed moment, to preserve silence, and otherwise respect the rights of others, to sacrilice inclination to the mandates of school law, and to yield prompt, unhesitating obedience to constituted authority — these, and similar requirements of every well-governed school, are not only conditions essential to enable the work of the school room to be carried on, they are also most important factors in the production of character. They teach practically that subordination of impulse to will, that prompt subjection of inclination to duty, which are indispensable to success and usefulness in every sphere of active life. As, however, all this is also common to all well-regulated schools everywhere, I need only say here that there seems good reason to hope that in enforcing reasonable, healthful discipline, and in striking the golden mean between excessive severity and injurious laxity, the aver age Ontario teacher will compare favorably with those of any other country. Still I have no doubt there is much room here, as elsewhere, for improvement, by the introduction of wiser methods, and the higher development of those intellectual and moral qualities in the teacher which are the best, if not the only proper forces for upholding law and authority in the school. Another indirect influence of very great value as a pai-t of the moral training imparted in the schools, is the outgrowth of the tastes there formed or fostered. After making all reasonable qualifications, it is still unquestionably true that a fondness for science, or art, or mathe- matics, or literature, in a word, for any form of mental activity, is one of the best counteractives to vicious propensities. The law of impene- trability holds in moral as well as in physical spheres. Every moral reformer must have found that there is very little use in warning against evil tendencies with negatives. Defensive tactics here are of little avail. There must be aggressive action. The expulsive power of new occupations, enjoyments, and affections must be used to dispossess the enemy and secure the stronghold. Whenever the work of the school- room has so far awakened the dormant energies of the mind that some 381 144 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. sense of pleasure is experienced in any form of intellectaal actixity, it has been so far successful, not only as an educational, but as a moral agency. A standard lias been raised against the common enemy. Let, for instance, a taste for reading be developed, and an aveiuie is at once opened up to a new and higher plane of enjoyment than any which lies in the low level of sense. Much of the literature of the day is trashy enough, and too much of that whicli finds its way into the hands of the young is n.ot only negatively, but ]iositively injurious; yet it can hardly be doubted that it is better that a young liian or woman should be fond of reading the silliest and most sentimental of stories than unable to read at all with an^ sense of enjoyment. In the one case there is a comparatively innocent, though certainly poor source of occupation al- ways available for idle hours, and the reader has some resource within himself; while in the other, voluntary or enforced idleness becomes the mother of temi)tation to low indulgence, if not to])ositive vice or crime. It is from this jioint of view to be deplored that the average school has hitherto done so little to form and stimulate the taste for good literature, and that so many even bright pu])ils leave the schools and too often the colleges with a satisfactory, perhaps a high standing in classes, who yet know nothing of the pleasure of inwardly digesting a thoughtful book. There are. happily, sians of a general and salutary' awakening in regard to the place of English literature in our schools and the proper methods of teaching and studying it. The boy or girl who has once tasted the delights of a good book, or of a little vigorous, inde- pendent thinking, can never fall quite so low as might have been other- wise ]iossible. Another incidental, but most prolific source of influence, either for good or for evil, in connection with our public school system, is that of the associations into which the children are of necessity brought. Whether the effect ot this is on the whole salutary or otherwise must depend on the ))revailing tone of the children themselves. This varies greatly in different localities. It is ])robable that, after all, the influ- ence of schoolmates and of the general aluiospliere of the school room and the [)lay ground has more to do with the molding of tlie child's char- acter than the direct teachings of the class room. It is unnec»'ssary to add that the jHevailing tone of the school in this particular is imparted at the homes of the children. x\.s one mangy sheep infects a whole flock, so Avill often one unrul^' or vicious child conruminate a whole !3(;hool and lower its general character. It is doubtful if the prevailing custcuns and regulations in Ontario clothe the teacher with so much discretionary power as he should have in order to enable him to purge the school i)r(Mnptly of the incorrigible and depraved. Yet we have, I believe, much to be thankful for upon this score. In spite of many painful exceptions, it is doubtful if any country in the world is blessed with a laiger proportion of virtuous and happy homes, and as the child almost invariably r<^flects the character of tlie i)arents and the home influences, so the moral tone of the children in our i)ub]ic schools is at least up to the average of that of any other land. l*robably, owing to the greater homogeneity of our poi)ulation, and, I might adportunity of measuring his corn in another's bushel as these half yearly examina- tions afford. (c) To the inspector. — The organization of the schools under his charge is much more uniform, and he can therefore more readily form his judg- ment as to their relative standing and progress. He has less frequent occasion to interfere with the teacher's classification — always an un- pleasant duty. His time being less taken up with matters of organiza- tion, he is left more free to inquire into the teacher's methods, and to advise with him on other matters affecting the interests of his school. By a judicious supervision of the preparation of question papers he can, to a considerable extent, give direction to the teaching in his county or inspectorate. 12. Public appreciation of these examinations. I cannot speak definitely with respect to other counties than my own, but I believe that the system, wherever introduced, has given very gen- eral if not universal satisfaction. In the county of Peel we have held sixteen half-yearly examinations, conducted on the more simple of the two i^laus outlined (in 10) above — that of endeavoring to assist the teacher in his work of classification, instead of attempting to relieve him of it ; and I am safe in saying that not one of my 74 school boards, not one of my 96 teachers, would for a moment think of returning to the old, irregular, goas-you-please system. :;9i THE INFLUENCE AND THE EFFECTS OF A SYSTEM OF UNI- FOEM AND SIMULTANEOUS EXAMINATIONS ON SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS. By William: Caklyle, Inspector of Public Schools in the County of Oxford, Ontario, Canada. A reference to the cdliditiou of education in Ontario previous to the introduction of these examinations is necessary in order to indicate their influence upon the schools. Previous to 1871 teachers' certificates were obtained from two sources, the provincial normal school and the local county boards. Only those issued by the normal school were provincial and valid during life. Cer- tificates from the local boards were limited for use to the county in which they were issued, to one township, or even to one school section, and were renewable annually or oftener on re-examination. The pro- vincial certificates were few in number, but the influence exerted by the normal school through means of its graduates was great, the trained teachers being "the salt of the earth," educationally speaking. The public schools were, as a rule, taught by teachers holding county board certificates. The county boards w^ere constituted of the township superintendents, who were appointed as superintendents by the town- ship councils from motives that prevailed with these councils 5 being a minister of any recognized religious persuasion, a lawyer, or a doctor, was unquestionable evidence of the fitness of any gentleman for the liosition of local school superintendent; municipalities influenced by the presence of electors possessing culture and appreciation of the intellect- ual needs of the people, favored and secured the appointment of gen- tlemen worthy of the j)Osition. To the local boards of examiners selected on the haphazard principle was intrusted the licensing of teachers. The superintendents, according to their intelligence and the demands of their districts, adopted standards of qualifications, prepared ques- tions, and valued answers. Unqualified examiners applied defective and injudicious tests. The standards adopted for certificates varied in every county. The boards were uniform in one feature — candidates were sent out to teach with the injunction to return soon for re-examination, lest while teaching others they should lose the literary attainments they themselves had acquired. At rare intervals a school reached such a state of efficiency as to be able to prepare pupils to meet the require- ments of the local board for certificates. But the profession was not recruited from the schools; it was filled with refugees from all trades and professions. Broken-down tradesmen, unsuccessful professional men, every-wise unsuccessful college graduates, old soldiers, and cranks received teachers' certificates, and ministered to the moral and the in- tellectual wants of the youth of the country. In 1871 a new order of things was introduced. County and city in- spectors were appointed to take the i)lace of the local school superin- 392 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 155 tendeuts. The qualificatious of these Dew officers were prescribed by Act of Parliament. They were required to hold provincial certificates of the highest grade, and to be experienced teachers. New county boards of examiners, with the inspectors as ex-officio chairmen, were constituted. The members of these boards also were required to possess qualifica- tions that would insure eflBcient service on their part; but not even to these boards thus constituted was intrusted the determining for their respective municipalities the standard for teachers' certificates. The Education Department assumed charge of this important branch of edu- cational work by instituting the uniform examinations as outlined in the former part of this paper. 1. As an immediate effect, the status of teachers throughout the Province was uniformly raised. All candidates for teachers' certificates were subjected to a uniform provincial test. The new standard was high, but not higher than the interests of the country demanded. It was also both respectable and authoritative. It proceeded from the De- partment, sustained by the authority of the Government, instead of from a local board of examiners of unknown qualificatious. As might have been anticipated, few localities, if any, were prepared for the change. Possessors of old county board certificates of the high- est grade, who had the temerity or were under the necessity of appear- ing before the new boards, failed to take the lowest grade of new cer- tificates. The slaughter was immense. The country was suddenly awakened to a due sense of the character of its teachers as a class of public servants. The i)rofession was sifted. The incapable were shelved, or sent to their studies and kept at them until they could pass the new ordeal. This decimated the ranks of the profession, but created a de- maud for the services of the successful minority. Salaries went up, and multitudes entered school to prepare for teaching. 2. The status of the school was elevated. 1'he public schools soon responded to the influence of an improved class of teachers. The more efficient began to prepare students for the new examination, and suc- ceeded. This feature of school work attached importance to the schools and their masters. Rate payers realized that good schools were a neces- sity, if for no other i^urpose than to supply qualified teachers. High schools organized for the purpose of furnishing facilities for the study of the ancient classics, higher mathematics, and higher English, had failed in the fulfillment of their mission more signally than public schools had in theirs. Those in successful operation had met the de- mand tliat rested upon them to prepare young men for college and for entering the learned professions. But such students were not numer- ous, and the schools worthy of their patronage were also few. Of many of them it could be said that they accomplished only public school work, and that less efficiently than the public schools did. They were more generously aided with public funds than public schools, and were the resort only of children of the " respectable " class of families in their immediate neighborhood, who sought nothing and received noth- ing further from them than a smattering of English. In 1873 the "entrance examination" was introduced to eftect one purpose. It effected two. It was designed to prevent pupils- gaining admission to the high schools before they had acquired a specific knowl- edge of English. This it accomplished for all high schools in the Prov- ince, at one stroke, and placed them in a position to devote their ener- gies to the work they were originally designed to do. But this exam- ination served another important purpose. The entrance examination to the high school became. an objective point for public schools to aim 393 156 EDUCATIONAL COXVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. at. The course of study prescribed for public schools extends much further thau preparatiou for the high school; but no clearly defined test had ever been applied to ascertain whether they had fulfilled the measure of their expected usefulness. The standard for entrance would be a limit to reach every half year ; and if not the highest limit they could attain to, it would be a regular, a constant, and a practical limit, anith an appeal in case of dispute to the chair- man of the county board of examiners. 4. The principal shall report to the board of examiners at the close of the term the status and progress of each teacher-in- training, as shown by the daily register. 5. The teachers-in-training shall be subjected to an examination in practical teaching at the close of the session, and also to a written ex- amination on papers prepared by the Department.^ 6. Boards of trustees are authorized by resolution to require a fee of not more than five dollars, to be paid by each teacher-in-training. 7. There shall be one session of thirteen weeks in each model school during the year, beginning on the second Tuesday in September. 8. Each model school shall be inspected at least once during the ses- sion by the Departmental inspector. COURSE OF STUDY. The course of study embraces, 1. Principles of education: School organization, management, and discipline, methods of instruction, and practice in teaching. 2. Physiology and hygiene : (a) Laws of health, temperance, cleanliness ; hours for study, rest, recreation, and sleep. (6) Heating and ventilation of the school room. (c) Functions of the brain, eye, stomach, heart, and lungs. 3. Music, drawing, and calisthenics."^ 4. School law: A knowledge of school law, so far as it relates to the duties of teachers and pupils. 1 These written examinations are upon the same papers in all the schools, and are held at the same time in accordance with a time table drawn up by the Department. The answers are read, the values determined, and the certificates awarded by the county board of examiners. -These subjects are not compulsory, but if talien up due credit is given for work done in them, in awarding certificates. 408 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 171 5. Keview of non-professional work : The teachers-in-traiuing are re- quired to review and supplement their knowledge of the principal sub- jects of the i)ublic-school urriculuui, such as composition, spelling, arith- metic, and literature. For this purpose the principal gives a few exer- cises in these subjects during the term, and by oral and written examina- tions tests the students' knowledge of matter, as well as of methods of instruction. MANAGEMENT. First Section of Term—Ttco Weeks. 1. Teaching by principal: For the first two weeks of the session the principal teaches in the separate room x>rovided for this purpose those subjects with which he intends the students subsequently to begin. In teaching a class as above, the principal first lays before the students the plan of the lesson, and illustrates this plan by his teaching. He also requires the students to take notes of his methods, and these are discussed in the criticism hour. In this way about ten lectures, com- bined with illustrative teaching, are given on the best methods of teach- ing some of the primary subjects. During this time the students are not required to visit the different departments of the school for obser- vation, as it is believed that no one can observe intelligently or with profit until he has some idea of the object to be attained by the teacher, 2. The studeuis having noted and discussed the methods as outlined by the principal, and having observed the practice of these methods' are now themselves prepared to begin to teach. They are therefore next required to teach classes in the separate room, under the guidance of the principal, and subject to the criticism of their fellow students after the conclusion of the lesson. 3. Observation : The principal next prepares the students for taking observation in the diflerent rooms set apart for model-school purposes, their attention being specially called to the matter of the lesson, to the method of presenting it, and to the class. Second Section of Term — Three Weeks. 1. Observation and class teaching in the separate room : During this section of the term, one-half of each day is occupied by the students in the model school-room — (I) In observing class teaching by the principal. (II) In class teaching before the principal and their fellow-students. (III) In criticisms. 2. (Observation in the different divisions : During the second half of the day the students are engaged in observing teaching by the assist- ants in the different rooms, and in taking notes. These notes are after- wards given to the principal, and discussed in the separate room. The assistant teachers are required to explain to the students the purpose and plan of the lesson before they begin to teach, to call attention to points in the progress of the lesson, and to summarize at the close. Third Section of Term — Seven Weeks. Teaching by students in the divisions: The students having seen the principal teach a number of subjects, having taught the subjects themselves under the direction of the principal, having observed how 409 172 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. classes are tanght bj' the assistants, and having some idea of the matter and method of a lesson, are now able to take charge of classes in the subjects already illustrated. The assistant teachers are required to take notes of the work done by the students, and to report the same to the principal. Students, when assigned to a room, remain a week in one division. The average number of lessons taught by each student dur- ing the session is thirty. Fourth Section of Term — One WeeTt. Be view and examination : Students are not required to do any school work during the last week of the term. TEXT-BOOKS. The following text- books are compulsory: 1. A complete set of the text books prescribed for use in the first four classes of public schools. 2. Baldwin's Art of School Management. The following are recommended: McLellan's Mental Arithmetic, Part I. Normal Music Course, Part I. Hughes' Drill and Calisthenics. Whitney's Elementary Lessons in English (teacher's edition). Ayres' Orthoepist (revised Canadian edition). RECEIPTS. A grant of one hundred and fifty dollars is given by the county council to each model school in the county, and an equal amount is given by the Government. The fees paid by the students average one hundred dollars to each school. The amount received by each board of trustees is therefore about four hundred dollars per annum, and this sum is amply sufficient to provide a special assistant to relieve the prin- cipal from his ordinary school duties, and to meet contingent expenses. NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND OF STUDENTS. Fifty-one model schools have been established in the Province, and the average number of students that attend each school is twenty. TIME OCCUPIED BY THE STUDENTS IN TEACHING. Taking twenty as the average number of students in a model school and allowing one half-hour lesson per day to each student, we have ten hours per day for teaching by the students in the whole school. Taking- four divisions as the number used for model school purposes, with a senior and a junior section in each division, we have eight classes for ten hours of teaching by the students, or an average of one hour and a quarter for each class during each day for seven weeks. When the number of students exceeds twenty, more than four divisions are used, if possible. The students are distributed among the different rooms, and while one teaches the others observe and take notes. GENERAL REMARKS. When our present county model schools were first established, fears were entertained by many that the regular work and discipline of the 410 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 173 schools in which they were established would be disturbed by them. These fears were realized to some extent, and after an experience of two or three years the trustees in a few cases refused to allow their schools to be used any longer for model school purposes. But in at least eighty per cent, of the schools the work w^ent on smoothly from the first and was a decided success. When the principals of the public schools in which model schools were established first took charge of this extra work, they had to teach a division of pupils from 9 A. M. till 4 p. m.j and as no special assistant was provided for their relief, they were obliged to deliver their lectures to the students before and after the regular school hours. During the day the students were assigned to the diftereut divisions, and employed their time in obser\ing teaching and in teaching classes. The students being thus placed under the guidance of the assistants during the day and being allowed to teach from the beginning of the term, almost necessarily retarded the prog- ress of the pupils and caused more or less friction. By means of the relief aft'orded by the special assistant all the work is now done during school hours, and the students being mostly under the instruction of the principal and having been drilled in the theory and practice of teaching during the first half of the tern], are enabled to do very fair work in the divisions when they take charge of classes during the sec- ond half of the term. The schools that were closed have been re- opened, and complaint is now rarely made that the model school work interferes with the ordinary routine of the school or with the work of the pupils. On the contrary, many i)rincipals claim that the general standing of the school is improved by the establishment of the model school. Our model school system during a period of eight years has steadily grown in public favor, and its utility and efficiency have been well es- tablished. It furnishes to all young teachers a fair amount of profes- sional training near their own homes at a less cost to them than if it were furnished in a few large centers, and at a cost to the Province of certainly not more than one-third of what would have been required if provision had been made for furnishing this training in provincial normal schools. For these reasons I think that our model schools, which were established as an experiment at first, may now be considered as an important and permanent part of our educational system. 411 SECTION B— SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. LOWER COLLEGIATE, LOWER TECHNICAL, AND TKADE SCHOOLS. HONORAKY CHAIRMAN. PHILIP MAGNUS, M. A,, Director and Secretary of the City and Guilds of Land 071 Institute. HONORARY SECRETARY. Rev. Dr. A. G. HAYGOOD, Secretary of the John F. Slater Fund, Emory, Ga. CHAIRMAN. Gen. FRANCIS A. WALKER, LL. D., President of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology, Boston. vice-chairman. C. A. WOODWARD, Ph. D., Dean of the 2lanual Traini.ig School, Saint Louis, Mo. secretary. W. D. PARKER, President of the State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. ASSISTANT secretary. Principal MOSES MERRILL, Miyh School, Boston. 4X:J A SOUTHERN GRADED SCHOOL. By Rev. A. D. Mayo, D. D. I cannot forget my first day's experience in what I recognized as a genuine type of the new southern graded public school. It was in one of the little cities of the State of ISTorth Carolina, a community of perhaps five thousand jieople, two thirds of whom were white. This school was for white children, and, at the time I speak of, had been established not more than six months. Previous to this, the educational affairs of the place had gone on after the usual method in this class of southern towns. There had been an academy for boys and a seminary for girls, both relying a. good deal on boarding pupils, the latter established in a large building with spacious grounds around it. There were probably a dozen little groups of chil- dren gathered in private houses for instruction, and a considerable number of young people were being educated away from home at a cost of from $200 to $500 a year. At the time of which I speak, however, the two academies had broken down, and were satisfactory to nobody. The little private schools were even less satisfactory. The public school was in operation, for both races, on State funds some three months in the year, and was what this sort of school is apt to be. In short, the community was paying, at home and abroad, money enough to secure a good elementary schooling for the 800 children of school age. But everything was at odds. The religious sects had rival notions, obstinate individuals of influence in- dulged themselves in impracticable theories, while the children were beating their way up to American citizenship, at the most momentous era in the world's history, like a scattered fleet making a harbor in a storm, at least one-fourth their number coming up in absolute ignorance of all that belongs thereto in a land like ours. At this juncture a few leading people resolved to " take the bull by the horns," and to persuade the community to establish a thorough system of graded public instruction. There is no part of the world where a dozen clear-headed, influential, right-minded people can do so much good in a community of 5,000 inhabitants as in a southern American town. By ways familiar to southern life, this phalanx of solid men and sensible women " captured" the little city, and persuaded the white peo- ple to try the experiment of the graded school. Unfortunately the colored folks, having bad advisers and insisting on having their own way with their portion of the general fund, continued keeping up the short-lived jMiblic school of the county, eking out their means with church donations, the school itself being little better than a children's mob. Later they came into the general system under the city superiu- tendency, and their school, as far as could be, was the same as that I am about to describe for the white children. 415 178 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Wbile waiting for legislative permission to impose a local tax, the people raised a sufficient sum by subscription to make the new school free for a year, up to its secoiulary, or academical, grade. In due time a local tax of perhaps two mills on the dollar, added to the State fund, supjdied the means for the running expenses. The city purchased the establishment of the girls' seminary, which with proper repairs made an excellent school-house, surrounded by handsome grounds, for the 500 white children. An excellent superintendent was chosen from among that remarkable body of young graded-school masters which the State of Tennessee has given to" the South; his salary, perhaps $1,200 for the first year or two, was paid by the Peabody Fund ; and he was placed at the head, "with power to act." The South still holds fast by its old traditions of com- petent leadership, invaluable in organizing a graded school. The su- perintendent was permitted to nominate his ten assistants, and given all needful authority for their training and direction. He brought one college graduate as his "chief of staff," to take charge of the academical classes; the remaining teachers were women, of whom perhaps two were experts from abroad, the rest being the most hopeful of the teachers already at work in the place. In this way he avoided collision with half a dozen competent lady teachers, while giving them more reliable employment than before. I suppose the salaries of the women ranged from $300 to $400 for the nine months of school, while the young man may have received from $G0O to $800. Thus the entire running expense, including incidentals, hardly exceeded $6,000, an average of $10 per annum for each pupil. When the colored schools came into line, the whole system could, by economical handling, be made to school 800 children nine months in the year, up to the academical grades, for less than $8,000. The original outlay for buildings is a variable quantity. In many southern towns there are buildings that can be had for public school purposes with only the expense of repairs and suitable furnishing; in other places valuable school properties can be bought at nominal prices; sometimes good school-houses, built by northern churches, are turned over to the authorities. The southern graded school, except in the larger cities and occasionally in towns, is not yet established in its final quarters. Its teachers are poorly paid ; its superintendents work- ing on nominal wages, and overwhelmed with labor and responsibility. But the genius of the American common school does not demand a palatial school-house filled with apparatus, or a schedule of high sala- ries, or even a group of accomplished graduates of superior institutions as teachers. All these are the body, but the soul is a resolute, united community, determined to do its duty by the children, and a faithful, open-minded, improvable corps of teachers, bent on doing their best, at all hazards to themselves. And nowhere, in this or in any country, is this fundamental condition of success more thoroughly realized than in hundreds of these new graded schools in our Southern States. I find the "best blood", and, what always makes good blood, the best mind, heart, tact, and executive force of the Young South, engaged in the inspiring work of building up the southern people's schools. And I wish thousands of our over-critical, well-paid teachers from the North, sometimes in danger from a too indulgent constituency, could go with me on my visitations to these new graded schools of the South-land, and learn anew that precious art of service (!onsecrated to the children, which built up the common school of New England half a century ago, 4U> INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 179 and will always build up, whenever young American manhood and womanhood are invoked for self sacrificing labor in any good cause. The first thing that attracted my attention, on arriving in this little city, was the pride and enthusiasm of the people concerning their new graded school, 1 had seen a condition of public feeling like it only during the progress of a revival of religion, a working up in temperance, or in a period of overpowering interest in time of war. Every man I saw had a good word for the school ; the village newsi)aper printed long columns of its work ; the county folk thronged its rooms, so that it had become necessary to shut out the public, except on certain half- days, on account of the interruption of over-visiting ; crowds of people would collect opposite the main entrance, on the dismissal, to watch the long, soldier-like lines of boys and girls march down the broad walk, file out the great gate, and, at a word, break up with a shout for home. At the beginning the trustees were incredulous about the attendance, and failed to supply seating enough; but the children came pouring in, week after week, till almost every able-bodied youngster was on hand. Wild stories were told about sick children that dodged out the back door at home, and ran away to school. Indeed, there had occurred sev- eral cases of children being whipped to make them stay at home. Evi- dently, the Young South was "up and coming"; and I have had occa- sion to note that this enthusiasm does not die out, but, while the school is kept up as it begins, the children are eager to attend. So here was the first beautiful result of the new movement. For the first time the great majority of these people ivere united in the general work of uplifting the community. Personal and family pride, sectarian big- otry, social and political distinctions, had fallen to the secondary place, where they belong, and all hearts and minds were brought into accord ibr the children. And as the children always respond to a generous demoustratiou in their behalf, going to school became the fashion. Even great, gawky boys \n\t their pride in their pockets and submitted to be classed with smart little girls, who rejoiced to play tug to the great sleepy hulks by their side and tow them out into the deep water of the " three E's." I soon discovered one secret of this wonderful public interest in the new graded school: it was evidently the complete discipline, or rather the harmonious living and working together of the children and youth of a whole town, in an orderly and jjersistent pursuit of all things true, beautiful, and good. To me it was inexpressibly affecting to think how all these i>eople, after a whole generation of horrid civil war, the disso- lution of society, and nameless conflicts and exasperations, embittered by the wreck of fortunes and the loss of their bravest and best, had now for the first time beheld with their own eyes this spectacle of peace, harmony, and joy, in this union of their little ones. It was a daily ob- ject lesson on the theme of the angels' song, "Peace on earth, good will to men." No v.onder that old battle scarred faces melted into laughter and tears as they looked upon this new vision that dawned upon the sadness of their age; that the village grumbler for once lost his audience; and that the candidate for office who did not "face the music" on educntiou found himself, before he knew it, in a political vacuum. Even the parson, who had preached against "secular educa- tion," either looked on and recognized a new revival of Christian love, or hid his sermon and bided the time, which never will come, when the specious thing will be revealed as the last clever device of the Evil One. 417 180 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. It was also a marvel to scores of harassed mothers to mark the change ill inainieis and home morals of their obstreperous boys and " trifling" girls, and they would steal in, at every opportunity, to feast their eyes on tlieir children sitting so peacefully, marching to music, playing with- out roughness, and generally filling the ideal of a good child. One eminent gentleman demonstrated to me in advance (how easy such demonstration is!) that the graded school would break up in a riot. " Southern childreu were accustomed to so much freedom that they would never submit to the government that prevailed in the northern public school." I found him a happy convert, after six mouths' observa- ' tion as a trustee in a graded school of 800 children, where there had been no punishment to attract public attention, where not one of the new benches had been hacked with a jack-knife, or one " work of art" in chalk, " grinned horribly a ghastly smile" from door, fence, or post. The explanation was, tbat children, every-where, like grown folk, be- have well wlien they are pleasantly occupied, and naturally prefer order and i^leasant society to the "rough and tumble" of barbarism. In the graded school they were every day making new friends ; finding out each other's good points; learning to mind their own business in a crowd ; in short, rehearsing the great drama of American life, in which " all sorts and conditions " of people are trained to live peacefully in a freedom environed by an inclosure of just and equal law. Instinctively these young Americans fell into line on the appearance of the leader of men, whom they recognized in their superintendent, and almost without knowing why, gave cheerful obedience to public law when they would bave made a dame's school-room uninhabitable, kept a private academy in a breeze, or headed a rebellion on the college campus. The most mischievous or wicked youth has a sense of the majesty of a rule and discipline that represents the sovereign people's will, and behaves ac- cordingly in the only place where a child feels that command, in the people's common school. It became evident to me that this superintendent understood the southern child's temperament, and by mixing reasonable personal freedom while at work with a liberal supply of gymnastics and military order in movements, together with little distinctions for merit, had fast hold of the majority, and held in wholesome check, with hope of reform, the criminal class which is always represented in a community of children. The man who can look on this spectacle, now seen in hun- dreds of southern graded schools, and declare the system " irreligious", has evidently never learned that three i)arts of all true religion are the very moral training he there beholds, and the other part that law of love which nowhere more beautifully shines forth than in a well-ordered school-room, taught and governed by one whose daily life is the incarna- tion of devout trust in Almighty God and unselfish loving service to the little children whose "angels behold the face of the Father in Heaven." But the more observing people of the community were even more at- tracted to the new graded school by its novel and beautiful methods of instruction, than by its admirable discipline. There was no end of wonder at the way in which little children, from six to eight years of age, were taught, by natural methods, to read and spell and write and draw; to talk with the pencil in simple sentences, laying the corner stone of training in language; to begin arithmetic, not by "figuring" up in the air, but by connecting the elementary operations with familiar objects; to study geography from the school-room outward, combin- ing physical and political geography with the history of the family, 418 t INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 181 town, county, state, and nation; to observe the outward world and learn daily lessons from earth and skj', river and forest; to stndy the fly, instead of impaling liini on a pin; to come into kindly relations with all creatures, even the mule, the champion dunce of them all; to sing by note and learn to walk erect; all these things being taken ui> in a way so natural and inspiring that the dullest fellow was waked up to life somewhere, and the brightest child was kept from overstrain by tbe charming variety. It did not require more than one visit by a sagacious business man to perceive that these natural methods in school were a part of that mighty movement of the human mind which, within half a century, lias revolutionized modern industry, harnessed man to the sublime forces of nature, and made every instructed youth, to-day, in comparison with bis grandfather, the supernatural human being of whom the Scripture prophesies : " Thou hast made him a little lower than the angels and hast croicned him u-ith glory and honor. * * * thou hast pnt all things under his feet.'''' This bright man of aflairs sees, at a glance, that here is the key to that union of mental and industrial training of which so much is said and so little to the point; that a generation thoroughly trained by such nietbods will leave school, at fifteen, with a mental habit that will put the brain into tbe fingers and enable these children to use their mighty inheritance of labor-saving machinery, to become the intelligent workers wbo will develop this marvelous South-land. And after seeing this, such men will no longer be heard doubting the policy of schooling the seven millions of freedmen, whose prolonged ignorance will bring a whole brood of worse than Egyptian plagues upon these States ; or tbe "low-down" white man, who still abides in the great highland center of the South, keeping it a lonesome wilderness, while it should be the great mine of wealth for every State grouped around its foot- hills. All this will bo read out by the few men in the community who "put things together," and see the end in the beginning; and the thoughtful women will also understand that this thorough school train- ing of the girls of the laboring people is their only hope for a generation of servants, housekeepers, and workwomen who will be able to handle a modern house, and bring out the home life of the South in all the com- fort, conveniej)ce, health, and beauty of which it is capable, in aland so evidently designed by Providence for the Eden of the Xew World. It will be seen, also, that the new graded school solves the whole problem of the academical and higher education in the community where it exists. The radical weakness of the upper story of southern education is that, like Mohammed's coffin, it is suspended between heaven and earth, with no adequate foundation of elementary training. Tbe academy in this place, for girls or boys, had been a collection of young people, mostly past fifteen, who had come to it from town and country with no real preparation for the advantages it offered, with only two or tbree years, at most, in which to acquire a respectable knowl- edge of tbe higher English branches, with French, and perhaps Latin, tbe girls spending an hour or two a day at the i)iano and subject to the allurements of the " Department of Art." As few of the pupils had any thorough training in the three R's, the task of tbe intelligent and faitbial teacher was as near hopeless as can be imagined. The southern school [)ublic is becoming thoroughly impatient with that class of aca- demical humbugs wbo bang a big sign over the school-house door and l)roraise a "complete education" in a course of three years, to a youth who comes to their "college" untaught in the elements, and tilled with that conceit of ignorance which is tbe real teacher's most deadly foe. 419 182 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. It is impossible to get this souud elementary schooling of any class out of the swarm of little home, private, and parochial schools on which so many of the children must now depend. The only hope for the academy and college is the elementary graded school for city and coun- trj', which shall send forth the majority of children before fifteen com- petent to begin the work of life, and the few prepared for the higher training of the superior seminary. Where no good academy exists, this work can be done by building up higher classes, under the direction of superior teachers, a moderate tuition fee being exacted if expedient; or, if a good academy is already established, it can easily be adjusted to the graded school, to receive its graduates. In this way college and academy, in time, will be able to dispense with the " preparatory de- partment," which is the bane of education in the South, and i^lace their work on a j)ermanent basis to meet the increasing demands of the people. I also observed that the new graded school had considerable patron- age from families who sent their children from the rural districts, or even removed to town and bought property to make practicable the scliooliug of the young folks. Especially I found there a class of bright girls from the outlying families who proposed to teach. The most hope- ful side of southern education is this bringing in of great numbers of the finest young women to the work of teaching the children. These good girls often have no chance for schooling at home, and the distant academy is either too expensive, or uuadapted to the training of teach- ers according to the gospel of the New Education. But in this school they can be well taught at moderate cost ; can see the best methods of organization, instruction, and discipline, and be trained by the superin- tendeut, in a teacher's class, to go back and build up the district school at home in the right way. I have small hope of southern country school-keeping until a center can be established in every county, which can thus be a model, and send out fit teachers for all the schools. This work is done for the colored people in the same way, their school being graded and handled in like manner, under the same superintendent, with a fair proportion of colored trustees on the general board of direc- tion. But all this beautiful result of the new^ graded school, 1 could see, de- I)ended on the superintendent, the man or woman who is at the head, and who must finally be held responsible for success or defeat. It is coming to be understood that nowhere, iu any country, does so much depend upou the head of a school as in the establishment of the south- ern people's new system of instruction. Every community is brought up to the point of taxing itself for the graded school through opposition and distrust, and begins the new experiment in the face of criticism. And often the people most strenuous iu their opposition are opi^onents because they know nothing of the system, and accept the opinions of men opposed to popular education or interested in rival schools. In- deed, nine-tenths of the incredulity of intelligent and right-minded i^eo- ple on such matters is owing to the stupid and mischievous fumbling in the school room to which they were subjected in their youth. Xow, if the people look upon their new school as a convenient institution to pension off some respectable imbecility of a played-out iiedagogue, or each of the trustees is more concerned to make a position for an impe- cunious lady relative than to educate the (;hildren, it is easy to see that the new venture will speedily come to wreck, Ev^en a scholarly man or woman, of the old time college or academ- ical type, though well up in the classics, may be utterly at a loss when iNTERNATlONAL CONGRESS Ot' EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 183 placed at the head of the eutire school population, of a southern com- munity. If he is a broad minded person, conscientious and teachable, he will inform himself of the best ways of doing this difficult work and come to his undertaking- with some real fitness, and in a progressive temper that insures success. But if "he knows it all " from the first, and holds in contempt all wisdom beyond his Alma Mater, he will cer- tainly make within a year a muddle that will disgust the better class, and "the last state" of that town "will be worse than the first." Su- pei intendeney of the graded school is a profession, and only the man or woman cotni)etent lor the work should undertake it. Sometimes a su- l»erior young woman of the place, who has qualified herself by study, reading, observation, and practice, is i^assed by, and a man who knows nothing of this special work is placed at the head. But the fit superintendent of such a system as I describe has a greater opportunity to help the whole people tlian any man of any ])rofessiou ; he becomes the guide, philosopher, counselor, and friend of the chil- dren and youth of all classes and both races ; he trains his own teachers, and is supj)lying others for the whole region round about; he is the adviser of the foremost young men and women in their plans for self- im])rovement ; he plans the course of lectures, the new public library, and directs the amusements of the young into higher and more refined channels ; he is the best teacher, ])erhai)s the superintendent, in the Sunday school, and quietly reconstructs its methods of operation; he teaches, ])erhaps manages, the county or State institute, uses the press, and in all suitable ways directs public opinion on matters within his broad domain. In short, the superintendent, or "professor," as the l)eopk' call him, becomes the functionary of all educational work for a large community, the i)erson whom the people can least aftbrd to spare, and to whom they should give a great reward. They do give that re- ward in everything but money, and in that about as much as they give the clergy. Of course it is hard for the superintendent to bear this overwhelming burden for the wages of a book-keeper or a skilled me- chanic. But the man who goes on doing it is growing, all the time, into a nobler manhood, and is "laying up treasure" in the heaven of the children's and parents' dearest love. And many a proud and ambi- tious young man, earning twice the money, or haughty young woman, high up in the; fashion, even with no social companionship with this faithi'ul public servant, is, all the time, learning from this sweet, toil- some, patient laborer the grandest of all lessons, — tliat the crown of the loftiest manhood or wotuauhood isjnst this divine spirit of sacrifice which insi)ire(l the Great Teacher who "went about doing good." Time would fail for an attem})t to picture the complex, subtle, and far-reaching influence of the graded school, as I describe it, on the locality, city, or county. State and luition. First appears its pecu- niary advantage in a southern town or city. It brings to the place, for the education of their children, substantial families, and, iu scores of towns, the rise of the })rice of real estate in two years exceeds the whole expense of the system. In due time it makes its influence felt iu every sphere of industry; for while sham education does breed laziness, shift- lessness, and youthl'ul conceit, culminating in the frightful distemper of "big head," true schooling makes the young people more valuable and faithful in every department of work. Every progressive clergyman regards such a school as the true annex to his churcli; for the church of any name that relies on an ignorant and narrow disciplesliip is like the idiot who, in a storm at sea, lashed himself for ])rotectiou to the anchor, and went to the bottomless deep without a bubble as a headstone over 421 184 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Lis grave. Social life if; all tlie time growing more genial, catholic, and refined, the "lower orders" disappear, and a wondrous change comes over the entire community. The pnblic life of the town takes on a new element, — public spirit; and the little, detestable, local partisan politi- cian, who lives by the defamation of his betters, retires in favor of the man whom office seeks for the people's good. In a generation or two a change comes over that city, or rural domain, like the loveliness of the young spring transforming the wintry world. That community rises to the most enviable form of influence in the State. Its young men and maidens go forth to kindle the fire, and publish its good name to all abroad. Out of such neighborhoods is born the true glory of a commonwealth ; and from the current of uplifting influences, whose headspring is the people's graded school, shall flow the blessed inundation of truth, and virtue, and industry, and beauty, to fertilize the nation, to bring the children of all States into patriotic accord, to make our legal and formal union that solid compact of clear heads, busy and valiant hands, and consecrated hearts, against which the united powers of the world shall not prevail; for a nation so nurtured shall become, in God's own time, the graded school of freedom, with a mission from Heaven to all the sons and daughters of mankind. 422 SECOND AET EDUCATION IN ONTARIO : AN EXPLANATION OF THE LEADING FEATURES OF ITS HIGH-SCHOOL SYSTEM. By D. C. McHenry, M. A., Principal of the Collegiate Institute, Coburg, Ontario. The secondary education of Ontario cannot be fully understood apart from a consideration of that on which it is based — the elementary, and that to which it leads — the superior; for our educational operations are reduced to a system, consisting of the public school, the high school, and the University. In this paper, however, I shall not attempt an elaborate description of this part of our educational work, but shall endeavor so to present its essential characteristics and prominent features, that persons un- acquainted with our system may be able to include Ontario in those comparative examinations that are largely to occupy the attention of this section. I. INTRODUCTORY RETROSPECT. The order generally observed in establishing schools in new countries was reversed in Ontario, grammar schools being opened fully a decade in advance of common schools. Nearly a century has elapsed since the first steps were taken towards providing instruction for the youth of our land ; and, as above remarked, education other than elementary first received attention. In 1797 public land to the extent of half a million acres was set apart for the support of a university and four grammar schools — one for each provincial district.' Unfortunately, little or no revenue was realized from this endowment, and at this point the movement rested for sev- eral years. While public efforts seemed as yet to bear no fruit, it is interesting to know that classical schools were being established, chiefly through private enterprise. Of these one was opened at Cataraqui (Kingston), by the Rev. Dr. Stuart, in 1785 ; one in Newark (Niagara), by the Rev. Mr. Addison, in 1792 ; one at the same place, in 1794, by Rev. Mr. Burns, and in 1796, by Mr. Richard Cockrel; one at York (Toronto), in 1802, by Dr. Baldwin; and one at Cornwall, by Dr. Strachan, in 1801. Dr. Strachan afterwards took charge of the school at York (Toronto). In 1806 the question was revived, and Acts were passed establishing a grammar school in each of the eight districts iuto which Upper Canada was then divided, £100 per annum being secured to each head master. It was in 1816 that the Legislature first passed an Act relating to ele- mentary instruction, and appropriated £6,000 to aid newly established common schools. ' At first the Province was divided into four districts ; afterwards into eight. Sub- sequently the term county was substituted for that pf district, of which there are now 45, and 5 outlying districts, 50 in all. — J. G. H. 423 186 EDUCAtiONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Beyond this point growth was slow, but the progress was fairly substantial. During the twelve years after the tirst eight grammar schools were opened only one additional grammar school was estab- lished. In 1831 we find eleven, and the grant increased to £1,400, Thus far these secondary schools were sustained solely by govern- ment aid and fees. In 1839 the i)rinciple involved in permissive local municipal grants was introduced, and £100 was offered by the Legisla- ture to each district grammar school, on condition that by local effort an equal amount was raised.^ During the next ten years the principal events were the appointment (in 1844) of Dr. Ryerson as chief superintendent of education and the introduction of important modifications, mainly through his instiu- ;mentality, especially those relating to local supervision and general in- spection, qualifications, appointment, and protection of head masters :and assistants. In every progressive educational movement prejudices arise among those who i-egard with suspicion all eflbrts in the held of secondary edu- cation. One of the greatest obstacles to progress at this early |)eriod was the lack of local support, arising from this unreasonable prejudice. What is known as the Education Department, then consisting of tbe At>ERS. 187 aowers more and those of other people less, become more subjective and less objective in his work. ^Not only should he develop his own individuality, but he should also strive to develop individuality in his pupils ; and he should not allow his instruction to be merely an accumulation of information,, but, as it were, should grind and bolt and proportion and leaven and bake it, and then, before it is dealt out, should provide that a vigorous a])petite be awakened by a seasonable alternation of rest and of exer- cise. He must remember that his pupils do not live to eat, but eat only to live. However, the great difficulty is for the teacher to learn to instruct himself and to become subjective in his methods, when he is himself the product (might we not say the victim ?) of an objective method. It is only by efforts almost Herculean that he can accomplish this, and so come to feel the thrill of independence in his mental work as a strong man feels the thrill of health in his physical labor. Such a teacher is a real leader of youth, an educator, and is not a driver of mental dys- peptics. The writer believes that for a suitable preparation for active life the teacher who uses subjective methods is indispensable. With the school in the hands of such a teacher, the curriculum would become very much modified, a new order of text-books would be demanded and would be produced, pupils would not be so willing to graduate from the lower schools directly into active life, and the question of the economy of the high school would lose much of its force. And yet it is to be feared that there are not many among high school teachers who have the reso- lution, or even the disposition to undertake subjective methods. In this connection it is to be remarked that there should be greater encouragenient to recognize high school instruction as a noble and per- manent profession. The college stripling whose only qualification is a mass of second-hand information, ancl whose only object is to raise funds enough to lielj) himself into some other profession, should not be in- trusted with the high office of preparing citizens for active life; nor, on the other hand, should the efficient teacher be subject to the whims of local politicians. The teacher also should be held to exemplify practical 435 198 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. morals iu tbe most scrupulous mauner, especially with regard to the securing and the leaving of positions. There is a pernicious practice on the part of parents and of pupils, not to say of teachers, that cannot be condemned too strongly, and the removal of it would promote efficiency very much — the practice of indulging the childish fancies and tastes of pui)ils with reference to the selection of studies. This is in direct opposition lo the plainest teachings of common sense. In the development of the physical system, no one disputes the propriety of bestowing special attention upon the weaker parts; but iu the development of the mind, it is only the stronger powers that are encouraged and fostered with care. And what shall we say of the folly of intrusting to an immature, illy-developed judg- ment the selection of the field of its future success or failure, and of hazarding all upon a temporary impulse or fancy ? There are other important consideratious that the lack of time forbids mentioning, but they can all be summarized in the statement of that })rime requisite of good citizenship, Meiifi sana in eorpore sano, a maxim that should be inscribed upon our wails and worn ux)on our brows, so that it might b6 a per])etual reminder to ])areuts and to teachers and to pupils. 436 FEMALE EDU0ATTO"N TN 0:N^TARI0. By Key. Alexander Burns, D. D., LL. D., Governor (tud Principal of the Wculeijan Ladies' College, Hamilton, Ontario. In Ontario, as in other countries, the, hi^li(?r education of women was not originally (lousideretl an essential part of even a complete system of education. Our common schools, high schools, normal schools, and our University are all established on a liberal scale, and are cause of just }»ride to our Province.^ To the normal schools women have always been admitted, and a large proportion of the teachers in our public schools have been women — many of them prepared in these normal schools, and a number in the high schools. But beyond furnishing the facilities for preparing to become school teachers the State has done absolutely nothing for the higher education of women .^ But while the matter has been thus ignored by the State, private generosity has largel.^' supplied the appliances and facilities to give women an introduction to those higher walks of literature, science, and philosophy, so long monopolized by the sterner sex. In no country has higher education dej)ended more on private effort, and in no country has it received a more generous support. The first institution opened for higher education was the Upper Canada Acad- emy (now Victoria University, Coburg) — the offering of the Methodists of Canada. It has been followed by several others on the voluuiary basis, and Victoria, Queens, Trinity, and others have done work and wielded an influence that would be a credit to the colleges of any country. So in efforts for the higher education of women. The first ladies' college opened in the Province, the VVesleyan Ladies' College of Hamil- ton, was under the auspices of the Methodist Church. This also has been followed by others, furnishing ample accommodation to all aspir- ing after a liberal education. There are at present seven ladies' col- leges that have been established by denominational patronage, and. have never received any assistance from the State. Of these the . Methodist Church has three — the Wesleyan Ladies' College of Hamilton; the Ontario Ladies' College of Whitby ; and the Alma College of St. 'From tlie Report of the Minister of Education it will be seen that the number of girls attending the public schools in 1883 was 220,(;9S; Roman Catholic separate fschools (not reported, but estimated at), 12,000 : high schools, 5,787 ; uornial schools, 213 ; provincial model schools, 377 ; total, 239,075, out of 503,482 pupils rej)<)rted as attending these institutions in 1883. The number of female teachers employed iu the same year was: public schools, 4,082; Roman Catholic separate schools, 300 ; high schools (not reporled, but estimated at), 75; provincial normal and model schools, 10; total, 4,467, out of 7,686 teachers of these schools reported as employed in 18H3. The number of females receiving or imparting instruction in these various institutions in 1883 was 243,542, out of a gross total of 511,168 so engaged in that year. — J. G. H. ''A tardy admission has been granted to women "to attend lectures with male stu- dents at University College, Toronto, but this involves no extra expense or special grant. 437 200 EDTTCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Tliomns. The Clinrch of England has two — the Bishop Strachaii School at Toronto, and tlie Helliuuth Ladies' College of London. The Presby- terian Church has two — the Ottawa Ladies' College, and the BrantCord Ladies' College. Although these institutions are under denominational auspices, still no sectarian test or subscription is required of their students, and even their faculties represent several denominations. Besides these colleges, each Boraan Catholic diocese has one or more convents for the education of women, and, in some of them, the higher branches receive considerable attention. To give an idea of the work done by these colleges it will be neces- sary to particularize somewhat ; and for this purpose I will take the oldest of them, the Wesleyan Ladies' College of Hamilton. The chief difference between* its curriculum and that of the ordinary college for gentlemen, is in the classics — the Latin and Greek. In other respects the course of study is fully equal to the pass work for the ordinary B. A. Indeed, in some de])artmeuts it is more extensive. Two courses of study have been established, a classical and an English; the latter re- quires no other language than the English. In the classical course, Latin, French, and German are each carried through the whole course of four years. Matheiiiatics extends through algebra, geometry and trigonometry. Physiology, zoology, botany, chemistry, and geology receive due attention. A very full course in history — ancient, mod- ern, and biblical — is required. The study of English literature is pur- sued daily through two years. Logic, mental and moral science, and evidences of Christianity are studied, both from lectures and in the or dinarj'' university text-books on these subjects. We are quite safe in saying that the graduate of this college has taken a course which, with the exception of the Latin and Greek, is fully equal to that required by the average British college for pass work. That women appreciate op- portunities for higher studies is seen in the fact that this college alone has graduated nearly 200 ladies, and has had in its classes since 1800 over 2,000. The present senior class contains a dozen young ladies whose work consists in studying logic, psychology, moral science, evi- dences of Christianity, biblical history, and English literature. These are all pursued as in the universities, and by the use of the university text books. The English literature class is reading critically Chaucer, Shakesi)eare, Johnson, and Macaulay, after a general study of the sub- ject in Collier and Arnold. What has been accomplished by the Wesleyan Ladies' College is aimed at, it is believed, in all the others, and several hundred ladies are annually registered in the ladies' colleges of Ontario. Last year the Wesleyan alone had 163. But few of the undergraduates of these colleges are satisfied with the work of the curriculum. More than ninety per cent, carry side by side with the prescribed course a very liberal course in music and art. A large j>ercentage of the graduates are excellent musicians, able to render with comparative ease the works of Beethoven, Bach, Mendels- sohn, Chopin, and Liszt. Many of them are also well advanced in art studies, — drawing, water colors, and oil painting. Indeed, to one ac- quainted only with the old standard curriculum for men, it must always be a matter of wonder how ladies can manage to carry so much of whfit are called the "accomplishments" in addition to the ordinary collegiate course. I am thoroughly satisfied that the work completed by the graduate of this college is fully equal to that required for grad- uation in the best of our colleges for gentlemen. It is also worthy of mention that the lectures and recitations of this college are supple- 4;^8 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 201 nioiited by oxporimouts in clu'inistry and ])liysics, by an extensive col- lection oi sjieciuiens illnstrtxtive of geology, mineralogy, and natural history, and that piii)ils have free access to globes, maps, charts, and the standard books of reference. The examinations are written and conducted by specialists in the several departments. From this brief sketch it will be seen that the higher education of women has not been neglected in Ontario. In the ladies' colleges alone, any young lady can obtain an education as extensive and as practical as even the most cultured society need desire. It may be said that the omission of Greek makes a great disparity between the two courses of study. In reply we would call attention to the fact that Gieek is rapidly becoming an elective study everywhere. But should ladies ask for the Greek, it could easily be furnished, as most*of the ladies' col- leges of Ontario have classical graduates in their faculties. In addition to the facilities furnished by the ladies' colleges, the colleges and universities of the Province, hitherto occupied exclusively by gentlemen, are now opening their doors to admit ladies to all their lectures and recitations, and also to their degrees, on the same condi- tions as gentlemen. This removes the last difficulty out of the way of ladies having every educational advantage that they can possibly desire. It seems too late in the day to put obstructions in the way of co edu- cation. Not that co-education is best for every girl, or that it is likely ever to become universal, but because it is practically the only hope that multitudes can ever have of securing the higher education. No one that has ever become acquainted with the system under fair trial will hesitate for a moment to admit that girls can hold their own in every part of the curriculum. My own experience extended through thirteen years, and during that time I have seen girls lead their classes in the most unlikely subjects, — in Aristophanes, ^schylus, and Euripides, and the gentlemen in these classes would have been considered fair Greek schol- ars anywhere. I have seen the same thing in the differential and inte- gral calculus. That matter is settled beyond a doubt. There can be no possible objection to co-education on the ground of intellectual in- equality, nor is the girl's health more likely to suffer than her brother's. The closest observation and the most extensive statistics, stretching- over half a century in some cases, have abundantly proved this. Ober- lin, Antioch, the colleges in the Northwestern States, and Cornell, for a shorter period, attest the same. Neither does co-education increase the difficulties of discipline. I have no knowledge of any ladies having become less delicate and refined through the presence of gentlemen. I have known very noisy i^eetings brought suddenly to order by the entrance of a few ladies. Manhood is at a low ebb wJien its better phases respond not to the presence of woman. An appeal to the colleges in which co-education has been fairly tried will dissipate at once all fears touching any of these objec- tions. Prejudice may retard the movement for a time; so may the awk- ward antics of a few inconsiderate freshmen; but already is the battle fairly and fully won. Still there will always be a large number of our people who will prefer to have their daughters educated at the ladies' colleges; and there will always be a goodly percentage of girls who will do better in such insti- tutions than in tho^e to whose classes both sexes are admitted. There will always be motluMs who will think more of the surroundings of thew- childien while receiving their education, — of good taste, of delicacy of thought and action, of refinement of manners, of those items whose sum total constitutes true lady-like culture, than of the intricacies of syntax 439 202 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. or the subtleties of metaphysics; and who can blame them"? But when ladies' colleges furnish all the advantages offered by the other insti- tutions in both syntax and metaphysics, and in addition supply the de- mands of woman for instruction in music and art, and kindred subjects that lend a charm to home and social life, they will assuredly be pre- ferred for many a day by the leading families of our country. I would open to women all the colleges of the land, — technical institu- tions included. The ladies' colleges will still be needed. These institutions should be encouraged more than they have been, for tliey have done a work of incalculable value to the country — a work that but for them would not have been done. " Who educates a woman educates a race"; and these colleges have sent into thousands of homes in Canada a pure Christian refinement and a lofty, peaceful patriotisni that will tell on the ages yet to be. The Government should recognize the degrees conferred by these colleges. True, thev do not represent as much Greek and Latin as the usual degree, but they represent an equivalent in other subjects, that are of perhaps equal value in the homes of our land. Then if the present curriculum is not satisfactory, let it be made so. The ladies' colleges will not object to a change for the sake of securing a recognition that has been most unreasonably refused hitherto. The present outlook for the higher education of women is, upon the whole, promising. No lady need leave our Province to secure even a university education and a university degree. Those who wish to couple with a liberal education in arts the accomplishments peculiar to a ladies' college have all that they can desire or use. And it may reasonably be liredicted that ere long the Government will give such recognition to the colleges that have pioneered and conducted the grand work of woman's education that a new impetus will be given, new courage in- fused, and still better equipment will respond to the increasing de- mands of a more exacting one. Nofe.—To the foregoing valuable paper by the Rev. Dr. Burns I have added the following, prepared by me for the Education Department, and incorporated as a pam- phlet which was sent to the Conference on Education held in London, England, under the presidency of Lord Reay, in August, 1884 : Schools and colleges for the higher education of women in Ontario comprise : 1. The Wesleyan Female College, Hamilton. 2. The Bishop Strachan School, Toronto. 3. The Helimuth Ladies' College, London. 4. The Ontario Ladies' College, Whitby. 5. The Brantford Ladies' College, (j. The Ottawa Ladies' College. 7. Alma College, St. Thomas. 1. The Weslet/an Female CoUef/e is incorporated by Act of the Provincial Legislature, and was opened iu Ifijl. Although in connection with the Methodist body, its Presi- dent and members of the Board may belong to other Protestant denominations, from whom many pupils come, and they are at full liberty to attend their own churches. The college has power to confer scholastic distinctions, and its graduates include several from the United States and other countries. Some of these are now mission- aries in the Northwest, and also in Japan. 2. The Bishop Strachan School was founded by the late Bishop of Toronto, the Rt. Rev. John Strachan, D. D., in connection with the Church of England. It is open to all pupils who may conform to its regulations. It was incorporated by Act of the Provincial Legislature in 1868 (31 Vic, chap. 57), but began work on September 12, 1867. It removed in 1870 to its present building, Wykeham Hall, whore the ac- commodation, both iu buildings and grounds, is very suitable for its objects. The course in certain branches is about equivalent to that of the second year at the Uni- versity, and pupils are prepared for the examinations in the course of study for women at Trinity College. Regular instruction is also given in Christian evidences. Script- ure and Church history, and catechism. The Bishop of Toronto is President of the governing Board. • 440 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 203 3. The ffcUmutlt. Ladies' College is situate near tlie city of London (Ontario), and was founikd by the Eight Rev. I. Hellmutb, D. D., the Anglican bishop of the diocese of Huron. It was inaugurated in 1669 by H. R. H, Prince Arthur. H. R. H. the Princess Louise became its patroness on her visit in 1»79. It is now affiliated with the Westeru University, and is under the personal supervision of the Bishop of Huroii. It Btauds in spacious grounds on the banks of the River Thames. 4. The Ontario Ladieif College at Whitby was incorporated by Act of the Legislature in 1K74, and inaugurated by Lord Duff'erin. It is in connection with the Methodist Church. The course of instruction involves the elementary and higher branches up to the standard of matriculation in Victoria College. The buildings are extensive, and are surrounded by grounds of largo extent. r>. The Brantford Toung Ladies' College was established in 1874, and is in connection with the Presbyterian Church iu Canada. Its object is the higher education of youug women, for which instruction is provided in the literary, music, and fine arts depart- ments. 6. The Ottaira Ladies' College and Conservatory of Music was incorporated by Act of the Legislature in 1869, aud is iu connection with the Presbyterian Church, and the majority of the Board of Management are required to be Presbyterians. This college \v;is I'dunded to meet the views of those who desire to place higher education within the reach of young women. 7. Alma College was established at St. Thomas, in connection with the Methodist Church, for the higher education of ladies, and as a separate institution for this pur- pose in addition to "Alexandra College" — the ladies' branch of Albert College at Belleville. Besides the ladies' schools mentioned, there are convents in each of the Roman Cath- olic dioceses of the Province, in which much attention is paid to the higher subjects of education for ladies. They are respectively situate at Toronto, Ottawa, Kingston, Hamilton, and London. Superior private schools for the education of young ladies exist in Toronto and other places in Ontario. — J. G. H. 441 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. By J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., De^mty Minister of Education fvr Ontario.^ " Book farming," as it was often derisively called, was for a long time looked upon with contempt in this Province ; and unfortunately, too, such an opinion was often lieW and freely expressed by the more ener- getic and successful farmers. The cause was not far to seek. It involved a knowledge of "agricultural chemistry" and kindred subjects, the very name of which was enough for such men, who, in the early times in this Province, knew very little beyond what their own experience and good sense taught them, and, therefore, despised "book learning" of any kind. It was not until some men of mark amongst us, such as the late well known and esteemed Hon. Adam Ferguson, and the late lamented Hon. David Christie, introduced scientific farming into this country with remarkable success, that public opinion, especially amongst the farmers themselves, began to change. The interest, too, excited in the farming community by the success of and competition at the county and pro- vincial agricultural fairs, deepened the conviction — at all events in the minds of the younger generation of farmers and farmers' sons — that there was " something in it" after all, and that " book farming" was not to be despised. The late Rev. Dr. Ryerson did all in his power to foster this better feel- ing in the country. In 1847, when the Government House and its spa- clous grounds in Toronto were under his control (for the purposes of education ofQces and normal school), he freely placed these grounds at the disposal of the Provincial Agricultural Association every year, for the purposes of their annual fair. In his Report, too, on a " System of Public Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada," published in 184G, he thus referred to the subject of agricultural education, which he included in the subjects of instruction which he proposed to introduce (at as early a date as possible) into the public schools. He said : (12) Agriculture — the most important department of humau industry — has not yet been, introduced in any form whatever as a branch of elementary education in our schools. The Legislature has given some pecuniary assistance, and societies have been formed with a view to encourage experiments and promote improvements in Canadian agri- culture; but experiments without a knowledge of principles will be of little benefit, and improvements in the practice of agriculture must be very limited until the science of it is studied * * * The agricultural pupil should be made acquainted with, the diiferent kinds of soils and their characteristic qualities; the modes of qualifying aud improving each ; different kinds of manure and other improving substances ; the effects of different kinds of soil on different crops ; rotation of crops, aud the best methods of ' Prepared chiefly from material sent to the writer by James Mills, Esq., M. A., Presi- dent of the Agricultural College, Guelph. 442 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 205 l»roiliiciug Jiml socuiiug them ; agricultunil impleiiieuts and the machiues which lia ve been iiiveuted to save labor; diflerent kinds of stock, the various modes of feedinj^ them, with the economical advantages of each ; the method of keeping full and accu- rate^ accounts, so that the farmer may be able to ascertain precisely, not only his gross profits and losses, but the profit and loss in each detail of the system, and from each field of his farm. Of course specimens, models, pictures, or drawings should be used in teaching these elements of agriculture, etc. The Normal School for Upper Canada ( Ontario) was established iu the autumn of 1847. In the programme of studies then drawn up, it was ])ro- vided that one of the masters should deliver a course of lectures to the students on "Agricultural Chemistry; comprehending the nature of the substances which enter into the composition of vegetables; the sources from which those substances are derived ; the origin and composition of soils; the conditions necessary for producing a luxuriant vegetation, etc., etc." In the early spi-ing of IS-iS, and in addition to these lectures, a portion of the grounds attached to the normal school {i. c, the present Government House grounds) was set apart for agricultural i)urposes and for agricultural experiments under the direction of a skilled expert. A report of these experiments was regularly made to the Chief Super- intendent of Education, and the students were examined in the subject generally. In 1849, when the seat of Government was removed from Montreal to Toronto (after the burning of the Parliament House in the former city), the Government House (in which the normal school had been held) with the grounds attached was resumed by the Government. The experi- ments consequently ceased. But the Governor-General (Lord Elgin) was so impressed with the value of the instruction given to the students in agricultural chemistry that he instituted two prizes for proficiency in that subject. For some years these prizes were continued, and much interest was manifested iu the competition for them. A chair ot agriculture was subsequently established in the University; but the number of students who attended lectures on the subject was not large. Eor some years little was done to promote the study of agriculture except the stimulus derived from agricultural publications and the suc- cessful agricultural exhibitions, fairs, and farmers' clubs, which gave a special prominence to the subject. In 1870 the Chief Superintendent of Education, being desirous to carry out his original intention of making agriculture one of the subjects of study in the public schools, prepared a manual on the subject which he dedicated to the Board of Agriculture.^ In the dedicatory preface he used the following language, striking and admonitory as it is: Identified as I am by birth and early education with the agricultural population of this country, I regret to see so many of our agricultural youth leave the noblest of earthly employments and the most independent of social pursuits, for the professions, the counting room, the warehouse, and even for petty clerkships and little shops. * * * As a general rule the sons of iarmers, as soon as they begin to be educated, leave the farm; this is a misfortuue to the parties themselves, a loss to agriculture, and to the country. » * * Politicians are accustomed to call farmers "the bone and sinew of the land" ; and bone and sinew they will remain, and never anything else, without education. It is a supreme law, illustrated by all history, that head rules muscle; and all farmers who educate only their muscles, and not their heads, must occupy the inferior relation of muscle. » » * j know it may be said by some, " Our fathers were not educated, and yet were successful farmers." But these very farmers will bear witness that they would have done and felt much better had they been educated. 'In his introductory note Dr. Ryersou intimated that his labor in preparing this work was entirely a gratuitous contribution to the cause. 443 206 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. The first and great staple interest ofonr country requires young men who will de- vote to agriculture their talents, their attainments, their fortunes, and their lives; and in no other pursuit is a wider and more inviting field of enterprise open to them. In that year (1870) the distinguished President of the Agricultural Association for Ontario, Hon. David Christie (Senator of the Dominion), in accepting on behalf of the Association the dedication of the "First Lessons on Agriculture for Canadian Farmers and their Families," said : My conviction is that the [teachiug of agriculture] must begin in our common schools ; that is, elementary agricultural and mechanical instruction should form a leading part of the teaching. Dr. Eyerson has published a valuable little work on agriculture, which I hope to see made a text book in all the rural districts. * * * Di. Eyerson has done good service to the country by compiling the manual, » * » aud I hope that he will see to it that the benefit which it is so well calculated to con- fer shall not be lost to the country. It is a good thing for the cause * » » that we have so able a coadjutor as the Chief Superintendent of Education. I feel con- vinced that he will soon make agricultural and mechanical instruction a leading feature in our common-school teaching. During the same year, Hon. John Carling, Commissioner of Agricult- ure for Ontario, in his Eeport, thus intimated the intention of the Gov- ernment to promote elementary and higher education in Agriculture. He said in that Eeport: What now appears to be more especially needed in carrying forward this great work is, in addition to the ordinary instruction in common schools, the introduction of elementary instruction in what may be termed the foundation principles of agricult- ural and mechanical science. * * » One enlightened and energetic Chief Super- intendent of Education would, I believe, approve and help forward such a movement. A special agent was sent * * * some months ago to visit the agricultural col- leges of the United States, to ascertain and report upon the best and most successful system there adopted, with a view to the establishment of such an institution in this Province. * » * xhe local Government has already determined upon introducing agricultural teaching into our common schools, and also to establish an agricultural college in this Province during the ensuing year. The late lamented William Johnston, Esq., M. A., formerly President of the newly established Agricultural College (now situated at Guelph), thus continues the narrative of the establishment of the college. He says : Duriugthe winter of 1870, the Hon. John Carling, at that time Minister of Agri- culture ior Ontario, commissioned the Eev. W. F. Clarke, editor of the Ontario Farmer, to visit some of the agricultural colleges of the United States and report on them, at the same tiule drawing up a scheme tbr the establishment of an agricultural college in Ontario. Mr. Clarke's report forms an appendix to that of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1870. A farm at Mimico, seven miles from Toronto, was first purchased, but, on the advice of many experts, whose reports form an appendix to that of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1872, that farm was sold and tJhe jjiesent one at Guelph purchased in the fall of 1873. AN OUTLINE OP THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. The Ontario Agricultural College is situated on a farm of .550 acres, a mile south of the city of Guelph, in the county of Wellington. The college building, of magnesian limestone throughout, is 240 feet in length, of an average depth of 42 feet, and is of two stories and a basement. The center portion has an additional story. It contains the usual public lecture rooms, library, reading-room, museum, and at the present time a small laboratory. Connected with it, at the rear, are the dining-rooms, kitch- ens, laundry, matron's, and servants' apartments. The stalf is composed of: 1. A President. 2. Professor of Agriculture. 3. Professor of Science. 4. Professor of Veterinary Science. 5. Mathematical Master. 6. Farm Foreman. 7. Horticultural Foreman. H. Mechanical Foreman. I. The course of studij, which is of one or two years, includes the following subjects: First !/ear. — Practical agriculture, veterinary anatomy, veterinary materia medica, physical geojjraphy, chemistry, botany, zoology, English, and mathematics. Second yeotr. — Agriculture and horticulture, veterinary pathology, veterinary sur- 444 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 207 gery and practice, agricultural chemistry, economic botany, entomology, meteorology, l>ook-keeping, leveling and surveying, English literature, and political economy. And these are arranged under the departments of 1, Agriculture. I 3. Veterinary science. 2. Science. | 4. English and mathematics. Connected with the course of study in the class-rooms is, outside on the fields and in the yards, barns, stables, and shops, II. The course of apprtnticeship, which is divided into 1. The field department. I 3. The horticultural department. 2. The live-stock department. 1 4. The mechanical department. The terms of admission to the regular course is the educational standard requisite for entrance into the high schools of the Province. The academic year is divided into two sessions, the winter oue beginning on the Isb of October and ending on the 31st of March ; and the summer session commencing about the 16th of April and closing on the 31st of August. The librarj' is still very small, as are also the laboratory and the museum. The boardmg-house, when fully completed, as it will be in a month, will accommodate 140 pupils, and that number has already, I understand, entered. It is directly under the cliaige of the President, assisted by the mathematical master. Tlie farm is all under cultivation, except four groves of woods, which are purposely left upon it. The farming is that which is generally known as mixed farming. More attention has been paid to the actual farming and stock breeding than has been given to them in any othe^; agricultural college in America. There are herds of the im- ]>roved shorthoru, Ayrshire, Hereford, Devon, and polled Angus breeds of cattle ; flocks of the Cotswold, Border Leicester, Oxford Down, and Southdown breeds of sheep ; and of the improved Berkshii'e and small Suffolk breeds of pigs. The latest implements and machines are used, including a steam thresher and a steam pulping apparatus. The horticultural operations are subsidiary, but on a sufficiently large scale, the kitchen garden covering six acres, and the flower gardens, lawn, and shrubbery ex- tending over twenty-five more. The mechanical department, which is also subsid- iary, has confined itself hitherto to permanent improvements, in the shape of fencing, draining, and building, with repairs and setting up of all implements and machinery. The students labor on a daily yearly average at least five hours a day — that is, the whole day during the summer months, half the day during the spring and autumn months, and a shorter time during the winter ones. Thus, leaving out the evenings, half the day, counting the whole year round, is taken up with the course of appren- ticeship, and the other half with the course of study. The students are allowed for skilled labor at a maximum rate of tencents per hour. The rules and regulations need not be enumerated. The whole expense is borne directly by the Provincial Legislature, there being no endowment fund. The cost of yearly maintenance is about $22,000; and at the close of this year the Province will have expended on capital account, in the shape of a farm, buildings, and other permanent improvements, very nearlj' |;200,000. The pro- ceeds of the farm and stock have hitherto been spent in building up the farm. Fees have only been charged for a short time, students from the Province now paying a tuition fee of $25 per annum, and from outside the Province, $50 per annum. The management of th© outside is under the charge of the farm superintendent and pro- fessor of agriculture, that of the inside under the President, and the financial man- agement of the whole under the bursar. There is no board of trustees or regents, or any other advisory body ; but the whole institution, and each and all of the officers, are directly under the charge of the Commissioner of Agriculture, who is dii-ectly responsible to the Government, the latter to the Legislature, and that, of course, to the people. In conclusion allow me, in no boastful spirit, to point out that the Ontario Agricultural College excels in its basis any other on the continent of America, and in any part of Europe or Germany, in these five cardinal points^-points which we have seen lie at the foundation of the success that has been achieved by any in exist- ence in teacliiug simply agricultural education: 1. It does not attempt anything but strictly agricultural education. 2. It is not a mechanical or general industrial college. 3. It is not in any sense a literary institution, with a leaning to agricultural sub- jects. 4. It places as much importance on a course of apprenticeship as it does on a coui'se of study. 5. It makes manual labor a stern reality as well as a name, causing its students to perform the work of a farm of 500 acres. It is deficient in many of the appliances for teaching, far behind many of the other institutions we have described in its equipment, and iiiferinr to tin- nio.st of tlieni in tlie number of its teachers, but its foundation is fairly good, and iis progress, whilst already gratifying, is, I may bo allowed to say, along the line that experience shows us can alone lead to permanent success. 445 208 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Ill liis evidence before the Ontaiio Agricultural Cominisision (in 1880), tbe present able Presiden^j of the Agricultural College at Guelph, Jamc« Mills, Esq., M. A., elaborates this statement of his predecessor, JMr. Johnston, and gives the fullest particulars as to the condition and great value of the college. Want of space forbids its insertion here. The present staff of the college is as follows : James Mills, M. A., President, Professor of English Literature and Political Economy; William Brown, C. E., P. L. S., Professor of Agriculture and Arbori- culture; E. B. Hare, B. A., Ph. D,, Professor of Chemistry, and Lect- urer on Geology and Meteorology; J. P. Playfair McMurrich, B. A., Professor of Biology and Horticulture, and Lecturer on English; F. C. Grenside, V. S., Professor of Veterinary Science; E. L. Hunt, Assistant Pesident and Mathematical Master; A. T. Deacon, Bursar. And of the farm, William Brown, C. E., P. L. S., Farm Superintendent; P. J. Woods, Farm Foreman; James Forsyth, Foreman of the Horticultural Department; James Mcintosh, Foreman of the Mechanical Department. The number in attendance at the college is about two hundred. The fees for tuition are: for residents, $20; for non-residents, $100. Board and lodging are from $2.25 to $2.50 per week. , 446 TECHNICAL EDUCATION. By E. B. Wilson, Inatruvlor in Drifton (Fa.) Inditntnal School for Miners and Mechanics. Techuical educutiou is at i>ieseiit i'iig,rosNiii,i;' tlie atteutioii of indi- viduals, cor[)oration.s. and membeis of Stale Icj^islatuivs. Wlieii the attention of the hist two is attracted, it may be inferred tliat skiiled workmen are in demand and that the workingmcn themselves are agi- tatiii]!^' the question. The phrase "technical education " at ])resent seems to be enveloped in a cloud of mystery, as its use nov»- si^nilies practical, as oj)poscd to theo- retical, or college training, so that "technology," which formerly signi- fied terms used in the sciences, now carries vaguely with it tlie meaning of sciences applied to industrial arts. The fact having been long ago recognized that a college graduate without practical experience is no more an engineer than a mechanic without theoretical training is a me- chanic, it was decided to institute technical schools, where theory and l)ractice might to some extent go hand in hand. Such schools, however, were designed for those who could afford to devote their whole time to study. It is not the intention of this paper to treat of such schools any more than to classify them, as follows : (a) Technical schools proper are institutions where the theory and practice of j)rofessions are taught; also, those schools where college graduates are taught the practical part of their professions. Such schools are designed for practical i^rofessional men who have means and time at command for study. (b) Secondary technical schools, designed to make skilled and intelli- gent workmen. We may subdivide this latter class into industrial schools where trades are taught, and industrial schools where studies are pursued. by those learning or having trades. It is in behalf of this latter class of secondary technical schools that your attention is solicited ; for here the harvest will be greatest, and it is to be hoped the reapers will be most numerous. The utility of such schools has been demonstrated beyond a doubt, as those instituted over fifty years ago in Germany are still continued. The Drifton Mining School, organized in 1879, by Hon. Eckley B. Coxe, has also proved the same fact, although not conducted on so large a scale. Experience has taught us that study, after a day's manual labor, is injurious, oftentimes oppressive, and never accomplishes as much as study in the daytime. As a scholar once put it, " some evenings I. un- derstand everything and the time flies, other evenings I cannot under- stand one thing and the time drags." Besides this, the limited time will not allow the ambitious pupil to advance speedily enough to com- pensate him for this extra endeavor ; at least, many seem to think so, and therefore become discouraged and give up in disgust. When, however, a part of the day is devoted to study, we approach more 447 7900 COT, pt. 2 14 210 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. nearly the best of " teclinical schools." For such schools we have poorer material, educationally not mentally, hence we must begin with a low grade of studies. In this elementary department the more difficult work of the school is encountered, as here we may expect scholars whose ages will vary from 15 to 35. The younger scholars are more apt than the older, but the older, better comi^rehending the importance of an education, apply themselves the more diligently, so that as far as age is concerned this difference is about equal. The scholars who will attend such schools, besides being deficient in education, oftentimes come from uneducated parents, and having associated with persons of the same ilk are exceed- ingly deficient in words, expression, and ideas. With such material, it is very necessary to cultivate from the start their expression and per- ceptive faculties, by asking questions and having the pupils describe some easj' subject orally and by writing. Schools of this class should be designed particularly with reference to the employment of the schol- ars, so that what they learn may facilitate the understanding of their work. In such classes object lessons, free-hand drawing, and mental exercises should be taught, besides the common-school branches. When such studies have been thoroughly mastered the first class of the indus- trial school proper may be formed. The time required for a scholar to finish his studies in such schools will depend upon the time allotted for study, the proficiency of the candidate, and object to be attained. With four hours per day devoted to study and exercises very fair j)rogress may be made, even if two of the hours are at night, but just two hours at night are not enough. The studies most essential are, first, arithme- tic and algebra, studied by working out numerous i)ractical problems, and doing this as far as possible analytically. Second, geometry and trigonometry 5 text-books such as " Davies' Legeudre" or Loomis's are well suited for such schools, because such books are clear and precise, and aid greatly in developing the reasoning faculties and arriving at correct conclusions in a methodical manner. The teaching of them should not conform to school methods, or be in any way mechanical, but so as to be thoroughly understood ; the pupil should be able to dem- onstrate the theorems, not necessarily in the language of the author, but so that he shows he knows them himself and can explain them to others. These studies are so important that they should be continued throughout the entire course, in some one of their numerous phases. Numerous problems should be given to be worked algebraically, and also drawn to scale. Then come physics and mechanics. Here again practical problems should enter largely into the studies, to illustrate each principle as far as possible and help to fasten it in the memory. No formulas should be employed the 00, y, z^s of which are not understood, or the pupil is not able to deduce himself; for time consumed in discussion and calcu- lations of abstruse principles and laws, the derivation and application of which have no clear place in the pupil's mind, is but wasted ; more over such formulas tend rather to mystify than enlighten, by giving the pupil a feeling of insecurity (which is very depressing) and also lack of confidence. A person without confidence in his ability is never fitted to command. Grammar, composition, and keeping accounts should enter largely into the curriculum. The uses of these are so well known and appreciated that it is needless to mention them. Drawing is not, a« perhaps the majority of people consider, a merely ornamental study, as there is no mechanical industry requiring con- 448 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 211 slTuctive skill which does not to some extent employ the principles of drawing:. In an industrial school it should form one of the chief studies ; for, as James Nasmyth put it, " one can with a few strokes of the pen- cil make clear that which any number of words will fail to explain in- telligibly." Beginning: with free-hand, it .should embrace mechanical and ])erspective drawing-, and cease only after a course of construction and designing- has been finished. Models, plates, geometrical problems, drawing: to s<;ale frou) actual measurements, and lastly designing, should be the methods employed in teaching. We claim for drawing that it is applicable to the mechanical arts, de- velops artistic perception and i)ower of correct expression ; it enables the artisan to interpret the work and carry into effect the plans of the designer; it trains the hand and eye, and secures manual accuracy and dispatch; it encourages neatness and carefulness, and broadens percep- tion; it teaches observation, and, in short, meets the requirements which a good mechanic should i)ossess more than any other one study. The object being to ])roduce skilled workmen, drawing should be indus- trial rather than artistic ; still, in free-hand we have discovered artistic skill in the pupils, and would recommend it, since it trains the hand and eye more, probably, than mechanical drawing. It is a curious cir- cumstance that the less intelligent very often are the better scholars in free-hand drawing. The studies above enumerated are the A B of mechanical pursuits, therefore they have been mentioned; but the object to be attained by the school or scholars must determine the character of the future studies, and the depth to which the above should be entered into. The method of teaching will be to some extent dependent upon the teacher's ingenuity and the time for study. Teachers for such schools must be experienced men in practice, as well as possessed of theoretical knowledge; they must take an interest in their work, be able to explain clearly and precisely, and at the same time interest their pupils. The progress made in these, more than in any other schools, will depend u])on the teachers ability to make each subject clear; for the scholars will not have time to devote to books, and so make up what the teacher lacks; besides, it is one thing to understand a subject for one's-self, but ail entirely different thing to explain what one knows so that others will understand it. In Germany the teachers are taken from the different dei)artments of the works, and teach those branches in which they are specially employed. This is a good plan, for it insures practical men being employed ; but at present our engineers have enough work and worry without the work of teaching being saddled upon them ; besides, I doubt very much if every engineer is capable of teaching, or, even if he be that, that he will find time to devote to the preparation of his lectures and to equipping himself for school-work, especially where the teaching willdei)endso much on the preliminary remarks which should accompany each exercise. A teacher in any class of schools should always study a lesson before attempting to teach it, no matter how well he supposes he knows it, for he will be questioned severely. Other requirements for such work, besides ability, are pluck, patience, and never tiring in explanation, even when it has to be done individually . with each scholar. Apparatus, diagrams, etc., should be employed for illustration, for the mind will grasp ideas Jietter when explained in the abo\e manner. Studies should always when possible be illustrated by practical examples. 449 212 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Some claim that it is better to work /or, thau to, answers, claiming- that it gives confidence, and insures the scholars' performance of the work. After four years' experience we can see no grounds for such .statements, and prefer to have the scholars work to answers in most cases ; for our time is limited, the mistake can be more easily found and corrected, and it is much more satisfactory to the pupil. We claim that this method will foster self-reliance fully as much as any other we have yet come across. There are numerous good elementary text-books, not so voluminous as the German, but this may be considered a good point. If such books lack illustrations and examples, the teacher should be capable of manufacturing them, or at least obtaining them from other text-books. The object of this paper has been to call your attention to industrial schools. Your congress will jirobably treat of higher education, but it is our firm belief that you can treat of no more useful branch of schools than the one here spoken of. Being in a position to know bow much interest is taken in them by the state, individuals, corporations, and workingmen themselves, we can state it is very great, and therefore de- mands your attention, as it is for the benefit of the masses individually and the nation as a whole. For supplying skilled labor, and at the same time intelligent labor, these schools are indispensable. 450 THE MEOHAmCS' INSTITUTES IN THE PROVINCE OV ONTARIO. By Otto Klotz, President of ike Association of Mechanics^ Institutes of Ontario. I. THE OBJECT. The original object of the establisbmeut of inechauics' institutes was to organize a system of instruction which would prove best adapted to im])art useful knowledge for practical life to the industrial classes. To accomplish this object it was deemed essential to establish a library with suitable books and accessible to each member; a reading room sui>- ])lied with good reviews, magazines, periodicals, and newsi)apers, and open at convenient hours; and evening classes under the direction of (competent teachers, whereat any member desiring the same might obtain either elementary or technical instruction. This system of instruction was considered as a continuation, and an enlargement for practical adaptation, of the system of instruction pur sued in the common schools of the country, and especially in those branches which have a direct bearing upon the occupations of the me- (;hanic, the artisan, the tradesman, the farmer, and the housewife; and it is for this reason that the name "mechanics' institute" was adopted. The original object obtains to the present day, though the system of instruction lu^s from time to time been enlarged and improved, in accord- ance with the progress of the institutes and the demands of the public, and the membership at present numbers representatives of various pro- fessions and callings. II. THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION. The present system of instruction consists of : (1) A library comprising works specially adapted to mechanics, manu- facturers, artisans, tradevsmen, farmers, and housewives, as also works on science, fine arts and decorative art, biography, history and travels, \)o- etry and drama, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, and standard novels. The books are properly classified, numbered, and cataloguer()ving insufficient, an additional grant of $40,000 was made in 1852, making a total of $100,000. 461 224 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Tlic liist few sessions of the uoriual school vveie held in Government House, but owing to the destruction by tire of the Parliament build- ings in Montreal, in 1849, the seat of Government was transferred to Toronto. This rendered a removal necessary. Temperance Hall was secured as a temi)orary home, but owing to the very inadequate accom- modation it provided, the masters were hampered in their work, and permanent buildings were rendered a necessity. With a zeal and per- severance that cannot be too highly commended the Chief Superin- tendent of Education and the normal-school masters persisted in main- taining the efficiency of this school, in spite of the adverse circum- stances by which they were surrounded. In 38515 the handsome and commodious buildings now occupied by the Education Department were completed, and the normal school was accordingly removed to that i)lace. From this time forward its use(uii)ess was an acknowledged fact, and its influence was felt even in the most remote districts of our Province. In pursuance of the plan of having an educational museum and a school of art and design in connection with the normal school, it became necessary to provide accommodation specially adapted for nor- mal school purposes. A suitable building was erected in the rear of the Departmental buildings, and the normal school was transferred thereto in 1858, where it has since remained. Prior to the opening of the normal school, the Chief Superintendent of Education, assisted by the Council of Public Instruction, prepared a programme of studies for the guidance of the masters and students. At the close of each session the head master certified to the attendance and conduct of each student, but these certificates possessed no legal value. Before these normal school students could become legally qual- ified teachers, it was necessary for them to pass an examination before one of the local county boards of esaminors. In 1853 certificates of the first and second classes were granted, for the first time, by the Chief Sui)erintendeut upon the recommendation of the normal-school masters. In 1855, each of these classes of certificates was further sub divided into three grades. A, B, and C, A being the highest. These certificates were valid during the good behavior of the holder, and in every munici- pality in the Province. The rapid increase in the number of elementary schools and the growing demand for a better class of teachers led to the revision and enlargement of the programme of studies. This was done in 1858, and is substantially the same as the one adopted by the Central Committee of Examiners in 1871, when the privilege of obtaining a ijroviiicial certificate was extended to all teachers, whether they had attended the normal school or not. After one or two of these uniform examinations had been held, it was found that many of the teachers throughout the Province were considerably below the standard. This led to a demand for more normal school accommodation. In response to this demand, a normal school was built in the city of Ottawa, and opened for the reception of students in 1875. These two schools were soon filled with students, and it became necessary to devise some fur- ther means whereby candidates for third class certificates should re- ceive some preliminary training in methods of teaching, and school or- ganization and discipline. This led to the establisliment of our system of county model schools, one of which is to be found in every county in the Province. In connection with, and as appendages to, each of these normal schools are two model schools, one for boys and the other for girls. In each of these schools ibur teachers are employed, who are under the direct super- vision of the head masters of the normal schools. The design of these 46^ INTERNATIONAL CONORESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 225 scliools is, (1) to afford the student-teachers practice in the art of teach- ing; [2) to exemplify the best methods of organizing a school and classi- fying the pupils; (3) to illustrate the most approved methods of instruc- tion^ and (4) to show how proper order and discipline are to be main- tained. We have thus far briefly sketched, imperfectly it may be, the rise and progress of these institutions, and the growth and development of a public sentiment that now sustains them and adds to their influence. Our work will not be complete nor their value properly appreciated until we have examined somewhat minutely the work they are now doing. Before taking up this part of our subject, it may be as well to glance briefly at the design and functions of these schools. They were originally established as professional schools, and designed to train public-school teachers for the more efficient discharge of their duties, bj^ giving them, firstly, instruction in the science of education, and, sec- ondly, practice in the art of teaching. Until quite recently it was found necessary to combine instruction in all the elementary branches with professional training. This arose from the fact that the majority — fully nine-tenths, it is said — of applicants for admission to the normal school were so deficient in scholastic acquirements as to need special instruction. Since 1871, owing to the indefatigable exertions of the high school inspectors, a very great impulse has been given to the cause of secondary education, and now all candidates for public-school teachers' certificates receive their literary training in the high schools and colle- giate institutes. The normal-school masters, who are thus relieved from teaching the non professional subjects, are left free to devote all their energies to their legitimate work, the professional training of teachers, and we have abundant reasons for believing that this work is done in a most satisfactory manner. There are two sessions of these normal schools in each year, the first opening on the third Tuesday in January and closing on the third Fri- day in June, the second opening on the third Tuesday in August and closing not later than the twenty-second of December. The hours of daily work are from 9 A. m. to 13 m., and from 1.30 p. M. to 4 p. m. These schools are opened and closed by reading a portion of Scripture, accom- panied with a suitable prayer. The head master is held responsible for the order, discipline, and general progress of the students in all the classes, and is required to arrange the division of work among the mas- ters, subject, however, to the approval of the Minister of Education. He is also required to visit, from time to time, the classes under the different masters; to satisfy himself as to their progress; to hold, or cause to be held, such oral or written examinations during the course of the session as may be necessary to test the work done by the students; and to keep a record of the results of such examinations. The assistant masters are directly responsible to the head master, and are required to report monthly to him the standing and progress of each student in the sub- jects of their departments. Candidates for admission are required to comply with the following conditions, viz: To be native born or naturalized subjects of Her Maj- esty; to have passed the prescribed examination for second-class non- professional certificates; to hold a third-class professional certificate or its equivalent; to have taught successfully for at least one year, as cer- tified by the public-school inspector in whose inspectorate the teaching was done; to give satisfactory evidence of good moral character at the time of making application ; and, if females, to be not less than eighteen years of age, and, if males, nineteen. The necessary blank forms are 7950 COT, pt. 2 15 463 226 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AX NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. furnished by the Education Department, which, when properly filled out, are examined by an officer appointed lor that purpose, and if found satisfactory, certificates of admission are issued. At the opening- of each session these certificates are presented to the head master by the candidates, tbeir names are registered, and they are henceforth ame- nable to the rules in force in these schools. These rules are designed to impress upon the minds of the students the special purpose for which the normal schools were established, viz, to fit them for the proper dis- charge of their duties as public school teachers, so that, by examj^le and professional ability, they may make their influence for good felt in their respective schools and the community at large. The following brief summary will show the scope of these rules: Students are required to be regular and punctual in their attendance at the several classes; to give due attention and respect to the masters; to act with becoming courtesy towards each other; to lodge and board at such houses only as are approved by the head master; and not to be absent from such board- ing houses later than 9.30 p. m. without special permission. Ladies and gentlemen are not allowed to board at the same houses, and communi- cations of any and every kind between the sexes are strictly prohibited. Classes for religious instruction are to be regarded as regular classes in the school. In every scholastic institution a carefully prepared course of study is an essential requisite. This is particularly the case with those designed for the professional training of teachers, since in such institutions every lesson taught should be a practical illustration of the best methods of instruction, as well as a means of imparting valuable information. From what has already been said, it will be observed that none but advanced students are admitted into the normal schools. These having had, in addition to their literary culture, some preliminary training in the science of education and the art of teaching, at our county model schools, are prepared to take up a more comprehensive course of study. Such a course of study has been prepared, and is now used in our nor- mal schools. Minute details of the subjects to be taught, together with specific instructions as to the number of lectures required in each sub- ject, or division of a subject, are given, of which the following is a brief synopsis : I. Education. — In this subject a course of eighty lectures is given, em- bracing the history of education, the science of education, the prin- ciples and practice of teaching, school organization, and school man- agement. II. English Language and Literature. — The study of these subjects con- sists in the critical reading of one of the plays of Shakespeare or the work of some other standard author, together with a course of twenty lectures upon words and their uses, the proper construction of sentences, the use of correct language, and the beauties and defects of style as found in the writings of standard authors. III. Hygiene. — In this subject a course of twenty lectures is given on the preservation of health, the air we breathe, the food we eat, the cloth- ing we wear, the fluids we drink, and the physical and mental exercise necessary for the highest development of man. IV. Chemistry.— In this subject a course of thirty lectures on elemen- tary chemistry is given, illustrated by a series of experiments made in the simplest manner possible. The objects aimed at are, (1) to make the experiments understood, (2) to have them explained by the students, (3) to accustom the students to render an account to themselves of natural j phenomena, and (4) to enable the future teachers to repeat these experi- 464 INTEKNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 227 ments with very little cost. In order to accomplish these purposes, opportuuities are afforded for practical work ia the laboratory, under the supervision of the science master. Y. Botany. — This subject' is made as practical as possible by the ex- amination of specimens collected from time to time, and consists of a course of twenty lectures, embracing the chemistry and the histology of plant life, the structure of flowering plants, and the general classifica- tion of plants. VI. Zoology. — A general outline of this subject is given in a course of twenty lectures. VII. Physics. — The course in this subject consists of a series of thirty lectures upon heat, light, and electricity. In this, as in chemistry, great importance is attached to the explanation of the physical phenomena of daily life. VIII. Draicing. — This subject is taught by a specialist, who gives a course of forty lessons, in which designing, model drawing, free hand, pers|)ective, constructive drawing, scientific perspective, and practical geometry ar6 taught. IX. Music. — This subject is also taught by a specialist, and consists of a course of forty lesbons, in which the scales and their various trans positions are taught, combined with the singing of songs in two, three, and four parts. X. Calisthenics. — The course in this subject consists of a series of calisthenic exercises, under the direct supervision of a competent drill master. XI. Military drill. — The exercises in this subject are taught similarly to those in calisthenics and by the same person. XII. — Methods of instruction. — This course consists of a series of one hundred and fifteen lectures, in which the following subjects are reviewed with the object of illustrating the best methods of teaching them, viz : Language lessons, grammar, composition, spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, algebra, Euclid and mensuration, history, geography, and object lessons. XIII. Practical teaching. — During the early part of each session the students, accompanied by the normal-school masters, are required to visit the model school and observe the methods of teaching the differ ent subjects, as practically illustrated by the teachers in the model school. They are also required to observe the methods adopted for securing attention and interesting the pupils in their work. Alter sufiB cient opportunities have been given to the students of witnessing the manner in which the different subjects are taught in the model school, they are called upon to teach betpre each other in the normal school, under the guidance and supervision of the masters, and to criticise each other's teaching in a friendly way. XIV. School law. — Under this head is given a knowledge of the el ementary principles of law, and of their application under the statute to trustees, teachers, inspectors, etc. Finally, they are required to take charge of classes in the model school, under the supervision of the teachers, and are expected to teach at least three times in each department of the model school. The final examinations, which are held during the last week in each session, are conducted by examiners appointed for that purpose by the Minister of Education. These examiners are not connected with the teaching staff of either of those schools. Questions are prepared on each subject in the course of study, and the candidates are required to sub 465 228 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. mit their auswers in writing. In addition to these written examina- tions, each candidate is required to teach some specified subject to a class in the presence of one of these examiners. The results of these ex- aminations and of those held during the session, together with the reports of the masters of the normal school and of the teachers in the model school, determine the final standing of each student. On the recommendation of the masters of the normal school, students holding second class, grade B, may be awarded grade A, and those holding grade A may be " honorably mentioned." The student who obtains the highest standing, as determined at the close of each session, shall be awarded the Prince of Wales gold medal. There yet remains another point to which reference should be made, and that is, the influence these schools have exerted in advancing the cause of popular education. This reference must of necessity be brief. Facts and figures show a very marked increase in the number of chil- dren attending our public schools, but this increase alone does not give an accurate idea of what has been done, nor does it reveal to us the sources from whence this growth and development have arisen. These sources lie deeper, and are to be found in the lives and work of those trained teachers who from time to time have graduated from our normal schools, and have gone forth laboring diligently in their chosen avocation. In the profession, we find that the great majority of our public school inspectors and masters of our county model schools, as well as many of our leading high-school masters, are graduates of these institutions. These, laboring as they are in every part of the Province and from motives higher than the mere acquisition of wealth or fame, are introducing better methods of teaching and inspiring those with whom they come in contact with a real love for learning. Outside of the profession, again, are those who have attended these normal schools, but are now in many cases prominent members of other professions or leading business men. These, in their sphere, contribute largely toward building up a public sentiment in favor of our system. The united in- fluence of these two classes of graduates, now working harmoniously together, leads us to look hopefully at the future. What that future may be none can tell, but we fondly hope that our brightest dreams may be more than realized. Our task is now done, and we feel justified in repeating what we said in a former part of this paper, that these in- stitutions have done more tban any others to awaken an interest in popular education, and difiluse among the people more correct ideas concerning the objects aimed at in the education of the masses. The writer cannot permit the present opportunity to pass without paying a tribute to the memory of two men who were mainly instru- mental in laying the foundation of our present system of elementary instruction, and who devoted their time and talents to the cause of edu- cation. The one, by a careful study of the various rational systems of education in the Old and Kew Worlds, selected their most desirable features, combined these into one harmonious whole, and bequeathed to us a system that stands almost unrivaled for its many excellencies; The other, by his untiring devotion to the profession of teaching, his knowledge of the'art of teaching, and his zeal in the cause of educa- tion, did a grand and noble work in training teachers for the proper discharge of their duties, and in sending them forth to take charge of our leading public schools. These men are the Eev. Dr. Ryerson, for many years Chief Superintendent of Education, and T. J. Robertson, M. A., the first head master of the Toronto Normal School. To them 466 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 229 we maj' justly apply the following tribute, paid to two of America's most illustrious statesmen by one of her most eloquent orators: "Al- though no sculptured marble should rise to their memory, nor engraved stone bear record to their deeds, yet will their remembrance be as last- ing as the land they honored. Marble columns may indeed moulder into dust, time may erase all impress from the crumbling stone, but their fame remains. < Their bodies are buried in peace, *but their name liveth forevermore.' " 467 BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY. By Eev. E. H. Fairchild, D. D., President. All who know of Berea College are aware that co-educatiou of the sexes and the races prevails here iu theory and practice. The founders of the school were anti-slavery men, and, of course, were regarded with susjiicion from the beginning. Yet, in the midst of slavery and in a sparsely-settled district, it attained a popularity which brought to it o hundred students, many of them sous and daughters of slave-holders. The raid of John Brown in Virginia excited the suspicions and fears of the people to such an extent that there was no allaying them. A large county convention appointed a committee of sixty-five men, among whom were many wealthy and honorable citizens, to remove the school from the State. This they accomplished with as much dignity and de- corum as is consistent with such an enterprise. At the close of the war the school was revived. It had got M^ell under way and gave fair promise of success, when a new class of citizens began to realize the need of preparation for their new life. Two colored youths asked admission to the school. A consultation was held 5 the whole school and community were agitated; and when the youths were admitted the next morning, half the students left. This was not unexpected ; it was even a better result than was anticipated. At this point it seems appropriate to give the reasons for an act so rash and ill-considered as, to many, this seemed to be. The first and most obvious reason was that the colored people needed education more than the white. Thej' had now their own business to manage, their own bills to settle, their own bargains to make, and could neither read, write, nor reckon ; and they had not a school or a teacher in the whole State of Kentucky. If iu such an emergency their best friends should reject them, what hope remained? If the prospect had been that every white student would leave and a colored school would fill the vacancy, the path of duty was plain. In three years the school wag more than twice as large as ever before. Those that left had returned, and the colored outnumbered the white. From that time to the present it has been the largest school in the State of its grade, and always more than one-third, sometimes one-half, have been white. We are often told that if we would separate the races, and instruct them in separate rooms and at different hours, we could have all the money we need, and as many students as we could accommodate. This leads to the second reason tor pursuing our present course, even at the sacrifice of so great promises. The negroes are citizens, and are to remain so; and if they are to be a useful, happy, contented, peaceful class of citizens, they must enjoy all the rights, privileges and respon- sibilities enjoyed by other men. But their drill of two centuries in 468 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 231 servitude aud for servitude, and an equal diill of tbe white race in masterhood, have but poorly adapted them for co-operation in the variuus functions of government. They are ill at ease sitting upon the same jury, sharing in the county offices, acting as directors of the same bank, . trustees of the same asylums, members of the same school board and town council, pleading at the same bar, sharing in the same recep- tions, celebrations, and festivals, and a hundred other interests directly or indirectly connected with government. This antipathy, whether natural or acquired, must gradually pass away, or another trouble will be brewing, which may cost a future generation as much blood and treasure as slavery itself. If it is right and wise to ])erpetuate and in- tensify this antipathy, the most legitimate and effective way to do it is to teach our children and youth, in all onr grades of schools, from five years of age to twenty-five, that it is utterly unsuitable and abominable to unite white and colored in the same school. A\'ifh the hope of aiding to mitigate and remove this general rei)ug- uauce between the races, we bring them together in the same school. They room in the same buildiugs, board at the same tables, recite in the same classes, sit promiscuously in all assemblies, work at the same wood ])iles or in the same dining-hall, play on the same grounds at the same games. ISTo distinction whatever is made on account of color. And we have found, or think we have, that the natural, constitutional antip- athy of race, which, as we are told, will make it necessary to remove our colored population to Africa or to some other out-of the-way place, is not natural at all, but unnatural, unconstitutional, and senseless. Little children know nothing of it till it is drilled into them. They love a black playmate as well as a black kitten, or a black mammy as well as a white mamma. All southern people know this. It requires constant vigilance and eflbrt to keep the white and colored children apart. Twenty-five years of mixed schools would hardly leave a vestige of this "constitutional, ineradicable antipathy." It is a relic of slavery, and, the occasion of it having disappeared, it must be diligently nursed or it will pass away. Here lies the objection to mixed schools, not that the antipathy will injure the schools, but that the schools will annihilate the antipathy and lead to social equality, a thing more hated and feared than ignorance or vice. Another reason why we favor mixed schools is that in no other way can the educational wants of the people be met. Where the colored people are few, and but one, two, three, or even ten schools are provided for them in a county, while they are scattered all over the county, their wants are not met. Few children will attend a public school more than three miles from their home. To organize a county into a single school- district and direct the colored children from all parts of the county to one place for their education, will not give them a very high apprecia- tion of their privileges as citizens, nor very soon educate them for their civil resj)onsibilities. There are not less than fifty counties in this State where no adequate provision is made for the education of colored chil- dren, and no adequate provision can be made for them, unless they are admitted to the white schools. What great calamity would befall the country if two or three or even a dozen colored children should be ad- mitted to each of these white schools, we are too blind to see. If the prej- udice that prohibits it is more sensible, more dignified, more Christian, than Hindoo caste, we cannot discover it. To our apprehension it seems not only crue! and unjust, but silly, senseless, ridiculous. We cannot think it is to remain a permanent feature of our civilization. Education, culture. Christianity must wear it away. 469 232 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Ill a thickly-settled county, where the iuhabitants are about equally divided between the two races, the difQculty is less serious j but even there the burden of maintaining two sets of schools, when one set would accommodate all the pupils, is too great to be borne. The i)eople will relieve themselves by extending their districts over too much tenitory, by shortening the school year, or by reducing the salaries, and hence the qualifications, of teachers. In large cities in which the races are about equal in number, the bur- den is hardly felt, except in relation to high schools. They must suffer by division. Every careful observer must see, and every earnest educator must regret, the state of feeling which is the greatest hinderance to education wheie education is so much needed. We do not expect any sudden disappearance of prejudices or ideas which are the fruit of ages of mis rule. But gradually, as generations pass away, and colored men become highly educated, and many of them take a high rank as teachers, preach- ers, physicians, lawyers, writers, orators, and statesmen, and many be- come men of wealth and of influence in commercial circles, people will begin to wonder where the " natural, constitutional antipathy " has gone. " That time," 1 shall be told, " is far away." We live in an age of prog- ress. If the changes of the next fifty years shall equal those of the last fifty, since that noble philanthropist, whose likeness graces the walls of our college parlor, wore a rope necklace in the " cradle of Lib- erty," we shall sing — 470 Watchman, tell us of the night, For the morning seems to dawn. THE UNIVERSITY SYSTEM OF ONTARIO. By J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., Deputy ilinister of Educalion for Ontario. University affairs io Ontario are at present in somewhat of a transi- tional state. A scheme of university confederation has been recently under discussion, which may issue in the grouping together of most of the college-universities now in operation. At present there are the fol- lowing universities in the Province, viz : 1. The University of Toronto, projected in 1798, opened as King's College University in June, 1843. 2. The University of Victoria College, Coburg, founded as Upper Canada Academy in 1832, opened in October, 1841. 3. The University of Queen's College, Kingston, projected in 1839,. opened in March. 1843. 4. The University of Trinity College, Toronto, founded in 1851, opened in January, 1852. 5. The (R. C.) University of Ottawa, founded in 1848, opened in 1866. 6. The Western University, London, founded in 1877, opened in 1878. Preliminary Remarks. Before referring to these universities in detail, I shall briefly glance at the early history of university education in this Province. Lieut.-Gen. J. Graves Simcoe, the first Governor of Upper Canada, arrived here in 179L*. He was a man of comprehensive views and noble impulses in regard to university education. He was educated at Eton College and partly at Merton College, Oxford, but entered the army before taking his degree. He served with distinction under Wolfe at Quebec and during the American revolutionary war. In April, 1795, Governor Simcoe addressed a letter to the Protestant Epivscopal Bishop of Quebec — then havmgjurisdiction in Upper Canada — urging him to seek to promote the establishment of a "Protestant Episcopal university " in Upper Canada. The reasons which he gave for this appeal were characteristic of the English Churchman and of the times, and reveal somewhat of the social and religious state of the colony. They showed, too, that he was a statesman as well as a Church- man. He said : Tbe people of this Province enjoy the forms as well as the privileges of the British constitntion. They have the means of governing themselves ; and, having nothing to ask, must ever remain a part of the British Empire, provided they shall become sntfi- ciently capable and enlightened to understand their relative situation ano- rated as a university and financially assisted by the unanimous vote of both branches of the Provincial Legislature, — sanctioned by more than an ofticial cordiality, in Her Majesty's name, by the lato lamented Lord Sydenham, Governor-General, one of whose last messages to the legislative Assembly was a reconmicndatiou to grant £500 as an aid to the Victoria College. » » * \Vo have buoyant hopes for our country when our rulers and legislators direct their earliest and most liberal attention to its 477 240 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. literary institutions and educational interests. A foundation for a common school system in this Province has been laid by the Legislature, which I believe will, at uo distant day, exceed iu efficiency any yet established on the American continent ;' and I have reason to believe that the attention of Government is earnestly directed to make permanent provision for the support of colleges also,' that they may be ren- dered efficient in their operation and accessible to as large a number of the enter- prising youth of our country as possible. This institution originated with the Wesleyan Methodists iu 1828-'30. The conference in the latter year agreed to establish it as an academy, and in the following year, when mattershad been arranged to this end, Dr. Ryerson, in the Christian Ouardian newsjJaper, of which he was theu editor, issued a strong appeal in behalf of the proposed institution on the 21st April, 1831. On the 7th June, 1832, the foundation stone of the academy was laid; and on the 18th June, 1^36, it was formally opened under the designation of " Upper Canada Academy." In the previous year Dr. Ryerson was deputed to go to England to collect subscriptions on behalf of the institution. The duty was a most oner- ous and harassing one. He not only succeeded very satisfactorily, but, after a good deal of diflicultj' — there being no precedent to guide in the case — was enabled to obtain a royal charter for the academy and a grant of ^16,400 from the local Legislature, the payment of which was resisted by the then Lieutenant Governor, Sir F. B. Head, until he received orders from England to have the grant paid without further delay. For eight years the institution was open to male and female students alike, but after its incorporation in August, 1841, the female stu- dents were transferred to ladies' academies which had been opened in Coburgbytwoof the professors of the college. In October, 1841, Rev. Dr. Ryerson was appointed the first president of the university, a position which he held until he was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for Upper Canada in 1844. He was succeeded by the Rev. Dr. Macnab, now rector of Darlington. In 1850 the present accomplished president (Rev. S. S. Nelles, D. D., LL. D.) was appointed. He had been a pupil under Dr. Ryerson, but finished his university education at the Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., and graduated there. He received the Tlegree of D. D. from the Queen's University, Kingston, and that of LL. D. from his own university. His career has been an unusually longand pros- perous one ; and under his administration the university has taken high rank amongst the sister universities of Ontario.^ In the original appeal made by Dr. Ryerson in England on behalf of the academy (in 1835^, he stated the "specific objects of the institution" to be as follows : 1. To educate, upon terms equally moderate with similar institutions in the neigh- boring republic of the United States, and with strict attention to their morals, the youth of Canada generally. 2. To educate for common-school masters, free of charge, poor young men of Chris- tian principles and character, and of promiising talents, who have an ardent thirst for knowledge. 3. To educate the most promising youth of the recently converted Indian tribes of Canada as teachers to their aboriginal countrymen.' 'This memorable prophecy, made by Dr. Ryerson in 1841, was abundantly verified in after years, chiefly as the result of his own labors in maturing the school system, of which he was the founder. "It is a gratifying fact that Victoria College was the first university in Upper Can- ada whose doors were opened to receive students. The first session commenced iu Oc- tober, 1841; that of Queen's College University in March, 1842, and King's College University in June, 1843. The firsi graduate in arts who received a diploma in Upper Canada was sent out from Victoria College in 1845-'46. 2 Several promising Indian youth were educated at Victoria College, and some of them became useful teachers and missionaries. 478 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 241 These extracts are biglily iuterestiug, as showing the noble aud com- preheusive aims, iu these early days of educational effort, which Dr. liy- erson had iu view in fouuding this valuable institution of learning. He. goes on then (apart from these objects) to show the grave necessity which existed for the early establishment of such an institution. He said : For want of such au institution upwards of sixty of the youth of Canada are now attending seminaries of learning, under a similar management, in the United States, where nearly two, hundred Canadian youth have been taught the elementary branches of a professional education during the last eight years. There is good reason to be- lieve that nearly, if not quite, all the Canadian youth now being taught in the United States seminaries of learning, will return to Canada as soon as this institution shall have been brought into operation. * * * In behalf, therefore, of this institution — most important to the best interests of a healthy, fertile, and rapidly improving British colonial possession, the inhabitants of which have in this, as in other instances, shown the strongest desire to help them- selves to the iitnjost of their very limited means — a respectful aud earnest appeal is made to Briiish liberality, an appeal which it is devoutly hoped will be responded to in a mauuer that will contribute to draw still closer the bonds by which the loyal Prov- ince of Upi)er and the British population of Lower Canada are united to the Mother Country. This appeal was indorsed by the Governor of the Province, Sir John Colborne (afterwards Lord Seaton), iu the following terms: The Rev. Egerton Ryerson proceeds to England * * * to solicit subscriptions * * * to enable [the conference here] to bring into operation a seminary estab- lished at Coburg, in Upper Canada. * * * As I am persuaded this colony will derive the greatest advantage from the institution aud from the exertions of the con- ference to diffuse religious instruction, I cannot but strongly recommend that it may receive encouragement aud support from all })ersons interested in the welfare of Upper Canada. The '•' appeal " was also heartily indorsed by the Hon. Peter McGill, founder of McGill College University, Montreal, and by other dis- tinguished gentlemen and merchants in Montreal. In his letter Mr. McGill referred to Dr. Eyerson as " a gentleman who has distinguished himself in Upper Canada by his writings iu defense of religion, order, and good government." After much delay aud great discouragements Dr. Ryerson succeeded iu the objects of his mission — money and a royal charter; but at its close he writes to the Canadian committee of the academy as follows : Thus terminated this protracted [business], * * * though I had to encounter suc- cess! ve, discouraging, aud almost insurmountable difiQculties [in obtaining the charter]. Not having been able to effect any loan * * * on account of the agitated state of the Canadas, and being in suspense as to theresultof my application to the Government, I was several months pressed down with anxiety and fear, by this suspense and by reason of the failure of my efforts to obtain relief. In this anxiety and fear my own unassisted resolution and fortitude could not sustain me. I had to rely upon the un- failing support of the Lord' my God. I have given these particulars somewhat in detail so as to afford a striking narrative illustration of the almost insurmountable difiiculties which the early pioneers of education in this Province encountered in endeav^oring to found these noble institutions which have been so in- valuable to this country, and which have shed such luster upon their founders' names. It is also due to Victoria University, and (as I shall show) to Queen's University also to state these particulars, from the fact that the first practical, yet entirely abortive. attemi)t to make Kiug's College a provincial university, was made in 1843, two years after the Methodists and Presbyterians had in self-defense been compelled to found universities of their own. This they did at a great sacrifice. 7950 COT, PT. 2 16 479 242 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. By the time that the liberation of this institution from its sectarian trammels took place, in 1849-53, the really provincial universities at Coburg and Kingston had become recognized as most important factors in our educational system ; and from them alone, up to that time, could students of all denominations obtain a university education. The faculty of Victoria University is as follows : President and Chancellor, Eev. Samuel S. Nelles, D. D., LL. D. Eev. S. S. Nelles, Professor of Mental Philosophy^ Logic, Ethics, and the Evidences of Religion. John Wilson, LL. D., Professor of Latin and Greek. Eev. Alfred H. Eeynar, M. A., Professor of Modern Languages and English Literature. A. E. Bain, M. A., Professor of Mathematics. Eugene Haanel, Ph. D. (Bresl.), F. E. C. S., Dennis Moore Professor of Chemistry and Physics. Arthur P. Coleman, Ph. D. (Bresl.), Professor of Natural History and Geology. A. J. Bell, B. A., Adjunct Professor of Classics and Modern Languages. Eev. G. C. Workman, M. A., Adjunct Professor of Mental Philosophy and Logic. Professor Bain, Lecturer on Astronomy. Professor Haanel, Lecturer on Mineralogy. Eev. N. Burwash, S. T. D., Dean., and Edward Jackson, Professor, of Biblical and Systematic Theology and of the Exegesis and Literature of the Old Testament. William Kerr, M. A., Q. C, Dean of the Faculty of Law. William T. Aikius, M. D., LL. D., President of the Faculty of Medicine, Toronto School of Medicine (in affiliation J. Thomas E. D. D'Orsonnens, M. D., C. M., LL. D., President of the Fac- ulty of Medicine, Montreal School of Medicine (in a-ffiliationj. In connection with the university, Faraday Hall, or School of Prac- tical Science, was erected in 1877. It is a handsome and spacious build- ing, and is admirably fitted up for the purpose of science teaching under the direction of its able professor, Eugene Haanel, Ph. D. of the University of Breslau. Its apparatus and cabinets are very complete. ALBERT COLLEGE (BELLEVILLE). The following is extracted from the Calendar : This institution, founded in 1854, was the product of the zeal and wise policy of the Methodism of that early day, and grew out of the conviction that schools for the Chris- tian education of the youth of the Church should be maintained and cherished by'the Church. The location is exceedingly favorable. The city of Belleville is one of the most important and enterprising cities between Toronto and Montreal. It has a popu- lation of about 10,000, and is situated on the historic Bay Quint6, in the direct line of the Grand Trunk Railway, and is the southern terminus of the Midland Dix^ision of the G. T. Railway. Its advantages as a location for a r.eat of learning had long heen noticed before steps were taken for forming one in its vicinity. Accordingly, when the prosperity of Canada began to make the multiplication of facilities for higher education a necessity, the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1854, adopted a scheme — initiated in the Bay Quint6 Conference in the preceding year — for the erection and maintenance of an educational institution of high grade in Belleville. Having been chartered by Parliament in 1857 as " Belleville Seminarj'," it was opened in July of the same year, and entered upon its work under very favorable auspices, with a superior staff of instructors and a large number of 480 I INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 243 students. In the year 1866, by Act of Parliament, the name was changed to "Albert College ", and a senate created with ample powers. By the terms of the union of the Methodist Churches of Canada. Albert College was retained in Belleville, and adopted by the General Conference of the united Church as a Chui-ch school. The charter was amended and the college was affiliated to the Victoria University, Coburg. The college, as now constituted, has an ample teaching stafi" for imparting instruction to ladies and gentlemen in the advanced branches of a liberal education, and a senate with full iiowers to examine, grant prizes, scholarships, medals, honor certificates, and diplomas in music, fine arts, commercial science, collegiate courses, etc. The l'a(;ult y is as follows : The Rev. Jabez R. Jaques, D. D., Ph. D., President. Thomas F. Holgate, B. A., Secretary. The Rev. Jabez R. Jaques, D. D., Ph. D., Professor of Classics and Instructor in Ger- viati. John Macoun. M. A., F. L. S., Emeritus Professor of Botany. James Thompson Bell, D. Sci., Hastings Professor of Mining and Agriculture, and Lect- urer in Zoolo(/y. The Rev. William P. Dyer, M. A., Professor of Cheviistry and Geology, and Lecturer in Philosophii. John A. Stanistreet, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Music. T. O. Bolger, P. L. S., Professor of Civil Engineering. Thomas F. Holgate, B. A., Professor of Mathematics. George A. Swayze, Professor of Commercial Science and Penmanship. Fred Richardson. Professor of Oil Painting and Drawing. Anuie E. Abrahams, M. L. A., Professor of Modern Literature and Modern History. The courses of study in the institution are — I. Collegiate Course, embodying elective undergraduate studies. II. Junior or Senior Matriculation, in arts, civil engineering, law, medicine, and theology. III. Teachers' Courses, to prepare for teachers' examinations. IV. Course in Agriculture. V. Musical Course in Musical Academy. VI. Commercial College Course, and course in ornamental penmanship. VII. Course in Fine Arts, embracing iiainting, drawing, etc. VIII. Alexandra Ladies' College Course, leading to the M. L. A. and M. M. L. It is the aim of Alexandra College to provide for young ladies an opportunity not only for thorough mental discipline, but for intellectual, social, and Christian culture as well ; and to discover and direct the varied abilities so as to insure their best use and broadest influence in the future. A good foundation for this general culture is laid in the earlier requirements of any course, while the later elective studies permit the choice of work suited to the taste, talent, or special purpose of the student. All students meet in general exercises, and the ladies of Alexandra College attend the same lectures and receive instruction in the same classes as the students of Albert College. They enjoy the same privileges, subject to like conditions of entrance, and receive like rewards or honors. III. Queen's College University, Kingston.^ As early as 1835 it was felt among the members of the Church of Scotland in Canada that a seminary or college for the training of their ministers was highly desirable. As the management of the proposed King's College University at Toronto was in the hands of the adhe- rents of the Church of England, it was felt that such an institution could not be made available for Presbyterian theological instruction. A committee of the British House of Commons, to which had been re- ferred petitions from Canada in 1828 and 1830 against the exclu.sive character of the charter of King's College, Toronto, were disposed to solve the difficulty by suggesting that two theological chairs be estab- lished in King's College (and did so recommend) — one for students of the Churches of England and Scotland, respectively. Nothing, how- ever, of the kind was done; nor was there any arts college then open ' The information here given of Queen's University is largely taken from a revised printed statement. 481 244 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. on equal terms to all the youth of the country. The Presbyterians, like the Methodists, had, therefore, to found an institution of their own. Steps were taken by the synod of the Church in 1839 to found such an institution. At a meeting iu St. Andrew's Church, Hamilton, in No- vember, 1839, the commission appointed for that purpose prepared the draft of a charter for the proposed college. Kingston was selected by the synod as the site for the new institution. An Act embodying the charter was passed by the Provincial Legisla- ture in February, 1840, incorporating the " University of Kingston." The Act was, however, disallowed by the imperial authorities, on the' ground that it conflicted with the royal prerogative of granting charters. A royal chariter was, however, issued in 1841, incorporating the institu- tion under 'she name of Queen's College, with " the style and privileges of a university." The opening of Queen's took place on the 7th of March, 1842. Rev. Thomas Liddell, D. D., of Edinburgh, was the Principal and Professor of Divinity, and Rev. P. C. Campbell, of Brock ville, was appointed to the Chair of Classics. There were eleven regular students, and a few others were allowed to attend the classes in the classics and mathemat- ics who were not sufficiently advanced to matriculate. Rev. James TVilliamson, D. D., LL. D., arrived in the autumn of 1842, and entered at once on his work as Professor of Mathematics and Natural Phi- losophy. He is still in active work, being now Professor of Astronomy and Curator of the Observatory. His connection has, therefore, been continuous during nearly the whole existence of the college, and he is, therefore, the oldest college professor in Ontario. Dr. Williamson is a brother-in law to Sir John A. Macdonald. After the opening of King's College, Toronto, in 1843, an agitation commenced with the view to unite the three universities then in opera- tion into a single provincial institution. Many plans were proposed, and' several measures tending to that end were introduced into Parlia- ment and fully discussed. In 1843 the Hon. Robert Baldwin introduced a university bill, which, though it presented many popular features, ■was strongly objected to by the churches named and others also, because it was deficient in providing for religious instruction. A bill was introduced by Hon. W. H. Draper, iu 1845, to amend the law so as to make it more generally acceptable to the religious bodies of the country, and in 1847 the late Hon. John Hillyard Cameron intro- duced a measure in which it was proposed to devote a large part of the endowment to increased support of high schools and also to largely sub- sidize the denominational colleges. The measure failed to carry in Parliament, however, and this practically ended the agitation for the union of colleges for many years. In the year 1844, a serious division took place in the Presbyterian Church, which tended much to add to its embarrassment, and the num- ber of students was greatly reduced. In 1846 Dr. Liddell resigned his position as Principal and returned to Scotland. Rev. J. Machar, D. D., was next appointed Principal, and under his administration there was slow but real improvement. The number of students increased and the financial position was improved by an annual provincial grant of $2,000, which was afterwards increased to $5,000. These annual grants were continued until 1868, when they were entirely withdrawn by the Sand- field-Macdonald Government. Rev. Dr. Cook, of Quebec, occupied the position of Principal for a time, with great acceptance, but he refused to accept the position per- manently. Rev. Dr. Leitch was next appointed, but his early death 482 INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPEES. 245 deprived the institutiou of bis services. He was followed by the Eev. Dr. Siiodgrass, and oit his retirement the Eev. George Monro Grant, D. D., of Halifax, was appointed. Dr. Grant entered on his ardnous duties with his accnstomed energy, and occupies that position with great acceptance. He is an able speaker and a wise administrator. During the past few years there has been a large increase in the number of students, and also in the teaching staff. Queen's College to-day com- pares favorably in all respects with any similar institution in the Do- minion. It has now faculties of arts, theology, and law, and there are affiliated with it the Eoyal College of Physicians and Surgeons, also iu a prosperous condition, and the Kingston Women's Medical College. In 1869 the financial condition of the university was such that a special meeting of synod was called to consider the matter, and it was resolved to make an appeal to the country for aid. The people of Kingston came forward and raised about $25,000, and the summer of that year was spent by Principal Snodgrass and the late Professor Mackerras iu raising an endowment. The result of the whole effort was that about $103,000 was raised for the equipment of the college. In 1878 Princii)al Grant made the proposition to raise $150,000, in order to provide new buildings, additional professors, and apparatus. Many thought the proposition impracticable, but the doctor entered into the scheme with great energy, nobly backed by several well-tried friends. The inhabitants of the "Limestone City" were asked to raise $40,000 of this amount, and they enthusiastically responded by subscribing over that amount. All classes and denominations came to its aid in the last great effort. The appeal was successful; additional ground of about twenty acres was at once purchased — a site of rare beauty and conven- ience — and the present noble building was erected. At present there are 242 students in attendance in the arts and science classes, and 134 iu the medical classes. Allowing for double registration there are 302 students in all at the university. The officers and professors of the university are as follows: Chancel- lor, Sanford Fleming, C. E., C. M. G. ; Vice-Chancellor, Very Eev. George Monro Grant, M. A., D. D. ; Vice-Principal, Eev. M. James Williamson, A., LL. D. ; Eegistrar, Eev. George Bell, LL. D. The Professors iu Divinity are Dr. Grant, Eev. Dr. J. B. Mowat, Eev. Donald Eoss, Eev. James Carmichael, and Eev. H. G. Parker. Faculty in Arts. Eev. J. Williamson, M. A., LL. D., Professor of Astronomy. Eev. John B. Mowat, M. A., D. D., Professor of Hehreic. Nathan F. Dupuis, M. A., F. B. S., Edinburgh, Professor of Mathematics. Eev. George D. Ferguson, B. A., Professor of History and English Lan- guage and Literature. John Watson, M. A., LL. D., Professor of Logic, Mental and Moral Phil- osophy, and Political Economy. John Fletcher, M. A., Oxou, Professor of Classical Literature. David H. Marshall, M. A., Edinburgh, F. E. !S. E., Professor of Physics. W. L. Goodwin, B. Sc, London, D. Sc, Edinburgh, Professor of Chemis- try and Mineralogy. Eev. A. Nicholson, B. A., Lecturer on Modern Languages and Assistant to Professor of Classics. Eev. J. Fowler, M. A., Lecturer on Natural Science. Eev. E. Campbell, D. Sc, Lecturer on Political Economy. 483 246 EDUCATIONAL COXVEXTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Eev. H. G. Parker, Lecturer on Elocution. Messrs. Nicol, Robertson, aud Gaudry, Tutors in Chemistry^ German^ and French. Fife Fowler, M. D., F. R. 0. S., is President of the Faculty of Medicine. The professors in this faculty are also lecturers in the Women's Medi- cal Collefie. which is affiliated with the university. There are six lect- urers in the faculty of law. IV. The University of Trinity College, Toronto. The following- statement was kindly prepared by Rev. William Jones, M. A,, Registrar : The University of Trinity College is a university in connection with the Church of England, created hy royal charter in 1852. Previously to that time the Univer- sity of King's College, of which the firs* Bishop of Toronto was President, had ex- isted in connection with the Church of England ; but under the provisions of an Act of the Provincial Legislature which came into operation on January 1, 1850, the faculty of divinity in that university was suppressed, and other important changes in its constitution were made which appeared to necessitate tbe erection of a new college andjUniversity in which secular instruction should not be dissociated from religious teaching. The Bishop succeeded iu raising a large endowment from voluntary subscriptions from churchmen in Canada, England, and the United States, so that on April 30, IBiil, the foundation stone of the college building was laid, and on January 15, 1852, the work of instruction was begun, the staft' consisting of four professors iu arts, besides those in the faculties of law and medicine. During the last thirty years the endow- ment has been largely increased by liberal contributions made from time to time, so that the original amount is now about trebled. In 1878 a large aud handsome con- vo^satiou hall was erected, and in 1884 a long felt want was supplied by the erection of a finely proportioned and beautiful chapel. The University of Trinity College at present consists of the faculty of arts and divinity, of an affiliated Medical School with a commodious building and a large staff of professors, and an affiliated Women's Medical College. Provision is also made for the higher education of women in connection with the Bishop Strachan School in Toronto, and connected with the university is a large school for boys at Port Hope, containing about 150 boarders. The following is the number of graduates in the several faculties in the university : in divinity, 17; in arts, 282; in law, 16; in medicine, 351. The number of under- graduates is as follows: iu arts, 41 ; in law, 19; in medicine, 172; in music, 6. The government of the university is by the royal charter vested in the Corporation of Trinity College, which body bj"- an Act of the Legislature of the Province of Canada (15 Vic. ch. 32) is composed of the Bishops of the live dioceses into which the original Diocese of Toronto has been divided, of the Trustees of Trinity College, and of the members of the Council of Trinity College. The College Council consists of three classes of members: ex officio, nominated, and elected members. The ex officio mem- bers are the Chancellor of the University of Trinity College, the ex-Chancellors, the Provost, and Professors in Divinity and Arts of Trinity College. The following mem- bers are nominated, four by each of the Bishops of Toronto, Huron, Ontario, and Niagara, from their respective dioceses, and one by each medical school or college affiliated with the university. Fifteen members are elected, eight by the same elect- ors as the Chancellor, to hold office for four years, two being elected in each year, and the remaining seven by the whole corporation. Faculty in Arts. Provost: Rev. C. W. E. Body, D. C. L., late Fellow of St. John's Col- lege, Cambridge. Dean and Professor of Mathematics : Rev. William Jone^, M. A., St. John's College, Cambridge. Professor of Classics: Rev. A. Boys, M. A., Jesus College, Cambridge. Professor of Mental and Moral Philoso2)hy : Rev. William Clark, M. A., Hertford College, Oxford. Keble Professor of Divinity : Rev. G. A. S. Schneider, M. A., Caius College, Cambridge. 484 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 247 Lecturer in History : Eev. William Clark, M. A. Lecturer in Oriental Languages : The Provost. Lecturer in Physical Science: T. H. Smyth, M. A., B. Sc, Universities of Toronto and Edinburgh. FeUoic and Lecturer in Natural Science: Eev. G. E. Haslam, M. A., Trinity College, Dublin. Lecturer in Modern Languages : J. C. Dunlop, University of Edinburgh. Lecturer in Elocution: Eev. H. G. Parker, Philadelphia School of Ora- tory. Lecturer in Apologetics and Pastoral Theology : Eev. W. Clark, M. A. Lecturer in Homiletics : Eev. J. P. Lewis. Walter B. Geikie, M. D., C. M., F. E. C. S. E., L. E. C. P., Lond., is Dean of the Faculty of Medicine of the Trinity Medical School. With the university is also affiliated the Women's Medical College of Toronto, M. Barrett, M. A., M. D., Dean. A course of study for women was established in the year 1883. Candidates who pass any of the examinations will be entitled to receive a certificate to that eifect from the registrar, but candidates will not be admitted to degrees. Attendance at lectures will not be required. Women may present themselves for each of the three examinations for the degree of bachelor of music, and upon passing any one of these, will be furnished with a cer- tificate to that eff"ect. Want of space compels the omission of the curriculum of the univer- sity. In regard to it Eev. Professor Jones, Eegistrar, says : It may be remarked that the principal distinguishing features of the curriculum are : (a) The place assigned to theology as an art subject, including an honor course in that department. (b) The admission of optional subjects in increasing ratio in the latter part of the course, the candidate in the final examination being allowed to concentrate his ener- gies in a large degree on one division. In these respects, as also in a three years' course, the procedure of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been followed. In the arts course for women the place assigned throughout the course as an alter- native for mathematics may be noted. The courses provided for degrees in the facul- ties of divinity and music are a specialty of this university amoog the Canadian universities. Trinity College School, Port Hope, is connected with the university. It is designed for the education of youths and as a feeder to the uni- versity with which It is connected. It is modeled on the plan of the public schools in England, and has all the appliances for giving a su- perior classical, mathematical, and English education to boys previous to their matriculation in the university, or their admission to the Law Society as " Students of the laws." Its officers are as follows : Visitor. The Eight Eev. The Lord Bishop of Toronto. Governing body. Ex-officio Members. — Hon. G. W. Allan, D. C. L., Chancellor of the University of Trinity College; Eev. The Provost of Trinity College; Eev. W.Jones, M. A., Professor of Mathematics, Trinity College; Eev. Algernon Boys, M. A., Professor of Classics, Trinity College ; Eev. W. Clark, M. A., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy, Trinity College ; Eev. C. J. S. Bethune, M. A., D. C. L., Mead Master of the School. Elected Members. — Eev. J. G. Geddes, M. A., D. C.L., Dean of Niagara; Charles J. Campbell, Esq., Eev. John Pearson, John E. Cartwright, Esq., B. A., Eev. Henry Wilson, D. D., Arthur T. H. Williams, Esq., M. P. 485 248 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. The present bead master is the Rev. C. J. S. Bethune, M. A., D. C. L.^ Trinity College, Toronto. Note. — I may here state in this connection that the collegiate institute at Coburg, under the priacipalship of D. C.McHenry, Esq., M.A., is affiliated 1o Victoria Univer- sity as a preparatory institution, while it is also the county grammar or high school. The collegiate institute at Kingston, under the principalship of A. P. Knight, Esq., M. A., is affiliated to Queen's University in the same way. There is also a supe- rior college for hoys at Pickering (near Toronto). The other feeders to the univer- sity colleges of Ontario are fifteen other collegiate institutes and eighty-seven high schools scattered all over the Province. For particulars on this subject, see the accoihpanying Paper on " Secondary Education in Ontario," byD. C. McHenry, M.A. (p. 185). V. University College of Ottawa. The College (or University) of Ottawa is under the direction of the Roman Catholic Church. It was founded in 1848 by the Right Rever- end Joseph Eugene Guigues, O. M. I., D. D., first R. C. Bishop of Ottawa. In 1856, the Bishop confided the direction of the college to the " Soci- ety of the Oblate Fathers of Mary Immaculate." The total value of the college building and grounds is about $75,000. It has also a good library and cabinet of natural philosophy (or physics), and of chemis- try and natural history. The college obtained university^powers in 1866. It confers degrees in arts, science, and literature — B. A., B. Sc, B. L., as well as M. A. The number of students at present attending the collegiate course is 140; in the commercial course 160; total 300. The oflicers and faculty are as follows : Very Rev, J. H. Tabaret, O. M. I., D. D., President, Lecturer on Political Economy. Rev. J. Mangin, O. M. I., D. D., Director of Theologians, Professor of Moral Theology^ Canon Laic, and Sacred Eloquence. Rev. M. Froc, O. M. L, D. D., I^rofessor of Dogmatic Theology and Holy Scripture. Rev. A. Pallier, O. M. I., Professor of Church History. Rev. P. E. Gendreau, O. M. I., Bursar. Rev. J. B. Balland, O. M. I., B. D., Prefect of Studies, Professor of Physics and Mechanics. Rev. J. J. Fillatre, O. M. I., D. D., Professor of Moral Philosophy., Geologi/y and French. Rev. W. M. Bennett, O. iM. I., M. A., Professor of English Literature. Rev. R. M. Barrett, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Latin. Rev. Z. Vaillancourt, O. M. I., Professor of Latin and French. Rev. L. A. Nolin, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Greek, Latin, and French. Rev. A. Duhaut, O. M. I., Professor of Greek and Latin. Rev. G. J. Van Laar, O. M, 1., Prof essor of History and Geography. R(;v. A. Leyden, O. M. !., M. A., Professor of Mathematics. Rev. C. Marson, O. M. I,, M. A., Professor of Mathematics. Rev. A. Dontenville, O. M. I., M. A., Professor of Natural Sciences and Drawing. Rev. R. S. Dozois, Professor of French, History, and Geography. Rev. P. Gladu, O. M. I., Professor of Vocal Music. In the commercial course there are eleven professors and instructors. In regard to the government of the college, the Very Reverend the President sends the following information : The college is directed by a Superior, appointed for an undeterminate leugth of time by the Senior Superiors of the Congregation of the Oblates. A Council, consist- ing of three members, is associated with him for the management of the pecuniary 486 INTERNATIONAL CONGEESS OF EDUCATOES PAPERS. 249 affairs of the house. Ho is by right president of the couucil hoards of studies and of the council of discipline, which have for objects respectively to see that the studies are well and properly pursued, and that due regularity is maintained. The i>refect of studies sees that the programme is strictly carried out. In the more advanced classes the system of teaching by lecture is followed. The classical course lasts seven years. The matriculation examination takes place at the end of the third year of the classical course ; the intermediate at the end of the fifth year. The commercial course lasts four years. Note. — Regiopolis College was founded at Kingston in the year 1846 by the Very Reverend Angus Macdonnell, Vicar-General. It maintained a highly respectable position for many years, and especially during the episcopate of the Right Reverend E. J. Horan, the second Bishop of Kingston. After his death it was closed and has not yet been re-opened. Bishop Horan had been Principal of one of the normal schools in the Province of Quebec, and was noted for his educational zeal. On his ar- rival at Kingston he sought to make Regiopolis College even more efficient than it had been, and to take rank among the first colleges of the country. It had about one hundred students. VI, The Western University, London. The Western University of London, Ontario, was incorporated by Act of the Legislature of Ontario, 41 Vic, chap. 70 (7th March, 1878), in connection with the Church of England in Canada, with power to affiliate with Huron College, a similar Church of England institution, and to confer degrees in arts, divinity, medicine, and law, subject to the conditions contained in Sections 7 and 10 of the Act. Section 10 pro- vides that any university powers granted for conferring degrees shall not be exercised until it has been made to appear to the satisfaction of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council that the sum of one hundred thousand dollars, at the least, has been raised in property, securities, or money, including Huron College when affiliated thereto, and is held for the purposes of the university, and it was declared that such powers might be withdrawn at any time when the Legislature deems it expedient to re- quire such university to become affiliated in the whole, as in respect of any particular laculty or department, with the Provincial University, and that the college thereby incorporated might, on its own motion, become so affiliated in respect of any of its faculties, other than divinity. Sec- tion 7 provides that the senate shall not confer any degrees in the fac- ulty of arts until such time as four professors) lips, at least, have been established therein, and four professors appointed to discharge the re- spective duties thereof, and until this has been made to appear to the satisfaction of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council. Huron College, on the 24th of June, 1881, became affiliated with the Western University, and constituted its faculty of divinity, by agree- ment between the two corj)orations, and all the property and securities of Huron College, amounting in value to the sum of $95,000, also became vested in trust for the purposes of the Western University. The university was opened in October, 1881, and at the first meeting of convocation in April, 1882, the several faculties reported 10 students in theology, 16 in medicine, and 7 in arts. WOODSTOCK college. The annual announcement, or calendar, of this institution for 1884-'S5 says: Woodstock College, formerly "The Canadian Literary Institute", was founded in 1867, principally through the exertions of the late R. A. Fyie, D. D. Under his wise presidency, ably assisted for eighteen years by Prof. J. E. Wells, M. A., the school con- stantly increased iu etticieucy and power, until from a small beginning it has attained its ijreseut largo proportions and wide influeuce. 487 250 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Its friends have donated in all nearly $100,000 tor grounds and buildings. * * * The latter now consist of three large and separate structures. * » * During the presidency of the late Dr. Fyfe, the school consisted of two departments, a theological and a literary. Into the latter both sexes were admitted. The theo- logical department having been removed to Toronto, the literary, now Woodstock College, enlarged by the addition of a commercial college, remains. The constant aim of the management is to provide a thorough Christian education. Though it was founded and is maintained jirincipally by the Baptist denomination, yet it has never been sectarian. None of the peculiar tenets of that denomination are taught. The college embraces the following departments of work: 1. The collegiate department. 2. The ladies' department — a separate building. 3. The commercial department. 4. The preparatory department, or boys' school. Principal, Rev. N. Woolverton, B. A., with fifteen assistants. The College is afifiliated with the University of Toronto. 488 HOW TO INCEEASE THE PEOPORTION OF LIBERALLY EDUCATED MEN. By 0. H. Payne, D. D., LL. D., President Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio. By liberally educated men is meant persons who have been graduated from some respectable college, after having pursued a wisely selected and somewhat extensive course of study. The question implies that it is desirable to have the number of persons who are thus educated, women as well as men, increased. It implies also that it is possible, and even probable, that the proportion of educated men may be in- creased, if means are wisely adapted to the desired end. We may properly inquire, What are the causes which now conspire to prevent a larger proportion of men from seeking a liberal education'? Without attempting an accurate analysis, or an exhaustive treatment of these causes, we name the following as perhaps the principal ones: F%rs% An undefined prejudice against colleges, as fostering a kind of literary Phariseeism, or intellectual aristocracy — a prejudice which is accompanied by serious charges against their spirit and management. Secondly. A still more wide-spread disbelief in the practical value of a college education. Thirdly^ The time required to complete a college course. Fourthly^ The expense incurred. These are the hinderances which must be removed, as far as is con- sistent with the end sought. In whatever degree they can be taken out of the way, or their influencediminished, to that degree will the proportion of educated men be increased. These causes deter from a collegiate training nearly all the business men of our country, and indeed, nearly all others who are not intending to enter one of the so-called learned professions, while by far the larger proportion, even of the candidates for these professions, rush into their vocation through some shorter and less expensive route than the col- lege or university. Probably the largest proportion of men with liberal culture will be found in the ministry, though there it is far too small; in the practice of medicine, and also of the law, probably not fifteen per cent., including the entire country, are graduates of colleges; in journalism there are only a few, and in the profession of teaching, outside of the coleges themelves, the number is lamentably small. If Socrates were among us today and should put his hand on the shoulder of every man proposing to enter public life and manage weighty concerns, and ply him, as he did the brilliant and ambitious Alcibiades, with caustic questions as to what outfit of knowledge or wisdom he had for his adventurous purpose, he would i)uncture many a bubble of con- ceited ambition, and cover with humiliating shame many an aspirant for high position and distinction. 489 252 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. There is an ample field for our American colleges to cultivate; and we are here to consider ^ith all honesty how we can cause the field to yield a richer harvest of cultured and capable men. If it is desirable to increase the number of educated men, it is cer- tainly advisable to ijdopt the means necessary to secure the desired end. We must seek light, and invite suggestions in the spirit of honest and earnest inquirers. We must be prepared to abandon traditions and uproot deep-seated prejudices. The educator, like his pupils, must take good heed to cultivate the teachable disposition, rememberiug, as Bacon suggests, that the king- dom of knowledge, like the kingdom of heaven, is entered only as one possesses the spirit and temper of a little child. We must especially avoid the common mistake of looking at any system or process of edu- cation too subjectively, as though it possessed any im])ortance in itself. it is never anything but a m^ans to an end; like a sermon, it is never to be criticised or judged as a work of art, independent of the supreme end sought. It is only an instrument of service, valuable as it produces good results. If we desire to multiply the number of men and women possessing genuine culture and qualification for life's work, we must think of col- leges and universities only as instruments to this high and worthy end. We must never sacrifice the end to defend the means. The man must ever be more than the means. In this spirit we proceed to answer, as best we can, the question under discussion — the great question. How? I. We must seek, in all legitimate ways, to bring the college nearer to the heart of the people. It cannot be denied that to-day the hearts of the American people are far from being touched with any special feeling of sympathy with our colleges, or interest in their work. It is the thousandth man that bestows upon them a kindly thought and the hundred-thousandth a generous gift. The people, even the better class, are far more interested in the missionary work of Kaffraria and Japan than they are in the educational work of the colleges which supply their pulpits with ministers, and should supply their schools with teachers for their children. How few homes are there, comparatively, in which the name of a college is a household word, and the children's faces are steadily turned toward it as the scene of their future mental exploits ? If higher education is to reach a larger number of persons in the future than it has in the past, there are three classes whose sympathy and service must be especially enlisted, — parents, teachers, and clergymen. Give our colleges the cordial good-will and co-operation of these influ- ential parties, and they will not want for patronage. If we could place teachers with liberal culture in our public schools, the colleges would soon be crowded. Under favorable influences, out of nearly every family of medium size and in ordinary circumstances, one member might be induced to seek collegiate training. But if to-day there were only one out of ten families in the State of Ohio whose educational advan- tages are superior, the number in the colleges of this State would be in- creased thirty-fold. Now the number of students in the collegiate de- partments of Ohio colleges, according to the latest Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, is 1 to 1,224 of the population. This is the third State in the Union in respect to the proportion of college students to the population, Connecticut being first with 1 student to 663 of the population, and Massachusetts second with 1 to 924, In the total number of students in its colleges Ohio stands second, being outranked only by New York, which with a population of 5,082,871 490 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 253 has 3,020 stadeuts in colleges, while Ohio with a population of 3,098,002 has 2,011. These figures, it must be remembered, embrace all students reported as connected with the higher departments of the universities and colleges of the several States, and undoubtedly include many thou- sands who could hardly be classed with propriety among students of the standard collegiate courses. The entire number of students, including preparatory and irregular students, reported in 1882 in the United States, is 04,090, against 52,053 in 1873. Thus it appears that while our population probably increased in the nine years preceding ]8S2 28 per cent., the increase of students in universities and colleges was only 23 per cent. Evidently the proportion of young men and women now seeking a liberal education, in any State and throughout the entire country, is not encouragingly large. One college student to nearly two thousand people does not indicate intense love for collegiate education. Xor must it be forgotten that not many more than one-half of those who enter college complete the full course. Xow it is clear enough that by some means the college must become a more popular institution, using the term popular in its best sense, among the American people, if it is to win more of our promising young people to a cultured and well-equipped life. The very name of college must become more familiar in our American homes, and what it signi- fies and suggests must be made more desirable. The prejudice which has been referred to must be removed, and even iudifterence must give place to interest and sympathy. Here is the difficult task which confronts educators and lovers of genuine education. The heart of the people must be reached, the good- will of a larger constituency must be secured. It need hardly be added that the attitude and action of college men will materially aflfect the problem. There must be no dogmatic assump- tion of oracular wisdom, and no pretense tbat supreme excellence be- longs to the traditional education founded on the buried centuries. In- tellectual Phariseeism, if discovered in the slightest degree, is quite as offensive as religious Phariseeism, and neither is relished by the people of this free and progressive Rei)ublic. Greece and Rome must not entirely exclude the voices and visions of the Nineteenth Century, nor the Middle Ages dictate the thought and control the life of to-day. The popular favor extended to colleges and the influence which they exert will also be largely determined by the quality of the men and women who pass out of their halls. They will be rigidly and rightly judged by their "fruits." One man is worth a thousand theories, and one living example Mill practically do more to establish or refute a theory with the majority of men, than all the tine- spun arguments of learned advocates. What the world wants to-day above all other wants is men — men and women of lofty type and genuine character and masterful power. And in proportion as the colleges send forth this type of symmetrical and stalwart men will the public feel their force and appreciate their value. II. This leads to the consideration of a second point in the attempted answer to the question under discussion. It must be made evident, beyond question, that a college education is of the greatest practical value to a vastly larger number of persons than now believe it. We cannot close our eyes to the fact that the multitude of even or- dinarily intelligent men are unable to see its great value, and thousands of sagacious business men will even question whether the education 491 254 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ■which the colleges afford, with the time demanded, does not operate as a (disqualification for business success. Nor do business men stand alone in this questioning attitude. In full agreement with them are not a few of the most eminent men of our times, men who have them- selves enjoyed the highest culture, and in many instances are dis- tinguished educators. It is not the object of this paper to enter upon an elaborate discus- sion of the fruitful question as to the merits of +he "old education" and the '-new education," the ancient classics and the modern sciences, and the place which each should have in our colleges. The subject, how- ever, relates directly to the question before us and deserves thoughtful consideration, particularly because of its bearing ujion this vital prob- lem of how to increase the proportion of educated men. There is certainly reason for a calm and dispassionate review of the whole subject of education, as to its scope and end, the studies em- braced and the methods employed. It were folly to claim such great excellence for our present system as to become blind to its imperfections and failures. We certainly are not so bound to the dead Past as to be deaf to the voices of the living Present. We all acknowledge that the colleges are not reaching with their beneficent influence so large a number as they should. If any change can be adopted that will not imperil the value of a liberal education and yet furnish its invaluable aid to a greater number, who of us has the hardihood to resist such a change? And since there is assuredly something to be said in favor of a change, and something is said by men as wise antl as loyal as any of us, who of us has the temerity or the assured wisdom to afiirm that no change is required? For myself I am free to acknowledge that I have a listening ear and a receptive mind for any word honestly spoken touching our whole system of education. I have no such supreme faith in anything human that I do not believe it can be greatly improved. While listening to all the voices and treasuring all the gifts of the Past, it would be the supremest folly to assume that the Past taught all the wisdom and furnished all the treasures of learning that the nineteenth century could hope to enjoy. Nay, more, there are few of us who would not be obliged to go further, and say that the results of our entire educational work are far from satisfactory. The present age demands thinkers and workers; but the average pupil is rarely taught either to think or to work with conspicuous ability. How many students in high school or college can give an intelligent reason for any rule, or an original example of any principle which they rei)eat with parrot-like flippancy ? Must it not be acknowledged that while our colleges have rendered the country invaluable service, and educated men are and have been the leaders of society, yet the average college graduate is not specially remarkable for culture or character *? that he does not possess in marked degree mental power or symmetry or balance, and can hardly be pointed to as an illustrious example of whatever is true and beautiful and good in character? His icJiole nature has not been so fully and symmetrically developed as to warrant any strong assumption that we have reached supreme excellence in system and method. The probabilities, therefore, of fatal loss attending any change are not so great as to make us shudder at its contemx^lation. On the other hand, we cannot rashly venture upon any radical recon- struction of our educational system which seriously threatens to break 492 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 255 down what little scholarship we now have, and give us results still more unsatisfactory. The two ends of education may be broadly stated as enrichment and equipment — the ennobling of one's life, and the qualifying of one's self for a successful life-work. This twofold object of education must never be lost sight of; nor need the dual work ever be separated. One sided views of education are mischievous. Eichter says, " The end of education is to elevate above the spirit of the age." That is a great truth which, amid the clamor about an educa- tion for the times and of the times, we do well to heed. We must have a culture which ennobles, enlarges, and enriches the mind, and lifts it out of the materialistic atmosphere of the age. Hence the necessity of a judicious attention to the classics, aucient and modern, to literature, to history and philosophy, and kindred studies. We cannot aftbrd to strike at genuine culture nor at Christian faith, and become the abettors of a demoralizing materialism, in order to make our educational work conform to the demands of a false public sentiment. And yet we must meet the real wants of society and wisely adapt educational methods to those wants. It is not enough to tell men that education will give them broader views and richer thoughts and higher enjoyments; we must be able to add with unquestioning confidence that it will assuredly qualify them the better to perform their life-work, whatever that may be. And this I think should be true of higher education as well as of primarj' and secondary education. I can hardly accept the conclusion reached by some estimable men that colleges are necessarily exclusive, and doing a work that can only apply to a favored few, and that they need not attempt to reach a larger constituency. I cannot readily accept the theory which obtains among not a few college men, that higher education cannot be adapted to business men, and is not essential to men of affairs. It seems to me that hardly any class of men to day need the benefits of genuine edu- cation — mental breadth and grasp and power — more than the manu- facturer, the banker, the merchant, the manager of farms and mines, and of all the great enterprises connected with the material develop- ment and industrial interests of our country. To surrender this large, intelligent, and influential class of citizens, destined to grow still larger and more influential, as wholly or mostly beyond the reach or need of collegiate education, is in my judgment a grave mistake; a mistake which neither the college nor the community can afford to make. It is doubtful whether colleges resting on such a basis can continue to hold even their present position of limited influence, much less advance to a more commanding position. If then, we grant that colleges ought not to be satisfied to educate a select few, a small proportion only even of those who are to enter the learned professions, but that they should seek to extend their ennobling influence to as manj- as possible, the question of adapting means to ends becomes of paramount importance. How can the college curriculum and the college work be best adjusted to the twofold object already stated? There is need of breadth and wisdom and charity here. Mr. Matthew Arnold's " sweetness and light," the high end of culture, will be essentially heliiful to us. Neither the " old education" nor the 'Miew education," distinctively characterized, can be confidently claimed as absolutely best adapted to the ends sought. It is conceded by the wisest and most liberal advocates on both sides, that when right methods of study are employed, there is no essential 493 256 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. difference iu the mental discipline or culture furnished by either system. The claim that disciplinary results and culture are obtained only or largely through the ancient classics cannot be sustained, and is not now generally pressed by the adherents of the old regime. President Gar- field, himself a fine classical scholar and regaling himself by reading Horace and Homer during his busy public life, says, Iu geueial, it may be said that the purpose of all study is twofold, — to discipline our faculties and to acquire knowledge for the duties of life. It is happily provided iu the constitution of the humtui mind, that the labor by which knowledge is ac- quired is the only means of disciplining the powers. It may be stated, as a general rule, that if we compel ourselves to learn what we ought to know, and use it when" learned, our discipline will take care of itself. He then proceeds to enumerate and discuss the "kinds of knowledge which should be the objects of a liberal education," and makes some of the gravest charges against our system of educaticm, in colleges espe- cially, that have ever been made, which every educator ought to read. He affirms, and it would be difficult to refute the charge, that the old and still prevailing system of college education, with all its excellences, fails to give i)ractical qualifications for the greater part of life's pursuits. In reference to this failure he makes use of the following strong lan- guage : Business colleges originated in this country as a protest against the failure, the ab- solute failure, of our American schools and colleges to fit young men and women for the business of life. Take the great classes graduated from the leading colleges of the country, and how many, or rather how few, of their members are fitted to go into the practical business of life and transact it like sensible men? These business col- leges furnish their graduates with a better education for practical purposes than Princeton, Harvard, or Yale. He continues, The people are making a grave charge against our system of higher education when they complain that it is disconnected from the active business of life. It is a charge to which our colleges cannot plead guilty and live. They must rectify their fault, or miserably fail of their great purpose. There is scaicely a more jiitiable sight than to see, here and there, learned men, so-called, who have graduated in our own and the universities of Europe with high honors — men who know the whole gamut of classi- cal learning, who have sounded the depths of mathematical and speculative philoso- phy—and yet who could not harness a horse, or make out a bill of sale, if the world de- pended upon it. When such a man, himself a college graduate and college professor and life-long friend and supporter of colleges, publicly and repeatedly makes such utterances as these, and when a large number of the most thoughtful men in this country and in Europe join hand and voice with him, he must be a man of rare courage, or some other nameless quality of mind, who confidently stands by the old regime without an infinites- simal change, as certain that it is the educational summuni honum as he is of his own existence, and looks down with contemi3tuous pity on the man who is so ignorant as to challenge its perfection. But while we thus acknowledge the defects and partial failure of the old system, we cannot but look with suspicion upon the radical changes proposed by the modern scientific school of educators. The undue pre- ponderance of scientific studies has too strong tendencies toward the materialistic, which is already dominant in our age and country. Notes of warning certainly come to us from the Italian universities, which failed iu the higher ends of culture. Matthew Arnold says, "It shows how insufficient are the natural sciences alone to keep uj) iu a people culture and life; that the Italians, at the end of a period with the natural sciences alone thriving in it, and letters and philosophy moribund, found themselves, by their own con- 494 mXERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 257 fessioii, with a poverty of general culture, aud in an atmospliere uupro- pitious to knowledjje, wbicli tbey sorrowfully contrast with the condi- tion of other and happier nations." If it is replied that scientific methods are far diflerent now from what they were centuries, or even decades, ago. the answer has been given by one of the most thoughtful and brill- iant men among modern educators, Professor Diman, as follows: "The method has been improved, but the subject matter remains the same." "In its widest sco})e science aims simply at finding a theory of nature; its last word is impersonal, inexorable law. The more complete the absorption of the intellect in purely scientific methods, the more com- plete the severance from all spiritual intuitions." " Science discusses force and method, but says nothing of God, freedom, and immortality. She leads us to the tree of knowledge, not to the tree of life." When history is reduced to the rigid and inexorable laws of physical science, as it is by Buckle and Goldwin Smith, and moral philosophy is based on molecular movements, as it is in substance by Spencer and Bain; when the data of ethics must be searched for only among the rubbish of matter, with its necessitarian laws, — these studies lose their inspir- ing and ennobling power. It would be perilous to turn our American youth out into these sterile pastures to herd with the cattle, aud to feed on that which perishes alike with themselves. Ko! The "new education" that commends itself to our acceptance cannot be of this materialistic quality. The subject is environed with difficulties, but a wise combination of the two systems, the "old" aud the "new," uniting the best features of both, the classical and the sci- entific, the literary and the Tiractical, will doubtless be best for enrich- ing the mind and equipping the man for his life-work. We cannot discuss at greater length this most vital aspect of our subject. Enough to add that, recognizing the desirableness of reach- ing a larger proportion of American youths than we now do, aud the necessity of correcting the mistakes of the past and adjusting our system of higher education to the broader ends sought, it becomes a question of wise adaptation and earnest endeavor. The public must be made to see that true education does not consist alone in giving one the power to transact business aud to accumulate wealth, but that it aims at the ennobling of one's nature and the enriching of his life, at the same time that it does bring to its possessor increased ability for greater achievements. While educators must recognize the importance of looking at the practical side of their educational work, remembering that however much they may disdain the bread and butter aspect of life, nevertheless its dire necessities i)ress with relentless rigor on the scholar as well as the hod carrier, and that the world's great indusaies are too closely con- nected with the higher interests of man to be overlooked lu any broad and worthy scheme of education. Three courses of procedure are open to the colleges of our country: First, To confess their inability to meet the demands upon them, and j)ermit the multitude of even conspicuous actors on the stage of our American life to live and die without the aid of higher education ; or, secondly, To assign the work to another class of schools, such as business colleges, scientific and industrial schools, etc.; or, thirdly, To under- take the work themselves, and adjust machinery and methmls to the end proposed. The latter course would seem to be the wisest and best for several reasons, which time will permit me only to mention. 7950 COT, pt. 2 17 495 258 EDUCATIONAL COiTVEXnONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. (1) The colleges cannot justify themselves before the public, whose confidence and support they need, in pursuing' an exclusive policy which does not seek ''the greatest good of the greatest number," but compla- cently permits ignorance where knowledge is needed and possible. (2) Other schools are not likely to do the work as well as the colleges might do it. The history of agricultural colleges is uot assuring; hardly one has proven a success except in connection with a regular college. Business colleges, exclusively such, are largely of a very superficial character, often giving their pupils a cheap substitute for a sound and solid education; yet they teach what all business men must know, and if the colleges will not combine the practical with their higher culture, the business colleges will take the young men by platoous, and geuuine culture must ever be wanting among the most worthy and important classes in society. Schools of technology and of special science are of n specific and lim- ited character, and they are probably most serviceable when connected with the college. The same is true of normal schools, which, if they could be lifted above their present status, and out of their present at- mosphere, and connected with M-ell ecjuipped colleges, with all their cult- ure and inspiration, would prove a benediction to the whole American people. And this great work can be accomplished by the colleges without deterioration in genuine scholarship, and witli vast increase of influence and usefulness. The general can be combined with the spe- cific, the literary with the practical, by a wise adjustment, and with great benefit to all concerned. The chief obstacle to be overcome — let me name it without offense — is the prejudice and the pride, nurtured by traditions which, to many of us, have come to possess almost the sacredness of inspired wisdom. We are in trepidation lest our cherisiicd institutions should become something other than the college of the illustrious Past, as though that must be protected and preserved, whether men were educated aud Society liited upward and propelled forward in its high mission or not. But institutions are nothing; men are everything. Tiie former are the scaflblding, the latter the glorious temi>le rising in beauty and per- fection. Traditions should be used as helps, never permitted to become Linderauces. " The meek shall inherit the earth," is a profound prin- ciple, eminently applicable to the entire work of education. If the col- lege wishes to share more largely in this great inheritance, it must clothe itself with this rarest grace of meekness. III. The time required to secure a collegiate education, since it ex- cludes so large a number who but for this would seek college culture, is worthy of careful consideration. The proposal to establish a partial course of wisely selected studies, limited to a somewhat narrower range than that usually covered, and yet sufficiently full to furnish a generous culture, seems not to have met with iavor among college otiicers. It is, however, worth while to consider whether such a course, leading to an appropriate degree, might not profitably be connected with a first-class college, along with its more extensive courses. But granting, as we all believe, that the present standard course is none too full for those who can possibly compass it, there is a serious question whether some other adjustment of time and methods might not accomplish equally good results with considerable saving of valuable time. At the risk ttf introducing startling and unpopular theories I venture to make two or three suggestions. 496 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 259 First, is it not possible tliat some new arrniigement of terms oml hours of actual work might be wisely adoi)ted, at least for such students as might prefer it? Meeting recently a young clergyman of clever ))arts, and falling into conversation with him, I learned that he had at-' tended a school with which he had no special athliation. Finding him both bright and frank, I inquired why he attended tliat school rather than some other college. The answer was promptly given; he could accomi)lish au equal amount of work there in materially less time than at the standard college. Incredulous, of course, I asked if he could do his work as thoroughly. The answer was, "Yes, with an honest, earnest purpose." " How?'' There were four terms a year of twelve weeks each, and six days woric in each week. I began to ai)ply my mathe- matics. Tbe ordinary college Ims about thirty-seven weeks of actual study, with five days ])er week. One hundred and eighty-five days a year, while my economical and talented young friend had given two hun- dred and eighty-eight days of honest study to each year. By this ar- rangement the ordinary four years college course can be fully com- ])leted in just tico and Jiftn-^excn hundredths years. Of course there are college professors and college students whose ideas of the eternal fitness of things would be fearfully' shocked at the mere mention of such continuous work as this. But why should we be startled at such a suggestion f Does not the merchant work forty-eight, and oftener fifty- two, weeks in a year to pick up gold, and the minister to benefit his brother, and the manufacturer to keep the wheels of industry buzzing '? Earnest men with a great purpose are anxious to achieve the greatest possible good in their lives, and are more eager for labor than for holiday rest. What class of men are, or should be, more in earnest than students and teachers iu our colleges ? It is doubtful whether for the majority of students the arrangement suggested might not be quite as favorable for health, scholarship, and morals. Young children in the primary schools may be, and perhaps sometimes are, overpressed with study; but few college students with correct habits are injured by hard study. College work is not more exhausting than that of most men outside of college halls. Holidays and vacations are by no means always profit- able, in any sense. Of course such a plan would call for a larger teach- ing corps. If it is said that the English colleges have shorter collegiate years than our own, two facts may be stated in reply; first, the English col- leges graduate a large mimber of very superficially educated men; secondly, the real scholars do a large i)art of their icorlc outside of col- lege walls and college terms. The German realschiden and gijmna/iien, which correspond most nearly to the American colleges, accomidish almost twice the work in a given time that our colleges do. 1 do not propose this itlan of more work in a year as the absolutely best plan that can be adoi)ted, but t suggest it as a bint, and a possible alternative between a collegiate education thus secured, or not secured at all, by many earnest and worthy youths. It would not be impossible to combine this plan with that ordinarily pursued, carrying forward two classes of students, according to choice, and thus test the merits of both. At any rate our thought will not be squandered on a suggestion that has such possibilities in it, and which bears so directly upon the subject in question. Another suggestion as to the time jiroblem. Is not much time often wasted by methods which are susceptible of great improvement '? 497 260 EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION James Freeman Clarke says : In my youth, both iu school and in college, mnch time was lost by the recitations. In college wo had three recitatiocs each day of each divisiou, each lasting one hour. Thus we spent three precious hours every day iu hearing other young men recite, more or less badly, what we had already spent some hours m studying ourselves. If we had learned ttie lesson properly, we conld learn nothing more by heaving it recited by others. If the teacher had explained or illustrated the difficult passages, that would have been an advantage; but in those days he regarded it as his sole business to hear the recitation, and to mark on a paper by his side the degree of accuracy ob- tained by each scholar. This took his whole time. A better method has been intro- duced in some places. Teachers have learned that it is their business to teach. It. is to be feared that this characterization of time wasted in the reci- tation room is not by any means wholly inapplicable to the colleges of to-day. Then, too, in adjusting onr college machinery, ought there not to be a recoguition of the great mental differences between students who start iu the same class? Ought the bright and capable students to be kept waiting, as they usually are, for the dullards *? A system wisely planned will give every man a fair chance to accomplish tbework required in as little time as he can do it thoroughly. It will not, of course, encourage haste and superficiality, nor will it discourage honest desire to econo- mize time when consistent with sound scholarship. The question whether much time is not wasted by the traditional college method of studying foreign languages is a vital one, and is challenging the attention of edu- cators. It is claimed that there is too much grammar and lexicon, and too little actual knowledge of the language studied. The claim is not new. Great names have supi)orted it, such as Milton, Locke, Mon- taigne, and a multitude of otLers of the best writers on education. Wise men of to day whose opinions deserve consideration affirm and lament the needless expenditure of precious time by an unwise adher- ence to lalse methods. President Garfield said, Our colleges shouM require a student to understand thoroughly the structure, idioms, and spirit of these Janguages, and to be able by the aid of a lexicon to analyze and translate them with readiness and elegance. They should give him the key to the storehouse of ancient literature, that ho may explore its treasures for himself in after life. This can be done in two years less than the usual time, and nearly as well as it is now done. Language like this, and from such a source, deserves respectful atten- tion. One thing is certain, the results of our ordinary methods are far from satisfactory, and the peril from an honest testing of some other method is not alarming. The average graduate, after all his toilsome years of thumbing his lexicon and grammar, may well be characterized •as knowing " little Latin and less Greek," while with ancient classical literature he has but the slightest acquaintance. Probably not one col- lege graduate in one hundred could speak intelligently for one minute in either of the dead languages, nor hardly in the modern languages ; not one in twenty-five can read the ancient classics in the original with ease, and not one in fifty does read them to any considerable extent after graduation, unless he teaches them as a profession. Surely if there is any method that will save nearly half of the five or seven years devoted to Greek and Latin, and at the same time furnish the student with equal culture and with a far better knowledge of classical litera- ture, the flavor and enchanting influence of which will accompany him through life, by all means let us give the method an honest and faith- ful trial, and not pronounce judgment against it on the slightest exam- ination. But these are mere hints. The practical question relevant to our subject is, whether by the 498 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 2GI adoption of any or all of these suggestions, and of other means which want of time forbids the mentioning, the colleges may not, in part, overcome the hinderance which excludes from their halls so many thousands of young people, viz, the length of time required to complete a college course. But little time remains for the consideration of other points of equal, and perhaps of greater, importance. IV. A full hour might i>rofitably he given to the subject of the ex- pensiveness of a college education. A few moments must suffice. There is probably no college president in the land who is not painfnlly aware of the fact that there are thousands of worthy young people who are intensely anxious to secure a collegiate education, but are prevented by reason of the expense involved. Is there any remedy"? Two things can and should be done. Firat, our colleges should be so amply endowed and supplied with resources that, as nearly as possible, tuition may be made free. The student should not be made to feel that he is an object of charity, but the college, as far as it can, should stand in this rtfspect on a par with the free, public school. There is hardly an object in this country that calls so imperatively for the gifts of benevolent men, and promises such splendid returns for the money thus invested, as does the well-conducted college. Philan- thropy never looked upon a more inviting field, and while much wealth is being thus devoted to highest uses, the marvel is, that far-seeing- men do not in greater numbers see and seize their opportunity, and lift our colleges into a position in which they can invite the youth of our country to their literary feast " without monej' and without })i ice." It is sincerely hoped that a brighter day will soon dawn ui)ou all our embarrassed institutions of learning, and that the clouds which now so darkly overshadow them may speedily reveal a silver or a golden lining. But, secondly, the college authorities should seek to keep the ex- penses of college life down to the lowest point consistent with health and scholarship. The task is a difficult one, as any one who has at- temi)ted it can attest. The citizens of the town in which the college is located will not be likely to render any assistance in this direction ; many of the students will resist every attempt to limit their right to spend their parents' money with lavish hand. Nevertheless, nothing that has been said in this paper, or can be said, has more to do with the number of educated men than this question of expense. The necessary expenses of a student are often slight in proportion to his needless ex- penditures. And, as a general rule, all unnecessary expense among col- lege students militates against the real ends of education. Take out of the average student's accounts all that does not help him to health or manhood or scholarship, and you have subtracted a large proportion of his expenses. The amount put into fraternities, clubs, late suppers, class follies, regalia, etc., is what startles the hard-))ressed parent, and makes him resolve to let the next son try his hand at 'the world's work without a college training. The aristocracy of clothes and of society is an impertinence in college. The mischief does not stop with the party immediately involved, but effects the whole body of students, and operates to keep away from colleges thousands who would otherwise enjoy their advantages. The prevailing habits of life in all our colleges should be such that no young man or woman living on crackers and cheese, and wearing garments of homesi)un material, would ever have occasion to feel the slightest mor- tification, or ever be reminded of any sacrifice of social recognition or honorable distinction. 499 262 EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. There certainly are institutions in which this is the case; it ought to be universal in college society. When Mr. Thwiug, or any other man, writes another book on American colleges, it he can truthfully iuiorm the anxious thousands seeking higher education that the expenses have been greatly reduced, the proportion of educated men and women will soon be increased. V. I have time barely to allude to the fact that the disciplinary regime, the moral order, and the religious spirit of our institutions of learning will largely affect the number of their patrons. Nothing gives such confidence in colleges and in the value of their work as an eminently moral and religious tone pervading them. Nothing destroys confidence and redtices patronage like the abseuce of this pre-eminent quality. It must be admitteil that the faith of the public in college culture has been subjected to rather severe strains by the moral status of not a few institutions. Keports of college rowdyism, of hazing, and of matched games of foot-ball or base-ball, which in spirit and results are not unlike the prize fighters' V)rutal sport, spread before the readers of the daily press with sickening detail and editorial spice, are not particularly fa- vorable to the highest degree of confidence m the system and its fruits. There is but one way of counteracting this unfavorable influence, and that is to make the colleges such centers of moral power and Christian influence as to command the respect and confidence of the best classes throughout the country. And this leads to another remark. If our higher institutions are to hold their place and increase their patronage, they must be kept free from the influence of materialism, agnosticism, and all other forms of anti-Christian philosophy. Whatever may be true of other countries, the colleges of this country have nearly all been founded on the principle expressed in Harvard's motto, Christo et Ecdesicc, and "to Christ and his Church" must they remain true, or be content with waning rather than iucreasins: influence. Not until this Republic has made a nearer approach to its "decline and fall" — a doom which we all pray and hope may never befall us — will infidel schools, or schools antagonistic to Christianity, rise to command- ing influence. On the contrary, the more of the teachings and spirit of the Great Teacher all our educational institutions inculcate and stamp upon the characters of their students, the wider will be the sphere of their influ- ence aud the larger will be the numbers who flock to their halls. VI. Finally, perhaps the most essential and all inclusive means of in- creasing the number of educated men, is to employ as educators only those persons who possess the loftiest type of character and the highest qualifications of mind aud heart. More than any and every other con- sideration in the work of education, more than ample grounds and ex- pensive buildings and costly museums and extensive libraries and sci- entific appliances, and elaborate gymnasia and ostentatious curricula, is the true and regal teacher. Garfield was quite right when he said, "It has long been my opinion that we are all educated, whether children, men, or women, far uiore by personal intifluence than by books and the api^aratus of schools. If I could be taken -back into boyhood to-day and had all the libraiios and api)aratus of a univerNity, with ordinary routine professors, oflered me on the on^ hand, and on the other a great, luminous, rich-souled man, such as Dr. Hopkins was twenty-five years ago, in a tent, in the woods alone, I should say, 'Give me Dr. Ho[)kins for my college course, rather than any university with only routine professors.'" The teacher of marked character and genuine power and enthusiasm will act as a mag- 500 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 263 net, (lrawiii<>' youth toward him as a center of potent influence, kindling within them the tires of his own enthusiasm, and imparting to them something of his own superior nature. Put into all our schools teachers of such a quality, and we shall thereby crowd them with enthusiastic pupils, eager to rise to the topmost round of the educational ladder. When that unique character, " Fnther Taylor," the famous sailor preacher of Boston, was once consulted about jjlacing a bell on his new church, he ])romptly replied, "1 will put the bell in the pulpit." He was true to his promise, and his ringing notes from the pulpit crowded the church with interested listeners, so that no bell in the belfry was needed to secure an audience. Js^o word of application is required. Fellow teachers : I have used ])laiu speech, void of the rhetorical arts of concealment or conciliation. If] had aimed to utter sentiments of a popular character, in i)erfect accord with the opinions of all my breth- ren, and certain to receive your approval, the task would not have been a difficult one. Assuming that my audience would consist mostly of honest, thoughtful educator.^, eager to know if any new or but partially tested means might be used to secure the end we all deem desirable, I have ventured in good spirit and temper of mind, 1 ho])e, to make some suggestions. Whether these suggestions would be popular or unpopular has not been permitted to occupy my thought, and I leave them with you for what they are worth. They have not all of them been given as settled convictions of what was surely best, but as hints with more or less of possible or probable value in them. Our common work is a great one, and difficult as great. It requires men of high culture and pure character and supreme devotion to God and humanity, such as we all aim and hope to be. The ISTation and the Church need wise and strong leaders, and we in the colleges must sup- ply the urgent need. All vocations in life and all classes in society greatly need men and women with genuine culture and the truest type of manhood and womanhood. We must do our best to meet this great demand. 501 THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION m ONTARIO. By Prof, Albert H. Newman, LL. D., Toronto Baptist College. I. General Observations. In no departuient of educatiou has progress been so marked within the last twenty years, in Ontario, as in the theological. Most of the progress really falls within the last six years.' Of the six leading Prot- estant theological institntions, two of the most flonrishing have been founded within the latter period, one having been fully eqnip[)ed and virtually endowed, and the other already taking rank alongside of the older institutions. Of the four older institutions, all have added largely to their resources, and we may suppose that their efiticiency has corre- spondingly increased. There is every reason to expect that the next twenty years will be a period of even greater progress than the last. A generous rivalry prevails among the denominations in this, as in other departments of Christian work, and each can rejoice in the pros- perity of the theological institutions of the rest, if for no higher reason, because of the stimulus which is imparted thereby to its own institutions. 1. Conservative Character of Theological Education in Ontario. — So far as I am aware, no new system of theology or ecclesiology has been de- veloped on Canadian soil. Whatever of unorthodox teaching and practice has appeared has come from without, and the spirit of con- servatism has been so dominant froai the first that little encouragement has been given to innovators. Naturally, the theological colleges re- flect this spirit of conservatism, and are themselves bulwarks of ortho- doxy, each according to the standard of the denomination it represents. If there has been any shortcoming, it has been in failure to take suffi- cient cognizance of the current of modern thought. 2! Faculties. — The theological faculties of Ontario are none of them large as compared with those of some of the wealthier institutions of the United States, or in proportion to the actual need. The various theological faculties have each from three to tive members, and in some of the institutions even these are able to devote only a portion of their time to theological teaching. Only one institution has a faculty of" tive, all of whom give their entire time to the work. In this particni.ir there is abundant opportunity for progress, and there are indu'ations that some of the faculties will soon be re enforced by the establishment of new chairs. The fact is becoming more and more widely recognized that two or three men, however able, cannot satisfactorily master or teach the whole circle of the theological sciences, and that the necessity of distributing one's energies among several departments and of devot- ing an excessive number of hours to class-room work forbids the highest attainment in any department. The fact that the professors in our institutions have from the beginning been thus overburdened, along 502 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 265 with that of the want of adequate libraries, accounts, in large measure, for the literary sterility of Canadian theologians. Leisure and libraries are the indispensable conditions of useful literary production, in thi-s as in all other departments of research. Many able and noble men have labored and are laboring under the disadvantages named above, and their labors have not been in vain; but it is becoming every year more and more difficult to labor successfully without concentration, in pro- portion as theology is coming to be studied more and more scientitically and the literature of each department is becoming even more extensive. The great need of theological education in Ontario is, therefore, a doub- ling of the faculties of most of the insticutions, and this means a doubling of the funds for the support of professors. 3. Endmcments. — Hitherto all of the theological institutions have been supported almost entirely by annual contributions of the churches and of generous individuals. Of the six institutions referred to before, one is supposed to be, virtually, well endowed, another has an endowment of about $150,000, and the rest have each less than $75,000. The time has not yet arrived in Canada when it is safe to say that $1,000,000 is the smallest sum for which a theological college can be properly equipped, as many leading educators in the United States are saying; but one or two notable examples of broad-minded and far-sighted generosity in providing for theological education cannot fail to raise the standard to a far higher point than it has yet reached. 4. Libraries. — In scarcely any other particular are the theological in- stitutions of Ontario more deficient than in libraries. Tliese range from 3,000 volumes or less to 10,000 volumes. No one of them is en- dowed to any considerable extent, and the growth of most of them has been slow and precarious. The fact that the professors have been over- worked and have had little leisure for research, has doubtless prevented them in some instances from putting forth the exertion necessary t;> the collection of libraries. So far as I am aware, there is not in Ontario or in the Dominion of Canada a theological library where one could be sure of lindiugeven the most essential works in any given department. Yet the libraries all contain many useful books, and are most of tliem fairly adequate to the wantsof students. Herealso there lias been marked progress within the last few years, one of the largest and best libraiies having been entirely collected since the beginning of tbe year 1881. The fact is coming to be recognized that books are as essential as bricks and brains, and that for the collection and maintenanc^e of a library adequate to the needs of a theological college a liberal expenditure of time and money is indispensable. 5. /Students. — The number of students in these six ijistitutious ranges from 15 to 50, the latter being probably the largest number of strictly theological students ever present at the same time in any of these in- stitutions. The degree of preparation required varies, one institution insisting upon the completion of a university course, one upon univer- sity matriculation, and others, while urging u[)on all the importance of completing a university course if practicable, re(;eive students for si)ecial courses of study who have only a common-school education. Tlie ten- dency throughout seems to be toward gradually raising the standard of admission. C. Courses of Study. — The three years' curriculum prevails in most of the colleges, with special advanced courses of reading for the degree of B. D. 1 lie degree of D. D. is likewise conferred on exaniination by several of the colleges, and some of them have tbe power of conferring the honorary degree of D. D. Little has been attempted as yet in the 503 266 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. way of resident graduate courses of study. The tendency among stu- dents is to remain in residence tbe shortest time practicable. This is doubtless fostered by the regulations of the Provincial University, which require only one year of residence for the lour years' course. 7. Affiliations of the Theological Colleges. — The theological colleges of Ontario may be divided into two classes, as regards their connection with literary institutions : First, those that are afliliated more or less closely with the Provincial University, or with the college maintained by the University (University College, Toronto); and, Second, those that form departments of denominational Universities. To the former class belong Knox College (Presbyterian), the Protestant Episcopal Divinity iSchool (Wyclitie College), and Toronto Baptist College (McMaster Hall), all of Toronto. To the latter class belong the theo- logical department of the University of Trinity College, Toronto (An- glican), Queen's College and University, Kingston (Presbyterian), and Victoria University, Coburg (Methodist). The institutions thus con- nected with the Provincial University, besides making use of the arts course for fitting their students for theology, avail themselves of the lectureship in Oriental languages maintained by the University, and are thus able to dispense, either wholly or in part, with instruction in Hebrew and Aramaic as languages. Moreover, theological students who have not enjoyed the advantages of University training have the ])rivilege of attending any ot the courses of lectures jjrovided by the University, while pursuing their theological studies. The laige Univer- sity library is also accessible to the students of the affiliated theological colleges. The theological departments of the denominational univer- sities are, of course, much more intimately related to the arts depart- ment, the same professors lecturing in theology and in arts. II. The Institutions in Detail. It will be most convenient to take up the institutions according to denominations. I. CHURCH OF ENGLAND THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES. (1.) Theological Department of Trinity College. The secularization of King's College, which up to 1850 had been con- trolled by the Church of England and had embraced a faculty in divinity, led to the establishment of Trinity College as a denomina- tional institution in 1851. The training of candidates for the ministry was doubtless a prime consideration, and from the beginning theologi- cal instruction was provided. The college has been maintained largely by contributions from England, and latterly in Canada. There are at present two professors in divinity whose chairs are endowed, and two lecturers. Candidates for the degree of B. D. must be graduates in arts of three years' standing, and musti)ass examinations on a prescribed course of reading. The degree of D. D. is conferred on bachelors of divinity of five years' standing on examination. A special course of reading is set for this degree. The library of the college numbers altogether 6,300 volumes, but the theological is not distinguished from the general collection. Students are aided chiefly by means of scholarships (two of which yield $1G0 each), and by means of exhibitions provided by yearly col- 504 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 2G7 lections under the luitbority of the synods of the Dioceses of Toronto, 2Niag:ara, and Ontario. At present there are thirteen wStudeuts in divinity classes, besides two who are reading for honors, making a total of fifteen, FACULTY. First Professor— The Provost, Rev. C. W. E. Body, M. A., D. C. L. ^Second Professor — Rev. G. A. S. Schnkideh, M. A. Lecturer in Apologetics axd Pastoral Theoloijj — Rev. W. Clark, M. A. Lecturer in Bomihtics — Rev. J. P. Lewis. COURSE Ol" STUDY. The course of study in tlie divinity chiss extends over twj years. Instruction is given by the professors and lecturers in the following subjects : I. Old Testament: Biblical History, with special refereace to tbe tlicolon;y of the Old Testament ; Sehctetl Books of (lie Old Testaiuent iu English ; Hebrew Grammar : Selected Portions of the Obi Testament in Hebrew. II. New Testament: New Testament Grammar and Synonyms; History of New Tes- tament Times; the Gospel of S. John in Greek ; Selected Portions of the Episties in Greek, with fnll comments ; cursory reading of other Epistles in Greek. III. Chiircli Ilistorfi : (a) Early Church History down to 451 A. D.; (&) the outlines of English Church History. IV. Pairistics : One selected Greek, and one selected Latin, patristic writing. V. Doctrinal Theologij : The Articles of the Church of England ; Pearson on the Creed ; Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Book V. VI. Liiurf/iolofin : Ttie Book of Common Prayer, and its relation to earlier liturgies. VII. Jpolof/elics : Paley's Evidences of Christianity ; Blunt's Undesigned Coinci- dences ; I3ntler's Analogy ; a New Analogy by Cellarius ; Rowe's Bamptou Lectures ; Christlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief; Barry's Boyle Lectures; Bishop Cotterillon Science and Religion. VIII. Practical Theology : («) Pastoral Theology — Van Oosterzee's Practical Theol- ogy, Blunt's Directorium Pastorale, Shedd's Pastoral Theology ; {h) Homiletics. LICENTIATE IN SACRED THEOLOGY. The candidate for this degree must have kept nine comi)lete terms. He must (1) have passed thfe primary examination for the degree of B. A., and two June examinations of the divinity class; or (2) have ob- tained honors in theology, and have passed at a Christmas or June examination of the divinity class in the year's work of the class in doc trine, apologetics, jjastoi^al theology, and homiletics, having attended at least one term's lectures iu these subjects. BACHELOR OF DIVINITY. The candidate for this degree must be a graduate in arts of the Uni- versit}" of three years' standing, or in the case of a graduate admitted '■'ad eundem sfatum,''^ of at least three years' standing from his first degree. The requirement that the candidate shall be a graduate in arts may, however, be dispensed with by the corporation, on si>ecial application having been made to them in the case of clergymen who have been in priest's orders for at least six years, but such candidates shall be re- quired to pass the matriculation examination in Trinity College. Except in the case hereinafter j^rovided for, rhe candidate must pass two examinations, to be called the First and Second Examinations for the degree of B. D. Graduates who have completed the two years' divinity course in Trin- ity College and have passed the two June examinations of the divinity 505 2G8 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. class, obtaining at least a second class in each examination, shall be exempted from the first examination lor the degree of B. D. The examinations in divinity will begin October Ist, and candidates for any examination must send notice to the Provost not later than July 1st, specifying, where necessary, the part of the examination for which they intend to present themselves. First Examination for the Degree of B. D. The subjects for this examination shall be as follows : (1) Selected portious from the historical, poetical, aud prophetical parts of the Old Testament (questious iu Hebrew will be set, but are uot obligatory for the degree). (2) A selected Gospel and Epistle or Epistles from the New Testament in Greek. (3) One selected Greek, aud one selected Latin ecclesiastical writing. (4) The outlines of the history (a) of the Christian Church to A. D. 451 ; (b) of the English Church. (5) A selected work on dogma'lc theology. (6) A selected work on apologetic theol- •'ff.V' (^) -^ selected work on Chrisiian ethics. (8) A selected work on pastoral the- ology. The selected works for the years 1885-87, inclusive, are ; (1) Joshua and Judges ; Psalms, Book III. ; Isaiah ch. i-xxv. (2) The Gospel accord- ing to S. Luke; the Epistle of S. .lames. ('5) The Epistle of S. Clement of Rome to the Corinthians; S. Augustine's Confessions. (.')) Martensen's Christian Dogmatics. (6) Christlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. (7) Martensen's Christian Ethics, Vol. I. (8) Brooks (Kev. P.), Lectures on Preachiug. The selected works for the year 1888 are : (1) Exodus aud Numbers; Psaluis, Book I.; Isaiah ch. xl-lxvi. (2) The Gospel according to S. Mark; the Epistle to rh« Rom uis. (3) The Apostolic Constitutions, Book VII, and the AiSaxV] Lenasus, Book V. (5) Martensen's Christian Dogmatics. (()) Christlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. (7) Martensen's Christian Ethics, Vol. I. (8) Farrar's Christian Ministry. Second Examination for the Degree of jB. D. The candidate may select for examination one of the five following :^roups of subjects : I. Old Testament. — The Hebrew Scriptures, with special reference to selected books ; also selected books from the Septuagint version, Tlie history aud development of the Kingdom of God during the Old Testament period, with special regard to its relation to the Christian ministry and sacraments. II. New Testament. — The New Testament in Greek, with sjiccial rcfereace to selected books; the history and constitution of the Christian Church during the Apostolic period ; the history of the canon of the New Testament, and of its text — its inspiration and contents. III. Patristics and Ecclesiastical Tlistorti. — The history and constitution of the Chris- tian Church during the Apostolic period, and to the death of Leo the Great, with selected Christian writings of this i)eriod; the history of the English Church, special regard beiug had to the history and doctrinal position of th» various bodies which have separated from her. IV. Liturgies and Doqmaiic Theology. — The ancient liturgies and their relation to the various eucharistic ofiices of the Anglican Church ; the creeds aud illustrative docu- ments; the history of some selected cloctrine. V. Apologetics. — Positive grounds of faith, embracing the several lines of thought by which the mind is led (a) to the conviction of the existence of God ; {h) to the con- viction of the truth of Christianity ; selected ancient Christian Apologies ; relation of Christianity to other philosophical aud ethical systems. The selected works of the various groups for the years 1885-83, in- clusive, are: I. Old Testament. — In Hebrew — 1 Sanmel, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah; in the Soptnagint Version — I Samuel, Wisdom; Hengstenberg's Kingdom of God under the Old Testa- ment ; Ocli lei's Theology of the Old Testament; Riehni's Messianic Prophecy ; Perowne's Psalms (Introduction). II. Sew Testament. — The Gospel according to S. .John ; the Epistle to th(i Romans ; the Epistles of S. John ; the lipistlo of S. jude ; the Apocalypse ; Neander's History 506 INTERNATIONAL CONGUESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 269 of the Planting of Cliristianity : Essays in Ligbtfoot's Comnieiitnries; Westcolt's In- troduction to the Study of the Gospels; Westcott's History r f the Canon ; Sanday's Gospel iu the Second Century ; Westcott and Hort's Introduction (Vol. II of the New Testament): Row on Inspiration. in. Patristics and Ecclexiastical History. — The seven Greek Epistles of S. Ignatius; S. Irenai'us c. Haerescs, Book III ; S. Cyprian de Unitate Ecclesiae and de Oratione; S. Cyril of Jerusalem, Catecheses III, IV, V; S. Chrysostom, Homilies on the Stat- utes V, XX; Socrates, Hist. Eccl., Books V, VI; S. Augustine de Civitate Dei, Books V, XXII. IV. Liturgies and Dofjmatic T7ieo?o/;;/.— Socrates Hist. Eccl. i. 8; Definition of the Faith by the Council ofChalcedon (Canons of the first four General Councils, p. o4); Hammond's Ancient. Liturgies ; Palmer's Origines Liturgicse : Comber's Companion to the Temple, Parts I, II; The Doctrine of Justifical.ion. V. ApiilmaD, History of Latin Christianity, Vol. il, Cap. VI, VII; Bede, Hist. EccL, Books I, 11; an'icle •'Gregory I", in Dictionary of Christian Biography; Gibbon's Decline and l-'all of the Roman Empire, Cap. XXXVII, XLI-XLVI; jNionialembert's Monks of the West. (6) The Life and Times of Archbishop Auselm. Book^ recommended — Life of Anselm (Dean Church) ; Neander's History of \ he Christian Church, Vol. VIII (passim) ; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, Vo!. II, cap. 3; Cur Deus Homo, (c) The Life and Times of Richard Hooker. Books recommended — Stryyje's Lives of Arch- bishops Parker-, Grindali, and Whitgift; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canter- bury, Vols. IV, V, new series; Hooker's Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, Books VII, VIII;' Biison's Perpetual Government of Christ's Church. Thesis: The inHnence of th<5 pecu- liar social and political characteris; ics of the period upon the character of the English Reibrmation. IV. Liturgies and Dogmatic Theology. — Breviarium ad Usum Sarum (Cambridge Press) ; Liturgies of King Edward VI (Parker Society) ; Freeman's Principles of Divine Service; Maskell's Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England; The Sarum Missal (Procter's History of the Book of Common Prayer) ; Card well's Conferences; Institu- tion of a Christijin Man; Homilies, Vol. I, 4, 5; Vol. 11, 1, 7, 9; Dean Nowell's Cate- chism; Jewell's Apology; Cranmer's True and Catholic Doctrine of the Holy Eu- charist ; Ussher's Answer to a Jesuit ; Winer's Confessions of Christendom (tor refer- ence) ; Masters in English Theology (Murray). Thesis : The doctrine of human free- dom in its relation to original sin and divine grace. V. Apologetics. — Plato's Phaedo; Eusebins, Praeparatio Evangelica, Book II; Euse- bius, Demonstratio Evangelica. Book I ; Rhys Davis on Buddhism, S. P. C. K. ; Monier Williams on Hinduism, S. P. C. K. ; Douglas on Confucianism, S. P. C. K. ; Max Miil- ler's Essays on the Science of Religion (Vol. I of " Chips from a German Workshop''); Chapters on "Religion" in Rawliusop's Ancient Monarchies; Ancient History from the Monuments, S. P. C. K.; Rawlinson's Historical Illustrations of the Old Testa- ment; The Emperor Julian : Paganism and Christianity' (Rendall); Duke of Argyll's Reign of Law; Pfere Didon's Science Nvithont God ; The Supernatural in Nature ; The Unseen Universe (Balfour & Tait) ; A New Analogy by Celiarius ; Liddon's Some Ele- ments of Religion; Bishop Littlejohn's Individualism. Thesis: The needs of Man to which Buddh.sm bears witness, and the way in which Christianity meets them. N. B. — Candidates are at liberty to send in theses upon other subjects in each group, to be approved of by the examiners. Tlie selected works for 1889 are the same as above, with (-he substitu- tion in Seeliou V of the Duke of Argyll's " Unity of Nature" for " The Supernatural in Nature." Candidates for the degrees of B. D. or D. P. are required to preach a sermon before the University. Any graduate of the University, holding the office of bishop or dean in the Church of England, is eligible for the degree of doctor of divinity, jure dignitatis, upon payment of the accustomed fee for that degree. (2.) WycUffe College, Toronto. This institution was incorporated in 1879, and grew out of dissatisfac- tion with the alleged High Church tendencies of Trinity College. Its thoroughly evangelical position is well expressed by the following ex- tract from the Calendar: I. Its chief aim and purpose is to provide sound and comprehensive theological training, iu accordance with ihe distinctive principles of evangelical truth, as em- bodied in the Thirty-nine Articles ; and to send forth men trained in these principles — men who, renewed by the Spirit of Christ and constrained by the love of Christ, are determined, with S. Paul, to preach nothing but Christ, and Him crncihed. II. Its close proximity to and connection with University College secure for the students all the advantages to be derived from its ample resources, in the attainment .of a sound and comprehensive liberal education. By no other arrangement could thi> ^ntellecUial training be so effectively and completely provided. And even in those cases where a complete university course cannot be taken, the student can avail him- self of the advantages furnished by this well equipped University in the departments of Oriental languages, phiio.-ophy, \iieutal science, and classics. 50« INTERXATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 271 It is sustained by the synipatlij' and liberality of some of the most juoiuinent laymen in Ontario. From the first it has utilized University College for instruction in nil extra-tlieological sul)iects and in Oriental languages, and it has now entered formally into afUliation with the Uni- versity. The cost of the buildings already completed and in course of erection is upwards of $54,000. The endowment fund now reaches $G2,000. The annual income from endowmeut, annual subscriptions, etc., is upwards of $8,000. The staff of instruction consists of lour pro- fessors, three lecturers, and a tutor in patristics. A third professor is to be added this year. The library is stdl small, but extensive additions are to be made in the near future. The present number of students is 25. Beneficiary aid is furnished in the form of exhibitions, whose max- imum value is $120. The college is now in affiliation with the University of Toronto. Prof essor of Dogmatic Tlieology avd of the Exegesis and Literature of the Xeiv Testament — Rev. J. P. Sheraton, D. D., Princii)al. Professor of the Exegesis and Literature of the Old Testament and of Apologetics — Rev. E. Daniel, B. A. ProfevHor of Ecdesiastical Historfi and Liturgies — Rev. G. M. Wrong, B. A. Professor of Ethics and Practical Thcologii—Rev. F. H. Du Vernet. Lecturer in Homiletics — Ven. Aichdeacou BoDDY, M. A. Lecturer in Apotogetics — Rev. Sept. Jones, M. A. Tutor in Classics and Patristics — P. H. Langton, Esq., B. A. Lecturer in Elocution — COURSE OF study embraces the following subjects: I. Exegetical Theology: Biblical criticism, including the history and determinatiou of the text ; the history of ihe canon ; the history of version ; and the principles of interpretation.! The literature and exegesis of the Old Testament, including general and special introduction, and the reading of selected books and portions. The litera- ture and exegesis of the New Testament, including general and special introduction, and the critical reading of selected books and portions. II. Dogmatic Theology, including courses of lectures upon the nature and extent of the canon ; the rule of Faith ; the nature and character of God; the nature and sin of man ; the person of Christ ; the way of salvation ; the Church and sacraments; the Last Things. Standard works upon the Thirty-nine Articles and the creeds are read criiically. III. Ecclesiastical History and Liturgies ; especially the history of the first three cen- turies, tho- Reformation, and the Church of England. Also, the history and interpre- tation of the Book of Common Prayer. IV. Apologetic Theology, including natural theology ; the theistic argument ; the historical evidences; with the critical reading of standard works on apologetics. V. Practical Theology, including homiletics, the preparation and delivery of ser- mons, and pastoral theology, the nature and work of the miuistiy. (In connection with this subject, special attention is given to i)ractical work and to elocntiou. All th« students engage in mission work in country districts, and in Sunday school work, Biiile classes, etc., iu the city.) VI. Ethics, theoretical and jjractical. The course of study extends over three full years. It is possible for arts students to take in options du.'Jng the third and fourth years of their arts course the equivalent of one year's theological study, and thus make the entire period occupied in the arts and theological curric- ula six years. All students who are not graduates in arts must ma- tiiculate in the University of Toronto, and must spend ibur years in their course, which in that case includes, in addition to the theological 'The study of Hebrew is pursued.in University College. 509 272 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. curriculum, the equivalent of oue year's work in arts, chiefly devoted to classics, metaphysics, and logic. Non-matriculated students can be admitted to a partial course, but cannot have the standing of graduates of Wycliffe College. II. METHODIST THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE. With the union of tlie Methodist Churches of Canada, a union in theological education was also effected. The theological department of Victoria University will henceforth, it is supposed, enjoy the undivided ' patronage of the denomination in Ontario. Theological Department of Victoria University, Cohiirg. This institution was primarily designed for the education of males and I'eraalcs, and of candidates for the ministry. The building was erected in 18o2 at a cost of $40,000 — a large sum for that time; the institution was as yet unincorporated. It was incorporated as the "Upper Canada Academy" in 183G, and was reorganized as a univer- sity by an amended charter in 1841, the theological department being always prominent. The theological endowment now amounts to about $58,(J00. Foiu- professors of the university devote a portion of their time to theological instruction, and the Dean of the Faculty of Theology devotes his eutire time to this work. The theological library numbers about 5,000 volumes. To enter the theological department at all, stu- dents must have matriculated in arts, and candidates for the degree of r>. D. must be graduates in arts. The entire number of theological students hist year (including 2 non-resident candidates for the degree of B. D. and li probationers) was 36. This year there are 42 in attend- ance, besides several non-residents who are reading for the degree of B. D. Beneficiary aid is bestowed in the form of loans, repayable in ten years without interest. It is expected that the Methodists of Ontario, who are one of the largest, wealthiest, and most aggressive bodies in the Province, will, now that union has been consummated, bring their facilities for theo- logical education into accord with their commanding position. FACULTY. • Professor of Ethics, Apologetics, and Romileiics — JIkv. S. S. Nelles, D. D., LL. D., Pi-esi- deiit. Edward Jackson Professor of Biblical and Systematic Theology — Rev. N. Burwash, S. T. D., Dean. Exegesis and Literature of the New Testament — JOHX WiLSOX, LL. D. Bihlicul and Ecclesiastical Histori/ — llvv. A. H. Reynar, M. A. Adjunct Professor in Theology — Rev. G. C. Workman, M. A. Exegesis and Literature of the Old Testament — Rev. N. BqRWASH, S. T. D. COURSE OF STUDY. The following course extends over two or three years, according to the previous preparation of the students: First Year.' Systematic theoloj^y, soteriology, and practical doctrines of relio;ion : Biblical in- troduction; Biblical history ; New Testament, Greek; Hebrew langnase; naetaphysics and logic. 'The tirst year is usually taken in connection with arts work. &10 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS— PAPERS. 273 Second Year. Systematic Theology : General introduction ; principles of theism ; the nature and crodentials of Revelation; inspiration; the canon; the doctrine of God; creation; providence ; sin ; the person and office of Christ. EsegctUal Theology: New Testament — the gospels Luke, John, and Matthew v, vi, vii ; Old Testament — the Pentateucli and the Psalms, selections. Biblicfd Theolofi;/: Lectureson the Mosaic doctrines of creation; the Fall of man ; the deluge; Egypt and the Exodus; the Sinaitic legislation ; Musaism and ancient relig- ious and ancient law ; the development of Christian doctrine in the New Testament, especially prior to S. Paul. Historical Theology : History of the Christian'Church to the time of the Eeformatiozi. Third Year. Systematic Theology: The atonenjent; the office and work of the Spirit; the proba- tional conditions of salvation ; justification; regeneration and sanctification ; Chris- tian ethics; the doctrine of the Church ; eschatology. History of Doctrine and Comparative Theology. Church Polity and Homiletics. Exegelical Theology: The New Testament — Romans and Hebrews; the Old Testa- ment — Isaiah, Zcchariah, Job, and Proverbs. Biblical Theology: Lectureson prophecy — its nature, development, and function in the Old Testament; Messianic ijrophecy in relation to the historical and religions development of the chosen people ; the Pauline theology lectures accompanying the exegesis of Romans. Historical Theology : Modern Church history. r • III. PRESBYTERIAN THEOLOGICAL COLLEGES. (1.) Theological Department of Queen's College and University, Kingston. As ill most deDominational institutions, theological education lias from the beginning held a very prominent place in Queen's College. Before the union of the various Presbyterian bodies (1861 and 1875), it was maintained by the Old Kirk, There is no special endowment for the theological department, but part of the Income of the general endow- ment fund of the university is appropriated to the theological work of the institution. Besides this, the theological department draws an in- come from the Temporalities Fund of the Old Kirk, and receives liberal collections from the churches. The entire income for this department is about $7,500 annually. The theological library contains about (5,000 volumes. The faculty in divinity consists of three professors and two lecturers. ]S"o one is admitted as a student except graduates in arts and those who have given at least three years to university studies. The standard of admission is, therefore, unusually high. The degree of B. D. is conferred by special examination on a prescribed course of post-gra^, McCosKs Christianity and Positivism, Paley's Natural Theology and Evidences, Bolton's Evidences, Clarke, Lardner, Leslie, Watson's Apologies and Tracts, Newton on the Prophecies, Farrar's Critical History of Free Thought, Christlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief, Luthardt, Flint's Theism and Anti-Theistic Theories. Church History : Smith's Xew Testament History, Kurlz^s Church History. Smith's Ecclesiastical History, Killeu's Ancient Church, and Old Catholic Church, Eusebius, Mosheim, Neander, Giesler, Milman, Robertson, D'Aubigne, Fisher, Schatf, Pressens^. Systematic Theology: Calviu, Turrettini, Pictet, Maestricht, Owen, Edwards, Witsius on the Covenants, Goode's Divine Rule of Faith and Practice, Thornwell, C. Hodge, A. A. Hodge, Dorner on the Person of Christ, Martensen, Miilleron Sin, Fair- bairn on the Revelatiou of Law in Scripture, Dods on the Incarnation, Liddon's Bampton Lectures, Bannerman on Inspiration, Crawford on the Atonement, Treffry on the Eternal Sonship, Brown on the Second Advent; On the History of Doctrine, Cunningham, Shedd, Hagenbach. Homiletics, Pastoral Theology, and Church Government: Whately's Elements of Rhetoric, Shedd's Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, Dabney's Sacred Rhetoric. Viuet's Homiletics; Plumer, Pond; Van Oosterzee's Practical Theology, Bannerman's Church of Christ, Barnes' Apostolic Chnrcb, Punchard's View of Congregationalism, Archbishop Potter's Church Government. Exegetics: (a) Hermeneutics — Ernesti, Home, Davidson, Fairbairn ; (6) Commcn- tnry — Calviu, Bcza, Poli Synopsis, Bengel, Alford, Ellicott, Wordsworth, Lightfoot, Brown, Eadie, Murphy, Alexander, Hackett, Hodge, Stuart, Bleek, Keil andDelitzsch, Ilengstenberg, Lange, Stier, Meyer, Godet. Biblical Criticism and Canon: Home's Introduction, Davidson, Scrivener, Tre- geiles ; Westcott on the N. T. Canon, Gaussen on the Canon. examinations for b. d. First Department. (1) iMtin — Augustini, De Doctrina Christiana, Lib. I. (2) Greek — Gospel of Luke and Epistle to Eomaus. 514 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 277 (3) Hebrew— Genesis, cha. i-v (iuclnsivo) ; Psalms 2, 8, 19, 4;"), 72, 110. (4) Apologetics — Rawlinsou'.s Historical Evidences; Farrar's Critical History of Free Thought; Flint's Auti-Theistic Theories. (5) Church History and Church Government — Killeu's Ancient Church. (6) Systematic, Theology — Westminster Confession of Faith ; Bannerman on Inspira- tion; or Lee on Inspiration. (7) Textual Criticism and Canon — Scrivener's Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament; Westcott's History of the New Testament Canon. Second Department. (1) Ch-eelc — Justin Martyr, Apol. I. (2) Hebrew and Chaldee — Isaiah, chs. i-vi ; Daniel, chs. iii-v. (3) Church History — Fisher's Reformation. (4) Systematic Theology — Turrettini, Tom. II ; Locus, Decimus Quartus Quaest, I, II, X-XIV ; Cunningham's Historical Theology, Vol. I. (5) Exegeties — Fairbairn's Hermenentics; Ellicott on Galatians. (6) Homiletics and Pastoral Theology — Shedd's Homiletics and Van Oosterzee's Prac- tical Theology. IV. BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE. Toronto Baptist College, McMastev Hall. This is one of the very few theological iustitutions that have entered upon their career somewhat fully equipped. It was founded in 1881 by Hon. William McMaster, who erected the elegant and commodious building known as McMaster Hall, at an expense of $100,000, and who has up to the preseut time contributed largely towards the expenses of the college. In 1883, by the closing of Prairie College, Manitoba, and of the theological department of Acadia College, Nova Scotia, and by the votes of the Conventions of Manitoba and the Maritime Provinces, Toronto Baptist College became the theological institution for the Bap- tists of the entire Dominion of Canada. During the same year the fac- ulty of the college was increased from three to five. These professors de- vote themselves entirely to theological teaching. The college also avails itself partially of the lectureship in Orieutal languages provided By the University. The library of the college has been most carefully selected, and consists of nearly 7,250 volumes. It is particularly rich in sources, embracing the entire set of Migne's Greek and Latin Patrology, the works of the German, Swiss, English, Scotch, and Polish reformers, etc. It is well supplied also with the latest important works in all depart- ments of theological science. The reading room is well furnished with the best reviews and papers. The equipment of the college embraces a well-furnished gymnasium. Candidates for the degree of B. D. must be graduates in arts, and pass examinations on a prescribed course of reading at least oue year after the completion of the college course. Those who have secured the degree of B. D. may after an interval of five years proceed to the degree of D. D. on examination. Students sup])ort themselves by missionary work performed under the direction of the faculty during vacation and in term time, the compensation re- ceived on their fields of labor being supplemented to a certain mini- mum amount. Those that do the full amount of mission work prescribed receive at present $200 per annum, clear of traveling expenses and board, while on the mission fields. Room rent, including fuel, light, and care of rooms, is free, the only charge being $3 per week for board, and ordinary rates for washing. The number of students i)ursuing theological studies during the pres- ent session is about forty. Besides these, a considerable number of stu- dents for the ministry who arc pursuing university studies, are enrolled among the students of tiie college and aie under the care of the faculty. 278 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. FACTJI.TY. Professor of Systematic Theoloqy — John H. Castle, D. D., President. Professor of Church JliMory and Comparative lieligion — Albert H. Newmajn, LL. D. Professor of Apologetics, Didactics, and Biblical Interpretation (English) — Max,colm Mac Vicar, Ph. D., LL. D. ProfessorofJS'ew Testament Interpretation {Greek), and Homiletics — WiXLiAM N. Clarke, D. D. Professor of Old Testament Interpretation (Hehretc and Chaldee), and Pastoral Theology — Daniel M. Welton, Ph. D. Professor of the Hebrew Language and Literature — J. M. Hirschfelder (in University College). A. H. Newman, lAbrarian, course of btudies. I. Exegetical TJieology. This department of theological study includes all sciences that have an immediate bearing upon the interpretation of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. 1. Biblical Introduction — Albert H. Netvman : In this course instruction is given in Biblical history, Biblical geography, Biblical archceology, and related topics. 2. Biblical Interpretation, in English — Malcolm MacVicar : This course ex- tends through two years, and aims to give the student a comprehensive method of studying and explaining the English Bible. It includes a full discussion of principles :ind methods of interpretation, and constant practice on the part of the student in applying these principles and methods in the analysis and exposition of selected por- tions of the Old and New Testaments. 3. Old Testament Interpretation, in Hebrew and Aramaic — (1) In Univer- sity College — J. M. Hirschfelder : A large proportion of the instruction in Hebrew and Aramaic is given by Prof. J. M. Hirschfelder, in University College, embracing in- struction in Hebrew and Chaldee grammar, together with the reading of extended portions of the Hebrew and Chaldee of the Old Testament ; (2) In Toronto Baptist College — Daniel M. Welton : This part of the course consists of a reviewing of the syn- tax of the Hebrew language; the exegetical reading of selected portions of the He- brew Bible ; exercises in textual criticism with the aid of the Masora, the Septuagint, the Targums, and the Peshito; the study of the theology of the Old Testament in con- nection with a text-book. 4. New Testament Interpretation, in Greek — William N. Clarke: This course extends through two years. It is intended not merely for the impartation of the re- sults of study, but still more for the training of the student in power to study the New Testament on sound principles for himself. Hence the work consists mainly in actual interpretation, with constant practice in the application of grammatical principles and in analysis of the writer's thought. Thus by the experience of actual work the student is aided in learning the peculiarities of New Testament Greek, and the methods of sound interpretation. The course includes study of textual criticism, and Introduction to the books of the New Testament. II. Historical Theology — Albert H. Newman. This course is divided into two sections, each of which is completed in a year. In section first, ancient Church history is taught, embracing such topics as intro- duction to Church history in general ; constitution of the apostolic Church ; relation of Christianity to the Roman Empire during the first three centuries; internal devel- opment of Christianity during the first three centuries — the consideration of heretical and reforming bodies; Christian literature and doctrine during the first three cen- turies; internal and external condition of the Church at the beginning of the fourth century ; union of Church and State, and effects of this union on the Church ; con- troversies and councils during the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries; development of the hierarchy, until the death of Gregory the Great ; heretical and reforming bodies; extension of the Church through the Carlovingian rulers; further development of the hierarchy, especially under Hildebrand and Innocent III ; papal captivity and schism ; reforming councils ; mediajval philosophy and theology ; re- action against papal absolutism, manifested in the various reforming movements of the Middle Ages ; the revival of learning ; with essays by members of the class. In the second section, modem Church history is taught, embracing such topics as preparation for the Reformation ; general characteristics of the Reformation ; separate consideration of the Erasmian, Lutheran, Zwinglian, Anabaptist, Calviniatic, and English reformations ; comparative view of the Protestant confessions of faith and catechisms ; Roman Catholic resistance to Protestantism — Jesnits, inquisition, and 516 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 279 Conncil of Trent ; modem denominationH, e8pcci.ally the Chnrch of England, the Con- gregationalists, the Presbyterians, the Methodists, and the Baptists ; with essays by the members of the class. In connection with this conrse, a series of lectures on comparative religion, and a series on Theological Encychtpiedia ave given. The professor of (Jhnrch history con- ducts a class in theological German, which meets twice a week. m. Dogmatic Theology. This department of study is divided into two courses, and embraces a systematic setting forth of the doctrines of the Bible, and a refutation of anti-Christian and psendo-Christian systems. 1. Systematic Theologt — John H. CaMle: This conrse embraces discussions of the Scriptural teachings as to the existence and attributes of God; the personal distinc- tions of the Godhead ; the relations of God to the universe and to men, as manifested in creation, preservation, and providence; the original acd actual state of man; the nature and effects of sin; redemption wrought by Christ; the person of Christ and thenatureof the atonement; election; calling; regeneration; conversion; union with Christ; justiiication, eanctilication, and perseverance; and the future state; with essays by members of the class. 2. Polemical and Apologf.tical Theologt — Malcolm MacTicar : This course is divided into two sections: an elementary course designed for those students who have not had the advantages of thorough training in metaphysics and natural sci- ence, and which only such students are required to take; and an advanced course in apologetics proper, including the discussion of atheism, pantheism, materialism, modern agnosticism, the Biblical view of the Being of God, revelation, inspiration, miracles, the resurrection, etc. rV. Practical Theology. 1. Preparation axd Delivery of Sermons— JF)77ram .V. Clarl-c: In this course Dr. Broadus's "Preparation and Delivery of Sermons" is used as a text-book and guide, but it is iutended that the work shall include much more thnn the mastering of a text-book. Sermons and plans of sermons are prepared and criticised by the class, and attention is given to the study of the literature of the pulpit. As much labor as the time allows is spent upon style, and the preacher's gcueral literary prep- aration for his work. It is the aim to help the free, manly development of eacli stu- dent's personality, and to secure the utmost elfectiveness in the work of preaching. 2. Pastoral Theology — Daniel M. Welton: This course considers such topics as the nature of the pastoral office; call to the ministry ; qualifications of a minister; the pastor in the conduct of public worship ; the pastor aud the administration of the ordinances; thf pastor and social meetings; the pastor and tho Sunday-scliool ; the pastor and mission work; the pastor and administration of discipline ; pastoral visit- ation ; the pasTor in relation to other Christian bodies. Ecclesiastical polity will also form an important part of this course. 3. Didactics — Malcolm Mac Ficar : This course is designed to give practical instruc- tion on religious training in the family and the Sunday-school, It will include the following topics : 1. The philosophy of moral and spiritual development. Under this head will be discussed : (1.) The nature of a true moral and spiritual education. (2.) The principles and laws which underlie and regulate the methods and processes of moral and spiritual training. 2. The family and the Sunday-school. Under this head will bo discusspd : (1.) The'Scriptural organizationof the family and the Sunday-school as factors of the Church of Christ. (2.) Methods of family and Sunday-school management. (3.) Methods of family and Sunday-school instruction and Training. (4.) The organization and instniction of parents' and Sunday-school teachers' training classes. examinattons for the degree of b. d. Graduates in arts who have completed the conrse of theological study in Toronto Baptist College, in Woodstock College, or in any theological seminary of recognized standing, may secure the degree of B. D. by passing examinations as follows, such examinations to be held at least one year after the completion of the regular conrse : 1. Chaldee Grammar and the Chaldee ot the Old Testament. 2. Twenty-fiv6 pages of the Hebrew Bible, not to include the Pentateuch, the historical books, or the Psalms. 3. CEhler's Theology of the Old Testament. 4. Ewald's Syntax of the He- brew Language, or Drivers lenses of the Hebrew Verb. 5. The entire Greek New Testament, twentv-tive pages of the Septuagiut, and twenty-tive pages of patristic 517 280 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Greek. (!. Fifty pages of ecclesiastical Latin or German. 7. Hagenbach's History of Doctrine, or Dorner's History of Protestant Theology. 8. Van Oosterzee's Chris- tian Dogmatics, or Dorner's System of Christian Doctrine. 9. Christlieb's Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. 10. Van Oosterzee's Practical Theology. Fair equivalents will be accepted for any of these items, at the discretion of the faculty. EXAMINATIONS FOR THE DEGREE OF D. D. The degree of doctor of divinity will be conferred on those who have been admitted to the degree of bachelor of divinity in Toronto Baptist College on the following con- ditions : 1. The applicant must have been successfully engaged in the work of the ministry, whether as pastor, theological teacher, or religions editor, for at least five years just preceding the date of his application. 2. He must have attained to distinguished proficiency in somfe one department of theological science, and must demonstrate this proficiency by the following perform- ances: (1) He must submit to an examination on the subject-matter of his chosen (Icimiluu'ut. (2) He must write impromptu, a thesis on a subject connected with the (lepnrtmeut in which be presents himself for examination, proposed by the faculty. (3) He must submit to the faculty a treatise (equal to not less than 100 printed pages 12mo) on some subject connected with the department chosen, which, to be accepted, must give evidence of extended research, thorough mastery of the subject, and ca- pacity to present the subject in an original and eifective manner. V. THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION OP OTHER DENOMINATIONS. (1.) The Conpregationalists of Ontario unite with those of Quebec in supporting a theological college in Montreal. (2.) The /Society of Friends has a somewhat elementary college at Pickering, where training is given to those who have the ministry in view. (3.) The Roman CatJiolics have colleges in Toronto and Ottawa, where something is done in theology ; but they probably depend chiefly on the larger institutions in Montreal and Quebec, and upon foreign institu- tions for their educated priests. Statistical table shotving subjects taught w each college, and the number of hours given to each subject per tceek.^ § 6 a •S _g d 6 ^.i ^ a 2 a a 1 "3 O a S'3 < B-^ !-^ a-si e8 Colleges. .9"S o ra'O 5 a 12 .2 A A •^ ^ ^ 3 .a 4) -s ^ c B A A M n w o "A 'A O O H Trinity i 4 2f 6J 6 4 Wycli'fle 12 6 2 2 9 12 9 9 f 6 4 5 1 Queen's Knox 1 2 ...... ...... 5 6 Baptist i i , ^ Colleges. It a> o .2 i "© A _ >s •« be S .2 C3 .2 a bO* a 4^ <0 |o 2 A u t-."^ o y ^ iCD (A a 3 A m < w P4 s H Ph 02 M w Trinity 2 10 2 3 1 5 1 2 2 f 2 s Wycliffe 11 10 14 4 """5 5 3 1 1 Knox 4 6 4 2 Baptist , 3 2 ' For convenience, the numbers are given as if each subject were finished in one year. E. g., six hours ill church history means 3 hours per week for 2 years. Tlieae statistics are only approximately correct. 518 I^'TERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 281 Stathiical table showing the equipment, resources, <^c., of eological colleges of Ontario. a o o s a ^ yc o p. (S ■ a ^2 Colleges. SI © So o _2 0:2 ■si -3 3 .=-5 ^ 3 ^r: 3 S ©■" -=■;; a a a"^ 3 B 0) a a a a C3 S 3 ;zi ^ Iz; <5 t> ^5 iJ Trinity 2 2 15 to 300 7 Wycli'tfe 4 3 25 $62, 000 58, 000 $54, 000 2,000 7 Victoria *5 42 5,000 6,000 10 000 7 Queen's *3 2 34 6 Knox 3 3 50 150 000 120, 000 100, 000 G Baptist 5 2 50 7,250 7 " Several of these give only a part of their time to theology, t Inclades the entiie university library. 519 SECTION D— INSTRUCTION OF THE DEFECTIVE, DEPENDENT, AND DELINQUENT CLASSES. Honorary Chairman. Prop. A. GRAHAI\I BELL, Washington, D. G. Honorary Secretary. Principal F. J. CAMPBELL, B.oijal School/or the Blind, London. Chairman. Rev. F. S. wines, M. A., Sjyringfield, III. Secretary. Prof. F. B. SAj^BOKN, Concord, Mass. Assistant Secretary. SUPT. GEORGE A. HOWE, State Reform School, Meriden, Conn, 521 THE CLASSIFICATION OF DEAF PUPILS WITH A VIEW TO IMPKOVE THE FACILITIES FOR THEIR EDUCATION, BASED ON THE CAUSES OF THEIR DISABILITY. By Samuel Sexton, M. D., Aural Surgeon to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary. The existeuce of deafness is not discovered even by discerning i)ar- ents during the tirst few weeks of infancy, and what is frequently a mere suspicion in this regard at the sixth month may not become a painful reality before the child is expected to talk, and then the slow- ness of intellectual development may not be properlj' attributed to defective hearing. Partial, but disqualifying, deafness is thus liable to be overlooked until school education is attempted. The detection of the very existeuce of hearing defects, it may be pre- mised, is attended with difficulty, even by experts, during the earliest period of infancy, and even at the school age the exact degree of dis- qualification is not readily determined; it is with the view of affording some aid to parents and teachers in this regard that this paper is writ- ten. In order to enhance the practical value of the vieWiS advanced, I have availed myself of notes that have been taken during an extended experience in the examination and treatment of the aurally defective. The 450 cases of children's deafness selected as illustrative, are from among children seen in private and Infirmary practice, and they repre- sent almost every variety of disqualifying deafness. The defective ])upils among this number were brought to me from both hearing and deaf-mute schools. A considerable number of these constitutes a class not properly provided for in either, being too deaf for hearing schools and yet not deaf enough to be taught as deaf-mutes : they were, there- fore, found to be oscillating, shuttlecock-like, between the two, liable to be cast forth into life with much less education than their intelligence entitled them to receive — usually with scarcely intelligible articulate speech. On account of their instructiveness, I have included in the cases above selected a few not strictly of the school age. The cases may be divided into two groups based on their school status ; thus 371 were attem^^ting to retain their position in hearing schools, whilst 79 were either so deaf as to be excluded or were not of the school age. The first group of 371 was constituted as follows : 74 were between five and seven years of age ; 200 were between eight and twelve years of age; 97 were thirteen years of age and upward. As to sex, 199 were females and 172 were males. The causation in these cases could be traced to either i)uruleutor non -purulent inflammation of the ear-drum (tympanum). In 219 cases it was the former, and in 124 cases the latter. 523 286 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Usually both ears were similarly aflected in each case, but where a purulent affection existed on one side and non-purulent on the other, the case was classed with the former. In the non-purulent cases both ears were almost without exception similarly affected, although the left ear was usually the worse of the two. Belonging to either one or the other of the above varieties were 10 cases where the ear had been severely boxed or pulled, causing rupture or strain of the drum-head, and consequent deafness; 33 cases where cold sea-water had passed from the mouth up into the drum through the Eustachian tube, while the child was bathing in the ocean; 3 where water was introduced into the drum while sniffing it up into the nose, or in using the nasal douche. In 31 cases the cause was attributed to scarlet fever, in 17 to measles, in 5 to diphtheria, in 4 to whooping- cough, in 1 to mumps, and in 1 to syphilis. The external auditory canal was obstructed in a number of instances, thus interfering with the entrance of sound ; in 52 cases it was by wax, in 7 by foreign bodies, in 25 by narrowing of its walls by inflammation. Among the last named were eight cases where the canal was ulcerated. The drum-head gave evidence, on examination being made by reflected light, of defectiveness of the transmitting mechanism in a considerable number of cases. Thus, in 30 there was deformity of the membrana tympani from perverted development; in 27 cases there was greater or less destruction of the mechanism from suppurative inflammation; a polypoid growth sprung from the morbid tissues within the drum in 14 cases, and the inflammation expended from the drum to the pneumatic cells of the mastoid in 8 cases. It is noteworthy that defective teeth were present in nearly every case, and 189 of them were specially bad. Head-catarrh and enlarged tonsils were present in the greater number, and in 13 cases either the nasal passages were so much obstructed, or the teeth so malformed, that mouth-breathing was habitual. The affections thus far mentioned are those which interfere with the passage of sound to the middle ear and its transmission to the inner ear, but the deeper parts containing the distribution of the auditory nerve may, in the more severe cases of ear-disease occuniug from scar- let fever, diphtheria, etc., be attacked at the same time. In 28 of these cases, it may be incidentally stated, either tumors, or abcesses, or wounds of the auricle from piercing for rings, were observed. Distress from the autophonia of ear-disease, the autophonous perception of voice and sounds arising from the performance of physiological functions of the circulation, respiration, and swallowing, were present in 41 cases, and dysacousma was present in 1. Pains in the ear (otalgia) were ex- perienced by 28, pains in the aural region (neuralgia) by '66, ear-cough by 10, epilepsy by 1, vertiginous symptoms by 18, chorea by 2, and various other reflex phenomena by 17. In respect to the degrees of deafness, 113 were almost totally deaf, while the remaining 258 were all of them incapacitated in some degree from receiving instruction at school along with good-hearing scholars. The second group of 79 cases was composed mostly of so-called deaf mutes; 38 were under five years of a^e, 21 between five and seven, 11 between eight and twelve, and 9 thirteen and upward. There were 41 females and 38 males. Of this group 18 were recorded as congenital deaf mutes, but the diagnosis was in some of them \ I meningitis^ occurring in connection with children's diseases, contributed largely to this list; its invasion is alwaTys sudden, and it generally causes bilateral deafness. It does not give rise to running from the ears. Meningeal inflammation is usually meant when pachymeningitis, cerebro spinal meningitis, brain fever, cerebral meningitis, convulsions, fits, and the like, are mentioned in this connection. Sometimes the symptoms of irritation of the stomach are so marked in meningitis that the case has been erroneously regarded as "gastric fever." Inflammation of the ear-drums, whether purulent or non-purulent, acute or chronit;, leaves characteristic appearances which are easily recognizable. Among the smaller number there were some where the precise nature of the origin of the dif&culty was obscure; following the usual custom, the writer, tentatively, relegated these to the somewhat vague realm of the con- genitally deaf. Subsequent experience, and a more particular study of the subject, seem to show that in some of the instances of supposed deaf- born children, the disability should be assigned to extra-uterine caus- ation. Thus cerebral meningitis affecting the nerve of hearing, and suppu- rative inflammation of the drum of the ear affecting the transmitting mechanism, consecutive to children's diseases, as scarlet fever, measles, and diphtheria, are frequently met with at the period in life when chil dren are learning to talk, and the more carefully these patients are examined in this regard, the more frequently will it be found thafe deaf- ness was first discovered to exist subsequently to some attack of this kind. In eliciting from parents the history of these cases, one should not place too much value on alleged injury to the ears from falls and blows on the head, which are often advanced as causes. Acquired deafness. — Conditions favoring early deafness are not want- ing — indeed causation may antedate or be encountered at birth, since at this period the drum in a normal state contains no air, but is tilled with loose cedematous connective tissue, which slowly disappears when aeration of the cavity takes place with the establishment of the respiratory act, the cries, and the performance of deglutition by the infant. When action of the upper respiratory tract is detective, as it may thus be at birth, or, soon after, by head catarrh or by aural catarrh, the necessary aerial equilibrium is not established, and oscillations of the transmitting ap- 535 288 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. paratus cannot talie place. Under these circumstances the perceptive function lies dormant because it cannot be aroused to normal action. Congenital deafness. — A tendency to propagate constitutional dyscra- sias doubtlests exists in some persons, and when predisponents to ca- tarrh are active in such a case, hereditary catarrh may give rise to disease of the ear at the earliest period of life. This hypothesis is borne out by clinical experience. I have at the present time under treatment for aural catarrh a bright little lad three years of age, who cannot yet talk on account of this detectiveness. His mother informed me that she was , exceedingly susceptible to head catarrhs, and the grandmother is so deaf that she has to carry about a conversation-tube. I was much impressed by these cases, and was even surprised when informed that my patient's great-grandmother was very deaf. The possible effect of influences on the maternal progenitor are worthy of consideration. The following case in this connection is suggestive. The first-born child of a healthy, well-developed, and intelligent woman was, when six months of age, thought to be deaf, since she could only hear jarring of the floor and the like, and the sound of a high-i)itched whistle which her father carried, and which seemed to become quite familiar to her ears. The mother had, however, during the first month of pregnancy an attack of rubeola, or German measles, and was, further- more, much worried during the entire period of gestation about her hus- band, who was very nervous and becoming deaf from aural catarrh. When I examined this child at the age of sixteen months, it was found to have catarrh of the head and ears, the origin of which may have been embryonic. No anatomical malformation of the ears was discov- ered in the infant, nor was there any apparent transmissible organic de- fect in the parents. Deafness due to congenital anomalies oftJie auditory apparatus. — These are supposed to be traceable to some perversion of development during the morphological state. The hearing organ in man has both an intra- cranial and extracranial origin, one centric and the other peripheric. From the auditory vesicle which constitutes the centric is evolved the nervous, or i^erceptive tract of the ear, while the first visceral cleft evolves the peripheric, or outer structures comprising the transmitting apparatus, namely, the Eustachian tube, the drum, and the external auditory canal and auricle. IS^ow during the embryonic or fetal states, any interference with the development in either of these regions woukl produce defects in the hearing organ. Evidence of developmental de- fects is not always obtainable, and where the trouble is centric a diagno- sis cannot be made in the very young, for obvious reasons. Evidences of peripheric defects, however, are by no means rare ; these consist, for the most part, in either defective or excessive development in the closure of the first branchial cleft, the most common form of which is fistula auris congenita. The presence of these anomalies is very likely to be over- looked. In the following typical examiile they were not observed until several examinations of the ear had been made, their existence not being suspected at first : The case was that of a child of eight years of age. She was thought to be defective in intelligence until she was two years of age, since she did not learn to talk ; but she grew more intelligent in appearance, and it was then found that she was deaf. When four years old some person undertook the task of instructing her during a long sea voyage, and she learned to spell and pronounce a few words. When five years old she was sent to the ])ublic schools in New York, and had made considerable i)rogress ui) to the time when she was brought to me. Examination of the hearing showed that she could not 526 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 289 understand conversation in any tone at the distance of a few feet ; but when her name was spoken in a smart tone she would promptly look at the speaker. She can hear the voice quite distinctly when the speaker is only a few Inches distant. The teacher, for some reason, requires her to sit in the farthest seat from her desk. A minute fistulous opeuing is to be seen on the front part of both auricles, from which a small quantity of ofieusive fluid issues spontaneously at times, and usually on the right side, when the parts are pressed by the fingers. The external auditory canals are of the normal size, but the drum-heads are some- what defective in ai)pearance, the membrane being puckered at its an- terior superior quadrant. I have seen a very considerable number of these cases in adults, always where hearing was deiective, and, although generally unilateral, it is probable that in nearly all cascs some degree of defectiveness exists on both sides. It seems probable that, where centric malformation exists, co-existent mental defects are liable to obtain, and we should, therefore, expect to find imbecility as well as deafness. In the treatment or education of deaf children it is well to keep in mind the fact that defectiveness is not always absolute, and may, there- fore, be amenable to treatment on the oue Land, while not constituting an insuperable barrier to aural instruction on the other. It would seem that the neglect of deaf-born children, in the lower order of social life, much more frequently results in dumbness than would occur if more pains were taken in their education; indeed, where the ofl:spring of deaf-mutes are constantly surrounded by deaf-mutes holding converse with eacb other by signs only, it would be strange if they should learn to talk unless possessed of good hearing and allowed to associate with speaking persons. If children with deiective hearing organs have but little, if any, opportunity to employ them, it is prob- able that continuous disuse yf the sensory tract would finally lead to its deterioration. A child brought up under unfavorable conditions in this respect would acquire the use of the voice with difficulty, if at all, since even where normal hearing exists and favorable opportunities are afforded for learning, it is onlj after long and i)atient practice that in- telligible speech is acquired. The difficulties that beset partially deaf children where the defective- ness interferes with school instruction, admit of much easier interpreta- tion than those of ver^^ young children. As regards the latter, inquiries as to causation are liable to be met b^' vague, unreliable, and even mis- leading statements, and the truth can only be rea(!hed by painstaking, eliminative analy.> regard to school age, since their training should begin so much earlier thi^n hearing pupils. Where deafness has occurred after the pupil has learned to talk, unsparing efforts should be made to aid him in retain- ing this faculty; otherwise dumbness may result. 528 ON THE NECESSITY OF PROVIDING FOR THE BETTER EDU- CATION OF CHILDREN WITH DEFECTIVE HEARING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. By Samuel Sexton, M. D., Aural Surgeon to the New York Eye and Ear Ivfirmary. The purpose of this paper is to enlist an interest in our public school systems in so far as concerns the needs of pupils whose hearing disa- bilities prevent their advancement along with good hearing scholars, since it is believed that this matter does not receive the attention its importance demands. The varieties of deafness. — The defective children believed to be greatly neglected in regard to their education may, for convenience in this con- nection, be arranged into three classes, namely : 1. Children defective in one or both ears, and requiring close prox- imity and distinct utterance when taught. Of these, deafness in both ears requires seating on front row of benches, but when only one ear is affected the normal ear must be toward the teacher's desk. 2. Children very deaf, who cannot distinguish ordinary conversation in either ear when more than a few inches from the speaker, or unless the conversation tube, otacoustic fan, or other aid to hearing be em- ployed. 3. The totally deaf, in whom the auditory apparatus of the middle ear cannot be made available. This class admits of division into two subdivisions, viz : a, those having learned to talk previous to losing their hearing; and 6, those born too deaf to ever have naturally acquired speech, commonly known as congenital deaf-mutes. Deafness in the schools from a ijhysicianh point of view. — In considering the relations of all classes of deaf pupils with both the public day- schools and deaf-mute schools from the physician's point of view, it is believed that the extent and importance of the subject may be more fully realized than in any other way, since where professional advice is required opportunity is allowed for thorough examination of the hear- ing organs, both as regards their physical condition and acoustic func- tions. A very considerable experience, including observations on a large number of specially interesting cases among school children of the poorer class, seen in hospital practice, led the writer to believe that great injustice was being done in permitting children to struggle for an education under the disadvantages arising from deafness without the aid of methods wliich'exi)erieuce had shown to be advantageous in such cases; he therefore concluded to make some efforts in their behalf, and in 1877 the matter was brought to the notice of the Board of Edu cation of New York. Its consideration by the New York Board of Education in 1877. — The Board referred the matter to the Committee on Teachers, and in ex- 529 292 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Ijlaining' the matter to them it was shown that some children continued on at school, for years even, while scarcely any hearing remained, while there were many others who heard very badly ; that in disregarding this matter deaf children were placed at a serious disadvantage, and that the time wasted in futile attempts to instruct them was a hinderance to others. Instances of special injustice were cited where children de fective in hearing had made great efforts both at school and at home to prepare themselves t\)r promotion, only to be put back on examina tiou because the principal was not aware of the child's imperfection, and therefore had not given his questions distinctly enough to be heard." Other deaf children, from neglect to classify them, were seated too far away from the teacher's desk to hear his voice, and in consequence of inability to reply correctly were frequently punished for inattention and dullness. The rudeness often practiced toward these unfortunate pupils by unthinking or unsympathetic teachers was discouraging, and some pupils in consequence had left school altogether. It was not recommended at this time that the partially deaf should be entirely separated from the hearing pupils, yet it was advised that pupils should always be examined in regard to their hearing, and that those found to be defective should be given every possible advantage, both in respect to seating and to distinctness of voice in teaching; the veiy deaf should have some instruction apart from others, since they often could not understand words shouted into their ears. The writer did not expect that the long-established order of things could be rapidly changed, but it is believed that teachers have become more'iuterested in the subject than ever before, and that instances of "inattention" and "stupidity" are less puzzling since their true character is recognizeie- sented some typical cases of aural disabilities in children, and gave tlje results of his exijerieuce concerning deafness in the schools. The com- mittee has not, as yet, so far as 1 know, made srny recommendations to the Board, but it is to be hoped that some steps will be taken in the matter soon. Its consideration by the United States Government in 1881. — In the meantime the subject of deafness among school children has attracted the attention of the Educational Department of the United States Gov- ernment, and the matter being considered important enough to justify a special investigation of its causes, the writer was requested to prepare a paper on the subject,, which was j>nnted by the Bureau of Education for distribution in 1881. An examination of five hundred and seventy- five pupils made at that time showed that there were numerous instan- ces of deafness where neither tea(iher nor i)ui)il were aware of its exist- ence, and that fully thirteeii per cent, of the whole number examined had greater or less diminished hearing in one or both ears. Of these, only three i)er cent, were themselves aware of any defect existing, and only oiie of them was known to be deaf by the teachers. Advantages of the study of deafness from a clinical point of view. — A consideration of the subject of aural disabilities should not be confined to observations on children in the school-room, where the detection of 530 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 293 (leafiioss in iiinny cases innst be attended with efore the census of 1880 was taken, the question of ascertaining the number of very deaf people was considered by the special agent, Mr. Wines, but the scheme was abandoned, as it was thought that any returns of this kind would be wholly unreliable unless obtained by the aid of expert examiners. It is, therefore, impossible to give a very close estimate of their number; but if one may form an opinion from experiences in i)ractice, the number having more or less disqualifying aural defects may be put down at no less than ten j^er cent, of the en- tire school population of Xew York City. Thus out of about one hun- dred and forty thousand pupils in attendance at the public schools at the present time, some fourteen thousand of them would be the better for classitieation in respect to seating and instruction at close range, or by means of some aid to hearing. These figures show that we have to deal with a vast number of defectives, in respect to hearing, and although this avenue to illiteracy, and consequently to i)auperism, was not of much signiticance when the country was new, it surely demands our at- tention now, when vagrancy and kindred evils are attracting so much atteTitio!) from the vastness of their proportions. The education of the very deaf and deaf-mutes in the day-schools. — While attention has thus been drawn to the wants of the partially deaf, stren- uous efforts have been made in behalf of the deaf-mute with a view to improving his educatiotuil facilities. The labors of Prof. Alexander Graham Bell in this field have been notable, and besides giving milch personal attentioii to the work, his contributions to the literature of the subject have been numerous ami valuable. But while the writer himself 531 294 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. has mainly had in view the needs of the partially deaf, yet in pursuing this interesting" subject from his own point of view, it is to be plainly seen that froin a pedagogical standpoint a very considerable nuujber of deaf mutes, so called, may be more advantageously provided for in the public day-schools than otherwise. Day-schools for deaf-mutes have thus been established in the United States as follows: Horace Mann Day school, Boston, in 1869 ; Erie Day- school, in 1874; Chicago Day-school, in 1875; Cincinnati Day school, in 1875; Portland (Me.) Day-school, in 1876; Khode Island Day-school, in 1877; St. Louis Day-school, in 1878; Oral Branch Pennsylvania Institution, Philadelphia, in 1881 ; Scranton Oral School, in 1883; Pho- nological School, Milwaukee, in 1878 ; A. Graham Bell's School, Wash- ington, D. C, 1883. It would seem that the systems of deaf-mute educa- tion were undergoing a transformation at the present time, since hearing defects are beginning to be regarded as constituting a factor of varying importance, no longer offering an insurmountable barrier, in a great num- ber of instances, to an education which shall enable them to hold con- verse after the manner of hearing persons. This leads us to express the opinion that very considerable numbers who are at present being educated as deaf mutes could be cared for in the public day-schools along with the very deaf who are at present unpro- vided for, since they both require similar methods of instruction. Totally and very deaf children, moreover, require taking in hand at a much earlier age than is feasible in deaf and dumb institutions; their education should, in fact, begin much earlier thau it is commenced at present ; they should be placed in school when four or five years old. Children who have lost their hearing soon after acquiring speech soon forget to talk unless means are promptly taken to keep them in prac- tice. The same rule would apply with equal force to the congenitally deaf, since valuable time is lost when instruction is m glected during the impressible peHod of early childhood. It becomes a necessity in respect to the education of children at such a tender age that they should be provided for in schools near their homes, an entirely practicable matter, fortunately, in large cities and towns, and even in si)arsely populated districts, according to the reasoning of Bell in his "Memoir upon the Foimation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race." As to disassociating very young children from home influences, the humane impulses of parents are altogether opposed to this ; the writer has often witnessed the dismay and grief of parents when informed that their deaf children could obtain an education only in a deaf and dumb institution. There are, perba])s, a few families who prefer to place their chihiren away from home, where the responsibilities of sup- port and training will be assumed by others, but it is othersvi.se with our better citizens, who desire to have them brought up more as other children. The education of the deaf in deaf-mute institutions. — In certain institu- tions an increased interest has shown itself of late in respect to the very considerable number of pupils who have heretofore been treated as totally deaf, but who are, in point of fact, conscious of more or Icvss perception of sound, which may be made available in education. The results al- leged to have been attained by means of aural teaching are very grati- fying. During the year 1877 the writer visited some deaf-mute institu- tions with a view to discover what number of these pupils could hear the voice by means of a conversation- tube placed in the mouth or ear, and he was surprised to find a number being educated as deaf-mutes with whom conversation could be carried on orally by the employment 632 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 295 of this aid to hearinfr. Eepeated observations snbsoqnently made by teacbers have confirmed the above, and it is now believed that of all the i)upils in deaf and dumb institutions, a larjre number could be edu- cated through the hearing sense by the aid of speaking tubes and ota- coustic fans, and that a small number hear well enough to be taught by the unaided voice. In the Minnesota institution it has been found that from 15 to 25 per cent, of all the pupils received can be taught by the aural method, and that after being instructed for a time man^' could hear well enough at the distance of ten or fifteen feet to converse when elevated voice was used. The conjusion and consequent injustice to deaf pupils arising from neg- lect to classify them properly. — It will be adniitted, if the figures above given concerning the deaf be approximately correct even, and it is be- lieved that as further examinations are made they will be found not to be in excess of the correct number, that in so far as educational objects are concerned we cannot separate pupils into two great classes, one of which can hear icell and the other not at all, by an arbitrary or sudden line of demarkation, inasmuch as the hearing disabilities of children consist in all degrees of deafness, ranging between slight defects and absolute incapacity. It would seem necessary, therefore, that some practical scheme for the classification of the deaf should be made which would not exclude any from the schools. Under the present arrangement the only class of defectives provided for has been the so-called deaf-mute class, which leaves out of consideration entirely a large number of partially and very deaf pupils, occupying, so to speak, intermediate ground between totally deaf and normal-hearing persons. This arrangement absolutely places a certain number of pupils in a worse condition than if entirely deprived of their hearing sense, and in consequence a great many of them find their way into deaf-mute schools. Thus it will be seen that the classi- fication in both the day and deaf-mute schools is defective, and that in any attempt to improve matters we are at once met by a most perplex- ing dilemma; thus, owing to the long-continued practice of forcing all deaf pupils into either a totally deaf or good-hearing class, we find that some of the former and all of the very deaf and partially deaf have been relegated to the hearing schools, while other very deaf persons are clas- sified with the totally deaf and taught as deaf-mutes. The disadvantages arising in deaf-mute institutions from the want of classification show themselves in many ways ; thus, where no useful perception of sound has ever been experienced by a pupil, as in most congenitally deaf persons, there is probably an entire ina])titude for the development of the perceptive function, and while efforts to arouse this dormant function must not be too early abandoned in doubtful cases, yet it is well to consider how much labor can be profitably devoted to the task of teaching such pupils to converse orally. The discouraging results in such cases has doubtless been the means of establishing a preference for teaching the sign language, since in overcrowded deaf- mute institutions this method has the advantage of being inexpensive — an important item where the corps of instructors is small. It has been estimated that about 10 per cent, of deaf-mute pupils belonging to this class cannot learn to speak intelligibly unless much more atten- tion is given to their instruction than is practicable in any public school. The mediocrity of results attained is further increased by the mental inertness of deaf-mute pupils either admitted when too old to adapt themselves successfully to study, or retained too long after reaching adolescence. 533 296 EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. The fJutii of the State in respect to the education of the deaf. — Tlic op- ponents of the proposed reform for teaching these defectives in the public day-schools assert that the policy of the State is to exclude all who cannot be regarded as having average mental and physical qualifi- cations ; but no one has ventured to define this standard. Indeed, it would be difficult to do so ; and were all of the average pupils sele(!ted, what should be done with the remaining pupils ? This question has thus far been only tentatively met by the attempt to separate all pupils into good hearing and totally deaf classes. By many it is held that our public-school system has for its principal object the prevention of illiteracy among the poor, and if this view be correct it can scarcely be regarded as consistent on the part of the ad- vocates of educating the average child only, to oppose a scheme for the promotion of the interests of a needy but uninfluential class, while fos- tering expensive institutions for the free education of the better-to-do, and going so far even as to expend large sums of money in giving special instruction in German, French, music, etc. This was certainly never contemplated by those who founded the com- mon-school system. Nor is it humane to leave the care of this defective class to the uncertainties of philanthropic aid. The State already has amj)le facilities for the care of all the deaf-mutes who cannot be educated in connection with the day system of public schools, and inasmuch as these institutions will soon be overcrowded by the natural increase of this class, it would seem that facilities should be provided for them in the day-schools without delay. There are already 17,000 deaf and dumb persons of the school age in the United States, according to the census of 1880, only 5,000 of whom were in institutions. As has been stated, there are already in operation in various sections of the country eleven day-schools for the deaf, nine of which, at least, are under control of the local boards, and a bill is now before the Wisconsin legislature to authorize boards of education to take charge of deaf-mutes and place them in the day-schools. The expense of educating the deaf in day-schools as compared with their education in institutions. — The question of reform in the education of the defective in hearing is to a certain extent a question of expense; that they must receive educational facilities will not be denied. Let us consider the result in this regard of transferring to the day- schools what may be regarded as their legitimate share of work. The outlay by the State would probably be lessened, so far as the deaf-mutes are concerned, and, on the other hand, it would be slightly increased were proper methods introduced for the instruction of the very deaf and partially deaf. At the present time it costs the State to support and instruct deaf- mutes in its seven asylums 8250 per capita annually. It will thus be seen that were classes of ten formed in the public schools, which is a smaller number, I be-lieve, than in asylum classes, and a teacher se- cured at the rate of $800 per annum, there would be a saving of $170 per pupil. Where smaller classes of children were formed, as might be done in the country, the saving would be less. 1 have no exact figures upon which an estimate of the number of partially deaf can be based. I know of but one extensive examination in this direction, besides my own ; this was made by W>il, of Stuttgart, and published in the Archives of Otology for 1882. It embraced the results of an examination of the ears and the hearing of school children of different social grades. In some schools the percentage of those who heard badly was as high as 30 per cent. My own examinations, embracing 570 pupils, were made in 5:u INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 297 the iiiferiuediiite and primary gradcvs and included some in the lloraan . Catholic parocliial and in the colored schools of tliis city. It has already been stated that about lo per cent, of these had greatly diminislied hearing:, but it would be impossible to estimate the number whose hear- ing required teaching by special methods without a careful and exten- sive examination being made. From the large number met with in practice, however, I believe the number to be considerable. These, liowever, could be taught in classes of twenty, and the increased expense would not be great; snch pupils arc at present taught, if they attend school, in classes with hearing children, and the increased expense in reducing the size of classes to accommodate them maybe easily computed. There need be no expense for new buildings, the structures at present in use for school purposes being sufficient, since it is thought best not to separate one class from another entirely any more than the different grades are now taught apart. Some instruction would be common to all. Teachers of deaf pupils. — Many teachers have already fitted them- selves for this work, and it is a significant fact that the growing demand for better instruction of the deaf has enabled them to find ready em- l)loyment either in families or in conducting small private day-schools, siuccparents are willing to incur this extra expense rather than place their children iu deaf mute institutions. Where this expense cannot be borne, and ])arents are unwilling to send their children away from home, it seems that to exclude them from the advantages of daj'-schools is to disregard their rights. The examination of pupils in the public schools with a vieic of determin- ing their hearing pou-er. — It will not be denied that these disabilities among pupils should be known to teachers iu order that instruction may be made more successful, and it therefore becomes important to adopt some plan for correctly determining the hearing power of all school children, so that where any defect exists pupils may be placed under the best i)ossible advantages. While teachers are known often to fail to discern marked departures from the normal standard, and children themselves cannot always give reliable information, yet much could be accomplished by principals and teachers were they assisted at the start by an expert iu such matters, especially so far as the majority of pupils are concerned ; but where it becomes important to ascertain the exact state of the transmitting ap])aratus of the ear, and the condition of the uerve-tract connected with audition, an expert examination would be required. The importance of early training for deaf children. — Too much stress can scarcely be laid on the value of results obtainable in this way if early njade, since the perceptive power may be much quickened by training in many instances, even where the middle ear apparatus is de- fective. It would appear to be on the development of the perceptive tract, rather than on any change in the transmitting mechanism, that nffental im])rovement de])end8 in the very deaf who are taught aurally. The expert himself finds it no easy task to get at the facts in certain cases, es[)ecially in young children who have already been instructed as totally deaf, since they soon come to disregard" the hearing sense en- tirely, and it remains to be determined in such cases how much the auditory nerve has deteriorated from disuse. The i)rofessed indifference to hearing should never [)revent some attemi)ts being made at instruc- tion through the hearing organs, since a surprising amount of hearing may thus be found to exist. How many children one meets with who are backward in learning to talk, but finally on getting to be three or 535 298 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. four years old gain their speech! Such children would get on much faster in many instances, it is believed, if regarded as partially deaf. While treating such children professionally I have seen beneficial re- sults from the use of conversation-tubes, or the employment of the voice at close range. This practice cannot be too early commenced. I have observed good results in children as young as eighteen months. In ob- serving these cases one cannot but be impressed with the importance of normal hearing in the ready acquirement of speech, and that however imperfect the hearing may be, it has its uses in acquiring language. The hearing that remains after injury of the ear drum. — Often after great impairment or destruction of the transmitting apparatus of the ear-drums, a very efiQcient passage of sound to the auditory nerve re- mains; but as this becomes more and more difflcult, it deteriorates in quality, especially for long distances, until finally its rendition in the very hard-of hearing becomes so crude and indefinite that interpretation by the i>erceptive tract is difficult or even impossible. Islow, when sound ceases to be transmitted in this manner, hearing may take place by means of the passage of sound up through the tissues of the head to the perceptive tract as propagated by means of the otacoustic fan placed on the teeth, or tlie conversation-tube placed in the mouth. In the former instance sound passes more directly along bone structure from the teeth, while in the latter it ascends to the vault of the resonating chamber at the top of the pharynx and thence up through the tissues of the head. Voice-sounds imparted to a pupil in the manner just men- tioned are of very great value in certain cases, because of their tones being natural, and the pupil's own voice is even more effective in this respect since it is propagated upward with much energy by his own vocal eflbrts against the moist and highly receptive pharyngeal vault. The classification of the future. — No time should be lost in taking steps in this direction ; a little classification must necessarily pave the way to improvement in the education of the deaf of every degree. It should be kept in mind, however, that in a certain proportion of the partially deaf the defectiveness is transient and variable ; and that in some of the more difficult cases among the very or totally deaf repeated exam- ination will have to be made when any doubt as to the diagnosis remains. Before quitting this subject I desire to mention Bell's useful device for testing the hearing. The audiometer arranged by Professor Bell. — This instrument, for all practical purposes in testing the hearing power of the dift'erent classes of deaf persons, answers almost every requirement, and its introduction will very much facilitate the work of classification when used by an in- telligent and trained examiner. 536 EDUCATION OF THE BLIND IN THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. By Alfred H. Dtmond, Principal of the Ontario Institution for the Blind, Brantford, Out. A description of the educational system of the Province of Ontario would be incomplete without some reference to the means provided for the education and instruction of the blind. In a liberal, but just and necessary application of that term, are in- cluded, not only those young persons between seven and twenty one years of age who are sightless, but all who, within those limits, by rea- son of blindness or defective vision, are unable to receive an education by the ordinary methods at the public schools.. Nor does the duty of an institution for the education of the blind end when it has secured for the blind i)upil a more or less thorough knowledge of the subjects covered by the public school curriculum. His moral and religious train- ing, the ground work of character and of success in life, must engage the constant and careful attention of his teacher. Where the intellect- ual capacity of the pupil will admit of it, accomplishments, such as music and the higher branches of litera1:ure, must be added to the studies of the public school. And for pupils whose circumstances re- quire it, an industrial training, suited to the case of those who are en- tirely dependv^nit on the senses of touch and hearing to guide their oper- ations, has to be provided. An institution for the education of the blind, then, must be a public school, and something more than a public school, — a home, and some- thing more than most homes, — a workshop with appliances which no ordinary workshop can supply. But, with all this, let it never be for- gotten, when we come to ascertain results, that no teaching, however skillful or devoted, can absolutely compensate for the loss of sight. No instruction, however ingenious, can ever fully atone for the absence of the educating ])ower and functions of the eye. The e^'e is, to a large extent, an involuntary teacher, but it is an ever present and ever active one nevertheless. It may be wonderful that the blind can be taught so much, but it should be an ever active stimulant to efltbrts to teach them all they can acquire, to know how little with the best help they can, as compared with the seeing, know and do after all. It is not easy to ascertain the precise number of young persons in this Province eligible for admission to the Ontario Institution for the Blind. The census returns have been found almost useless in this re- spect, and very misleading. For the gross number of sightless persons enumerated will, on the one hand, include many who from mental and physical defects are necessarily excluded, while, on the other, they will not represent some whose sight is partially defective, but who are never- theless admissible under our rules. 537 300 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Somewhat diligent inquiry, however, leads me to believe that the nujuber of those who might properly claim admission, but have failed to do so, is not large. I doubt if, at the i)re8ent time, there are thirty young persons between seven and twenty-one years of age in the Prov- ince, eligible as ])upils, who are, without some reasonable cause, de- prived of the i)rivileges this Institution offers them. There are now 135 (71 males, 64 females) on our register, but these include several over twenty-one years of age, whose attendance is a matter of special favor and who could be excluded if accommodation were demanded for juniors. It may therefore be safely alleged that, in a building capable of accom- modating 150 without crowding, and which has accommodated 180 at one time, the Province has fully provided for the education and instruc- tion of its youthful blind population. The leading idea of the Institution is to create a spirit of independ- ence and self-helpfulness in its pupils, and thus to enable them to face the world with a resolute spirit and reasonable prospects of success in competition with the seeing. It must be admitted, however, that even in the effort to accou)plish this praiseworthy object, good and evil forces come into very close juxtaposition. Those who know by what a slow process, by what patient, continuous effort the blind pupil is taught, will readily understand that, to educate the blind child from his first alphabet card or "reader" in embossed type until he finally graduates with a well informed mind and accomplished in any single profession or branch of industry, must occupy a period of many years. During all that time his every want is supplied, his every reasonable wi>sh is grati fied. A building with wide and lofty corridors, three hundred feet in length, warmed by steam throughout; large and airy dormitories and class rooms; workshops equally comfortable; well spread tables fur nished to a minute three times a day, with all needful attendance; warm baths; every api)liance for studies accessible to the blind; officers always at hand to whom the idea of repelling or resenting a request for help from a pupil never occurs; grounds eighty-five acres in extent, with broad walks for recreation; a hall (or chapel) with its grand pipe- organ for divine service at such times, or under such circumstances, as may make it more suitable than the city churches, — all these become so familiar, are so much a part of the blind pupil's every-day existence, are so closely associated with his habits and pursuits, that it is not sur- prising if many cling to what has been so long their home, even when they should remain no longer, or are ready to succumb to the trials and discouragements they are called upon to face on leaving it to make a start in life. Nor is it easy to see how the difficulty, thus unavoidably created, is to be altogether overcome. One point always enforced here is, that the pupils are in no sense objects of charity. Gratitude to the good and gracious Father of All is a sentiment that, of course, caimot be too zealously fostered ; but, as entitled in common with the whole youth of the State to its paternal care in the matter of education, the blind claim their education not as a benevolence but as a right. That they are admitted without fee to an institution supported by the public revenue does not place them on a different footing, so far as their claims are concerned, from seeing youths who attend public schools also maintained by taxation. Originally a charge was contemplated in the case of those who could afford to pay, but the difficulty of discriminating was too great, and the exceptions were too numerous, to make a continuance of the attemi)t advisable, and, for several years, board and education have been free. With the further view of inducing the blind as far as possible to forget that any 538 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 301 distinction exists between themselves and the seeing, blindness with us is never spoken of as an affliction, but rather as a defect, for which we are endeavoring to provide a substitute or compensation. Again, when not under instruction, pupils are left, as a rule, depend- ent on their own resources. The Institution lies about a mile distant from the business portion of the city of Brantford. Male pupils, in couples, are allowed to resort thither as often as weather permits, and thus not only mingle with the outer world, but transact little matters of business on their own account. They are also familiarized with cur- rent events and human experience generally by hearing read the most interesting portions of the daily newspapers. Not a few are keen pol- iticians and take a deep interest in public affairs. Then, again, spare moments in the three months summer vacation are profitably utilized bj' our willow-workers, who make up bundles of willow granted them into baskets, for which they usually find a ready market, to be expanded when they finally graduate. A piano-forte tuner, too, during the holi- days will often borrow one or two implements, that he may keep his hand in while absent from the Institution and perhaps make a few dol- lars among his neighbors who are willing to trust him to tune their instruments. By these and other means we seek to lessen the trial attendant on altogether new and unaided efforts. The literary course of instruction is that followed by all the larger institutions for the blind on this continent, attention being perhaps rather more prominently directed to British than American history and literature, as in the case of our friends to the south of the line. At the same time we are more than debtors to American literature, and to American ])ublic and private liberality and enterprise. We have no author dearer to our blind boys and girls than Whittier, and should be almost without a library if we had not the privilege of access to the productions of the great printing houses for the blind at Boston, Louis- ville (Ky.), and Philadelphia. The selections, too, compiled by these publishers, are usually made with rare judgment — a most important cir- cumstance when the limited field it is possible to cover is taken into account. Let me appeal to all who rejoice in the priceless blessing of sight, to further this good work of providing literature for the sightless. Let me remind them that, while the Book of Books complete can be purchased at any of the society's agencies for a few cents, the Bible as a whole can only be enjoyed by a blind reader in the form of eight bulky vol- umes, costing in the aggregate twenty dollars. There is not a city of any proportions in Canada or the United States to-day without a free, or at all events a cheap, lending library of many thousands — in some in- stances hundreds of thousands — of books. The whole library accessible to the blind does not exceed one hundred and fifty books at the outside. For transcribing letter-press or music, or for communicating by letter with one another, our pupils use the "New York Point," brought to its present state of perfection by my friend Mr. W. B. Wait, the able su- perintendent of the New York City Institution for the Blind. In this connection I may say that our point i)rint guides are Al in point of (juality and adaptability. They have been perfected by our engineer, Mr. Thos. Harrison, and inquiries from all parts of the continent re- specting the Harrison guide, as it is popularly called, are frequent. We claim, however, no exclusive right in their manufacture. Our music course is both theoretical and practical. It includes stud- ies in harmony and counterpoint, as well as instruction in vocal music, the pipe-organ, reed-organ, piano-forte, and violin. 539 302 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. For our female pupils the industries taught consist chiefly of such light employment as bead-work and fancy work, in addition to thorough instruction in hand-sewing, hand-knitting, and the use of the sewing- machine, with all its attachments, and the knitting-machine. The lat- ter is an important factor in our pupils' calculations of fature liveli- hood. Of the male pupils a limited number whose natural gifts mark them as suitable are instructed in piano-forte tuning, with most satisfactory results. Our industrial specialty, however, is the willow-work manufacture, carried on with the assistance of sectional blocks or models, or iron frames, invented by our Trades' Instructor, Mr. Thomas Truss. The patterns of the goods included in the willow-workers' course of instruc- tion are from forty to lifty in number. When a jmpil can turn out the whole of these in a workmanlike manner he graduates, an outfit being presented to him of models, tools, and material, to the value of from $80 to $100. Pupils receive no money for their labor in the shops, our ar- rangements being, in this as in all other branches, devised with an eye to educational results alone, and not to financial returns. The willow industry is particularly well adapted for our pu])ils, who usually come from small centers or the rural districts. Laud for the growth of a willow crop is easily procui^ed, and the product of labor is easily mar- keted. Broom-makiug and mattress making, which are staple indus- tries in many institutions, are not suited to our needs. Chair making and basket-making offer not only a greater variety of openings for trade, but a larger opportunity for the exercise of the pupils' ingenuity. The Ontario Institution for the Blind was erected by the Government of the Province in 1872, on a singularly beautiful aud healthful site close to the city of Brantford and overlooking the Grand liiver. No small recommendation to the situation was the abundant supply of the purest water from a natural spring which, in the whole twelve years or more that have elapsed since the choice was made, has never shown signs of failure or even diminution. The Institution is strictly undenominational in its arrangements, the only distinction being made in favor of the Eoman Catholic pupils, who attend morning and evening prayers con- ducted by an officer of their own persuasion, while the members of other churches unite collectively in their devotions in the hall. The stafL' of the Institution consists of a principal, bursar, physician (not resident), matron, seventeen teachers and instructors, and a number of other per- sons employed on the farm and in the mechanical departments as well as domestics. The expenditure on the grounds aud buildings on capital account has, up to the present time, amounted to about $250,000. For its maintenance the Provincial Legislature votes about $32,000 annually. The authority of the Government over the Institution is represented by an inspector in charge of government institutions generally. Since the opening of the Institution in 1872, 375 pupils have been admitted to the enjoyment of its privileges. An annual examination of the literary classes is made by two educationists of high standing, and of the music classes by a professor of eminence. I trust that these talented experts may ever be able to report that the Ontario Institution for the Blind is worthy to form a part of the noble educational system of our Province. 540 THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDIANS. By Maj. J. M. Hawoeth, Late Superintendent of Indian Schools. The educational work amoiijj the Indians is at this time attracting more attention and promising better results than at any previous pe- riod, and this brings within the orbit of public interest the entire Indian question. For many years, during which this vexed question received but little attention except in aa official way from the Government, the importance of Indian elevation was almost overlooked or but inditferently provided for, even in a missionary point of view. The great missionary zeal of our country has been largely extended to the heathen of other lauds, while those of our own have received but limited attention. True, a few noble-hearted missionaries, Catholic and Protestant, have for many years been devoting their lives to mission work among the American Indians, and it is mainly due to their intiu- ence that a willingness has been evinced by a part of the Indians to receive the white man's education as well as his religion. The practical as well as the sentimental interest in the Indian has rapidly increased. Men who a few years ago were of the number who regarded '• the dead Indian as the only good one", are to-day among the most urgent in securing legislation in his bebalf. Within the last two years a National Indian Aid Society, composed of many of the most gifted, intellectually and financially, of Philadelphia's best citizens, has been organized, and has established auxiliaries in most all the impor- tant cities of our country. This society has exercised an important in- fluence, not only in molding public opinion, but in framing legislation and providing means for advancing the cause of the Indian. Not less potent have been the industrial schools of Carlisle, Penn.,and Hampton, Va., which have so forcibly attracted public attention to Indian possi- bilities, both intellectually and industrially. While these truths had in fact been demonstrated years ago, and the Indian's capabilities had ceased to be a matter of speculation among those who knew him best, the attention of the public at large had not been attracted in that direction until the establishment of the institu- tions above named. To them has been allotted the double duty of ed- ucating the Indian, and proclaiming to the white people that the Indian's abilities were on a par with their own. These schools have done and are doing a good work for Indian edu- cation, and I take pleasure in bearing testimony in favor of the able management of the Superintendents, Captain Pratt and General Arm- strong. Since the inauguration of the industrial schools at Hampton and Car- lisle, others have been started in dilGferent States ; the first, at Forest 541 304 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Grove, Or., has beeu iu successful operation for three years, aud Las clone for the Pacific coast what Carlisle and Hampton have done for the East. Within the last year three others have been organized, — one at Genoa, Neb., one near Arkansas City, Kan., designated as Chilocco, and one the Uaskill Institute, at Lawrence, Kan. About seven hundred pupils are now attending the three last named. Another, independent of Agency control, is located at Albuquerque, ]Sr. M. This school is maaaged by the Presbyterian Church under contract. Another very imj^ortant industrial school is located near the Saiitee Agency, in Ne- braska. It is partly supported by the Government, but the buildings- belong to the American Missionary Board, and the school is managed by the Eev. A. L. Eiggs, than whom no more successful educator is found iu the Indian Service. In addition to the schools named, we have placed at schools in various States about six hundred Indian children. These schools are also attended by white children, and the contact very materially assists the Indian child in obtaining a knowledge of the white people's language and ways. This experiment has only been in operation about two years, and the result is very satisfactory. A few children have been placed out among white people, and are living as members of the family. At most all the Agencies boarding or day schools have beeu estab- lished, and in some cases both; of the former there are 81, of the latter 76. This number does not include the schools of the New York Indi- ans, which are conducted under State authority and without expense to the Government, nor those of the five civilized Nations of the Indian Territory, who control their own educational interests under their own laws, without expense to the Government. They are very liberal in their educational provisions, and have colleges, academies, and distric^t schools comparing verj^ favorably with those of the ueighl oring States. The New York Indians have two boarding and thirty day schools. Over twentj' schools besides those named are conducted by missionary labor, without expense to the Government. The cai^acity of the various schools denominated Government schools is, boarding and industrial schools (5,635, and day schools 3,330, a total of 9,965; to which, if we add the New York schools wi»h capacity for 2,456 and 23 missionary schools with capacity for 993, we have, outside of the five civilized tribes, facilities for 13,414. Additional facilities are being added the i^resent year. The euroll- ment for the last year was within 865 of the full capacity, and the ave- rage attendance of the boarding schools was 71 percent., and of the day schools 60 per cent. The increase in ijupils and average attendance for the past two years has been at the rate of 30 j)er cent, per anuum over the previous years. The increase for the current year cannot be correctly ascertained until the reports are received and consolidated at its close. Each class of schools has an important place iu the work. The day school, generally regarded as of little consequence and almost as money thrown away, is a very important agent iu opening and preparing the way for the others. Experience demonstrates that it is much easier to obtain children for outside schools from Agencies where the matter of education has been brought before the Indians, even though the object lesson may have been only a day school. But these difficulties are becoming less each year, though there is still a strong opposition among some tribes to sending their children away to school, or even ])lacing them in Agency schools. The roots of the opposition leach far back into the past. Their own traditional and 542 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 305 religiously received ideas are all against a departure from the ways of their fathers, and he is a brave spirit indeed who in the face of such opposition can set it aside and start out in the white man's way. The important part in the work of Indian education is and has been in pioneering the way and overcoming their prejudices. This has been a wdrk of slow, but nevertheless sure, progress. The oi>position en- countered is stubborn, but is being gradually vanquished by persistency. To those on the outside unacquainted with the difficulties to be over- come, the ])rogress of the work may have appeared much slower than it actually has been. There is not much difficulty experienced now in securing the attend- ance of the boys, but a strong unwillingness exists against sending the girls to school. The Indian estimate of the female sex does not give her equal privileges with the male. She is the hewer of wood and the drawer of water. All the burdens are to be borne by her, and she ac- cepts the situation cheerfully as one of honor, regarding it as much more appropriate that she should perform menial offices than that her husband, son, or brother, should have so far to forget his dignity as to work with his hands. Although she is not exactly regarded as purchas- able in the light of bargain and sale, she yet commands a property value which justities the jjarents in demanding and receiving a large and valuable consideration in ponies, or other material, from one de- siring to make their daughter his wife. This transaction or ceremony often takes place while the girl is yet very young, often before she has reached ten or twelve years of age, and without her preferences being consulted. She is sometimes transferi ed to a man older than her father, who installs her in his fiimily as wife No. 2, 3, or 4. As the oi>portunity for an education is afforded this system vanishes. The education of the girls is certainly not less important than that of the boys, and its influence for good upon the tribe is even greater. But the great changes wrought in the last few years have not been without some influence in this respect, and I sincerely hope that the day is not far distant when among all the tribes these early marriages, voluntary or coercive, shall cease, and as many girls as boys attend the schools, the education and civilization of the sexes advancing to- gether. The rapidly advancing columns of civilization have come upon the Indians from the west as well as from the east, and that imaginary line designated the frontier has ceased to exist. The Indian is sur- rounded by the evidences of civilization, and anxious feet are treading on the very lines of the reservations, eager to pass over and possess the lands. Not much longer will even the bayonets of the army avail to keep back the intruders. Keservation lines will give way before the l)ressure, and the Indian will have to accept civilization or go to the wall. The signs of the times clearly indicate that this is inevitable. It will not delay until the children can be educated. The work of teaching uuist be extended to the old as well as the young. Never in the history of our country has the invitation gone out with greater force, from the condition of the Indians, to the Christians of the land to come and point out the true way, than at this time, and never has there been a time when such grand oi)portunities for success- ful work for the Master's cause among the Indians were offered to the churches. Will they heed the call and enter more largely upon the work ? Co??gress is liberal and the managing power wivse, but the (xovernment in its management cannot be expected to take th(^ i)lace of, and do the missionary work of the churches. Upon the churches of America rests 7050 COT, PT. 2 20 ■ 543 306 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. the responsibility of the elevation to Christian character of the Ameri- can Indian. While our efforts in behalf of the education of the children should extend to all the number, and we should see to it that facilities suffi- cient are provided, our effoits should not be confined to the children alone; much can and ou^ht to be done for the adults. The close observa- tion and study which I have given the matter during the twelve years in which 1 have been connected with Indian affairs, convinces me that labor bestowed upon the adult Indian is not lost. While we cannot expect to develop in him as high a type of civiliza- tion as in the school-boy, we will find him ready to respond favorably to any effort we may put forward in his behalf. While we may not be able to give hi in the advantages of intellectual education, we can with I)ro])er teachers and teaching demonstrate the fact, that the wildest Indian may soon be brought up to the plane of an industrious self-sup- porting man. He must be prepared for citizenship and become a factor in the man- agement of the affairs of the Nation. He will become a citizen and be absorbed into the body politic, or he may become a vagabond and con- stant charge to the Government until he ceases to exist. In educational matters and the general ways of civilization he is quick to respond. The children learn rapidly, and, considering the fact that they have to learn the English language as they progress in education, their ad- vancement compares well with that of white children. Including the Indians of Alaska, our entire Indian population is less than three hundred thousand, of whom not more than forty-five thou- sand are of school age. For more than half of these j)rovision has been made. As already said, the pioneer work, which is the most difficult, has been done. That which remains to be done, though it is great, can be accomplished much more rapidly, and the day need not be far dis- tant when the Indians as a body will be lost to view by commingling with, or being absorbed by, the stronger races, and thus the Indian question be of the past. 544 EDUCATION OF THE INDIANS IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA. By Samuel Woods, M. A., Principal of Ottawa Ladies' College. I find from a letter written on November 15th, 1685, by tlie Sieur de Deuonville, Governor of Canada, to the minister for the colonies under Louis XIV, that there had been established at Quebec two schools for the education of the Indians. In the tirst of these, young Indians were trained with -a view to their entering the Church; and in the second they were taught the useful arts, together with such instruction as they were found capable of receiving to qualify them the better as artisans, farmers, etc. (Parkmau's Old Regime, p. 438, AreJdvcs de la Marine a Paris.) It is now nearly two hundred years since that letter was written, and the policy announced in it has been the rule and guide of the Roman Catholic Church ever siuce. In carrying out this plan the Jesuit fa- thers have willingly oflered 'their lives on the altar of duty, and such names as Lalement, Masse, Breboeuf, Noirot, De La None, and hundreds of others, have won and worn the martyr's crown in endeavoring to carry the news of a crucified Redeemer to the dusky sons of the forest. Through the generations that have since passed, wherever the Church has found willing or unwilling auditors, whether on the banks of the Fnizer, the Peace, the Saskatchawan, the Abbittibe, or the Saguenay, alongside of the church have been found the mission school and the swarthy children gathered there, learning first of all the wondrous story of the son of Mary, and tlien, but in a far secondary place, the elements of a secular education. This policy, uuiformly pursued in Acadia, in the older Provinces of Canada, and tlrroughout the regions of the Far West, has been a most valuable auxiliary in instilliug into the minds of the Indians, wherever they came in contact with the "Black Robes", a respect for the usages of civilized life, and a desire, not once but many times expressed, to know more of the means by which the white man advanced with resist- less step, and finally supplanted the aborigines in their own hunting grounds. I have mentioned the noble efibrts df the Roman Catholic Church first among the educational advantages enjoyed by the Indians of the Do- minion, because she is the oldest factor in the work, and because her power and influence have as a consequence exercised the largest amount of good upon the Canadian tribes; and to show that the old spirit is not yet dead, but that the zeal which sent Marquette and Robert Cavolier de La Salle beyond the confines of civilization in the long past still sur- vives, I quote from a petition of Soeur M. U. Charlebois presented to the 54r) 308 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Et. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonakl, Siiperinteudent-General of Indian Affairs, in 1882. She says : The petitioner now humbly submits to your kind consideration the following state- ment of the different houses consecrated to the instruction of the Indian and half-breed children in this part of the North-west: The ' ' Asile Youville " at St. Albert's, established in 1859, clothes, feeds, and instructs (JO children. The "Hospice St. Joseph " at tic a la Crosse, established in 1860,40 children. I'lie '' Ho^iiice St. Joseph" at Lac La Biche, established in 1862, 38 children. The •' Hopital du Sacr6 Cuiui " at Mackenzie Elver, esl,ablished in 1866, 36 children. The "Convent des Saints Anges " at Athabaska, established in 1874, 28 children. , Thus under the Arctic Circle the good work advances under these self-denying enthusiasts, and the education of these semi-savages is car- ried on with sorely inadequate means. But on the Pacific coast a new factor in the education of our Indians is found. In 1841, Dr. Pickering, of the United States exploring vessel the Vincennes, thus writes, contrasting the then unbroken solitiiast ten years had so desired it, an immense revenue might have been derived from the sale of these lands. But no amount of argument or entreaty can prevail upon them to break the treaty, among the very oldest. And so while the islands on the American shore are gradually becoming denuded of their sylvan beauty and in some cases reduced by fire to barren rocks, no sale can take place on the Canadian side. Leases may be granted, and are granted at a fixed rental and for short periods, but only under the strictest regulations regarding the cutting of timber, lighting of fires, etc.; and as the lessee is liable for all such damage the probabilities are that the paradise of beauty on the Canadian side will long remain a standing and most powerful proof of the faith of the treaty guaranteed to the red man in the years now long past. LAWS REGARDING LIQUOR. But I have not yet exhausted the indirect educational influences which have served to render the Indian problem a source of pride and gratifi- cation to every Canadian. In every license law which has been ])assed by either the Dominion or Provincial Parliaments, one clause has ever ))een found, inflicting the heaviest penalties ui)on the man, be he hotel- keei)er, trader, or any one else, who sells liquor to the Indian. Nay, so determined has the Dominion Government been to ])ro)ect the Indian, that a most strict Prohibitory Liquor Law prevails in all the unorgaiiizecl Territories of the North-west, and one of the special orders to the mounted 310 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. police is to seize and confiscate all liquor entering the territory, even in the small quantity generally known as the "pocket pistol." It is no unusual Ihing to read in the police reports about the staving in of whisky kegs, and the utter destruction of their contents, and the trader whose stock is thus ruthlessly destroyed will think twice before runniu;;- the risk not only of the loss, but of imprisonment besides, if found guilty of a second offense. THE HON. HUDSON BAY COMPANY. Another educational agency must not be omitted. In 1643, England's unfortunate king, Charles I, granted to his nephew Prince Rupert and others a charter under the name of the " Honorable Company of Mer- chants and Adventurers trading to the Hudson's Bay." This company soon after established its posts on Hudson's Bay, and thence si>reaublished in that year, " Facts concern- ing the North American Indians and Hints for their Future Advance- ment," an account of the work done by some self-sacrificing Methodist ministers, which shows that even before our public school system came into being the problem of Indian education had been partially solved, 549 312 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. iiiid the policy adopted by those old Chiistiau Fathers has fojind its latest development in the industrial schools now so actively supported in Ontario, British Columbia, and the Territories. 1 quote as follows : Another meaus of accelei'atiug their improveineut would be to establish schools for the iustrnction of the children aud youth. Aheady we have schools on every mission station, -which have done much good ; but the thing to which I now refer is'to estab- lish schools of a superior order. Manual lal)or schools would be excellently adapted to their circumstances * '^ ". A portion of those annuities from each tribe might under the direction of the govei-nnient agent be apportioned to their supjjort. Per- haj)s a portion of their u)oney could not be better, nor to themselves more advanta- geously expended. By methods of this nature, the Indian would be gradually and i)er- mauently advanced in the scale of civil society; his migratory habits :inaid to mental training, many of the pupils are carefully instructed in industrial trades, such as shoemaking, tailoring, blacksmithing, plas- tering, carpentering, and prinring. In Appendix B I have indicated the present condition of many of these pupils, from which it will be seen that the instruction afforded is bearing excellent fruit. A similar insti- tution, called the " Mount Elgin Institute," exists in the Muuceytowu Reserve ; here special care is devoted to the female department, which is by no means neglected at Brantford, and for $60 per annum any girl of Indian i)arentage can procure board, education, and careful training in household duties, such as washing, laundry work, knitting, sewing, spinning, cooking, and baking. The boys are trained similarly to those at the Mohawk Institute. The Mount i^lgin Institute dates from 1807. At Sault Ste. Marie, and at Wikwemikong on the north shore of Lake Huron, two similar institutions have been organized and set forth upon a prosperous career. The former, the " Shiuwauk House," is under the charge of the Episcopal Church, and the latter of the Roman Catholic. The aim of all these institutes is to train the Indian to give up his old ways, and to settle among his white brethren on equal terms and with equal advantages.^ NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. These were two of the original contracting Provinces in the Confed- eration, aniuniugs. It will be seen from a previous part of my report that the Indian populatiou of these Provinces is about .■;{,750, and to provide for the wants of these there have been established ten schools supported entirely from the consolidated Indian funds of the (iovernment. In tbese schools there are 225 i)iii)ils receiving in- srrucrion in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, and geog- raphy. The work is regularly inspected by the officers of the public schools, and while irregularity of attendance is frequently complained of, still favorable advancement is reported. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. This Province has a very small Indian population, under 300, settled since 1870 on Lennox Island, Richmond Bay, on the north shore. Tlie reservation contains about 1,300 acres of good land, and was i)urcljased for the Indians by the London Aborigines Society. A school was first opened on this reserve in 1873, but it enjoyed a very precarious career until about three years ago, when the Indians suddenly developed a desire to make more use of it. The last report gives an attendance of 15 pupils on the average, and the usual subjects taught. The school is supported entirely by government funds. QUEBEC. Although there are seventy-one reservations in this Province, schoojs have been opened at only fifteen different localities. But it must not be sir[)posed that the interests of education are neglected at all the others. The Iloman Catholic Church still pursues its way, still cares for the orphan and the destihite, and only where there are a sufficient nundjer of children to form a school has it been deemed advisable by the Government too]>en one. These fifteen schools, tluui, have an attendance of 407 pupils, tlie largest number maintained being at Caughnawaga, whei-e there is an average daily attendance of 80. These pupils are all instructed in the 314 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. usual branches, with giammar, history, and music added. The Dominion Government grant is 82,880 per annum, and the reports of the various schools are touiid on the wl)ole very satistactory. Unfortunately in this Province the religious difficulty occasionally crops out, and more schools might be opened if a basis of agreement could be ascertained. With a \'ie\v of meeting the question fairly, the Indian Act contains a clause defining the rights and powers of the Indians in such cases. As soon as it is found that sufficient children can be collected to form a school, b3^ a majority vote it is decided whether the school shall be Catholic or Protestant ; but in any case if a sufficient minority wishes . it, a second school and a second teacher will be supplied. As this en- actment ouly came into force recently, it is fully expected that in many places it may be found practicable to do more than is now attempted. In this, as well as in every other enactment for the advancement of the Indians, the Government, under its present enlightened and vigorous management, is found providing a remedy so soon as the difficulty be- comes apparent. And still there is much to do for our Quebec Indians. BRITISH COLUMBIA. As regards this Province I find in the report of the Minister of the Interior for 1874 the following : Witli regard to the education of the Indian youth in this Province, three schools es- tablished with this object have been brought prominently under the noiico of the Government, toward which grants corresponding to the respective attendance and the character of each have been made. These institutions consist of — Ist. The industrial school at St. Mary's, under the care of the Roman Catholic Church, w hereat forty-two children are boarded, the boys receiving instruc- tion in farming, and the girls in housewifery, needle-work, etc. Grant, $350 per annum. 2nd. A similar but still larger institution at Metlakahtla, under the supervis- ion of Mr. Duncan, supported by the Church Mission Society of Loudon, hav- ing an attendance of three hundred and four children. Grant, $500 per an- num. 3rd. A day school at Nauaimo with fifty pupils, under the superintendence of the Wesleyan Methodist Society. Grant, $250 per annum. There has also been authorized the payment of $300 per annum to each of seven such other schools as may already or shall hereafter be established, in accordance with the wishes of the Indians and the approval of the Indian Comnussioner, and having each an attendance of not less than thirty pupils. The extension to British Columbia fif laws already in force for 1he government of Indians in the older Provinces of the Dominion, and the passage last session of a stringent law to put a stop to the liquor traffic among the Indians, are notable cir- cumstances in the year's transactions. This was in the first report after the entrance of British Columbia into the Confederation, and it is gratifying to find that not only were these seven schools established, but they have ever since been main- tained, and the last report shows an attendance at them of four hun dred and eight i)upils, studying the usual public school branches, and though the attendance is less regular than in the other Provinces, still very pleasing evidences of progress are reported. To counteract this irregularity one inspector recommends the extension of the principle of the industrial schools to the whole Province. As yet, however, the ex- pense of such a step would involve too great an outlay. MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST. The first school established under government control in these Terri- tories was opened in 1873, and although only eleven years have since passed, there are now forty-four schools with an attendance of nearly 552 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 315 1,300 pupils. Like everything else in this new country these schools are active, vigorous, and aggressive, and owe their rapid increase to the fact that the Government bound itself in every one of the treaties surrounding the territory to maintain a school on each reservation, or more than one if more were required. In addition to these there are three boarding and industrial schools which have been recently opened at Qu'Appelle, at Battleford, and at High Eiver near Calgarry, on the same plan so successfully tried in the older Provinces. Here, too, the Government found a few religious schools, but for the most part the soil was virgin, and is destined to produce a return incalculable by any human means in the social elevation of the many thousand Indiana scattered over the fertile reserves guaranteed to them forever by the faith of treaties which will never be broken. REPORT FOR 1884. Just while I was collecting the above data the Superinteudeut-Gen- eraPs Report for 1884 was announced as soon to be issued, and I have been permitted to make some valuable extracts from it. These are of the most favorable character, as will be seen by the following : The erection at the expense of the funds at their credit of more commodious school- houses, the repair and improvement of the old buildings, and the supplying of modern school furniture, books, and materials for the better education of their children, atl'ord proof of iiicreased interest in the important matter of education. » » * Schools for the higher education of Indian youth should be established in ihc Prov- inces of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, in which the brightest and most jiromising pupils of the day schools might be trained in industrial pursuits, the knowl- edge of which wouhl eventually enable them to rise in the social scale to an equality with the white artisan or husbandman. * » * The progress of Indian children at day schools, however efficiently conducted such institutious may be, is very greatly hampered and injuriously affected by the associations of their home life, and l)y the frequency of their absence and the indifference of parents to the regular attendance of their children at such schools. * * » I would suggest in order to give practical effect to the above ideas that two schools of the industrial type, with accommodations for at least eighty* pupils in each, should be established in the Province of Quebec, and one of such iustiturions in each of the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick, and that into either of the latter institutions Indian children from Prince Ed- ward Island be also admitted ; the number of schools to be hereafter increased, should the success of those first established justify such augmentation. It will be seen from the above extracts from his Report, that the Rt. Hon. the Premier, who is Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs, does not intend to pursue a policy of masterly inactivity in the treat- ment of the Indian Problem, but, recognizing its very great importance, he proj)Oses to deal with it in a statesmanlike manner and in accordance with the traditions of the Canadian Indian policy. In this rapid manner, for I regret to say that the time at my disposal, aside from my college duties, for the proper treatment of so large a subject was very limited, inasmuch as the request to prepare the paper was conveyed to me only twelve days before it was to be handed in, I have endeavored to overtake the more salient outlines of a system of etlucation unique from its inception and growth, and commanding re- spect from its highest recommendation — success. I have thrown some additional items of information into the form of appendices to which I would refer, and in the preparation of which I have to acknowledge the great assistance afforded by the Deputy Superintendent-General for Indian affairs, L. Vankoughnet, Esq., who kindly placed at my disposal, on the request of the Et. Hon. the Premier, every available means in his office in order to obtain as full details as possible. But the educational facilities afforded bj^ the Government have not 553 316 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. yet been exhausted, and the policy of placing the Indians on reserva- tions having- been deliberately adopted, it was thought that something more ought to be done. And so seed was provided, agricultural imple- ments supplied, cattle, hogs, sheep, and even horses in many instances, were furnished, and competent men appointed to instruct the Indians in the use of them. In the northwest twenty-six such agencies of an educational kind are at worlc, and the returns are sometliing wonder- ful, if we remember tbat this method of instruction hus been in opera- tion only (bur years. In Appendix D I have giveu the Litest returns from these farms or reserves, from which it can easily be seen that the Indians are becoiuiiig very fast a self supporting class of jjeople, and that they hold iu tlieir own hands the means of making themselves wealthy and respected. Their nomadic life is gradually becoming a thing of the past; their wars are no more heard of; their ei^idemics of small-pox and other zymotic diseases are gradually yielding to the pre veutive measures so cheerfully and am])ly supplied by the Government Their wild, untutored, and hence suspicious natnre is gradually becom ing tamed, and under the combined influence of paternal governmen and mutual esteem they are fast qualifying themselves to become use ful citizens. So fully is this grand result shared by the authorities of the Indiar Department, that in the last session of the Dominion Parliament an Act was passed under which the Indian either at once becomes enfran- chised, or may acquire municipal rights of self-government, and be- come, on certain conditions, entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizenship without many of the burdens incident thereto. See Ap- pendix E. But it may naturally be inquired by some: All this costs money, and whence comes that most needful commodity for these various purposes f In reply to this question I submit Appendix F, from which it will be seen that the Indian Department is more than self-sustaining, and that in tiie far off future, when the Act of 1884 shall have be^n adopted by all the tribes, there will be an amount available tor the posterity of these nomads of the forest, in value beyond their wildest dream. Nor can we doubt that the wisdom which during the past century has created a fund of more than three million dollars, will when that time conjes i'ail to find a proi^er use for it in connection with still further measures for exalting the social, spiritual, and intellectual status of the Red Men of the Dominion of Canada. 554 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 317 APPENDIX A. List of Sohools supported entirely or in part by the religious denotninatiotis at the date of Confederation, tvith the numiera attending each. . Province. Ontario . Quebec . . . Name of tribe. Munsee.s and Oneidas Wyandots . .. Cliippcwas and Pottawatomics' Chippowas Mississaugas do Chippev ewas . do do do Mohawks Qjibbeways Six Nations^ - Manitoulin Indians do do do Garden Eiver Indians Indians of Two Mountains . do do Abenakis Beserve. Denomination. Munceytown "Wesley an Methodist. . Anderdou do..-- Walpole Island Church Mission Fund c5augeen I Wesleyan Methodist. . Alnwick do Rice Lake i do . Cape Crocker ! Episcopal Christian Island ' Wesle.yan Methodist. . Eama ' do Snake Island j tlo , do I do Quinto Shawanegan Giaiiil Iviv< r Maiiitowaiiiii WiliworailionK Little Curiunt SheshegUiining .. Garden River Deux Montasces do do Lac St. Frangois . do do do do Roman Catholic Wesleyau Methodist ... Congregational Episcopal S6minaire de Montreal. . do ... do Col. Church Society 51 56 40 25 40 28 43 18 13 34 16 31 57 156 ' There were many other small schools at the various mission stations ; but unless the average attend- ance was over 20 no return was made of them. ■■^ School No. 9 on this reserve. SAM'L WOODS. Ottawa, February 14, 1885. APPENDIX B. Showing present condition of viany ex-pvpils trained in the varions Indian schools of the Dominion, particularly at the industrial schools at Brantford and Shinguaulc, together with a specially prepared Beport by E. Ashton, Esq., Superintendent of the Mohawk Insti- tute, Brantford. Josepli Esquimau, school-teacher and catechist at Neepegon Bay. William Riley, school-teacher at Henvey's Iiilet. Adam Kiyoskh, working at his trade as carpenter at Sarnia. Edvrard Jackson, working at his trade as carpenter at Wallaceburg. .Jobu Wigwaus, boot and shoe maker at the Shingwauk House. Margaret, Kate, and Floretta Maracle, Clabren Russell, and P. H. Martin, teachers in Indian schools, and Jeanne Osborne, governess j)upil at a Toronto Young Ladies' College. Thomas Green, matriculated at McGill University, Facully of Applied Science. In 1882 graduated in science, B. Sc, studied civil engineering, and is now a Provin- cial Land Surveyor attaclied to tlie Dominion IjuikI Officer at Ottawa. Atma Jones in 187i) passed tiie best examination tor ))ub]ic-school teacher, second class, out of eighteen candidates, she alone being an Indian. Here is a record of 78 pupils of the Mohawk Institute not included in the above or any subsequent return : Farming independently or on shares. T> Farming at hire oi' for tlieir parents. 32 Working at trade or in factories 9 Domestic service with Indians 6 Domestic service with wliites. 16 Teaching school 8 555 318 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. I now have much pleasure in aj»peuding a copy of a letter received this day, and ■written in response to one of mine asking for information : Mohawk Institute, February 13, 1885. Principal Woods : Dear Sir — I much regret that I was unable to reply earlier to yours of the 7th iust. The Mohawk Institution was founded in or about the year 1828, first as a day school for the Mohawks, and gradually developed into a school specially for teaching handicrafts. In 1831 the Institution comprised, besides a mechanic shop, two large rooms for teaching the girls spinning and weaving, and two for teaching the boys tailoring and carpentry. In 18:33 it was opened as a boarding-school for ten boys and four girls. Subsequently it was greatly enlarged, till in 1844 it contained between ii)rty and fifty boys and girls. In 18.59 a new brick building was erected for sixty })npils, and tliis building has been enlarged from time to time, and now accommo- dates ninety pupils, forty-five of each sex, and since 1880 it has generally been full. On my taking charge of the Institution in 1872, candidates for admission were first re- quired to pass an examination in reading the Second Book, and in the simple rules of arithmetic. This rule has been tbe means of greatly increasing the efficiency of the day schools, and of enabling us to send out teachers better qualified for their duties. Can- didates are now required to read Third Book. Eight schools on this reserve are taught by jjupils from this Institute, who have all successfully i)assed the examination for entrance in the high schools, and received here six months' special training for teachers. Since 1875 twenty-nine pupils have passed the entrance examination to the high schools, and twice they have stood first. At the Christmas examination, 1884, at the Bruutford Collegiate Institute, out of 75 candidates and a total of 620 marks, our pupils passed as follows: Willis Tobias (Delaware). No. 3 with 471 marks; Christo- pher Monturc; (Delaware), No. 7 with 460 marks ; Robert Hill (Seneca), No. 9 with 443 marks ; Ellen Reed (Mohawk), No. 13 with 434 marks; John Lickers (Mohawk), No. 16 with 432 marks; Charles Anthony (Delaware), No. 19 with 425 marks; and Mary Montnve (Delaware), No. 29 with 407 marks. The New England Company, who chiefly support these schools, has decided that this Institution shall be an industrial and normal school, and this year established ten scholarships at the Brantford Collegiate Institute for enabling Indian teachers to obtain provincial certificates. Former j)u,])Us : Rev. Isaac Barefoot (Episcojial) bas first-class provincial certificate, was master at this Institute for several years, attended Huron College, London, has charge of a ivhite congregation at Point Edward, Ontario. Rev. Albert Anthony (Episcopal), Assistant Missionary to the Six Nations. Dr. Oronhyatehka, Physician, London, Ontario, P. M. Grand Register Canada, Past Grand Workman of the United Order of Workmen, Grand Chief Forester, etc., enjoys a splendid practice, altogether among whites. Dr. George Bombury (deceased) was Assistant Physician to the Six Nations. Miss Jessie Osborne, second-class provincial certificate, governess Mohawk Institute. Of those who have regularly graduated, fourteen are teaching Indiau schools; one has taught school several years, and is now studjing medicine ; three are bookkeep- ers, eight are attending collegiate institutes, one is clerk in the Indian Department at Ottawa, one is Government interpreter to the Six Nations. There are also several acting as interpreters for missionaries, and others who by their educational advan- tages have been elected as chiefs, secretaries, etc., among their own people, whilst others are farming successfully, and several are with the Canadian contingent in Egypt. I reman, dear sir, yours very truly, R. ASHTON, Superintendent. Ottawa, February 18, 1885. 556 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 319 APPENDIX C. Statement showing tlie progress made hj the jt^arious Indian schools eslablished throughout the Dominion of Canada for the henefit of the Indian youth, from the year 1863 to 1884, inclusive. Provinces. Ontario Ontario Quebec Ontario Quebec Ontario Quebec Ontario Quebec . . . Ontario Quebec Ontario Quebec Ji ova Scotia New Bniuswick Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Ontario ; Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Ontario Quebec N ova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island . British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario 1864 1864 1865 1865 1866 1866 1867-« 1867-f 1869 1869 1870 1870 1870 1870 1871 1871 1871 1871 1872 1872 1872 1872 1873 1873 1873 1873 1873 1873 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1875 1875 1875 1875 1875 1875 1875 1876 1876 1876 1876 1876 1878 lf-'"6 U77 (-;g 874 887 85 987 386 915 393 1,409 305 1,320 305 1,275 526 24 1,701 1,787 401 47 1,516 517 517 28 120 1,701 497 497 2 640 120 1,762 441 79 79 79 1, 159 480 1,857 394 30 497 106 1,985 RemarkB. Several schools with small attendance not reported. Mission schools with small attendance not reported. See remark oppo.site 1863. See remark opposite 1864. Mount Elgin Industrial School, estab. lished at Munceytown under the au- spices of the Methodist Missionary So cioty with 52 pupOs in attendance. The boys attending the Mount Elgin In- dustrial School taught trade.s and farm- ing; the girls housework, tailoring, &c. No reliable returns received. Returns incomplete. No. 1 School on Sis Nation Reserve, near Brantford, has been a boarding school many years. It is now made an Indus- trial school, and named the Mohawk In- stitute. Returns very unsatisfactory. Do. And partial returns from other schoola. Partial returns from three schools only. Partial returns only. No returns received. Schools closed. Not heard from. A private school. The Department is try- ing to open schools. School temporarily closed. Industrial and boarding schools at St. Mary's and Metlakahtla. No returns from two of the schools. No schools heard from. No returns. No returns received from some schools. Weaving, needle-work, mental calculation. English, and French taught in some schools m addition to the regular studies. No report. Not heard from. No return from leu schools. Scripture, sing».ng, and catechism t^kught in many schools. 557 320 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Statement showing the progress made by the various Indian schools, <^c. — Coutinned. Province. Qnel)eo Nova Scotia New Branswick Prince Edward Island British Uolnmbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Qnebec Nova Scotia New Branswick Prince Edward Island . British Columlsia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island . British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia . . New Briiiiswick Prince Edward Island British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec , Nova Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island , British Columbia Manitoba and Northwest Territory. Ontario Quebec NoA'a Scotia New Brunswick Prince Edward Island British Columbia , Manitoba and Northwest Territory.. Ontario Quebec , Nova Scotia New Brnnswidk Prince Edward Island British Colum bia Manitoba and Northwest Territory.. 1877 3877 1877 1877 1S77 1877 1878 1878 1878 1878 1878 1878 1878 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1881 1881 1881 1881 1881 1881 1881 1882 1882 1882 1882 1882 1882 1883 1883 1883 1883 1883 1883 1883 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 „ 00 79 79 30 402 415 1,824 .320 79 27 648 501 1,095 3L>a 78 78 25 615 590 1,939 376 83 15 544 517 1,907 404 107 (S 18 652 971 1,965 497 !)9 57 12 166 762 1,919 402 79 71 11 1,180 672 1,930 467 107 118 15 408 1, 261 Kemarks. Scripture, siuging, and catechism taught in many schools. No reports. Some .schools not lieard from. Bo. Dictation and di'awing taught in some schools. Dictation and drawing. Not heard from. Scripture and singing taught in some schools. Catechism and Scripture taught in some schools. Catechism, Scrii)turo, siuging, &c. Do. No reports. In the industrial schools boys are taught farming and trades, and girls sowing, &c. Industrial arts taught in some schools. English, French, and composition taught. Several not heard from. Do. Object lessons. Catechism, dictation, and couiposition taught in nearly all the schools in addi- tion to the regular studies. Returns very defective. No returns from several sclioirls. Object lessons, music, and drawing fciught. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Object lessons, drawing, music, mental arithmetic, dictation, composition, and catechism taught in nearly all the schools in the various Provinces, iind most of the schools regularly inspected by the local inspectors of puliUc schools and reports sent in to the dei)artment. Ottawa, February 14, 1885. 658 SAMX WOODS. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 321 APPENDIX D. Showing thr nqricuJtural and industrial statistics of the Indian farms throughout the Do- minion of Canada, extracted from the Annual Beport of the lit. Hon. the Superintendent- General of Indian Affairs for 1884. Province. Ontario Quebec Kova Scotia New Bninswick Princf Edward Island.. Manitoba Northwest Territory Britisli Columbia Total , m © u .w o "3 Pp > ■" J ^ o $28, 360 $34, 985 3a, 140 30, 395 5,433 13, 231 2,720 3, 613 10 5, 500 4r., 563 4,560 81, 180 9,985 136, 029 332, 435 28, 977 131, 246 ;- .= A 5 i~t o '^ (C o i)lication, ipso facto, become and be enfranchised under this Act. Section lOfi provides the machinery by which a whole baud may become enfran- chised, and under it the Wyandot Indians of Auderdon are now enjoying the full franchise as citizens. INDIAN ADVANCEMENT ACT OF 1884. This Act was passed for the purpose of preparing the Indians, by the organization of municipal offices among the tribes, for the full discharge of all the duties jjertaining to them as future citizens. It provides, inter alia, for a general meeting of the tribe for the election of council- ors, defines the duty of such when elected, aud lays down their powers to make by- laws for the following purposes: Schools, making due provision for minorities when Catholic or Protestant ; health; decorum at meetings; moral otitenses ; subdivision of tribal lauds; trespass by animals; construction of roads and bridges on the reserves ; water- courses; raising funds by assessment, which cannot exceed in anyone year one half of one per cent.; application of funds so raised ; imiJosition of penalties and enforcement thereof before any magistrate. It was expected that several of the bands would apply under this Act, jiarticularly the one at Rama. However, none have so applied as yet, because the more advanced bauds were, many of them, endeavoring to qualify themselves under section 106 of the Act of 1880, quoted above. SAM'L WOODS. Ottawa, February 16, 188."). APPENDIX F. Analyzed balance sheet, showing the condilion of the Indian Fund on the ZOthJune, 1882, the additions thereto and deductions therefrom during the year, and the balances of the va- rious tribes and funds on the 30th June, 1383. Name of tribe. Batchewana Indiaus Cliippewas of Beausoleil Chippewas of Nawash Chippcwas of Kama Chippewas of Sarnia Cliippewas of Saui^een Cliippewas of Snake Island .. Chippewas of Thames Chippewns of Walpole Island Fort William band rionch Kiver Indians Gaiden Kiver Indians Henvcy's Inlet Indiana Lake Nepissiu^ Indians Mandtoulin Island Mangancttewan Indians Mississaugas of Abiwick Miasissaugas of Credit Mississaugas of Kite Lake. . . Mississaugas of Sciigog Mohawks of Qnint6 Moravians of Thames 560 Balance to credit June 30, 1882. $12, 56, 309, 52, 184, 241), 24, 69, 62, 1, 30, 1, 10, 81, 121, 56. 11, 116, 159, 636 03 245 40 721 O.-} 448 26 457 77 415 98 781 82 400 06 831 71 002 61 899 89 103 20 975 04 804 75 330 14 353 35 437 17 028 62 997 56 882 68 275 22 354 33 Eeceipts from interest, land, timber and stone sales, rents, lines, &c. $3, 269 07 3, 086 87 23, 028 97 2, 700 72 12, 344 35 20, 155 27 1,450 91 3, 826 65 11,307 09 229 25 58 48 3, 989 12 3, 124 80 1,971 14 207 77 114 99 5, 592 36 6, 937 81 3.1^5 20 1,497 00 8,143 41 7, 857 18 Expenditure. $3, 071 41 2, 881 44 31,122 70 1,,532 91 12, 636 02 26, 765 23 1, 512 98 3, 533 62 4, 113 23 151 15 71 04 4,491 92 381 72 1, 456 38 153 33 7 28 n, 975 21 7, 212 46 2, 854 13 1,009 18 0, 079 82 7, 904 63 Balance to credit June 30, 1883. $11, 933 69 50, 450 92 301, 627 30 52, 616 07 184,146 10 242,805 62 24,719 75 69, 693 09 70, 025 57 1,140 71 887 31! 29, 600 40 4,718 18 11,319 51 381 58 401 26 75, 054 32 120, 753 97 57, 298 (!3 12,310 50 117,738 81 159, 306 88 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 323 Analyzed balance sheet, showing the condition of the Indian Fund, ijc. — Continued. Name of tribe. Mimsii^es of Thames OJibbcways of MiinUnuliii Qi i l)I>e ways of Lali e ilu lou Ojililx' ways of Lake Sui)er!or OJibbeways of Mississaiiga River - . . Oueidafi of Tliauies Paii y Islaud Indians Pottiiwiitiimies of Walpole Island... Serpent Kiver Indians ' Six Nations of (Jraud River Shawanajra Indians Spanish River Indians Tliesst#>u Ri ver Indians ! Tootoomenai band Whitelish Ri\ er Indians Wyandots of Andcrdou Abenakis of St. Francis A binakis of Bi(,;ancour Anialicites of Isle Vigor and Verte . Golden Lake Indians Uurons of Loi'otte Iroquois of Causbnawapi Iroquois of St. Resis Lake St John Indians Lake Two Mountains Indiana Nepessinguas of Upper Ottawa River Desert Indians Indians of liritisb (Columbia Indians of Manitoba and Northwest Terril ory Indians of Nova Scotia Indians of New Brunswick Tobigue Indians Indians of Priuce Edward Island Clench, I. 15 Maiville, Nancy Manace, James Wabbuck, William Province of Quebec Indian Fund Indian Land Management Fund Suspense account . Indian School Fund Survey account Total Balance to credit June 30, 1882. .$2,692 :U 104, 3(i6 88 r>:3,094 27 42, 637 41 3, 893 93 037 68 39, 440 85 3, 992 23 1, 3CG 46 811,927 64 5, 377 31 2,8(i8 00 10, 022 05 913 67 2, 284 84 68,851 99 2, 782 76 3(»5 84 1, 751 27 23 (12 564 79 21, 573 45 29,991 70 1, 153 68 1, 237 5,-) 3,421 83 32, 70S. 77 6, 066 70 2, 646 67 153 92 2, 035 95 3, 970 59 28 92 1, 13.". 92 2, 531 65 1,518 99 2, 025 31 48, 653 80 72, 348 61 5, 336 68 132, 755 95 3, 000 00 3, 148, 574 94 Receipts IVoni interest, land, tinibci- and stonisale.-j rents, lines, &t $1.33 64 .17,977 89 8, 693 52 6, 054 36 4,59 71 . 236 78 2, .564 51 2, 904 63 383 63 48, 518 38 1,181 98 234 74 1, 143 68 54 60 122 81 4, 397 77 1, 399 83 467 44 78 80 1 04 101 88 1,888 89 2, 989 58 235 86 60 86 1.53 96 2,015 94 1,034 98 1, 906 20 693 16 753 22 870 16 1 30 51 12 113 90 68 34 91 12 6,744 48 24,6.58 10 240 12 16,107 02 Kxp(!nditurt .$128 82 1(1, 884 72 10,072 06 7, 808 17 242 30 2.53 CO 1,922 43 555 16 149 67 37, 745 09 347 22 249 06 1,051 07 54 64 136 37 4, 010 29 506 41 34 70 10 00 20 00 14 59 6, 155 58 2, 856 66 266 73 133 35 1,922 82 . 182 72 596 99 173 74 72 80 350 28 120 24 72 14 96 IS 8, 962 64 19,094 30 837 28 18,262 24 583 15 Balance to credit June 30, 1883. $2, 697 16 105, 460 05 50. 815 73 40, 883 60 4, 1 11 34 621 46 40, 082 93 (i,34l 70 1,600 42 822, 700 93 6,212 07 2,8.53 68 10, 114 66 913 63 2,271 28 69, 239 47 3,616 18 798 58 8:;0 07 4 66 652 OS 17, 306 76 30, 124 62 1, 122 81 1, 165 06 3, 575 79 .32,801 89 6, 918 96 3, 955 78 673 34 2,716 ;i7 4, 490 47 30 22 1,187 04 2, 525 31 1,515 19 2, OK) 25 46, 435 64 77,902 41 4, 739 52 130,6011 73 2,416 85 3,1.53,049 94 Sammary showing state of the Indian Fund on 'iOth June, 1884. Balance at credit of fund June 30, 1883, $3,153,049.94, less .$2,521.19 Interest accrued during year on money in hands of Dominion Government. . $153, 816 74 Collections on account of laud sales, timber dues, dues on stone quarried, lents, lines, and fees, during the year 203, 723 38 (iovernnieut grants 33, 9>i0 00 Entry warrants 1, 319 05 Total E.\i)onditures during the year Balance at credit of Indian fund on 30th June, 1884 , 150, 528 75 392,839 17 3, 543, 367 92 271,457 90 3,271,910 02 Tlie i]>pend the following- extracts from the Eeport of the Honorable the Minister of Bdacatiou ior Ontario, showing- the condit^lon of the Indian schools in that Proviuco during the year lS83-'84. The information is more in detail, and, in some respects, more recent than iu the report prepared by Mr. Woods and embracing the Indian schools in the various Provinces of the Dominion. — J. Ceokge HodGtINS, Deputy Minister of Education, Ontario.] EEGULATIONS FOR INDIAN SCHOOL INSPECTION, 1884. 1. — Regulations on the Subject of Indian Schools and their Inspection, approved hij the Min- ister- of Education for Ontario and the Department of Indian Affairs. The Department of Indian Aftairs for the Dominion haviniy; expressed a desire to place the Indian schools in Ontario under the inspection of the public school Inspect- ors for the Province, fche following Regnlatious have been adopted: 1. The teachers are required to have a speaking acquaintance with the Indian lan- guage, and are, consequently, likely in most cases to be Indians; but the ioistructiou should, as soon as i»racticable and as far as possible, be given in English. 2. Teachers shall receive their certificates from the County or District Boards of Examiners, who shall be granted discretionary powers as to the attainments required ; it will be found, however, for some time to come, that the standard of "high school entrance" will )>e quite as high a,s is attainable. 3. The subjects of study in these schools need not at present embrace moi*e than the following, viz : Reading, vrriting, object lessons, elementary drawing (from cards), elementary arithmetic (the four simple rules), elementary geography (the maps of the world ancl Doiiiiuion of Canada), spelling and grammar (formartiiou and analysis oi' simple sentences). 4. The Indian D i)artment will furnish all text books and apparatus for use in the ■ schools. 5. The schools shall be placed under the inspectoral supervision of the County In- spectors in conjunction with the Indian Agent, who shall together also have a con- trolling influence in the selection of teachers, except iu the case of such schools as are established by any religious denomination under the Regulations of the Depart- ment of Indian Ati'airs, and in such schools the selection of teachers shall continue to be made as heretofore ; but each of the Inspectors shall state, in his reports of in- spection, his opinion on the competency of the teacher of each donominational Indian school insx)ected by him. A lee of sis dollars ($6) per visit shall be paid the Inspector, and legitimate travel- ing (expenses allowed for two visits per annuui, April 19, 1884. m INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 32rj Schedule of Denominational IntHan Schools, as reported bi) the Indian Deparlment. CHURCH OV ENGLAND. Lower Miincey. Mohawk Institute. Mud Lake. Oueida, No. 2. Walpole Island, No. 1. Tyen 2 n. i 2 and 3 Slates 2 Books 3 m. Slates 2 Books 2 Addition. Simple rules. 2 IV. Total. 21 ai.S ".2 2 "a July, 1884. p74 • The whole school = 2. Articulation, good and distinct. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 337 C. A. Barnes, Esq., Inspector, No. 1, Lambton. Indian Schools al Kiiile and Slony Foinfs. The scbool at Kettle Poiut is at preseut conducted by Miss E. Royle, who came from England about uiue months aijo, and has been engaged teaching since February last ; she has no rertificate of standing in this country, and as her enga^nieut terminates .the Ist of October, I did not thinlcit necessary to ask her to attend the examinations. There were nine jjupils ])resent at the time of my visit, in the first, second and third classes; the reading in the third class was fair, although somewhat monotonous. Spelling fair; multiplication tables to nine times, very good. The writing in all class(>s w'iis \ery good ; in fact, I was very much gratified to find it so good. The sujiply of copies was somewhat scarce, but the term being so near its close, accounts for that being the case, but I have no doubt a supply will be in readiness at the op< iiing of the school after vacation. Miss Royle also teaches singing and knitting, thus giving variety to her work. I would suggest that maps of the County of Lambtou and the Dominion of Canada should be provided as soon as possible, in order that geography may be taught in- telligently. As soon as the question of readers is finally settled, I think tablets should also be supplied. The l)uilding at present used as a school is also used for church purposes. A new church is in course of erection, and when complete, the preseut building will then be used altogether for school purposes, wheu I hope a larger supply of black- board will also be j^rovided. The schoo' at Stony Poiut is also kept in the church, and is conducted by Mr. Moses Waucosli : the number of pupils present was six: the supply of ink and ))cns was very limited, but I was informed afterwards by the Rev. Mr. White that Mr. Waucosh could have had these by asking for them, as lie (Mr. White) keeps a supply of school requisites on hand. Reading, sj)elling, arithmetic, geography, grammar and writing are taught, but in all these subjects the knowledge is exceedingly limited. August, 1884. John Brebner, Esq., Inspector, West Lambton. Indian Schools on Walpole Island, and Sarnia Reserve. First visit. — No, 1, Walpole Island. — Wm. Peters (Indian), teacher. Has only taught eight days, the former teacher having gone to Saugeen Reserve. Attendance. — Thirteen boys and twelve girls. Senior Second Book, two boys and one girl; reading indistinct and without proper pauses, know the words; spelling, very good; writing very good; arithmetic, simple rules, well done. Junior 2d, one boy ; reading indistinct, knows the words fairly ; spelling only mid- dling; writing fair; arithmetic poor. Part 2d, 1st book, two boys and one girl ; reading better than in 2d, utterance more distinct, and more attention to pauses ; spelling, good ; writing, good ; arithmetic, add lessons for the use of the schools. The first few lessons should consist of a lew English names of common objects, a pictorial representation of the same, and the Indian word for each: this might be arranged on the tablet in three parallel colunms. These lessons might then be followed by short exercises intended for the slate, namely, a few Indian names to be written out in English, and vice versa, English words to b(; written down in Indian. In this way tlu^y would soon be in possession of quite a number of English words and their meaning. In conclusion, I would respectfully submit, that in my opinion the Indian schools will never give satisfactory results until there is a radical change in the present staff of teachers; the majority of whom hold no certificates, and never passed any exam- ination; but were appointed to their respective positions by the denominational authorities of the churches to which the.y l>elong. DETAILED RKPOHT. 1. Wilivcmikovg (Bo; s). — Th<;re are two male teiicheis, Joseph Richard and Stephen Dufresne, both ediujated in the Church schools, and who s^jcak English fluent ly : they appear to bo doing their work intelligently and well. &77 340 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Number of pupils enrolled since let January, 1884, sixty-two : number present at my visit, thirty-nine. The pwpils read well, and had a very fair knowledge of the meaning of the lessou ; spoke English well in answer to my questioos; the spelling and writing, very good , had a fair knowledge of addition and subtraction mechanically, and some understood multiplication and division. The subjects taught in the school are reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geog- raphy, grammar, map-drawing, composition, singing, church catechism and sacred history. The classitication of the pupils was First Book, Part I, twenty ; Part II, six ; Second Book, six ; Third Book, five ; Fourth Book, two. The readers used wen- those of the Christian Brothers. Blacksmithiug, shoemaking, and carpentry are taught to any of the older boys who wish to learn trades. I saw some well made boots and shoes turned ont from their shop. The school-room is neat, clean, and commodious, but the desks are very uu- Huitable. 2. JVikwemikong (Girls). — There are two lady teachers — Miss Lucy Haessly, the Prin- cipal, educated at St. Mary's Orphan Asylum, Cleveland; and the Assistant, Miss Iiosa Kintz, educated at St. Joseph's Academy, Fordham, New York. Number enrolled since 1st January, lb84, 87: number present at my visit, 53, clas- sified as follows : — First Book, Part 1, 7 ;' First Book, Part 2, 18 ; Secoud Bonk, (! ; Third Book, 6; Fourth Book, (5; Fifth Book, 4. The readers used were the " Metropolitan " series. The classification of the pupils is entirely too high. The reading, writing, and spelling were not good. The girls' school is behind the boys' school in the literary subjects, but much of their time is taken up with the industrial subjects. The school- room is much too crowded, and the desks and seats unsuitable. By far the most important work in this school is the industrial knowledge given to the girls, vvlio are to be the firture Indian waives and mothers, and which must have its civilizing influ- ence upon the race in due time. The girls are taught spinning, weaving, knitting, sewing, laundry and kitchen work. There is a clean, airy, comfortable dormitory, where each girl is ex])ecf ed to iieep her own cot in order. I was very much pleased with this school. 3. liuywaks School. — Teacher, Miss Agatha Gabow, taught at Wikwenaikoug Girl's School. Number enrolled this year, 20; number present at my visit, 18. Classified, First Book, ten: Second Book, eight. Subjects taught, reading, writing, spelling, and a little addition. School-room very small — about 12 by 18 feet. No blackboard, no maps, no copies, no desks. All the requisites consisted of 12 books and 8 slates." Children very much crowded. The teacher lives and has her bed in the school- room. Teacher has very considerable difficulty In comprehending English. 4. Wikwemikoiigsing. — Teacher, Miss Catharine Gabow, educated at Wikwemikoug: has scarcely any knowledge of English ; could get but very little information from her, as she scarcely understood a word of what I said. Number of pupils enrolled, 20 ; number present, 10. Classified, First Reader, six ; Second Reader, none ; Third Reader, four. The pupils, I may say, have not a word of English : heard them read and spell, which they did siiriirisingly well, considering that they knew nothing of what ihey were saying : their writing was good. The school-house is a fair log building used at present for a church : the teacher lives in it. 5. Sheguiandah (Church of England).— The teacher is Mr. Fred. Frost (white), who was educated at the Grammar School, Ware, England, and is a clergyman of the Church of England. Mr. Frost was absent at the time of my visit, being in Toronto for medical advice. Mrs. Frost had charge of the school during his absence. Number of pu])ils enrolled, 31 ; number present, 16. Classified, First Book, four; Second Book, two ; Third Book, ten. Subjects taught are reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography and Church catechism. 6. Bu-ch Island. — At the request of Mr. Phipps, Indian Agent, I examined Miss Martha Esquimo, a young Indian woman, sixteen years of age, with a view to ascer- tain her fitness as a teacher for an Indian school on Birch Island. She got her educa- tion at the Wawanosh Home, Sault Ste. Marie, where she studied for four years. I examined her iu reading, spelling, writing, addition and subtraction : she read very well, and her writing was good : in spelling she made sixty per cent, on my test : her arithmetic was not good. I granted her a temporary certificate for six months, until they could procure a more competent teacher. This school has never been in operation before. The Indians on this Reserve are Protestants. 7. Serpent Birer. — Teacher, Mrs. Sophia Peltier; has no certificate ; was educated at Wikwemikoug, and speaks English fairly. Number of pupils enrolled, eighteen : number present, sixteen: number on Reserve about thirty. The classification was more coirect than in any of the previous schools, the pupils being all iu the First Reader. 578 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 341 Subjects taiiylit are reading, spelling, writing and addition. Pupils aro just cora- nioncing to write the letters of the alphabet; they i^now very litTle English; the teacher conducts exercises in English conversation for an hour' daily. The school- house is about eighteen by tif teen feet ; has no desks, but four benches, and the black- board is about thirty by fifteen inches. Teacher and her husband live in the schooL- hous , with their cooking-stove, cradle, cupboard, &,c. 8. Alississaga. — Teacher, Mrs. Mary Cada (white), educated at public school. Chat- ham. Number enrolled, sixteen ; number present, six. Classified, First Reader, five ; Second Reader, one. One girl, who had attended the public school at Bruce Miues, was very clever and did her work well; spoke good English : the others knew little or nothing. The school was just commenced about a month, after having been closed about two years. School-house, a log building 18 by 24 feet, used as a dwelling at present. The furniture consists of two beds, two large trunks, a cooking-stove, cupboard, kettles, tin pails, &c : no desks : benches resting on chairs. 9. Garden Hirer (Church of England). — Teacher, Mr. Jas. H. Gallaher (white). Educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; is a deacon in the church. Number enrolled since It-t January, twenty-one ; number present, eight (boys) ; all in the First Reader. School-house : a frame building, very much dilapidated, with four desks and a few benches; a few tablets ; no mai)s. The teacher appears to be faithful and diligent, and it is to be hoped the school will improve under his mauageMient. At present it is in a low condition. 10. Garden River (Roman Catholic). Principal, Rev. Father Ouelette; assistant teacher, Edward Ray, who holds a second-class certificate from Hammersmith Model School, England. Number of Pupils on Reserve about 60 Number on the Roll 53 Number Present 35 First class; Part 1, thirteen; Part 2, ten; Second class, nine; Third class, three. Hours of teaching, 9 to 11.30 a. m. ; 1 to 3.30 p. m. 11. Shingicauk Home (Bo js). — Principal, Rev. E. F. Wilson; assistant teacher, W. II. Wotton, educated at St. George's School, Bristol, England. Number enrolled, tw first five subjects: all did well in writing and spelling, fairly iu read- ing, and one boy did very well iu arithmetic. The pupils are classified rather beyond their proper standing, and I fear the teachers attempt to teach too much. General EeviarJcs. — All the Indian schools that I have yet visited are sadly deficient iu school apparatus and eqnijiments, such as maps, bla'kboards, books, slates, &c. According to instructions of last April, 1 made out a list of rec^iiirements for each school separately, and forwarded the same with my report in July; but so far no action appears to have been taken. With the exception of the two Protestant schools at Sault Ste. Marie, the one at Garden River, and the two Catholic ones at Wikwemikoug, the teachers are all females and natives: they have little education, and hold no certificates of any kind. The schools are. not in operation over half the time ; a great |>ortion of the year Ijeing occupied with sugar-making, fishing, blueberry and cranberry picking. The l)arents, ge^ierally, are so careless about the education of their childre)i, that the at- teudance is very irregular, even when the schools are open. In order to make these schools more etficient, and iu some measure worthy the name of schools at all, I would most respectfully recommend to the Department, the follow- ing suggestions, as worthy of consideration : I know it is a delicate question to deal with th< se schools, but certainly some change is urgently needed. Sitf/f/cMions. — The Department should iusist that the Indians would provide a com- fortable room, sufficiently large, and with suitable seats and desks. The D<;partment to supply the necessary books, slates, «fec., as reported by the in- spector or Indian agent from time to time. The teachers should be obliged to i)ass some kind of examination, however simple, and 'jold certificates to that effect: I am also quite willing that the church authori- ties, who have established these schools, should determine what the status of such examination shall be. The great point is that the teachers should feel that they have to make some little preparation to pass the examination, and obtain certificates en- titling them to teach. It is quite evident to me that the present system of appointing anil person to the charge of a school, can never be productive of results, in any way conmiensurate with the yearly expenditure on the schools. I think arrangements might be made whereby special classes, under the charge of competent instructors, would be opened at Shingwauk Home, and at Wikwemikoug, for training Indian teachers; then all intending candidates should be obliged to at- tend these classes, till such time as they were able to pass the prescribed examination. Instead of a yearly allowance being paid to the teachers as at present, I would sug- gest that they be paid a montlily salary, and only for the timt; actually employed : I am convinced many of them do not work half the time during the year, while draw- ing probably a year's pay. I would also suggest that these schools be supplied with Daily Registers, similar to those in the Ontario public schools ; and that certified returns of half-yearly attend- ance be made to the inspectors. If the annuity for children between the ages of seven and thirtecti, conld be made conditional on their attendance at school for at least four months in the year ; or otherwise, a bonus offered to all such, as did so attend, I believe a marked improve- ment iu the attendance would be the result. December, 1884. John Dearness, Esq., Inspector, East Middlesex. Jndifin Schools, Oneida Reservation. Second Visit. — On the 9th October, in company with Mr. Thoa. Gordon, the Indian Agent, I visited the three schools to see how far the suggestions of my former visits had been effected. School No. 1. — Some of the urgently n(M'ded repairs havt; been made ; the house is embanked very nicely, and will be tolerably comfortable for the winter. The trustees assure me that they will have new desks in less than a fortnight. 581 344 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. No. 2. — Mr. Schuyler, teacher, did not write last July at the high school eutrance examination, but promises to do so next Christmas. The desks in this school are very bad, in fact, there are only two desks; they are constructed of long boards attached with hinges to the wall ; the seats are long benches without desks ; the teacher asks for a half-dozen geographies, but he could do more good if he were supjilied with maps and a globe. The great defect in this-and the other schools is the learning of words without understanding their meaning. No. 3. — Mr. Elijah Sickles, teacher, wrote at the high school entrance examination ; failed, but promises to study and write again nest December. He is working faithfully. Since my last visit he has had the interior of the school-room p;iinted and papered — did it himself; raised the money by a tea-meeting. The school is now supplied with maps, books, a globe and increased blackboard facilities. There is yet a debt of $250 on the building. The teacher says they have paid $800 or $900 on it, and feel that they have exhausted their resources. I think they deserve encouragement, and would recommend that the Indian Department assist them to pay the balance of the debt. Observations lead me 1o suggest that all books furnished by the Department should be stamped, and rules should be adopted with a view to their care and pres- ervation. December, 1884. Parry Sound Indian Schools.' Scliools. — There are at present three schools under my supervision, viz, Ryerson School, No. 1 (Parry Island); HodginsSchool, No. 2(Shawauaga) ; and Miller School, No. 3 (llenby Inlet). Another school-house is in course of erection on Parry Island, about live miles from the site of the present one. School-houses. — The school -houses are neat, substantial, hewed log buildings, capable of seating comfortably about 40 pupils each, and erected as far as possible by Indian labor, under the direction of the Superintendent of Indians, Captain Skene, whose exertions and interest in the welfare of the Indians have, more than anything else, contributed to the establishment and success of these schools. Interest in Education. — To show the interest the Indians have in the education of their children, I need only mention a few facts: (a) In 1878-'79 there was only one school in operation ; in 1879-'80 there are three, with a prospect of two additional ones betbre the close of the year. (6) In Parry Island School (Ryerson), the chief of the band is both a pupil and also a trustee. (c) Chief James, of Shawanaga, writes that his people are delighted with the success of their teacher. Miss Amelia Chechock, who has commenced to teach plain needle- work to the little girls. (d) Chief Wagemakkay, of Heuby Inlet, assured me of his intense personal in- terest in education, and promised to do all in his power to encourage and induce reg- ular attendauce. (e) The people of each band have voluntarily consented to have $100 per annum deducted from the aggregate of their annuities, to assist in paying the teacher. Indian Teachers. — As yet there has been some difflctilty in obtaining suitable teachers. Mr. Elias, a missionary among the Indians, was first engaged to teach on Pai'ry Island, but his missionary work interfered so materially with hia school duties that it was thought atlvisablc to supersede him by engaging Miss Eliza Tobias, whohad previously attended the Muncey town Institute. The change has been beneficial. Miss Amelia Chechock, also of the same Institute, is teaching at Shawanaga with success. Mr. Enoch MonagTTe is the teacher at Heuby Inlet, but his limited knowledge of the Eng- lish language will necessitate a change as soon as another teacher tan be obtained. I may hsre remark that these teachers have no regular certificates, but I trust the time is not far distant when the Indian schools will be taught by regularly certificated teachers. APPENDIX. [The following is the report of a visit which I made to the Indian schools of the Parry Sound District three or four years ago. It details the first experiment which was made to establish Indian schools in that District.— J. G. H.] Sir, — I have the honor to state, that having completed the arrangements relating to the establishment of the Indian schools in t he Parry Sound District, I desire to re- port the proceedings in detail : As directed, I last year took part in the organization of these schools. This was 1 Extract fiom a former report. 582 tNTEliNATlONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 345 partially done at that time witli the assistance of Captain Skene, the Indian Agent at Parry Sonnd, and School Inspector Miller, who accompanied me to the Parry Sound and Shawanaga Reservations for that purpose. At both places the Ijands of Indians were called together by Captain Skene, and were addressed on the subject by Mr. Miller, Captain Skene and myself. The Indians seemed greatly pleased at the pros- l)ect of haviu-g schools established among them. At Parry Island Captain Skene (under tlie direction of the Indian Department at Ottawa) had a neat and substan- tial log bouse erected, in which we met the Indians. Subsequently Mr. Miller organized the school, and enrolled between 20 and 30 Indian children. They were placed in charge of Mr. Elias, an admirable Indian teacher and missionary, who had been trained for his work at the Muncey Institute. Steps wen; subsequently taken by Captain Skene to have school-houses erected on other reservations, so that during this year schools might be organized in them. This has been done; and at my recent visit Mr. Miller, aided by Visiting Inspector Switzer and C&[)taiu Skene, established another school at the Sliawanaga Reservation, about 35 miles north of Parry Sound. Thither we went in a steam-tug, and walked five miles through the woods to the re- serve. Owing to a slight alteration in our arrangements, we visited the reserve a day before the time appointed. Chief James met us at the school-house, but our coming so soon had disarranged his plans. He had intended to have received us with some little ceremony, and, with his band collected, to have had some other dem- onstrations in honor of the event. As it. was, he received us very cordially, and sent round without delay to collect the members of his band and their children. After Mr. Miller had enrolled about 30 children, he, Mr. Switzer, myself, and others, ad- dressed the company present. Our remarks were interpreted to tlie Indians by Mr. Elias; and at the close Chief James made a very hearty and touching speech, express- ive of his estimate of the value of education to the Indians, and of the great pleas- ure which the day's proceedings had given him. With true Indian courtesy, he ac- companied the party through the woods, five miles, back to the steam-tug, when, after giving him and his band three hearty cheers, we steamed away to Byng Inlet, 60 miles from Parry Sound, which we reached late in the evening. This is the head- quarters of the Maganetawan Lumber Company. We were all pleased with the neat appearance of a village lying so far to the north. Although late at night, Mr. Miller and Mr. Switzer, our indefatigable inspectors, aided by Mr. J. H. Buck, the Manager of the Company, and others, organized a public school section there. We then held a very pleasant conference with the principal residents. Next morning we started for Henby Inlet, near French River, but as the captain of our steamer was not familiar with the navigation of the jilace, we had rehictantly to turn back and proceed to Parry Sound. I arranged, however, that Mr. Elias should take an Indian teacher with him and open the school there this month. When this is done the whole of the children of the various Indian bands in the reserves along the eastern coast of the Georgian Bay will be placed under instruction. This is certainly a matter for sincere congratulation. As to the result of the experiment, I have now no fears. I confess that last year, when the Parry Sound school was established, I had both doubts and fears as to the success of the scheme. With a view, however, to satisfy myself on the subject, ar- rangements were made that the pupils in the school on the Islaiul should be submitted to a thorough and satisfactory test. This was done by Mr. Inspector Miller, in pres- ence of Captain Skene, Professor Croft, of Toronto Univ^ersity, Inspector Switzer, and some of the local clergy. The classes were examined in natural history, object les- sons,' arithmetic, grammar, spelling and writing. Making due allowance for the novelty to them of the occasion and the natural timidity of the Indian boys and girls, it was surprising to see how well the pupils acquitted themselves. Although slow and cautious in expressing their thoughts, the answers of the children were in almost every instance correct in substance or in fact. At the close of a prolonged examina- tion by Mr. Miller and Mr. Elias, I subjected each member of one of the largest classes to an examination in writing on the black-board. They all acquitted themselves to ray entire satisfaction. At the close, the examiners, Captain Skene, Mr. Miller, the clergy, and others, addressed the school and the Indians present. Replies were given by some of the leading Indians, including the old and young chiefs. The result of the experiment will, I trust, induce the Dominion Government to place the whole of the schools for the Indians of this Province under the supervision of the Education De- partment. There was a fact and an incident connected with the exercises which were very gratifying. Among the pupils enrolled, was the newly elected chief of the band, wlio ' It waa both amusing and interesting to watch the countenances of the Indian boys and giils as Mr. Miller lidd up for them to n:ime the picture.s of animal.s, bii ds and reptiles familiar to them. The bear, wolf and fox wei'o recognized as old friends; and many a friendly "ugh" greeted the appearance "fa snake, a frog and lizard, as well as the pigeon, h;!wk and crow. The bi-aver, muskrat, and otter ro- ceivfd instant recognition ; and the answers of the childr, at Henby Inlet. We took with us a package of books, etc., for the school, and on our arrival inspected the school through Mr. Elias. and found the pupils able to reail small words, although the teacher had reached there only the week before. I held a consultation with the chief, trustees, and as many of the Indians as could be brought together, and among other things, I mentioned your regret at not being able to visit them in August, and explained the reason of the failure. The chief, in reply, stated that he would do all in his power to advance the interests of education among his boys and girls. On our way home we visited Byng Inlet, and found the interest in school matters quite as great as when you were there in August. The supply of books, etc., from the Department, is quite an acquisition to the school. " I am now quite sanguine of getting matters in connection with Hodgins School, No. 2, and Ryerson School, No. 1, arranged to suit you. Captain Skene has facitl;/ consented to leave the matter in my hands, but there were so many persons to consult that at first I was doubtful of success. However, all is arranged now, awaiting the consent of two of the trustees who are absent, to transfer Miss Tobias to Shawanaga, and have Mr. Elias again take charge of Parry Sound School. "After a narrow escape from being upset a few miles from Byng Inlet, we reached home (Parry Sound) on Thursday, October 30th, thankful to a kind Providence for His protecting care. '' During my recent visit to Ottawa, I personally explained to the Superintendent- General of Indian Affairs a number of matters connected with the working of thong after his time the significance of carbonic acid as a measure of tlu- de- gree of vitiation of room air by the inmates of the room, and, therefore, as an index of ventilation, was established; and Professor von Petten- kofer elaborated a simple and a;ccurate method of estimating that constituent of the air, which brought its determination within the reach of persons at all skilled in making chemical analyses. As the ventilation of school-rooms has always been notoriously bad, it was not long after Pettenkofer's method of estimating the imi>urity of air became known before it was employed in examining the ventila- tion of many German schools. The complaints of the bad effects of school life on children, and of certain physical defects among adults referable to the same cause, led to a sanitary examination of the sur- roundings of the school population in the schools. In a military coun- try like Germany, where all able-bodied men have to bear arms or do some form of military service, anything which detracts from the capacity for such service becomes of serious interest to the Governmcni. The investigations of medical men, like those of Cohn on the n«'ar- sightedness of school children and its relation to the conditions of school life, drew the attention of the authorities to some of the causes which had. been shown to operate unfavorably^ on the health of the school population, and through that on the general healtli of the com- munity. The result has been that the Governments of the difii'erent German states have modified the school laws from time to time in recent years in accordance with the recommendations of their medical advisers, and regulations have been issued which give directions aifecting the construction, location, arrangement, and management of school build- ings in compliance with hygienic requirements. These regulations ex- tend to architectural details, such as building materials, the size of rooms, their lighting, heating, and ventilation, the amount of floor and cubic space for each scholar, and the localities and sites of the buildings. Conformity to the requirements of law is now looked after by medical inspection, in addition to the regular supervision, and the general sub- • The following compilation was prei)ared, by direction of Gen. John Eaton, U. S. Commissioner of Education, by way of answer to inquiries received at the Bnieau of Education at Washington. The subject has therefore been treated somewhat in de- tail, and the technical part has been written out with sufficient fullness, it is be- lieved, to enable those interested in the matter — superintendents and health authori- ties—to make a practical use of the directions it contains. — K. L. P. 587 350 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ject of scbool hygiene has coEue to occupy a recognized ])Iace in njedical literature. The German states are mentioned for the sake of illustra- tion, but what is true of them in this connection may also be said of other countries of Europe. In this country there is not, of course, any systematic control or su- pervision of schools with which the general Government can have any- thing to do I but individuals and the boards of health of several- States and cities have, from time to time, shown the bad hygienic condition of schools in different parts of the country, and have called the atten- tion of the authorities to the more pressing reforms which were thus " shown to be necessary. As early as 1838, or twenty years before Pet tenkofer pointed out his convenient and accurate way to examine ven- tilation, Horace Mann, while Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, made a report^ on the condition of the school-houses of the State, in which he pointed out the evil effects of the vitiated air of badly ventilated rooms on health, and suggested means of ventilation. His report contains opinions from Dr. S. B, Woodward of Worcester, Mass., and from Professor Sillimau of Yale College, on ventilation, the bad effects of rebreathed air on the human system, and the amount of contamination of room air due to respiration. Nine years later a spe- cial committee was appointed to report on the ventilation of the schools of Boston.^ The excellent report of this committee shows that the rooms were in a " lamentable condition in regarti to ventilation," and the committee took occasion to say : Children confiaed in the atmosphere of these schools soon lose the ruddy and cheer- ful cciuiplexion of perfect health which belongs to youth, and acquire the sallow and depressed countenances which might reasonably be expected in over-worked factory operatives, or the tenants of apartments unvisited by the sun or air. We noticed in Tiiauy faces, also, particularly toward the close of a school session, a feverish flush, so bright that it might easily deceive an inexperienced eye and be mistaken for a healthy bloom. * # * The condition of the pupils, depressed as they are by these intiaences, is constantly demanding increased exertions from their instructors, while the requirements of the age place the standard of education at an elevation suffi cieutly difficult of acce->s under the most favorable circumstances. Your committee are satisfied, therefore, that the present state of the school-houses daily impairs the health of the pupils and instructors. That its continuance will produce not only im- mediate discomfort and disease, but, by its effect on the con,stitutions of the children who must pass in them [the school-hotises] a large portion of those jears most sus- ce))tible to physical injury, will directly and certainly reduce the amount of consti- tutional vigor hereafter to be possessed by that large mass of our population which now and hereafter is to receive its edtxcation in these schools. In the course of their remarks on the vitiated air of the rooms, the committee also showed from the experiments of Lassaigue and others quoted in a paper by Dr. Wyman, that the carbonic acid of room air is equally diffused all through the room, contrary to the popular 1»)elief which is not yet dead, that because that gas is heavy it must sink to the floor of a room and stay there. This committee made some practi- cal suggestions in ventilation which were promptly adopted by the corumoQ couiicii of the city for some of the schools. A siuninary of the later reports on the subject by the boards of health in different parts of the country is given in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1877. Those reports, and others published since, show that the con- dition of school buildings, both in the cities and in the country districts in many parts of the country, is still, as the Massachusetts committee described it thirty-six years ago, "lamentable." Yentilatiou is gener- ' Eeport of the Secretary of the Board of Education on the subject of school- houses. Pamph. Boston, 1838. 'City Document No. 7. Report presented to the primary school committee on the ventilation of the echool-houscii of the City of Boston. Pamph. Boston, 1847. . 58d INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 351 ally deficient and the rooms are overcrowded in many cases. The med- ical men speak decidedly of the evil effects of badly ventilated, heated, and lighted rooms on the health of the school population, of the insuffi- cient space allowed for each scholar (which is only another way of de- scribing overcrowding, which again means bad ventilation), of bad sew- erage, and of damp sites for school-houses. These unhealthy conditions were found in many parts of the country, in Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Louisiana, ludiana, New York, Ohio, and Maryland — in fact, wherever sanitary examinations were made. The medical examiners found that "catarrh, dyspepsia, dysentery, and zymotic diseases" resulted from the foul air of the ill-ventilated rooms, and chemical examinations of the school air were made in several cities. The determination of the amount of vitiation of room air and the relation of vitiated air to health, pre- sent tangible subjects of investigation, and the following is an exposi- tion of the principles on which the examination of room air is based, and of the method of conducting the examination. ' The relation of air of ascertained degrees of vitiation to disease is a subject for medical inves- tigation. There are, generally speaking, three things which have to be con sidered in making an estimate of the healthy or unhealthy condition of a room, viz, the temperature, humidity, and purity of its air, which taken together may be called its climate, the question of sunlight being aside from the present subject. But this full idea, which should be kept in mind in discussing the ventilation of a room, is often lost sight of in practice, many persons thinking, for examj)le, that ventilation has been sufficiently attended to when a room is kept up to a certain temperature in cold weather. Nor is what constitutes "bad" air popularly under- stood, and the idea of estimating the degree of deterioration of room air as ancillary to ventilation is not yet a familiar one; and yet a most important preliminary to introducing any change in the ventilation of a room would seem to be a knowledge of the usual condition of its air as to temperature, humidity, and purity. The determination of this con dition would intlicate what changes ought to be made in the ventilating system to bring the room air to a. desired standard. The air of an inhabited room differs in composition from the external air by containing the matter contributed to the latter by the inmates of the room, and occasionally by certain other agencies, such as gas fixtures, the heating arrangements, etc. To gain a clear idea of the invisible contents of a room full of people, it will therefore be necessary to recite briefly the composition of the external air, and show what changes it undergoes in inhabited rooms. The atmosjdieric air, then, which surrounds and fills our buildings; which gives us the breath of life; which, because it is a fluid and has great pressure at the surface of the earth, penetrates everywhere, not only entering rooms in large volumes when we admit it by opening doors and windows, but forcing its way through the pores of brick work and other masonry ; which presses upon and saturates the soil and the waters of the earth — is a perfect mixture of the gases nitrogen and oxy gen, together with a small quantity of carbonic acid gas. This mixture contains a variable amount of watery vapor, and traces of ammonia and often other chemical compounds. Specimens of air have been collected in all parts of the world, and at various heights up to 18,000 feet, and have shown small «lifferences in composition upon being ana- lyzed. The mixture in the dry state contains on the average 20.90 parts of oxygen, 79.01 of nitrogen, and about 0.03 of carbonic acid gas in 100 parts by volume. These proportions are averages of a great number of 589 352 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. analyses and vary within small limits in difterent localities, the amouul of carbonic acid gas, for instance, which is about 0.03 per cent, (by vol- ujiie) in air remote from populous places, increasing to 0.04 and 0.05 per cent, in the ordinary outside air of cities, and to 0.07 per cent, and more in bad localities (near "middens" for example), while the proportion of oxygen decreases from the average to 20.80 per cent, and even less in bad localities.^ But greater variations than these have been found where such conditions did not exist, where the air would be called purt. Thus JoUy^ found the percentage of country air to vary from 20.90 and 21.01 per cent, to 20.48 and 20.53 per cent., according to the wind. Since the statement that the air of a locality contains a given per ceut. of oxygen conveys little meaning without some explanation of how the fact is known, the following outline of a method of analysis is given. Theair of a place is drawn through glass tubes with drawn-out ends, hold- ing a tew cubic inches each, and after the tubes are filled their ends are closed air tight. The specimens of air collected in this way are taken to the laboratory, transferred to a graduated glass tube, and carefully measured over mercury. Hydrogen gas, in excess of the amount m^eded to unite with the oxygen of the air, is then introduced into the tube, the new volume carefully read, and the mixture exploded. The volume after explosion is read, and one-third of the contraction represents the oxygen. Many precautions in manipulation have to be observed, but the foregoing is enough to give a tangible idea of how the percentage of oxygen in the air of a place may be determined. The properties of the gases which, when mixed in the above i)ro- l)ortions, constitute atmospheric air, are now almost popularly known. Oxygen is the active agent in the air which supports combustion, hastens the corrosion of metals, and converts deleterious decaying matters into innocuous gases. It is indispensable to animal life and in the higher iinimals it enters the blood through the lungs, which in return for the oxygen they have taken from the air return to the latter carbonic acid gas, which is the ultimate result of the action of oxygen on the tissues. This gas, which is thus a waste product of the lite processes of the higher ani- mals, is also the result of the combustion of carbon by the oxygen of the air, and therefore increases in amount in thickly populated places. It is also given out during the processes of decay and fermentation, and its presence in excessive amount may therefore be sometimes useful as an index of unsanitary surroundings. The nitrogen of the air serves to keei) the oxygen diluted to the proportion in which, within small limits of variation, it has been universally found. If the quantity of oxygen is sensibly diminished, its dilution becomes so great that it can- not perform its functions. Thus Angus Smith found that candles would not burn in air where the oxygen was reduced to 18 per cent., there being 3 per ceut. of carbonic acid present at the same time. Keither nitrogen nor carbonic acid gas are respirable; either, if breathed alone, would ])roduce death, and the latter gas is said to produce fatal results when tormiug as low as 10 per ceut. of the inhaled air. (Parkes.) Besides the gases of which the air is composed, a quantity of .solid y)articles is suspended in it, the coarser kinds of which we know under the name of dust, which becomes noticeable when it has been allowed to settle in quiet places. The finer microscopical atmospheric dust has been collected on sea and land in all parts of the world, and has been ' See tables of the proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid, from a large number of analyses of the air of town and conuiiry, in Angus Smith's Air (i7id Bain, pp. •nmp worked, the entire body of air was made to pass through the hole in the apex of the cone against the glycerine-covered surface of the small plate immediately above it. The glycerine (or glycerine and glucose) retained the microbes, and their number in a fraction of the plate's surface was ascertained by counting under the microscope 591 354 EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. He made an estimate of the number suspended in the open air, and found it to vary from about 11,000 to 42,000 in a cubic meter (or 11 to 42 per liter), besides the minute bacteria, etc., which his apparatus failed to arrest. A table which he prepared gives the number of " microbes" per cubic meter as 11,300 on the average in the autumn, 5,500 in winter, 15,700 in spring, and 28,900 in summer. An enunbera- tion of living organisms belonging to the world of bacteria which M. Miquel collected by the use of appropriate liquids, gave the following mean results per cubic meter : Month. October... November December. January . . February . March Number. 197 158 49 41 23 83 Month. April May I June I July j August... 1 September Number. 52 137 65 122 79 117 These organisms were ten times as numerous in the center of Paris as in the park of Montsouris. Thus the external air consists essentially of a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen and a little carbonic acid gas, together with a varying amount of watery vapor, the mixture holding in suspension and carrying about a minute quantity of invisible solid particles of very different natures. When this mixture of gases is confined in a place where people are as- sembled, it becomes changed by the action of their lungs and skin upon it, which deprive it of part of its oxygen and give it carbonic acid gas instead, together with watery vapor and organic matter, so that the original proportions of the atmospheric gases are sensibly altered, and the composition of the air may become in this way so different from pure air as to render it unfit for further breathing. The air of confined spaces containing a number of people has been analyzed and found to contain proportions of oxygen varying with the degree of vitiation. Thus the oxygen of the air of bad localities in some German mines was found to range as low as 1.9 per cent, and 2.29 per cent, less than in normal air, while the carbonic acid increased from 1.8 per cent, to 2.38 per cent., which would make the composition of the air 19.06 per cent, and 18.67 percent, oxygen, and 1.83 per cent, and 2.41 per cent, carbonic acid by volume, the nitrogen remaining unchanged. This was very bad air and found in exceptionally bad places, like those in which Cornish miners informed Angus Smith they had worked when it was impossible to remain above ten minutes at a time, and when nearly every man on his turn fell down, and the caudles went out. The average of 339 analyses of the air of mines gave Angus Smith 20.26 per cent, oxygen and 0.785 per cent, carbonic acid. The average of the " ends " where men were working was 20.18 per cent, oxygen, with an extreme of 18.3 per cent. Passing to other places where the air was recognized as bad, the oxygen was found to be 20.84 per cent, and 20.83 per cent, in a dwell- ing room, 20.74 per cent, in the "pit" of a theater and 20.63 per cent. after an equal distribution had been made by stirring the glycerine on the plate with a heated needle dipped in pure glycerine. From the ntimber in this fraction the whole number on the plate was known, and con.sequently the amount in any given volume of air. See also a report on the external air of Washington, by Dr. J. H. Kidder, Surgeon U. S. Navy. Report of the Surgeon-General of the Navy, 1880. 592 IXTERXATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 355 in the j2:allery, 20.87 per cent, oxygen and 0.08 per cent, carbonic acid in hospitals, and in a very badly ventilated law court 20.49 per cent, oxygen. In this case the air was almost intolerable to a person coming from the outer air. If we arrange the analyses of the air of confined spaces where people are breathing and which is noticeably bad we have, replacing the deficient oxygen bj' carbonic acid (supposing a standard of 20.96 per cent, oxygen and 0.03 per cent, carbonic acid): "Normal" air. Koom air. MLq6 air. 20.96 .03 79.01 20.83 .16 79.01 100. 00 20. 74 20. 63 .25 .36 79. 01 79. 01 20.49 .50 79.01 20. 26 18. 67 . 78 2. 38 78. 96 78. 95 100. 00 100.00 100.00 100. 00 100.00 100.00 These figures show that there is no uniformity in the gaseous compo- sition of sensibly " bad" air which would enable us to give its average composition, nor is there any absolute line of division between good and bad air; but there are all gradations from tolerably bad to the last specimen, which would be intolerable for any length of time. Appar- ently small differences in the percentage of oxygen indicate serious de- terioration of air when the deterioration is due to respiration. The air of rooms comes almost entirely from the air which surrounds the buildings. If that is pure the room air will be contaminated only by what is added to it by the occupants of the room. But if the outer air is rendered impure by admixture with other gases, for example, than those which form its normal composition, the room air will contain this impurity in addition to the exhalations from the persons in the room. ' But it should not be forgotten that there is another, and sometimes a dangerous, source from which air finds its way into rooms, and that is the soil on which the building is placed. The interstices of the soil are fiUed with the gases of the air and sometimes other gases, and the pro- portion of the atmospheric gases is often different in the soil from thg,t of the free air owing to the presence of decomposing matter in the soil. When houses have cellars or basements the air and other gases of the soil pass through the cellar walls into the basement, and so into the rooms. In winter, when the buildings are much warmer than the sur- rounding soil, this passage of gases through the walls is greater than in summer, because the warmed building acts like a chimney and sucks the air and gases from a considerable distance into its basement and thence into its rooms. Pettenkofer mentions cases where gas from mains traveled a distance of twenty feet through the ground and the founda- tions and into the warmest rooms of a house, causing sickness and death. As the gases of the soil have been found to carry the minute organisms spoken of above into the basements of buildings, they may be supposed to have introduced disease in this way from the soil or the sewers, cess- pools, etc, near the buildings.^ Aside from these possible sources of contamination, school air contains only what has been contributed to it by the inmates of the room. Generally speaking, this consists of the matter given oft' in the breath and the perspiration. The former gives out carbonic acid in large quantity, watery vapor, and a peculiar organic matter the precise nature of which is not yet perfectly known ; the latter consists largely of watery vapor, which carries with it different salts and 1 Translations of Pettenkofer's popular lectures on the relation of the soil to dwell- ings are reprinted in Vols. XI and XX of the Popular Scieiice Monthly. 593 356 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. volatile odorous orgauic substances, such as certain organic acids. The chemistry of respiration was carefully worked out for smaller animals by Eegnault and Eeiset, and for men by Pettenkofer in the large compli- cated apparatus at Munich. The mean composition of the breath when freed from watery vapor may be given as follows: Nitrogen, 80.3; oxy- gen, 15.4; and carbonic acid, 4.3 parts by volume. The proportion of the gases varies under different circumstances, depending on the amount of exertion, the condition of digestion, the temperature of the air, etc., but the above may be considered as representing the mean gaseous composition of expired air after drying. Compared with normal air we . have, giving the percentage composition, by volume, " Kormal" air (dry). Expired air (dry). Oxygen • 20.96 15.56 Carbonic acid 03 4.34 Nitrogen 79.01 80.10 The expired air therefore has over a hundred times as much carbonic acid as " normal" air, and less than four-fifths the " normal" amount of oxygen, much less also than was found in the worst air of mines. It is probable, therefore, that if a person were to breathe a mixture of gases having the composition of expired air he could only endure the experi- ment a short time. Still Eegnault and Eeiset found that the percent- age of oxygen could be reduced far below that of the breath without causing death or insensibility in small animals, and Pettenkofer says that he was able to stay a long time in a room containing 1 per cent, of carbonic acid without inconvenience, while another observer, Forster, staid for ten minutes in a i^lace with 4 per cent, of that gas without any uncomfortable feeling.^ There is some uncertainty as to the limit of endurance of large quan- tities of carbonic acid, but in any case the power of enduring an atmos- * phere of abnormal composition for a short time has little to do with the effect on health of a cbntinued exposure to air whose gaseous composi- tion varies only by a few tenths of one per cent, from the normal, and which, as shown by the analyses of room air above, is all that people are called upon to breathe under any ordinary circumstances. Besides, the mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid gases is not all that should be talien into account in estimating the effect of rebreathed air. In Pettenkofer's experiment the carbonic acid was liberated in the room from bicarbonate of soda by sulphuric acid ; in Forster's case the gas was that of fermentation in a wine cellar; and Pettenkofer makes a distinction when he says that the air of a room containing 1 per cent, of carbonic acid gas due to the respiration of persons in it would be al- most intolerable. It is therefore not the lessened amount of oxygen and increased carbonic acid alone which cause the unpleasant sensa- tions and serious results due to bad air, so that it must be the other things given out into the atmosphere of a room by the breath (and per- spiration), together with the comparatively slight alteration in the proportion of the gases in room air, which produce those effects. The other things are, as has been said, watery vapor and organic matter. The quantity of the former varies considerably with the temperature and humidity of the air. Its importance in the present instance is in the effect it has of increasing the humidity of the air of a room, and in its power of aiding in the decomposition of the organic matter which it 'Eegnault and Reiset: Unterauchungen iiber Respiration ; in Annalen der Chemie und Pliarmacie. Bd. LXXIII. Pettenkofer: Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. SuppL Bd. II. Forster : Zeitschrift fiir Biologic. Bd. XL 594 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 557 helps to convey from the Inngfs and skin. This "organic matter" is probably the most important ingredient of the exhalations, as far as unheal thful effects are concerned. The term is conveniently vague, but is as definite as the present state of knowledge will allow, since the actual composition of tl^e organic matter is unknown. It has been collected and examined in various ways. It has a fetid odor, and is 80on recognized by the sense of smell when many persons (or, indeed, one individual) have been long in a confined space. Its amount in ex- posed air has never been precisely determined, nor is it possible at present to estimate it correctly. It must be ])artly suspeuded, and is made up of small particles of epithelium and fatty matters detached from the slcin and month, and partly of an organic vapor given olf from the Inngs and mouth. The organic matter from the lungs, when drawn through sulphuric acid, darkens it; through permanganate of potash, decolorizes it; and through pure water, renders it otiensive. Collected from the air by condens- ing the watery vapor on the sides of a globe containing ice (as by Taddei, in the wards of the Santa Maria Novella), it i-i found to decolorize permanganate of potash, and to yield ammonia. It is therefore nitrogenous and oxidizable. It has a very fetid smell, and this is retained in a room for so long a time, sometimes for four hours, even when there is free ventilation, as to show that it is oxidized slowly. It is probably in combination with water, for the most hygroscopic substances absorb most of it. It is absorbed most by wool, feathers, damp walls, and moist paper, and least by stiaw and horse hair. The color of the substance influences its absorption in the following order: black most, then blue, yellow, and white. It is probably not a gas, but is molecular and floats in clouds through the air, as the odor is evidently not always equally difl"ix8ed through a room.^ The effect of the fetid air containing organic matter, excess of water, and carbonic acid produced by respiration, is very marked upon many people; heaviness, head- ache, inertness, and in some cases nausea, are produced. From experiments on an- imals in which the ca;rbon dioxide and watery vapor were removed and organic matter alone left, Gavarret and Hammond have found that the organic matter is highly poisonous. • » * Cases have been known in which the inhalation of such an atmosphere produced in men deciped a piece of stout caoutchouc tubing, which connects with the air pump or similar contrivance, while another piece of caoutchouc tubing long enough to reach to the ceiling of the room is attached to the external end of the long glass tube. After fitting the stopper tightlj' the end of this tube can be held in any desired place by means of a pole to which it is tied, and the pumping commenced. (See Fig. 1.) This operation must be continued long Fig. 1. enough to make sure that the air originally in the jar has been replaced by that of the place where the end of the tube is held. To be certain of this, preliminary experiments must be made, such as fdliug the jar with tobacco smoke and counting the number of strokes required to completely empty it, or a jar is inverted over water, a glass tube con- nected with the caoutchouc tubing of the exhausting apparatus is pushed up to its bottom, and the number of strokes necessary to fill the jar with water are counted. During this operation the jar must be held so that the water is at the same level inside and out. A convenient pump for this work is the foot bellows used with blast lamps in labora- tories, which can be adapted to the reverse action required of it by fitting the hole through which air enters it with a good cork carrying a bent-glass tube to connect with the caoutchouc tubing leading to the short tube of the jar. In making the collection of air for analysis, 605 368 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. pumpiDg should be continued until three or four times as many strokes have been given as were found necessary to remove the tobacco smoke in the preliminary trials with the particular bellows employed. Care should be taken during this operation to keep the end of the tube through which collection is being made far enough away from any per- son or group of persons to i)reveut the chance of the air entering it being contaminated by the direct breath, because one respiration gives out enough carbonic acid to vitiate the result of the subsequent analysis. After the jar has been filled in this way with the air to be examined, the stopper carrying the glass tubes is removed and 60 cubic centimeters . of lime water are quickly transferred by a pipette from the bottle which is standing at hand to the jar, which is immediately tightly closed with its own stopper and a piece of rubber gauze is tied down over the latter. The jar iiS then turned around in various directions a few times so as to spread the lime water over its sides and top, and, after a label stating the place and time of collection is pasted on it, is set aside in a place of about the same temperature as the place of collection for trans- fer to the laboratory and examination the next day. During the re- moval of the stopper and the manipulation of the lime water the oper- ator and his assistant must be careful not to breathe near the mouth of the jar or the lime-water bottle. As the transfer only takes a few seconds it is easy to hold the breath during that period. The temperature of the point of collection, which is essential in mak- ing the subsequent calculations of the analyses, is obtained by hanging a thermometer on the end of the pole which carries the caoutchouc tube and reading it on taking the pole down. The whole operation of filling the jar with air and taking the temperature of the latter does not take more than three or four minutes. The principles of the simple analyti- cal process are laid down in chemical handbooks (it is a simple case of volumetric analysis), but it requires some experience in chemical manip- ulation to conduct the process properly. Different practitioners j^refer different modifications, some using lime water and others baryta water to absorb the carbonic acid, and different strengths of the solution of acid (oxalic) are also employed. The following is a convenient solution of acid to use. It was recom- mended by Pettenkofer, and is of such strength that 1 cubic centimeter exactly neutralizes 1 milligramme of lime. It is obtained by weighing off 2.25 grammes of pure, dry, crystallized (uneffloresced) oxalic acid and dissolving it in a liter of distilled water. To ascertain the strength of the lime water (which varies slightly with the temperature) a quan- tity of it (say one liter) sufiicient for use for a day or two is rapidly poured from the large bottle containing the quicklime, through a filter into the bottle in which it is to be transported to the locality to be exam- ined. Thirty cubic centimeters of the clear lime water are then taken from this bottle by a pipette which delivers exactly that amount, and run into a beaker, and two or three drops of an alcoholic solution of rosolic acid (or pheuolphthaleine) are added to color the solution. A 50- c. c. burette (graduated to tenths of a cubic centimeter) has previously been filled with a solution of oxalic acid so that the mark on the Erd- mann float coincides with the upper or zero mark of the burette. The solution is now run into the beaker, the fluid in which is kept con- stantly stirred by a glass rod until there is an indication of a change of color, when the stop-cock of the burette is turned so as to deliver the solution slowly drop by drop. When the color disappears, which it does instantaneously, the lime in the lime water has been exactly neu- 606 INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 369 tralized by the oxalic acid, and as the solution of the latter is of such strength that each cubic centimeter thereof is equal to one milligramme of lime, on reading on the burette the number of cubic centimeters and tenths which have been run out, we know the number of milli- grammes aud tenths of lime in the 30 c. c. of lime water taken. The Erdmann float with its mark renders it easy to read the graduations of the burette exactly. This operation should be repeated and there should not be more than a tenth difi'erence in two readings. It is nec- essary to ascertain the strength of the lime water before each campaign, and in preparing fresh quantities, i. e., when fresh quicklime is used, it is advisable to throw away the first two or three drenchings in order to get rid of the alkalies contained in the lime, although this is not neces- sary if time is pressing, because the alkalies do not exert such an in- fluence when lime is used as wheu baryta is employed, (Pettenkofer.) Knowing now the strength of the lime water, thirty cubic centimeters of the sixty which were put in the jar in the room under examination are taken out with a pipette, after rinsing the jar by turning it about and letting it stand inclined a few minutes, and treated as above described, and the difference in the quantity of oxalic acid needed to neu- tralize the lime in these thirty cubic centimeters and that needed for the same quantity before exposure to the air in the jar shows the number of milligrammes of lime which have been taken up by the carbonic acid of the air of the jar. This difference and the temperature which was taken in the room at the time of collection give the data necessary for computing the proportion of carbonic acid in the air. It is impracticable to give a description of the minute details of manipulation, which are like those involved in carrying out any analysis and which are familiar to all chemists, because they must be learned by practice in any case, and it is easier to learn by watching another than by trying to understand written directions. The hands can do in a few minutes what would require an hour to describe in writing and a long time to read and understand, so that a really simple thing seems difficult, tedious, and consequently forbidding, to one trying to master it from a description. " The processes [of analysis] can best be learned," says Dr. Billings,^ " by spending about three hours a day, for three or four days, in a laboratory, working under the directions of a good chemist." A person who has once acquired the drill necessary to make these analyses can go on with them with great rapidity. So much for the analysis itself. The computation is given as follows in Parkes' Hygiene: After the lime has absorbed the CO2 of the air in the vessel, 30 c. c. of the solution are taken out and tested with the oxalic acid solution as before ; the difference shows the milligrammes of lime precipitated by the COj. Multiply the difference by 0.795, the result is the c. c. of CO3 in the quantity of air examined. Deduct 60 c. c. from the total capacity of the jar (to account for the space occupied by the lime water put in) and state the capacity in liters and decimals ; divide the cubic centimeters of CO2 obtained by the corrected capacity of the jar ; the quotient is the c. c. of CO2 per 1,000 volumes of air. Example. The first alkalinity of lime water was 39 for 30 c. c* After exposure to the air in the jar, it was 33 for 30 c. c. Difference, 6, being milligrammes of lime precipitated by CO2 in the jar. ' Ventilalion and Heating; in the Sanitary Engineer, 1884, p. 22. * That is to say, 39 c. c. of acid were required to neutralize 30 c. c. of lime water. 607 370 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. 6 X 0.795 ^ = 4.770 = total COj in jar, in cubic centimeters. Cai)acity of jar, 4,385 c. c. ; deduct 60 c. c. for space taken up by lime water; tLen the net capacity will be 4,325 c. c. =4. 325 liters. Then 4.770 -;- 4.325=1.103 c. c. of CO^ per liter, or volumes per 1,000. A correction for the temperature of the air examined must be made, the standard being 32° F., or 0° C, the freezing point of water. If the temperature be above this (as it will generally be, at least in buildiugs), the air will be expanded, and a smaller quantity, by weight, consequently, will bo operated on. On the other hand, below 32° the air will be contracted, and a larger quantity, by weight, operated on than at the standard temperature. This can be corrected by adding 0.2 per cent, to the re- sult for every degree above 32°, and subtracting it for every degree below, the reason being that air expands or contracts 0.2 per cent), for every degree (or 1 per cent, for every 5 degrees) it deviates from the standard. Example.— In the preceding example the CO2 was found to be 1.103 per 1,000. Sup- pose the temperature to have been G0° F., then GO — 32=^26° to be corrected for ; 28 X 0.2 = 5.0 per cent, to be added to the result, or the result must be multiplied by 1 -f- .0.5(5 ; therefore, 1.103 xl. 056 = 1.154 per 1,000, the corrected result. Suppose the tempera- ture had been 25° F., then 32 — 25 = 7° to be corrected for; 7 x 0.2= 1.4 per cent, to be deducted, or the result must be multiplied by 1.00 — .014=0.9^6; therefore 1.103 X 0.986 = 1.087, the corrected result. A correction for pressure is not necessary, unless the place of observation be much removed from sea-level ; in that case the barometer must be observed, and a rule of three stated. As standard height of bar. ? ( Observed height \ (29.92 in., or 760 mm. S ' \ of bar. ^■- a : x. It must be understood that none of the methods hitherto used for the determination of COi in the air give quite accurate results, but the above is the most convenient for ordinary use, and is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. The results ditler considerably if the quantities of air treated vary ; therefore uniformity in this point is desirable. From a number of analyses conducted as just described an accurate idea of the degree of the pnrity of tbe air of a room can be obtained, by comparing- the amount of CO2 found with the standard of purity pre- viously described (p. 361), viz, 1 part in 1,000, or 10 parts in 10,000 of air.2 '" The factor 0.795 is obtained as follows: The difference between the two alka- linities expresses milligrammes of lime precipitated by CO2 ; from this the milli- grammes of CO2 can be got by calculating from the ratios of the equivalents, thus : CaO CO3 Mgm. of CaO Mgm. of CO.2 56 : 44 : : a : x 5o "As 1 c. c. of CO2 at 32° F. (0° C.) weighs 1.9767 milligrammes, the ratio between weio-ht and volume is — - — =0..506; .•. x X 0.506 = cubic centimeters of CO2, cor- " 1.9767 responding to the milligrammes by weight. As 60 c. c. of lime water were put into the jar, and only 30 c. c. taken, the result must be multiplied by 2. Therefore the factors combined are^ XO.506 X 2 = 0.795, and this, multiplied by a, the difference between the two alkalinities, gives x, the total cubic centimeters of CO2 in the jar." 1 *At a slight expense of time an instructive experiment might be made by collect- in"' material for microscopic examination at the same time that the air for analysis is being taken. To do this a wide-mouthed llask of, say, a liter capacity conld be fitted with a caoutchouc stopper and glass tubes like the jars. A small quantity of water should be poured into the flask to the depth of half an inch or an inch, and the stop- per fitted, pushing the long tube down until its end almost touches the bottom of the flask, and so is well beneath the surface of the water. On connecting the short tube with the bellows, twenty or thirty liters of air should bo slowly pumped through the water, which can then be handed to a microscopist. It would, perhaps, be well toj make the collection at the height of the heads of the scholars and dispense with the! long caoutchouc tube. The end of the glass tube which dips under water should bel narrowed in the flame so as to leave a small aperture. The microscopic examination] might give interesting qualitative results. 608 s to be tied down over the stoppers of the jars after they have been filled, a carefully-stoppered bottle of lime wa>er, a pipette delivering GO c. c, a hygrometer, and an anemometer. This apparatus can be packed in a hand cart, or in trays and placed in a wagon, and transported to any desired point. Last year (1884) the Bureau of Education published a list of inquiries ui)ou the sanitary condition of city school-houses, of which the accom- panying blank form was a part. It was intended to be filled up in the actual examination of rooms. The blank was found very convenient in practice and was used in examining two schools in the District of Columbia the past winter (1884-'85). It was found that fifteen samples of air, collected at different times in different rooms, together with thermometer and anemometer readings, could be taken during school hours by two persons, and that the analyses could be easily made the next day. The results of the examinations are given on the following pages in tabular form. 609 (To lit mnik "t l««»t '"'':• "'^ ' 1 in heaU'd irtiflclDlly. Ih — KXAMIXATIO.V OF THE CUMATK OF THE ROOMS. „„,ler exa„nn«tion bei-g kept io it. u.nal coodiUon a, .o ventilation, tc. while the exan,ination i. In projrew , Onwbatfloort Kfunbet- of i l)at« of eiaroliiatlon Qu what ilde of bolldlnKl •ulpburatwl hjdroneo. *o.) . Name of iM-liool Z. Tb..cb-ool,-.ni,.wetord,yl Fr«, f™n. robbiah or no. . SUt. of weatber: dry ; wet, windy. DlrecHo. of „. on entering roon,: .tron.. perceptible; .carcely perceptible, none. If the odor of any particular «., U noticeable, mention it (.. y., illuminating ^^ Mention any odor outaidc of bnll.llng or amoke coming from any neighboring buUdlog. I I 2 f 3 i 5 fc n u I Cir. Ed Nt>. *>. '85— Face pa-je ;}71 372 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. '5 1 j^'bi c s i I -§ o i . ^ 1 CO a 1 05-<^ C^4 i s \ ^ CD ca ca t^ p. o Is = 52 oc er "■ IT e ■£ 2? o CO ^ 00 t- "t ~ iT ■^ toto t> in ;J' o> bl.2 M CO o •^ a S '^ 30 t-" '■= CO to CO ea fcjtij CO to bio t> 00 do a C O oo ot> V^V~ V^V-^' \^v-^ •lBnj9JX9 'ajtuuigdinox (M. 05 C5 «C 03 IM S5 . s >. ■g ^-^.ts § CO o ■*-H 00 to in (C SI'S CO PJ Ot NM ca CO TT ■»(i «-|e la 6 ■s** o tri «1 o> o> 05 CO in— ■ in in «o in 1 ■»1< ■fl< ic lO inio in in in b2 in in o 00 o> coo ^ 00 t~ «o H 05 to C.CC t- to to «o a a a c £ s e B . a H 1 ft p. c 1. ft ft ft ft ^ cd iH M TO e< eo eo CO O] rt -^ •^aa 00 O CO o* m CO N 00 t' CO •* n cc CO ■* •a in 00 ■* -eojd snosi9j; N^ ^ 03 O t. 05 O a (T o fci CO o a e tji fl mo h s h t^ ajs t3 a "c S i-»J » j_ *J © (; ■w S pj *> fc-i^ t< *s © t^ rs ©S t- a * t- a a'S >- o •Z'ca o o a'Oj; o 8 © ft o 1!. Ill > -"3 3ft 5.9 ^5o -^ p» -0 ■" a 2*- "ft - a g - ^>-§^| aj; (- a a ©s © -, © © ©^H u a 1^ u a_ t< a © © ©0 © j>« © " ~ I^g5^ te 0,ca ft? pvS fe g o,a ft>- o o S ft2 »? ft ■3 ftftS ^ ftp fe p< 2 0, ® ft;ii fe p. a -c oM ftl> o.a fto A g o.S 5 04a ftf> £, O.S P- h; b hJ P t) h) 1-1 P h^ -a "s 2w 5fe i| i| i M M « ■s . IS 3^ S^ «1h Number locality room (siz rooms 26x36x1 co-M 1^ ^a wl in'co 1^ ii ii 1" 1' a° 00 c •»* in e3 s s . n s § g s g s p P ^9 hi 1 610 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 373 _ E > j3 « >-. t« o, 1 O •;• w '^ rfl O © n o >i « P -43 o ■s r3 ©"^ © 08 Q, § (3 1 1. 1 •not? -WRTA JO «oa ^1^ ^' J - J- 1 ;^ ; J '3 o ; •^ o-t^ ^5 r -•9 Pi a ^ t- m 6 © ";; •* t^ o ,,5^ t-^ lO a a ' '. 'S 00 ' t^ -1 s ffq « s A s^ ! C5 C 3 h .O ' to tboor); ■ e 'J ej 00 cioii'"* CO gMrHTfrH t> W_, wt> •l^aje^xo g, ; 'ejiujBaadcaex « ^ ■ S >j S ^ja-S S W 00 o (M (s era 1^ CO CO (N CO ~'^> S ®£ IM lO O M Cvl fe 3 u5 in ■nin lO i A i &^2 o O 00 coo to a 3 • o > O O " o > o'C > .- t< '^ .. t. ■^ .. t- t» .. t^ ^ o t- a"? t« a? t« a"? ~ a"? 1.5 MS © © b ©St: O "5 P s O V o © b © © fe Hi hJ -; (J lo . ■* "^ N^ «gq CO s^s ^Ja ^'M oT^ oo" |^§ a^= ao a o a -; So <- 3 o 0-5 o o = oC4qa cW !^;~ « W 1 611 374 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. These figures show, as might be expected, that carbouic acid does uot sink to the floor of an inhabited room and stay there. They also bear out the statement that when Pettenkofer's limit of 10 parts of CO2 in 10,000 is reached (when the 10 parts contain 4 parts from tlie outside air) the air of an inhabited room becomes noticeable to the senses. The ventilating openings at which collections were made in the rooms ex- amined were in the walls just above the floor. It is instructive to see that as a rule the carbonic acid was higher at those openings than else- where. The fact needs confirmation, however, because it may be that the direct breath from persons sitting near may have been drawn into the openings. In the case where there was a constant increase of car- bonic acid from hour to hour it appears that the ventilation was not sufQcient to prevent the accumulation of vitiated air. The hygrometer readings are not considered perfectly reliable, because when two instruments were used there wp« ^nnnah diflerence in the wet bulb readings to make a difference of 10 per cent, in the relative humidity. There was no time to find the cause of the diflferences. Many collections were made in dift'erent parts of the rooms with a view to determining the best point to obtain what might be called an average sample of the room air. The center of the room would seem to be a promising place for that purpose. But the increase of carbonic acid at the ventilators appears to show a current setting that way, and in room 4, Twining School, it would seem that this current extended from the windows on the opposite side of the room toward the ventila- tor. This point should be settled by making a simultaneous collection of air at the ventilators and across the room from them, which could be done by a little management, and if the fact is established it might be taken into account in selecting the place for ventilators. If the car- bonic acid is drawn to the ventilators from all parts of the room, some other place than the middle will have to be taken from which to get an average sample of air. It is important above c-.a laiugs that the collec- tion should be made far enough away from the inmates of the room to be sure that no direct breath has been drawn into the jar. The column headed "CO2 of vitiation" is left unfilled, because it is not known what proportions of CO2 entered the rooms through the windows, etc.; and through the hot air inlets. To determine this a separate exam- ination of the air of the empty room would be necessary. It is desirable to collect as many analyses of school air as possible and compare the quantities of CO2, the temperature, and moisture or rela- tive humidity, and obtain, if possible, the sick lists of the same schools. But sick lists alone are not enough, since they do not represent the real state of health in the schools. Dr. Hertel, in his work on overpressure in Danish schools, says that the lists are of no value on this point, because they merely show the number of children who are absent on account of temporary illness, whereas it is not the number of those temporarily ill that is of consequence so much as the number of "sickly" individuals. By "sickly" children, Dr. Hertel means those who are unsound, who sufl^"er from chronic complaints but are able to attend school regularly; in short, children whose state of health is abnormal, and who require special care both at home and at school. A list of complaints taken into account while investigating the overpressure question includes amiemia, headache, nervousness, want of appetite, nose-bleed, and dis- eases of the eye. To examine children aflected with these complaints would require a systematic medical inspection of the schools at stated periods, as is done in Europe. If a large number of analyses showing 612 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 375 tbe usual couditiou of room air, together with medical returns of sick and sickly children from the same rooms, could be obtained and discussed by some competent physician, it might be possible to ascertain com- plaints due to bad air, and separate them from those usually charged to overpressure, the cause to which nearly all sickness in the higher schools of Europe is now attributed. In this experimental way alone could whatever connection that really exists between bad air and ill health be discovered, and definite data be obtained for drawing conclusions and correcting theoretical or a priori assertions. The following collection of analyses of school air is useful as a beginning, and shows the atmosphere in which school children pass much of their time in diifereut places. No deductions as to the influence of such an atmosphere on health can be made, however, because there are no medical returns from the same l)laces with which to make comparisons. The following figures by Professor Nichols are taken from a paper, "On the Ventilation of School-houses," by Dr. ¥. W. Draper and Prof. William Eipley Nichols, in the Third Annual Eeport (1875) of the Board of Health of the citv of Boston : Xame of school. Greatest Least [ amount of amount of I CO2 in 10,0U0 CO2 in 10,000 I paita. parts. Eliot 17.0 7.8 Brimmer 25. G G. 6 Comins i 30.0 , 10.4 Chapman j 16. 2 7. 1 Lawrence ' 20. 7 I 7. 7 Dudley I 16.5' 6.2 Girls'High i 15.7 i 6.1 Phillips 13.9 6.9 Starr King I 17.3 6.7 Kice Primary I 11. 5. 7 General average Average ofaU tbe rooms. 10.3 15.1 18.1 11.6 13.1 11.4 9.8 9.3 10.6 8.3 11.8 The odor of organic matter is entered as soon as 10 parts of CO2 in 10,000 are ])assed. The humidity is not given. The temperature varied from 540 to 770 as extremes, but the averages were mostly between 65<^ and 70°. Mr. N. T. Luptou examined the schools of Nashville, Tenn., in 1878, and the results were published in the Chemical N'eics, vol. 39, from which the following table is taken : Dat«. Thermometer. Dry bulb, i Wet bulb. 1878. Feb. 1.. 1.. 0.. 6.. 8.. 8 . 11.. 11.. 12.. 12 . 13.. 13.. or. 19 184 19 20 19 20 15 18 19 16 15i 14 14 17 17 13 15 14 13* 1 ' ! Cubic ' Contents of Per cent. of. feet of air room. moisture. I per bead per I hour. {It r 90 00) 315 47 136 137 136 137 136 137 50 26. 415 37, 377 26, 415 37, 377 26,415 37, 377 12, 360 12, 360 13, 180 12, 360 13,180 12, 3G0 59 72 i 4.0 4.5 9.5 13.8 20.5 23.3 5.0 9.0 5.7 8.6 10.0 6Vi 376 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Date. Thermometer. CO2 in 10,000 parts. ' Number of peTflons present. Contents of room. Percent, of Cubic ffifit of air Dry bulb. "Wet bulb. moisture, per bead per 1 hour. 1878. Feb. 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 22 25 22 25 28 o p 18 18 19i 20 19 19 19 20 19i 16 20 211 18 20i 20 19 21 21 20i 20 20 18 20i °F. 15 15 17 18 16 16 16 17 15 11 16 17i llj 15 15i 17 17 15i 16 12 14 22.54 9.30 14.84 19.11 15.37 11 08 21.33 5 29. 75 I i 29. 50 5 17.50 9.86 22.61 C 28. 25 ? \ 26. 84 5 13.42 26.62 C 16. 14 > • \ 16. 14 5 13.79 15.10 17.68 14.18 5 18. 58 I I 17. 58 5 16.54 C 9. 14 ? 5 9.41 5 5 10. 97 I \ 14. 60 5 50 98 55 55 55 75 50 55 85 364 294 294 364 294 294 364 294 294 130 130 125 125 85 12, 360 17, 680 10, 3'JO 10, 390 10, 390 20, 150 10, 390 10,390 20, 150 61, 660 61, 974 69, 138 61, 660 61, 974 69, 138 61, 660 61, 974 69, 138 30, 050 30, 050 33, 850 33,850 15, 326 72 72 76 81 73 73 73 70 60 54 64 57 48 45 58 80 63 61 62 58 64 48 49 6.0 20.1 9.9 7.2 10. a 16.0' 6.6 4.4 8.4 18.0 6.0 4.6 12.2 5.0 9.3 12.0 9.5 8.3 17.4 7.8 9.0 20.0 15.6 Figures in brackets represent two samples taken in different parts of the same room at the same time. The cubic feet are computed by Eos- coe's formula, which will be referred to later. Mr. Luptou says: It was observed that in every instauce where the amount of carbon dioxide reached 20 volumes in 10,000, or one-fifth of one per cent., the odor arising from other im- purities of respiration was exceedingly oii'ensive; and even when the amount was 10 in 10,000 this offensive odor was distinctly perceptible. The following are tiie results of the chemical examination of the air of schools in Switzerland and Germany. Dr. Carl Breiting examined some of the schools in Basle at the request of the authorities, to whom complaints had been made of the bad air in the school rooms, overcrowd- ing, etc. Dr. Breiting found ^ the extremes of temperature in different rooms ranging from 48° to 72°, The CO2 ranged as follows: Parts in FORENOON. 10,000. Before the session began 22. 1 At beginning 24. 8 End of session 48. After recess 47. Before second recess. 68. 7 After second recess 62. 3 End of session 81. 1 11 A. M. , empty room 73. AFTERNOON. Before the session 53. Beginning of session 55. Before reeess 76.0 After recess 64. 6 End of session 93. 6 4 P.M., empty room 57. 2 ^Deutsche Viertelj. fiir offentl, Gesundh. Bd. II. 1869. 614 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 377 The followiDg table ^ shows the relation between the maximum COj and tibiat of the empty room. Many of the rooms had no ventilation: Maximum of COx in 10,000 parts. »6.ti 93.6 73.0 13.1 9.2 53.9 45.8 26.7 54.5 65.3 CO2 in the empty room in the morning. 20.0 22.1 6.3 6.1 5.2 5.2 6.4 4.0 Dr. A. Schottky made a thorough examination of the ventilation of schools in Breslau in 1879.2 There were three methods of heating the schools he examined, viz, by hot-air furnaces, stoves, and hot water. The object was to compare the temperature, relative humidity, and COg in rooms heated by the different systems. He concluded in favor of hot- air furnaces. The following is a summary of his results : No. of experiment. Hour. Tempera- ture. Relative humidity. C02iu 10,000 parts. 1 9.30 9.45 10 10.30 10.45 11 11.10 9 9.5 9.15 9.30 9.45 10 10.30 7.30 8.30 9.15 10 10.30 °F. 65 67 69 62 65 63 (Court) 38 64 62 67 67 63 74 (Court) 34 61 63 64 66 69 Per cent. 68.4 69.1 75.4 72.6 78.5 65.3 15.25 46.4 44.3 27.2 33.2 12.2 2.2(3.2!) 31.4 27.2 24.3 21.4 42.7 26.5 3.1 19.0 25.4 28.1 26.3 22.9 2 8 4 5 6 7; 8 9 68.8 67.9 55.6 62.9 67.2 59.8 61.2 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Ninety-three analyses were made and the results were as follows: (1) With hot air furnaces the average temperature ranged from 630 to 69°, the maximum being 73° and the minimum 62°. (2) With stoves supplied at the top with fuel and self-feeding, the average temperature was 72° to 75°, with a maximum of 79° and a min- imum of 65°. (3) With porcelain stoves [Eachelofen) the average temperature was 64°, with a maximum of 67° and a minimum of 63°. (4) With warm water the average temperature was 66° to 68°, with a maximum of 70° and a miuimum of 66°. The relative humidity in the same classes was, in class 1, average 56.6 to 74 per cent., maximum 78.5 per cent., minimum 46 per cent. In class 2 the average was 56.8 per cent, to 61.4 per cent., maximum 68.4 per cent., minimum 53 per cent. 'Baginsky: Handbueh der Schulhygiene, p. 148. ^ Zeitachrift fiir Biologie, Bd. XV. 1883. 615 378 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. In class 3 the average was 66 per cent., tlie maximum 69 per cent and the minimum 61.7 per cent. In class 4 the average ranged from 67.5 per cent, to 70.75 per cent., maximum 74 per cent., minimum 63 per cent. The CO2 averaged 26.91 to 31.4 parts in 10,000 in class 1, with a max- imum of 50.8 and a niinimum of 10.7. In class 2 the average ranged from 25.16 to 42.1, the maximum being 61.5 and the minimum 15.3. In class 3 the average was 32.2, the maximum 46.4 and the minimum 17.9. In class 4 the average ranged from 30.4 to 41.1, the maximum being 52.5 and the minimum 22.8. In a report on the heating and ventilation of the schools of Darm- stadt^ is a series of instructive tables, some of which are reprinted here. In 00ms heated by stoves and not provided with ventilating con> trivances the CO2 and relative humidity were as follows: Persons present. CO2 in 10,000 parts. Per cent, of relative humidity. 00 a en •i s < 00 •< a ■< r-t 75 34 52 47 5.0 5.1 "5.0 38.5 28.5 5.5 30. C 47.0 37.4 30.5 41.2 56.0 44.8 46.7 57.6 33.5 29.5 23.6 28.5 7.5 17.5 18.8 23.3 52 36 53 44 62 49 55 55 07 45 63 58 66 51 66 61 63 50 66 64 59 44 65 60 Here then was a constant increase in carbonic acid and moisture, and the a\ithors state that staying In the room at 12 m. was very disagreeable. In the following table tho upper figures show the composition of the air in ventilated rooms heated by hot water, the lower in similar rooms heated by hot air. CO2 in 10,000 parts. Per cent, of relative humidity. Persons 1 present. ■< 00 a < a f\ ,„ in nnn „„..*„ Per Cent, of relative hu- CO2 in 10,000 parts. miditv. ■< < fa fa IM g i •< IM fa 50 35 42 74 10.4 12.9 21.0 20.7 31.0 27.2 30.8 32.5 18.8 20.3 2i5.0 21.3 17.4 18.4 19.7 18.5 15.0 16.7 18.1 17.1 42 42 55 48 48 52 57 55 40 40 52 47 "41" 41 "4.6' 3.6 5.7 4.8 3.8 If we wish to arrange the foregoing results so as to show the gaseous composition of school room air (leaving out the watery vapor and organic matter), we have a wide range to select from. Taking Pettenkofer's limit of 10 parts of CO2 iu 10,000 of air as a starting point, and assum- ing for convenience that the composition of "normal" or standard air is 20.96 per cent, of oxygen, 0.03 per cent, of carbonic acid, and 79.01 per cent, of nitrogen, we should have — Oxygen 20. 89 CO2 10 Nitrogen 79.01 supposing the oxjgen of "normal" air to be replaced by 0.07 parts of carbonic acid. Looking over the previous analyses we find 0.20 per cent, aud 0.30 per cent, of carbonic acid occurring frequently, while 0.40 per cent, and 0.50 per cent, are not rare, aud 0.80 per cent, and 0.90 per cent, are the extremes. A tabular arrangement gives — Oxygen 20.79 20.6'J 20.59 20.49 20.19 20.09 CO. 20 .30 .40 .50 .80 .90 Nitrogen 79.01 79.01 79.01 79.01 79.01 79.01 All of which show worse air than Pettenkofer's limit allows. The last four show worse air than that of a crowded court room which was in- tolerable to a new comer, where the oxygen was 20.6 (if we can use 0x3- gen as a criterion), and the last two are worse than the average bad air of mines. The tables above given show the use of carbonic acid as a measure of imi)urity in room air. Ordinarily it is sufficient to estimate the proper 617 380 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. tiou of that gas in the air and observe if it is much above Pettenkofer's standard of 10 parts in 10,000, but occasionally it may be desired to know the degree of ventilation more exactly, and to compute the amount of fresh air which has entered the room to keep the vitiation at the observed limit. For this purpose various formulas have been employed by different persons, two of which are here given. In Eoscoe's examination of the ventilation of barracks is one example.^ He determined the carbonic acid in a room containing 7,920 cubic feet, after 16 men had occupied it 6 hours, and found it to be 12.42 parts in 10,000. AssumiDg that a man exhales 0.686 of a cubic foot of carbonic acid per hour, sixteen men would give out 65.86 cubic feet in 6 hours. Then the question is, with what quantity of air must this 65.86 cubic feet of carbonic acid be mixed so that the percentage should be reduced to 0.1242, the amount found'? Since the external air contains a little carbonic acid, more of it would be needed that if it were free from that gas. If F represents the volume of pure air which must he added, and a is the fraction which the carbonic acid in the air [0.04 per cent.] is of the Kmit of impurity in the mixture [0.1242 per cent,], the volume of air Vi which must be added is found from the expression F,= F-j-Fa+Fa2+ , . . Vo^. In this way it is found that in order to reduce 65.86 cubic feet of carbonic acid to 0.1242 of the total bulk, we require 76,600 cubic feet of air. That is, in 6 hours 76,600 cubic feet of air must pass through the room and carry off 0.1242 per cent, of its bulk of carbonic acid. This gives to each man 13.3 cubic feet a minute, which is too little ac- cording to Roscoe's views, who thought 20 cubic feet necessary. Eoscoe found 23.71 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000 of air in a school room of 22,140 cubic feet, containing 164 boys. The ventilation was sensibly im- perfect, and the computation showed less than 6 cubic feet per head per minute. In another school room of 4,640 cubic feet contents there were 67 boys. The carbonic acid was 31 parts in 10,000, and the computa- tion showed 240 cubic feet per head per hour, or 4 per minute. The formula given by Eoscoe was employed by Lupton in com- puting the amount of ventilation in the schools of Nashville, Tenn., which was given in a previous table. Lupton changed the formula to Vi=vf — |, "as it is an infinite decreasing series." To determine, then [he says], the quantity of air in its normal condition which ' must be added to one of the rooms [the first in the table], containing 136 persons, so as to give in one hour and a half the percentage of carbon dioxide (0.3242 per cent.) found, we proceed as follows : if one person exhales 0.6H6 cubic foot of carbon dioxide in one hour, 136 persons will exhale 139.944 cubic feet in one hour and a half. By a simple proportion we get the value of F, which, multiplied by the fraction in the equation, whose terras are known, we get within reasonable limits of the quantity of air with which 139.944 cubic feet of carbon dioxide must be mixed in order to make the percentage of (his gas amount to 0.3242, the quantity actually found in the room. The calculation gives 49,242 cubic feet of air as necessary to reduce 139.944 cubic feet of carbon dioxide to 0.3242 per cent, of the total bulk. This allows to each person 4 cubic feet per minute, which is not sufficient for healthful respiration. All the formulas of this kind are based on the assumption which ex- periment substantially supports, that the new air mixes with that in the room, and does not drive it out bodily volume for volume. ' Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, 1858. 618 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 381 Kohlrausch's formula is (7= fj 2 in which 6'= the volume of fresh air in cubic meters which is introduced into the room in the unit of time. m= volume of the room in cubic meters. T=the time between the beginning and end of an experiment, ex- pressed in the same units to which G is referred. ^i=the amount of CO2 found in the room at the beginning, and P2=the amount of CO2 at the end of the experiment. a=the amount of CO2 found in the outside air. fc=the volume of CO2 given off by one source of OO2 (or by one individual) in the unit of time, and %=the number of such sources (or individuals). The formula is obtained as follows : In the first minute the increase in CO2 is nJc-{-aG—p iG=nJc-\- {a— pi)C. In the last minute it is wfc+aO —p2G=nTc-\-{a—p2)G. Taking the mean during the time T of experi- ment, the approximate value would be ^[7tfc+ G{a-pi)+nk+ C{a-p2)]=nJc+ 0(^a-^i±^'\ The increase during the time T would therefore be [»*:+c(a-?^^-?)]2', and the ratio of this to the whole room, or the total increase in CO2, would be [^fc+C/(a-^)]T m If the original amount of CO2 in the room was pi, and the amount at the end of the experiment was ^21 the increase would hepz—p]. There- fore [nl+c(u-P-^y]T m or =i'2-i>ij Tit or nlc-{-{pi-p2)- 0= Pl±P2 2 —a The formula is sufficiently accurate for experiments lasting only a short time. In using it, therefore, collections of air for carbonic acid de- terminations should be made at intervals of fifteen or twenty minutes. 619 382 EDUCATIONAL COXVENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. With longer intervals, say from half an hour to an hour, the formula is said not to give such accurate results. Tbe results can be compared with those of the formulas given below wbich express the amount of fresh air required to keep the impurity down to a given standard. A complicated formula by Professor Seidel of Munich was used by Schottky in his examination of the schools of Breslau above referred to. He found that there was a ventilation of 5.2 cubic meters per head per hour on the average (or 183 cubic feet) with the hot air system, and less with the other forms of heating. He thinks the Pettenkofer limit too low for schools, and refers to Breiting, who sets 20 parts of CO3 in 10,000 as allowable in school rooms. His own conclusions are that 25, and even 30, ]3arts of CO2 in 10,000 are not too high. If it is desired to compute the amount of fresh air required to keep the impurity of room air down to a given limit, the principle employed by Dr. De Chauraont already quoted is adopted. The following is a summary of the section on the subject in Lang's Nat'drliche Ventilation. The problem is to know what quantity of fresh air 6\ containing Oj parts of CO25 is necessary per hour in order to keep the proportion CO2 down to a certain limit p, in a room containing n persons, each 6i whom breathes fc liters of CO2 per hour, or zr^r^Tz cubic meters. The value 1000 of 1c changes with age and sex, varies with the amount of work done, and is different at different hours of the day. TbuwS, according to Pet- tenkofer, a workman gave out 30.3 liters per hour while at work, and only 22.6 liters while resting. Scharling's observations ai'e as follows : Boy Girl Youth Young woman Man Woman Age. Weight. Hourly j of P0U7ld8. Liters. 9i 48. .5 10.3 10 50.5 9.7 16 127 17.4 17 123 12.9 28 180 18.6 35 144 17.0 Cubic inches. 628 592 1,062 787 1,135 1,037 It is as well to take the production of carbonic acid of an adult for scholars over 13 years of age. In gymnasia, fencing schools, dancing halls, etc., the production of carbonic acid by a strong man may be taken at 36 liters (2,196 cubic inches). Thus the value of 1c is given by these conditions. The value of 2^ varies with the standard established, whether the Pet- tenkofer limit of 0.0007 to 0.001 for large rooms, or 0.0010 to 0.0015 pro- posed by Lang for smaller and tolerably well ventilated rooms, be adopted. The amount a of carbonic acid in the incoming air is also difierent in different places, and should be determined each time. In Munich the proportion varied between 0,0003 and 0.0004, and 0.0005 may be taken as representing the amount entering dwelling rooms. The computation is simple. According to Vierordt the expired air contains 43.34 parts in a thousand of carbonic acid. Each breath may be taken at 500 cubic centimeters for an adult. According to Hutch- inson's observations the number of breaths is 1,050 an hour. If the limit of imi)urity is 0.7 per thousand, and a is 0.5 per thousand, we have '^" = — -1— — = 216.7 volumes of fresh air needed for every volume of expired air. The latter amounts to 525 liters per head per hour, con- 620 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. dcd sequently the amount of fresh air required for a man is 525 x 21G.7 = 113.8 cubic meters (3,994 cubic feet). One could also say: 1,000 c.c. of breath contain 43.34 c.c. carbonic acid. Every breath of a volume of 500 c. c. would therefore contain 21.67 c. c, or 0.02167 of a liter, of carbonic acid. With 1,050 breaths per hour, therefore, 22.75 liters of carbonic acid would be given out into the room. If the limit of impurity is to be 0.0007 and the carbonic acid of the in- coming air is 0.0005, we have, since 22.75 iiters=0.02275 of a cubic meter, ■^^ ^-^J^ = 113.75 cubic meters (or 3,992 cubic feet). With a higher limit the figure would of course be smaller. 1c The previous formula was C= If we now take into account the cubic space per head we get another very simple formula. It is C=— w, or, (j-J'^—'^^^{'P—('^) ^n being the cubic space per head. The p—a p—a formula applies to the time in which the CO2 increases from a to j;. Example. — Taking the mean of the figures of Pettenkofer, Voit, and Scharling for the CO2 evolved per head per hour, viz, 22.6, 16.8, and 18.6 liters, which is 19.3 liters, we have, without taking the cubic space 7,. n 0193 per head into account, C= — — , or^-^ ' ^^,,^^ =96.5 cubic meters, or p—a 0.0007—0.0005 =38.6 cubic meters, of fresh air per head, according to 0.0010—0.0005 the standard of purity required. In a lecture room of 670 cubic meters capacity holding 200 adults, m would be 3.4 cubic meters. Using the last formula we have (7= -^-»>*= 96.5 -3.4 =93.1 cubic meters, or 38.6 p—a —3.4=35.*^ cubic meters per head, according to the limit required. With a small cubic space, therefore, the difference in the required ventilation is small, but with larger rooms (or larger cubiu space) the required ven- tilation would be lessened. Professor Heymann of Stockholm made an examination of the schools of that city in order to furnish a committee of the medical society of Sweden evidence of the influence of schools on health.^ He proposes a formula for computing the coefficient of ventilation which is thus ob- tained. If it is desired to keep the carbonic acid of a school room down to 10 parts in 10,000, the volume of air necessary for that purpose can be computed, the carbonic acid of the outer air and of the breath of an individual being known. Pettenkofer, Voit, and Scharling have deter- mined that the amount of carbonic acid exhaled per hour by persons between 8 and 14 years of age is from 12 to 15 liters (732 to 915 cubic inches), and for older persons 15 to 20 liters (915 to 1,221 cubic inches). This is an average which varies greatly with circumstances. In cities, according to Angus Smith, the carbonic acid of the outer air is nearer 4 parts in 10,000 than 3. To compute the coefficient of ventilation it is assumed that the air of a school is as pure as the outer air at the outset of the experiment, and that the incoming air mixes with that of the room equally. The measures are in cubic meters. '^Annales d'Hygi^ne Publique, 3« Se')'., 6, 1881. 621 384 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Let y'=the coefficient of ventilation sought. 'y=cubic space for each scholar=7 c. m. A;=contents of incoming air in carbonic acid=0.0004. fci=contents of room air in carbonic acid at outset=0.0004. A;2=contents of room air in carbonic acid at end of the hour=0.001 (=the limit). a=quantity of carbonic acid exhaled per head per hour=0.012 to 0.015. w=mean contents of the room air in carbonic acid during the hour=2:»»»i+«-«»i=0.0007. Then 7 X 0.001=7 X 0.0004+0.012+ Fx 0.0004— 7 x 0.0007 Carbonic Carbonic acid Carbonic Carbonic acid Carbonic acid acid at end at beginning, acid ei- introduced. carried out. of hour for haled per each person. head per hooi-. whence F(0.0007-0.0004)=0.012-7(0.001-0.0004), or F=26 c. m. (=918 cubic feet) for each scholar. The author prefers to use w, the arithmetical mean of carbonic acid at the beginning and end of the hour, instead of a value obtained by analysis. The general formula according to which the amount of ventilation can always be calculated when the quantities above indicated are known is as follows : ??fc2='yA;i+a+yA;— Fw, or F=«— ^(^~^il The formula shows that the greater fcj is and the smaller v , the greater is T; that is to say, the higher the amount of carbonic acid at the be- ginning of the hour and the less the cubic space per scholar, the larger is the amount of fresh air required to keep the carbonic acid from ex- ceeding the limit. He uses this formula to compute the cubic meters of fresh air for one hour for one person as follows : Individual space in cubic meters. For young children For older children For adults a=0.012. a=0.015. a=0.020. 1 Limits of impurity. Limits of impurity. Limits of impurity, j 7 (in 10,000). ■ ' 1 10 (in 10,000). 7 (inlO,000).ilO(inlO,000). 7 (in 10,000). 10 (in 10, 000). j 5 70 68 66 64 62 30 ! 90 1 40 28 88 1 38 26 86 36 24 84 34 22 82 32 20 80 ! 30 123.3 12L3 119.3 117.3 115.3 113.3 50.6 54.6 52.6 50.6 48.6 46.6 6 7 8 9 10 60 These calculations give the ventilation for one hour if the air is pure at the start. The quantity would be greater if the time were longer and the air were not pure at the start. 622 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 385 lu (leterminiug- the ciirbonic acid of room air the Petteukofer method was cmp/loyed iu most" of the analyses referred to above. A modifica- tiou of that method, which is often referred to and which appears to have advantag^es of couveuieiice, simplicity, and rapidity of execution, was made by Dr. W. Hesse, and a description of it is given here, taken from Winkler's Anleitmig zur chemisclien Untersuclmng der Industrie- Gase. The analysis is made in the small flasks in which the air is collected by inserting the burette through their rubber stoppers without the neces- sity of opening them, and collection and analysis can be made in the room under examination. It should be said that Pettenkofer, Avho was tJie father of this whole branch of technical analysis, also used the same flask for collection and analysis, making the titration by a burette inserted through the stopper of the flask. ^ His flasks, however, were relatively large, holding 3,500 c. c. The apiiaratus employed by Hesse consists (like that of Pettenkofer) of the reserve or laboratory portion, and the transportable set. A. The laboratory apparatus comprises the following articles: (1) A glass jar of several liters capacity, containing concentrated baryta water. The solution is prepared by adding 4 to 5 liters of dis- tilled water to 1 kilogramme of barium hydrate with 50 grammesof chlo- ride of barium. As the solution is used water is added from time to time as long as there is enough of the hydrate to saturate it. (2) A flask of dilute baryta water, which is provided with a con- trivance for freeing' the air which enters it from carbonic acid. The latter consists of a small flask containing pumice stone saturated with a concentrated solution of potash. (See Fig. 2.) The dilute baryta Fig. 2. water is prepared by adding about 30 c. c. concentrated baryta water to every liter of distilled water, or, directly, by dissolving 1.7 grammes of a mixture of barium hydrate and chloride of barium (20: 1) in a liter of distilled water. (3) A flask of oxalic acid solution made by dissolving 5.6325 grammes crystallized oxalic acid in a liter of distilled water. One cubic centi- meter of this solution indicates 1 c. c. of CO2. (4) A small flask of rosolic acid solution, 1 part acid to 250 alcohol. B. The transportable apparatus consists of — (1) Five thick- walled conical Erlenmayer's flasks of ^, }, ^, and -jV liter contents, provided with well-fittingrubber stoppers with two holes bored I Chem. Soc. Quarterl;/ Journal, Vol. X (1858), p. 2M. 7950 COT., PT. 2 25 6^3 386 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXrOSITION. through them. Each of the first four flasks is muflied at the pUice wIumc the eud of the stopper reaches when pressed in, and tlie contents is scratched on the flask with the diamond. (Hesse obtained the contents by weighing the flasks empty, and filled with water.) Each of those flasks has two i)ieces of glass rod 3 to 5 cm. long, which fit the holes in the stoppers. They should have one end rounded in the flame and have a small knob at the other^ (2) A thick walled 10 c. c. pipette. (3) A burette of 10 to 15 c. c. contents, graduated to tenths, having a glass stop-cock, with its end drawn out to a length of 7 to 10 cm. (4) A flask holding 300 c. c. for dilute baryta water, provided with an arrangement for guarding against the entrance of COo like that de- scribed above. This flask is easily tilled from the reserve flask in tlic, laboratory by using the siphon tube of the latter, as shown in Fig. 2, by removing the glass plugs connecting the tubes of each and opening tlic. pinch-cocks. Before beginning an experiment a few drops of rosolic acid solution are added to the baryta water to color it. The fainter the color the sharper the end reaction, but the color should not be so faint as to be indistinct. The i^roper depth of color lasts about three days, and then fades, so that a few more drops of rosolic acid solution must be added. (5) A ^-liter flask for dilute oxalic acid. The dilution is made by running 25 c. c. of the titrated oxalic acid solution into a 250 c. c. flask, and filling to the mark with distilled water. (This solution is therefore one-tenth as strong as the laboratory solution, so that 1 c. c. indicates ^ c. c. of CO2.) (0) A thermometer. (7) A barometer (small aneroid). The solutions allotted to the transportable apparatus are suflicient to allow of making 30 separate determinations, or (including the control determinations and standardizing) at least 10 experiments. With reference to conducting the carbonic acid determination by Hesse's method it should be premised that every determination is made in duplicate, with a different volume of air. According as there is rea- son to suspect a greater or less proportion of carbonic acid in the air, flasks of one-half and one-fourth, or one-fourth and one eighth, or one- fourth and oue- twelfth liter capacity are employed to collect the air for examination. The flasks are filled with the air of a place by filling them on the spot with water which has acquired the temperature of the place, emptying them, and rinsing them with distilled water, care being taken uot to warm the flasks with the hand and not to allow the breath to enter them. To absorb the carbonic acid, the 10 c. c. pipette is pushed through one of the holes of the rubber stopper which is to close the flask, is rinsed with a little baryta water (by removing the plug at a (Fig. 2), inserting the tip of the pipette there, opening the pinchcocks, and sucking the baryta water into the pipette), and is then sucked full of baryta water to the mark ; the stopper carrj'ing the pipette is then tit- ted into its place in the mouth of the flask and the baryta water is al- lowed to run in. While this is going on the other hole in the stopper is kept partly closed with the finger or a glass plug, so that the air can just escape from the flask. Then the glass plug is fitted in tightly, the pipette is withdrawn after warming with the hand for a moment while the upper end is closed with the finger, to empty it, and the hole it oc- cnpied is also closed with a glass plug. The same operation is rej^eated with another flask of a different capacity, and both vessels are allowed 624 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 387 to staud some time with occasioual sliakiug while the strength of the baryta water is determiued. This is doue as follows : by a prelimiuary trial it is fouud how uiuch oxalic acid solution is needed to exactly neutralize 10 c. c. baryta water which have been run directly into a flask for that purpose. Xearly as much oxalic acid solution as was found to neutralize the baryta water in the j^revious experiment is run into the one-sixteenth liter flask and 10 c. c. of the baryta Avater to be examined are run directly into it from a i)ipette, whereby n, slight coloration is produced (the dilute baryta water being tinted with rosolic acid) because the baryta water is in slight excess. The exact neutralization is then eflected by adding' the oxalic acid solution from the burette drop by drop, and the volume is read oft". This way has the advantage that the titration can be made with great accuracy even in an atmosphere rich in carbonic acid, be- cause the fluid never becomes alkaline enough to take up noticeable quantities of that gas from the air. In titrating the baryta water which has been shaken with air in the flask, the usual eeparation of the precipitated carbonate of baryta is dispensed with and the titration is carried on directly in the flask in the following vray. One of the glass plugs is removed from ihe rubber stop- per and is replaced by the drawn out end of the burette containing the oxalic acid solution. The end should be pushed ns far down into the flask as possible (see Eig. 3). Then the stop-cock of the burette is opened and the acid solution is allowed to run into the flask, at first ra])idly and finally drop by drop. If the pressure in the flask becomes so great as to hinder the flow of the solution, it can be relieved by lifting the glass plug for an instant. As soon as decolorization occurs the quantity of solution used is read oft" on the burette, and the baryta water in the second flask is titrated in the same way. It is obvious that with small percent- ages of carbonic acid the accuracy of the results will be greater, the larger the volume of air op- erated on, and Hesse accordingly uses a flask of ^ to 1 liter capacity whenever the carbonic acid is expected to be below the limit for inhabited rooms, as in the open air, or indeed whenever the greatest accuracy is desired. The baryta water must always be taken in sufiicient quantity to make sure of an excess of baryta. The small quantity of carbonic acid which the inflowing baryta water takes from the air it displaces, may be disregarded. In calculating the analysis the volume of air O])- erated on should be reduced toO^ C. and 700 mm. barometric i)ressure for the sake of comparison, by the usual formula, which is pig. 3. v= "^ 760 (1+0.0030650 where Vo is the volume of air reduced to 0° C. and 700 mm., v the vol- ume of air operated on, h the observed height of the barometer (or read- ing of the aneroid) at the time of the experiment, and t the temj)erature (centigrade) at the same time. 625 388 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. t'n = =511 c. c. Examiile. — If v=o56 c. c, &=740 mm., and ^=16°, then 556 X 740 760 (1+0.003665x16) When no barometer is available a correction for temperature alone is V made by using the formula i\-- ., in which i\ is the volume 1+0.003665*' corrected for temperature, v the volume of air in the flask, and t the temi)erature (in centigrade degrees) at the time of the experiment. 556 Example. — v„ = -^ — , ,, ^^'^^ — — =525. (If the temperature is below 0° C. ^ 1+0.003665x16 ^ ^ ^, ™ , 1 i'&(l+0.003665«) . the formula becomes v^= — !^ — ^7;n ') Suppose ?;=223 c. c, <=19^, &=739 mm., the quantity of oxalic acid which will neutralize 10 c. c. of baryta water=11.5 c. c, and the quan- tity fouud necessary to neutralize the baryta water in the experiment =6.2 c. c. Then 11.5—6.2=5.3 c. c. less of the oxalic acid solution was needed to neutralize the 10 c. c. of baryta water introduced into the flask than 10 c. c. of pure baryta water required, which diflerence is due to the carbonic acid absorbed from the air of the flask by the baryta. As the normal oxalic acid was of such strength that 1 c. c. = l c. c. CO2, while the dilute solution used in the. experiment is one-tenth as strong, the 5.3 c. c. are equivalent to 0.53 c. c. CO2 which have combined with the baryta. Then we have the proportion, the air of the flask (=223 c. c. — 10 c. c. baryta water run in =213 c. c.) is to the CO3 it contains (=0.53 c. c.) as one liter (=1000 c. c.) is to x, the quantity of CO2 in a liter, =2.49 c. c, the air not being reduced to 0^ and 760 mm. After reduction .by the above formula 213 c. c. become 194 c. c. Hence, 194 c. c, the corrected volume of air, is to 0.53 c. c, the amount of CO2 it contains, as 1,000 c. c. is to 2.73 c. c, or the air contains 2.73 parts in a thousand (or 27.3 parts in 10,000). As the Pettenkofer method and its njodifications involve some trouble and skill, simpler mejins have been proposed for estimating roughly the degree of respiratory impurity in the air as measured by its carbonic acid. Some of these are described here without comment. One method is to use a small bottle containing baryta water connected with a hand ball of known contents, so that measured quantities of air can be pumped through the bottle and baryta water until a turbidity is pro- duced. The number of pumps corresponding to a given amount of carbonic acid is ascertained, so that the appearance of the turbidity indicates at once the amount of carbonic acid. The details are as follows (see Fig. 4). A bottle holding about 50 c. c. is provided with a cork having two holes bored in it. Through one of the holes passes a glass tube 6, which reaches nearly to the bottom of the bottle, and to its outer end is attached a piece of thin-walled rubber tubing. Through the other hole is fitted a bent glass tube which extends only a shor^ 626 Fig. 4. J INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 389 distance beneath the cork, and is connected outside with a tliic-k- walled rubber tube about a foot long. This tube, whicli should ha\ e a short slit made lengthwise with a sharp kuife near its end c to atrt as a valve, is connected with a hand ball such as is used for spraying, and can be bought readily. The contents of the ball should be ascertained by inserting the end of the tube into a measuring glass filled up with water, and inverted over water. In some cases it is about 28 c. c, but on compression by the action of the hand only yields 23 c. c. Seven c. c. of clear baryta water (of a solution of about 6 grammes to the liter) are introduced into the bottle, which is first filled with the air of a place by a few compressions of the ball, and then the stopper is replaced, and the bottle is shaken. From the size of the bot- tle (50 c. c.) this answers to two emptyings of the ball. Then the small caoutchouc tube connected with the long glnss tube is squeezed together by the finger and thumb and the hand ball is compressed. The air es- capes through the slit in the caoutchouc tube connected with the hand ball, and on releasing the latter and leaving the other caoutchouc tuiie free, air enters the bottle through it and the long glass tube (because the walls of the slit are closed by external pressure), and passes through the baryta water. The bottle is shaken again, and if there is no turbidity the pumping operation is repeated until it appears. To make the turbidity more evident a piece of paper may be gummed on the bottle, having on the inner side a lead pencil mark which should be below the level of the liquid in the bottle. When on looking through the liquid the mark be- comes indistinct, the right point has been reached. The following table shows the amount of carbonic acid corresponding to the emptying of a ball of the above dimensions: No. of Volumes of CO2 No. of Volumes of COz emptyings. in 10,000 of air. emptyings. in 10,000 of air. 4 22.0 12 . 7.4 6 17.6 13 6.8 6 14.8 14 6.3 7 12.6 15 5.8 8 11.0 10 5.4 9 9.8 17 5.1 10 8.8 18 4.9 11 8.0 Angus Smith recommends a hand-ball of two ounces, and a bottle of the same capacity -|- the space required for the bar\ ta water, viz, half an ounce. Then when the bottle is filled with the air of a place by one or two pumps of the ball before the liquid is put in, that counts for one ballful of air. The baryta water is then put in and the operation con- tinued. His table is as follows: Number of strokes of the finger-pump. Per cent, of carbonic acid in the air. Actual amount of carbonic acid in the air of the ball in c. c. 1 .444 .2515 2 .222 .1257 3 .148 .0838 4 .111 .0629 5 .088 .0503 6 .074 .0419 7 .063 .0359 8 .055 .0314 9 .049 .0279 10 .044 .0251 11 .040 . Q229 12 .037 .0209 13 .034 .0193 14 .032 .0180 15 .029 .0167 627 390 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Another application of the same principle is a simple apparatus in- vented by Prof. Dr. Wolpert, of Kaiserslautern, Germany. It consists of a small gl-AHU cylinder for holding lime Water and a small glass tube provided with a rubber hand-ball, of known capacity, for bubbling air through the lime water. More in detail, the glass cylinder or tube for the lime water is 4^ inches long and ^ an inch in diameter, and has a white porcelain bottom. On the inside of this white bottom are marked in black the figures 1882, which are easily seen on looking down the tube. On the side of the tube, about an inch from the bottom, is a mark to indicate the height to which clear lime water is to be poured wiieir the experiment is made. On taking the hand ball tube to any part of ji room and squeezing the ball the air it contains is expelled, and is re- ]daced by that of the locality when the hand pressure is relaxed and the ball recovers its shape. The tul)e is now placed in the glass cylin- der, which is held upright in a small wooden support and has been filled to the mark with lime water, with its end against the bottom of the cylinder, and its air is squeezed out so as to bubble up through the lime water. The operator should regulate the pressure so as not to allow any of the lime water to bubble over the top of the cylinder or to be sucked up into the hand-ball. This operation is to be rei)eated utttil, on looking down the tube at the black figures 1882, they just be- come illegible on account of the turbidity produced in the lime water above them by the carbonic acid of the air w^hich has been bubbled through it. A printed table accompanying each box of apparatus gives the proportion of carbonic acid in 1,000 parts of air corresponding to the number of squeezes of the hand- ball uecessarj' to produce the tur- bidity above described. Thus, if 20 squeezes of the hynd-ball cause turbidity enough to obscure the dark figures, there is 1 part of carbonic acid in 1,000 of air (or 10 parts in 10,000). Ten squeezes indicate 2 parts in 1,000 (or 20 in 10,000), and so on. If, therefore, from ten to twenty squeezes i)roduce enough turbidity to obscure the mark, the air under examination is very bad ; if more than twenty are necessary, the air is tolerable or good, according to the number of squeezes, 50 being the maximum number and indicating pure air. Blochmann's method for estimating the carbonic acid in room air is in substance as follows:^ he uses a fiask of 505 c. c, introduces into it 5 c. c. of lime water saturated, and of known strength, and three drops of phenolphthaleine (1 part in 1000 of GO per cent, alcohol). The flask is then closed with a stopper carrying a long glass tube reach- ing nearly to the lime water, and a short bent tube through which suc- tion can be applied. He sucks the flask full of air and shakes it two or three minutes, and so on, until the phenolphthaleine loses its color. Some of the carbonic acid to the extent of 10 per cent, escapes unab- sorbed, but a correction is made for this. Tlie following is a corrected table : Number of fillings. Volume of car- bonic acid in 10,000. Number of fillings. Volume of car- bonic acid in lO.'OOO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 60 30 20 15 12 10 8.6 7.5 6.7 6.0 11 12 Vi 14 15 IG 17 18 19 20 5.5 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 3.0 628 'Fresenius: Zeitschrtfl fur analyiisclte Chemie, 23, 1884. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 391 This iDethod was cliecked by the Pettenkofer method, and the follow- ing table shows the degree of accuracy it possesses when the two are compared : Carbonic acid Number of Carbonic acid of tlie same tilliufrs. Irom preced- air by the ing table. Pettenkofer method. 10-11 5. 5- 6. 5.8 6- 9 6. 7- 7. 5 7.1 7 8.6 8.8 fi- 7 8.G-10 9.5 6 10 9.7 5 12 11.5 4 15 15 A compact apparatus for showing the amount of carbonic acid in room air has been devised by Mr. F. N. Owen of New York, and is de- scribed in the Sanitary Engineer of April 3, 1884, and in Dr. Billing's work before referred to. It consists essentially (see Fig. 5) of an aspi- rator which is formed of two graduated tiasks placed mouth to mouth, connected with glass tubes furnished with stop-cocks, and set in a re- volving frame so as to act continuously. On the outside of the box Fio. 5. containing the frame is fixed a set of glass bulbs containing dilute baryta water tinged crimson with phenolphthaleine, and connected with 629 392 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the aspirator through a glass tube. Ou bringing the flask filled with water up})ei:most and allowing the apparatus to work, the carbonic acid of the air ou passiug through the baryta solution decolorizes it, and when this occurs the action of the aspirator is stopped and the quantity of air which has passed thiough the apparatus is read off on the grad- uated flasks. Tables have been j)repared which render calculations unnecessary, and show at a glance the proportion of carbonic acid in the air which has passed through the baryta water. 630 i THE ALLEGED INCEEASE OF NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN. Report of a Committee of the National Educational Association. Mr. President and Metnhers of the Congress — Yonr attentiou is respect- fully called to the facts herewith presented, as transcribed from an article on '•• School Room Diseases" by Dr. Rudolph Virchow, of Berlin, Prussia, and furnished to your committee in August, 1880, by Mr. Charles Warren, then acting Commissioner of the Bureau of Education, Wash- ington, D. C. The first reliable facts, based on the most thorough investigations, were piiblislied iu 1866 by Dr. Herman Cohn, of Breslau, Prussia. He lias examined five vilhige schools in Langenbielau (a village of Silesia), and the following schools in the city of Breslau : Twenty elementary schools, two higher girls' schools, two intermediate schools, two renlschulen (non-classical colleges), and two gijmnasieri (classical colleges). Of the 10,060 scholars in these institutions. Dr. Cohn examined 6,059 himself, while the re- mainder were examined by teachers according to careful instructions. Of the students of the University of Breslau, Dr. Cohn personally examined 410. Among the 10,060 scholars, » » * there are ten per cent, near-sighted, distributed iu the following manner: Per cent. School. near-sighted. In the village schools 1.4 In the city elementary schools 6. 7 In the higher girls' schools 7. 7 In the intermediate schools 10. 3 In the ' ' real schools " 19.7 In the "gymnasia" 26.0 Of the 410 university students examined 60. This shows that near-sightedness steadily increases from the lower grades of schools to the higher ones. The same principle of increase may be observed in each of these schools, taken separately, showing a gradual increase from the lowest to the highest class, according to the following percentage : School. Per cent, near-sighted by classes. VI. V. IV. in. n. . 2.9 23.7 4.1 31.0 9.8 41.3 9.8 55.8 Gymnasia 12.5 is. 2 Not only does the number of short-sighted cases increase from one class to the other, and from one grade of school to the other, but also the degree of short-sight- edness.' [Thus], in the thirty-three schools of Breslau, including its university, Dr. Cohn ex- amined 10,060 pupils of all grades, and found that 1.004 of the number, distributed among all the schools, were near-sighted; and that only twenty-eight of these had near-slght«d parents. Of the children who were yet in their first half-year of school life, only 0.4 per cent, were near-sighted. Thence, upward, through seven biennial 'Circular of Information, Bureau of Education, August, 1870, pp.. 21-22. 631 394 EDUCATIOXAL C0NVENTI0:TS at NKW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. grades, tho percentago increased till it reaclierot only the light admitted to our school-rooms, but also the books, slates, and other materials used by students in preparing their lessons may have much influence in causing near-sight. The paper used in our school books should be so thick that the words will not show through; it should not be the clear bluish-white so often used; unbleached is far better, for from it the light is reflected less glaringly; the type should be large and clear ; the lines well separated and not too long. But books made in this way cost more, and we are strongly tempted to. purchase such miserable eye-destroyers as are most of the publications of the American Book Exchange. Your eyesight is worth far more than the difference in price. Near-sight is more frequent in Germany than in any other country, and Dr. E. Javal, Director of the Laboratory of Ophthalmia at the Sorbonue, considers this largely due to the pecu- liar form of the German letters, and to the practice .among Germans of having their children read a great deal out of school hours, and pass the evening hours with an imperfect light, in deciphering Gothic characters printed upon a greasy, half-transparent paper. » * * This pernicious influence upon the sight, of reading in the evening, is very perceptible in Alsace, where, since the annexation, the number of near-sighted people is visibly increased, without our being able to hnd any other difference in the r6gime than the introduction of German books into the class-rooms, and the obligation imposed upon the children to use them in the evenings, which is only done exceptioually in the French villages. Greasy slates should be avoided ; also lead pencils so hard that they make an indistinct mark. Bad ventilation is quite generally regarded as the greatest curse of our northern, in-door civilization, but its evil effects upon the eyesight may not be so well understood. Dr. E. G. Loring, Jr., of New York, uses the following words: I am therefore of the opinion that bad air alone, acting as the primal cause, may set in train a series of morbid processes, which may, and often do affect, not only the work- ing capacity and integrity of the organ [of sight], but which may lead even to its total destruction. Thus simple irritation of the mucous membrane of the eye may, and often does, pass into actual inflammation, which, increasing in violence, may proceed from part to part till the entire organ is involved, and thus the sight become impaired or totally lost. Surely the average school room is none too well ventilated. In their report of last year, your committee referred to the effects of difierent methods of study on the eyesight. Two separate and antag- 638 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 401 onistic methodis of study are employed iu our schools. The oue, com- mouly called the old-fashioued method, because more generally used iu the pfst than now, takes the printed page as the basis of all study. It seems to take it for granted that the entire structure of human knowl- edge was made and finished years ago, and that the principal duty of the nineteenth century learner is to accept without question or investi- gation the statements of mediseval writers. Whatever the subject may be — mathematics or science, literature or history — the students are set to committing a certain number of pages of the text book in use, and are expected to recite verbatim what they thinly perhaps, that they have learned. The other, which I shall call the natural method, because it is the oue that has been employed in getting all first-hand information since man became an observing animal, bases education on the use of the senses and reasoning powers. It assumes that the child's powers of observation are his to use; that only by use can those powers be im- proved; that the function of memory is to re-collect and bring back into consciousness actual i>erceptions ; that the imagination, reasoning faculties, and iiowers of generalization should be cultivated in the order of their natural development; that mathematics, sciences, languages themselves should be studied, rather than some man's words about them; that the idea is worth more than the clothing in which some one has dressed it; that books are useful, very useful, for study and refer- ence, but not to be committed verbatim; that the child's powers of speech should be increased side by side with his stock of ideas and ])0wers of mind; and that when proving whether he understands his lesson, he should use his own words and not those of some one else. We do not wish to be understood to oppose all memorizing — far from it; but we think that students can find exercises more suitable for this purpose than are any of their regular daily lessons. Selections for memorizing should be brief and pointed, containing in few words a great truth, a gem of thought, a valuable maxim, or a popular proverb, with the name of the author when possible. Such selections are not difficult to find, and may be used with great benefit, as witness the results of the practice in the schools of Albany. In two of the schools of Eockford, 111., the examining physicians found these two methods of study in use, with the following results : In the school where the text-book method was employed, 7.5 per cent, of the students were found to be near-sighted; whereas, in the school where the natural method was in use, the near-sightedness amounted to only 3.2 per cent. The schools were of exactly the same grade, and all otber conditions were similar. (See '' Keport of the Examination of the Eves of the School Children of Eockford, 111.," by Drs. W. H. Fitch and F. H. Kimball.) But why should there be this difference, amounting to 2^ times as much near-sight in one school as in the other? The reason is not hard to find. Most students can get an idea much quicker than they can commit to memory the words which, some one has used to express that idea. Very often it is only necessary to state the subject of the next day's lesson, and many bright students will think out the work re- quired without looking into a book or reading a word, and few students would have any trouble after reading the discussion of the subject once or twice. I have had students who demonstrated every proijosition in the first three books of Euclid with no reference to a book, and without a Innt from any one. To commit the demonstrations from the book would be a great tax on the eyes, and would not insure either a knowledge of 7950 COT., vT. 2 20 uau 402 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the subject or any real mental discipline. So with all text-book memo- rizing ; it strains the eyes, requires more time, and secures but poor re- sults, at best. We cannot too much insist upon the injury to young- students from text-book study in the evening by artificial light. It is not alone the eyes that suffer from this kind of work; it is a most fruit- ful source of sleepless nights, nervousness, irritability, and a general uncertainty and inaccuracy that are the reverse of desirable. Where textbooks are used less, more blackboards, maps, charts, etc., must be employed. In such cases the charts and maps should be i)lain, . and care should be taken that the writing on the board be distinct. Inasmuch as near-sight is largely due to the adjustment of the eye to near objects, one of the members of your committee, Professor W. H. Lennon, of the Brockport Normal School, suggests that by habituating the eye to distant objects, near-sight may be prevented or diminished. We have the result of no observations on this point, but Professor Len- non's suggestion seems reasonable. If this is true, then blackboard ex- ercises would rather work against near-sightedness. One other matter of the utmost importance claims our attention. We quote again from Drs. Fitch and Kimball as follows : The most interesting fact connected with the subject is the age at which this form of defective vision first manifests itself. We have divided all the scholars into live classes, depending upon age. * * * Each class is made to include two years in- stead of cue, in order to secure a greater numher of cases and a consequent better average. Here we have arranged in a tabular form the results of this examination : Boys Girls myopic. myopic. Per cent. Per cent. .8 3.1 3.5 5.9 2.5 5.5 6.3 13.0 17.7 10. 8 Cla.ss 1, aged 7 and 8 years Class 2. aged 9 and 10 years Cla.ss 3, aged U and 12 years ... Clas.s 4, aged 13 and 14 years ... Class 5, aged 15 years and over . We notice thus a. gradual increase in the percentage of defect among the boys until we reach class .5 (aged 15 years and over) ; here a very great sudden increase manifests itself. The same gradual increase is noted with the girls until we come to class 4 (aged 13 and 14 years), and here we find the same sudden increase. Now, what does this change mean ? The following seems to be the most rational interpretation of the fact. It will be seen that the increase occurs at about the age of puberty in each sex, with the boys during the fifteenth and sixteenth years, and with the girls during the thirteenth and fourteenth years, one or two years sooner. At this time all the ener- gies, nervous and otherwise, of the system are taxed to the utmost to support the physiological changes then taking place. The system is thus poorly adapted to resist any evil influence whatever, and the amount of strain upon the eyes that under other circumstances would be resisted now yields its natural fruit in a permanent impair- ment of vision. The only conclusion to be drawn is obvious. Greater attention must be paid to the hygiene of vision at this time of life. At this critical period of youth any sedentary occupation may induce morbid trains of thought, and thus lead to undesirable results. Care on the part of parents to explain to their children the nature of the physiological changes then taking ])lace, combined with some light, attractive emi>loyment, which will afford plenty of fresh air and out- door exercise, would be far better than school work for promoting the physical, mental, and moral welfare of young people at this time of life. In many cases all school work might profitably be omitted for a year or two, if light out-door work be furnished in its stead. The only other point which demands the attention of your committee 640 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 403 refers to the influence of heredity in the production of near-sightedness. We quote from Dr. E. Javal : As uear-sigliteduess is more frequent iu Germany than elsewhere, and as it is more, frequently found iu the children of cities thau in those of the country towns, certain authors have concluded that it is often hereditary, and that the degree of civilization iu a people may almfist be measured by the number of near-sighted people it contains. These statistical researches which we have made iu Paris, quite in agreement with those made by Drs. R. H. Derby and Edward G. Loring, of New York, lead us to rele- gate to the second degree the influence of heredity upon the production of near-sight- edness, an incontestable influence, but a suflSciently feeble one that proper care may almost always be enough to prevent the manifestation of in children whose parents are atflictcd to the highest degree with it ; while on the contrary we often see it produced with disastrous fatality in children of parents quite exempt from it, whenever they are subjected to influences which favor the birth of it. Thus it a]>pears that a very large fraction of the alarming amount of near-sightedness found among all civilized people can be traced directly to the school-room, — to the years of the child's life that are devoted to getting an education ; that the circumstances that favor the birth and development of this disease operate with peculiar energy during child - hoo«l and youth ; that some of the more powerful of those agents are to be sought in bad lighting, impure air, too small type, imj)roper arrange- ment of school desks, unnatural methods of teaching, and a consequent overstraining of the eyes in the almost useless work of memorizing page after page of text- book ; that although the increase of nearsighted- ness is continuous from the lowest to the highest grades of school-work, yet the progress of the disease is much more rapid at the critical period of youth than either before or after ; and that though heredity may play a minor j^art in the production of the disease, yet there is no doubt that a tendency to near-sightedness may be transmitted from parents to children, thus, to a slight degree at least, fixing the disease as a perma- nent characteristic of the race. But to show the magnitude of an evil and to point out the causes that l)roduce it, are two long strides in the direction of its suppression. Educated people iu all civilized countries are taking an interest in this subject fairly commensurate with its imi^ortance ; and we may hope for a continuous and intelligent application on the part of architects, school boards, and teachers, of those measures which are fitted for preventing a further increase of this dreaded evil — near-sightedness. C. J. BUELL, ") Edward Smith, | C. Henry King, )■ Committee. A. W. ISTORTON, I W. H. Lennon, 3 641 SCHOOL HTGIENE IN ONTARIO. By D. FOTHEHlNaHAM, Public School Inspector, North York County, Ontario. In dealing with a subject so wide and important in an article necessa- rily limited in extent, our remarks must be put in the form of MntH^ rather than an exhaustive treatment of School Hygiene. With this limit ation in view we propose to deal briefly with the following divisions: I. The Provisions made in Ontario for promoting the health of the school population. II. The Progress made in School Hygiene. HI. What remains to be done. IV. Means suggested for overtaking this work. I. The Provisions made by the Education Department for the physical well being of the youth of the Province are evidence of the importance attached to this department of its administration, and of the intelligence and zeal of its promoters. (1.) Much thought has been given to, and excellent regulations have been framed and enforced for, securing sufficient healthful accommo- dation for all between the ages of five and twenty-one years. These regulations give prominence to healthfulness of site, size of house and grounds, suitability and sufficiency of furniture and appa- ratus, ventilation, lighting, and heating, separate and suitable privacy for the sexes, water supply, drainage, etc., etc. While the taxpayers, by a majority vote at a legally called meeting, have power to locate or change a school site, careful directions are given that it shall be healthful, convenient, and large. Where the school population is under seventy-five, it may be only half an acre. 0\'er that, it must be at least an acre. The house must furnish twelve square feet on the floor and one hundred and twenty feet of air space for each of two-thirds of all in the section or district of school age (5-21). A class room is required for every fifty pupils enrolled, with additional recitation rooms for particular work. Separate entries and porches, with doors opening outward, 'are also re- quired. Ventilation, lighting, heating, blackboarding, etc., receive careful attention in the regulations, but without exacting special standards of sufiiciency. (2.) For many years the Education Department issued an official Monthly Journal, in which, among other matters of importance, school hygiene received frequent and prominent attention. Under the au- spices of the Department a volume on school architecture was also published, and placed in the hands of leading officers connected with G4:i INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 405 the schools.^ In this, great prominence is given to the most advanced views on ventilation ; and detailed plans are laid down for its introduc- tion in schools. (3) When a well-defined course of professional training was, some ten years ago, made a condition on which any grade of teachers' cer- tificate could be issued, physiology, anatomy, and hygiene were in- cluded in the course of study and examination ; so that now no teacher takes charge of a school without a theoretical acquaintance with the principles of school hygiene. At the present time the disposition of the Education Department is to require more and better knowledge of these subjects at all the training institutions for teachers in the Prov- ince. Further, the Minister has requested a committee of public school in- spectors to collect facts and present suggestions that may help to a course of instructions and regulations which will cover largely the whole field of school-house erection and hygiene. II. The Progress made in school hygiene during the past fifteen years has been substantial and gratifying. Fifteen years ago the law and regulations were greatly liberalized on the subject of size and sanitary arrangements, and a set of executive officers appointed, with considerable real authority and large discretionary power, to enforce improvements in the accommodation, the management, and methods adopted throughout the Province. Then began what may be called a real reformation, if not a peaceful revolution, in the conditions, the agencies, and administration of primary education in Ontario. (1.) Nearly all schools now furnish floor and air space considerably in excess of present legal requirements, though these are greatly in advance of those of 1870. Ceilings are higher. Windows are more readily opened or shut, and usually shaded from direct or fierce light. The rudiments at least of ventilation are insisted upon; and in the cities, towns, and villages, most boards have introduced more effective means of purifying the atmosphere. Desks and seats, often very un- suitable for school purposes, and seriously harmful to comfort and health, have been replaced in most older counties by more attractive, conven- ient, and comfortable ones. (2.) School sites are usually an acre or more in extent, are selected so as to avoid unsanitary influences, and not infrequently are graded and surrounded by young shade trees with flower-plots in suitable places, valuable for shelter and recreation. , (3.) Mental labor and relaxation are now made to alternate much more naturally than formerly. Calisthenic and kindergarten move- ments and songs are asserting and receiving more of their right place in the hourly exercises of the school room. (4.) Any intelligent observer who saw the condition of school-houses and yards in 1870, and sees them again in 1885, cannot but be struck with the contrast. Tlie houses now are mostly large, substantial, attractive buildings, and the grounds roomj', clean, and suitable for their purpose. This impression is confirmed by the fact that upwards of half the houses ' The foUowiug is the title of this book : The School-house, its architecture, external and internal arrangements, with elevations, plans, and specifications for public and h'gh school buildings ; together with illustrated papers on the importance of school hygiene and ventilation, also with practical suggestions as to school grounds, school liuniture, gymnastics, and the uses and value of school apparatus. Second edition. With numerous illustrations. By J. George Hodgins, M. A., LL. D., Barrister-at-Law, and Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario. 643 406 EDUCATIONAL CONVJENTiONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. are nearly new, and school property has doubled in value within a few years. (5.) The teacher is by law constituted a public officer, and is required to see that everything about the school premises is in good condition, and, if not, must report to the Board, who are at once to remedy defects. He is also required to see that no pupil is admitted to, or continues in, any of the public schools who has been afflicted with or exposed to any contagious disease, till all danger of communicating the same has passed, as certified by a physician. III. What Eemains to be Done, however, is very much more than has been done. The best educationists and hygieuists are hopeful, but far from satisfied. Hygienic provisions, now legally required and fairly met, are mostlj^ of a negative character. They have grown out of a de- sire to remedy existing evils, more than from any matured and compre- hensive plan for the thorough development of the physical nature of the child. They are designed to prevent enfeeblemeut rather than to secure the highest physical possibilities — a perfect manhood. They are not so comprehensive and radical as to take hold of immature or diseased childhood, and lead it on through a systematic and sci- entific course of hygienic training and development till it has been matured to become the most valuable type of citizen. Such develop- ment is now, unfortunately, mostly the result of mere accident. Ample and adequate measures are not adopted, much less enforced, to surround with, to stimulate and strengthen by, the surest and highest health pro- moting influences day by day. While very much has been devised and attained towards a healthful and even philosophical development of the mhid^ we are only beginning to realize that hardly second to that in im- portance is the necessity of developing the body also to a perfect soundness. The cubic space of air required for each public school pupil, though ridiculously small when compared with that required in hospitals and garrisons, may be sufiQcient, even ample, if entirely renewed by the reg- ular and rapid influx of pure and properly tempered atmosphere. Nota- bly, however, the change is not so eflected. The temperature suggested for school rooms may be the happy mean, but if windows and doors must be thrown open occasionallj^ to change the otherwise unventilated, mephitic atmosphere, and the thermometer rushes up or down fifteen or twenty degrees in as many minutes, hygienic principles are certainly greatly strained. If inside air is breathed and heated, then rebreathed and then re- heated, or burnt on a stove in the room, it requires no doctor to under- stand how hurtful such an atmosphere must be. When young people, whose bones and muscles are only in the form- ative stage, are obliged to occupy, for hours a day, seats without suit- able rests for feet or back, and desks which compel awkward and un- natural postures of spine and limbs, it is very evident that a constant and heavy tax is laid on the vital forces of the body, which should all contribute to the healthful development of form and force. When the delicate organs of sight are forced to do duty day by dayj in direct or strongly reflected light, or at small or great distances, it is pretty certain that the seeds of weakness and dijs«;'iise are surely being' planted. When the immature, delicate, susceptible body of a child is deprived through the school term of the wholesome and warm noon meal, and, instead, is furnished with shortbread, cold pastry, and con lections, ^ 644 INTEENATIOKAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 407 there remains no room for doubt as to the cause of reduced average health and life. When the instinct of perjietual motion iu healthy childhood, so im- portant a factor in iihysical streugth, is repressed if not destroyed by hours of enforced idleness and stillness, and exercise is possible only dur- ing certain short intermissions of school work, it becomes fitful and vio- lent. Is it to be wondered at that iu these circumstances blood and bile stagnate, cheeks become pale or flushed, and the buoyance of youth gives place to hysterical outbursts of temper or will'? Considerations like these lead naturally to — IV. The Means Suggested for overtaking the necessities of the case. (1.) Educate public opinion. In common with all important reforms, this can only be efiected fully by securing the co-operation of those for whom the beneht is chiefly intended. On few topics is it more difficult to enlighten the masses than on those which influence the public health. Hence the indifference, even opposition, of the illiterate, to sanitary re- form; and hence the indifference to hygienic improvements in the find- ings and movement of public schools. This, however, must be over- come, and iu its place must be secured full appreciation of wise and lib- eral provision for the development of strong, healthy bodies, as well as strong, healthy minds. (2.) Require by law, in every school, the introduction of adequate ven- tilating arrangements, under the best plans and thorough supervision. Till school boards are educated to the true importance of a constant and wholesome exchange of atmosphere in the school room, it is useless to expect them to make the necessary outlay or arrangements, which make no show and to them are of no value. (3.) Systematize and enforce almost hourly drill in gymnastics, calis- thenics, military motions, etc., for the express purpose of developing physical power. Let provisions of this character be as minute and ma- tured as those for mental development. (4.) Require that the grading of seats and desks, and their adaptation to the physical necessities and conditions of the child, shall be as favor- able as those for mental growth and pleasure. (5.) Insist that the direction and quantity of light and color admitted into school rooms shall be controlled by the best known principles of optical hygiene. Let walls, furniture, slates, etc., be tinted in colors that harmonize and rest the eye. (6.) Provide time for a regular, deliberate, wholesome meal at noon. (7.) Provide for sufficient, natural, and stimulating exercise and amuse- ment in stormy, as well as fair weather. (8.) Let the sessions of the daily school work be materially reduced, so that most preparation may be made apart from the distractions and strain of the school room. Brief and incomplete as these hints may be, as they come from the vantage ground of present experience and attainment, it may reasona- bly be hoped they may prove of some practical value. And from the rapid advance of the past fifteen years it may safelj* be predicted that the next fifteen must witness still more gratifvmg progress in school hygiene, as in all other departments of education. 645 SCHOOL AECHITECTUEE IN ONTARIO. By John Deaeness, Public School Inspector, County of Middlesex East, Ontario, Canada. So rapidly and recently Las this Province been settled and developed, that within forty years the number of school divisions or sections, and consequently the number of school-houses, have been more than doubled. A statute of what was then called Upper Canada was passed in 1 850, enacting that — It shall be the duty of the trustees of each school section to do whatever they may judge expedient with regard to the building, repairing, renting, warming, lurnishiug, and keeping in order the school-house and its appendages, wood-house, privies, en- closures, lands, and movable property, which shall be held by them, and for procur- ing apparatus and text-books for their school; also, to rent, repair, furnish, warm, and keep in order a school-house and its appendages, if there be no suitable school- house belonging to such section, or if a second school-house be required. In the Act just quoted it was also made lawful for the Governor-in- Council to authorize the expenditure of eight hundred dollars a year to procure plans and publications, for the improvement of school architect- ure and practical science in connection with the common schools. The newness of the country and the difficulties encountered by the settlers in making their homes in' the forest were not the only causes that retarded improvement. The townships as a whole were not originally laid out into school sections; but according as settlements were made, school-houses — very often rude log structures — were built in locations convenient to the group of settlers, and the sections were carved out around these nuclei. Such an irregular mode of forming sections caused them to be very unequal in size, resources, and population. The opponent of the new school- house was always present at meetings to advocate procrastination on the ground that the sections must be equalized, and then, most prob- ably, the new house would be in the wrong place. Notwithstanding these obstacles but few of the primitive school- houses now remain. Some of them succumbed to the scythe of time and decay, others fell into disuse by changes in the section boundaries, and many condemned by the good sense of the people gave way to the laudable determination, of the majority to have better school accommo- dation. Improvement in school buildings, furniture, and surroundings thus proceeded steadily but slowly until 1871, when a bill was passed by the Legislature of Ontario making the duty of providing "adequate ac- commodation" imperative upon trustees under penalty of forfeit of the government grant, for the loss of which they became personally re- sponsible. TJnder that Act tiie Education Department by regulation defined adequate accommodation to be — (1.) A site of an acre in extent, but in no case less than half an acre, 646 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 409 (2.) A scliool-liouse (witli separate rooms wli ere the number of pnpils exceeds fifty), the walls of which shall not be less than ten feet high in ' the clear, and which shall not contain less than nine square feet on the floor for each child in the section or division, so as to allow an area in each room for at least one hundred cubic feet of air for each child. It shall also be sufficiently warmed and ve>:itilated, and the premises properly drained. (3.) A sufficient paling or fence round the school premises. (4.) A iilay ground, or other satisfactory i^rovision for physical exer- cise, within the fences and off the road. (5.) A well, or other means of procuring water for the school. (6.) Proper and separate offices for both sexes, at some little distance from the school-house, and suitably inclosed. (7.) Necessary school furniture and apparatus, viz: desks, seats, blackboards, maps, library, presses, books, etc., required for the efficient conduct of the school. At the same time county school inspectors were appointed, one of whose plainly stated duties was to inquire into and report on the me- chanical arrangements and the sufficiency of the accommodation of every school, and to urge the local authorities to comply with the law and regulations respecting these details as rapidly as their circum- stances would permit. So fully did the most of these officers feel their resijousibility in this matter, and so well did they discharge their duty, that coDiplaints were made against them for undue urgency. The De- partment stood firmly by them and, in 1873, issued the folloAving cir- cular of instruction : SCHOOL PREMISES AND ACCOMMODATIONS. We would request the attention of inspectors to Note a of Regulation No. 4 of their " Duties," in which they are directed to call the attention of trustees to the condition of the school premises. In many school sections the school-house has been allowed to remain in the same state for fifteen or twenty years and longer, often on a bare open space, or on the road-side unenclosed, without a tree or shrub near by to shade it, or any provision being made by the trustees for the convenience or health of the pupils, or even for their observance of the decencies of life. The Legislature has wisely decided that this state of things shall not continue, but that, as soon as possi- ble, a remedy shall bo applied, where necessary. A reasonable time should of course be allowed to trustees in all cases to set things right ; but in the meantime inspectors will, wo trust, not fail to urge upon trustees the necessity of complying, as soon as possible, with the provisions of the law on this subject. About the same time the Journal of Education, supplied monthly to every school section through the Education Department, rendered val- uable assistance. The editor, Dr. Hodgins, who has done much more than any other man in the CQuntry to advance the cause of school ar- chitecture,^ kept this subject prominently before the attention of the readers of the Journal. In 1873, particularly, every number contained elevations, plans, and description of one or more fine school-houses. In 1872, the late Chief Superintendent offered prizes for the best interior plans and block plans of sites. The offer drew forth a lively and fruit- ful competition. All these causes combined to give a great stimulus to improvement of school accommodation in the Province. The statistical 'J. G. Hodgins, Esq., LL. D., is the author of The School-house, its Architecture, Arrangements, aud Discipline, pubMsbed in lfeij8. In 1H76 he brought out a nsvised, enlarged, and greatly improved edition. Besides treating fully of the architecture of public and high school buildings, it contains illustrated papers on school hygiene aud ventilation, and suggestions as to grounds, furniture, and apparatus. Dr. Hodgins received awards of merit for these works at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876, and at the Paris Exposition of 1878. 647 410 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. reports showed a sudden and large increase in the expenditure for buildings and sites. In 1866 the amount expended for this item was only $111,371; in 1870, $207,500; but in 1875 it ran up to $702,330. In ten years from the passing of the last mentioued bill the number of log school-houses decreased from about one-third of the total to one seventh, and, besides, many of the old frame and brick ones were re-built or greatly improved. Now the great majority of our 5,000 or 6,000 sections rejoice in the possession of a good brick, stone, or frame school-house. Some of our cities, many of our towns, and even villages can point with pride to their beautiful and substantial school buildings. Indeed it is probable that our rural and urban school architecture will compare favorably with that of any other country, and yet it is not on the whole a feature of our school system of which we have much cause to boast.^ Proper ventilation, lighting, warming, and seating are desiderata, the importance of which in respect to both the mental and physical welfare of the children cannot be overrated. Cur law now requires that the school-room shall contain at least 120 cubic feet of air for each child. Few, if any, schools have so small a quantity. In the writer's division, containing over 100 schools, the average per child is 267 feet. Tlie min- imum ought to be 300 cubic feet, even where there are ample facilities for removing impure, and supplying fresh air of proper temperature. But in most of the rural schools there is not provided anj' eft'ective means of ventilation during the time that the weather is too cold to keep the windows open. " Our own breath is our worst enemy," and until we learn how and practice to subdue this enemy in the school-room, our educational sys- tems will be greatly hindered in fulfilling their best intentions. in respect to lighting we have less to complain of. The windov/s are generally i)laced in the sides only, and as high as possible; the window area varies from one-fifth to one-ninth of the tloor area. The common mode of heating is by means of the old-fashioned, oblong wood-stove. In some schools the stove is i^artially jacketed by a closely -fitting case of zinc or galvanized iron, making a hot-air chamber, into which pure air is drawn from the outside by a duct. The air thus drawn in is warmed, ascends, and escapes through the opening made in the top of the chamber around the stove-pipe, or is carried up a foot or two along the pipe before it is let out. Some rural schools are heated and ventilated by means of a furnace in the basement ; in some cases the basement is fitted for a gymnasium or class-room. Many schools are furnished with modern folding seats and desks, of dimensions varied to suit the difiereut sizes of the children. Here and there are to be found rural schools where most commend- able taste has been manifested in the construction of the building and planning the surroundings. We are not compelled to draw on our imagination to see a pretty country school-house with porches and 'A new and wide-spread stimulus to the cause of improvement in school-houses and their appendages is expected from the contemplated actitra of the Hon. G. W. Ross, Minister of Education. Ho has announced his intention of oft'ering prizes for the best six or eight plans and specifications of one- and two-room school-houses. The prize plans, with general principles and directions for building under varying circumstances, and suggestions for improving existing school-houses and surroundings, are to be in- corporated into a circular of information similar in some respects to that prepared by Mr. T. M. Clark for the Bureau of Education, Washington. The pamphlet is to bo sent to every section in the Province. We expect it will be a valuable guide to trus- tees in bnildiug new school-houses, and rich in suggestions as to imiirovements iu existing ones. 648 • INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 41 1 class-rooms faniislied with gracefnl and comfortable seats and desks, sui)plied with wide blackboards on the end and sides, a good stock of well-mounted wall mai)s and charts, globe, clock, thermometer, and mis- cellaneous apparatus, and surmounted by an ornamental belfry, in which is hung a good bell that can be heard all over the section ; the building- is erected on an eligible site of rather more than an acre, which is well fenced, supplied with the necessary sheds and outhouses and a good well, and ornamented and protected by rows of evergreen and decid- uous trees. Too generally, expense for adornment is regarded as little better than wasted. Many i)eople donot consider that the '•' shield of beauty thro\A u over property checks and often finally eradicates the rudeness which is stimulated to destruction by deformity." They lightly value the ex- cellent influence exercised upon the tastes of the children by archi- tectural beauty in the building in which they spend so much of the formative period of their lives. 649 A. L. A. CATALOG. By Melvil Dewey, Chief Librarian, Columbia College, New TorJc. Every close student of libraries finds two pre-eminent difficulties staring him in the face. The first is the great expense of making the catalogs, which to the casual observer seem to absorb a portion of the funds out of all reason as compared with the cost of new books. The second is the unsatisfactory character of these catalogs after they are made. * To the high cost, those familiar with such matters very soon get ac- customed. They see beyond doubt that, at whatever cost, catalogs must be had, or the library loses much of its value; and as the ablest men, who have studied this subject for years, have found no cheapwr way of making them, they accept the immense expense as a necessary evil. The more thoughtful always hit upon the scheme of co-operative cataloguing, and many an eloquent essay has been written on the enormous saving that will be eflected Avhen the book will be catalogued once for all as a part of its publication, no more leaving each of the thousand libraries that buy it to go through all the processes, than leaving each to make his copy of the work itself as the monks cojiied their Bibles before the invention of printing. Toward this ideal Ave are slowly but steadily working. The completion of the great " Poole's Index to Periodical Literature" by the co-operation of fifty libraries, showed how much might be saved. Hundreds of libraries that were spending much time and money in making MS. indexes to a few sets, now have, at the most trifling frac- tion of the cost, a fall index in print of all the leading serials. The American Library Association, whose first work was to carry through this scheme under Mr. Poole's able leadership, have been con- stantly preparing the ground for other co-operative measures. A great number of libraries have adopted the recommendations of the standing co-operation committee and are using cards of identical size for their card catalogs, filling them after the standard model and by the standard rules, using the same abbreviations, and, in short, doing hundreds of things in harmony, thus making practicable through co-operation what in the old diversity was simply impossible. For several years this Association has been maturing a i)lan for a select catalog of the best books, to be made and kept under constant revision by the co-operation of the leading. .authorities. In this work there were more important considerations than the great money saving. Some functions of a library catalog are very like those of a city directory. If a stranger goes to Kew York and wishes to find John Jones, plumber, he has only to look in the directory under Jones till he finds John, plumber, and he can go at once to his street and number. So 650 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 413 wbeu one goes to the library aud wishes a specific book by a specific author, it is comparatively easy to make a finding index that will serve him as well as the directory ; and with mor^ labor the iudex, or catalog, as it is called, can be made to serve as well for specific titles, though the author is not known. But the greater function of the ideal catalog is to tell tvhich are the best books on any given subject, and this is the main question before the trustees in buying, before the librarian in answering the demands of readers asking advice, and before the reader himself when he uses the catalog. To return to the directory. If our stranger wishes to know what plumber in Xew York will be the best for him to employ, what can he do? He goes to the business directory and is confronted by the names of hundreds. If he tries to select by referring to their various adver- tisements, he remembers constantly that these are all written to bring customers rather than to state the exact merit of the advertiser. If he asks the advice of some acquaintance, he must allow for his prejudices or personal interests, and for his probable ignorance of this particular subject. So, if his work is important, he will make inquiries of builders and property owners of long experience, and from general agreement among them he will learn what plumber he can best employ for his work if it be in a cottage, or what other had best be consulted if it is in a great hotel. The subject catalog, or bibliography, has the same difficulties as the directory. A reader has heard of three books on this subject, and is in doubt which he had best consult. He goes to the catalog to help him decide, and finds three hundred instead of three to choose from, with no direct clue as to which will best serve him ; and often, after all the ex- pense lavished on making the lists, the last state of that man is worse than the first. If he goes to the jjublishers' lists, it is advertising and he distrusts the statements ; no one is interested in pointing out the faults as well as the merits. If he ask a friend he must mate large allowance for his meager knowledge of the subject and for his personal equation. The most of the books which propose to help are open to one or both these objections : they are colored by the interest of the pub- lishers or by the prejudices of the editors ; and yet for the buying com- mittee, for the library, and for the reader, there is nothing more im- portant than guidance of just this kind. If every reader had several wise friends familiar with each subject in which he became interested, to whom he could go for advice, he would feel great confidence that he was selecting the best books. The scheme which this paper presents is the result of seven years' study how to provide for this infinite number of readers, interested in an almost infinite range of subjects, such wise guidance. In these years of discussion the Association and its special commit- tees on the A. L. A. Catalog concluded that certain things were essen- tial to its highest success. The difficulty of meeting these conditions has delayed the preparation and publication, till the way now seems clear and active work has been commenced. The plan adopted and outlined below will show how fully the difficulties are met, and how well the work will answer the many questions for which it is designed. Some of the essential features are as follows: (1.) Such help can be available to all only by printing. Oral or MS. advice, however good, is exceedingly limited in its field. (2.) No man or half-dozen men can furnish this advice on all subjects, aud this guide must be made by the co-operation of a large number of librarians, scholars, and specialists, in order to give the needed confi- 651 414 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. (lence in its accuracy, reliability, and freedom from i)ersonal idiosyn- crasies. (3.) To secure such co-operation from our best authorities in prepar- ing and keeping the work revised up to date, and to remove all preju- dices against it as being in the interests of any special publishing house, it must be printed without the regular publishers, none of whom would be likely to undertake it guaranteeing that its revision and handling should be determined by the amount of good it would do rather than the amount of profit it would yield ; and it must be without copyright or royalty to any editor. In short, no one should have a pecuniary in- terest in the work, for that might modify its character, either now or in the revisions. (4.) It must be limited to a selection of the best books on each sub- ject, for at present a universal catalog is i)ractically an impossibility, and even were it j)ossible would be less useful to 99 per cent, of its users than the condensed list from which all but the best had been omitted. (5.) At present it is practically better to limit it almost entirely to books written or translated into English. (6.) Most books need some indication of the grade of readers to whom the book is best adapted, whether for scholarly, popular, or juvenile reading. The " best book" is a relative term, meaningless till we know for what., and /or icliom^ it is best. (7.) There must be brief notes, for the titles alone are often mislead- ing, and the chief value of the work will consist in such advice as one familiar at once with the subject and with each special book could giv€ to a reader who took it for the first time. There are many books toe good to be omitted from the choicest list, but yet colored by some prej- . udice or motive of their authors, and a timely word would be invalua-; ble. Many historical and biographical works are written from th( standpoint of a partisan or a " hobby rider," and the young readei ignorant of this fact gets a distorted idea of his subject. Such a nott as "From a Roman Catholic standpoint," or "Intensely auti-Eoman,'^ appended to certain titles might be worth a week's time to a student ignorant of the author's motive. Notes would indicate the scope of certain books; e. g., "Scott's Tal- isman. A. D. 1193. Third crusade in Palestine. Richard (Coeur-de-j Lion) and Saladin." For most historical works, where the title page does not fully describoj or indicate it, the time and space included by the author should be noted.! "Should be read with [giving title], to which it is a rejoinder,"! or the real names of persons often worked into literature under other! names, or references to specially important reviews of the work thatj ought to be read with it, are other types of useful notes. Other notes will make clear the character and purpose of dififerenl prominent editions of works published in many forms. And so on, with! hardly a limit to the kinds of most useful information that may be! packed into the fewest possible intelligible words and added to thej title, so that in all the libraries of the land each reader using the cata- log will receive with his book that concise advice that a wise friend,! specially qualified, would give if lending him the book with his own! hand. The notes are to be as brief as is consistent with clearness; audj though it is expected that the work will average twenty titles to the] page, yet no Procrustean limit will be made for notes, but space will boj given for all necessary i)()ints. The successful completion of this selecrj list will doubtless be followed by a similar treatment of current ne^Y'J G52 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 415 books, SO that tbe libraries using tbe catalog may receive regularlj' a sup- l)lemeiit mentioning whatever has been published during the preceding month tli:it ought to be included in the annotated catalog. (S.) The catalog must be classified' by subjects, in order that these nc^tets may be more economically, comi^actly, and intelligibly given. If scattered through a dictionary, many notes would lose half their mean- ing unless mucli was repeated from notes on books just above or below in the classified arrangement, but in the alphabetical widely separated. General notes on whole classes, divisions, or sections thus become prac- ticable, and in the use of the catalog a much clearer idea of the rela- tion of the subject to other subjects is gained from classification. This plan is also necessary in order that class lists may be printed and cir- culated separately; e. g., a library may wish one hundred or one thou- sand copies of the notes on Historical Fiction, while it needs only ten on Speculative Phihxsophy. This plau also allows of preparing the work in sections and i)rintiug each as completed without waiting for the whole. (9.) The catalog must be kept underconstant revision by the members of the Library Association and all others interested in its great educa- tional value, and suggestions for omissions, additions, or changes, are to be sent to the editor-in c^^ief whenever they occur. As each edition runs low, all these suggestions will be carefully collated, and such alter- ations as wdl improve the work or bring it more nearly down to date will be made. It is hoped that the wide-spread interest the catalog will awaken will result in so much critical examination of the lists and notes that later editions will reach the highest standard as reliable guides. In many cases new editions or new w^orks will appear that without question supersede at once those last given, and the change will be made; but for those where authorities differ as to merit both titles will be given with indication of the fact. Each edition is to be considered as ])roof under revision, and each reader as in honor bound to help in every way to perfect so valuable a work, in which no one has a selfish interest. (10.) We ])ro])ose to start a catalog on a basis of the five thousand best books in the English language for a general library, with notes explanatory only, colored by no personal opinions whatsoever, but tell- ing the ] eader wJiat he needs to know and what no one will contradict. It is hoped and exi)ected that the extent will be gradually increased in each edition, and that the separate sections will become the authorita- tive brief bibliographies on all to])ics of general interest. ITS USES. Such a list, so made, will (command the confidence of all users, and will be of service in many ditferent directions, among which we note: 1. As a guide to book-buyers, whether for private or public libraries. It is not uncommon for a library to pay some single individual hundreds of dollars for making a list representing merely his individual choice of books, not only on subjects with wliich he is familiar, but also on the much larger number of which he knows practically nothing. A copy of this catalog will be vastly more valuable, will be in print instead of MS., and several duplicates can be checked up for getting estimates and for other purposes at trilling cost. 2. As a guide to readers in choosing what books they had best take from the library or from their own shelves, for few men with a collection of books do not feel at times that it would be a great saving if they could ask of some competent authority the very questions which this cat- 653 416 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. alog will answer. Perhaps this guidance to the individual reader is the most important of the many uses of the new catalog. 3. As a manual to teach the younger and prompt the older librarians or booksellers in answering most wisely the constant question, "What is the best book on my subject"? 4. To take the place of the printed catalog in small public libraries, This will contain in print all the books most used. Those in the librar, and not on this catalog can be catalogued in MS., or printed cheaply as a supplement. The location number of all books included in the library can be written on the margin, thus showing at once that the library has the book and where it can be found, and the unmarked titles will be the best conceivable list for early purchase. Or, better still, the special location numbers of the library could be printed beside the electrotype plates of the A. L. A. Catalog, thus making from these plates at trifling cost an annotated catalog, far excelling in usefulness the costly efforts that so cripple the finances of most of our public libraries. Catalog printing is more costly than common book-work. When printed very few copies can be sold, even when offered at half the cost price. Practically the entire investment is charged up to loss. The edition becomes out of date in a few months and revision is prohibited for years by the great cost, while the A. L. A. Co-operative Catalog cani be frequently revised, because of the large number using it. An ordinary catalog of five thousand titles will cost for composition, at au average of $2.00 per page of twenty titles, i500. Press work, paper, and binding will cost as much more lor five hundred copies, making total of $1,001), besides a much greater outlay in salaries for time spen in preparation; and when all is done the result cannot be compared fori usefulness with the annotated A. L. A. Catalog, which would supply! the deuiand at one-tenth the cost. These reasons apply with the greatest force to the smaller libraries, because as a rule they buy substantially the same books, and because they specially need to save the money 5. As the most convenient form of catalog for most private libraries. An edition printed with very wide margins or interleaved would admit] of adding other titles in MS., and thus completing in convenient classi- fied form the list of one's private library. 6. As a check-list of books read, with personal notes. Here again th wide margins and interleaves would be useful. To the young, especially,' such a check-list of the best books witli notes so carefully i^repared would be simply invaluable, and a copy marked with the time and place of reading and the reader's impression of the book would have rare value in shaping the reading habit. But further illustrations of its manifold use are needless. They will occur to every thoughtful mind. Its chief interest to the American Li- brary Association, which is its godfather, is in its direct helpfulness to libraries. The work is the most important, undertaken through co operation. It will remove the necessity of that greatest terror of libra- rians and finance committees of the smaller and poorer libraries, the printed catalog. In spite of everything that may be done, a jirinted catalog will cost much money, much time, and, after it is printed and subjected to the critics, much regret. N^o expense incurred by libraries is more unsatisfactory. It is a necessity to the best work; but that the labor should be repeated over and over again for each library, seems little less than a crime. This time of the completed co-operative cata- log has been looked forward to by the most thoughtful librarians of every country as a kind of library millennium. 654 iNTfiRNAtloMAL CO^GftfiSS OF fiDUCAToRS — t^APERS. 417 PREPARATION AND PUBLICATION. The material for this work has been hirgely prepared. The famous annotated catalogs of Boston and Quincy, with the scores that have followed, as far as they have been able, in the same direction, have given a great body of notes from which to select, condense, and edit. Many eminent specialists have already contributed lists of books and notes. A half-dozen lists of the " best books," made by as many differ- ent persons, some of them of very great ability, have been printed and can be utilized in bringing together matter for the first edition. Copies will be marked with colored pencils indicating omission or doubt or approval. These will be consolidated by the editors, and the first list made of the books generally approved. This list will again be sub- mitted for revision, and then put in type to be submitted to the larger circle of proof-readers who will take up the first small edition. By this plan the judgment of a large number of competent associate editors can be secured without too great calls on their time, and once in print it will be easy to consolidate the criticisms and suggestions for each re- vision. All interested are cordially invited to send titles or notes suitable to be included, and proofs will be sent to those who are willing to read them critically. The editor will also gladly receive suggestions of names of comjje- tent associates who will be likely to take interest in the work. All communications concerning the Catalog should be marked "A. L. A. Catalog", and addressed " Melvil Dewey, Chief Librarian, Columbia College, N. Y." The problem of publication without reducing the work to a commer- cial plane has been happily solved by the U. S. Bureau of Education, which recognizes a most potent educating force in such a printed manual, and will print and distribute an edition where it will awaken new interest in the People's University. We believe that this catalog will not only help readers but will tempt them to read, by a direct lead- ing from the first reference to allied matters of interest; that it will transform many libraries from mere storehouses where, through much weariness of the flesh, information may be found, to aggressive centers of culture, whose influence will be felt like that of a vigorous school ; in short, that they will be no longer cisterns, but fountains. 7950 COT., PT. 2 27 . 655 LIBRARIES AND THE LIBRARY SYSTEM OF ONTARIO. By John Hallam, Chairmafi Toronto Public Library. TOWNSHIP AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. The school libmry system of Ontario had its origin at a period of the provincial history seemingly little favorable to the initiation and accom- plishment of so landable and public-spirited a project. When the scheme was launched Upper Canada, as the Province M^as then termed, had only just emerged from the political disturbances incident to the passing in Parliament of the Rebellion Losses Bill. Political reforms and material prosperity were at the time matters of more concern to the i)eople of the Province' than educational advancement or any means by which the intellectual well-being of the masses might be secured. Agriculture and- the development of trade were then the all-absorbing topics of in- terest, and the resources of the country were being strained to aid com- merce in extending its sway. The St. Lawrence Canals had just been completed, and the railway era was about to set in. Yet the intellect of tbe period (we are speaking of the beginning of 1850) was not wholly unmindful of the country's higher needs. From an early ])eriod the idea of purchasing and ciiculatiug books through the machinery of the schools seems to have been present to those who had to do with education in the Province. Though grammar schools had been founded in 1807 and common schools in 1816, it was not until 1822 that a Board of Edncaiion was created for educational purposes and tor the management of university and school lands in Upper Canada. Two years alter t he establishment of this Board, an Act was passed by the Legislature authorizing $000 a year to be expended by the Provincial Boards of Education in the purchase and circulation through the District Boards of Education of books and tracts designed to aflbrd moral and religious instruction. In 1834 this grant was, how- ever, discontinued. In 1840, in a Report of an educational commission, a recommendation was made that a fourrh of the fees of each school should be applied to the maintenance of a school library. Whether this pra(;tical recommendation was ever acted upon, and if so, how long it remained in Joice, it is difficult from the history of the time to make out. This is the first mention, however, of any movement in aid of school or municipal libraries in Upper Canada. In 1841 legislative provision was made for re-establishing common schools, and this was shortly followed bv a more efficient system of public instruction. Three years afterwards the i)ublic school system of Ontario was originated by the Rev. Dr. Egertou Ryerson, who had been appointed Chief Superintendent of Education, and who for the long period of over thirty years was to become its watchful guardian and wise administrator. In the functions of his office Dr. Ryerson was for 656 tlie whole period of his administration ably assisted by Dr. John George Hodgins, his zealous deputy and active co-operator in the management of the Educational Bureau of the Province. To assist the founder of the school system in his laborious task, the Government, in 1846, called into existence a board of education, styled the Council of Public Instruction. One of the important functions of this council was to examine, and at its discretion to recommend or disap- ])rove of text- books for the use of schools, or books for school libraries, ^vhcn these adjuncts to the educational system of the Province came to be introduced. The first we hear of the latter is in 1848, when Dr. Ryerson submitted to the Government the draft of a Bill proposing to make an annual grant of $8,000 for the purpose of founding and maintaining a system of pro- vincial townshi]) libraries. In furtherance of this project we find the Chief Superintendent addressing a letter in the following year to the Provincial Secretary, in which he warmly urges the adoption of the scheme. In this letcer Dr. Eyerson remarks that — Then* can l>e but one opinion as to the great importance of introducinji; into each township of Upper Caiuula as soon as possilile a township library, with branches for tiie several school sections, consisting of a suitable selection of entertaining and in- stinctive books in the varions departments of biography, travels, history (ancic^nt and modern), n.itni'al i)hilosopliy anrise that Lord Elgin, the then Governor-General of Can- ada, in a report to H. M. Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies, C57 420 EDtCATtONAL CONVKNTlOis^S AT KEW ORLKAKS EXI>0S11'10N. characterizes the township and county libraries feature of the educa- tional administration as "the crown and glory of the institutions of the Province." And well may it have been called so, for scarcely a greater service could be rendered to the country than that which Dr. Eyerson's ])ublic-spirited project had secured to it. With the material growth of the country no statesman could fail to see that it was of equal impor- tance to make provision for the concurrent intellectual development of the masses; and well was it for Canada that there was a man at the head of the educational system who had the foresight to devise, and the energy and unremitting care to expend, on so beneficent a scheme as that of township libraries. The Government, it is only fair to say, gave the project a hearty and enlightened support, and the Legislature cordially voted adequate sums annually for the furtherance of the object in view. The wide scope of the scheme will be better understood by a quotation Irom the School Act, which sets forth the various classes of libraries the Department had in view to create, and succeeded in large measure in creating. Under tho regulations of the Department [such are the provisions of the School Bill] each County Council can establish /owr classes of libraries in their municipality, as follows: City, town, village, and township councils can establish the first three classes, and school trustees, either of the first or third classes. (1) An ordinary Common School Library in each school-house for the use of the chil- dren and ratepayers. (2) A General Public Lending Library, available to all the rate-payers of the munici- pality. (3) A Professional Library of books on teaching, school-organization, language, and kindred subjects, available to teachers only. (4) A library in any p«6Zic institution under the control of the municipality, for the use of the inmates, or in the county jail, for the use of the prisoners. For the uses of these various libraries the Education Department opened, and for nearly thirty years maintained, a depository for the importation and sale of library books, secular and religious, school text- books, prize-books, maps, charts, diagrams, and other requisites, which were supplied at cost to the municipal and school corporations, plus one hundred per cent, in kind of the amounts raised and forwarded to the Department. This depository was, in 1881, abolished, having served its purpose while the facilities for obtaining books, etc., through the regular channels of trade were few or non-existent. The bulk of the operations of the depository, it is proper to be said, was in school prize-books; though, obviously, the service rendered to the youth of the country in the dissemination of a wholesome literature of reward books, was no unimportant one. The statistics of the Depart- ment show that the annual "out-put" of library and prize-books had risen from some 23,000 volumes in the year 1853 to over 61,000 in the year 1860; while the moneys sent to the depository by trustees and others during the period for books and requisites was close upon $300,000. The total number of books, of all kinds, despatched during the whole period of the depository's existence, viz, from 1853 to 1881, amounted to 1,407,140 volumes. The number of the latter that found their way into the township and school libraries up to the period of the closing of the depository was 307,743 volumes, the net cost of which was over $183,000 — an amount which was partly contributed by the Govern- ment and i)artly by the local boards. To the above book dissemina- tion has to be added 35,400 volumes issued during the same period to mechanics' institutes and Sunday-schools. The balance of the total issue of 1,407,140 volumes, consists of ])rize-books. The number of jibraries,exclusiveof sub divisions, supplied during the period was 1,560. 608 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 421 The classificiition of the books issued by tiie Department to the tov\n- sbip and school libraries from 1853 to 1880 is as follows: History, 40,048; zoology and physiology, 17,019 ; botany, 3,000 ; ])lienomena, 7,030 ; physical science, 5,230; geology, 2,490; natural philosophy and manu- factures, 14,414; chemistry, 2,701; practical agriculture, 10,000; litera- ture, 20,244; voyages, 27,545; biography, 33,071 ; tales and sketches of practical life, 83,500; fiction, 5,041; teachers' library, 8,118. In the above classification some 0,500 volumes, issued in the last yea.r of the depository's existence, are not included. The total of all is 307,743 volumes. With these statistics we must leave the subject of the township and school libraries, which, at a period in the annals of Ontario when it was of the utmost importance that the intellectual wants of the community should be provided for, did good service in putting in motion a stream of wholesome literature which was to irrigate and enrich the land. That they contributed, in some fair and satisfactory measure, to stimulate the thought, direct into beneficent channels the brain-power, and diftusc refinement and mental culture among the people of the Province, must have been the result of their initiation and long maintenance by the Education Department. This much with all justice may be said, what- ever need was shortly to manifest itself, in the growth of the country, for other and more efficient modes of contributing to the mental appetite and the intellectual advancement of the Province. MECHANICS' INSTITUTES. We now turn for a little to work at another agency, set in motion by the people themselves, for literary recreation and intellectual self- advancement, which, with township and school libraries, also received from an early period in the history of the Province substantial and ever-increasing aid from the State. We refer to the mechanics' insti- tute associations and the libraries founded by their agency. The aims of these associations seem to have beeu anticipated in the year 1835, when the two chief cities, Toronto and Kingston, received grants from Parliament for the purchase of books and philosophical apparatus to be intrusted to the care of the literary and scientific societies founded in these towns. It was not until 1847, however, that a mechanics' institute, so-named, was legally organized. In that year the Toronto Mechanics' Institute was incorporated by a special Act of the Legislature for the purpose, as it was expressed, "of forming a library and reading-room, and of organizing a system of instruction by means of lectures and evening classes." Two years afterwards the city of Hamilton secured an Act of incorporation for the Hamdton and Gore Mechanics' Institute, the design of which was "to diffuse scientific and literary knowledge by a library of reference and circulation; by the formation of a museum of specimens in geology, zoology, or other subjects of nature, science, or manufactures; by lectures; by philosophical apparatus, conversa- tions, etc., etc." An Act was passed by the Legislature in 1851 to provide for the in- corporation and efficient management of literary associations and me- chanics' institutes, and a scale of government aid, based upon the amounts locally raised, was drawn out. Under this Act many institu- tions were called into existence, and much good was accomplished. In 1859 an amended Act was embodied in the Consolidated Statutes of Canada, which Act, we may say, is still in force for the incorj)oratiou 659 422 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. and mauagemeut of these and other 'literature institutes. Two years before the passing: of the latter Act the Board of Arts and Manufact- ures was incorporated, with the design " of co-operating with mechanics' institutes and of promoting the development of mechanical talent, by disseminating- instructions in mechanics and kindred sciences." The government grant to the mechanics' institutes was distributed through the agency of this Board of Arts and Manufactures, and under its di- rection a healthful stimulus was given to the establishment and opera- tion of libraries and reading-rooms. At Confederation this Board, which previously had had independent powers, though nominally under the administration of the Department of Agriculture and Statistics for Canada, was abolished, and the Asso- ciation of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario was incorporated in its place. This Association was placed under the supervision of the Department of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works for Ontario, and legislative aid was granted through it to mechanics' institutes to the extent of one dollar for every dollar raised from local sources up to a maximum amount of two hundred dollars. In 18G9 twenty-six insti- tutes were in operation, and received government aid to the extent of $3,300. In 1870 an amendment to the statute under which the incor- porated Association of Mechanics' Institutes was working, passed the Legislature, by whicli the maximum to each institute was increased from two hundred to four hundred dollars. In this year the number of insti- tutes receiving legislative aid rose to forty-three, and the money grant was increased to $12,000. In 1877 the statute was further amended by authorizing school inspectors to audit the financial affairs of the insti- tutes, and instructing their boards of management to forward to the Government their annual reports, and a statenjent showing how the legislative grant had been expended. In 188!) the Association of Me- chanics' Institutes for the Province was transferred from the supervis- ion of the Commissioner of Agriculture to that of the Minister of Edu- cation, and in that member of the Government its affairs are now vested. In the same year the number of institutes receiving legislative aid was seventy-four, and the amount disbursed by Government close upon $23,000. These institutes spread broadcast over the Province are imi)ortant agencies for the diffusion of useful knowledge, and most helpful in giv- ing facilities to the artisan classes in making themselves proficient in the principles and methods of their industries and arts. While con- tributing to this practical work, and giving invaluable aid to the manu- facturing industries of the Province, they are at the same time doing much to enlarge the mental possessions of the people, and to enrich the intellectual resources of the countr3\ FREE PUBLIC LIBRARIES. We now arrive at a new stage in the record of public library progress in Ontario — an era which saw a great stride taken in engrafting popular education on municipal government. Something more was wanted than the voluntary effort, on the part of the few, to originate and maintain mechanics' institute libraries and reading rooms, and to bring to the masses the facilities and beneficent influence of a free and readily ac- cessible i)ubllc library. This want found expression in the spring of 1882, when an Act to provide for the establishment of free libraries was Ijassed by the Provincial Legislature. The i^rovisions of that Act gave UiiO INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OP EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 423 opportunity to the people of auy iiicorporaced city, town, or village, to vote upon a by-law for the founding; of a free library, and to assess themselves for its sujiport, in a sum not exceeding- half a mill on the dollar, the amount to be levied as other rates and assessments are levied for munici])al purposes. Permission was also given in the Act to raise money by the issue of debentures for the erection of necessary buildings and for the jiurchase of books. The libraries, news rooms, and museums established under the Act, it was provided, shall be oi)en to the public free of all charge. In an amendment to the Bill, passed in the following year, provision was made for transferring the library, reading-room, buildings, and other property of existing mechanic's institutes, to the Board of Management of any free library that may be established under the Act, and for securing to the said free library board the annual grant given by the Legislature to mechanics' institutes. Among the first cities to take advantage of the passing of the Act was Toronto, the provincial ca])ital. Toronto.— In the case of Toronto we have an instance of a mechanics' institute, one of the oldest and most successful in the country, merging itself into the larger life of a free public library. The by-law submitting the projected library to the rate payers was passed by a large majority vote on the 1st of January, 1883, and a board was shortly afterwards or- ganized in accordance with the statute. The board presently proceeded to work ; raised $50,000 by debentures ; altered and enlarged the old mechanics' institute building ; furnished and equijiped the library and reading-room; and appointed its officers. The library was formally opened, with considerable ceremony and enthusiasm, on the Gth of March, 1884, and shortly afterwards two branch libraries, in other ])art8 of the city, were furnished and opened to the public. The result of the experiment is exceedingly gratifying, and the library has been put on its feet with the happiest auspices and with great promise of usefulness. The number of books in the central and branch libraries up to the end of 1884 is in the neighborhood of 35,000. Their cost, exclusive of do- nations, was close upon $25,000. The total number of books issued to the public for the portion of the year during which the library w^as in operation, viz, 229 days in 1884, was 179,503, or an average daily issue of 783 books. It is estimated tliat some 400,000 persons visited the reading-rooms during the above period. Gueiph is another city in Ontario that has taken advantage of the Free Libraries Act, and in 1883 commenced its operations. It is of course on a more modest scale than the Toronto library; but with its popula- tion of only 12,000 the experiment may be said to be highly successful. It has a collection of books amounting to 3,77G volumes, classifled as fol- lows : Biography, 370 ; fiction, 920; history, 380; voyages and travels, 341; general literature, 398; ])oetry and the drama, 98; periodicals (bound), 420; theology and religion, 177 ; science, 220 ; industrial science and art, 211 ; works of reference, 121 ; illustrated books, 90. The num- ber of householders using cards of admission to the library is about 1,400, and the issue of books exceeds 23,000 annually. Its reading- room is well supplied with newspapers and periodicals, and is a profit- able place of resort — it is admitted — to the thousands who take advan- tage of the institution. Brantford (population, 12,107) and St. Thomas (population, 11,157) have also opened free public libraries under the provisions of the Act, and have been most successful in the experiment. The former has 5,300 volumes in the library, and the latter 2,674. 6G1 424 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. UNIVERSITY AND OTHER LIBRARIES IN ONTARIO. Besides the four different series of libraries we bave treated of in the preceding pages, there are collections of books, of greater or lesser ex- tent, in the libraries of educational and other institutions in the capital and other cities in the Province of Ontario. The total number of books in these various libraries cannot be short of 320,000 volumes. The Dominion Parliamentary Library, at Ottawa, is the chief of these col- lections, and is rich in all the important works in French and English literature, and especially in the departments of Canadian history, biog- raphy, jurisprudence, j^arliameutary government, and miscellaneous literature. Appended is a list of these various libraries, with an ap- proximate estimate of the number of books each contains : Parliamentary Library, Ottawa, including works in Canadian archives, say 125, 000 Parliamentary Library, Toronto 18, 000 University of Toronto, Toronto 26, 000 Canadian Institute, Toronto 5, 000 Law Society of Upper Canada, Toronto (Osgoode Hall) 18, 000 Toronto Baptist College, Toronto 7, 500 Education Ofifice Library, Toronto 6, 500 Knox, Trinity, and Wycliffe Colleges, Toronto, say 20, 000 Queen's University, Kingston (Presbyterian) 15, 000 Victoria University, Coburg (Methodist) 7, 000 Agricultural College, Guelph — a nice library of works on ag- riculture and chemistry 2, 700 662 THE RISE OF COLLEGE GYMNASIA IN THE UNITED STATES. By Edward Mussey Hartwell, Ph. D., M. D., A880ciate in Physical Training and Director of the Gymnasium, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Montaigne has well said, "Our work is not to train a soul by itself alone or a body by itself alone, but to train a man ; and in man soul and body (;au never be separated." In accordance with a more or less clear a])i)rehension of this idea, a considerable number of colleges and universities in the United States have established departments for the systematic training of the body. In connection with these departments gymnasia and playgrounds have been provided, as well as lectureships on personal hygiene. In several instances the heads of these depart- inents are college-bred men, who have taken also a medical degree; and it is their business to counsel and direct students in regard to exercise and regimen, such counsel and direction being based upon a careful ex- amination into the peculiar needs of each individual. It is the main object of this paper to describe the aims and methods of the best organized of these de])artments of physical training, after a l)relimiu;iry historical sketch of the growth of this branch of educational work in the United States. In order to understand why the claims of the body have been so often ignored or contemned in collegiate and university education, it is nec- essary to recall briefly some of the doctrines concerning the nature and relations of body and mind. Educational schemes have been con- trived and administered too often by men who believed that body and mind were distinct entities at war witli each other. The Greeks, indeed, with theirkeeninsight into the laws of symmetry and their suri)assiug love of the beautiful, recognized the worth of bodily as well as of mental perfection. Careful nurture and training of the body played a very considerable part in the education of Grecian youth — in the edu(!ation of the schoolboy and the university pupil no lesstlian in that of the sohlier and the professional athlete. Although the early Fathers of the Christian Church viewed with horror and detestation the gladiatorial si)orts of the pagans, yet, as defenders of the faith against the heretical doctrines of the Maniche- ans and Gnostics, they could not do otherwise than champion the dignity and wortli of perfect, or at least perfectible, bodies. But under the influence of those saints, who looked and longed for the speedy extinction of mankind and the end of the world, during the first tlionsand years of our era, the most debased asceticism gained sway; and mcrtitication of the flesh, to the extent of rendering the body eu- ieebled and impotent, was preached and practiced as a means to attain to mental and moral excellence. It was distinctly held that bodily weakness was a i)riine requisite to mental strength and to the soul's salvation. 663 426 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. With the Kenaissance and the rise of chivalry came a sharp challenge of the monkish ideal ; and though bodily exercise, as a means to secure grace, vigor, and skill, came to be deemed indispensable to the educa- tion of all youths of gentle blood, still ecclesiasticism was too dominant in the colleges and universities for the enlightened care of tbe body to form anj' considerable part in the training of a scholar. Knightly ex- ercises found but little favor with the heads of colleges, and " honest sports," far from being promoted, were scarcely tolerated by them. In modern schemes of education the part allotted, or allowed, to bodily training and to recreation has been determined chiefly by the do- minion exercised, singly or in combination, over the minds of faculties and boards of trust by the Greek, the monkish, or the knightly ideal of manly excellence. The Germans, under the head of Guts Muths and Jahn, the father of the famous turnvereius, have been enamored of the example of the Greeks, and have striven in an elaborately systematic way to embody Greek gymnastics in modern forms. France, appar- ently out of respect for Prussia, has recently giveu jjhj^sical training a ])rominent place in its revised educational code. In England, where there is more or less of aversion to systematic efforts to train the bodies of scholastic youth, gymnasia exist chiefly as private ventures, or in connection with the recruiting ser\ice of the army ; they are but rarely maintained or regulated by the great educa- tional foundations. Certain national sports are considered by the edu- cated classes to be an important factor in British supremacy; and, in spite of the marked survival of mediajval ideals and forms in the organ- ization and administration of Oxford, Cambridge, and the public schools, chivalric notions as to bodily force and grace are clearly trace- able in the sober passion of the British scboolboy and undergraduate for athletic games and manly sports; which, it should be renjembered, are regulated almost entirely by the force of custom amoug the pupils themselves. When we recall the fact that our oldest American colleges, like their early British models, were established primarily to furnish trained re- cruits to the ranks of the clergy, there remains no ground for wonder that physical training has been slow to win recognition as a necessary part of a sound education. American educators were long ruled by British notions as to curriculum and disciphne, M'hich notions have never been in favor of systematic physical training. Certain national sports, however, have long been considered by the educated class as constituting an important bulwark of the British constitution; accord- ingly American collegians, those who were not too serious to play, disported themselves after inherited British fashions. The means afforded students a hundred and fifty years ago were de- cidedly meager, if we may judge from the only mention concerning them in the "Ancient Customs of Harvard College Established by the Government of It," in which " Custom 16" reads thus: The Frwsbmen shall furuisli bats, balls, and foot-balls, for tbe use of students, to be kept in tbe Buttery. The first President of Dartmouth College, Dr. Wheelock, admonished his students in 1771, two years after the college was opened, "to turn the course of their diversions and exercises ioa- their health to the prac- tice of some manual arts, or cultivation of gardens and other lands, at the proper hours of leisure and intermission from studies and vacancies" ii. e., vacations]. We learn from a letter written by Dr. Benjamin lush, of Philadeli^hia; in 1790, on "The Amusements and Punishments 664 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 427 proper for Schools," in which, by the way, he commends the Methodists for " wisely banishing every species of i)lay from their college," that the experiment had been tried, •' with the happiest effects," of iutro- duciug the care of vegetable gardens as an amusement " in the Meth- odist college at Abiiigton in Maryland." He also says that all the amnsements of the children of the Moravians at Bethlehem, Peun., " are derived from their performing the subordinate parts of several of the mechanical arts; and a considerable ])ortion of the wealth of that worthy and happy society is the product (5f the labor of their little hands." Forty years later manual labor societies came into vogue in several of the New England colleges, but, proving failures as a means of putting wealth into the hands of their meud)ers, they fell into desuetude as educational agencies. In some colleges the authorities used to grant holidays " for the purpose of fostering in the students the habit of ])hysical labor and exercise, so essential to vigorous mental exertion," which holidays were devoted to " raking off the chips and clearing the grounds, and graveling the college walks." When such notions and practices obtained with our forefathers, it is hardly strange that the first impulse to a physical training deserving of the name should have come from without. As a matter of fact, it came from Prussia, where, during the last fifteen years of the eighteenth century and the first two decades of the nineteenth, Guts Muths and Jahn accouiplished a great work in reviving physical education. The first gymnasia in this country were constructed out of doors, in bold imitation of Graico-Germau models, and a very considerable, though, as it proved, a very transient interest in gymnastics was evoked by the German exiles. Drs. Beck, Follen, and Lieber were foremost in the matter. In 1828 there was i)ublished in Northampton, Mass., "A Treatise on Gymnasticks, taken chiefly from the German of F, L. Jahn." This translation was by a pupil of Jahn's, Dr. Beck, who had in 1825 been instrumental in establishing a gymnasium at the Kound Hill School, at Northampton. On page IV of the Preface Dr. Beck states that — The School of Messrs. Cogswell aud Bancroft, in Northampton, Mass., was the first institution in this country that introduced Kyiunastick exercises as a part of the reg- ular instruction, in the Spring of Ib25. I am greatly indebted to the venerable Dr. George C. Shattuck, of Boston, who was a pupil at Round Hill, for the following account of this gymnasium : Dr. Beck, the teacher of Latin, afterwards the Professor of Latin in Harvard Univer- sity, was the lirst teacher of gyninastics. A large piece of ground was devoted to the purpose aud furnished with all the apparatus used in the German gymnasia. The whole school was divided into classes, and each class had an hour tliree times a week for instruction by Dr. Beck. At the same time there were a dozen riding horses, and classes for riding three times a week. Gardens were assigned the hoys, in which they raised plants and vegetables. A piece of land was set uside for building huts. Base-ball, hockey, and football were the games. Though the school had only an ex- istence of twenty years or less, and failed from the want of pecuniary sni)port. I be- lieve that its inliuence has survived. Developing the bodily powers ami strengtlien- ing the constitution Avere there lirst recognized as of great importance in the educa- tion of boys. Dr. John C. Warren, who for forty years was Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the Harvard Medical School, was about this time in the habit of deliveriug annual lectures to the students at Cambiidge on the prcvservation of health. He was the first President of the Tremont Gymnasium in Boston, in the establishment of which, in 1825, he took 605 428 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. a prominent part. It is a matter of interest that Dr. Warren attempted to secure the services of "the distinguished philosopher and gymnasi- arch, Professor Jahn," who couhl not be led at the salary offered " to abandon his own country and establish himself in ours." Dr. Francis Lieber, who later attained such eminence as a publicist nnd as a i>ro- fessor in the Columbia Law School, was for a time connected with the Tremont Gymnasium. In 1826 Dr. Folleu, who, like Dr. Beck, was a teacher at Kound Hill aud linally became a professor at Harvard, es- tablished a gymnasium at Harv£Prd College, being seconded in his eflbrts by Dr. Warren and others of the "Medical professors." One of the unoccupied commons halls was fitted up with various gymnastic ajjpliances, and other fixtures were erected in the Delta, i. e., the col- lege play-ground. In the same year, 1826, the corporation of Yale Col- lege voted the sum of $300 for the flttiug up of a gymnasium in the College Green. Dr. Warren states that "small gymnasia were estab- lished in connection with most of the schools, academies, and colleges, male and female." The following extract from the published works of Dr. Warren — though I am uncertain whether it was originally penned in 1830 or 1845 — affords good evidence that the interest in gymnastics became feeble after the first teachers of the art became ordinary college professors : The establisbment of gymnasia [says Dr. Warren] through the country promised at one period the opening of a new era in physical education. The exercises were pursued with ardor so long as their novelty lasted ; but, owing to not understanding their importance, or some defect in the institutions which adopted them, they have gradually been neglected and forgotten, at least in our vicinity. The beuetits which resulted from those institutions, within my personal knowledge and experience, far transcended the most sanguine expectations. The diversions of the gymnasium should constitute a regular part of the duties of all our colleges and seminaries of learning. It would appear that no well-considered and systematic course of physical training was maintained for any considerable length of time in the period extending from 1826 to 1860, in any American college. It may be possible that the University of Virginia presents an exception to the above statement, inasmuch as there was a large out-of-doors gym ■ nasium maintained on the grounds of that institution from 1852 till the outbreak of the war. A competent gymnast and fencer had it in charge ; but in order to support himself he was obliged to eke out the small sums received from the students by cultivating a kitchen garden and keep- ing a Kussian bath house. Although in the period from 1855 to 1860, under the combined influ- ence of the example and writings of Dr. Winship, Dio Lewis, and Thomas Hughes, much interest, especially among young men, was awakened iu gymnastics, feats of strength, and athletic sports, still, prior to 1859, no college in the country possessed a commodious and well-furnished building devoted to the purposes of physical training. In the year 1859-'60, however, Amherst, Harvard, and Yale erected gymnasia which cost respectively $15,000, $10,000, and $13,000. These, for their time, were costly, elaborate, and well-furnished. Those at Amherst and Harvard, having been outgrown, have recently been re- placed by more costly and vastly improved structures, of which we shall have occasion to speak further on. Amherst College, situated within ten miles of the site of the original Eound Hill School gymnasium, was the first college in America to es- tablish a department of physical culture. This it did in 1860. That it did so was chiefly owing to the wise suggestions and zealous endeavors of the late Rev. W. A. Stearns, D. D., then its president. President 666 INfEftNATlONAL CONGRESS OE EdUCATOJIS — t>At>ERS. 429 Stearns had argued, in 1854, on the occasion of his inauguration, " that no course of education is complete without devoting special attention to secure a good development and healthy state of the physical sys- tem." He returned again and again to the subject in his annual reports to the trustees of the college. In his Eeport for 1859 President Stearns said: By tho time junior year is reached many students have broken down their health, and every year some lives are sacrificed. Physical training is not tho only means of preventing this result ; but it is the most prominent of them. If it could be regu- larly conducted, if a moderate amount of physical exercise could be secured as a general thing to every student daily, I have a deep conviction, founded on close ob- servation and experience, that not only would lives aud health bo preserved, out animation and cheerfulness and a higher order of efficient study and intellectual liie would be secured. It will be for the consideration of this Board, whether for the encouragement of this sort of exercise the time has not come when elficient measures should be taken foi* the erection of a gymna.sium and tho procuring of its proper ap- pointments. He concluded with the statement that two of the most promising stu- dents in the senior class had just died, and that their deaths had prob- ably been occasioned by the violation of the laws of health during their life in college. Other students, moreover, were fast breaking down their constitutions and seemed likely to follow them, Tbe trustees acted immediately, and voted that it was expedient to erect a suitable gymnasium; and, provided a certain amount could be raised by subscription, they recommended that an equal amount be ap- propriated for that purpose from the treasury of the college. The re- sult was, that a building of stone, two stories high, lifty by seventy two feet, was completed in the summer of 1860, at a cost of $iO,0tion of it, condensed from the Harvard Register, is subjoined: The building is built in the colonial style of architecture, of brick with trimnwngs of sandstone. The roof is covered with red slate, and is surmounted by a, cupola, the top of which is 98 feet from the ground. Tho bnilding is 125 feet long and 113 feet wide. Over the main window the coat of arms of the college is carved in freestone. The exterior is very attractive, and is a great ornament to the city of Cambridge. The main entrance is by way of an elaborate porch. There is an outer and an inner vestibule. From the latter is a flight of stairs made of North Kiver bluestone, with iron balusters. On tlu; right is a reception-room finished with enameled bricks. 0[)eniiig from this room is a dressiug-room lOl! feet long, with numerous lockers, through which steam pipes pass for drying the clothing. On tho same side of the building are two large bath and toilet lOoms; and ))etween these is a, room arranged for vai)or and needle baths, with api)liances for giving a lateral, vertical, and de- scending shower. Three doors open from the dressing-room into the main hall, over wliicli extends an iron frame-work arranged with sliding eyebolts and beams, so that the swinging api)aratus can be suspended from any point. On the left side of tho hall is an apai tment for dtivoloping apparatus, and a Memicircular room intended for an armory. The main hall is very elegant, the walls being of red and yellow bricks, and tho woodwork of hard pine. It is 113 feet long, and in the widest part 90 feet wide^ with an open roof, having hard-pine, open-timbered trusses resting on large brackets. On the second floor there is a room for the exhibition of trophies and for committee meetings, and also the rowing room, shut in by a high wooden screen, acd containing sixteen rowing machines. Around the hall is a gallery which can be used 668 iNTEHNAtlOML CO^GJIKSS OP fiCttCAtORS— fAt'EftS. 431 Jls a niniiin'T track. On this iloof is tlio offlco of tlio director, the iiicasnring room, tJio jauitor^ room, etc. In the basement are eijj;lit bowliiio- alleys wiili snitable ap- pnrtenances. 'i'lie whole north end of the basement uiKhsi- the main hall is reserved for base ball, lacrosse, and tennis practice, and is enclosed by heavy wire netting. In the basement are also sparring and fencing rooms, and a boiler and store room. The whole building is heated by steam and thoronghly ventilated. Concerning the apparatns introduced into the Hemenway GyuinavSiuni, Dr. D. A. Sargent, its inventor and the director of the gymnasium, says: Everything has been planned and arranged to meet the probable wants of the aver- age student, and to satisfy t he claim of the greatest nnmber. The old-fashioned gym- nasia are tilled with crude appliances that have been handed down in stereotyped forms for several centuries. To use this apparatus with benefit it is necessary for one to have more strength at the outh-et than the average man possesses. When it is con- sidered that only one man in five can raise his own weight with ease, the need of in- troducing apparatus to prepare one for the beneficial use of the heavy appliances becomes quite apparent ; it was the realization of this need that led to the invention of the numerous contriv.inces that have l)een introduced into theHemenway Gynnia- sinm ; the desire to strengthen certain muscles, in order to accomplish particular feats on the higher apparatus, was the original motive of tliesc inventions. The re- sults which followed were so satisfactory that the same appliances were afterwards used as a moans of aitaining a haririonionsdov(,']oi)iiicnt. For this lasr-namcd ])nr[>()se each machine; has its own use. Each is loyed to insure symmetry, and remedy s})e('ific defects, or departures from the noruial standanl of strength or development. It may be well to remark in i)assiug that the aiirhr()i)ometri('al obser- vations made at Andierst were not used to determiin; the needs ot the individual examined ; that every member of the class was subjected to the same kindof exc^rcise; and that the Sargent system of measurements has been ado])ted at Andierst. The era of gymnasium building which opened in 18G0 may be divided conveniently into three periods, viz: First i)eriod, iSa'J-'Cl) to 1870 in- clusive; second period, 1871 to 1880 inclusive; third i)eriod, 1881 to the present writing (February, 1885). A table showing the date and cost of construction of the gymnasia built during each of these i)eriods is given on the lollowing page. 669 432 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NeW ORLEANS EXtOStl'ION. FIRST PERIOD. Institution with which gymnasiani is connected. (a) — Institutions for miperior instruction. Amherst College, Mansachnaetts Daitmoulh Colle;:o, New Uiiiupshiie . Ilarvai'd University. M;»s.s:icbusotts . Priuretou Collese, Xew Jeisej' AVashington University. Missonri Wesleyan University, Connecticut . . . Wisconsin Universitr. Wisconsin Talc College, Connecticut Pennsj-lvania College, Pennsylvania.. (6) — Institutions for secondary instruction. Cla veracli College, ^Te w York Allen's English and Classical School, Ma.ssachusetts Williston Seminar V, Massacliusetta Total for the first period. When bnilt. Co.st. 1859- 1860 I860 1869 1 1863 1868 1860 1870 1861 1860 $1."), 000 24, 000 10,000 38, 000 7,000 fl, 000 .5. 000 13,000 3,000 120, 000 6,000 500 a20. 000 a Estimated. Williams College in Massachusetts and Bowdoin College in Maine, for young men, and Vassar College for women, in New York, each fitted up a gymnasium during this period in a building since devoted to other purposes. SECOND PERIOD. Institution with which gymnasium is connected. Institutions for superior instruction. Beloit (yollego, Wisconsin University of Califyrnia, California Harvard University, Massachusetts Smith College, Ma.ssachusotts t Vanderbilt Universiiy, i'euuesseo Newton Theological tii-minary, Massachusetts Hartford Theological Seminaij', Connecticut!;. When built. Total for the .second period . 1874 1878 1879 1880 1879 1876 ? a Estimated. THIRD PERIOD. Cost. $5, 000 12,000 110,000 a4, 000 2-.;, 000 4,000 aS, 000 105, 000 (a) — Institutions for superior instructio-n. Amherst College, Massachusetts J ]883-'84 Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania J 1884 Cornell University, Now York t i 1882-'83 Dickinson College, Pennsylvania 1884 Johns Hopkins University, Maryland t i8S3 Lafavotte College, Pennsylvania i 1884 - - ' - ■ - 1882 1883 1884 1884 1881 1882-'83 1882-'83 Lehigh University, Pennsylvania J Mnssacliusetts Agricultural College, Massachusetts* Univernity of Minnesota, Minnesota* Nashville University (Slate Normal College), Tennessee}. National Deaf-Mute College, District of Colambiatt Tufts College. Massachusetts University of Wooster, Ohio (6) — Institution for secondary instruction. Shattuck School, Minnesota Total for the third period ... Total for the second jieriod Totiil for the first peiiod . . . $6.-1, 000 18, ooe 40, 000 8,000 10, 000 15,000 40, 000 6,000 34, 000 .5,500 14,000 10,000 4,200 20,000 290. 300 165, OOO 146, 500 601, 800 * Used at presen*, for military drill. tThis is unique among our college gymnasia, as it ctmtains, on the ground floor, a .swimming pool, which is 40 bv 20 feet, 6 feet deep, sloping upward to a depth of 3 feet at the other end. J At the institutions whoso names in the above list are marked thus * (he Sargent system is in vogue to a groat extent. G70 iK'fERNA'rmNAL Congress op educators — i^areks. 433 CONCERNING SCHOOL AND COLLEGE GYMNASIA NOT OCCUPYING AN ENTIRE BUILDING. The following list comprises the names of a few of the more important colleges and schools known to possess gymnasia. In some cases a special building exists ; in the greater number a hall has been fitted for the purposes of gymnastic exercise. It is impossible, owing to the meager returns to our inquiries, to state accurately the amount of money expended for buildings and apparatus by institutions not noted in the above lists; but we may safely " guess" that $150,000 have been ex- pended on the class of gymnasia under consideration, since 1860, in addition to the $000,000 accounted for above. Augustana College, Illinois. Boston University, Massachusetts.* Carleton College, Minnesota. Haverford College, Pennsylvania.* Hamilton College, l^ew York. Hobart College, New York. DePauw University, Indiana. Iowa College, Iowa. Kansas State Agricultural College, Kansas. Kenyou College, Ohio. Marietta College, Ohio. Nashville University (State Normal College), Tennessee.* Oberlin College, Ohio. Seton Hall College, New Jersey. Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania.* Union College, New York. Vassar College, New York. Wellesley College, Massachusetts.* United States Military Academy, New York. United States Naval Academy, Maryland. Bellevue High School, Virginia. Boston English High and Latin Schools, Massachusetts.* Concordia Seminary, Missouri. Connecticut Literary Association, Con'necticut. Cushing Academy. J^.Iassachusetts. Morgan Park Military School, Illinois. Mt. Holyoke Seminary, Massachusetts. Pennsylvania Charter School, Pennsylvania.* Phillips Academy (4ndover), Massachusetts. St. Paul's School, New Hampshire. The gymnasia whose names in the above list are followed by an asterisk, are chiefly .fitted with the Sargent appliances. Funds are either in hand or are being raised for gymnasia at Phillips Exeter Academy, New Hampshire; Michigan University, Michigan; the University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania; and Williams College, Massachusetts. New gymnasia are projected at the United States Military and Naval Academies. It appears from the Eeport of the Commissioner of Education for 1873, that out of a list of 110 normal schools in the United States, only 17 claimed to possess a gymnasium in 1. The Commissioner's Report for 1882-'83 shows that 19 out of 119 i)ublic normal schools, and 10 out of 114 private normal schools, had gymnasia. As regards ])reparatory schools, the same Keport notices the fact that 56 out of 157 of them had gymnasia. 7950 COT., PT. 2 28 071 434 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. One of the most potent factors in bringing about tlie revival, in recent years, of an interest in games, exercises, and training, was tiie war. With the war came a genuine appreciation of the worth of a good phy- sique and of the educational value of bodily training. After the war the youth of the country engaged more actively, enthusiastically, and intelligently than ever before, iu athletic sports ; and collegiate and inter- collegiate contests in great variety gained unexampled prominence and favor in the estimation of the general public as well as of the college world. I do not propose to enter into the discussion of the vexed ques- tion of athleticism in colleges. My belief is that in the larger colleges the athletic spirit has gained such headway that no college can attbrd to crush it ; that it ought not to be crushed, and that under control it is susceptible of being turned to the utmost advantage of the students. The spirit of intercollegiate rivalry should be kept within reasonable limits, and every tendency towards professional methods and practices should be discountenanced. A few facts concerning the play-grounds of Harvard, Yale, and Prince- ton, and the sums raised and expended in a single year, may serve to indicate how highly developed an interest that in athletics has become; and it should be remembered that it has been developed and organized chiefly by the students and alumni of the last twenty years, who have contributed munificently towards the erection of our finest gymnasia. Dr. H. J. Bowditch, in his Centennial Address on Hygiene in America, in 187G, predicted what is in a measure already fulfilled. " Meanwhile," he said, in speaking of hygiene in colleges, " although the instructors of the colleges thus neglect important duties, the youths of their own free will, and at times, lately, with the aid and counsel of the college governments, have commenced athletic sports. This will gradually force the colleges to take, on their own parts, a higher i)osition." The playing fields at Harvard, on grounds belonging to the college, embrace about ten acres of land in the heart of the city of Cambridge. Within two years about $0,000, of which the college contributed $2,000, have been expended. in improving them 5 so that the facilities for ball- playing, tennis, lacrosse, bicycling, and running are ample and excel- lent. The new Athletic Field at Yale will, by the time it is ready for use, have cost about $50,000, which sum was chielly contributed by students and graduates of the college. " It will embrace a quarter- mile cinder track, two ball fields, a foot-ball field, and a cricket-field. It has on it a $0,000 grand stand, and is inclosed by a wire fence, sur- rounding nearly thirty acres of land." The Director of Field Sports at Yale, who was in college distinguished both as a student and as an athlete, was appointed a year ago by the graduate and undergraduate athletic interest at a salary of $1,200, toward which the Faculty paid 7K)thing. Both Harvard and Yale have large and valuable boat-houses. Princeton has an athletic field of nearly ten acres, well api)ointed for field sports. The following table shows the financial condition of the athletic departments of Princeton, Harvard, and Yale, for the year 1882-'83. Name. Numbers. Expendi- Tucome for tures. 1882-'83. 1428 500 1050 $15, 542 44 4, 252 17 17. 470 04 $18, 056 82 4, 293 78 Talo 18,048 03 Totals 2978 37, 270 65 40, 398 63 672 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 435 It may be said iu passing that but a titbe of the attention given to athletic sports at the Korthern colleges is discernible in those of the South. Military drill is the favorite form of physical training at the South. Since the war, military schools for boys have multiplied at the North, and all State colleges, organized under the Morrill Land Grant Act, are obliged to teach military drill. A few have evaded this provision, but most are glad to secure the services of a specially detailed officer of the U. S. Army as Instructor in Drill and Tactics. Military drill is well adapted for preparatory students, and has worked well in many new institutions ; but he should be a bold man who would undertake to make it compulsory at Harvard, Yale, or Princeton. Pa- ternal government is breaking down in our best colleges, and military discipline cannot be erected on its ruins. Unquestionably the best considered and most successful experiments made to secure physical training in this country are those which have been carried out at the U. S. Military Academy and at the U. S. Naval Academy ; and it is eminently desirable that the recorded experience of those institutions, touching the physique, health, and longevity of their cadets and graduates, should be made available as an example and stimulus to the managers of our scholastic youth. I am convinced that no class of our students, with the possible exception of the picked ath- letes, will bear comparison with the West Point and Annapolis cadets, as regards mental and bodily vigor. There are probably not far from fifty college gymnasia or drill halls in the United States. Of these the best are the Hemenway Gymnasium, costing $110,000 ; the Pratt Gymnasium at Amherst, just completed at a cost of $65,000, named from C. S. Pratt, Esq., of Brooklyn, and a graduate of Amherst in 1879, who gave $38,000 toward its erection ; the Lehigh University Gymnasium at Bethlehem, Pa., built out of univer- sity funds in 1882 at a cost of $40,000. These three gymnasia are far superior to any others iu the country. The Harvard, Amherst, and Le- high Gymnasia are all sightly and elegantly furnished structures, fitted with the most recent gymnastic and sanitary appliances. Each has a running track, commodious dressing rooms, generous bathing facilities, and convenient offices for the directors. Each has several bowling alleys 5 and those of Amherst and Lehigh have billiard rooms, with tables. The gymnasia at Amherst, Cornell, Harvard, and Johns Hop- kins, are in charge of regularly educated physicians. There are new gymnasia Just completed at Bryn Mawr College for women, Dickinson College, and Lafayette College — all in Pennsylvania, and a new gymnasium is projected at West Point. These will cost upward of $40,000, it is estimated. The colleges are, however, not yet emerged from the building stage of development, as regards their dejiartments of physical training, it is easily susceptible of proof that the best of them has not yet reached such a highly organized and diflerentiated state as to promise the best results. More generous endowments are needed, and a fuller comple- ment of teachers is called for. There is a crying need for scientific medical direction on the one hand, and for competent teachers of gym- nastic specialties on the other; but there is reason to hope that this need will be met before many years elapse. Before phA»«sical training shall constitute a part of the regular course of instruction in the public schools of even the most enlightened States, a vast number of trustees, committee-men, teachers, and physicians must be educated, as they are not now and never have been, in regard 673 436 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. to Personal Hygiene in all its branches. As a rule, the medical schools make almost no attempt to teach those who bear away their diplomas, how to recognize a normal man or woman; and so long as the average medical man is indififerent to or ignorant of the subject of physical training, which in the last analysis is a training of the nervous system, we cannot expect teachers, either in school or college, as a class, to have intelligent practical notions on this subject. 674 PLAN AND ARRANGEMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. By M. Edouard Louis Charles Josse, Membtr of the Diuiois Historical and ArchaoJof/ical Societii, Foundation Meviber of the Fr(n(h Sorietii for the Aid of iVonnded Soldiers, ele. CONSTRUCTION OF t£CIIOOL BUILDING^S. When a school building is to bo deleted the first thing to be consid- ered is that the locality be healthy, easy of access, and not near a cem- etery. If the soil is malarious let it be well drained. The size of the grounds should give at least 10 sciuare meters (about 108 s([uare feet) to each i)ui)il. The school and the teacher's lodgings should be in sep- arate buildings, so that the one is entirely independent of the oiher. The school-room and the covered play-room should be connected, and both receive air and light from opposite sides. This arrangement is favorable to health, and also admits of a general oversight of the class during the hours of recreation. SCHOOL-HOUSE AND TOWN BUILDING. Commune of Autels- Fillevillon, Department of Eure-et-Loir. (See Plate I at close of Paper.) School-room large enough for sixty pupils; dimensions as given in Fig. G. The materials used in building should not be permeable to water ; all substances which, like unbaked bricks, retain moisture, should be excluded, l^ach locality furnishes tlje materials best adapted ibr 438 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. use therein; in some it will be found advisable to use stone, either dressed or in the rough ; in others, brick. The style of building, too, must be often made subservient to the amount of funds available. The lighting of the school-room should be a matter of profound study. It is absolutely necessary that the following suggestions be carried out as far as possible : 1, Light enough for all purposes. 2, Suitable proportions between the height of windows and size of room. 3, Apertures (3 feet 4 incbes by 6 feet 8 inches) should be made opposite to the windows, so as to admit both light and air during the absence of the pupils. Such apertures should never be opposite either pupils' or teachers' desks. Reference is also made to the following plans, which are subjoined to this Paper: Plate II. Boys' school, Commune of Gasville. This school cost the commune about 33,500 francs ($G,565). Plate III. Mixed school and town building. Commune of Maisons. Plates IV and V. Mixed school and town building, plans, sections, and elevations. Commune of Corancez. Open Play -ground or Court. The size of the playground should be at least 5 square meters (about 54 square feet) for each pupil, and not less than 200 square meters (2,152 square feet) in all. The surface should be sandy and not paved or cov- eied with asphalt. Trees, should not be planted nearer to the school- rooms than C meters (19 feet 8 inches) at the least. The best plan is not to plant too many trees, as they iuterfere with the exercises and games of the children. Around the grounds at different points sbould be ar- ranged benches with open-work seats, the supports of which should not interfere with sweeping. The Gymnasium. Attached to every school there should be a gymnasium ; this is rather impracticable in a poor community, but there ought to be at least a cov- ered gallery with proper gymnastic apparatus. Schools which are able to j^rovide a gymnasium hall will find it of great service as regards the preservation of the apparatus, and par- ticularly in that it permits the exercises to be carried on in all sorts of weather. Covered Play-room. In addition to the school-room there should be a covered room where the pupils can eat their lunches or take their recreation. They can gather here, too, prior to the opening of school, or while awaiting the return of their comrades from lunch at home. Also in case of stormy weather they can have their recess here. Urinals and Water-closets. Each school ought to be provided with four water-closets for the first hundred pupils and two for each hundred following. The seat, of stone or cement, should stand about 8 inches high, and form an inclined plane towards the orifice. There should be as many urinals as water-closets, divided by partitions of sj^t^ or otb^r jmpermf^f^bl^ material, m INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 439 THE ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE OP SCHOOL BUILDINaS, LIBRARIES, AND MUSEUMS. As will be seen by the following plans and diagrams, Franco is not only trying to ameliorate the lot of the teachers, both in city and in rural schools, but also to improve the condition of the schools them- selves. Appended are some forms of desks, etc., used in the newer buildings. Seats and Deslcs. Fig. 7 represents a seat and desk for two pux)ils, used in the public Fig. 7. schools of Paris ; the seat proper of beech, the tablet inlaid in the desk of oak, stained black and waxed. The whole costs about 22 francs ($4.24). In Fig. 8 is shown the form of seat and desk used in rural schools, also for two pupils ; base of beech; sides, seat, etc., of fir ; top of desk of fir, stained black and waxed. Approximate value, 18 francs for the whole ($3.47). If the top of desk be of oak stained and waxed, it will cost neatly 2 francs (38.6 cents) more than if of fir. According to ministerial decree of June 17, 1880, the dimensions of desks and seats of the above models are as follows : Number. Height of pupil < Height of desk-edge uext to pupil Lcngtli of desk for one pupil Length of desk for two pupils Height of seat Ft. 3 3 1 1 3 In. 3.4 7.3 5.3 9.7 3.4 10.6 Ft. 3 3 1 1 3 In. 7.7 11.2 7.3 9.7 3.4 11.8 Ft. 3 to 4 1 1 3 1 In. 11.6 5.1 9.7 11.6 7.3 1.3 Ft. In. 4 5.5 to 4 'Z 1 3 1 11 0.4 11.6 7.3 3.3 Ft. In. 4 U and over. 2 3.6 1 11.6 3 7.3 1 5.7 "677 440 EDUCATIOiTAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Fig. 8. — Desk for rural schools. The accompaDying diagram (Fig. 9) shows the interior arraDgement Fig. 9.— Interior ariangerueni of boys' school, a, il.istc-i's chair, fc, I'lipils. c, MojjitoF, G7d INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 441 of the boys' school, Commune of Aulnay-sur-Aimeaii, Department of Eureet-Loir. The school-room has accommodations for eighty pupils. A si)ace is left i)iirposely between the desks so that the master or the monitor may have an opportunity to watch each ])upil, in order to pre- vent disturbance in the school-room. The aisles H may be occupied by desks, if it is desired to provide for more pupils. Back of the master's chair tiiere is a platform for the ])upil to stand on when called to the blackboard or ma])s. This enables the pupils to see clearly what is being done by those reciting. J>y means of such methods the pupil be- comes accustomed to reciting in a loud voice, and in tin)e he ac(piires sufficient confidence in himself to pass an examination at the close of the year. Libraries. Each of our schools has a library and a museum. The library is made up of the usual classic authors and works in science, mathematics, chemistry, and physics. It is also advisable that the young should have ji knowledge of ancient and modern literature; so the communal authori- ties proviiie for the purchase of works of history, biography, voyages, and travels. Fig. 10.— Scliool library. If there are wealthy property owners in the community eflbrts are made to obtain from them gifts of similar works. It is impossible to say preciselj^ what a library should contain^ as the character of tU© 679 442 EDUCATIONAL COIn VENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. contents depends somewhat upon tlie wealth of the canton. The gov- ernment, however, endeavors to furnish aid to school libraries as far as possible. Museums. The abundance of minerals, ruins of human habitations, and antedi- luvian objects to be met with in France, furnishes an opportunity to the French instructor to teach his pupils geology, archjcology, and history. Each department preserves all records of the physical and political Fir,. 11.— Scliodl Mii.spnin. changes which have taken place on its territory. In certain districts can be followed step by step the changes which resulted in the dying out of great families of animals. In others, we can arrive at a knowledge of the Stone Age, when man seemed a giant by reason of being able to work, without tools, flint, marble, etc., making weapons and other sharp- edged implements. The skill and genius of the Eomans is shown by the instructor to the pupil, while analyzing the rude" defense of the Frank and the Gaul. The different Roman roads found throughout France are evidences of the great public works executed in the time of Julius Caesar. Thus by degrees we come insensibly to the present epoch, and at each step the earth yields up some valuable object for our study. Museun)s of rural schools therefore are often made up of objects which would be of no special value to the outsider, but which aid the instruc- tor in giving interesting and valuable information, m INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 443 I will not dwell on the form which the library or museum should take. In rural communities it is well to group their conteuts iu the school-room, unless, as in the large cities, there is a room especiall}' set apart for a library and museum. In this brief resume I have endeavored simply to call attention to tlie means of instruction which are made use of in the smallest of the French communes, and will leave the more i)retentiou8 academies and colleges to parties more comi)etent to treat of them. SCHOOL HYGIENE. Each school should have gymnastic apparatus, "in order to develop the muscles of the child and reuder them tiexible. One liour at least should be devoted each day to various exercises of this kind, under chaige ot a monitor. Provision should be made for the future nnlitary needs of the country, and i)atriotic sentiments inculcated iu the minds of the youth. Instruction tending towards this end is comi)aratively easy at present, as each commune of France has its school battalion, well equipped, and ready for maneuvers similar to those of the regular troops. It is necessary to accustom the children to obedience and dis- cipline, so that, in case of war, all will be ready to take up arms against the invader. HOURS OF STUDY. As for hours of study, from 8 to 11 A. M. and from 1 to p. m., with an hour for gymnastics in the middle of the afternoon session, would seem amply sufficient, and such an arrangement would not fatiyue the student too much. On each Thursday afternoon it would be well for the teacher to accompany the boys on a ramble, during which he should talk with them about the physical features of the land, its ]i]ants, &c. He should (piestion the pupils from time to time, and then explain how trivial is man as comjjared with the great immensity around them. THE CHARACTER OF THE TEACHER. After having given of its resources in the construction of school buildings, the commune has a right to inquire into the character of tlie l)ersou who is to hold the position of teacher. It is necessary that the teacher should have certain marked qualities, among them patience and an even temperament. Happily many who intend to become instructors realize early in life tlie high mission to which they are to be called ; they rival each other in their zeal for the education of youth, and hold out bravely against the sarcasms of their pui^ils, who are too apt to forget how sacred is the teacher's calling. To those comprehending the mission of the teacher I send this expres- sion of my devotion to their calling, and, iu defending them, I glorify them as "Apostles of modern civilization." 681 I SECTION F— MISCELLANEOUS. 683 RESPECT FOR AUTHORITY DEVELOPED IN THE SCHOOL- ROOM. By Brother Justin, Of the Christian Brothers. Man is a rational being. He has ideas of right and wrong. This is brought home to him in childhood. He obeys his parents; he depends on thrm for all his wants and he looks to them for instruction. He never thinks of questioning their right to command. He is too young to know the why or the wherefore. He does this and he does not do that, because such is the will of his father or mother. That is the law for him, and this is true of all orders of society, of the child of the savage, as well as the child of the civilized and cultured man. He does not know what doubt is; he trusts implicitly in his natural protectors; his nature, his instinct draws him to them; he prefers them to all others; he loves them as only the child can and obeys them unhesitatingly. And as he grows up and his reason begins to develop, he finds evi- dence of submission and dependence everywhere; he sees it in the mutual relations of confidence and reliance that he observes wherever he goes. In the school-room he has both the theory and practice of the principles of authority, of government, of society, of equality, of justice, and of mercy. In his tender years he admires beauty of character more than beauty of form ; or kindness and gentleness have more eflect on his young mind, than physical beauty and comeliness of person. In school he sees that the good and industrious pupils are held in esteem, while the idle and rude are not. The latter fill none of the posts of honor ; nor do they receive any of the privileges given for good conduct and successful eflbrt. Sometimes they may be deemed unworthy of the society of their com- ])anions and are required to withdraw. All this brings home more clearly the distinction that exists, and that must be made to exist in every well-ordered society, between the child or the man amenable to discipline and order, ard those whose life ap- ])ears to be a constant struggle against the j)rinciples on which society is based. As the boy grows into the youth and enters on the broader theater of the busy world, he is surprised at the deep earnestness and restless activity that are visible in every department of life. He soon realizes more fully, as he sees more clearly, the necessity of choosing his course. He needs no proof to be convinced that success in whatever he undertakes demands attention and constant application, with a proper respect for those in authority, no matter in what department. Does he carry the brief of his employer to the court? He sees the judge on the bench, the jurors in i)ositiou, the officers each in his place. Acase is called, the lawyers begin, and the trial proceeds. On the issue, the life or death of the prisoner may dei)eiid. Bitter words are some- times exchanged, excitement characterizes the proceedings, the judge 685 448 Et)UCATIONAL CONVENTlOJvS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. calls to order; and such is the respect ingrained in all classes of the l^eople that if any lawyer fails to respect his authority, no matter how l^ure his character, how hi^jh his standing, how long his honorable I)ractice at the bar, he is condemned for contempt of court, and he can plead there no more until he has repaired the injury done to the au- thority he has offended. The judge may not be an able man ; may not be a popular man : the reverse may be the case. It is not the man that is here in question ; it is principle ; it is respect for authority. We read in the history of England that the Crown Prince insulted Judge Gascoigne in open court. The judge ordered the Prince under arrest. When the King heard of the incident he said, "Happy the King who has a judge Avho understands his position, and who has the courage to exact lespect for authority; and still happier in having a son who knows his duty, and gives evidence of due respect in cheerfully submitting to the ofBcer of the /aic." The young man now finds himself face to face with responsible public life. He is a member of society ; he has duties to fulfill ; and in their performance he is compelled on many occasions to forego the gratifying of his natural inclinations. He depends on this man for one thing and on that one for another. He has needs and is not himself able to sup- ply all of them ; but he is provided with faculties by means of which he can ask for what he wants. In turn he supplies his quota to the common fund and thus does his duty to society. All this supjmses the existence of certain modes of action, customs of society, founded on principles that are nniversal and immutable. Among these we everywhere find the principle of authority; therefore it is necessary for the well-being of society, and being necessary, it is easy to prove to all intelligent minds, that its sanction is unques- tionable. Since it is necessary, the reason for its existence is found in its very nature. It is the outcome of the natural hiw, for it inheres in it, as dominion and supremacy are by virtue of the natural law. But the natural law is the law of reason, and emanates immediately from the Sovereign Keason — God. But reason is essential to man's natuie, to his personality. The principle of authority then being by a law above and anterior to man has not its sanction from man. It therefore does not depend on him, and therefore government, which is the application of this principle to society, is divine in its origin and has God for its author. This principle being admitted, society has the right to select the form of gov^ernment that best suits its wants. The celebrated Car dinal Bellarmine says: "Particular forms of government are by the law of nations, and not by divine law, since it depends on the ])eopIe to select kings, consuls, or other magistrates, and lor a legititnate reason to remove them.'' History tells us that in all nations and among all peoples however rude the principle of authority was not only acknowledged, but held in great respect. The case of the proi)het Daniel is very interesting as an illustration of how far this was carried. He had disobeyed a decree of the King Darius. The king would gladly have passed over the violation of the decree, but he was reminded by his nobles that it was a thing un- known among the Medes and Persians that a decree of a Persian king once issued could be recalled. When St. Paul was reminded that he should not speak too freely to the High Priest, his answer was, "It is written, 'the Prince shall be in honor among the people.'" The people were, from time immemorial, taught to respect authority in the persons of those in whom it was 686 >NT ELEVATION. SCHO Plate III. Ed. Cir. No. 6, '85— Face back of Plate II. SCHOOL F TO Coir Plate rv. Ed. Cir. No. G, '85— Face liacU of Platp III. GIRLS, Plate V. Ed. Cii. No. C, '.-o— l':icc' back of Plaic IV SCHOOL-i Conq Plate I. Plate I. SCHOOL-HOUSE AND TOWN BUILDING, CommuDe of Autels-Villevillon. Ka. Cir. No. 6, H—Kace y. 44.1. l'..ri II. Plate n Ell. Cii-. No. (i, W) -Kaci) lia.U of l>liit«) I. INTEENATIOXAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 449 vested, and they could not and would not tolerate its violation. This is evident from the remark, " Speakest thou to the Hig^h Priest thus?" The Romans, so remarkable tor their code of laws, were no less remarka- ble for the vijjor with which they i)unished its violation. In the early days of the Eepublic under the elder Brutus, you will hud examples of their inexorable justice. ]S"o stronger proof of this truth can exist than the execution of his own sons by the decree of the Consul, their father, because they had been convicted of conspiring against the newly estab- lished government. The most enlightened nations of autiquity, — the Babylonians, the Egyptians, the Greeks and Komans, all provided to a degree that is scarcely credible, for the education of their people in all that regarded their respect for the law and obedience thereto. Kot only the nations of antiquity, but modern Christiau nations have done the same. Has not the common law of the civilized world made the person in whom the supreme power is vested sacred ? We all recall the shocking outrage per[)etrated on society by the atrocious assassination of our late lamented President, Mr. Gartield. Great, however, as is the dignity of rulers, great as is the authority they wield, sacred as are the functions of their position, equally great is their responsibility. "By Me kings reign," says Almighty God. Keigning in God's name and as God's representatives in the human or- der, their obligations to administer the sacred trust confided to them can- not be overestimated. Rulers, magistrates, or princes, are the ministers of God for good. When they are faithful to their charge, their rule is a blessing to society, authority is in respect, prosperity grows up about them, i)eace characterizes their administration, or if war come, it is prose- cuted with vigor and brought to a speedy and successful issue. The con- dition of all classes is satisfactory. The just claims of the poor are recognized and attended to equall^^ with those of the rich. Justice reigns and man's sense of right is as fully realized as human institutions can make it. Thus the name of Alfred is honored to-day not only in England, but throughout the world. He was a noble prince, a good ruler. He loved his people and devoted his great energies to improve their condition ; he encouraged education, and was himself a hard and successful student. This did not prevent his subduing the enemies of his country, and giving to the administration of justice among his ])eo- ple such vigor that crimes against person and property became unknown during his reign, and tradition has attributed as the fitting monument to his memory, the great, the world renowned Oxford. Charlemagne was a ruler of the same type. He, too, was as success- ful in war as he was glorious and happy in j)eace. Having subdued his enemies at home and abroad, he everywhere established courts for the administration of justice among the people ; he oi)ened schools through- out his dominions, he invited scholars from foreign countries to his court, he opened an academy in the royal i)alace, and with his sons at- tended the lectures of the professors whom he honored as the lights of tte world. We need not go to England or France nor to the remote past for examples. There is not in the world's history a nobler name than that of our own Washington. Here were men in whom the princii)le of authority was not only recog- nized, but revered and lo*. ed, and their names are a sacred heritage to the race. While too much praise cannot be given to those who admin- ister wisely and successfully the authority with which Ihey are vested, wtr cannot too severely condemn the infamy of unjust and tyrannical rulers, who are worse scourges of humanity than either j^estilence or 7950 COT., PT. 2 29 687 450 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION famiue, and whose names are a synonym for infidelity and baseness. Contrast the conduct of a Reboboam, a Nero, a Eobespierre, with an Al- fred, a Charlemagne, a Washington. The latter made it their delight to redress the grievances of their people, the former were infamous. See it in the division and subjugation of Israel ; in the burning of Rome; in tlie innocent victims of the guillotine. Take our own case: George III and his Parliament were most re- spectfully petitioned for a redress of grievances by a loyal and brave peo- ple. The petition was spurned with contempt. It is unnecessary to point to the consequences ; we, at least, may be permitted to say, if any people ever coifild, Happy fault, which has led to such magnificent results ! The old bell that hangs in yonder hall tells more eloquently than any effort of man can, the grandeur of the achievements that followed the Declara- tion it tolled out on the air from Independence Hall more than one hun- dred years ago. Authority, wherever respected by rulers and people alike, has been productive of the happiest results to society ; and the contrary has been the case where either people or rulers have failed in recognizing its due importance, and faithfully carrying into effect its just requirements. The principle of authority can never be revered nor honored as the needs of society imperatively demand, nor can it have its proi)er and necessary influence with the young, unless its high origin and sacred sanction be fully unfolded, and the reason for its existence, usefulness, and necessity pointed out. This cannot be done without ex})laining clearly what are the rights and duties of men in society in their rela- tions with one another. God is the author of society. It comes from Him, and without Him it cannot live. But God has certain attributes or perfections, such as jus- tice, truth, wisdom, mercy, which are characteristic of His nature, the law of His being; and in creating man — the unit of society — to His image. He impressed this law on his heart ; and this law, thus divinely impressed, becomes the standard of right and wrong; the ultimate rule against which no man is ever justified in acting. This law is defined by St. Augustine as the Divine Reason, or the will of God commanding the observance, forbidding the disturbance, of the natural order of things. This is indeed high sanction, and establishes on the firmest of all foun- dations the principle of authority. St. Thomas, in speaking of this funda- mental law, says it is theimi)ression of the Divine Light in us, a j)artici- pation of the eternal law in the creature, in man. Cardinal Goussel says that it is the supreme rule of actions, thoughts, words, and acts ; all that man is — is subject to the dominion of the law of God, and this law is the rule of our conduct by means of conscience. This law is in all men, and therefore all men have ideas of justice, truth, goodness, and duty; if, then, we would perpetuate our institu- tions tbronghout all time and make them loved and cherished by the people, let us see that in all things they are found to be in conformity with the natural law, the law of God, the ideals of which are in the minds of all, — and fix the truth of this so firmly in the minds of the young that it cannot be shaken. In doing this we convince them of their resi)onsibility to an infinitely just God, of the i)riceless value of integrity of character and of uprightness of conduct. On this base, the heritage of liberty is secure ; and the conviction that these principles are based on eternal truth will so captivate the mind that not onlj' will they accept it, but will, if true to the conviction, be always ready to de- fend it, and if necessary sacrifice life for its preservation and perpetua- tion. On thisj the foundation of permanency rests secure. Unity is the 688 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 451 coiiier-stone of tlie edifice, Justice is the cement that biuds the parts together, and as Society is the creatiou of God, for man's beuelit, Uis blessing mnst rest ni)on it. But where are we to teach this? Every- where, when the circumstances will permit. What is the sanction for itf The highest, the best ; read it in the Holy Bible: " And these things which I command, thou shalt tell them to thy children ; thou shalt meditate on them — and thou shalt bind them as a sign Oh thy hand — and thou shalt write them on the doors of thy house." He that builds on any other foundation, builds in vain. Lycurgus made himself the victim of his code for the benefit of his country, but his code is no more, and why ? Because it was not in conformity with the Divine Law; and so it is with all the codes of the ancients; the .Mosaic only survives, and that because it is of God. There can be no stability in error, for weakness is of it ; and strength is impossible without virtue. Corruption falls by its own weight ; decay is in it, and the j^eriod of its existence is short. History, the memory of the world, brings before us a sad record of the changes of dynasties, of the disease and death of nations. On the tomb of each it has written its appropriate epitaph. It tells why the pyramids live while the Egyptian is a slave ; why the Greek wears the Turkish turban, the badge of a servitude more degrading than that of the galley slave ; it points out that because they had forgotten the conditions of rational life, morality and justice, liberty perished, and they have been crushed by a tyranny as base as it is vile. Thus, wherever men have forgotten God and ignored His law, degra- dation has come upon them and slavery is their lot. Look at the 100,000 Romans, refined, educated, fastidious — women as well as men — in the am])hitheater, crying out for the blood of their fellow creatures, '' Give the Christians to the lions," and this for a Komau holiday! We shrink with horror from the contemplation of such a spectacle, and why ? Be- cause we know more clearly than they our rights and duties ; we recog- nize in a fellow man a brother and the image of our God, and conse- quently a life that is dear and sacred to us Why to day does the South Sea islander kill and eat his prisoner of war, while with us he is treated as the victim of misfoitune, not of crime, and his wants and even comforts are attended to by societies of educated and refined women? Why is there such a ditterence between a Gladstone and a ruler of Burmah f The one, though a ruler of one of the greatest nations • of the earth, knows that he cannot injure with impunity the least of his fellow creatures ; the other butchers them without a scruple. The one is educated under the influence of an admirable public conscience, and he is conscious that he is amenable to the bar of an enlightened public opinion ; the other heeds no conscience, but the impulse of passion, nor does he recognize any public opinion he is bound to respect. In a word, the one is brought up under Christian auspices, the other under Pagan. Would we escape the fate of the Egyptian, of the Greek, of the Roman ? Then we must show our gratitude for the priceless blessings that a kind Providence has bestowed u))ou us ; we must give our youth a standard worthy of their high origin, their noble destiny; we must de- veloj) in their minds by i)roper training the germs of those principles that know no decay, that never die, that are ever buoyant, ever true, ever good, ever beautiful. Many of the primary truths are in the child. They grow with his growth and develop with his years. He has a conscience. It is the voice of God, his Father, in his heart. Its formation in accordance with truth and justice is of the utmost importance. He loves the truth j 689 452 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION, it is tUe object of his intelligence. His mind rests in it and is satisfied with it. To develop bis intelliueuce in any direction is either to bring a new truth home to it, or to perfect his knowledge in a truth already known in part. To do this successfully, it is necessary to proceed in accordance with his aptitude, his years, and his acquirements. lie knows some things because he sees their truth ; antl until he sees their truth, he does not know them ; for to know anything is (o see it, as it is. When his intellect sees a truth for the first tinu^ it is a reve- lation of joy ; it is a triumph ; he feels it ; he sees in it an advance, and the realization of this fact gives a strong, a new impulse to the will to acquire more. The love of knowledge begets the desire to know, and as the desire grows in the. proportion in which knowledge is assimilated, it not uufrequently happens that a strong love of study is engendered. Love, being the preference of an object on account of the good, real or imaginary, in it, attracts in the degree in which it appears desirable. The love of knowledge is the love of intellectual culture; it is the love of truth, the love of the good; and the good being the object of the will, its possession is fruition, is happiness ; and here begins the culture of the heart. The moral nature of the child grows strong and vigorous as his in- tellect expands under proper development, and the growth of both under happy, intelligent, virtuous auspices is the formation of his character. To the child so brought up it is easy to bring home the truth that evil is the absence of good, and where good is not, happiness is not and cannot be; union, harmony, justice, and liberty are not, and cannot be; but disorder, and anarchy, and injustice are, and must be, and they are the very worst enemies of society. These truths gradually developed in the mind, the love of good increases, and as it increases the will grows stronger in the preference of all that is good and in the resolve to be faithful to what it feels and knows is its duty. Pessimists will tell us tiiat this is utopianism. But we know it is the truth. We have made the test; we have tried and experienced the correctness of what we state. We have proved it to be the truth ; it commends itself to our judgment; and the conviction remains that it is not only the best mode of procedure, but the surest road to success in the most imi)oi taut work ever given man to perfect. History proves that in all civilized nations great care has always been taken that those who were called to the ad- ministration of public trusts should be qualified, and for that purpose they generally underwent a long course of preparation. In a democ- racy every citizen takes a part in the government, and therefore should be educated in such a way as to do so intelligently. "There can be no doubt," says the late Archbisho)) Spaulding, "that whenever the char- acter of the people can bear it, a well-regulated democracy is preferable to all other forms of government." In a democracy all have a share in the government; the people select the rulers in accordance with the constitution or fundamental civil law of the land ; hence the necessity of self i^estraint, of self-government, of intelligence and integrity, to he in a position to fulfill so grave a duty fittingly. The case is our own — we have no standing army, no privileged classes ; we do not fear conspir- ators. Why should we? Whence would they coine ? What tlieir object? Would they destroy our government? How could they do that? There is no reason for such a course; every man has his share in the government — it is his own. He is therefore, and must be, inter- ested in upholding it. If a true man, he loves it and is ready to peril l^rosperity and even life for its preservation. But to do this a man must be virtuous; he must be a man of high 690 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 4.03 princijile; and tliis in jioiu'ijil lie \vill not be. unless lie has been properly educated. Good p)\ < rimieiit iii)])Iies restraint, and there are times and occasions when this icstiiiint is of a nature to call tor great sacrifice of feeling-, if the government rests ibr support on the moral power of the peo];le, it is clear that that moral power must be 'of do uncertain char- acter. Were it otherwise the gravest interests might at any moment be compromised, the right of property would not be respected, the sacred- ness of i)ersou would not be secure, aiid life would be at the mercy of tlie mob. Then what guarantee wouhl there be for the permanency of our institutions and for the preservation of our liberties? The consequences are too appalling to contemplate; immediate loss of confidence, our name a by-word among the nations, business unsettled, legitimate en- terprise abandcAed and general discontent growing out of universal dis- tress, would be everywhere ; riot and rapine, bloodshed and incendiarism, would be the order of the day. Is there, can there be, any danger of such things as these coming upon us? Any one who has read the pro- ceedings of the late socialist meetings in Chicago can hardly doubt that there is a dangerous element abroad, small, thank God, and of little in- fluence, but still it exists; and it grows bolder with impunity and utters blasjihemies of so horrid a nature, that we wonder that such things are possible among enlightened men and in our day, where there is not the slightest shadow of an excuse for such inlamous proceedings. Our ]>eople are law abiding and hold these men and their shameless ])roceedings in utter contempt. Their sound, practical sense and cool self-reliance in the hour of danger are our immediate and certain guar- antee against any and all disorders coming from such people. The school, however, is the radical cure for the ills of the social, the political body, because it is in a gr^at measure in the school that char- acter is formed. The child of to day is the man of to-morrow. He goes to school at or 7 years of age and stays until he is 14 or 15, and some longer. Day after day, and while his mind is so easily impressed, he is under the influence, good, indifferent, or bad, of the teacher. How necessary then to the well-being of society is the selection of teachers. They should be eciual to the mission and realize its importance. No work is more es- sential to the common good than theirs. They are the architects of the living temj)le of the Republic; they are the wise and i^rudent men that are chiseling its ])illars and polishing its columns. Today it is a Mar- shall, to morrow a Lincoln. Honor them, and enable them to give their lime and talent, their best energies to the perfecting of methods and the carrying into daily practice systems that will bring about good results. Do not compel them after 8 or 10 years of successful service, when they understand the work and have by diligent study and careful practice become familiar with its difficulties and mastered them, to seek in other fields of labor a recognition and compensation that they deserve and which all interests demand that they should receive. At no time and in no country was this ever more important than in our day and in our country. Our wealth is untold; our resources are immense, the enter- prise and energy of our people is unparalleled. In the race for success they dare anything and everything; they are fearless and self-reliant, generous and independent, and nothing in the human order aj)pears impossible to them. The spirit of a Jones, a Wayne, a Decatur, is seen in ihe boldness with which works of magnitude are undertaken. Our mines, our railroads and other enterprises are proof of this. To control this spirit, to give it a true and right dire(;tion, is in a large degree the work of the teacher. Surely then his selection is a matter of real con- 691 454 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. sequence, the issues that depend upon it being so weighty and so varied. The promise of good that it contains for society; the evils to be foreseen and avoided; the means to be given; the motives that most strongly appeal to the mind, and that are best adapted to influence the young heart rightly and wisely in its course — all these are in the hands of the teacher. It is essential, then, that he knows well what he is to teach; and no less essential — indeed it is much more — that his life is blameless, his character unimpeachable, and his record without a stain. He should be retiued in cliaracter, gentle in his treatment of his pujnls, firm in ex- acting duty; he should understand character, know how to develop it, and withal be able to realize the importance of giving his best eflorts to the development and perfection of his work. If he does this, he can- not fail to gain the respect, the admiration, and even*the love of his pupils; his word will be law to them; his advice will be cherished and never forgotten; his views, his sentiments, his principles, imperceptibly grow into the life of his disciples; they learn to think as he thinks and to act as he acts, and to give a direction to their conduct in accordance with the principles they daily imbibe. Had the brave but unfortunate Arnold such a teacher, one who would have won his confidence and warned him against the danger of the punch bowl and gambling table, he never would have been a traitor, and his name, instead of being in- famous, would stand on the roll of fame beside that of the immortal Washington. Had the brilliant but wretched Byron been kindly treated in early life, he would in all probability have lived longer and would have blessed the world by the splendor of his genius. But, if the teacher be narrow-minded, exacting in trifling matters, ]iedantic and selfish, snappish and unkind, or indiflerent in moral char- acter, he can never be worthy of hfs profession, nor fulfill its high re- quirements with credit to himself or profit to his charge. What a mis- , fortune to the youth placed under his direction! How can he educate? How form the heart? He has none. The genial sunshine of love and confidence never enters his cold soul, and out of it come bitter woi'ds and sarcastic criticism, that kill the fairest germs of thought. Though this man be as well versed in mathematics as Kewton, as acute in phil- osophy as Leibnitz, and in theology as profound as St. Thomas, he will never acquire the ascendency over his pupils essential to the hap])y and successful formation of their character, nor will he be in a position to aid them in becoming good and useful citizens. He may make clever scholars; they may excel in their studies; but the grand base of all useful and profitable knowledge, moral character, will be wanting. He has no moral influence, and he cannot communicate that which he has not. Here we come to the practical application of the preceding remarks. Ton, gentlemen, represent the teaching element of the civilized woild. In your hands in no small measure is the destiny of nations. 1 know- this is saying much, very much, but not too much. A good teacher is a true missionary; he lays the foundation of the social edifice. You know it, your experience is world-wide, and your reading, study, and- labors entitle your opinion to great weight. If, then, you believe that the duty of the teacher is so important, would it not be well for all, where the interests are so vast, each one in his own sphere and in accordance with his convictions, to endeavor to bring the matter home more nearly to the minds and hearts of all con- cerned ? A good government is one of the greatest earthly blessings; a good education is one of the chief elements in procuring and preserving it; 692 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 455 then without rtonbt this truth is worthy our most serious consideration. The position of the teacher shoukl be hedged in, all around, with every security. The interests at stake are so vast that none should be al- lowed to enter the precincts of the school, to exercise its functions, unless thoroughly qualified for the work. To secure teachers having all these qualities may seem difBcult, but the difficulty is not very great. The profession of teaching has risen very high within the last few years in the estimation of all men of thought, and just in proportion to the respect it commands, is it desirable as a calling, to good and able men. Eemove the temptation of this class of men to use it as a stepping-stone to something better, something higher, something deemed more honor- able, and you secure the best and ablest talent of the land for the school; and out of such schools will come high character, sterling in- tegrity, morality, and patriotism, the elements most essential to the preservation and happiness of society. 693 LITERARZ AN^D SCIENTIFIC HABITS OF THOUGHT: A COM- PARATIVE STUDY. By Brother Azartas, Eock Rill College, Ellicott City, Md. The philosophical problems that come up for solution at the present (lay are very ancient. We find them all debated in Plato ; and in the light of modern issues his pag^es become instinct with life. Whether we sit with Socrates in the forum and listen to him discussing with Thetiete- tus the limits of science and the relativity of knowledge; whether we recline with him under the lofty and wide-spreading plane-tree by the cool fountain, whilst he talks with Phiedrus of love and art and beauty, and the soul in its relations in these things ; whether we laugh at the inimitable irony with which he brings Georgias and his disciples to con- fusion ] or whether with bated breath we listen to his sublime discourse on iuimortality delivered to his devoted followers in the prison in which he is about to drink the poisoned cup ; be the occasion when it may, we still meet with the same questions that face us to-day. ■ Now, as then, it is the human intellect beating against the bars of its limitations and seeking to compass the unattainable. It is the ever-recurring problem of knowing, in which men forget the very circumscribed limits within which thought moves. And after traversing a dreary waste of contro- versy with wrecks of systems scattered through the pages of Plato and the Schoolmen, of Locke, and Berkeley, and Hume, and Kant, and of Herbert Spencer in our day, we inquire, what is the outcome of it all? We have gotten no nearer to the solution. And in all earnestness we ask, is there a solution at all, or rather, is there a problem to be solved? We know; and after we shall have known how we know, we still only know. There is no going back of this. The mental labor of five and twenty centuiies has been expended on that one problem of knowing; ought this not suffice? How long, maelstrom-like, will it continue to whirl within its eddy all issues? To our mind, the only i)ractical solu- tion to this problem — if problem tliere be — is, as hinted at in the follow- ing pnpei', to accept things as they are, to take upon trust our faculties with all their shortcomings, and to recognize both shortcomings and limitations in all our thinking. I. There is a wide difference between the habits of thought engendered by literary pursuits and those begotten of scientific studies. The differ- ence is as marked as are the diverse objects of thought. Literature we know to be personal in its nature, in its method, and, to a great extent, in its object. Science is impersonal, both in its subject matter anassioned, and regards persons and things as labeled abstractions, rather than concrete realities. It works within narrow and closely defined lines. It grows impat^ient of all that does not bear upon the question under consideration and rejects it as a distraction. The habit of mind thus developed is rigid and ex- clusive, and unfits its possessor for grasping and treating with facility other subjects thau those upon which it has had life-long practice.^ It lacks in extension what it gains in comprehension. Is the object of thought one of a literary nature? Here the mind follows a process the reverse of that employed in a scientific pursuit. Its first effort is to grasp the conclusions and work backward to the starting principles. IS'othing comes amiss to it. The thought ajjpar- (Mitly farthest removed from the main idea may throw upon it additional light. All that science, or art, or nature can contribute, the literary mind makes its own, not for the sake of scieuce, or art, or nature, nor by way of determining some unknown truth, or reaching some scientific discovery, but as so many illustrations drawing out, exemplify iug, cleariugb up more vividly the ideal which it has grasped, and which it labors to express. Against every literary mind may be made, and made as little to the purpose, the reproach that the sophist Callicles addressed to Socrates: "By the gods, you never stop talking about shoemakers, fullers, cooks, and physicians, as though our discourse were ' Since writing the above, I find a striking confirmation of its truth by the experi- ence of Professor Tyudall. Speaking of his student life in Germany, about the year IHol, he thus describes the state of his mind : " In those days I not unfrequently found it uecessary to subject myself to a process \Yhich I called depolarization. My brain, intent on its subjects, v.^od to acquire a set resembling the rigid polarity of a steel magnet. It lost the pluuiey needtul for free conversation, and to recover this I used to walk occasionally to Charlottenburg, or elsewhere. From my experiences at that time I derived the imtion that hard thinking and ileet talking (lo not run together." My Schoolx and School matitcis, in tlie Popular Science Monthly for January, 1885. 695 458 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of these." ^ All sncb illustrations are the material out of which the lit- erary mind constructs a body for its conception. Literature is an art, and the process of literature is the process of all art. Js^ote that process. The soul conceives a thought. The thought grows into a central idea, around which grou]> other subordinate ones. It becomes for the soul an ideal. That ideal is nourished by reading, or reflection, or study, or experience, or all of these combined, and quickens into life, and waxes strong, and takes possession not only of the intellect, but of the whole man. and gives him no rest till he finds for it an adequate expression according to the bent of h\g genius, be it that of a poem, a novel, or an historical study, a painting, a statue, or a musical composition. In all this the literary mind experiences with a thoughtful writer, ''how hard it is to think one'sself into a thing and to think its central thought out of it.''- It is not the work of a few days or a few weeks. It is a slow and elaborate process. At the age of four Goethe first wit- nessed the ])uppet-show of Faust. He was still a chOd when he read the legend.^ From that start, the idea enters his soul and takes possession of it, grows into a thing of life; and forthwith it becomes the ruling idea of his life, and he makes it the inspiration of his activity, and molds upon it in many respects both thought and conduct, and picking up all the traits and characteristics of his age, he weaves them into this legend, not hastily, but slowly, studiously, in the spirit of true art, till, finally, in his eighty-second year, he pens the last line of his great Faust poem. The first conception in his fourth, the last line in his eighty-second year; this is ale -ison that he who runs may read. The example of Goethe illustrates the spirit of artistic genius. It takes the old, and remodels it into a new artistic whole. The scientific genius builds upon the foundations already laid. A Xewton or a Descartes may add to the sum of mathematical knowledge ; he may give new meth- ods of demonstration and calculation ; but he leaves untouched every principle and every proposition that science had previously established. Even when such a scientific genius grasps by anticipation a new law or a new truth, he co-ordinates it with other known laws, and corrects his first impressions accordingly. Not so the literary genius : for, whilst both have this in common, that the terms they use possess a recognized value, he of the literary habit makes not— nor does he seek to make — a connection or a continuity with aught of the past; ha\ing grasped the ideal, he labors to give it full and adequate expression independently of any other ideal, jiast or present. He lives and breathes in an at- mos])here of opinion and assumption that permeates his thinking and colors both thought and language : he takes it all for granted ; he draws from it the material with which to shape and strengthen hisown creation. Eichter, in contemplating this literary habit of thought, is filled with admiration : " 1 fear and wonder, " he says, " at the latent almightiness with which man orders — that is, creates his range of ideas. I know no better symbol of creation." * It is, indeed, the process of molding something entirely new and distinct out of material hitherto used for other purposes. It is a creation because it is a launching into existence of an artistic type that pre-existed only as an ideal in the authors mind. It is an imitation — as indeed is all art — in a finite manner, and within the limits belonging to finiteness, of the creative act by which the In- finite First Cause drew all things from nothingness.^ 1 Plato, Gorgias, Cap. XLV. "^Hare, Guesses at Truth, p. 27'). ■'In an abridgment of Wedemanji's Fanst-Book. ■» IVit. Wisdom, and Philosophy of Jean Paul Friedrich Eichter, $ xi, p. 129. ^ See Gioberti. Del Bello., Cap. VI. Del Modo in cni la Fantasia Estetica si pn5 dire Creatrice del Bello., p. 105. 696 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 459 But tliero are certain liabits of tlionjjlit in wliich literary and scien- tifi(t (iietliods interlace and overlaj), to tlie detriment of both letters and science. Here is a case in i)oint. Hcience pretends, and even seri ously undertakes, in tbe study of tlii:ij;s, to discovei' the laws a(;cord- ing; to which they are, and move, and act. But does science always suc- ceed ? Are the laws it claims to have discovered really and indeed in the things themselves or in the mind of the observer ? Let us see. In the natural sciences a law is a generalized experience. Its validity depends upon the range of experience or observation which it covers. Now, that range is frequently very limited. Kot unfrequently is it in- adt»quate. Oftener still, is it confined not so much to things themselves, as to certain aspects of things. Imagination, at a single leap, transcends the facts within the range of observation and exjierience, and under the same generalization includes all possible i'acts and all possible exj)eri ences. Sometimes imagination hits the truth and discerns tlu' order governing a certain nund)er of phenomena. Sometimes, also, it mi> no longer following the scientific method. They are simply misapplying' the literary method. The intellectual structure of their theories is of a piece with the con- stnK;tion of a i)arable or a fable. On the other hand, scientific habits of thinking cause the scientist to look upon persons and things no longer in their concrete nature, but rather as so many abstractions, or, at most, as concrete specimens of an abstract principle. His very feelings and emotions he learns to classify and, as far as possible, separate from himself. He measures the worth of things accordingly. They possess value in proportion as they ex- jdain a difficult problem, or contribute a new truth to the sum of knowl- edge. It has been well remarked, "Even the feelings of speculative men become speculative. They care about the notions of things and their abstractions and their relations, far more than about the reali- ' See Faraday on this law in his paper on the consorvation of force. Youmaus' ed., pp. :i5y-383. - With H. M. S. T7m; Challenger. 697 460 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ties."^ So that, whilst the scieutist may unwittingly briug- literary habits to bear upon scientific issues, to the detriment of science, un- wittingly also may he bring his scientific habits into afiairs of every- day life, and measure persons and things by a false criterii)n. So also may the man of a literary way of thinking use false weights and meas- ures in forming his estimates. "An author's blood will turn to ink. Words enter into him and take possession of him, and nothing can obtain admission except through the passport of words."- And, be- cause words do not always represent the full measure of things or are at times totally inadequate to express them, the mind living in words becomes guilty of blunders no less egregious than the mind living in abstractions. What, then, is the normal state of the mind ? II. The normal function of the human intellect is to apprehend truth. Its activity feeds upon truth, and by truth it is nourished. For truth it was created ; by the light and waruith of truth it develops in strength and grasp; without the truth it gropes in darkness, restless, yearning, in misery, hungering and thirsting for that which alone can satiate its desires. There may be barriers in the way; it may require enduring labor to remove the barriers; opposition only sharpens the eargerness with which the quest is pursued. In this life, subject to the present order of things, with body and sense standing between the soul and the apjjrehension of all knowledge, it is not easy to determine which is the true and which the false. The gratuitous and unquestioned notions acquired in early training ; the habits of thought in which the intellect works; natural likes and dislikes; feeling, sentiment, inclination ; preju- dices of the age and the race; assumptions and opinions that are the out come of one's environments — are all so many hindrances in the way of the clear and simple ap])rehension of truth. But they are not insupeiable barriers. The human intellect, acting in its normal state and according to the laws of its nature, may with time and patience, and without deceiv- ing itself in the process, attain to the knowledge of certain truth. It cannot accept error as error; and if error does, as error will, enter into its calculations, it first assumes the garb of truth, and os such alone is it admitted. 'J'houghtful study, comparison, careful reasoning upon evident principles, truths, and facts, will furnish sufficient light: to pene trate the mask and reveal the underlying falsity, if falsity there be- lt is within the province of the human mind not only to api)reheu(l the truth, but also to recognize, it as truth. In this recognition consists the mind's certainty. It is with absolute certainty that I know and distinguish that two and two make four, and not five or three. There is nothing relative either in my knowing this truth or in my being cer- tain of it. The Hottentot and the Indian are equally certain. The Agnostic who denies this absolute certainty is also equally certain. It is an ultimate fact of consciousness. If you would inquire how I know that I am certain with an absolute certainty, I can give you no further reason than that, being constructed as I am, I cannot think differently. It is of the very essence of my reason so to think. Nor could it be otherwise. God could not create a reason whose normal condition of thinking would be such as to make two and two equal to any other number than four, without annihilating Himself. Such an act were to destroy the very essence of reason; it would therefore be an infinite 1 Hare, Guesses at Truth, p. 495. » Ibid. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 461 colli rndiction of God's Infinite Nature. The one is as unOiinkable as tlie other. I am ^Yhat I am. I find myself to be what I am as a tliiuk- iiiii' being independently of myself. I take myself on trust. 1 take on trust all the faculties of my soul. I use them as I find them. What lliey report to my consciousness — my inner self — as true, I accept as true. I cannot do otherwise. The attitude of my mind towards all knowledge is the same to this extent, that in all, it seeks to discern the true from the false, to reject the ialse and to accept the true. For tliis reason, I cannot agree with Mr. Herbert Spencer when he tells us that "we are not permitted to know — nay, we are not even per- mitted to conceive — that Reality which is behind the veil of Appear- ance."^ Why not? Whereis the hiuderauce! Since we recognize this reality, do we not conceive it? It seems to me that the knowing and thinking of Mr. Herbert Spencer is not the knowing and thinking of the normal intellect. If we are not permitted to know or conceive this reality back of appearance, how come we to know that it exists? And yet Mr. Spencer is sure of its existence and recognizes it as essential to our thinking. Eecently he has explained himself more fully in these words: "Phenomenon without noumeuou is unthinkable; and yet nou- menon cannot be thought of in the true sense of thinking. We are at once obliged to be conscious of a reality behind appearance, and yet can neither bring this consciousness of reality into any shape, nor can bring into anyshai)e its connection with ap[)carance. The forms of our thought, molded on experiences of phenomena, as well as the connotations of our words formed to ex])ress the relations of phenomena, involve us in contradictions when we try to think of that which is beyond phenom- ena ; and yet the existence of that which is beyond phenomena is a necessary datum alike of our thoughts and umenon is to the phenomenon. We perceive the one in the other. We perceive it ami we know it. We accept the vouchment of our intellect on the subject. True, we can- not pass beyond this vouchment and give this noumeuou a local habi- tation and a name. What then? At this jioint we discern the fallacy of Mr. Herbert Sjiencer's conclusions, lie seems to forget that the ultimate analysis of any and every thought brings home to us the fact that the clearly defined image of the thought does not represent the whole thought; that that image is only a symbol; that the word in wlii(;li that image is expressed is also a symbol; and that in this man- ner every expression is only a symbol, symbolizing a symbol of the thing exi>ressed. And it may happen, and it does liap])en, that we think correctly in terms of things of which we know nothing beyond their existence and relations. Such is the case with space and time. The great intellect of an Augustine wrestled with the problems of these ' First Principles, p. 110. ^Last Words about Agnosticism ; in the Nineteenth Century, December, 1884. 09'J 462 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. two idea!< ; the more he tsougbt to fathom them the greater was his awe. And his verdict on the problem of time is that iu which all thinkers must rest. " If nobody questions me, I know ; if I should attempt an explanation, I know not."^ In other words, we know these things to use them rightly in our thinking, but we cannot grasp at a sufficiently clear image of them to explain them to others. Therefore, in opposi- tion to Mr. Spencer, we may lay down the proposition that we not only think the noumenon, but we know it and conceive it back of the phe- nomenon — not, indeed, as an image distinct from the phenomenon, but as an element in the existence of the ])henomenon without which the phenomenon would be unthinkable. Furthermore, whilst our thinking is cncumscribed, words and images are not the measure of its limits. 2 Nor can I agree with Pascal when he tells us, "It is a natural disease of man to believe that he i^ossesses truth directly; whence it comes that he is always disposed to deny whatever he does not understand; whereas in reality he naturally knows only alsehood, and he should take for true only those things whose opposites seem false.'* ^ Why call that conviction of direct knowledge of the truth a malady? What would become of reasoning and inferring, of all indirect knowledge, if that which we hold directly is not valid f It is all based upon this very conviction. Man is born for the truth ; how comes it that falsehood should be more acceptable^ - "If our intellect," says Mivart, "is to be trusted at all, it must be trusted in what it dechires to be the most certain of all, namely, necessary truths."* But our intellect is to be trusted even as we trust the reality of our own existence; and necessary truths do not come to us by a process of indirection, but are directly and immediately self evident. We have no other vouchmeut than that we take u[)on trust our whole nature, and with it the normal workings of our intellect You may call it an assumption or any other name you choose to give, but it is none the less a fact, the most i>rnnary of all facts, unlied,^ we may go farther, and say that without the ideal there is no reality. Nature recognizes the ideal. She has her types and works by them. Each of her products is a specific realization of a separate type. As genus is a reality distinct from, and causative of, the species, so is each of Nature's types a reality distinct from the concrete thing fashioned after it, and causative thereof. Hence it is that, in the animal and even the vegetable world, we daily witness reversions to older ty])es, and the reproduction of ancestral traits of character. Nor is this all. Ascend- ing higher still " Upon the j^reat world's altar-stairs That slope thro' darkness np to God," we come to the prototype of all created types, and find it existing in the Word. Here is the source and fountain-head of the ideal. In the Word — from the beginning — before there was a beginning of time, and the voice of God caused created things toleaj) forth from nothingness — throughout the cycles of eternity — G od contemplated those types. And by the Word were they made real in the order of created things. Were the eternal type not in the Word, the actual existences fashioned after it would not be. And this is why we say that, without the ideal, thei'e is I o reality. We have at last found the origin and source of the ideal. In all earnestness have we sought it; and, hushed in holy awe before the Godhead, in a loving reverence do we contemplate its S])lendor. The Word is not only the source of all created existences ; the Word is also the light that enlightens this world. Its glory is reflected, now dimly, now clearly, in every created thing. As the reason is illumi- nated with a light above and beyond the sparks that it throws out in its workings — that light giving it ail necessary and self-evident truths; as the spiritual sense is nurtured and strengthened by that mysterious energy called grace; so the created ideal in each individual mind is enlightened and vivified by the uncreated ideal dwelling in the Word. This illumination of the ideal is the expression of the beautiful. We now know whence it comes that a thing of beauty becomes for each of us a joy forever. It is the mission of the artist to rend the veil of accidents and accessories in which the ideal is shrouded, and ])resent it to us in all its beauty and loveliness. And the beauty reflected there- from lights up the folds and inner caverns of our souls, and reveals therein a recognition of this ideal, and reflected from our inmost souls is the image of Him from wiiom we come, and M^ho is our Home — His image and a pale reflex of the splendor of His glory. On beholding this reflection we are moved; our souls are stirred to their veiy center; a yearning takes i)ossession of us, a longing for the home whence we came, a groping after the Invisible Ideal, and we feel our souls vibrate beneath the touch of the Infinite. God is in us and we are in God, and the sense of our nearness to Him grows upon us. This is the experi- ence that passes over us in the presence of the ideal. It is the expe- rience tliat Plato has grandly recorded in his wonderful allegory.^ 1 I'hadruf!, Cap. XXIX, p. 714! -Tu another work of mine may l)e found additional reinarks on this doctrine: Phi- losophy of lAieraiurc, Part II, Cliap. I, ]>. 124. 3 In the J'hcvdfus, Cap. XXXIH-XXXVIII. 7950 COT., PT. 2 30 708 466 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. IV. We are now in position to nnderstand the importance of an ideal in literary babits of thought. It is essential to them. Literature is the iorm of art the most varied and complicated. Plato hath well and ai)tly snid of a literary structure, "Every speech ought to be put together like a living creature, with a body of its own, so as neither to be with- out head, nor without hands, nor without feet; but to have both a be- ginning, a middle, and an end, described ])roportionarely to one another and to the whole."' So to construct a literary masterpiece that part fits to part and each is subordinate to the whole, requires a central idea. As the parts in the animal organism are determined by the vital ])rin- ciple animating them, in such manner that all uncon.sciously develo]) into titness and harmony, even so is it with the literary production. When the central thought, the animating principle — the ideal — is clearly grasped, it shapes the form in which it would be expressed. This teach- ing is clear and simple, and as ancient as art. It is the teaching on whicli all the masterpieces throughout the ages h^ive been constructed. You may wonder why I lay stress upon what seems to be an elementary and incontrovertible principle. I will tell you. It is because Agnostic science rejects this beautiful and ennobling doctrine of the ideal, and regards what we have here advanced as a play of fancy. The Agnostic can neither weigh nor measure this ideal; he therefore relegates it to the regions of the impossible. And yet, even the Agnostic knows and feels, and, so to speak, touches the ideal. By what right does he regard as an illusion a thing so intimate to him? lie has no more reason for rejecting the ideal than he has for accepting some of the most positive conclusions of science. In his last analysis he would resolve the whole universe into an ultimate atom. But why should he? Lie has never seen, nor weighed, nor measured that atom. You say that he infers it. But what right has he to infer anything f Why should he deal in inferences? lie does not accept the vouchments of his con- sciousness, or his reason, or his memory. He does not take himself for granted The evident brings no evidence to him. Vouchers lor error are to him equally convincing with vouchers for truth.^ His knowledge is merely subjective impressions. He is himse-lf but an impression. He recognizes only phenomenon. You will bear witness that I am not in- venting; I am simply, almost in the Agnostic's own words, describing the habitual state of mind in which he lives and thinks. Are not the words of Plato as fresh and of as direct application to the Agnostic of today as they were to the sophist of his age? "Let us not admit into our souls," he' says, "the notion that there appears to be nothing sound in reasoning, but much rather that we are not yet in a sound condition, and that we ought vigorously and strenuously to endeavor to become sound." ^ Moreover, it never occurs to the Agnostic that, if there is nothing beyond phenomenon and phenomenal impressions, there is no true science ; for, in order that a science exist, there must needs be more than the mere cataloguing of facts and observations. But this is all that is warranted on the assumption that all knowledge is made up of phenomenal impressions. Thus does the Agnostic contradict the pri- mary fticts of his nature and the elementary workings of his intellect. Consider the scientific method. Facts are observed, then classihed and ' Phmlrus, Cap. XLVTI, p. 726. -Spo Kaiit/s Paralogisms and Autiuomios. Critique of Pure Reason, Bk. II. ^Fhado, Cap. XI, p. 76. 704 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 467 luethodized; i)rincii)les are stated; laws are inferred or asserted; a rea- souiii^ process based upon known truths and facts is jjone through, and leads up toother truths and other laws hitherto unknown. But all this implies an order of things above and beyond m-re ]>henoinena. It im- plies a world of idens, and therefore the existence of an ideal. And in ignoring this world of ideas and of necessary truths, the Agnostic, in all logic, is compelled to abandon science and deny even the existence of the external world. The true scientist admits both the internal and external orders upon the same plane of evidence ; and this is the cri- terion of true science, that it rejects no fact, accepts things as it finds them, and seeks for all an adequate explanation. Plato, in one of those sublime passages that light up a whole world of thought, thus shows how our knowledge of things is not simply of the transient and the phenomenal, but of essences and eternal princi- ples: "Essence," he says, "which really exists colorless, formless, and intangible" — which, therefore, let me remark, is above the conditions of time and si)ace — " is visible only to intelligence that guides the soul, and around this essence the family of true science take up their abode. And, as the Divine Mind is nourished by intelligence and pure science, so the mind of every soul that is about to receive what properly belongs to it, when it sees after a long time that which is, is delighted, and by con- templating the truth is nourished and thrives. * * * And it beholds justice herself, and temperance, and science, not that to which creation — ytreffis — is annexed, nor that which is different in different things of those we call real,^ hut that tvhich is science in ivhat really is.''"''^ This is the only science to think in. It is, indeed, the only true science. Ag- nostic science loses its claim to the title of science by placing itself in a habit of thinking inconsistent with itself and derogatory to the intellect, to thought, and to real knowledge. It is unscientific in another direc- tion. AH science worthy of the name confines itself to its subject-mat- ter, and acknowledges itself incompetent to pronounce upon issues out- side of its clearly defined limits. This rule Agnosticism does not ob- serve. Pretending to deal exclusively with the visible, the material, the phenomenal, it passes judgment upon the invisible and supersensible, the spiritual and supernatural. Finally, Agnosticism, in regarding the ideal as an illusion and the outcome of error, is thereby, so far as in it lies, the death of the ideal and the bane of all literary excellence — indeed of all artistic excellence whatever. In what manner and how far it remains for us to note. The shadow of Agnostic science has crept over the spirit of art and letters. Now, we have seen that there is no real art without the ideal, and that it is the function of art to appeal to our admiration by the presentation of the ideal in all possible beauty and vividness. But whilst the artist disentangles the ideal from such accidents and acces- sories as tend to conceal it, he still clothes it in nature. Out of the maierials that nature furnishes, he fashions for it a body, and breathes into that body the ideal as its living soul, and forthwith the master- piece stands out a thing of life and beauty and artistic excellence for undying admiration. Defects of detail may enter into its execution; but they are lost, forgotten, absorbed in the general effect produced. ' Or as Jowett more strongly translates it, "Not in the form of generatiou or of relation, which men call existence, but knowledge absolute, in existence absolute." Jowctt's Plato, Vol. II, p. .581. ^FhcBdriis, Cap. XXVU, p. 713. 705 468 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. It is tlie Transfiguration of Raffaelle. Who, iu preseuce of that noble scene, would cavil about the posing- of limbs or the laws of perspective!' It is the Hamlet of Shakespeare. Surely, he who overlooks the power, the depth, the philosophy, the dramatic greatness of that tragedy, and quarrels with grammatical structnre or obscure expression, has yet to learn the eleiuents of true criticism. Or, it is the Fhwdo of Plato, whose sublime thoughts so frequently recur throughout the sentences that I now repeat to you. He who should stop at the hard metaphysics or the apparently pointless questions and obscure answers, and not soar with Socrates in his dying song into the pure regions of truth, proves that he lacks the sympathy and knowledge to appreciate Grecian thought iu the days of Plato, and is, therefore, unable to i)lace at its worth one of the sublimest pieces of writing ever penned by human hand.2 Or, it is the Divina Gommedia. What boots it that Dante's estimates of meu and measures are uot those of the historian? It de- tracts naught from the wonderful poem. Men are lost in admiration when they note the care with which word is built upon word, each having a special significance, and all made into a grand allegory wrought out of the politics and the philosophy, the strife and struggle, the fierce hates aud the strong loves, in which the author lived and moved and fought. Or, it is Mozart'ss Mequietn. The critic who would quarrel with that grand composition, because in its intricate and com- plicated structure, speaking of a life's hopes and fears, and the more awful hopes and fears beyond the grave, he misses the sweeter strains of other days, would fail to grasp the sublime conception of the piece, as a whole. Or, it is the Gothic Cathedral. Who thinks of making faces at gargoyle or statued niche, where all is emblem and significancy. the stone embodiment of a nation's aspirations ? We read in it thought, satire, censure, desire, path ;s, passion.^ In all these instances, back of the mechanical structure, looking out upon us, and peering into our souls, is the ideal. Now, Agnostic science would promulgate theories calculated to i)ar- alyze art, and render it incapable of producing such masterpieces as we have instanced. Jne is the theory that claims that all art has no other aim than to construct the form for the form's sake. Much that is done to-day, whether in words, or on the canvas, or in marble, is done for the simple pleasure of producing. Now the art that has only itself for its aim, may amuse, may please, may even cause admiration on ac- count of the mechanical skill exhibited ; but it is not the art that en- dures for all time. I will grant you that a Shakespeare or a Goethe may sing as the blackbird sings; butl deny that their art is without l)uvpose. Distinguish between the art that is conscious and that that is unconscious. The ^sopian fable is conscious in purpose ; it is writ- ten for a definite aim. But of the great masterpieces that we have been contemplating, can you say that they are purposeless, or that their end is simply this or that ? In each of them one may read as many puri)oses as one takes aspects of them. Their authors may have had no other intention than that of unburdening themselves of the great thougiit that oppressed their souls; but as surely as their work ' For an instance of snch caviling, see Taine's Italy, Eng. tr., pp. 142, 143. '■^It is Ibis lack of sympathy that makes the reading of Plato so laborious. Perhaps it is a failing to distinguish Ijetween the mental habits of the ancient Atheuians and tluise of modern thinkers that has led Mr. Mahaffy, in his admirable History of Greek J.ikrature (Vol. II, p. 173), to make the criticism noticed above as regards part of the dialogue. ='This idea has been grandly drawn out by Victor Hugo, in Noire Dame de Paris, Liv. Ill, Chap. I. 706 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 469 oxpiossos nil idoal, so surely ettiuess. Nowhere is this more evident than in the world of letters. Just as a word has value only inasmuch as it expresses an idea, so any number of words strung together is meaningless and inane, unless it expresses a thought, not for the expression's sake, but for that of the thought. The sophists of Plato's day attempted to tt'ach ex- pression for the form's sake. He refuses the very name of art to such expression. " She lies," he tells us in his own scathing words, '-and is not an art, but an inartistic trick. "^ And, in the domain of fiction, it hath well been said that one can no more conceive a great novel with- out a purpose than one can conceive an arcii without a keystone.^ All art worthy of the name is imbued with the earnestness of life. Con- sciously or unconsciously, the artist's is a mission to crystallize in his w^ork the spirit of the age; it is, also, his mission to educate his age, to raise it above itself, and to sustain its aspirations upward and on- ward — " Artistry behig battle with the age It lives in! Half life, — silence, while yon learn What has been done ; the other half, — attempt At speech, amid world's wail of wonderment — ' Here's somethiuj; done was never done before!' — To be the very breath that moves the age, Means not to have breath drive you bubble-like Before it — but yourself to bhro : thaVs strain; Strain's worry through the life-time, till there's peace; We know Avbere peace expects the artist-soul."^ YI. Another theory fostered and developed by Agnostic science is the so- called Realism in literature and art. It is the outcome of ignoring the ideal, or regarding it as the product of error. If there is no ideal, or if the ideal is only an illusion, then there is nothing beyond the nature we behold and live in ; then the supreme eflFort of all art is to delineate that nature in detail with the greatest fidelity ; then the sole rule of art is, "Copy, describe, imitate, express minutely whatever you see or hear: the more accurately you follow your model the greater artist you are." There is in this doctrine a mixture of truth and error. True it is that art cannot ignore nature. The world we live in is the material u])on which it works. Therefore the artist observes men and things; he studies the nature without him and the nature within him; he ex])eri- ments; he compares, judges, discriminates; in this way does he gather up and select the subject-matter upon which he afterwards labors for artistic purposes. But there is in all this more than mere imitation. ' Prose works, Bohn ed., Dramatic Notes, No. 34, p. ;J27. '^jiai ovH edri revxv, «AA' arexvoi rpi^r}. I'hadrus, Cap. XLIII. ^This remark was made to the author by one of the most successful of living American novelists, Mr. W. D. IIowclls. * Robert Browning: lied Cotton yight-Cap Country, ii. 110. 707 470 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT. NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. It is fi wliolesome Realism, and does not exclude the ideal. It is the Eealisin that Millet paints and Ruskin commends. The art that merely imitates can only produce a corpse; it lacks the vital spark, the soul, which is the ideal, and which is necessary in order to create a living organic reality that will quicken genius and arouse enthusiasm through- out the ages. Let us make the distinction ; it is a vital one : Art is not imitation ; art is interpretation. This distinction the Realistic school in art and letters loses sight of. Accordingly, it abandons all attempt at an ideal ; it makes no effort to read the lessons of nature ; it sees nothing in nature to read beyond the cold, hard lines that it traces. Here Agnostic science steps in, and directs this school in the ways it must walk. It teaches that, as the only knowledge is the knowledge of observation and experiment, upon these two lines must art work. And, as the novel is the most potent literary influence of the day, it would especially make the novel a mere study in nature and character, in which naught is to be set down save what has fallen under the eye or has been experienced in actual life. On the face of it, this theory is sound enough. By all means, let us have ob- servation and experiment. But distinguish between the observation that takes in all the elements of nature, and the observation that regards only its material side. The latter alone falls under the scope of the Realistic school. It has no other field for development. lu consequence, it deals only with man living and acting out his brute nature in ^11 its cunning and sensuality. The writers of this school give us observa- tions indeed ; but they are of the street and the tavern. They picture human nature ; but it is diseased human nature. They paint us life episodes ; but what lives ! Now it is the drunkard's ; now it is that of the fallen woman ; now it is that of actors and authors of Bohemian ways ; again it is that of notorious criminals ; invariably it is passion wallowing in the mire of depravity. This is no freak. It is a systematic procedure, and the logical outcome of the Realistic school as inspired by Agnostic science. Believing only in the animal man, naught elne remains for the members of this school to depict. Not saintliness of life; for saintliness of life means to them only hypocrisy, or, at most, warped character. Not nobility of thought or word ; for weak, erring, human nature is the only nature that the Agnostic recognizes. In his last word he is a pessimist. The conclusions of Schopenhauer on the misery of life, its worthlessness, its crime, its helplessness in the great macljine of the universe, are those to which every logical Agnostic must come.^ The only poetry he can weave is that which, with Ackerman, cries out in an agony of despair and rebellion worthy of Satani^ But this is not the world in which we live and move. This is not the human nature that we are cognizant of. The circle of our acquaintance includes — we know intimately — men and women of a far different stamp ; men and women who are true and faithful in their love and friendship; grand and generous souls, who are self-sacrificing whenever good is to be accomplished or duty to be fulfilled; who think and say the sweetest and sublimest thoughts; whose lives are pure and disinterested ; whose intentions and aspirations are elevated and ennobling; who, in the daily round of their beautiful lives, shed around them loveliness and peace and joy and gladness of heart. These are the men and women that surround us, and beneath whose influence for good our own hearts and souls strive to rise in the scale of perfection. Here is the reality that we know. Here is the reality that even the Agnostic knows. It 1 See Schopenhauer's Essay oa the Misery of Life. « Poesies Philosophiquea, par L. Ackerman. Paris, 1877. 708 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 471 is only in his library that humanity is to him such a monster. The lowliest life has its sublime passages. It has wherewith to inspire the poet, for it has its ideal. In this thought we place our consolation and our hope for the future of art and letters. "Realism," said an eloquent French preacher, "is a chronic disease; it is the leprosy of art; it is the epidemic of literature in the nineteenth century."^ This is the proper diagnosis of the case. Let it be treated as a leprosy or an epidemic. If Realistic works are left untouched and the home atmosphere is kept purified, both leprosy and epidemic will soon die out.^ VII. Such are the relations that exist between the literary and the scien- tific spirit. Each has a distinct sphere. Each may aid the other. But when one assumes the functions of the other or attempts to dictate to the other, collision and confusion are the result. We have noticed an interlacing and overlapping of literary and scientific habits of thought, greatly to the detriment of both literature and science. We may trace this cause to the present intellectual state of our own day. Every age may, in a sense, be said to be in a state of transition, for all time is a Becoming. But there are influences hovering over epochs and peoples thaUgive them a characteristic coloring, and place ui)on them a dis- tinctive impress. Our age is pre-eminently a transition period. New discoveries, new industries, and nev/ sciences are calling for new terms, new habits of thought, and new iiiethods of work. And yet, much of our thiuking runs in old grooves. We are groping in mist and dark- ness, with new and complex j^roblems pressing upon us harder and fast- er than we can solve them. Each decade brings its riddle. The con- jectures of one decade become the conclusions of the next, and are made the elementary truths of the third. Hence it is that the books of the day are so many fleeting records of impressions as fleeting. Hence the mental entanglements and inconsistencies that beset men's thoughts and actions, their reasoning and their sentiments, their formal expres- sions and their inner convictions. Now every age and every people whose spirit became crystallized in a literature that may be called classic, was possessed of a central thought, an all-absorbing idea — in a word, an ideal — that fired genius and laid its impress upon the form of expression. Thus, the Hindu lit- erature teems throughout with the illusory and passing nature of all things earthly; the inmost feeling that this life is only a ijreparatiou for another form of existence, pervades its poetry and philosophy and 'R. P6re Felix, Conferences, 1867; Conf. V, p. 251. "There ia an awakeuing to the dauger all along the line. In Denmark, the poet Drachmau, to the surprise of many, in his last volume of poems, Deep Chofds, has entered protest against the Realistic spirit, and proclaimed himself the poet of " heart and home" (Viggo Petersen in Athenamm, No. 298:5, Dec. 27, 1884). Speaking of this school in Italy, Signer Bonghi writes in the same number of this journal : " JBut while in the past, years there was a great array of poets following this path, and one saw lying about in every bookseller's shop their elegant volumes of every kind of shape and type, but especially the Elzevir, this year there is not one to he seen, and their ]iriucipal publisher, Zanichelli of Bologna, tells mehe no longer publishes ani/ on his own account." The fact is significant. M. de Pressensd writes words no less encouraging from the parent -soil of this school. "If it is true that in literature, as in every- thing else, the demand in the long run regulates the supply, it is indubitable — and this is a consoling prospect of which we have need — that a reaction will, before long, set in throughout France, and that our country will not endure to all eternity the debasement of the level of the imagination and the corruption of art" {Atkenanim, Ibid, p. 833). 709 472 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. in a great measure molds the Hiudu life. So with the literature and art of ancient Greece. The one absorbing idea that became a passion lor her, was beauty of form and corresponding harmony of expression and action — a beauty and harmony everywhere reflected from her sculpture, her arcliitecture, her poetry, and her life. So it was with ancient Kome. All Eome's greatness, all her conquests, all her jurisprudence, her public and domestic life, her art, her worships, her literature, were centered iYi, and became the outcome of, the one idea of Eome. To be a Roman cit- izen was the supreme badge of honor; to live for Rome was the sole aim of life; to die for Rome was the most heroic of deaths; to sing Rome's glories, to record her deeds, or to perpetuate the names of her heroes, was the highest ambition of her greatest poets and historians. The lit- erature of medisBval days has also its distinct mark. It reflects through- out the spirit of chivalry and feudalism. This is the one idea into which all thought is translated. Even the popular religious writings of the day represent the soul as standing towards its Maker in the relation of serf or yeoman to his baronial lord, and as going through life in a spirit- ual combat with the powers of chirkness. But the idea of chivalry and feudalism is for us a matter of history ; it no longer comes home to us as a living reality; we are outgrowing the forms of thought into which it so largely entered. Our modern life has little or nothing in common with those days of adventure seeking, and wonderful feat-performing. Commerce and the industries and sci- ences are the absorbing occupations of the present. But we lack, or we fail to see, a distinctive centralizing thought, predominating over our lives and molding action and expression into a harmonious whole. Our business affairs are one thing; our literature and its topics arc another thing. Agnosticism is making strenuous efforts to impress its spirit upon life and thought. It has enlisted under its banner genius, culture, learning, and passion. But the underlying principle of Agnos- ticism is negation, and a reversion to what is brutal and debasing in the pagan ideal; and the age is not prepared to accept such a principle. The leaven of Christianity permeates too intimately the world's thinking.' There is profound truth in the sublime expression of Tertullian, that the human soul is naturally Christian. It loves positive, wholesome truth; it pines in bondage till it possesses truth; but holding the truth, the truth shall make it free. Too long has it fed upon the nourishing meats of Christian truth to be content with the winnowed husks of negation that Agnosticism would impart. Through long and dreary ages, the world fed upon all that Agnosticism has to offer it, and souls became starved, and civilizations went down and were buried in the grave of materialism. Agnosticism cannot harmonize the clashing elements of the age. In the meantime it is the life-work of each of us to harmonize in his own nature all the elements that go to make it up. Socrates, on that memorable day when he drank the hemlock cup, told the faithful fol- lowers who were gathered around him, how at different times a dream visited him in diverse forms, exhorting him to apply himself to the culti- vation of music.'^ By music, Socrates meant not simply that combiua- ' I am glad to present this corroboration from one whom all will regard as a not over-])artial witness: "To deny that Christianity in its various forms has been, and still is, one of the greatest powers in the world, or to deny that its leading tloctrinea have, in fact, been associated in many ways with all that we commonly recognize as virtue, is like denying the agency of the sun in the physical world." (James Fitzjanies Stephen in the Xhietvenlh CentuVy for Juno, 1834.) 'The admission is a remarkable one, coming from Mr. Stephen. •^Phwdo, Cap. IV, ed. Hirschigii, T. I, p. 46. 710 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 473 tioii of sounds tlint catches iij) a few frajinients of tin's world's Larmo- iiies, and with them moves our souls. There is another and a hi.yher music. It is the music of a soul in which. dwell order and method; which co-ordinates all knowledge; which recoonizes the ideal; in which the good, the true, and the beautiful are cultivated, each acconling to its own nature, and by its own method. It is the rhythm of a thoroughly- disciplined intellect and a well-regulated life. That dream conies to us all. In its fulhlhnent, will we find the reconciliation of literary with scientitic habits of thought. 711 THE MODERN GROWTH OF CITIES AND THE EDUCATION DEMANDED BY IT. By W. T. Harris, LL. D., Concord, Mass. In 1790, only three and one-third per cent, of the population of the United States lived in cities of over eight thousand people. Twenty- nine persons oat of thirty lived in small towns or rural districts. Sixty years later — in 1850 — the city population had increased to twelve and a half per cent., or one-eighth, having doubled twice. In 1885, thirty-five years later, the urban population has doubled again, and now one-fourth of the population lives in cities varying in size from eight thousand to a million. If we count the suburban populations so connected by rail- way to the cities that their form and mode of living is urban, we may safely estimate the city population at oue-half of the total. This urban movement, extending throughout the present century, is not confined to the United States, but extends to all that part of the civilized world aflVcted by productive industry and the invention of labor-saving machinery. The power-loom, the steam-engine and its uses in the mill and on the railroad, have initiated this urban develop- ment. The railroads in the United States aggregated, in 1870, about .50,000 miles, and in the fifteen years since have increased to 130,000 miles. With the labor-saving machine came an immense stimulus to associ- ative effort. Food, clothing, and shelter couhl be obtained in such larger quantities and at so much less expenditure of manual labor that every individual became rich in prospect. .lust as the discovery of the California gold mines attracted a steady current of migration, and the distinction between rich and poor seemed no longer a fixed and cruel gulf requiring the sacrifice of an entire life to cross to the other side, so the superfluous masses of the ijopulation heard gladly of the new spin- ning and weaving mills, and flocked to the villages where they could obtain steady employment and such wages as seemed to them a golden harvest. Before 1700 they had formed an abject class of rural popula- tion, owning no land and dwelling in rude hovels, with only such food and clothing as could be procured with the small wages given them for occasional service on the farms near by. Instead of occasional seasons of work and most inadequate wages on the farms, this po])ulation ob- tained in the newly established mills of Manchester and Birmingham constant employment at remunerative wages, better dwellings, better food and clotbiug, and plenty. Hence villages grew and continued to grow wherever water-power could be obtained. Soon there were cities where there had been hamlets. Then the products of manufacture demanded trade and transjiorta- tion, reaching out to the far-off cotton fields in Alabama or the Indies, and a vast army of men received employment as sailors and teamsters 712 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDtlCATORS — PAPERS. 475 ai](l traders, bringinrinting press works by steam, and reduces the human labor to one-liftieth of the amount required by the old hand press. Ihe machine changes the demand for muscular labor to a demand for brain labor. This is progressively developed : at first muscle is primary anopulation it is not absolutely indispensable that universal school education exist. A sort of patriarchal rule may prevail, and the intelligence of one brain suffice for many hands. Urban civilization is radically difltreut in this regard, and no patri- archal rule ever sufficed for a city. Demagoguism with its bottomless abysses of corruption yawns beneath a city where the schools do not provide for all classes of people. The city is the greatest instrument of human blessing when its citi- zens are enlightened; but an ignorant populace is sure to be used by demagogues or tyrants. In the presence of illiterate masses even the educated man becomes corrupted, and resorts to unscrupulous means to attain power over the hydra-headed monster of the mob. But though a demagogue may be a well-schooled man, he will never find his followers among the well-S2hooled; for schooling develops individuality and a centrifugal tendency that cannot be overcome by mere personal mag- netism. Educated people, even if immoral, demand a cause or some general interest to attract their partisanship, and they will refuse to yield to the mere gregarious instinct which })revails over the illiterate man. Participation in the blessings of urban civilization demands school education as its prerequisite, and the delicate machinery of free govern- ment finds such education absolutely essential to its successful operation. 719 SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS RELATING TO NATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION. By Thomas W. Bickkki.t , LL. D., Boston, Mass. One of the distiuguisbiDg characteristics of oni state and general gov- ernments, in marked contrast with those of leading European powers, is their position with reference to public education. The primary idea of the American State is a body of intelligent and self-goveining citizens. Freedom, secular and religious, implies knowledge, reason, self-control. As neither of these qualities is hereditary, it tollows that an agency must be established to create and perpetuate the conditions of self- government. To the Fathers it seemed that illiteracy degraded the individual, was a foe to social order, a constant menace to good government, and a cor rupter of a pure spiritual faith. Within its loins, as they conceived, were generated base passions, criminal indulgences, and the agencies which destroy hope, happiness, and life. Hence the free school at Plymouth, the colleges at Harvard and Yale, the university of Jefferson in Virginia, and the grand conception of a great University at Wash- ington, born of the wise fatherhood of Washington. Mr. Burke, in his speech on American Conciliation, found the causes which made liberty in America "fierce", (1) in descent, (2) in the colonial forms of government, (3) in religion in the northern provinces, (4) in manners in the southern, (5) in education, and (G) in remoteness of sit- uation; and John Adams, in the enumeration of the advantages of New England society, says, "The public institutions in New England for the education of youth, supporting colleges at the public expense and oblig- ing towns to maintain grammar schools, are not equaled, and never were, in any part of the world." In evidence that faith and works were one in the colonial sentiment, before the year 17G5 seven colleges had been founded in the British col- onies: William and Mary in Virginia, the University of Pennsylvania, l^ew Jersey College, now Princeton, King's, now Columbia, in New York, Yale at New Haven, Rhode Island College, now Brown Univer- sity, at Providence, and Harvard University at Cambridge. The genius of American institutions may then be seen in the common school and the college, which stood for high intelligence and Christian manhood. Toward both, the town and the colouj^ exercised a paternal interest and care, and the support of both was the first provision of the new society, in order that the public weal might suffer no detriment Irom the allowance of ignorance in matters secular or religious. Froa^ town through colonial history we find the constant recognition of the protection of society by the encouragement and aid of the common school. As the Old Thirteen were but the union of colonial principles, we find in 7-20 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 483 the Union the same devotion to the idea of nniversnl education. Tlie cardinal maxim of the founders was, "The tirst tlntv of a State is to educate its people." ]^ational aid to education is then no novel theory boin of idealists of the nineteenth century. Ihe founders of our States and the Fathers of our Eepublic saw the need of the common school, api)reciated its neces- sity for the happiness of the citizen and the welfare of the State, and applied the preventive Jor illiteracy in early legislation for the common .school. 2vote, however, that this legislation threw the responsibility of ;.he educational burdens on the local communities. Their action was memorable, and the actors distinguished themselves as statesmen, among whom were Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, Sher- man, Madison, Monroe, Hamilton, Morris, and others of lesser fame. The two ordinances of the government of the Korth-west Territory, enacted in 1785 and 1787, set apart section sixteen of every townshij) lor maintaining public schools, and as a justification for such a generous and sovereign gift, this memorable declaration was instituted for the benefit of posterity: "Eeligion, morality, and knowledge being neces- sary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of educaticn shall be forever encouraged." It has not been unusual for kings and conquerors to grant title deeds of vast estates to enrich their favorites, but when in history has it been known that leg- islators have bestowed such princely fortunes, not on titled gre/.tness, but on the handmaids of freedom, — religion, morality, and knowledge? SUPPORT OF HIGHER EDUCATION. But the Fathers of this great commonwealth of States, only one-third of which, as now, being then born, looked beyond the common school as one of the essential needs of free States, and with a wisdom which puts to shame much of the public discussion of our day relative io higher education, provided that two complete townships of lands should be given perpetually for the purposes of a university; and in full com- pliance with this i)rovision, two townships have been given to every State organized since the commencement of the present century. Ohio, the tirst State admitted to the Union from the celebrated North- west Territory, has been fortunate enough to acquire three towuslfips, — one while a territory, and two on her admission to the Union in 1802, while Florida and Wisconsin each have received four. The States which have received the sixteenth section only are Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, ]\laine, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Iowa, and Texas, the last of which was admitted to the Union in 1848. FURTHER GRANTS FOR EDUCATION. In the same year that Wisconsin was admitted as a State, Oregon was organized as a Territory, and Congress made further provisions tor the maintenance of common schools, setting apart the sixteenth and the thirty sixth sections of each townshij) for their support; so that all the States admitted since 1848 have received the benefit of the two sections donated for common school education. These States are Cali- fornia, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, and Colorado. Were it a part of our i)resent i>urpose, we could show the added gen- erosity of the Government in its later legislation, by which several States, notably those admitted to the Union since 1849, have received an aggregate of 75.000,000 acres of land, which have been in the main 484 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXrOSITION, honestly devoted to tbe purposes of poimlar education, and now con- stitute an accumulated ])ermanent school fund, in eighteen States, of $50,000,000. From the North-west Territory, which so early received the notable considerations of such wise legislation and muuiticent ben- efactions, have been formed five great States — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and a part of a sixth, Minnesota, which was ad- mitted to the Union in 1857, the same year that the National Educa- tional Association was formed at Philadelphia. NEEDS OF NATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION TO-DAY. These States of ours are a community with common interests and a common destiny. The evils which afflict one touch the life of all. Tbe blessing which adds to the common weal in one section of our land, however remote from the center, blesses all. Illiteracy is a universal menace to free institutions. Intelligence is a perpetual safeguard. Of the 50,155,783 people of the United States, there are 0,2:39,958 over ten years of age (12.44 ])er cent., or nearly one-eighth of our en- tire population) who cannot write. These illiterates are thus dis- tributed : Illiterate whites in the 22 Northern States 1, 272, 208 Illiterate whites in the 8 Territories t)9, 933 Illiterate blacks in the 22 Northern States and 8 Territories 15G,(i44 Illiterate whites in the 1(5 Southern States and District of Columbia l,b7G,939 Illiterate blacks in the IG Southern States and District of Columbia 3, 064, 234 Total 6,239,958 An analysis of these statistics shows that in eighteen States, includ- ing two Territories, more than 13 per cent., and in eleven more than 25 per cent., cannot write. In fifteen States and Territories mote than 11 per cent, of the white i)opulation over ten years of age cannot write, varying in these from 11 to 45 per cent. While no portion of the country is free from this scourge of igno- rance, the condition of tbe Southern, or former slave-holding States is especially lamentable and full of danger. More than one-fourth of the entire population of tbese States is illiterate. Eigyt of these States, — Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mis- sissippi, Korth Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia, have over 40 per cent, of illiterates of all classes, white and black. The whole number of persons, white and colored, in the sixteen Southern States was 18,500,- 000. Of these, tbe number of illiterates was 4,715,395, or 27.1 per cent. This illiteracy is largely confined to the colored peoi)le, 47.7 i)er cent, of whom (3,220,878) cannot write, while only 0.96 per cent, of the whites (3,019,080) are in that condition. In the relations of this great body of illiteracy to the ballot. President Garfield in his inaugural spoke as follows : But the dancer which arises from ignorance in the voter cannot be denied. It covers a field far wider than that of negro sutirage and the present t;onditiou of the race. It is a danger that lurks and hides in the sources and fountains of ])o\ver in every State. We have no standard by which to measure the disaster that may be brought upon us by ignorance and vice in the citizen when joined to corruption and fraud in the suffrage. The voters of the Union, who make and unmake constitutions and upon whose will hangs the destinies of our governments, can transmit their supreme authority to no successors save the coming generation of voters, who are the sole heirs of sovereign l)Ower. If that generation comes to its inheritance blinded by ignorance and cor- rui>ted by vice, the fall of the Republic will be certain and remediless. The census has already sounded the alarm in the appalling figureswhich mark bow dangerously high the tide of illiteracy has risen among our voters and their children. 722 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 485 To the South this question is of supreme importance, but the responsibility for the existence of slavery did not rest upon the South alone. The ua'iou itself is responsi- ble for tlie extension of the sufiraye, and is uud«'r special obligations to aid in re- moving the illiteracy which it has added to i ho voting population. For the North and South alike there is but oue remedy. All (he constitutional power of the nation and of the States and all the volunteer forces of the people should be summoned to meet this , school and adult, fr^m ten years old and upward. Both bills recognize the educational authorities of the States, aided, as the proper othcers to superintend the disbursement of the funds in the several States, and both require annual reports to Congress, through the Commissioner of Education, concerning the application of these funds to the ])ublic in- struction of the children of whites and blacks impartially, for at least three months in each year. Of the merits of these bills we do not pro- pose to si)eak, except in comparison v/ith a third bill, the work of the Inter-State Commission on Federal Aid, appointed at Louisville in September, 1883, which seems to us to embody valuable principles not yet recognized in this most important piece of national legislation. We will note a few of the leading features of the new bill : (1) The amount to be distributed is sixty five millions of dollars — a compromise between the amounts of the Blair and Willis Bills. (2) The distribution reaches over a ])eriod of twelve years instead of ten, thus enlarging its capacity for helping the peoi)le. (3) Its distribution is to be made, not on the basis of the total illiter- acy of the country, but on the school illiteracy between ten and twenty years of age, inclusive. (4) The distribution is made on the following plan: For each illiterate person in the States between the ages of ten and twenty, inclusive, and for each 2)erson in the Territories between and including the same ages, as shown by the censusof 1880, there shall be api)ortioned for the first, second, and third years, each year four dollars ; tor the fourth, tifth, and sixth years, each year three dollars; for the seventh, eighth, and ninth years, each year two dollars; and for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, each year one dollar; when all appropriations shall cease. (5) One-third of the money ai)portioned to each State may be used for the erection of school-houses and the sui)port of normal schools and normal institutes, and the other two-thirds to be used for common-school studies, including elementary industrial education. (G) The common schools are required to be kept four months in each year, and the money is to be exi)ended, under State laws, by the ordi- nary educational authorities. (7) To sui)erintend the carrying into effect the provisions of the bill, a Board of Trustees is created, consisting of the Secretary of the Inte- rior ex officio, two Senators and two Ilepresentatives, not l)elonging to the same political party, the Commissioner of Education, and tiie Fourth Auditor of the Treasury. This board is to attend to the distribution of the funds, to secure reports, to look after the administration of the funds 723 486 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of the several States, and to stand as a guardian for the Nation of the trust until its full disbursement has been made. In the great debate in the United States Senate last winter on the Blair Bill, the main battle was fought about the question of the right of the general Government to contribute directlj^ to the aid of the schools of the several States ; but with our best constitutional lawyers and legislators to oppose and defend, the bill was pa^^sed by so large a majority in the Senate as to set at rest for the future all discussion on this point, and all that remains to be done to secure the passage of this most important measure is the enlightenment of the members of the lower House of Congress as to the needs of such an appropriation and the demands of the peo^Dle for the same. Adopting, then, the correctness of the principle involved in a direct appropriation from the national treasury to the aid of our common schools, we may assume that such aid should be sought only to meet a great national exigency, should be administered in such a way as to encourage the increase and permanency of local self-support, and should be con- tinued only as long as the necessity lasts. It should act as a stimulant, not as an intoxicant. An appropriation which should lead to a reliance on the general Government for long-continued aid might become a curse rather than a blessing to the cause of common schools, and subsidize and pauperize the communities receiving it. SOME SUGGESTIONS AS TO ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATION. I. The executive educational officer of each State should administer the funds to be dt-voted to the aid of the common schools of that State. Each State has its regularly established channels through which its school funds pass on their way from the general reservoir of the State .treas- ury to the county, town, and local treasurers and disbursers. The funds which come from the general Government should be poured directly into the same channel and be directed by the same educational machinery that controls the State appropriations. There should be no possible opportunity for political or other interference with the school funds of the State, and no temptation should be offered for a. corrupt use of a governmeut grant. At the same time, the State officer should be recognized as the administrator of the public gifts, and, with tbe responsibility, would come a care in supervision which, though it would add to the duties of his office, would increase its dignity and impor- tance; and if there is any one department in our State governments weakened and narrowed by legislative enactments, it is tbe office of State superintendent. All that can be done to increase the signifi- cance of the office is essential and imperative. II. Proper giiarantee should he made that no State shoidd relax its efforts to tax the people for the support of common schools, on the receipt of na- tional aid. By the provisions of each of the bills now before Congress, each State is required to raise as much by general and local taxation for common schools as it is entitled to receive from the general Gov- ernment, in order that it may receive its quota. A State now raising half a million dollars for education and entitled to $350,000 by a na- tional aid bill, might reduce its state or local taxation $150,000 and still receive government aid. With the rapidly increasing prosperity of all of our States we may naturally expect the school tax to be increased in a corresponding ratio, and such safeguards as legislation may throw about these grants should guard against any retrogressive steps on the part of any State or committee. 724 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 487 III. Not only should the States make all necessary provision to prevent a decrease of the State funds for schools, but there should he an cdricntion of the people touard a constant increase of appropriations, in order that the schools may suffer no detriment in the acceptance of a government (jrant. IV. In the distriljvtion of the .school funds, State or national, no dis- tinction should be made as to race, .ve.r, or color, nationality, or precious condition. I am well aware that difficulties will arise iu the practical working of iLis principle, bowever wise, patriotic, and philantliroi)ic the State and local authorities may be; and here let me say that I have visited ail of the Southern States, have seen many of their schools, and have become acquainted with many of their officers and teachers, and have found the great majority of them profoundly interested in the education of the colored population as well as the white. But there are grave difficulties growing out of (a) two races so widely sej)arated, socially and intellectually, living on the same soil, whose relations so recently were that of master and slave; (&) the sparsely populated country districts; (c) the present necessity of separate schools for the two races ; [d] the want of fit school accommodations for either race in numberless communities, and more especially for the colored race; and {e) the greater interest of the black population over the poor white for the advantages of education. Th^ following colloquy, which took place iu the educational hearing at Washington, is of interest on this point: Representative Willis: I should like to ask a question which has been raised in our committee, and that is whether the colored i)opu)ation show a williuj^ues^s to avail themselves of the benefits of education. What is your experience iu your State, as compared with the whites; do they, or do they not? Mr. ScARBOKOUGii : J wish to be understood as not striving to misrepresent the whites, but to stijte a simple fact as it has come under my observation in over seven years' service as State Superintendent. Take the negro and put him along with that class of whites who are on a level with him iu intelligence and iu opportunities, and he is a great deal more interested iu the question of the education of his children than the whites have been. I account for that in this way : It is for the negro a new thing. In slavery times, as you are aware, the negroes were prohibited from lenrning to read, although many white men taught their slaves to read. The height of their ambition was to iearu to read " like young master and old master did"; and since they were freed they have remembered the desire that they had, and they are anxious to give their children the opportunities of education. I have seen uegi-o children all over the State, here and there, goiug to school iu such garbs as wliite children would not appear in, and it was not because the parents did not want to put them iu a better condition, but because they were absolutely unable to do it. They would have a long shirt on, reaching, yierhaps, half way down the legs, and nothing else, with a piece of ash-cake and broiled bacon — not bacon, but jjickled jxirk — i'or their diuiuu'. I account for it on this ground: The white people who are Aviihout the iirivileges of education and whose children are not educated, and who are keei)ing llieir children at home without education, have beeu so long without the bcnelits and juivileges of education that they have reached a state of stupor which it is hard to get them out of. If the negro is allowed to remain in the condition iu which he is unich longer, ho will be brought to tlie same condition. If, before this interest iu the education of his children can die out, his eti'orts are stimulated, ho will keep on; but if he is allowed to remaiu too long, be, too, will grow slack on the subject and forget his interest in it, and myke of his child a slave instead of making him, as best he can, a good citizen of a government that he loves above all things iu this world. The Uuited State* Governmeut is that, which is loved by the negro above all earthly considerations and all things. The Chairman: I should like to ask if you do not find a rapidly increasing interest among the masses of the white po])uIatiou in the common schools? Mr. Scarborough : I do, sir. The Chairman: I have been very much struck with that. To my mind, the great danger is not lack of education to the negro, but to the white man. I think myself of the white people somewhat in t!«s country. Mr. ScARnoROfGii: 1 represent the whites, too. I prefer the white man to the col- ored niKU, and I .-im he;o rcpicsenting the whites of North Carolina, who are iu a bad condition,- and I am here to make a plea for them. The truth is, I do not believe the United States Government will ever discharge its duty to the negroes or to the w hites 7<;5 488 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of the South until it comes to the rescue, and h(;li)s iis in ihis critical moment of oni- existence to lift up and elevate the citizenship of this country so as to make the Staii- governments safe and the National government safe with intelligent voters. Then- are 145,000 illiterate voters in North Carolina, who do not know the letters of tlu- alphabet and cannot read or write. That is more votes than Mr. Tilden received in 1876. By an equality of school rights we would be understood to mean equal school privileges lor whites or blacks under corresponding cir- cumstances, equally well qualified teachei's, equally paid whether white or black, equally {»ood school accommodations, equal and careful school supervision, with a judicial blindness on the part of all school officers to color, caste, or other condition, in the distribution of school support. Should blinded justice chance to open her eyes to the light, the heart of love might be moved, and forgivingly so, to help the weaker in prefer- ence to the stronger, and to lift the helpless where the strong could stand on his own strength. V. The dutrilmtion should he made to the States, not on the basis of their total illiteracy, hut on the school illiieracy hetween ten and ttcenty years of age, inclusive, and to the Territories and the District of Columbia on the basis of population. Ileuee the money is directed to the removal of illiteracy within the school age. The distribution is made by the Inter-State Commission Bill on the following |)lan : For each illiterate person in the States, between the ages of ten and twenty inclusive, and for each person in the Territories, be- tween and including the same ages, as shown by the census of 1880, there shall be ai)portioried for the first, second, and third years, each year four dollars ; for the fourth, fifth, and sixth .\ears, each year three dollars; for the seventh, eighth, and ninth years, each year two dol- lars; and for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, each year one dol- lai', when ail appropriations cease. Ir seems to us a wrong basis for distribution, that of illiteracy of ten years of age and over, embracing all of the illiterates over twenty- one years of age, while the substitute, in view of the fact that no State by law admits to its public schools men or women over twenty-one years of age, distributes the fund on the basis of the illiterates between and including the ages of ten and twenty, in the States and in the Dis- trict of Columbia; and in the Territories, where they have no fund from l)a»>lic lands, where the country is sparsely settled, and where the l)eople are mainly poor, the fund is distributed to all children between and including six and twenty. VI. The extension of the apportionment to county distributinn is recom- mended for two reasons, both believed to be worthy of recognition: (1) As a guarantee that it will be equally and fairly distributed ; it will re- move a serious objection to such aid in the minds of those who fear that the funds ajjportioned, for any reason, may be used for the special ben- efit of favored localities. (2) It will be a welcome assurance to the ])eople of the several counties that in the distribution they will receive iheir just allotm«nt of aid, the exact amount of which will be known, thus aft'ording a stable guide for local action from year to year. The States will have it in their power to prevent local abuses in the use of Federal funds. VII. The funds coming to any State or district from the general Gov- ernment should he permitted to be devoted to the three purposes named: (1) The payment of teachers^ salaries ; (2) the support of normal schools ; (3) the erection of schoolhovses in destitute districts, 72U INTERNATIONAL CONGRKSS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 489 VIII. In case there is no public school organized under the State system in operation within any district, or the authorities of the State reftise to eMablish one, the people thereof, under such regulations as the Commissioner shall prescribe, should be alloiced to organize a private school free to all within school age resident ill the district (except in case of separate schools for different races), ami by keepinjif the same iu operation the required time, aud i)aying" at least two thirds of the expenses thereof, should be entitled to tlie benefit of the sum thus apjnopriated. IX. Evening srhools should be established for the illiterate adult popu- lation. This department of school work, thonj^ii of vital importance as a means of reaching- the masses, is without doubt neither fully appre- ciated by school authorities nor fairly understood by the general public. Hundreds of cities and towns in the country, burdened with an appall- ing aud increasing illiieracy, provide no means whatever for evening classes, while a great projiortion of the schools maintained are either indifferently managed by committees or miserably mastered. That this is a grave error, and dvmands our serious attention, none conversant with the subjecjt can doubt. By the Keport of the Commissioner of Education for 1881, it is seen that but thirty-two cities of the United States provided evening instruction, though I am happy to note that since the writing of that report this number has materially increased, as also have the means for their suitable and successful maintenance. In Massachusetts alone, during the past year, thirty-seven cities aud towns at an expense of $56,744.54 maintained 110 evening schools, the average attendance thereat being 3,013, being some 60 per cent, of the total enrollment. Eeports from other States show a growing (yet by far too slow) tendency to encourage this class of work. That there are many causes which have materially contributed to the discouragement of committees and teachers in the manageaient of these schools is not doubted, yet I am confident that they are not without remedy. Experiments in New York, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Boston, Worcester, Lowell, and other cities, have demonstrated beyond all doubt that the crowding, confusion, and chaos common at the opening of elementary evening schools, as well as their great irregularity of attendance, can, under a healthy regime, be succeeded by the same order, interest, anil regularity which characterize the opening and conduct of our well regu- lated day schools. It must not be forgotten that evening schools, as a whole, exist under permissive authority, while day schools ai-e main- tained by the rigid construction of mandatory statutes. But two States, Pennsylvania aud Massachusetts, have to any degree advanced this department to a like standard with the public schools. To contrast the condition of this branch of the service, even under the most favorable auspices, with that of the day school, is both unfair to the school and an unpardonable demand upon those who have been zealously battling with difficulties and discouragements in the securing of more permanent provisions and a perfect system for their ])roper maintenance. What, then, may be asked, must be done? There is but one answer: Kemedial legislation to meet the demands of the time is imjjerative. The enactments of Massachusetts or Pennsylvania, in the absence of any better legislation, should be stereotyped by every State in the Union. To these should be added laws coni})elling the attendance of all illiterate minors, with i)roper exemption in special cases of hardship. Truant laws should be nnule api)licable, which, supplemented by a hearty public support, would insure success. The Massachusetts State Board of Education, in their last report, commenting on the improved 727 490 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. conditiou of Ibe evening schools of the State since the enactment of the compulsory law, say: Tlie classes liave been removed frora ward-rooms and cellars to tbe deslcs occupied by day pupils. Better tex^-books and more liberal supplies, with teachers of recoj^- uized ability, have been added to the service. Organization, classification, and sys- tem, have been substituted for the chaos, which, nuder the old refjime, characterized many of the elementary schools, es[)ccially of Boston. In several localities, however, these schools have been re[)orted as failures. Caret'ul iuipiiry and examination dis- close the fact that in every case tbe management, and not the members of the school, is at fault. There has been no marked success where there have been incompetent teachers, condemned supplies, torn and defaced text-books. With proper provisions for accommodations and supplies, competent teacbers. and good management, there is no doubt that evening schools will take rank witb day schools, and can be made a credit to every community. In the face of the annual iutiux by immigration, further and more pertinent provisions by law are necessary to convert the great body of for- eign-born illiterate persons into intelligent, industrious citizens. Such sentiments cannot fail of approval Uy all who have worked in this most fruitful tiekl. The eleemosynary support of the system should at once be succeeded by the most liberal appropriation of public money. There is no wiser, better, safer depository lor Federal aid than in the maintenance of a well-regulated system of elementary evening schools. The Government would do well to imitate the great example at Creuzot, France, or the more recent action of the Willimantic Linen Company in Connecticut, which cori)oration, in the following order, issued August 1, 1882, has made a precedent meriting the highest commendation : No person now in the em])loy of the Willimantic Linen Company will be continued in their service after July 4, 188:^, nuless such person can read and write ; and on and after this date no person will be employed by the company who is uuable to read and write. Tiie agent of the company, replying to a letter of inquiry as to the elfect of this measure on their work-people, said : In order to give the work-people of the company who were included in the above notice an opportunity to protect themselves, evening schools were established during the froperly maintained, they have fully justified the most liberal expend- iture. In New York, Boston, Cincinnati, Brooklyn, and other cities, the reports show an increased public interest, which, to a great degree, is the true criterion of the good or ill management of this class of work. The curricnlum of the Kew York Evening High School, while co-exten- sive with that of ihe high schools of the State, has successfully main- tained advanced courses of collegiate work. X. Each State or county should not be entitlet] to receive from ihe gov- ernment grant each year a sum exceeding one-halt' that amended for school purposes the previous year, provided satisfavtory returns should have been made to the trustees of the grant setting forth the condition and worlc of the schools of the county or State. The State Sui)eri!itendent should report to the trustees the attend- ance, the studies pursued, and text-books used in every public school in his State making application lor a share of such fund, and the Com- missioner of Kilucation should be entitled of right to visit and inspect Kuch school at any time in person, or by any agent whom he may author- ize to act for him.' Provided, That neither the said Commissioner nor 728 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 491 his agent, nor any one acting in the interest of the United States, should have any power or authority to interfere in any way with the manage- ment of said school, the ejr.ployment or discharge of teachers, the course of study, or text books employed. XI. The school year should he fixed at a minimum of six months, as one of the conditions ofreceivinrf the benefits of national aid. It would seem unjust to grant equal aid to States of like resources, where schools are taught on the one hand lor seven or eight months, and on the other for two or three. It would be. at the same time, impolitic, if not offensive, to insist upon any school term to i)rovide for which would seriously embarrass the State. A ])eriod has therefore been named which can be easily reached in any State, and which is already far exceeded in the great majority of those most in need of assistance, and whicb, it is be- lieved, will be acceptable in every State. XII. Industrial or manual education should be provided for as far as possible, especially in those branches of manual traininf/ which ivould be best suited to the employments of the neighborhood in which the school was located. The wisdom of including, to a proper esrent, tlie useful arts and indus- tries among subjects of instruction in the common schools, in view of the growth of industries and manufactures in most ])arts of the Union, and the desirability of drawing the attention of a large number of our yonth to the fields thus open to them, is obvious. XIII. In case the Slate icithin which any district is located prescribes separate schools for tchite and colored pupils, then, the sum ichich the number of white illiterates in said district u-ould entitle it to receive should be de- voted to the aid of a school for white children therein, and the sum which its numl)er of colored illiterates would entitle it to receive in like manner to the support of a school for colored children, and neither of these sums should, vnder any circumstances, be used to aid a school for the benefit of the other race. XIV. The trustees of the fund should be empoicered to appoint, in any county or district in which they see fit, competent and reputable men or women to act as inspectors, and mnhe such report as they may desire icithout compensation. Persons such as are described in the last article can easily be found in every community, who will gladly devote one or more days to report- ing the necessary facts in order to promote the cause of education in their communities. This would l)e even more easily done at the South than at the North. There is lianlly a town in that section where an educated lady might not be found who would be willing to inspect and report, even upon a colored school located therein, and do it fairiy and honestly, too. The great value of properly collected educational statistics for the information of the whole i)eople, as well as the obvious ))ro|)riety of gathering information as to the results of such aid as may be bestowed by tbe national Government, makes the collection of uselul statistics relating to jjublic schoius, heiein provided for, most desirable, if not essential. The value of such statistics depends, however, upon proper uniformity in the character and meaning of questions and answers. The adoption of the ])rovisions here recommended will ])ut it in the ]>ower of the Commissioner of l^^ducation, with the co-operation which the State school authorities will gladly render on the terms proposed, to collect a body of statistics which shall include information required by the Board of Trustees, and in such form as to adapt it to the uses of his office and the needs of the general public, without necessary inter- ference with the varying statistical methods of the States — a variance 729 492 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. which now largely detracts from the value of statistics when arranged in comparative tables. iStatistical reports of the common schools in the United States would thus be secured, whose accuracy would make them of inestimable worth in the light which they would give as to the value of educational methods and the progress ot popular education. XV. To superintend the carri/infj into effect the provisions of a 7iational appropriaiion bill, a Board of Trustees should be created, consisting of the iSecretary of the hiterior, ex officio, two Senators and two liepresentatiies not belouf/ing .to the same political party, the Commissioner of Education^ and the Fourth Auditor of the Treasury. Thu board should attend to the distribution of the funds, secure reports, look after the honest administra- tion of the J unds in the several States, and stand as a guardian of the trust for the Nation until its full disbursement has been made. Now all must admit that the whole plan of Federal aid to educatiou is in opposition to the doctrines of Calhoun and Stephens. There is no possible justilicatiou ot Federal interference with State administration of schools except on the ultra ground of a great national exigency, which knows no primal law but that of self preservation. The Govern- ment ])roposes to meet local needs in the hour of peril, and asks that the hand which administers may connect with its aid the eye that watches over its wise and careful distribution. In no case does it pro- pose to interfere with the distribution, but, as in the case of the Pea- body Fund, to place wise and trusty men over the great gift to see that it reaches aud accomplishes its desired work. At the same time that the trusteeship is a i>rotectorate over the fund going out of the national treasury, it is an equal protection to those who are to receive it; aud both, as has been seen iu the history of congressional giants hitherto for all purposes, need just such watchful guardianship. Wbile we do not doubt the integrity and good faith of the men at the head of educational affairs, North, South, East, or West, we do insist that the general Government should demand some sort of super- vision of a fund going out of its treasury for a period of years, lest con<>ressional investigation should by and by come iu to bring our schools and school systems into disgrace. For the reason that our State school officers are good and honest men, they should be willing that the light of an eternal day should shine through their actions and their ad- ministration of a just gift from a paternal hand, which seeks only the best good of all of its children, and especially of the weak and the un- fortunate. Unless some such guarantee as the one proposed is adopted, we are quite well founded in our opinion that no bill can pass the pres- ent Congress. But if a bill should pass for Federal aid to educatiou without sufficient safeguards for its thorough aud carefid administra- tion throughout the country, we are prepared to predict as unfortunate results as have attended any congressional aid of the century, where 'the old flag and an appropriation" was the watchword. 730 « THE EAILROAD AS AN ELEMENT IN EDUCATION. By Prof. Alexander Hogg, Fort Worth, Texas. Steam is well born ; is a lineal desceiulant of the four elements of the ancients — earth, air, fire, and water; has survived, lived through more than two thousand years, gaining strength from its own usefulness and age ; is to-day in the full vigor of manhood. As a motive power steam was known 130 years B. C. Hero of Egypt, exhibited his eolipile, an apparatus with a metallic boiler, provided at the top with two horizon- tal jet-pipes bent into the form of an S.^ The steam, escaping from these jets and reacting upon the air, gave a rotary motion to the pipes. Barker's centrifugal mill is an example of this kind of action. Blasco de Garay, of Barcelona, as far back as 1543, propelled with steam a vessel of two hundred tons. But passing over historical details, leaving out the controversies of aspiring inventors and discoverers, I come to a year in our civilization memorable for rich results. In 1770 the "transmutations" of alchemy, the ideal of Paracelsus, gave birth to the real of Priestly and Lavoisier, and chemistry as a practical science is announced to the world. This same year Adam Smith published his Wealth of Nations. This same year the Declara- tion of Indepemdence was proclaimed by the Continental Congress. This same year Watt i^roduced — perfected his " improved," his " suc- cessful" steam engine. The man of science can, with pardonable pride, exclaim, "Arithmetic fails to enumerate the 'agents' and 'reagents' of chemistry!" The jiolitical philosopher can point to the real wealth of the nations as the best result of his science ; the statesman can, with true patriotism, refer to our peaceful, our liappy republic, as the legitimate result of the dec- laration. Individuals may boast of the triumphs of these, but the millions whose burdens have been lightened and lifted, who are fed and clothed by the diversified labors of steam, may be excused too — will be par- doned — for their appreciation of the result which gave to the world the steam-engine of James Watt. Patriotic as I am, and claiming as I do for our Fulton the first suc- cessful application of steam to navigation, in the Clermont (1S07), I as cheerfully accord to the mother country the honor due George Stephen- son (1829) for his successful " run" in the Kocket, over theEainhill trial course. It is a remarkable fact that within the last one hundred years science has made its most rapid strides. Steam and electricity, motor and mes- senger, have vied with, not rivaled, each other in transjjorting and trans- ' Spiritalia sen Pneumatica. 731 494 EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. mitting, until " there is no speech nor longnagc xclierc ilieir voice is }wt heard. Their line is gone out throngh all the earth, and their icords to the end, of the icorld.''^ Classical scbolars have insisted that our word "educate/' is from ediicere — to draw out 5 and hence they have taught that education is "a pumping" i^rocess, that it is all in and within the mind of the child, the learner, and must be drawn out; and thus to their theory is due largely the one-sided instruction, or the total disregard of every other method. The truth is, our word "educate " is from a different word ; it is from educare, which means to "bring up," " to train," "to develop," " to increase and give power to." There can be no mistake from this view, that there is a pouring-intoas well as a pumping-out in the process of education. I have no war against the classics. So far from it, I assert to-day that there can be no "liberal education" without the classics. Among these, however, I claim the first place in order and importance shall be assigned to our mother tongue. The Greek knew no other than his own language, nor did the Eoman go abroad to si udy until he had mas- tered the Latin. Why then should we ignore, why should we be so slow to acknowledge, the claims of modern science? In the demands made by the progressive development of railroad construction, and the improvement in that vast field alone, every science and every department of science is laid under contribution, until we have here the fullest and happiest illustration of the great law of "sup- ply and demand." A motive power greater than that of man or horse, an improved steam-engine, is called for, and James Watt presents his. And now a locomotive is needed that shall transfer this mighty energy, adiipt it to the road, and George Stephenson controls with his own hand the throttle of his own engine. And now a trestle, and now a bridge, and jiow a suspension-bridge, and that, too, across jSTiagara, and the oc- casion — science, conscious of this new requisition — gives to the world George A. Eoebling. Harmonizing circumstances — Time, the great arbiter, comes in, Jiud so orders it that Eobert, the son of George Stephenson, should pass over jS^iagara Eiver in a railway train, and on the sus])eusion bridge which ho had but lately declared to be an impracticable undertaking. The i)urpose of this great engineer's visit to this country- was to make an inspection of the location for the celebrated tubular bridge at Montreal. Stephenson had criticised and condemned the suspension principle, and had approved the tubular girder for railway traffic. At that time doctors of science — engineers — differed as to their theories, but, as now, they also agreed uj^ou the facts as exhibited in the results. In 1S74: I visited Niagara Falls, spent two days, was delighted, amazed, and awed in turn, at this wonderful nianifestation. this re- markable phenomenon of nature. 732 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 495 From the falls I went to the suspension bridge. Upon this structure stood two through express trains awaiting the signals to move on their ways, east and west. At the appointed moment they did move. With- out tremor or oscillation that bridge sustained its accustomed load, per- formed its duty, as it had done thousands of times before, as it had done titty times that very day. When I saw this bridge spanning this angry river, supporting these heavily laden trains, I felt this inspiration ; I said, "This bridge for the creature is equal to yon Cataract for the Creator." But again, another demand — a higher principle still — a fiat had gone forth, that not only shall '■''Every valley be exalterl, but every mountain and hill shall be wade low; and the crooled shall be made straight, and the nruf/k places plain.''^ Streams, rivulets, rivers, had been bridged, the valley had been ex- alted ; the crooked route must now be made straight, the mountain must be made low. No longer can time be consumed in searching out the i)assable passes, in following the tortuous gorge. The yawning chasm, the deep canon, the treacherous glacier, the awful avalanche, snow and ice, mountain pass and mountain peak — all, all nuist be shunned, must be left to enjoy undisturbed their lofty abode amid its chilly, frozen environments. Whether Pyrenees or Alps, Alleghany or Hoosac, all ranges stand- ing in the way of the locomotive must be made low, must be tunneled. Science, quietly observing what is going on, anticipating these new and still greater demands, accordingly prepares for yet greater results, and at this juncture and lor this stupendous work furnishes both the engineering skill to conduct- and the new motors, Burleigh drills and air compressors, to perform the boring, and dynamite to do the blast- ing, and we have Mont Cents Tunnel, a trifle less than eight miles in length, thirteen and a half years building, at a cost of $15,000,000; St. Gothard, nine and a quarter miles, seven and a half years buihling, at a cost of $0,700,0l!0, consuming half the time, at two thirds the cost of the Ceuis Tunnel ; the Hoosac Tunnel, some five miles in length, eleven years in building, costing $13,000,000. One among the first railroad tunnels in the United States was the Alleghany Portage, double track, 900 feet long, costing some $21,840. I must be pardoned for mentioning, in this connection, that here i)ar- ticularly the skill of the engineer is tested in the use of the most accu- rate instruments, and of the most celebrated makers. In boring the Mosconetcou Tunnel on the Lehigh Valley Railroad — a work less in ex- tent than some, but said to be of as great magnitude, on account of the presence of water and other diificuities, as any of the American tun- nels — the east and west headings met in December, 1874; whereupon it was found that the error in level and alignment was less than half an inch. To be an engineer in the full and complete sense of the term embraces all sciences, pure and applied. Nor are the languages to be left out. Through the Latin we learn of Cresar's bridge, through the Greek of Xerxes' bridge of boats {pontoons). That is not a complete curriculum that would leave French and German out of the engineer's course. Gur Latin teachers are very proud when their brightest scholars can trans- late the description of Caesar's bridge. It is considered hard Latin ; it is given as a task — not for the information about the bridge, but because of the difficulty of the translation. Now, Mr. President, turn your countenance upward; exercise the 733 496 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. l)rerogative you eujoy above tlie rest of the animals ( * * * quce nattira prona); beliold the arcbes that sui)poit this Grand Structure! Tell me if there is uot more study, more beauty in one of these than in a whole book of Cresar ? In 1883, and in this country, there has been com])leted and opened the greatest structure, the grandest monument to skill and science — to father and son, to George A. and Washington Itoebling, to the former for the concei)tiou, to the latter for the construction of the Drooklyii Bridge — the longest span in the world. In the building of this high- way, virtually making Xew York and Brooklyn one city, the eutire do- main of science has been laid under contribution. Every formula of mathematics, every discovery of chemistry, every law of physics, — all have furnished their quota. Every department of human industry, every tool invented by the ingenuity of man has borne its part in the tiual result. Without the most recent discoveries of science, the con- verting of iron into steel by the pneumatic process, the bridge in its present form could uot have been built. I cannot describe, in detail, all the creative and constructive efforts of the human mind in this great work. It is not necessary; it is fin- ished — ^^Finis coronat opusP All this, however, is upon but one side, the department of construction, the building of railroads. There is still another side, the operating department, in which to accuracy of calculation must be added discretion, sound judgment, and all the higher qualities of head, and heart too. Here we learn — we take an account of exceedingly small things; here we hear the name of the nonentity, the imaginary mill, and use it in actual daily transactions: "So many tons a mile at so many mills ])er ton." "It will cost so many mills to move such freight; therefore, in order to pay dividends and cover operating expenses, we must charge so much per hundred." The Tables of "operating expenses" have these items: the amount of coal used this year on division , was 1.8 pounds more, or this year 2.3 pounds less than last, on same division, per mile. What school would have in it a pupil that would distribute the tax assessment for eleven hundred miles of railway passing through twenty- nine counties, and the miles and hundredths of a mile in each county to be taken into account, each county assessing a different valuation, and balance up tlie whole to y;v\thm Jive mills, one half of one cent"? These are some of the problems, and these are some of the questions, that are solved by the railroad accountants. The curse of our schools, and colleges, and universities too, is the want of accuracy. And I am not sure but the careless use of slates and blackboards has much to do with it. It is so easy to say, "Oh! that is wrong— rub it out."^ In railroading you cannot "rub it out." The dispatcher who sits at his table with fifty to a hundred and fifty trains on the rail, has more responsibility every way than the general who directs an army. At Balaklava, it was said : " Some one had blunder'd. jf * * Then they rode hack, hut not — Not the six hundred. * * * All that waa left of them, Left of six hundred! " ' You do not find slates and blackboards in the rooui.s of accountants. 734 INTEENATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 497 Some oiip has "blun<'ler(*d " in Egypt. Had Palincrston built a rail- road from Cairo to Khartoum, there would not be a rebel in the Soudan to annoy Gladstone. Your World's Exposition (the greafest practical school of instruction possible) reminds me of the Centennial (187(3) at Philadelphia. The latter was full of examples which were fruitful illustrations of what accuracy and precision in railroad management accomplish in safety to property and ])erson. The Pennsylvania road alone gave receipts for 10,039 cars of building material and for 4,116 cars of exhibits placed within the Centennial grounds without a single claim being made for damages. The total number of pieces of baggage received and delivered at the several stations amounted to 730,486 pieces ; of these, twenty-six pieces were lost, the claims for which amounted to $1,906.99. Total number of jiasseugers from May 10 to November 10, 4,955,712, carried without injury to a single one. Add to this that during the year 1876 this road moved 17,064,953 tons of treight and 18,363,366 passengers without loss of life or harm to any one. With these facts before me I am ready to believe the following : -'A French statistician observes that if a person were to live continually in a railway carriage and spend all his time in railway traveling, the chances of his dying from a railway accident would not occur till he was nine hundred years olu." But the railroad is solving other x)roblems — social problems, com- mercial problems, farming problems. The poet has said, " Seas shall join the regions they divide." The railroad answers, And continents shall unite the oceans they separate. The rich valleys of the interior, the fertile plains of the •' Far West," are made neighbors, to find markets npon the very shores of the Atlantic, all by and through the agency of the railroad. We hear a great deal about the Great West! Pray, what has made the West so great ? Not greatness of territory solely, not great distances, but the poten- tiality, the living, working capacity of the locomotive, the greatest ])ioneer, the greatest missionary ever sent out by Church or State. What makes Chicago the successful rival of New York ! The latter is the senior of the former, not only by scores, but by tico hundred years. The ten thousand miles of railway tributary to Chicago, the seven hundred trains (three hundred and fifty arriving and three hundred and fifty departing daily) with their heavily-laden cars, of both pas- sengers and freight — have somethiug to do with the prosperity, the metropolitan pretensions of the " Lake City." What will make your city the rival of both New York and Chicago? Not because she is the outlet of the Mississippi basin, but because she is the eastern terminus of the roads of the Pacific Slope, the South-west, and the North-west. The superintendent of our last — the tenth —census, says : " The close- ness with which the center of population, through such rapid westward movement as has been recorded, has clung to the parallel of 39° of latitude cannot fail to be noticed." He does not, however, say a word as to the cause of this singular movement westward four hundred and fifty- seven miles in ninety years. 7950 COT., PT. 2 32 735 498 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. Xear and upon 38°, 39°, and 40° of latitude may be found three of the great trunk railways. But their location is still another problem. The peculiar climate, productiveness of the soil, and the early settlement of this region have all something to do with it. Here is i^roblem growing out of problem,^ fruitful each to the student of social philosophy. But again: I argue more directly, because more demonstratively tangible, that the school interest, the schools themselves, have flourished and spread their influence in the direct ratio of the number of miles of railroad in the State. Massachusetts, at home and abroad, stands at the head of our school system ; nor is it disputed that in her borders we find models of true culture and refinement. Massachusetts has a mile of railroad to every four square miles of territory. This is a case from the extreme East. I take an example from what used to be termed the West, now about the middle of our country : Ohio has a mile of railroad for every six square miles of territory. Ohio has pretty good school facilities, and of late has furnished her full quota of Presidents. But select at will any State, and upon the map mark the seats of in- stitutions of learning — schools, academies, colleges, and universities, and you will find them all arranged along the lines of the great railroads. England and Wales, Belgium, Switzerland, and Scotland possess the greatest railway facilities. These also enjoy the greatest freedom and the best systems of schools of all the European States. But to come nearer still: Texas, from being the largest State in the Union territorially, has become also greater in resources than any of her sister States of the South, simply on account of the indissoluble bond between her school lands and her railroads. Of seventy four cities and towns assuming control of their schools, supplementing the amount received from the State (five dollars for each pupil of scholastic age annually) by a special tax, sixty-six of these are directly upon lines of, while the remaining eight are of easy access to railroads. We hear a great deal about what the " Fathers of Texas " have done for the education of all the children of the State ; the thousands of acres of land reserved for the counties, the millions of acres for the general school fund. These historians should go a little further and tell us what these " millions of acres" were worth before the railroad companies surveyed and brought these lands to the attention of the world. It is true that the railroads received sixteen sections of land for every mile of road built, conditioned, however, upon the companies surveying their own, together with an equal number of sections (alternates) for the schools. The entire expense of surveying and returning a double set of field notes to the General Land Office, at Austin, was borne by the respective railroads. These lands were, for the most part, hundreds of miles beyond civili- zation ; indeed, the roads have been extended more rapidly than a pay- ing traffic would warrant in order to develop their lands, to bring them into market. The Texas and Pacific wore out its main hue of 444 miles in building an extension of 016 miles west. This was a practical example of the problem, " How far would a boy travel, starting from a basket two yards 736 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 499 from tlie first egg, and carrying singly to the basket one hundred eggs two yards apart iu a straight line?" ^ But whatever develops, enhances the railroad " sections," enhances the school " alternates," until lauds heretofore not commanding twenty- fi.ve cents an acre are now readily sold for two dollars ; or, the railroads have increased the school funds eightfold, have multiplied their values, until Texas boasts of a free-school fund of ninety-Jive million dollars — a fund that will yield, at five per cent, per annum, $4,750,000. In valuation, the report of the Controller shows tJie railroads to be the third in order. Of course laud and other realties hold the first place, and live stock the second. The six thousand, miles of railroad in Texas, at one-half the average cost throughout the United States, would amount to $210,000,000. By reference to the Report of the Controller, it appears that the taxable property of the State was: In 1871 $222,504,073 In 1877 31U,373,221 InlH78 303,202,426 In 1879 : 304,193,163 In 1860 301,470,736 In 1881 375,000,000 In 1882 419,927,476 In 1883 527,537,390 In 1884 630,080,917 In 1870 there was less than 300 miles of railroad in the State. From 1870 to 1877 there were added 1,300 miles, 400 miles were built in 1877, 200 in 1878, and 700 each in 1870 and 1880, while in 1881 there were built over 1,500 miles ; since 1881 there have been added by the com- pletion of roads nearly 1,000 miles more. I know of no better criterion by which to measure the real wealth of the State, its prosperity and progress, than by the railroad earnings. The gross earnings of the Texas roads in 1883 is put down at $21,450,445. But this is a small item, a very small factor, compared with the real amount and value of the products themselves, when it is remembered that the freight was moved at an average cost of 1.8 cents per ton per mile, that passengers were carried for 3.5 cents per mile before the late law (3 cents) went into effect. However, passenger trafiic is everywhere small as compared with freight, contributing in Texas less thah a third of the gross earnings. By a comparison of the average cost of moving a ton a mile in the several groups of States, it will be found that Texas roads are not ex- orbitant in their charges. It costs in New England 1.7 cents per ton per mile; in the Middle States 1 cent per ton ; in the Southern States 1.8 cents ; iu the Western States 1.3 cents ; in the Pacific States 2.2 cents per ton per mile. Nor is a comparison of these rates with the leading countries of Europe damaging to America. The actual cost to the companies (not what they charge for moving a ton a mile) iu France is 1.7 cents, in Belgium 1.5 cents per ton per mile. Much is heard about the " monopolies," the "soulless corporations"! I can not see where so much monopoly, so much extortion, so much dis- crimination comes in. That can not be very oppressive to the laboring man that transports his year's provisions from Chicago to any eastern point at the price of one day's labor. That can not be a discrimination ' Some idea can be formed of the amount of weai' and tear on the road when it is understood that the boy traveled eleven miles eight hundred and forty yards. 737 500 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. agaiust the consumer, at least, whicL traiisj)orts from Chicago to i!^ew York seventeen barrels of flour at the rate of one mile for one cent. T know of Jio lessoij so fruitful in its teachings as the reduction in railway cLiarges made by the railroad managements themselves from 1873 to 1879. Competition, the great law governing all trades, forced this re- duction, by Avhich carefully- prepared statistics show that these corpora- tions lost, or there was saved to the shippers — the consumers really — in the space of six years $922,000,000 in freight alone. I do not wish to be understood as deuymg the rights of Legislatures or Congress as to the control of the traffic rates, the regulation, as it is termed, of railroads; I simply propose to state the facts — the results in two cases. The New York Central was chartered — consolidated in the face of de- termined opposition. Passenger rates were fixed by law at two cents per mile; after the lapse now of twenty years the rate is still two cents per mile. The freight rates were left without regulation ; they have been reduced from three cents per ton per mile to .83 of a cent per ton ])er mile; or the result of competition has lowered the rate to less than one-third of the foruier rate. The Texas & Pacific has reduced its freight from 3.34 cents i^er ton per mile in 1877 to 1.7C cents in 1883, a reduction of nearly one -half. Here is a fruitful study for the mathematician — the legislative account- ant. When the Legislature of Texas reduced the passenger fare from five to three cents per mile, I was met by the Hon. , now a mem- ber of Congress from that State, and addressed thus: "Professor, I understand you to say that while the passenger gets the benefit of 40 per cent, reduction, the railroads have really lost 6G§ per cent.; I do not see this." Said I, " Do you see the first ?" " Y'es," said he. I asked, "What part of three must you add to make the result five ?" Said he, " Two-thirds." "That is," said I, " the roads must now carry five passengers at three cents to realize the same that they did for carrying three passengers at five cents. Or," said I, "to be more practical, hold up your five fin- gers, turn two down; two-fifths off; now return from three to five, add- ing two, turn the same two up, two-thirds of three this time." "I see it," said he; "you shall have the chair of mathematics in our State Uni- versity." In this same legislative discussion another fallacy, a very grave mis- take, was made by these legislative accountants. It was contended that since the New York Central carried passengers for two cents a mile, the Texas roads could certainly do it for three; that a reduction of the rate would more than double the amount of travel; that people would travel simply to travel. Another comi)arison : The New York Central has not quite 1,000 miles of main track (953). In 1883 this road carried 10,740,925 passengers. Since a proportion is a comparison, "If ],000 miles carry 11,276,930, how many should 0,000 miles carry 1 " Aiiswer, 67,661,580, or according to our last census, more than forty-two times the entire population of Texas. That is, every man, woman, and child would have to make forty- two trips each, to put the roads of Texas upon the same basis as the New York Central. The facts show that the results of legislative restriction have, main- tained maximum rates, while without this restriction the tendency to lower rates have been the uniform rule. Killing tlie goose that lays the golden egg is not the table to which I would poujt our legislative regulators, but 1 would remind them of the 738 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS— PAPERS 501 fate of Cadmus endeavoring to rescue his sister Europa, carried ofl" by Jupiter, that while he destroyed the dreadful serpent, going still fur- ther and following the advice of Minerva, he sowed the teeth of the dragon, which immediately springing up as armed men destroyed each other, Cadmus himself not being exempt from the terrible catastrojihe. The " discriminations," as they are termed, between local and through rates are the same that are hourly met with between the retail and wholesale dealers in our towns, as well as cities. The railroad managements do " discriminate," and always in favor of the press and pulpit. A prominent minister of one of our leading de- nominations told me he had ridden free, in one year, 24,640 miles ujjou the various roads of Texas, over 5,000 miles being upon the lines of a single company. Hundreds of other ministers can testify to the same liberality of these same corjiorations toward the spread of the Gospel. The Texas roads keep a temperance lecturer continually traveling over the State, free as to transportation, to wage a ceaseless war against in- temperance. One of our greatest general managers says, "At all times put me down, first, in favor of public free schools; second, and under all cir- cumstances, against whisky." If temperance legislation would go as far as railroad managers, we would soon be rid of drunkenness. Gradually, slowly, if you choose, they are coming to it. The general orders are beginning to read, " jSTo man who uses intoxicating liquors will be retained in the employ of this company." This year orders have been issued prohibiting the use of intoxicating liquors o^'as well as on duty, on the whole Missouri Pacific system. It has been the standing order of the Baltimore & Ohio and other roads for years. The next step will be to prohibit the use of tobacco — a narcotic only, it is true, but to the habitual user it is next in its deleterious influence to whisky. The railroads will regulate themselves — are doing it every day. There are many things about them I would like to see changed ; there arc many things that they would change themselves, and they themselves wdl change them. There is also a growing apprehension, a needless alarm, upon the part of the people, as to the increasing power of railroads. Fears are ex- pressed that they will control the Government; not for good, but for evil. The recent introduction of steam as a road motive power (in this country not till 1830), the rapid progress of railroad construction and the lenjith of the lines operated (12ii,000 miles), the immense values that are represented, six tlumsand Jive hundred millions of dollars (one-eighth of the aggregate value of all kinds of })roperty in the Union) — all these, with the Glianged conditions wrought by them, have had much to do iu creating this alarm. But this has reference to our own country only. The lines of railroads in the five divisions of the earth, according to Baron Kolb, cost sixteen billions of dollars, and would reach eight times around the globe. And all this has been brought about in little over a half century ! ^ If Britannia ruled the seas through her ships, why not Columbia rule the continents through her locomotives'? * The first railway worked by steam was opeued between Darlington and Stoclcton, September "25, -182'). 739 502 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OKLEANS EXPOSITION. TVe do not hear tbat the mother couutiy ever used her navy to oppress her own people ; why fear that the daughter will use her railroads to mar her own beauty, or to defeat her own greatness? I have said, "The railroad is solving commercial and social prob- lems—is the greatest pioneer, the greatest missionary ever sent out by Church or State." I have fully sustained the first proposition. I said, in 1880, to the I^ational Teachers' Association, a body of the foremost thinkers in this, or any country: I believe the whistle of the Texas & Pacific locomotives will carry oar civilization, our enterprise, our religion, and our language, into the rocky Sierra Nevadas, until not only Mexico, hut from the lakes to the gulf, and from ocean to ocean will be ours, and that too, without a battle-flag. During the past three years the American railroad has been pushing on, invading quietly, peacefully, the capital of the Montezumas. The commission proposed by a member of Congress from Texas a year ago only "To cultivate amicable and commercial relations with the countries in Central and South America, " is actively about its mis- sion of Peace and Good-will. The time is not far distant, " it is only a question of time," when we shall realize Columbus's grand conception, " a passage to the East Indies by saihngwest" — indeed, much more than Columbus ever dreamed of j for the American railroad builders, extending their efforts, pushing their lines south and north — into Central, into South America, into Alaska, crossing Behring Straits (only twenty-six miles wide) in a steamer — will thus connect by a continuous and unbroken highway all the continents, will unite by this great commercial artery the interests of Chili and Brazil with Japan and China, of New York, San Fran- cisco, and Yukon with Moscow and St. Petersburg. Byron wrote a little more than a half century ago, "But every mountain now hath found a tongue, And Jura answers through her misty shroud. Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud." To-day, were he living, he would realize his prophecy fulfilled ; he would hear, and in his Mother tongue, not only amid Alpine heights but upon every plain in Europe and Asia, "A-l-l, r-i-g-h-t? G-o a-he-a-d!" A clever modern philologist shows that the English language is spoken to-day by one hundred million of people; that soon, within a hundred years, it will be the language of one billion souls. He adds, that then the great languages of the world will be the Eng- lish, Chinese, and Russian, with the English far in the lead. He does not tell us to what influence this wonderful spread of our language, this universality of our mother tongue is due. He does not 74C INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 503 tell why Europe was — is today a Babel. He does not tell us that steam and electricity, iron and steel, have enabled this people to subdue — to possess the Earth this side of the Atlantic. He does not tell us that the echoes and re-echoes of the steam whistle were not heard resound- ing^ through the corridors of the Alps till late in this century. Mr. "Webster was a great admirer of the mother country — especially of her territorial acquisitions, her military glory, — imd in one of his grandest and loftiest flights of imagination, describing the progress and prowess, the greatness and extent, of the British Nation, said: It is a power wliich has dotted the face of the whole globe all over with her pos- sessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beah, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England. It delights me, it thrills me to think upon my country, my people, and my language. Could the immortals, could Jefferson, the ''author of the Declaration," could Washington, the "Father of his country," look out from their celestial abode, they would behold our free Eepublic (stretch- ing through more than one hundred and eighty degrees of longitude), all dotted over with school-houses and colleges and churches, whose rising bells and morning prayer-calls and evening hymns, "following the sun in his course and keeping company with the hours, fill the air daily" with the merry laugh and joyous shout and happy song of a continuous and unbroken continent of English-speaking people! The solution : The white sails of commerce brought this blue-eyed, fair-skinned, light-haired race to our shores, the locomotive carried into the interior the messengers of peace, and in their track followed smiling Plenty, with her attendant handmaids Religious Liberty, Political Free- dom, and Universal Education. I address to-day scientific men of the leading nations of the earth. You can bear witness to your efforts, your resolutions, your arguments, your logic, your reasons to bring about standard time. You can testify, too, with some mortification, that all your labors have been futile. Yet you have learned ; I tell you that on the 18th day of November, 1883, the clocks of 20,000 railroad offices, and the watches of 300,000 employes were reset, — the minute and second hands all pointing to the same divisions on the dial; that the people who did the same could have b^eu reckoned by millions; and that all this was accomplished without delay to commerce, or injury to person. No general from Napoleon down could have made such a change, even in a single army corps, without the loss of property and life too.^ Again, who have been foremost in building churches, schools, and col- leges, in endowing universities, and in contributing to the advancement of liberal, higher education'? Where can it be so trutlifully said, " Charity never faileth," as among railroad men? Who ever knew a real case of charity turned from oflice, home, or tent of a railroad man? Charity! "'Ti.s mightiest in the mightiest^ America's great Triumvirate in action, in the successful completion, control, and management of the three great trunk railways of our coun- try, abounded in good works, in large beneficences, and " Their deeds do folloio themJ' 1 Mr. Wm. F. Allen, editor of the Travellers' Raihoay Guide, is the author of the change to standard time. The next move will bo to the single dial for the day, to 24 o'clock. '* I^ain No. 1 icill meet No. 2, at station No. 3, at 17.17 (o'clock)," 741 604 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. lu addition to inany smaller, but uo less valuable charities, Col. Thomas A. Scott, just before his death, gave the followiug amounts to the iusti- tutious named: To Jefferson Medical College, of Philadelphia |50, 000 To the Orthopedic Hospital, Philadelphia IW, 000 To Children's Department of Episcopal Hospital, Philadelphia ^0,000 To University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 50, OiO To Washington and Lee University, Virginia 50, 000 Total 200,000 In regard to the numerous gifts of father and son — the Vanderbilts, I do Dot know how better to present the same than by giving the letter of the Chancellor of Vanderbilt University, Bishop H. N. McTyeire. Nashville, Tenn., Jwwc 29, 1885. Mji Dear Professor — I thank you for your letter * * * * Mr. Cornelius [Com- modore] Vanderbilt gave this university one viiUion of dollars. Of that sum we have now as invested endowment, bearing seven per cent, per annum, $600,000. His son, Mr. Wui. H. Vanderbilt, since his father's death has given to Vanderbilt University $250,0W, and $100,000 of this sum has been added to our endowment. Generous benefactors to tbe South, and to general education! The location of the Vanderbilt University has made Nashville what they call the "Athens of the South '; others have come here since. I believe our catalogues this year will show students from twenty States and Terri- tories, all accessible to railroads. In honor of the donors we give marked attention to civil engineering, including the theoretical and practical knowledge of building railroads ; we believe in railroads with good cause. For mounting and equipping the observatory for the Leander McCor- mick telescope, Mr. Wm. H. Vanderbilt gave $25,000 to the Virginia University. Last year he gave $500,000 to the College of Physician* and Surgeons of the City of jSTew York. These two, father and son, gave for the purposes enumerated one miUion five hundred and twenty- five iJiousand dollars. But additionally — and in purpose and result, too, a greater gift still, Mr. V/m. H. Vanderbilt has given $150,000 to establish at Washington a museum of Patriotism, where the offerings and the trophies presented General Giant by the nations of the earth are. to be perpetually pre- served, for the inspection and admiration of all American youths through all future generations. Or, in the aggregate, Mr. Wm. H. Vanderbilt has contributed to schools of science, schools of medicine, and a School of Patriotism, nine Jmndred and twenty five thousand dollars. He is still in the prime of life, full of vigor, abounding in good deeds, and it may reasonably be expected that he will yet outstrip his father's great work in founding and equipping the Vanderbilt University. Col. John W. Garrett, leaves the following, greater than the gifts of either of his associates in extent and in security of investment. These annuities represent a basis of over a million dollars ($1,100,000 at 6 and 5 per cent.). The clauses of the will pertaining to these gifts and their purposes seem to be worthy of reprinting, even in so short an address as this: And upon the further trust that my said trustees shall from the stocks and bonds^ helougiiig to my estate select such good interest-bearing securities as shall aniouut to the sum of one hundred thousand dollars, or in their option invest the sum of one hundred thousand dollars, of the moneys belonging to my estate in such a manner as to produce the yearly sum of six thousand dollars, which said sum I desire shall be paid yearly to aid in improving the condition of the poor in the city of Baltimore, the fust payment to be umdo at the expiration of one year from my death, and to- contmue thereafter in perpetuity; and as I have a very favorable opinion of the use- 742 . INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 505 fulness and efiectiveness of the present organization or body corporate known as the Baltimore Association for tho Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, I recom- mend my said trustees, so long as in their judgment this charitable institution is eflQciently managed, to give said sum of six thousand dollars to the said ast-ociatiou a.nnually for the purposes aforesaid; aud if at any future period, in the judgment of my said trustees, said sum of six thousand dollars per year can be applied or distrib- uted so as to confer greater benefit upon the poor of Baltimore, in that event I direct my said trustees so in their discretion to apply said sum. And upon the further trust of the net income of any estate to devote tho sum of fifty thousand dollars annually to such objects of benevolence, to educational pur- poses, to aid virtuous aud struggling persons, and to such works of public utility as are calculated to promote the happiness, usefulness, aud progress of society; said amount of fifty thousand dollars per annum to be apportioned to the furtherance of 8uch objects and to the accomplishment of such ends in the judgment and at the dis- cretion of my trustees. It is my will, and I so direct, that the contributions to tbe purposes named in this clause shall continue during the lifetime of my children, Rob- ert Garrett, Thomas Harrison Garrett, and Mary Elizabeth Garrett, and of tho sur- vivors and survivor of them, and that the same shall be continued thereafter by their heirs if the condition of the estate will then jastify the said appropriation. I desiro that the contributions and assistance to be given under this clause of my will shall, as far as practicable, be devoted to the promotion of the objects herein named in the city of Baltimore and in the State of Maryland; but in case of special sutfcring or distress in other communities, my trustees shall have the power to use their discretion and judgment in relieving tho same. From a personal friend to the two benefactors I learn that Mr. Garrett really directed the gifts of Mr. Johns Hopkins. Mr. Garrett is reported as having said, " Johns, give while you live, so that you may direct aud see the fruits of your labors." Johns did give while living, and the Johns Hopkins University is the result of the accumulated efforts of Mr. Hopkins, ntnch of this being the "earnings" of his stock in the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. The latter road during the lifetime of Mr. Garrett was proverbial for the care of its employes ; the Baltimore & Ohio Eelief Association, fur- nishing all the advantages of a mutual life insurance company, a savings bank, and a building association, was peculiarly the result of Mr. Gar- rett's forethought, and the pride of his administration. The company' has announced the orgauizatiou of a school of tech- nology for the training of young men, the future employes of the com- pany. This school, located at Mount Clare (Baltimore), will be formally opened September next. The object and the purpose of this institution will be to give the Baltimore & Ohio a force of trained men, those hav- ing the advantage of a suitable amount of literary instruction, as well as that practical teaching which they will most need. I must add here for the sentiment, for the lofty and manly aud elevat- ing spirit of the donor, the following: said Mr. George I. Seney, "If any one asks you wliy I have given so much to the Wesley an Female College, tell them it is to honor my mother, to whom under God I owe more than to all the Avoild besides." Mr. Seney gave to the Wesleyan Female College and to Emory Col- lege, of Georgia, $450,000. Mrs. Leland Stanford, since the spirit of her dear boy departed (" ahiitf nonperiW), has organized in the city of San Francisco four kindergar- ten schools, locating them in those parts of the city most destitute, and has dedicated them to the motherless and homeless little. ones of her great and lowly, her si)lendid and yet shadowy city. Already has this benefactress, if not repaid, been compensated in her affliction for her loss. A mother writes her, "My children shall be taught to love Le- laud's memory, follow his example, and Imitate his lovely character." The ex-Governor, it is said, contemplates — has determined — that Palo 743 506 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Alto, the "beautiful," "sweet Palo Alto" of tlie boy, shall be the site of Leland's University. Those who kuow the father, his liberal culture, his broad views, and his entire acquaintance with all the educational systems and institutions of learning: at home and abroad, being a personal friend to many of the savants of Europe, with an abundance of means at his command, know that this will be a real university, surpassing tlie English universities and leading those on the Continent, since it will deal with the practical living issues of all sciences, social, political, and physical. There will be, too, a liberality toward the distinguished scholars called to these departments; their services in their specialties will be specially rewarded; the man who pays the trainers of his horses more at present, in wages and perquisites, than his State university pays her professors, will evidently pay to the conductors of the various departments of the university, founded and named to honor his only child, salaries com- mensurate with the founder's appreciation of mind over matter. While in California (1882) on a visit I wrote, "It is true Columbus <}rossed the Atlantic. But Lelaud Stanford connected the oceans." To-day Leland Stanford, the patron of letters, the friend of science, the supporter of religion, a devoted, humble Christian himself, may be justly ranked '•'•primus inter pares, ^"^ the head of the living, the present American railroad triumvirate. Mr. President: 1 have seen much of this continent, have seen more of Texas. That which in our school geographies was called the "Ameri-" can Desert" — later, the "Staked Plains" — is no desert at all. Since the building of the Texas and Pacific, this vast area has become (was all the time) fertile. All the cereals grow luxuriantly. Pure water, and in abundance, is found throughout these plains, costs but the dig- ging of a shallow well. Here, sir, is so happily, so truthfully, veriHed the great promise, that not only " The wilderness and the solitary place shall he glad for them^^ (the railroads), but, '^ The desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose,''^ that I venture to suggest — I assert, Africa is not Africa because it is the home of the colored man, but the colored man is the colored man because his home is in Africa ! It needs but the touch of Ithuriel's spear — the life-giving breath, the awakening influence of the locomotive, and this Dark Continent, this land of Ham, will take its rightful place in the brotherhood of Shem and Japheth, all then being of one speech and one language, and that the Anglo-Saxon. But, sir, I must close, and yet I cannot do so without adding one other reflection : A few days ago, standing upon the track of the Texas & Pacific and turning my eyes east and west, surveying the line which traverses for 1,487 miles the most fertile portions of the territory of Texas and con- nects the waters of each ocean, I was forced to the conviction that, for many miles on either side, there will be presented a phenomenon not unlike the Gulf Stream, except that the warm waters of the latter will be replaced by the warm hearts of an intelligent, enterprising, and thrifty population. Some will select the fertile prairies, others will dwell amid the sierras in search of the rich placers, while others still will be content to tend their flocks and count their herds. Of these and those who shall come after them there will be an unbroken (life-blood) current from the Pacific to the Atlantic and from the Atlantic to the Pacific; for this will truly be the highway of nations. Sir, it is said that the ancients never worshiped the setting sun. • This is more than true of our modern devotees. Still, it would be remissness indeed upon my part, to close this address without asking the question, 744 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 507 To whose statesmanship, to whose forethought, to whose prophetic ken was due this gigantic enterprise, this girdling the continent and uniting ocean with ocean ? Moving west, still west, and yet still west, pausing in front and at the very base of rugged and awe-crowned Sierra Blanca, said I: A hundred thousand years hast thou stood sentinel over this vast valley and plain; long hast thou guarded this pass! Mayest thou yet stand a thousand-thousand years, witnessing daily the transformations, the "sweet influences," of the j)eaceful locomotive, and adding perpetually thy testimony to the sagacity of the originator of the project "to build a railroad on or near the thirty second parallel of latitude." Monuments and mausoleums, bronze and brass, may fitly commemo- rate the deeds of dead heroes, so styled by the world, amid the glare and glitter, the flush and flurry of the battle field; but the long lines of this road, stretching across this united continent, bearing the trains heavily freighted with the rich returns of honest toil, will ever be the most appropriate monument to the wisdom and skill of their builders and present managers; while perennially the flower decked prairie will add its fragrance to, and forever embalm the memory of Thomas A. Scott, the great projector of the Texas and Pacific Eailway Company. 745 AN HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION. By Alice C. Fletcher, Peahody Museum of American Archceology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass. EARLY DISTRIBUTION AND CONDITION OE INDIANS. The aborigines of this country, when met by Europeans more than 350 years ago, were grouped into comparatively small, independent tribes, separated from one another by unbroken forests or stretches of prairie. Each tribe was organized within itself upon an almost uniform plan, which was effective for the preservation of their religious and tribal cus- toms. In a few instances confederations existed between tribes more or less related, but these unions were of so voluntary a character as to prevent any centralization of power tending to the formation of a nation. Warfare was personal and desultory rather than representative or or- ganized, and consequently failed to develop new social or political ideas, and left the condition of the people unchanged. Cabeza de Vaca, in his journey from Florida to Southern California, found the tribes he encountered varying in their conditions. Those liv- ing in the fertile regions bordering the Gulf dwelt in stockaded towns, their dwellings made of wood, thatched and covered with a mixture of clay. These villages were surrounded by "Yeriegood meadows and many fields sown with maize." Corn, beans, pumpkins, and melons were raised for food, and the supply of game was ample, so that the suste- nance of life was secure. These favored tribes cultivated cotton, had a knowledge of spinning and weaving, and were clad in garments of their own manufacture. They also made and used ornamented vessels of pottery. In the arid regions further west, the people were found pick- ing up a scanty existence from native fruits and nuts, their habitations were corresijoudingly miserable, and their progress in civilization very slight. From various early writers and traders, English, French, and Swed- ish, we learn that the great Algonquin family occupied the coast from the Savannah Eiver northward, embracing -Virginia, Eastern Pennsyl- vania, New Jersey, Eastern New York, New England, and Canada as far north as Labrador. The Delawares were the leading tribe of this group, and seem to have been at the head of a confederation. The Algouquins had also spread westward, by warfare, and to-day the Crees of the North-west Territory of British America, and the Blackfeet of Montana, are the most westerly outposts of this once powerful family, while the Cheyennes. Miamis, Sacs and Foxes, and others, have been driven to the Indian Territory. Wedged in between the tribes of the Algonquins lay the Iroquois living about the St, Lawrence Eiver and tributary lakes and the lakes of New York, and extending as far south as the mountains of North Carolina and west into Tennessee, where the 746 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 509 Cberokees were first met by the white men. Farther v.est dwelt tlie .cjreat Sionan family, beyoiul them the Athabaskan group, and still farther the Pacific Coast Indians. All the natives east of the Mississippi (and it is now known to be true of several tribes west of that river) dwelt iu fortified vilhip:es, cultivated the soil, raising large crops of maize, beans, pumj)kius, and melons. Meat and clothing were furnished by the game, as also tents and im- plements for farming and sewing. AH the tribes wcr<' acquainted with the art of making pottery and weaving vegetabU^ fibers. All used simi- lar weapons, and a marked resemblance existed between their social or- ganization, their customs of war, and their religious beliefs. Even their ceremonials, although varying in minor points and details, were much alike, and indicated an environment tending to form a homogeneous people. The absence on this continent of any animals capable of domestica- tion kept the su])ply of food precarious, and therefore held the people in a condition where their energies were in constant demand to prevent iamine, so that no force could be turned aside from i>ressing neces- sity to be used for the accumulation of property and the development of better modes of living and of industry. The cultivation of the soil, while marking the step from savagery to barbarism, hardly affords the same means of progress as the domestication of animals, with the consequent increase of wealth and comfort from flocks and herds. This lack of resource upon this continent would tend to protract the era of barbarism and delay the invention of a written language, which lifts a ])eople over the confines of barbarism into civilization. In more favored regions on this continent various mnemonic devices were in use among the Indians ; but whether these would have developed into a full writ- ten language must ever be a matter of si)eculation, as the aborigines suddenly' found themselves coufroufed with a well-equipped civilization foreign to their modes of thought and social and religious observances. POPULATION AND EARLY CONTACT WITH WHITE PEOPLE. When the first permanent relations between the Indians and the Europeans were established in the sixteenth century, it is doubtful if the entire native po])ulatiou within the present territory of the United States exceeded five hundred thousand souls. Wars with the white race and instigated wars between, tribes, added to the usual nati%'e warfare, tended to lessen the number of Indians ; but the principal cause in the reduction of the population was the introduction of new and fatal diseases, smallpox and measles being particularly fatal. The Spanish upon the south and the French upon the north were the first to make permanent colonies. These colonies, however, were not established upon the plan of making homes in the land, so much as securing wealth from the resources of the country, as is shown by the bootless search for gold by the Spanish iu the south, and the untiring prosecution of trade iu furs and peltries at the north. The English generally came to stay ; and while they by no means neglected trade with the Indians, the desire for land exceeded the greed of the mer- chant. It may be truthfully stated in a broad sense that from the first con- tact with the white race the Indian has been at great disadvantage and a continual sufferer. At the outset he gave to tlie white man trust and welcome ; but being met iu return by injustice and dislike, bred of race antipathies, this trust turned to hatred, not unmixed with an 747 510 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. awe bred of the many- sided powers of the intruder. Of the unequal contest, the past four hundred years bear painful record. The contest has never been simple. The Indian was inveigled into taking part in all the political animosities which found expression upon this continent between the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, and Swedish nations. The Indians were tossed upon the bayonets of these contending powers; they were used as a scourge by differing home parties during the Eev- olution and later wars; their greed has been appealed to by traders of dif- ferent nationalities, and at all times their lands have been coveted. For selfish ends the Indians have been in turn coaxed, betrayed, denounced, and always despised; they have been courted as allies yet spurned as equals, and are the prey rather than the scholars of civilization. Time forbids entering into the details of history to substantiate these statements. Every record of the growth and development of our country furnishes testimony, and numerous confirmatory instances of this treat- ment will arise in the memory of every candid listener. What has the Indian gained from this long conflict? It is probable that swine were obtained from the Spanish during the espedition of De Soto, and that a century later cattle were obtained from a disheart- ened colony of English at Cape Fear. It is recorded that early in the eighteenth century herds of wild cattle became profitable game to the hunter in North Carolina ; horses came from the Spaniards in Mexico ; corn the Indians already possessed, and from their store they over and over again succored the starving colonists ; implements of iron caused the native tools to be thrown aside ; tin and earthenware utensils super- seded the wooden or pottery dishes, and thus the native industries of the people became useless. Cheaper clothing than that wrested from the game was given to the tribes, and calico and cloth have slowly and surely replaced the skin of the deer and buffalo. So the native avoca- tions lessened, and with the disappearance of the wild animals the old life faded, leaving the Indian in idleness and pauperism. Kor was he persistently encouraged and stimulated to new methods of labor. He was accounted to be of a dying race, or at least of one that should so be, since his land was wanted, and he was troublesome and cumbered the way of advance to the white man. JSIISSIONARY WOEK. In the midst of this darkness the light of humanity shone forth here and there in the centuries. With the Spanish expedition of the six- teenth century came priests, who were bent upon baptizing the Indians into the Eoman Catholic Church. Their zeal was honest, but it was mainly confined to the life after death, little heed being given to present conditions. In a few instances efforts were made to instruct the Indians, but these efforts were principally directed to the same post mortem end. About 15G8 Father Eogers entered upon the work of teaching the Indians of the Caroliuas better methods of farming and living. He secured implements, selected lands, built twenty houses, and induced several Indians to take up farming. Father Eogers was in advance of his time. The country was unoccupied, game abounded, and the Indians tired of the experiment when they saw the tribe move out on the hunt. The Father, too, lost courage in his admirable plan, and he sailed away to Havana, where a school had been recently founded for Indians. The experiment of Father Eogers was not lost, and it has since been taken up and has accomplished much for many Indian tribes. 748 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 511 Numerous missions were established by the Roman Catholic priest- hood among the Indians of the South and South-west. Father Benavides reported twenty-seven missions established among the Pueblos up to the year 1626. In 1680 a general uprising took place among the Pueblo Indians, the Navajo tribe joining ; all the priests were killed or driven awa\',and churches and convents destroyed. Many of these were never rebuilt. In the early part of the eighteenth century the first mission in California was founded at San Diego. It is among these so-called Mis- sion Indians in California that the most lasting effect of the efforts of the Spanish missions are to be found. The story of the French Jesuits is so well known through the graphic pen of Mr. Francis Parkman that its mention is only needful at this time. Of the work accomplished by the Jesuits much has passed away with the heroic men who braved the wilderness so heroically for their faith. The historian of the Roman Catholic Missions, John G. Shea, thus sets forth the missionaries' plan of work: The missionaries began their instruction in religion at once ; they did not seek to teach the Indians to read and write as an indispensable prelude to Christianity, That they left for times when greater peace would render it feasible, when long self-con- trol had made the children less averse to the task. The utter failure of their Huron Seminary at Quebec, as well as of all the attempts made by others at the instance of the French court, showed that to wait till the Indians were a reading people would be to postpone their conversion forever. In this divorce of Christianity from civilization and its indisi)ensable adjunct, education, lies the secret of all missionary failure, no matter by what church it has been undertaken. All the early charters granted by the English Government to the colo- nies, beginning with that of the Virginia Company of London, given in 1606, make mention of ameliorating the condition of the Indians. In 1621 the Council and Assembly of Virginia stated as one of their duties the "Enlargement of God's Kingdom among the heathen people." The General Court of Massachusetts in 1644 "Ordered that the county courts in this jurisdiction shall take care that the Indians of the sev- eral shires be civilized, and the courts shall have power to take order from time to time to have the Indians instructed in the knowledge and worship of God." Indian children were already being educated in schools with white children. In 1646 John Eliot was busy visiting and instructing the Indians of Massachusetts. In December of that year the Indians living near Rox- bury offered all their children to be instructed by the English, and la- mented their inability to pay for the instruction. Eliot declared, '• The Indians must be civilized as well as, if not in order to their being chris- tianized." Land was set apart and towns built for the Indians. In- dustries were taught, and the Indians sold such commodities as brooms, jstaves, baskets, berries, and fish. Mr. Eliot planned a government for these "praying-towns," as they were called, modeling it upon the Jewish record. In 1674 there were fourteen of these towns, the ludianw sub- sisting largely by farming, owning cattle, horses, and swine. Many Indians worked on the farms of their English neighbors. Thos. May- hew and his son labored in a similar manner among the Indians of Mar- tha's Vineyard and lifantucket. The work of John Eliot in translating the Bible into the Indian tongue is well known. He also prepared school-books, religious and secular, to be used in the Indian schools. The breakiog out of King Philip's War in 1675 unsettled the Indians, and put a stop to active missionary work in Massachusetts for several years. 749 512 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. In 1743 Eev. Eleazar Wheelock, of Lebanon, Conn., took up tlie mis- sionary heritage of Eliot, and received into his family Indian youth for instruction. In 1754 he started a charity school at his own expense, called Moor's Indian Charity School. The number of i:>upils increased until in 17G7 there were sixty -two scholars. Public interest in England was excited in behalf of the school by one of the Indian scholars visit- ing that country, and, in spite of the pending troubles with the colonies, Dartmouth College was established in connection with Moor's Charity School in 1770. The latter with its funds finally became merged in the college, the charter requiring the institution to educate as many Indians as the funds would allow. There has hardly been a term since when one or more Indians have not been students at Dartmouth Col- lege, New Hampshire. Eev. Samuel Kirkwood was engaged with Dr. Wheelock in the Moor school, but left then and started for the Iroquois, to establish among them a similar work, and in 17G(> he settled with the Oneidas. Marry- ing soon after, his wife joined in his beneficent labors. Their influence was notable, the tribe became thrifty and industrious, and on the break- ing out of the Revolution the Eev. Mr. Kirkwood was able to hold the Oneidas in peace. The i>rogress of the tribe since is in a large measure due to this remarkable man and his wife. In 1822 and 1833 a large j)ortion of the Oneidas removed to the region of Green Bay, Wis-, where they still reside. They are practically self supporting, are urging the patenting of their land in severalty and to be admitted into the privi- leges of citizenship. They are all nominally Christians, a large iiortion church members, Methodist and Episcopalian. Besides their churches they have five schools in operation at the present time. Those Oneidas who reside in Kew York have received their lands individually. The State maintains two schools among them. These Indians are mostly Methodists, and are spoken of as an " industrious and worthy people." It is interesting to note in passing, that Hamilton College, of New York State, grew out of an Indian school somewhat in the same way as Dartmouth College. In 1734 the remarkable work of the Moravians began among the Creeks of Georgia, in 1740 among the Mohegans of New York, and in 1748 at Bethlehem, Penn., among the Delawares. The story of the per- secution of the Christian Delawares is too well known to be more than referred to. Few chapters in history tell a sadder tale than that of these patient Christians, torn from their homes by Indian enemies or white people craving the fertile valleys, and forced to start afresh in the wilderness further west. As early as 1782 these enforced migrations began," first to southern Ohio ; in 1787 they were imshed north to Lake Erie, and in 1791 they scattered to Canada and Michigan. The missionaries shared in these hardshijDS and wandered forth with their stricken flock to find a place of rest. A portion of the Delawares returned to the Miami Valley, and in 1795 twice replanted their cornfields after the young crops had been destroyed by General Wayne. The history of tlie next seventy years is one of removals, uprooting of homes and farms, and these have left a trail of sorrow through Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, down to the Indian Territory, where about 1870 the bulk of the people cast in their lot with the Cherokees. A few, the only ones still bearing the distinctive name of Delawares, linger among the remnants of other tribes at the Kiowa, Comanche, and Wichita Agencies, Indian Territory. One is not surprised to hear that they are now making little or no effort toward cultivating lands and living in houses. 750 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 513 In 1795 the Quakers took up the work of cariug for the education of the Indian. Their missionaries have been busy in many tribes, north, south, east, and west, and the efforts begun ninety years ago have not slackened, but rather increased up to the present day. Industrial education has been their aim, and they have been ever ready to work for civilization, for peace, and for purity of the public service, whenever called upon. When the distribution of agencies to the care of religious societies took place, upon the inauguration of General Grant's peace policy, eight agencies were put in charge of the Friends. Their missions are now maintained at four agencies, besides schools sustained, in full or in part, by funds from the various societies of that order. In 1819 the Baptist Society began work, and established schools. One of the most noted was the Choctaw Academy in Kentucky. Trades were taught in addition to the ordinary school curriculum. The pupils were drawn from different tribes, and the benefit of the school was widely felt. When the Choctaw and kindred tribes were moved west of the Mississippi, this successful school in the course of time followed the people to their new home. In 1823 the Methodist Church began missions, and other denomina- tions followed soon after. SCHOOL STATISTICS. In 1819 Congress appropriated $10,000 as a civilization fund. This amount was continued for several years, and the money was mainly used in assisting missionary schools. In 1833 the number of Indian children in school is given as 1,835. Of these 191 w^ere at Choctaw Academy. Fifty-three mission schools were assisted by the Government, as follows: American Board of Foreign Missions, 31; Baptist General Convention, 10 5 Eoman Catholic, G ; Methodist Episcopal Church, 3 ; Methodist Society, 2 ; Protestant Episcopal, 1. Xot far from the time of General Grant's peace policy education began to be actively pressed by the Indian Bureau. The government schools, which had been rather fitful and meager, were refitted and new schools built. The standard of teaching was raised, and the improvement has gone steadily forward. Training schools in the trades have been estab- lished within the past eight years, some of these taking high rank as educational institutions, as that at Carlisle Barracks, Carlisle, Penn., under the charge of Capt. K. H. Pratt. The statistics of Indian education at the present day are about as follows : School popiilatiou (exclusive of the five civilized tribes) 40,000 Nnmber of hoarding schools 89 Number of day schools T26 Accommodation boarding schools 6, 506 A ccomuiodat ion day schools 5, 672 Average attendance 7, 650 Cost to the Government $650,565 Cost to religions societies $179, 085 Cost to State of New York $8,848 Five civiU:zed tribes, Vidian Territory : Number of boarding schools 17 Number of day schools 201 School accommodation 10, 704 School attendance 7, 862 Cost to Five Nations $175,071 Cost to religious societies $21,541 All the mission schools are included in the above statistics. 7950 COT., PT. 2 33 751 614 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT TO THE INDIAN3. During the period of Confederation Congress-had the entire manage- ment of Indian affairs, appointing agents who reported directly to tlio legislative body. Upon the adoption of the Constitution and conse- quent creation of the War Department in 1789, the Indians were com- mitted to the charge of the Secretary of War. Owing to the rapid settlement of the country, the extended and complicated frontier inter- ests rendered the adminivstration of Indian matters more tind moio difficult and onerous, and finally led, in 1832, to the formation of a spe cial office under a Commissioner of Indian Afiairs, subordinate to the Secretary of War. Upon the creation of the Department of the Inie- rior by the Act of March 3, 1849, various considerations led to tlie transferring of the Indians from the War Department to the Depart- ment of the Interior, the Hon. Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, in his Report recommending the change, saying: "* * * With the interesting progress of so many of the tribes in Christianity, knowledge, and civilization, these duties do not necessarily appertain to war, but to peace and to our domestic relations with those tribes placed by the Constitution under the charge of this Government." As marking the growth of the friendly sentiment of the Senate, the following passage from the debate may be quoted: "War being the exception, peace the ordinary condition, the policy should be for the latter, not the former condition." With the exception of one break, from March, 1869, to July, 1870, when officers of the Army, specially detailed, acted as Indian agents, the Indian tribes have been under the care of civilians. The force to-day numbers Gl agents, having charge of 168 reservations, varying in size from 33,830 square miles to 4 square miles, including pueblos, and the entire Indian population is estimated at 265,565. Treaties made between the chiefs representing their various tribes and the United States Government regulate in general the policy of the latter toward the former. The first treaty was made with the Del- awares in 1778, prior to the adoption of the present Constitution. Be- tween 1778 and 1789, when the Constitution went into effect, fourteen other treaties were made with different tribes. The last treaty was proclaimed on August 27, 1870. The total number of t':'eaties from 1778 to 1871 being 649. By these treaties nearly all the territory of the present United States' has been acquired, excepting portions of that covered by the thirteen original States. In these treaties, besides ceding their lands, the Indians agree to live peaceably with the white settlers, to remain upon their reservations, from which all white intruders were to be rigidly excluded. The Gov- ernment agreed on its part to compensate the Indians by money annui- ties in cash payment, or their equivalent in food, clothing, agricultural implements, and instruction in farming trades, and the establishing and maintaining of schools for a greater or less term of years. An Act of March 3, 1871, provides, "that hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, or tribe, or power, with whom the United States may contract by treaty." Since that time all agreements between the Government and the Indians have been subject to the approval of both branches of Congress. The Act of March 3, 1871, marks a step in the advance of public sentiment toward the Indian, insomuch as he is no longer recognized as a foreigner • 758 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 515 While the major part of the Indians are under treaty agreements, there are some tribes which have never had any such relations with the Government. In some of these instances the peculiar character of the soil, the disappearance of game, and other circumstances, have made it needful that assistance in food and clothing should be provided for these Indians. The policy of the Indian Bureau is to prepare the Indians to become self-supporting, and varying success has followed the efforts made. Several tribes are to day relying entirely on their own efforts; some of these receive interest upon funds held by the United States, derived from the sale of lands. This money affords help in the management of their internal affairs, as, for instance, the five civilized tribes in the In- dian Territory support their government and schools almost whollj' from the interest on funds so derived. As a means to carry out the policy of the Bureau, a plan was instituted in 1874, requiring Indians to labor for their annuities, particularly when these took the form of rations, etc. The i)lau in many cases has been beneficial in its results, particu- larly by making compulsory education possible. In the efforts to carry out its policy, the Bureau of Indian Affairs suffers much from the routine which during the past one hundred years has accumulated about the methods of transacting business. Precedent is almost, if not quite, as powerful as law, and the way a thing has once been done is regarded as the way to continue doing it, whether the method is of the best or of the worst sort. Much valuable time and individual energy is lost by this custom, and effective service crippled because of elaborate entanglements. The executive branch of the Government, as represented in the In- dian Bureau, is nearly, if not quite, powerless to enforce that which it sees to be best for the education and civilization of the Indian. Each year the Bureau makes its estimate of moneys needed, not only to carry on the work of the office and to pay employes in the field, but for the building and equipping of schools and securing good instructors; ibr o])ening farms; for purchasing implements, and, where it is needful, for feeding and clothing those Indians who are not yet able to take care of themselves; and for the means necessary to institute new methods of i)ushing the people forward, and enlarging the opportunities of those Indians who are already advanced. This estimate, on being pre- sented to Congress, is revised by committees of Congressmen, to whom a full knowledge of Indian needs and conditions is practically impossi- ble, the subject being too full of detail to be mastered by men having many other interests to look after. These committees, by controlling the money appropriations, control the Indian, and the efforts for civili- zation and education. From some unknown reason it has been the cus- tom for these committees to cut down the estimate sent in by the Bu- reau, whose officers know all the facts and where the needs of the serv- ice lie. Every dollar that is cut off by these committees is just so much taken from the welfare of the Indian, by crippling the influences that help him forward, and thus strengthening those influences which hinder his i)rogress. Reports and various appeals from the Executive Dejiart- ment relative to Indian matters have been presented to Congress year after year, and these show clearly that the men having the immediate direction of Indian affairs have been urging such legislation as would make plans for the educ^ition and civilization of the Indian effective, but year after year these reports and appeals have received little heed. The responsibility of the present condition of the Indian tribes rests, therefore, upon Congress. 753 516 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Each year hastens the Indian crisis. The pressure of white immi- gration grows yearly more x)owerfnl, and it is but the question of a short time before the Indian reservations will be broken up. No person or governmental body can prevent this happening. The only safety for the Indian's home is to give each one his laud in severalty, the United States acting as a guardian for a given number of years. By this term of protection, the Indian is granted time in which to prepare himself to meet his inevitable responsibility. Some tribes are already thus cared for, and are progressing under the stimulus of owning their home- steads. But no patent can make the home of the Indian secure, without the education which shall give training to his mind and hand. With a school population (exclusive of the five tribes) of 40,000 children, and a school accommodation for only 12,178, it is clear where lies one of the urgent duties of Congress toward the Indian. The school funds must be enlarged, more schools built, and a greater average of attendance secured. It is becoming clear to the minds of a large portion of our i)eople that the genius of our government cannot "tolerate at large a class of people less than citizens." The Indian problem awaits its solution in this di- rection. Until the manhood of the Indian can find legitimate expres- sion, the work of the agent, the educator, and the i)hilanthropist toward developing in the Indian the desire for independence and civilization will be more or less abortive. Too much emphasis is laid upon the sav- agery and wildness of the Indian. We are apt to forget his nativ'e i:)ower, and the long years during which the effort has been i)ersistent on our part to make him a dependent and a pauper. The extinction of the game has changed his environment and sapped his religious cus- toms 5 the pressure of civilization has rendered his social organization inefiective and useless. The Indian stands to-day stripped of all his l)ast greatness, fronting a future, dreaded and distrusted, because not understood ; yet possessed of heroic qualities which have made it im- possible to enslave him, and loving liberty and justice better than his life. 754 A BEIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN NEW ENGLAND. By Thomas W. Bicknell, LL. D., Boston, Mass. The opening years of the present century witnessed the "Great Re- vival of American Education," as it has been most fitly styled. Prior to 1800, the American common school was in the childhood period. Immaturity in growth and development characterized all its features, and imperfection might be written on its work. The common school of the eighteenth century was rather distinguished for what it did not, than for what it did accomplish for the American boy and girl. The school-house, with its slab benches and ugly interior and exterior, held the child within its rude enclosure for three months in the year. The master was .of the stalwart sort. "A uian severe he was and stern to view; I knew him well, and every truant knew." The text books of eighty years ago were few, and, judged by modern standards, almost worthless. Of apparatus, maps, and charts, there were scarcely none. A very limited introduction to the secrets locked within the cabalistic alliteratives, the "Three R's," was all that the grandfathers and grandmothers of the present generation obtained in their scanty school-life. Prior to the year 1825, the literature of education in this country was confined to the newspaper press and the scanty magazine literature of that early day. The articles or essays on education which found pub- licity in the weekly or monthly papers had little practical value to parent or teacher, usually dealt with topics from the upper and superficial side, and were often either theoretical or chimerical in theory and in philosophy. America had statesmen who understood the theories and practice of government, writers who knew belles-lettres, judges versed in the deepest and highest arts of jurisprudence ; but the men and the women who could discuss philosophy as applied to mental growth, or who knew the science and the art of education, were among the rarw ares of that otherwise interesting period. A reading of the works of the best American writers on education, prior to the great educational awakening of Horace Mann and his co- laborers, gives abundant evidence of a deep-1'elt interest in education as a force in upbuilding society; but the art of the orator and the rhet- orician hides the skill of the teacher and the careful observation of the student of an inductive faith or philosophy. Men and women wrote from the i^tandpoiut of a strong religious faith, without the fair or full appreciation of what the human mind needed, or how it best could be developed. Even the higher education of the day was of the traditional sort, empirical, full of windy sophistries and airy nothings. There were 755 518 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. divines in the pulpit vho could preach twepty-tbur sermons, with a raft of couclusions and improvements, froui a single text; statesmen of the larger sort there were, but they seemed to come at statesmanship by a process independent of the schools and colleges. They drew from their inner consciousness and from tlie scliool of a remarkable dijdomatic age the lessons of state-craft, which Franklin, Madison, Jeft'erson, Adams, and the men of that day so wonderfully illustrated. It seems to us now the marvel of marvels, that the foundation principles of govern- ment could have been so clearly defined, and vigorously enunciated and defended, as in the birthdays of the great Republic; and the masterly discussions of the constitutional period show great statesmen and schol- ars, whose records grow brighter with the advancing years. The great men of that day were great in spite of the crudeness and inefficiency of the educational methods, and illustrate to us the principle, that the school of necessity gives the highest diplomas and confers the highest rewards. At the close of the revolutionary struggle and the period of national construction, men began to talk about the school as a means of making and preserving a republic; and the most remarkable words of Frank- lin in Pennsylvania, and of Jefferson and Washington in Virginia, re late to the quickening of an interest in the common school as the col- lege of the people, and the guarantee of good citizenship. As the century closed, business revived; agriculture, manufactures, and com- merce, inter-State and international, began to show some signs of a future prosperity. A poverty-stricken people soon became possessed of a fair competency, and men's thoughts turned from the arts of war and a defensive life to the arts of peace and the conquest over the hard conditions of anew life and a new civilization. Thus came to pass what is aptly called the Revival Period of a great educational life. Singularly enough, but naturally enough, the tirst suggestions con- cerning the imi)rovements of our public or common schools had refer- ence to the increased qualifications of teachers, most of whom sadly needed the higher intellectual, as well as moral, culture necessary in the instructors of youth. The earliest suggestions of institutions where teachers of the common schools could be qualified were made by Elivsha Ticknor in 1789, the year of the adoi)tion of our Federal Constitution, in the Massachusetts Magazine^ and the first i)roposition for a distinct academy or school for this purpose was made in 1817 by Denisou Olm- stead, afterwards a ])i'ofessor in Yale College, IS'ew Haven, Conn. The first twenty-five years of this century were the preparative period for an educational awakening; and as springtime finds all of our valleys, east and west, north and south, ready for the quickening sun to germinate the seed which shall rejoice the reapers in the harvests, so all along the more advanced sections of intelligent thought in the Old Thirteen there was a general stir, tfti undefined impulse for something better in schoollife. See how clearly this appears in the records of some of the important educational events from 1800 and on, resulting from the discussions of the ])ublic press, national legislators, city, State, and town officials. In 1802, lady members of the Society of Friends, a religious body always foremost in works of education and charity as well as of religion, had established a free school for girls in the city of Ne^ York. In 1805, the Legislature of Xew York incorporated the Public School So- ciety, "for the establishment of a free school in New York for the edu- cation of poor cli'ldren who do not belong to, or are not provided for, by any religious society." Ue Witt Clinton's name leads the list of 756 lifTteRNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 519 corporators and be was the first president of the society. In 1812, the Ein|)ire State created the ottice of Superintendent of Common Sc^hools, the first state oftice of its kind in America, and the special reports of Su])erintendents Flagg, Dix, and Spencer, had a powerful influence in' inducing- other States to establish common schools as a part of the public policy. The creation of the school fund in Connecticut, and the l)roposition to endow common schools out of the avails of the public lands, were a stimulus to other States to like liberal grants to public schools. The establishment of {)rimary schools as a part of the public school system in l^ostou, in 1808, through the efforts of Elisha Ticknor and many others, and subsequently of the high school for boys who did not intend to go through college, and of a high school for girls in 1825, afterward merged in an extended grammar-school course, are among- the great events of that early day. The project of a committee of the State of Maryland, of which Virgil Maxcy was chairman, for distribut- ing a portion of the avails of the sales of the public lands among the several States for school purposes, with the action of tiie Legislatures of several States, attracted universal attention to the condition and im- l)rovement of our public schools. Governors incorporated in their an- nual messages pressing recommendations relating to better schools, as Governors Clinton of New York, Lincoln of Massachusetts, Butler of Vermont, and Lincoln of Maine, and, as a result, the school laws of Ken- tucky, Maine, Alabama, Maryland, Missouri, Ohio, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Rhode Island, New York, Vir- ginia, Delaware, and South Carolina, were either established or revised between 1821 and 1828. Free high schools were established in Wor- cester and Lowell, Mass., Portland and Bath, Me, Providence, R. L, Hartford, Conn., and in Cincinnati, Ohio, during the same year. Moni- torial and manual labor schools were the new experiments of the day. The production of school-books which should supersede the American Preceptor, DaboU's Arithmetic, and the Ciphering Book, was in order, and Colburn's Arithmetic, with all its numerous progeny, was the result. The establishment of seminaries for the education of girls was urged and entered upon, and the labors of Emma Willard at Troy, N. Y., of Miss Catherine Beecher at Litchfield, Conn., of Miss Grant at Ipswich, Mass., and of Rev. Mr. Herrick at New Haven, Conn., should never be forgotten. The establishment of the Rensselaer Institute at Troy, and of the University of Virginia, were events of great significance in their several sections. The i)roposition in 1825 to establish independent schools of practical science, or to extend the plans of collegiate edu- cation so as to admit of more attention to the sciences, especially as api)lied to the useful arts, was a long step forward; the formation of mechanics' institutes in 1821 and of popular lyceums in 182C, wich de- bates, lectures, cabinets, classes for instruction, libraries, etc., and con- ventions held in Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Pennsyl- vania, in the twenties, were results of a profound conviction that the people must have a better style of education, as well as the occasion of a nu)re thorough work in creating a better public sentiment for universal education. From the hasty glimpses given one can see that great agencies were at work in establishing the American common school on a firm and intelli- gent basfs. A deep want was everywhere felt for a better condition of education for the children of all the people, and as a result men began to besiir ihemselves in matters relating to school organization, adminis- Uation, and endowment. A broad philanthropy rather than a deep 520 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. philosophy ruled the hour, and men consulted their instincts rather than the formulas of logic in their educational policy. As we have seen, no one locality monopolized the new educational life. It was throbbing with equal energy in the hearts of such men as Jefferson in Virginia, Wayland in Rhode Island, Grimke in South Carolina, Clinton of New York, Gallaudet of Connecticut, Frelinghuysen of Kew Jersey, Emer- son, Oliver, and Abbott of Massachusetts, Peers of Kentucky, Guilford of Ohio, Shaw of Virginia, and hosts of others whose names are to-day embalmed in State and local history. All great movements in society proceed after one general law, — agi- tation, organization, publication, and persuasion. We have seen the educational movement proceed along the line of the first two steps. Great themes have been talked over, legislation has been effected, the machinery of school work has been put in decent order and set in mo- tion. The first educational association was formed at Middletown, Conn., in 1799, under the name of the Middlesex County Association for the Improvement of Common Schools. There is now needed the inspiration and the great balance wheel of educational literature to keep in regular and harmonious order and procedure the complex thing we call the common-school system. THE FIRST EDUCATIONAL JOURNAL IN THE WORLD. Massachusetts has been the birth-place of many excellent men, ideas, and institutions, and not the least of her occasions of boasting is the publication of the first professional paper, or magazine, on education in this country. Its name was the American Journal of Education^ and the first number of Volume I appeared January 1, 1826. It was pub- lished in Boston by Wait, Greene & Co., Court Street, and printed by Thomas B. Wait & Son, proprietors. Of Mr. Wait, we know that he was a practical printer and publisher, and becoming deeply interested in the subject of education, during his residence in Portland, Me., in the movement for the establishment of a system of graded schools, he proposed the publication of the Journal of Education, in the fall of 1825, to several- literary and educational gentlemen of Boston and vicinity, who readily accepted his proposals and aided the undertaking. The names of the modest editors nowhere appear in the first volumes, but they were known to be William Russell, William C. Woodbridge, and William A. Alcott, and, on the authority of Dr. Henry Barnard, these three men have the honor of editing " the first i^eriodical devoted to the advancement of education in the English language." Those familiar with the common school history of Massachusetts know these men, and their cotemporaries and associates in teaching and writing on education. There were in their councils George B. Emerson, A. Bronson Alcott, Warren Colburn, James G. Carter, Horace Mann, Henry K. Oliver, Josiah Holbrook, Rev. Samuel J. May, Gideon F. Thayer, Ebenezer Bailey, Rev. John Pierpont, William B. Calhoun, Nehemiah Cleveland, Joseph Story, B. D. Emerson, Jacob Abbott, Asa Rand, Caleb Gushing, Dr. John C. Warren, Samuel P. Newman, George Ticknor, William C. Fowler, of Massachusetts, Samuel R. Hall of Ver- mont, Francis Wayland and John Kingsbury of Rhode Island, and many others whose names are as familiar as those of our households. These are a few of the names of that company of pioneers and reform- ers, the products and the forces of a movement which generated its own agents and agencies, and who have filled the world with their influ- ences on that and succeeding generations. 758 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 521 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION was published moutbly, containing- 64 small octavo pages in each num- ber, or 768 pages a year, at tlie price of $4 a year. It wrs at first pro- l>ose(l to have 48 pages in each number, but the editors say that they found it imjiossible to do justice to their subjects without introducing a greater number and variety of topics than couhl be brought within that limit. The reasons for tiie undertaking are clearly set forth in the prospectus in the first number : The spirit of inquiry, Tvhich b as of late years exteuded to everything connected with human iuipiov*^racnt, has been directed with peculiar earnestness to the subject of education. lu our own country, the basis of whose institutions is felt to be intel- ligence and virtue, this topic has been regarded as one of no ordinary interest, and has excited a zeal and an activity worthy of its importance. A periodical work, devoted exclusively to education, would seem likely to be of peculiar service at the present day, when an interest in this subject is so deeply and extensively felt. At no period have opportunity and disposition for the extensive interchange and diliusion of thought been so favorably combined. Science and lit- erature have their respective publications, issuing at regular intervals from the press and contributing incalculably to the dissemination of knowledge and taste. But education, — a subject of the highest practical moment to every school, every family and every community, — remains unprovided with one of those useful vehicles of in- formation. The leading objects of the Journal are declared to be — I. A record of facts regarding the past and present state of educa- tion in the United States and foreign countries. II. The diffusion of ^'■enlarged and liberal views of edn cation.''^ "Edu- cation should, we think, be regarded as the means of fitting man for the discharge of all his duties," including physical education, or the training of healthy bodies, moral education, domestic and personal edu- cation, or that which consists in the voluntary formation of individual character. III. Female education, "a matter of unspeakable importance." IV. Early and elementary education — "more important than that of any other period or department." V. Higher and scientific education. The title, say the proprietors, was originally intended to be local, probably the "'.New England Journal of Education," but its change to "American" was that it might "subserve the cause, not in one State or country, but throughout the continent." The subjects treated in the first American scliool joirrnal show the thought trend of that day. The initial article in this journal, which was continued through the first five numbers, relates to what are styled infant or dame's schools, giving their history, plans, and progress, in Bristol, Brighton, Liverpool, and London, England. The monitorial and inductive systems, as inculcated by Lancaster and Pestalozzi aiul then much studied in America, are fully discusse.d, with a complete his- tory of the monitorial experiments in Boston. Several pages of each number are devoted to careful reviews of methods, theories, and books, while under the head of Intelligence we have accounts of educational movements in England, France, India, Germany, South America, Greece, as well as in all parts of our own country. Mechanics' institutes and lyceums, then being generally established in England and America, are given great prominence, while a proposed institution in jNIassachusetts for that class of persons " who do not desire, or are not able, to obtain a college education," is outlined under the title of "An Agricultural Seminary," the basis of our present agricultural colleges. Among other leading subjects, we find high schools for females, Church Smiday- 759 522 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. schools, mouitorial instruction, the education of females, the public schools of New York and Massachusetts, academical education in Eng- land, and a proposed *' Society of Education," in the plans of which was outlined the foundation of all our present educational associations. Anion.q' the objects to be secured by this society or college for teachers were the following: (1) The promotion of infant or domestic education. (2) The increase of facilities for t4ie instruction of teachers, including professional schools. (3) The establishment of a teachers' library of useful works on edu- cation. (4) The improvement of school text books. (5) The study of new systems of education as developed abroad. (G) The organization of a society with branches in all leading cities, after the plan of the French Society of Education, or the British and Foreign School Society. Indian civilization through education occupies the thought of these pioneers. The defects of liberal education are pointed out ; classical education has its advocates and o))ponents. One writer deplores the me- chanical modes of instruction of the time, by which, he declares, "chil- dren are treated as mere imitative animals and not as intelligent beings ;^' and he also affirms that ' the man or system that communicates one dis- tinct idea to the mind of a child confers a greater blessing on the human race than to teach him a thousand words without ideas." In the prosi^ectus of the January number of 1828, the editors an- uounce a wider range of topics to be discussed, including practical sci- ence and useful information. Tuey suggest that the magazine may become a family book, that " the lyceum, that useful and prosperous institution so rapidly extending throughout New England," will leceive special attention, and for the first time it is hinted at that the circula- tion of the Journal has not been equal to expectations, and that " a more extensive and liberal support is demanded." Here we begin to feel a vital kinship with these editorial brethren, and our sympathies are stirred as the appeal is made, as it has often been since, for a more cor dial, appreciative, and generous patronage of school ijublicatious. The Journal of Education in 1829 became a bi monthly, with longer articles, and a fuller discussion of the topics treated. The leading topics relate to infant schools, maternal instruction, the American ly- ceum, self-culture. Christian schools, Bacon's philosophy, Pestalozzi's methods, errors in common education, military academies, influence of novels, Combe's " Constitution of Man," phrenology, etc., etc., with able reviews, and educational intelligence the wide world over. In 1830 was formed at Boston the American Institute of Instruction, an outgrowth of the public sentiment and unity of purpose produced by the four years' work of the American Journal of Education. The same leaders are found in the Association as in the establishment of tbe Journal, and their strong co-operative influence leads to a revival of interest in the periodical, the only mouthpiece of American teachers. In January, 1831. the name of the magazine is changed to American Annals of Education and Instruction and Journal of Literary Institutions, and it resumed its monthly visits to its readers. In this and the suc- ceeding years of the Annals, until its suspension in 1838-'39, the dis- cussions ol" the magazine are more practical, have a wider range, and the intelligence relating to the great movements of education is full and interesting. Teachers' conventions were held in all j)arts of the land, in which were discussed better teaching, better teachers, bettor 760 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — PAPERS. 523 school-bouses, improved text-books, a luore intelligent public sentiment, teachers' seminaries or normal schools, and kindred themes Education societies are reported from Maine to Florida, and from Ohio to Missis- sipj)i, and local county and State institutes and associations grow out of the general forward movement. A Board of Education had been established in Massachusetts, lyceums and teachers' associations and libraries were on the increase, and the cause of education had made its greatest conquest of that day in drawing from a prospectively brilliant political career Horace Mann, to become the great expounder of edu- cational truth and doctrines to the world, as was Daniel Webster the eloquent defender of our Constitutional faith; and how fitting it is that in front of the State House at Boston stand the bronze statues of these two men, as the Joachim and Boaz of our political temple ! A crisis arrives in the history of educational journaHsm in January, 1835, just a half century ago. It was none other than the question of the suspension of the Aniials, to the editorship of which Mr. William C. Woodbridge, its very able managing editor at this period, had devoted time, strength, and money. " Education " is again one of the " eternal subjects," and ''The necessity of a periodical on education," is the open- ing sentence of " The Prospects of the Annals " for that year. The edi- tor declares that after three years of unrewarded toil and expenditure of all his surplus means to sustain the only periodical on education in our great and growing country, the editor still found it involved, beyond his power to extricate it ; yet without abandoning its future i)Liblica- tion, he makes an appeal for the sale of two hundred sets of the maga- zine. Here we have to record one of the most remarkable deliverances that ever came to save the life of a w^orthy educational journal. A plan was devised for meeting the exigency, and the subscribers who came to the rescue are no less than Daniel Webster, William E. Channing, John Quincy Adams, Josiah Quincy, Leonard Woods, Edward Everett, Jo- sei)h Story, Moses Stuart, John J. Palfrey, George Ticknor, Baron Stow, Rufus Anderson, Hubbard Winslow, William Hayne, William Wirt, Caleb Cushing, A. Alexander, W. T. Dwight, and fifty others whose names are of national renown. What other paper ever had the honor of such a list of subscribers ! ! On tbe I'Oth of April, 1837, the Legislature of Massachusetts created the Board of Education; Edward Everett was its first President, and the Honorable Horace Mann, then late President of the Massachusetts Senate, was unanimously elected Secretary of the Board, at an annual salary of $1,000, "provided he should devote himself exclusively to the duties of the ofQce." This was on the 29th of June, 1837. Mr. Woodbridge, the editor of the Annals^ M^as then in Europe, detained by ill health, and Dr. W. A. Alcott conducted the magazine. In an editorial introducing Mr. Alcott he indulged the hope that our American periodical on education willhe sustained, and that the spirit of inquiry which is aroused will demand and maintain many others, and thus render the existence of any one of far less importance. In December, 1837, Mr. Woodbridge withdrew from the editorship of the Annals, a work to which he had devoted the best years of his life, and in the prosecution of which he had sacrificed his health and diminished his fortune, and it may be said that the cause of education had no clearer mind to expand its i)rinciples, and no more earnest friend to promote its interests. Educational journalists in America have good reason to be i)roud of the three self deny ing, talented, and devoted men, who made professional educational literature a suc- cess in the days when personal faith and courage were the main sup- '/61 524 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ports of a noble cause. These men were Woodbridge, Eussell, and Alcott. The withdrawal of Mr. Woodbridge was followed by the retirement of Dr. W. A. Alcott, and the Annals was intrusted to the editorship of M. G. Hubbard, Esq., who turned it from its original purpose in the advocacy of the interests of common schools to a magazine in which high schools, academies, and colleges should have a special record. This step, which was fatal to the life of the old magazine, led Mr. Maun to coutemj^late the establishment of a journal in which he could give expression to his views, and the more readily reach the teachers and people of Massachusetts. Prompt action followed contemplation, and in i^ovember, 1838, the Common ScJiool Journal was issued, with Horace Mann as editor. His great object in the, Jo^irnal, he said in his prospectus, was to improve the common schools and other means of education; to difi'use, rather than to discover knowledge; to make that which is now known to any, as far as possible, known to all. Concern- ing the new departure of the Annals, he said, "we propose to sail through widely distant and different latitudes on an all-embracing ocean of education. If, however, we should ever chance to come within hailing distance of the Annals, we assure it that we shall run up a friendly flag, give it a cordial greeting, and hope to hear of the good success of its voyage." The Common School Journal was published semi-moutbly, after the first two numbers, and was furnished to subscribers at the low price of $1 a year. It was edited by Mr. Mann for ten years, and embodies his most mature thought on education in all its varied phases, as they were presented to his fertile mind and vivid imagination. The results of his thorough and constant study of educational problems were here first given to the people of Massachusetts and to the world, and it is doubt- ful if any other educational journal contains so rich and valuable con- tributions to a permanent literature of education. Mr. Mann regarded the Common School Journal as the right arm of his power and influence, and the great reforms which lie inaugurated in teaching and the revo- lution in public sentiment effected during his remarkable administration, may be traced to the Journal as the most important agency. But httle note has ever been made of the tact that Horace Mann was for ten years of his secretaryship sole editor of a great school journal, which, though almost forgotten by men, is an enduring monument to his power as a journalist and his fame as an educator. It was not an easy task for Horace Maun to secure a large subscrip- tion list, or a very generous support; and, sti^ange as it may seem, we find his appeals vigorous and urgent for more readers and subscribers. What a comfort to us, his successors, that our great leader once begged his fellows to support his paper, and one of his most vigorous editorials related to the threatened death in 1840 of the School Journal of Connecti- cut, edited by the Hon. Henry Barnard. Listen to a few of his sharp words, which applied almost as well to his own. beloved Commonwealth as to the educators of the sister State of Connecticut : We are grieved to bear, from the May number of the Connecticut Common School Journal, that the pnblieatiou of that wise and stronj^ auxiliary in the cause of educa- tion is to cease. It dies from waut of patronage. Its zealous, talented, and phil- anthropic editor, Henry Barnard, Esq., Secretai'y of the Counecticut Commission of Common Schools, has sustained it by his miud and his purse, until the burden has become too heavy to be longer borne. Thus the only periodical in that State fails, through public apathy. One would suppose, beforehand, that a fact of such signifi- cance, in regard to the present condition and future well being of the body politic, would reanimate its frame and till its members with new life, except tbey are, not 762 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 525 moroly dead, but decomposed. Tbe present excited state of the public mind breeds a pi)litirul ue\vsi)ai>er almost over," hour. These are paid for, read, conver.sed abont, and dreamed about. The puhlic mails an' dist(;iided with party tlocuments; drunken hici;ouj;hs are sot to music; while ou(» of tho best of ]>api^rs, conducted by one of the best of men, and devoted to tho best of causes, dies in a Now England State of public neglect. The Connecticut Legislature is now in session, and we earuestly hope that it will provide means for the continuance of this excellent paper. Ill 1848 Mr. Mauii q,lIo\ved his name to be used as a candidate for a Representative to the ^National Conj^^ress, on account of his well-known' views respecting slavery and the condition of the American Indian. He was elected, and his labors were now transferred from the educational to the ])olitical arena at Washington. Mr. Mann's valedictory (Dec. 18, 1848) gives us a distinct view of the condition of educatioi'al journalism of that day : It came to the public as their fate, rather than as a consequence of their free will. It was born, nob because it was wanted, but because it was needed. Though tho Journal is but 10 years old. yet com)>ared with any other journal devoted to the cause of education in this country its age is patriarchal. One, the Albany District School Journal, which was established about two years after this, having been nourished by the bounty of the State, still survives. But numerous others, subsequently com- menced, have been sad remembrances of the brevity of life. Some have dieply the tonjii lo yewtoni Opuscula, Vol. I, pp. 287-8. Lausauuc and Geneva, 1744. 772 IjfTfeRNATlONAL CONGRESS OF EDlTCAtORS — PAPERS. 535 the minds of the young from generation to generation, so that the ves- tal linme may never be extinguished. (C) Lastly may be mentioned the princii^le of emulation, which is ap- I)ealed to by the systems of prizes in our various classes of schools. Some moralists object to all emulation as being intrinsically evil. It seems to us, however, to be one of those constitutional principles of our nature which our Maker has implanted in us for good. This appears to have been the opinion of Sir William Hamilton. If emulation is wrong per sc, then every game of chess, of bat and ball, of croquet, of marbles, every contest in running or leaping, be- comes a sin. Surely the mirth of the play-ground is innocent; and it were an ill sort of morals that would frown upon the good-natured shout of victory in harmless and healthful pastimes. Who shall condemn a Thucydides for weeping when he heard the writings of Ileroiiotus read in one of the national assemblies of Greece, and then striving to equal his protorype? Or who shall blame a Macaulay for longing to be able to write history as Thucydides wrote if? While the world stands, emulation will more or less influence the human heart. We cannot rid mankind of it, nor would it be well for mankind if we did. The only practical question for us, then, is how to regulate and direct this constitutional principle. We have now called attention to six leading motives: (1) A desire to honor our Maker. (2) A desire to benefit our fellow-men. (3) Pecun- iary emolument. (4) Love of fame. (5) Love of knowledge. (0) Emula- tion. The question arises. Shall our institutions of learningemphasizethe last one of the six by offering i)rizes of greater or less value, such as scholar- shi[)S, or fellowshi])s, or gold coins, or medals? Shall the unavoidable rivalries of school life be intensified by an additional appeal to the love of applause or the love of property"^ Let us ask, (1) Is this spirit of emulation naturally feeble, or has it in any way become weaker than the other i)riuci]des in our constitution ? So far from this being the case, it is among our young people one of the strongest, if it be not the very strongest one of them all. The first of all, a desire to glorify our Creator, is the chief motive in heaven. It, above all others, stimulates the activ- ities of archangels. But on earth it is shorn of its i)ower; only here and there do we see it in its majesty, the rightful lord of the heart. How feeble too, for the most part, is the desire to do good to men ! Aud in the young the love of property has not yet become a passion, a frenzied cry for "Gold, gold, gold, gold, Spnrued by the young but hugged by the old, Ev'n to tho verg«i of the chuicbyard mold." But college rivalries, without the superadded stimulus of prizes, are often very heated, not to syy bitter. The principle is not only too strong to need artificial stimulation, but it is peculiarly liable to excess, like some valuable chemicnls, useful as medicines, but which the drug- gist hardly dares to i>ulverize in his mortar for fear of an explosion. It nmy be asked (2) whether the giving of prizes generates a noble character. Does it make exalted men? In our i)lays and pastimes it is well enough to strive to surpass. But is this well in the serious buvsi- ness of life ? Mark it, not to equal, but to excel, to win not merely /or ourselves, hntfrom others? " Can we," to repeat honest John liernouilli again, "Can weexi)e('t anyrliing laudable, anything fruitl'ul, in learning from this source?" Tiie conqictilious of business and professional life 773 536 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. "VKill come soon enough ; need we plunge our students into them before they leave their alma mater? Two of the greatest men of modern times were Isaac Newton and Godfrey William Leibnitz, men who ought surely to have been above the petty jealousies of authorship; men who ought not to have lallen into a wretched quarrel about the invention of the calculus. It is pain- ful to read th(^ir letters to Chamberlayne, and to the Abbe Conti. Let us learn from them, however, that personal rivalry is a dangerous thing, even for the best of men and at an advanced period of life, Newton's latest animadversions having been written in 1716, when he was over seventy-three years of age. How much more dangerous, then, to the average youth of xDur colleges! (3) Another trouble is, that these prizes do not cultivate steadiness of purpose. They are too occasional. They are not like the constant pressure of a sense of duty. Indeed, they turn away the mind from duty. The efforts produced by them are more like the fierce leap of the mount- ain cataract than the continuous majestic flow of a river. They culti- vate the s])irit of short-lived dash. Tbey foster cram. The prize once received, the ])ublic presentation over, and what has the lucky recipient to f-dl back upon I He has not strengthentnl the ever enduring prin- ciples that lead men into jirofound research. The love of knowledge has not become a ruling passion in his bosom. He is victor ; that is all, so far as competition is concerned. But we must not forget those who are not victors, and who are in danger of conceiving a disgust at learning in general. It would have been quite different if they had been fascinated with the true, the beautiful, and the good. (4) Once more, the number of contestants in such cases is necessarily small. Two months of the scholastic year have not elapsed before nine-tenths of the class have lost all hope ; and before the final struggle comes the remaining one tenth is cut down to a few individuals. In one aspect this is a blessing, for the nine-tenths or ninety-five hun- dredths are preserved from evil. But this is no recommendation of the system. If it hurts even a few and does no good to the overwhelming majority, it fails all around. If prizes shall continue to be given, as seems inevitable, may not the competitive element be eliminated ? Suppose that all who reach a cer tain mark receive a medal or a certificate, and that thus the success of one shall not be the failure of another. Suppose again that aftViirs are so arranged that steady and prolonged effort shall be rewarded ; and again, that the nobility of the motives ijrompting to labor shall be duly taken into account. Shall we not then be imitating the course of the All-wise Arbiter of our destinies, who hath so adjusted the economy of his vast realm that for one to win a prize is not for another to lose it, but on the contrary to be more likely to win? nay, more, so that the splendor of our own prize depends materially on how we have stretched out a helping hand to others ? and so that not so much any spasm of isolated effort, as a uTro/xovij, a patient continuance, a faithful endur- ance, a vigil protracted to the second or the third watch of the night, Bball be crowned on eternity's great Commencement Day ? , 774 SOME KEFLECTTONS OIs" EACE I^ EDUCATTOK, WITH SPECIAL KEFEKENCB TO THE NEGEO PROBLEM. By Prof. Wm. Taylor Thom, Georgetown, D. C. It is i)roper to state, in advance, that the term "negro" will be used throughout this paper for the sake of convenience, because, first, it is the correct term, " African" being- too broad and tending to divert the mind away from this country; and because, in the second i)lace, the term ''colored man" is both somewhat ridiculous in itself, and has the very serious objection that it is thoroughly misleading, inasmuch as it suggests a false ideal. The "colored man," as he is known to the northerij part of the United States, is probably a fit subject for tlie educational experiments to whicU he has been subjected; but he is no more the negio of the southern and south-western States than the English aristocracy is the English people. Hence have arisen many misconceptions and many grievous mistakes; and accuracy of conception, truths is what we most need and should most strive to attain in this, as in other matters. In a government, like ours, "of the people, by the people, and for the ])eople," homogene- ity in population and in ideals is of far greater consequence than in a monarchy or in an aristocracy. In those governments social caste, social customs, social restraints can and tlo, like outlying defenses, withstand assaults on the body politic, which in our government must be met and dealt with by the public conscience immediately. For a free, intelligent, homogeneous people, that should be a source of safety rather than of danger. But our ])opu!ation is diverse, so much so as to cause violent friction in our midst to be a thing dangerously prob- able. It has already caused one convulsion which will not be forgotten ; for there is no parallel in recent history to the fratricidal war which ended almost exactly twenty years ago. Difference of race caused that strife. That diflereoce still exists, and what it may produce in the future if left to itself, no man knows. Hence the greater need for homogeneity of ideals to obviate the dangers arising from diversity of population. Of the great race ideals, that of the Family is, with the exception of the Mormon monstrosity, well settled in this country, although in some of our States the divorce laws seem contrived purposely to strike at this, the very foundation of our national existence. But the .thoughtful mind cannot, without disquietude, contemplate the contingencies which may arise should Mormonism once get a foot- hold among the negroes of America, by whom the ideal of the lamily is so frequently and so grossly disregarded.* For if Mormonism is maidng such rapid progress among the whites, who have been ])redisposed against it by their laws, by their religious training, by their inherited race customs and instinct for a thousand years and more, what conse- 775 538 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. quences may not follow upon the dissemination of Mormon ideas among a people j)rone to embrace tliem from recent ancestral disposition, from still more recent slave habits and cnstoms, and bat ill protected against them by their necessarily crude conce])tion of law and of religion. The ideal of Religion as a system of morality is quite uniform in this country, in spite of the variations of dogmatic Christianity, the excep- tions being this same Mormonism, and the crudeuess of the negro con- ception of religion as a matter of emotion and as a matter of morality. One Language, the strongest of all national bonds, the greatest of na- tional ideals, as containing and modif^ying all others, our own masterlul English, is supreme in our land ; but it is not universal. Localities in the North and West are to be excepted, and also, and more important, those sections of the southern States where the divergence of the negro dialects from the standard of the vernacular is so great as par- tially to destroy by dialectic variety the uplifting idealism contained in the English tongue, so far, at least, as the negroes themselves are con- cerned. Family, Eeligion, Speech, these are the three great limitations within which the genius of a people moves to work out its social and govern- mental organization and its destiny on earth. Their harmonious intlu- cnce in this country is in danger of disturbance, chiefly from the i)artly involuntary opposition of the negro lace in the ways already indicated. That opposition must be overcome — education is the best instrument to resent requirement of the State as to mere intellectual fnr- nishiug for the negro as a race. The American i)eople cannot alford to let him remain ignorant of less than that. But why not go further? 776 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 539 Because, on the other hand, the public, as si^ch, cannot afford to bring: upon itself the risks consequent upon thrusting too much intellectual leaven, suddenly, into this already fermenting- mass. From the evils of dense ignorance we are all suffering now, and have been these twenty years past. But the cramming of merti ideafe into empty heads is not the true remedj'. Some of the most disastrous experieiu;es of mankind, in government and society, have resulted from the undue prominence of an idea or the spread of ideas among a people not possessing the substratum of inherited or acquired moral character necessary to modifv and counteract the fatal logic of i)ure idealism. The later liistory of Athens, the histories of the Greek States generally, are illustrations of ideas impressed upon peoples and go\^rnments, and carried logically out to their consequences without regard to the character requirements of a people's growth. Preco<5ious growth and prenuiture decay were the result. The French Eevolution i^assed from justifiable revolt, such as the American Revolution was, such as La Fayette hoped for, to merci- less massacre because the compound theory, Liberte, Fraternite^ Egalite, had fired the brains of the masses of Parisian populace, incapable of self-control by training or by inherited character. The history of Russia since the freeing of the serfs is, on the side of the i^^ople, the history of ideas undulj' exercising minds whose owners are not grown up, morally, to the full conception of liberty, and whose notion of it is therefore wrong and full of danger to tbe State and to liberty itself. Russian methods of education seem to be responsible, since the utter neglect of proper elementary instruction sends the youth of tbe country to the upper schools with minds incapable of resisting the dangerous doctrines which they find there. The history of negro suffrage in our southern States, up to this time, is the story of a superb idea converted by over-hasty application into a blunder, working out its inevitable course of harm. With no pre- vious education for this, the highest prerogative of free citizenship, with scarcely any instruction in its use since his liberation from slavery except that which appealed to his fears or his prejudices, the negro can- not know and understand the political, governmental, and social harm he does himself as well as others. Let us hope that he will speedily learn. That there has not been more outbreak is honorable alike to the amiability of the negroes and to the self-control of the whites. As time rolls on we see with clearer eyes how great was the loss this whole people sustained when Abraham Lincoln fell before- a crack-brained assassin's pistol. Half-educated, irresponsible thinking is the root of the nihilism and the savage socialism which are threatening the social fabric in Europe, and are beginning to make themselves felt in this country. The danger to American institutions from this wrong-headed thinking, Avhen the negroes shall have ten times their present population, is not to be esti- mated, unless in the mean time they be educated, and unless some other than merely intellectual elements be made influential in their training. Naturally the first element which occurs is religious and moral training, but with that the community, as such, has in our society nothing to do. That teaching, as teaching, is forbidden in direct form ; we must seek other means to our end. They are at han^l in the kind of training which teaches how to be industrious, how to work intelligently; tlu^. boy who has ](*arned to sonu'thing is apt to respect himself as being something. The type, of iustructiou at the cost of the community, then, in addi- tion to rudimentary " hook learning," should be, as far as ])ossible, industrial, b«th in the technical and in the moral sense of the wor45 (full) certificate, and like tlicui must also teach a fall year before being eligible to go into training for the second class provincial certificate. The scope of the preliminary examination above described is as follows: Requirements for the third-class non-professional examination. Ueadinfj, oral. — To read with proper expression, omj)basis, inflection, and force. Hcad'uKj, jmuciplcs o/. — A general knowledge of the princii>le8 of elocution, with special releieuco to iirouunciation. Candidates will do well to consult Ayres' Orthoe- l)ist. Writing and hookleqnnfj. — In writing, to be able to write neatly and legibly — a round band preferred; in hookkeeping, single and double entry, commercial forms, general business transactions. Spdlinrj. — To be able to write correctly a iiassage dictated from any English author, and to spell all non-technical English words. Grammnr. — To l>e thoroughly acquainted with the d''finition8 and grammatical forms and rules of sj'ntax, and to be able to analyze and parse, with application of said rules, any sentence in prose or verse. Composition and practical Encjlish. — The framing of sentences. Familiar and busi- ness letters. Rendering of poetry into prose. Tbemes, synonyms, and correction of errors. Consult Ayres' Verbalist. History. — To have a good knowledge of the leading events of Canadian and English history. Geography. — To have a fair knowledge of political, physical, and mathematical geography. Map geography generally ; Canada and the British Emjjire more par- ticularly. English literatnre. — The critical reading of such works as may be prescribed from time to time by the Education Department. (For 188.') : 6'coH— The Lady of the Lake, with special reference to Canto V; Irring — Rip Van Winkle.) Arithmetic and mciisitralion. — To be thoroughly f^imiliar with arithmetic in theory and practice. Areas of rectilinear figures, and volumes of right parallelopipeds and prisms. The circle, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Mental arithmetic (consult Mental Arithmetic by McLellan, Part II.) Algebra. — Elementary rules ; factoring; greatest common measure; least common multiple; fractions; simple equations of one, two, and three unknown quantities; simple problems. Endid. — Book I, with easy problems. Physics. — To be acquainted with the elements of physics as treated in Huxley's In- troductory Science Primer and Balfour Stewart's Science Primer. Drauing. — Freehand, practical geometry, perspective, and industrial designs. Candidates taking music will be allowed a bonus not exceeding 75 marks, which will be added lothe aggregate of marks obtained in the obligatory subjects; such candidates will also be allowed to take, as an additional bonus subject, one — but not more than one — of the following : Botany, 75 marks ; or Latin, or French, or German, each 150 marks. For third class (1885) the work in Latin will be Cato Major ; in German, Belagening, Von Antwerpen ; and in French, Lazare Hoche, omitting Chapters VII and VIII. In each of the languages an easy paper in grammar and composition will be set. Music and l)Otany, the same as for second class. The work in botany will be the same as last year's work. For the third-class non-professional examination the marks assigned shall be as fol- lows : ^tiDinmra required. , ( IJpadinji, or.al \ Readinu, principles of 2. AVritiiin; a. English Grammar ■\. Knslisli Litoiatnro f). Compositiou and Practical English 6. Dict;Uion 7. AriMimetir and Mensuration 8. Mental Arrilimetic 9. Alsebr.T, 10. Euclid 11. History, English and Canadian VI. GeojjTaphy 13. Drawing. 14. Bookkeei)ing . 15. Physics 7950 COT., PT. 2- -35 783 546 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Requirements for the second-class non-professional examination. Candidates writing for second-class certificates will take the following course, as well as that required for third class : , • i Composition and practical English.— C&nA\^aAj(ds, may consult Hodgson's Errors in the Use of English. ^?7e&ra.— Elementary rules; factoring; elementary notions on symmetry, with easy applications; greatest "common measure ; least common multiple; square root ; frac- tions ; surds ; simple equations of one, two, and three unknown quantities ; easy quad- ratics; problems. Euclid. — Books I and II, with easy prohlema. C7ieHiisfr»/.— Combustion. The structure and properties of flame. Nature and com- position of ordinary fuel.— The atmosphere. Its constitution. Effects of animal and vegetable life on its composition.— Water. Chemical peculiarities of natural waters, such as rain-water, river-water, spring- water, sea-Avater. — Hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- gen, carbon, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, and their more important compounds. — Combining proportions by weight and by volume. Symbols and nomenclature. Posies.— The same as for third class, with the addition of statics and hydrostatics. OPTIOXAL SUBJECTS FOK SECOND CLASS. Music. — Normal music course. Part II. Latin. — The accidence and the jirincipal rules of syntax and prosody; exercises; re- translation into Latin of easy passages ; portions of works in prose and verse as pre- scribed from time to time. Erench. — The accidence and the principal rules of syntax ; exercises; French au- thors as prescribed from time to time ; rudiments of conversation. German. — The accidence and the principal rules of syntax; exercises; portions of German authors, as prescribed from time to time ; letranslation of easy passages into German ; rudiments of conversation. Candidates taking music will be allowed a bonus not exceeding 7.5 marks, which will be added to the aggregate of marks obtained in the obligatory subjects; such candidates will also be allowed to take, as an additional bonus subject, one — but not more tbau one — of the following : Botany, 75 marks ; or Latin, or French, or Ger- man, each 150 marks. The following o])tion will be allowed at the examination in 1885 only, viz: Candi- dates for second-class certiiicates may take Latin, or French, or German, ;«s<<'a(^ of chemistry, statics, and hydrostatics. These languages, if taken as options, cannot, of course, lie reckoned as bonus subjects. In all languages, papers in grammar and composition will be set. Latin (11^85): Cicero— Cato Major; On'd— Fasti, B. I., vv. 1-300. French (1885): Bonnecliose — Lazare Hoche. German (1885) : Schiller — Belagerung Von Antwerpen, Der Taucher. For the second-class non-professional examination the marks assigned shall be as follows : Minimnm required. , C Heading:, oral ■ I Eending, principles of 2. Writing 3. Englisli Grammar 4. Englisli Literature ^. Coinpijsitiou and Practical English fi. Dictation 7- Meiitai Arithmetic 8. Arithmetic and Mensuration 9. Algebra 10. Euclid 11. History, English and Canadian 12. Geography 13. Drawing 14. Book-keeping 1 5. Physics 1 6. Chemistry 784 25 20 20 75 75 ST. 20 20 75 45 45 25 25 20 20 40 20 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 547 Non-professional Exam inations. The results for the last three years were as follows Years. Examined. Paased. Inter- mediate.i Failed. TLA. HB. in. 1882 3,090 3,901 5, 128 230 951 452 98 279 1 5ns Kone. 1,264 1,676 1,457 1 055 18&T 1884 414 657 860 1,521 ' Same examination as Class TTT, bat lower percentage. Candidates for Intermediate were not passed as teachers. This grade is now discontinued. The candidate is required to pay a fee of $2 for each examination, i. e., if lie tries for both II and III he will pay $4, which is to be applied towards the expenses of the examination. One effect of the introduction of this system of examination has been to tstimulate and give more detinite direction to the work of the high schools, in consequence of the fact that so many of the intending can- didates have resorted thither for instruction, the high-school course of study being constructed upon much the same lines as the literary course for teachers. Another effect is that a more thorough preparation and a more strict and impartial judgment of the merits of the ])apers have upon the whole been obtained than upon the old system of leav- ing the examination of teachers entirely to the local authorities. It is to be feared that no system of examination is without its drawbacks, or can provide such a perfect test as will always ascertain who is worthy, and some unfortunate results undoubtedly arise in individual cases. A provision is, however, made for an appeal and reconsideration in the case of any unsatisfied candidate, who may pay a fee of 82 and have his papers re-examined. If he succeed his fee is returned : other- wise it goes to the provincial revenue. Any si)ecial case of hardshij), if reported to the Minister of Education, is made the subject of inquiry, and redress so far as possible is secured. In the preparation of papers, the precautions are taken, (1) of securing experienced and highly qualilied men on the committee; (2) that each paper is approved by two members of the committee, and any doubtful matters may also be brought before the whole committee by the chair- man, before the papers are reported to the Minister of Education, who may require them to be further reviewed if he sees fit ; (3) the best se- curity against fraud is obtained by the papers being printed at the De- partment. It may be added that the teachers' non-professional examination is used as the matriculation examination for medical students by the Provincial College of Physicians and Surgeons, and quoad the subjects it embraces, it is also accepted for matriculation in certain of the uni- versities. In the case of the professional examination for the full Class III certifi- cates at the county model or training schools, it has not been the prac- tice to aim at such a complete uniformity as in the literary examination, each coUnty board of examiners (themselves experienced teachers) be- 785 548 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ing allowed liberty of action within the limits of the prescribed subjects, viz: Education — methods. Physiology and Hygiene. Education — theory. School Law. Governing Power. Music. Teaching Power. Drill. Manner. Drawing. The only papers sent from Toronto for these examinations are in the subjects of, education — methods, education — theory, school law, i)hysi- ology, and hyjjiene, and the answers are read and valued by the county boards. As the traiuing at all the county model schools is based on a certain course laid down for them, the several examinations at the close of tlie session are of as uniform a character as is perhai)s desirable. The examination for the professional or full second-class certilicate takes i)lace at the close of each session of the provincial normal schools. There are two of these schools — one at Toronto, the other at Ottawa. There are two sessions of five months' duration annually. In addition to testing the candidate's aptness in teaching, in connection with the report given of him by the teaching staff, the examiners require answers to ])apers in the subjects of education, psychology, botany, practical English, arithmetic — methods, arithmetic — mental, reading — methods, chemistry, physics, grammar — methods, literature, algebra — methods, music, drawing, writing, and bookkeeping. These papers are prepared and printed in the same manner as previ- ously mentioned. Candidates for first-class certificates are also examined on uniform ])apers, but the examination is conducted at the normal schools in July annually. The candidates may either take the whole examination on one occasion, or may take the literary course one year, and the re- mainder or more professional subjects in a subsequent year. Formerly the normal schools provided for the instruction and training of first- class candidates, but this has not been the case in recent 3- ears. The candidates at present are prepared chiefly at the high schools or colle- giate institutions, and no professional training is ])rovided in addition to what they have already received in securing their third- and second- class certificates, the possession of which, however, is one of the neces- sary conditions of their obtaining the first-class professional certificate. A project is under consideration for securing a more thorough profes- sional training for this class of certificate. FIRST-CLASS EXAMINATION. The non-professional examination for Grade C will be limited as follows : English Language and Literature. Grammar. — A thorough acquaintance with the subject will be required. Compoaition. — Candidates will be required to show, by passing an examination on this subject, and by the character of their answers in other subjects, that they are in the habit of writing the English language correctly. Literature. — Candidates will be required to have a general acquaintance with Eng- lish literature and its history, and a fuller knowledge of special eras and authors to be prescribed from time to time by the Department. English Liter atvre: Shakespeare — Coriolanus. Scott — The Lady of the Lake, with special reference to Canto V; Irving — Rip Van Winkle. 786 INTERNATIONAL CONGKESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 349 History and Geography. Hislorij. — A special knowledge of the history of England befcweeu 1G88 and 1820, aa presented iu Green's Short History of the, English People. Geography. — Politiciil geography of North America, Europe, aud the British Em- pire, with ])hysical geography as treated iu Geikie'a Primer of Physical Geography, aud mathematical and physical geography as treated iu Sullivau's Geography Generalized. Matlieinatics. Algebra. — Fuudameutal operations; involution and evolution ; resolution iuto fac- tors; principle of symmetry ; theory of divisors; fractions; ratio; ])roportion and va- riatiou; theory of iuiiices; "surds ; arithmetical, geometrical, and harmonical progres- sion; scales of notation ; permutations and combinations ; introduction to binomial theorem as far as positive aud negative integral exponents; simple and qnadratic equations, with relations between roots and coelhcients; problems. Arithmetic aud mensuration. — The candidate will be required to know the f^ubject in theory and practice; to be able to solve problems with accuracy, neatness, aud dispatch ; to be familiar with rules for mensuration of surfaces and solids. Geovietrij.—lincUd, Books I to IV (inclusive), Book VI, aud dehnitions of Book V. Exercises. Elementary Mechanics. iS/affcs.— Equilibrium of forces acting in one plane ; parallelogram of forces, paral- lel forces, moments, couples, center of gravity, virtual work, machines, frictiou, ex- l)erimental verifications. Dynamics. — Measurement of velocities and of accelerations ; laws of motion, energy, momeutum, uniform and uniformly accelerated motion, falling bodies, experimental veriticatious. Hfldrostaiics. — Pressure of fluids, specific gravities, floating bodies, density of gasea as depending on pressure and temperature, construction and use of the more simple instruments and machines. Physical Science, Chemistry. — The examination in this subject will be based on Reynolds' Experi- mental Chemistry, Parts I and II, and Tilden's Chemical Philosophy. Heat. — Stewart's Elementary Treatise on Heat, third edition. The limitation for Grades A and B will be as follows : DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH. Composition; history and etymology of the English language; rhetorical forma ; jnosody. Books of reference: Earle's Philology of the English Tongue ; Abbot and Seeley's English for Euglish People: Bain's Composition and Rhetoric, or Hill's Rhetoric; Marsh's English Language and Literature, Lectures VI to XI inclusive. Literature : History of Euglish literature, from Chaucer to the end of the reign of James I. Books o^ reference : Craik's History of the English Literature aud Language, or Ar- nold's Literature, Euglish edition ;' Marsh's English Language and Literature, Lect- ures VI to XI inclusive. English Literature: Shakespeare. — Romeo and Juliet. CAoMccr— Prologue to the Canterbury Tales; The Nonue Prestes Tale. Pope — Pro- logue to the Satires. Addison — The selections from Addison's contributions to the Spectator, made by J. Arnold, under the headings, (1) Manners, Fashions, and Humors; (2) Tales and Allegories (Clarendon Press Series). Wordsworth — Sonnets in Matthew Arnold's Selection. Macaulati — Life and Writings of Addison. Consult "English Men of Letters" on these authors. History : Greece, — The Persian to the Peloponnesian War inclusive. — Cox's History of Greeca (unabridged). Rome. — From the beginning of th« Second Puni« War to the death of Julius Csesar. — Moinmsen's History of Rom«. 787 550 EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIONS AT NE^V ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Enwland. — The Tudor and Stuart periods, as presented in Green's Short History of the English People, Macaulay's History of England (or Franck Bright's History of England, Second Volume), and Hallam's Constitutional History. Canada. — Parkman's Old E6gime in Canada. Geography : So much ancient geography as is necessary for the proper understanding of the por- tions of the histories of Greece and Rome prescribed. DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. Algebra. — Symmetry, binomial theorem, multinomial theorem, exponential and logarithmic series, interest and annuities, indeterminate coefficients ; partial frac- tions, series (convergency and divergency, reversion, summation), inequalities, de- terminants as far as in Gross, reduction and resolution of equations of first four degrees and of binomial equations, relations between roots and coefficients of equations, inde- terminate equations, problems. Anahitical plane geometry. — The point (including transformation of co-ordinates), the right lioie, the circle, the parabola, the ellipse, the hyperbola, the general equa- tion of the second degree, abridged notation. Trigonometry. — Trigonometrical ratios, general values of angles, functions of sum and ditierence of angles, multiples and sub-multiples of angles, trigonometrical equa- tions, solutions of triangles, measurement of heights and distances. Inscribed, cir- cumscribed, and escribed circles of a triangle; quadrilaterals; description of vernier an52 p:ducational conventions at new Orleans exposition. Ili-flory. — Tho outlines of Euglish and of CanadiaD bistory ; how England, Canada, and Ontario are governed ; the municipal institutions of Ontario — all as contained in a History Primer, to be authorized by the Education Department about August, 18r5. Until then the examination ou this subject will be confined, as heretofore, to the outlines of English history. Reading. — A general knowledge of the elements of vocal expression, with special reference to emphasis, inflection, and pause. The reading, with proper expression, of any selection in the Reader authorized for Fourth Book classes. The passage or pas- sages for each examination will be selected by the Department. The candidate will, in addition, be expected to satisfy the examiners that he reads intelligently, as well as inlelligibhj. Literature. — The candidate will be required to give for words or phrases, meanings which may be substituted therefor without impairing the sense of the passage ; to illustrate and show the appropriateness of important words or phrases ; to distinguish between synonyms in common use ; to paraphrase difficult passages so as to show the meaning clearly ; to show the connection of the thoughts in any selected passage ; to explain allusions; to write explanatory or descriptive notes ou proper or other names; to show that he has studied the lesson thoughtfully, by being able to give an intelli- gent opinion on any subject treated of therein that comes within the range of his experience or comprehension ; and especially to show that he has entered into the spirit of the passage, by being able to read it with proper expression. He will be re- quired to quote passages of special beauty from the selections prescribed, and to re- produce iu his own words the substance of any of these selections, or of any i)art thereof. Some knowledge will also be expected of the authors from whose works these selections have been made. Valuation of the answers. I Reading 50 Writing 50 Orthography and orthoepy 50 Literature 100 Arithmetic 100 Grammar 100 Geography 75 Composition 100 History 75 Drawing 50 Total, 750; minimum for pass, 375. One-third of the maximum of the marks on each paper is also required. N. B. — (1) Of the marks for writing, 15 will be assigned to the paper on that sub- ject, and a maximum of 5 marks may be assigned for writing and neatnena iu each of the following papers: Orthography and orthoepy, literature, grammar, arithmetic, geography, composition, and history. (2) The .50 marks for orthography and orthoepy will be assigned to the paper ou that subject ; but in valuing the answers in literature, grammar, geography, composi- tiou, and history, one mark is to be deducted for every mistake in spelling. Such mis- spelt words are to be indicated by the examiner ou the candidate's i)apers. (3) Of the marks for composition, 70 will be assigned to the i)aper on that subject, and a maximum of 15 to history, and of 15 to literature. (4) Of the marks for drawing, 25 will be assigned to the paper on that subject, and a maximum of 25 may be awarded as the result of the inspection of the candidate's drawing book. (5) In examining in reading, the local boards will pay special attention to the fol- lowing: Pronuuciation, emphasis, inflection, and pause. (6) As in the case of the Fourth Book and Spelling Paper for December, 1884, the value of the correct answers to tho questions set on -teach paper will exceed the maxi- mum prescribed above, except ou writing, reading, and orthography and orthoepy. But the [lapers will be so constructed that a well-prepared candidate may obtain the prescribed maximum within the given time. The object of the preceding regulation is to allow the departmental examiners to present a greater variety of questions, and thereby to enable the candidate to show more readily than heretofore whether he is in a condition to profit by a high school conr*»e. Except iu the matter of providing the examinatiou questions, the cost of this examination is thrown upon the local authorities. 790 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 553 The effect of this examination is reported to be heneficial in infnsing lite ami sjiirit into the teacliing of the ])ublic (or elenjentary) schools, from which by far the greater portion of the candidates for admission to the high schools is drawn. The examination gives the same stimu- lus to the public schools as the teachers' examination gives to the high schools. In both cases the examination marks the limit beyond which comi)arativel;' few of the i)npils of the school are taken, although both in the high and public schools a more complete course is provided for and accoujplished in the more important towns. The successful candidates at these entrance examinations receive a certificate. The results for the last three years were as follows: Month and year. Uecember, 1881 Juno, 1881 December, 1882 .(nuo, 1882 December, 1883 .hiuu, 1883 June, 1884 Number of candidates. Passed. 4,522 1,947 5,293 2.804 4,300 1, 8-JO 5, 307 2, 551 5,000 3, 921 5,662 3,119 6,286 2,997 791 HOW SHALL WE AMERICANIZE AND CHRISTIANIZE THE INCOMING TIDE? Bt D. a. Long, A. M., President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. Mr. President — This I regard the question of the hour. An un- Americanized and un-Christianized voter threatens the Republic. "American. A native of America; — origin;dly applied to the aborigi- nal inhabitants, but now applied to the descendants of Europeans born in America ; and in a restricted sense to the inhabitants of the United States." (Webster.) It is in this restricted sense that I shall consider the subject. Webster quotes Washington on the same page: "The name American must always exalt the pride of patriotism." Then he quotes Bartlett as saying: "Americanize. To render American; to naturalize in America." Worcester quotes Jackson, the hero of New Orleans : "Americanize, To render American ; to naturalize in America." An alien may be naturalized after living in this country live years. Naturalization and the right to vote are separate matters. "Christianity," says Bouvier (page 312), "is the religion established by Jesus Christ." "Christian," says Webster, "is especially one whose inward and outward life is conformed to the doctrines of Christ." "Christianize, to imbue with Christian principles." Worcester, page 239, says, "To Christianize (from the Greek //Jtrrrjotvjtw ; Latin, Chris- tianizo; French, Christianiser) is to render Christian; to convert to Christianity ; as to Christianize heathen nations." If the Christian Church were not divided, the union of Church and State would be inevitable. Until men shall cease to say, "Behold how good and how pleasant it is to see brethren dwell separate and apart in sects and divisions," I think it is better for the Church and State to remain separate. The common law of all the States, except Louisiana, is taken from the common law of England. Archbishop Whately, in his preface to the "Elements of Rhetoric," says, "It has been declared by the highest legal authorities that Christianity is part of the law of the laud, and consequently any one who impugns it is liable to prosecution." The meaning of Chief Justice Hale, to whom the learned Bishop refers, cannot be expressed more plainly than in his own words. An information was exhibited against one Taylor, for uttering blasphemous expres- sions too horrible to repeat. Chief Justice Hale observed that "such kind of wicked, blasphemous words were not only an offense to God and religion, but a crime against the laws, state, and government, and therefore punishable in the Court of King's Bench. For to say religion is a cheat, is to subvert all those obligations whereby civil society is preserved." (Ventr., 293; Bouvier, 313.) Although we have no established church, our fathers declared that "all men were created." A great part of the securities of the legal 792 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 555 system of our Federal Union consists in judicial and official oaths sworn upon the Gos])els. Christianity has been jndiciallv declared to be a part of the common law of Pennsylvania (11 S. and R., 394), of Xew York (8 Johns., 291), of Connecticut (2 Swift, System, 321), and of Massachusetts (7 Dane, Abr. c. 219, a 2, 19). To write or sj)eak contemptuously and maliciously ajjainst it is an indictable offense (Coojter, Libel, 59, 144). I think a law to prevent the employment of profane school-teachers would do more to Christianize the "incoming tide" than all the laws forbidding the people to speak against Christianity. It is a j^itiful sight to see a human being speaking against the religion of the only One who can save him ; it is pitifal to hear a man talk who does not know that re- licion is retarded more by the inconsistencies of its professed followers than by the biiter assaults of its professed enemies; it is sad, too, to see oui- young graduates, with a little smattering of science, hurrying for the professor's chair, or rushing into the pulpit in order to demolish Mill, Tyndall, and Huxley. The words of Coleridge in regard to the great teachers and divines of the seventeenth century are worth repeat- ing as the nineteenth draws to a close : They were not ashamed of the learned discipline to which they had submitted their minds under Aristotle audTnlly, but brought the purified products as sacrificial gifts to Christ. They ba^itized the logic and manly rhetoric of ancient Greece. They made incursions into every province of]earning,and returned laden with the choicest plunder. The scheme of the philosopher, the narrative of the historian, the vision of the poet, were all rendered subservient to the one predominant object of their researches ; the gold of idolatrous shrines was transmuted into a pure ore by their spiritual alchemy. When our teachers and preachers are thus consecrated, the questions in regard to how the incoming tide is to be Christianized will be an- swered. I wonder if unbelief was not thoroughly organized in the Jewish Church when Christ was on earth? Will any man deny that the logic of the philosophers of two thousand years ago was not about as keen, subtile, bold, and commanding the attention of the intellectual elements of society and the best reasoners of the world, as any of to day? A speculative philosopher might spend much time in proving that man has a soul. Yet I defy any man to point to chapter and verse where Jesus undertook to prove that man has a soul, and that his soul is immortal. He appealed to consciousness. He roused the proud reasoner who was demanding proof and looking for signs when he said, " What shall it profit a man if he gain the wiiole world and lose his own soul"?" I am glad to say that the United States has never had an intidel Pres- ident; some of them were profoundly religious men. Our Christian philanthropists have built hospitals, asylums, alms-houses, and orphan- ages, for the relief of all conditions of suiiering, and this work is being pushed forward more energetically at present than ever before. This will have a mighty influence towards Christianizing the incoming tide. Evolution, with cold brow, book in hand, and an air of superior wisdom, carefully notes the " survival of the fittest" in the struggle for existence. 1 like that very well. Christianity modestly goes to work to •' make something more fit to survive." I like that still better. The Christian Church has organized institutions of learning from Chicago to New Orleans, from Boston to San Francisco. That is very good. Infidelity has founded and endowed one college, so far as I recollect, Girard Col- lege. That is very good, too, as far as it goes. Again, when we speak of Christianizing the incoming tide, we must remember that the United States has received not only the immigrants 793 556 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. from other lands, but it bas been the recipient of their ideas. If we strike out the history of any prominent nation, our history would be changed. Some of our hymns were first heard in Arabia and Judea ; our religion is from Palestinie ; the disciples were first called Christians at a city in Upper Syria, on the banks of the Oroutes ; Spain was led by the sailor from Genoa to open up America to emigration ; the lily of France was with the star spangled banner at Yorktown; old England gave us our system of representative government; our jurisprudence is principally from Eome; our arts are from Greece; our maritime code was taken ])rincipally from Russia; and in searching out the roots of many of the best words of the language we speak we are carried back to ludia.^ "As the reciprocal relation between God and humanity con- stitutes the unity of our race," our country stands to-day, in my humble opinion, not only the most desirable that the sun shines on, but nearer the realization of the unity of the human race. Schools are cheaper than standing armies. As the "incoming tide" from foreign lands is so great, the statesman may well ask, is there any one efficient source of influence in our country which is naturally calculated to heal those antipathies and animosities that separate the rich from the poor, to act as a check upon those sec- tarian jealousies that divide us as Christians and break down those distinctions of language and nationality that arise from the dififerent European races composing our poimlatiou, so as to bind us all together in the bonds of a common brotherhood ? I answer, yes. These bitter waters are healed at the fountain-head, by casting the salt of a com- mon education, a common patriotism, and a common Christianity into our common schools. Here the white and black children have equal privileges in separate schools. They work harmoniously. This is bet- ter than to undertake to conduct common schools with the two races in the same house. We should love the common school because it is intensely American. The pathology of drunkenness will soon be taught in all our free schools. Then will the children of America understand more fully that whisky and the religion of Christ do not hitch horses at the same rack. From the inception of the common school down to 1885, in every stage of its ijrogress, amid the storm and tempests that have attended the mu- tations of political parties, amid the rancor of theological controversy and the heat of war and religious excitements, our common-school sys- tem has moved quietly and majestically along from the smallest begin- nings to the i^resent magnificent proportions; its blessings falling upon the children of all colors, all nationalities, " like the dew of heaven," upon the hiyh and low, rich and poor. Catholic and Protestant, " with- out prejudice and without i)artiality." There is another incoming tide. The haggard superstition of the West is sending out its apostles of lust all over the world. Blind in- ' If we look to the uegro blessed through slavery in being brought in contact with the Anglo-Saxon until he learned to speak a better language, to use the implements of civilization, to worship the true God, then to have the manacles taken from his hands, the sbackles froiu his feet, the toga of manhood placed on his ital when in contiict are in an unnatural state; harmony is their true relation. These unions started in England about fifty years ago merely as benefit societies. They are an exotic on our soil ; their strikes are generally in the hands of i)ersons of foreign birth, who have only become Americanized in name. The way to American- ize them is to teach them that there is really no need of them in a country where the land is not entailed, where every man can leave the worksho[) and become a farmer, where social and j^olitical i)restige is on the side of the laborer, and numbers more than on that of the capi- talist. America invites the oppressed, the lovers of civil and religious liberty, of every land, to her hospitable shores. Many are coming v,ho have graduated from the dynamite school of yellow-covered literature. They take shelter under the flag under which Washington fought and Warren fell, in order to manufacture dynamite and preach assassination. These un-Americanized and un-Christianized men who have drifted to our country should have the strong arm of the law thrown around them, until they were taught that the inciter to assassination is as bad as the assassin, and that both are enemies to civiliration, and enemies to God and humanity. Monojiolies. There are four kinds : personal, landed, legal, and concentrative. The last may be useful or injurious, according to the spirit of their use and control. It will require wise and level-headed statesmen to enact laws for the Republic, if these monopolies do not eventually change and con- trol our country. It is said that "corporations have no souls." They ought to have. This is a republic. We do not permit our citizens to leceive royal titles from beyond the ocean. Yet public opinion crowns them at home: railroad kings, bona.nza kings, cotton kings, cattle kings, etc. Unless these kings are Christianized, the Grand Army of the lie- public will not be able to save the country. The cry will go out through the land. " Who shall unlock the fingers of these kings whose arms have been thrown around the pillars of our ])olitical and social fabric ? " We should never forget that we cannot leave God out of our hearts and live. There is not a page of human history, there is no earth-rocking^ convulsion, no time agitating change, which does not teach the people, sooner or later, that God and liberty can never pass away. There is an "incoming tide" of boys and girls who will quickly ripen into manhood and womanhood. Thousands of them will graduate IVom our hundreds of colleges, leave their counti\v homes, and crowd into New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, Saint Louis, Cincinnati, Baltimore, New Orleans, or other cities, where the maelstrom of commercial life has already drawn its thousands into the rapid current. Here they are ishut up in counting houses for fifteen out of every twenty-four hours. They are released only when Christian families have closed their doors to visitors. The gates which they find ajar as they start out on the 796 558 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Streets, are tbose leadiug to the gilded palaces that fatten our grave- yards ami i^opulate hell! Here is work for those who will lend a helping hand in order to save the rising generation from the evil by which they are surrounded. Europe has 3,800,000 square miles of land. The present people in- habiting Europe, exclusive of those in the Caucasus, are said to be derived from ten distinct races or families. The more ancient the stock, the less numerous are its representatives. The several states of Europe l)resent every form of government, from the absolute despotism to that of little republics and free cities. The Turks alone, as a people, deny the authenticity of Christianity. It is from Europe that the " incoming tide " rolls in its tbbusands weekly. In Europe civilization has attained its most perfect development. Whence this Samsouian strength, this power, this diversity ? It may be attributed more or less to certain physico-geographical conditions, such as climate, i)roductions, maritime convenience, as well as to age and education. At the treaty of peace, 1783, the United States had 815,615 square miles ; now it possesses a grand total of 3,578,392 square miles, only lacking 221,608 square miles of being as large as Europe. Before the last ray of the setting sun has ceased to linger upon the mountains of snow in Alaska, the rays of the rising sun begin to kiss the tops of the white pines of Maine. We have ribbed the continent with steel, and whispered liberty around the world swifter than the voices of the morn- ing. The world grow's wiser and better as it grows older. This is the age of light and liberty. When the nineteenth century came in, every nation on the face of the earth engaged in the slave trade. Before the nineteenth century ends, exce])t to his passions, a slave will not walk this earth. It is not science which retards the advancement of Obristianity. The first telegram ever sent was " What hath God wrought!" The tirst one ever sent around the globe Avas the angel chant which shook Bethle- hem, "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will to men." If bitter sectional text-books are to be used in our schools, if the gospel of hate is to ring out from our pulpits, then the time cannot be far distant when the pleasant gardens of our prosperity will be up- rooted by the whirlwinds of anarchy or iron bound by the polar frosts of despotism, and this beautiful government which now looms up in the horizon to the admiration of all the earth, become the mournful dream of the past. If the doctrine of peace and good-will shall be preached from pulpit and press, and taught in the thousands of schools that dot our land, " the incoming tide will be Americanized and Christian- ized," the rising generation will love their country and their God. There will not be a " soul so dead " as not to love this " land of the free" and this "home of the brave." For me, her rivers are the most majestic, her mountains the grandest, her ladies the fairest, her men the bravest, her flowers the sweetest, the song of her uncaged birds the freest, and the sun above her broad savannas the brightest on earth. The attrition of the tide of time and these great international gather- ings will serve to draw closer the ties that bind us. I rejoice to believe that the heart of the solid granite masses of the people of this great American Union beats in unison to the music of the Union and the Constitution as it never did before. May our country live and grow and bless humanity until the muse of history shall write ^nis with a pen of lire, and the nations shall come to judgment at the ringing blast of angel trump. 796 THE HARMONIOUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES. By Brother Barbas, Of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. Educatioi), to be genuine, must lead forth, train, and direct Iiatfiionf- ously tlie Kev^eral faculties or powers innate in man, giving to each 'S care and attention proportioned to its relative imi)ortance, which iiw- portiince is to be determined in view of man's destiny or final end. To be able to do this intelligently and wisely, the educator must khoW the nature of these faculties, and the end they are intended to subserve. Withoiit knowing their natttre, he could not direct them to their proper objects, and consequently could Dot aid in their develop- hient^ could not lead them forth successfully. Without leading them foitli httrmouiotlsly^ he would do violence to nature, where they exist together for mutual aid, ahd would thus create disorder where order should eminently reign, in the grandest object in creation, its lord, the- microcosm, man. Without knowing man's end, he could not dire*rt them wisely ; and it might well be said of the most highly cultured fac- ulties, Cinbonof What advantage would they all bring? Were the faculties developed without a view to this end, or were they exercised in contravention to this end, then indeed might it be asked, "Is life worth living!" For, in tliat event, all the. goods attainable would be unsatisfactory, because transitory, and because not conducting to the l)ermauent good, man's end, in which alone are rest, peace, and true happiness. ^'ow the faculties become known by their operations, and these by their objects. For there must be a due proportion between the opera- tion and its terai, on one side, and between the same operation and its agent or faculty, on the other. As Socrates has it: Toioutov r/ir^/xa rti-iverai ro rs/urof'teyov oiov to refivov repirei, which we can convert and say : Toiourov rf.ii,iia rt).ivii ro rlfxvov oiov to TS/uvo/xevov rt/uve- rau The color perceived, for instance, makes known the act of seeing, and this reveals the faculty, or sense, of sight. Were the eye to speak, it might say : Video, ergo num. Again, as the object "is a material quality, we know that sight is an organic facultv, or one acting through a bodily organ, since matter can act directly only on matter. Furthermore, in perceiving color we feel a sensation, which shows that the bodily organ is vital, and conse- quently that seeing is the operation of both the life-giving principle or soul and the body united. For the simplest exercise, therefore, of the simplest faculty, as of sight, the soul and body must act in harmony, and contribute each its proper share toward the one efiect. Hence the first duty of the educator, who assumes the responsibility of leading forth allthe faculties or i)owers implanted in the child, is to attend himself and lead his i)upil to attend to physical well-being. The sym- j>athy between soul and body is so great, that if one ails, the other is 797 5 GO EDUCATIOXAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. iiriiuediately indisposed. Sickness affects the mind, sadness or anger or envy preys upon the body. It will be seen in the sequel bow advantage may be taken of una- voidable physical evil for the furtherance of the highest good, the moral good, and how "all the ills that flesh is hgir to" may be cou- veited into so many blessings by the simple act of an ujnight will. But the same moral law that rewards* the voluntary acceptance of una- voidable i)hysical evil, tells us that it is a crime to neglect the first law of nature — self-preservation, both laws emanating from the same Sov- ereign Legislator, and man being amenable before His supreme tribunal for every voluntary infraction of either. Mens sana in corpore sano must be the motto of the educator. He should know the general principles of hygiene, and ])oint out the ad- vantages accruing from following the simple laws of nature, especially in curbing the passions under the rein of right reason, and in being vir- tuous. He should be careful how he unduly exaggerates the value of mere literary attainments, lest the pupil, by sacrificing too much of the l)hysical for the intellectual goods, may end with having neither. Much less should he impose such burdens upon the mind as will endanger the body to succumb. He mast be persuaded that reasonable recreation is as much a duty for the student as study itself; that time taken from necessary slee[) and given to study is an injustice even to the faculties it is intended to benefit, a folly which, sooner or later, brings its own Ijunishment in lack ot energy, in lassitude and distaste, leaving uu- knitted " the raveled sleeve of care," disorder at the fountain heatl. In laying down principles to guide his pupil in after life, he should not shrink from exposing this among other evils of the theater, — time taken trom necessary rei)0se. Sensational reading — novels, romances, etc., should also suggest a salutary warning, lest their devotees may become puny dreamers physically no less than intellectually. Mechanical pur- suits should not be discountenanced, nor made the object of invidious comparison with the learned professions. Manual labor should be held as honorable, and rather encouraged than otherwise, pointing out Ciu- cmuatus, Cato, Washington, and others, as instances of nobility allied to rural labor. These are among the dictMites of a true and disinterested regard for the real wellare of the whole man, unswayed and unbiased by the con- ventionalities of a questionable progress in refinement, excellence, and genuine worth. To impress still more upon the pupil's mind the great importance of l)hysical development and well-being, he should be taught that most usetul lesson, gratitude to his parents — his first educators physically, aye, and intellectually, too, and morally. All after-educators are build- ing upon the foundation they laid. To the parents belongs the sacred and inalienable right of determining who shall be the educators and what shall be the education of their offspring, as it is their bounden le we were considering. Here we find a new faculty called iuto play. We do recall ou r past experiences about the apple and what we have remarked thereon. There is then the faculty of memory in us, which retains and recalls the past. But this is possible only from the i)revious operation of other faculties, which furnish it with its proper object; otherwise there would be nothing to retain, nothing to recall. ]Sow memory re- tains only the images or impressions of things, from which it reproduces past scenes and experiences. To do this eliectually and easily, the im- pressions must be sufficiently deep, the images sufficiently vivid, both of which require energetic and vigorous action of the faculties. This again exacts attention, a calling home of wandering thoughts, a couceu- tratiou of the powers of the soul. For as the total energy of man is limited, the more it is divided on different objects, the more its efficiency on any one of them is diminished. It is for this reason that indulging the passions is ruinous tointellectual vigor, no less than to moral strength and rectitude. What is wasted ou the animal man is taken from the in- tellectual and spiritual man. Aye, and even intellectual pursuits, if allowed to engross more than a just share of our attention, will inevi tably dry up the unction of soul necessary to diffuse the aroma of virtue over all our actions. That justice, therefore, may be rendered to all, and the rights of each acuity respected, there must be a sovereign ruler in the kingdom of man's mind. Let us see if there is such a ruling faculty. The apple 1 just now spoke of I conjure up before me. I see it in my mind's eye. The tree ou which it hangs, the orchard where the tree grows, its envi- rons — all are here. This very act of conjuring up reveals a new faculty, perfectly distinct from though nearly allied to memory. 1 saw an aj)- ple, and a tree, and an orchard before. I never saw the particular apple, tree, and orchard I now see before me, nor did I ever see either of them where this new power, imagination, locates them. It is this taking away of objects from some of the relations and circumstances in which we originally found them, and putting them into positions and giving them surroundings of our own choosing, that constitutes the difference between imagination and memory. Memory recalls the object with its own surroundings. Imagination brings forward the object in borrowed or stolen surroundings. Too much attention cannot be drawn by the educator to this differ- ence. The one faculty gives us the whole truth, as far as its report goes ; the other a particle of truth with the semblance of the whole, a grain of truth in a bushel of error. But as a microscope is not necessa- rily a falsifier because it gives you ten feet of error for every barley-corn of truth, since it makes no secret of doing this; so neither is imagina- tion a false witness for bringing real figures into unreal situations, clothing them in the full dress of reality ; for it too professes to de- ceive. You can hardly call a man a liar, if you convict him of telling you a lie after he has told you he is a liar; unless indeed you want to be hypocritical, and argue thus : If the man told me truly he was a liar, he was no liar; for he told me the truth, and 1 should believe him as 800 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS — I'APERS. 563 one who thus far has told the truth : therefore he is a liar for telling me he is a liar when he is not. Imagination gets its name from giving us an image or picture made up partly of what is and partly of what might be. In order to impress upon the minds of his pui)i]s the excellence, beauty, and grandeur of truth, the educator who knows its paramount value will not fail to note the fact that, to be cred.; table, tiction, even when most bent ui)on de- ceiving, must put on all the appearance of truth, just as the most ac- complished forger gives to his counterfeit the nearest resemblance to the genuine article to give it currency. So much the more must the pupil be put on his guard against the allurements of pretended reali ties set forth as valuables by the cunning device and wondrous dex terity of poet or novelist, lest the gaudy display, absorbing all the energies of the soul through sensational excitement, may lull reason to sleep, and betray the ruler, will, into the hands of voluptuousness, leaving the unwary simpleton, alas! too frequently, deep down in the mire, wearied, yawning, helpless, a moral wreck. Would that this were a poetic picture! But it must be admitted that but too many of the poets, novelists, and romancers of most of our vaunted literatures have drawn many a hapless wight into the vortex of erotic passion. But hai^pily every honest imagination can find ample matter for its most daring and pleasing flights in the pure, and sublime, and beautiful con ceptions of many of our own poets of classic fame. But no sparkling gem should tempt the mind to seek it by wading through tilth ; the soul's purity is a thousand times a brighter gem; and wisdom says, reason says, common sense says, we ought not lose the greater for the lesser gem. Besides, both would then be lost ; for the sullied soul cannot have a bright mind, nor one brilliant faculty. But imagination's simpler and more ordinary occupation is to prepare matter for the intellect, to hold up before it the 'pliaiitasma which calls it forth to act. In this .sense it precedes and accompanies every act of understanding, every process of reasoning, all our thinking, which is vigorous in proportion to the vivacity of this faculty. Imagination is wrong only when it asserts indei)endence of reason. But intellect or reason itself is subject to higher authority. It may not exercise itself upon all objects indifferently, nor search for truth irrespective of times and circumstances and conditions. It would not do to sit down quietly pursuing a train of reasoning while the house was on fire; nor to spend twenty years in counting the joints of a cater- pillar or grasshopper, or in studying the anatomy of ants and flies; nor to ransack all the records of the past to find "Who nursed Anchises; from what country caoie The step-dam of Archemorus, what her name ; How long Acestes flourished, and, iu short, With how much wine the Trojans left his court." We may, in these and similar instances, reason unreasonably. There must be something, then, to determine reason itself, and make it right reason, following which no man goes astray. For following a higher light in matters transcending the powers of reason, is eminently reason able. !N"ow it is the will that controls the intellect, directing it to seek truth in this or that direction, as it listeth. But there must be some mover of the will to bring it from the possible into the actual state, for it is not always in act, and nothing can of itself leave the possible state. This mover or motive is the good, in the possession of which lies happiness, tiOl 564 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION aDcl wbich therefore moves or attracts toward itself all beings capable of bap})iiiess. Aristotle goes farther and says that "all things desire the good." This innate desire of happiness is therefore the nltiinate reason why man is moved by the good; and as it is God who imjjlant- ed in us this desire, He is the first mover of our will, as He is of all things. Not only is it true that "in Him we live, move, and have our being," but that by Him we are moved through the inclination that He gave us. But just here a grand difficulty meets us: the will needs the light of intellect to poiut out the good it wills, as nothing is willed if it is not known. How cau the will govern the intellect, if it is dei)endent on the intellect? How can we, admitting this dependence, still maintain the sovereignty of the will? Just as in a monarchy a sovereign is truly sovereign, though he may not be able to govern without the aid of his council; for he can command his council to confine themselves to a sub- ject of his choosing, and can choose his own course of action after they have thrown all their light upon the subject. But to return to our mode of knowing the nature of the faculties. We have seen how the sight of the color of an apple led to the opera- tion of three internal senses, thence to the operation of intellect. Let us see if no other faculty or power was evoked. It is not a very improb- able case to suppose that the first motion, on seeing the ai)i>le, was toward plucking it, making it our own. But a voice within whisi)ers, "It is not right; that apple belongs to another; you must have the owner's permission before you can take it," and I immediately check my hand in the very act of reaching for it, and turn away. Here three new faculties have come into action, — sensile appetite following sensile perception, conscience warning about the moral rectitude of the then contemplated act, and rational appetite or will giving the final decision, after weighing the reasons for and against. Here, too, is a conflict between the higher and the lower appetite; here a victory of the higher, moral strength, virtue. That the will was free to go against the voice of conscience, and consequently that the act of resisting the lower appe- tite was a virtuous act, is again known from the operation or volition, and this from the object. Whoever remembers to have on one occa sion rejected the solicitation to a certain act to which he at another time, similarly circumstanced, yielded, has in himself a palpable i)roor that his will is free. For to do a certain act and not to do it are two contraries, and no necessitated agent can choose between two contra- ries. If it must go to one of them, it cannot go to the other; and if it can go to either, it must go to neither of them. There is but one i-e- spect in which the will is not free: it is not free not to wish happiness. But as the good is as extensive as entity, there is an immense variety of objects in which man may place his happiness, and therefore has an almost illimitable range for the freedom of will to exercise itself, though too often happiness is sought where it is not, and not sought where it is. From the very nature and office of the will we see at once the superla five importance of cultivating, directing, and strengthening this faculty. Now every faculty is called forth unto act and consequently developed by presenting it with its proper object. The eye is informed by color, the intellect waxes large and strong on truth, and the will by having presented to it the good. But as the appearance of truth without the r'^ality only dwarfs the intellect, so merely apparent good enervates and sickens the will. The real good is that which hinders no greater good. But every good hinders a greater good, if it be not itself the suinmuvi honum or conducts not to it. The moment a physical good destroys or 80a INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 565 liiuders an iutellectnal g^^od, except iu the interest of a higher good, it becomes a positive evil. And when either of these goods destroys or hinders a moral good, tbey are so tar still greater evils. The real good is the ))ermanent, unchangeable, intinite good, with all that in any way tends to it; and all things tend to it, if we will thera as means to this end. This is no other than God, the true, the beautiful, and the good in one, in their fullness and in their source, man's last end as lie is also his tirst beginning. The science that instructs man how to reach this his end is the science of religion, rightly styled the queen of all the sciences, not that of man's own choosing, but of God's revealing; that religion which not only enlightens the mind by faith, but strengthens the will by grace, of which it is the divinely appointed channel. Kow the will of the Almighty is man's supreme, unending happiness. Man's will, therefore, to be perfect, must be conformed to the will of his Creator. That is the sublime standard and grand criterion to which he must look as to his guiding star, in sailing over the sea of life. This ])erfection of the will, so desirable, may indeed, nay, most certainly (let; us not hide the truth) will cost many a hard conflict with the most dif licnlt of all enemies — self, many a denial of the cravings of lower appe- tites. But the contest is a glorious one, the victory magnificent, liea- son is on our side, exhorting, "Courage is half the battle! What is of so imnjense value is cheap at auy and every cost, even that of life." Justice, and right, and truth, and fortitude, and honor, and all the vir- tues, are on our side, ennobling and elevating our every energy. The truly great and good of every age from long before Socrates to more than a century after Washington, have been on our side. When the will is right, all in man is right, all is orderly, all harmoni- ous. Intellect busies itself in the service of the will, discovering the truth, and by its light pointing out to the will the good that is its ob- ject, for every entity is true for the intellect, good tor the will in some way. The intellect again is served by imagination, whose normal and ordinary ofBce it is to prepare for intellect its proper object by present- ing to it the pJianta.wta, on which the infeZ/ec^ws «.r/e«s operates prepara- tory to its reception by intellect proper or ^ossift/e intellect, as it has been called. But imagination has need of memory to retain the images or representatives of things, on which alone imagination works. But memory proper, or seusile memory, must have sensations or sensile im- pressions, already distinguished and classified by common sense. But this last must have sensations before it can distinguish or classify them, which .sensations are partly preliminary to and partly concomitant with seusile ])erception or cognition. Here we have a grand chain of suc- cessive causes rising m relative importance up to the sovereign will, which directs and controls all. The highest cannot say to the lowes% "We have no need of you"; nor can the senses claim any of the privi- leges of humanity, except in so far as they are subservient to reason or intellect under the control of the will, itself regulated bv the Divine will. I have not, in this disquisition of the faculties, referred directly to reason or to consciousness, for I hold that neither of them is a distinct faculty, but only names for special exercises of the intellect. Neither do I agree with Keid or Hobbes in considering common sense, or the cognitive faculty found in all men, as a distinct faculty from intellect found in all men. Common sense is nothing else than intellect reveal- ing to all men either self evident truths, or such as require very lit' !e reasoning for their discovery, and which are necessary to be known for the physical, intellectual, and moral well-being of man. 803 566 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Oue remark must here be added, as a fitting^ conclusion to this paper. Since the ills of life are unavoidable, it is the part of wisdom to study how to make them as tolerable as possible. jSTow the best way, be- cause the only true way, is to take them for what they really are, — trials for the highest exercise of the highest faculty in man — the will, wherein he can prove that he makes it his pleasure to conform his will to that of his Creator. Such disposition briugs a peace no adversity can ruffle. It is thus that unavoidable physical evil becomes a moral good. 604 ON VARIATIONS OP MENTAL RECEPTIVITY. By Edwin Ohadwick, A. B., Chairman of Education Committee, Society of Arts, London, Emjland. The effect of a low physical conclitioii in weakening mental receptivity and in debilitating the power of attention, has been dwelt upon by the earliest educationists. Dr. Crichtou, in his "Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Mental Derangement," places poor diet at the head of a list of causes which weaken attention, and consequently debilitate all the faculties of the mind. But there are to be observed in education wide natural variations displayed in £he receptivity of members of the same family, and in different races of well-fed people. In a wealthy family of high position there will commonly be found considerable varia- tions in the receptivity of its different members. One, the sharpest boy, is designated for the legal profession, or is trained to try for the scientific corps. Of another of less promise, it is judged that he will not succeed in the open professions ; formerly such a one would be given some position in the public service, but now the competitive ex- aminatioDs have barred the way for him to government employment, and he is usually left for the family living, where there is one, or some position in which there is little mental strain. The variations of mental receptivity may be shown on a large scale, in the results of the great public competitive examinations. Thus, to take the variations in the attainments of even the successful candidates for admission to the scientific corps at Woolwich : the mean of the marks obtained by the upper third of the last batch was 4,013.6 ; of the inter- mediate third, 3,576 ; and of the lowest third, 2,845.8. Of the last batch of successful competitors for the civil service in India, the mean of marks obtained by the upper third were 1,947 ; of the intermediate third, 1,628; and of the lowest third, 1,434. In the case of the competition for the clerkships of the lower division, in the last batch the mean of the upper third was 1,576; of the intermediate third, 1,333; and of the lower third, 1,245. In these several instances, the best efforts were doubtless made, and wide variations of mental receptivity were determined among classes uninfluenced by variations in feeding. Of course the school teachers of children of a lower class have to deal with variations in feeding, in addition to natural variations of capacity, and also with racial variations. School teachers of experience in diffV'Tcnt parts of the country are aware of wide variations of racial receptivity be- tween the children of one part of the country and those of another : for instance, the receptivity of the children in the elementary schools of Lan- cashire, compared with that of the children of some of the southern coun- ties, is as three to two. I have notes from practical educationistsin France regarding the wide variations between the quick children of the. South and the slow children of the North. From such experiences will be seen the serious mistake in the fundamental policy on the part of our Education 805 568 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Department, wliich puts forward one iiuiforjn code, irrespective of all the variations of receptivity- that are to be found in children c^ like ages in the same school. School teachers readily' appreciate the division of re- ceptivities into quarts, pints, or half-pints of mental receptivity. In the same school, among a group of children of average capacity, there are found to be 40 per cent, of children classed as of quart capacity, 35 per cent, of pint, and 23 per cent, of half pint. The teacher gets on easily and satisfactorily for three hours with the quarts of "his class; but the pints in that time become wearisome, and with the half-pints it is sad and heavy work to get them up at the same time as the quarts. Yet they are all to be got up in the time. For the pints it would re- quire a year or more to bring them up to the quarts; with the half- pints full two years, and with many not at all. With the pints and the half- pints the effect is more or less of over-pressure, and with the half-pints very severe over pressure upon them ; that is to say, bodily as well as mental pain is the result of the effort to get them up at the same time to the requirements of the code. These mental evils are accompanied by habitual headaches in 40 per cent, of the children, together with complaints of mothers. The inspector of the school,when told of this, declared that he did Eot believe a word of the statement, for he had seen all the mothers, and had not heard one com- plaint froQi them ; and such appears to be the testimony on which reli- ance is placed by the Department. The fact is, that the mothers do not make complaints to the inspectors against the requirement of home lessons, but they do make them to the teachers at the school. I have been led to make these inquiries into the variations of mental receptivity in the interests of the half time principle which I got intro- duced into the Factories Eegulation Act, and into the education of the or- phan children under the poor-law administration. I made inquiries of an experienced practical educationist in France as to the racial variations of receptivity of the school children, which he described as very wide indeed between the quick children of the South and the slow, heavy children of the North. It is related of a political chief, the head of the Education Department of France, that to show the extent of excellence to which the Deijartmeut had got the system in France, he said, " Now if J take oat my watch, I shall be sure that the same lesson is being given at that precise time to the children of every school in France! " If he had been aware of the old educational maxim, Quidquid recepitnr, re- cepitur ad modum recipientis, and of the wide differences in the recipi- ents, he would be aware that he was surely frustrating the objects of education, that he was inflicting extensive over pressure and torment on the children, and perplexity, vexation, and weariness on the teacher*. The school teachers of England declare that if they were left to their own devices they would save two years of the school life to all the children ; that is to say, to the four millions of children in school at- tendance eight millions of years of wasted and tormented life would be saved, to say nothing of the diminution in the rates. I believe that, if a pioper system were i)ursued, there might be saved four annual exam- inations out of fiv^e, and the pupils be left to what is called in Germany a "leaving examination." 606 INDEX TO PART U. A.L.A. Catalog, 412-417. Accuracy, want of, in educatioual matters, 49G. Adams, Mr., remarks by. 38. Administration of school affairs. See School sys- tem. Africa needs railroads, 506. Agnostic school, rejects the ideal, 4C6-4G8. character of the writers of the. 470. Agricultural education in Ontario, 204-208. Air, gaseous constituents of, 351-352. solid particles in, 35L'-354. vitiated, composition of, 354-355. expired, composition of, 356. organic matter in, 3.'i7-3.n9, ,S60, 362. permeability of walls of buildings to, 3n9. experiments of Do Chaumont to determine the vitiation of, 3fi2-:i64. experiments of R. Angus Smith to determine the effects of vitiation of, 36.5-36G. statistics of composition of, in inhabited rooms, 375-379. See also Carbonic acid and Ventilation. Alaska, state of education in, 132. Albert College (Ontario), 242-243. Alcott, Dr. W. A., editor of the Atnerican Annals of Education, 523-524. AUvn, Kev. Kobert, mention of, 529. Ahiia College (for ladies, Ontario), 199, 203. American Annals of Education, 522-524. American Journal of Education. .')21. Americanize and Christianize the incoming tide, how shall we ? 554-558. Amherst College, physical training at, 428-430. Analostan School (Washington, 1). C), examina- tion of air of, 372. Angell, James B., Vice-President International Congress of Educators, 9. Apparatus for instruction in primary schools, 118. Architectural l)eauty, influence of, 411. Architecture, school, in Ontario, 408-411. Arthur, Chester A., Honorary President Interna- tional Congress of Educators, 9. Ashton, R , account of Mohawk Institute (Can- ada) by, 318. As^ciation of Mechanics' Institutes of Ontario, 214-215. Atherton. G. W., Assistant Secretary of Section 0,221. Authority, in the school-room, respect for, 447-4.55. evidence of, everywhere visible, 447. sanction of, 448. responsibility of those vested with, 449-450. Azarias. Brother! mention of, 48. on literarv and scientific habits of thought, 456^73." Bailey, Hon. A. A., on examinations in California, 125. Baptist school for the Indians, 513. Baptist theological colletch of, 202. Blind, education of the, in Ontario, 299-302. Blow, Miss Susan E., referred to, 40. Body, Rev. C. W. E. (Ontario), mention of, 246, 267. Bond, Edward A. (England), Honorary Chairman • of Section E, 347. Book depositoiy of Ontario Education Depart- ment, 420^21. Botany, study of. in common schools, 147-149. Brantford Ladies" College (Ontario), 200, 203. Brooklyn Bridge, the, 496. Brown, Hon. Le Roy D., mention of, 9. quoted. 123. Buchan, I. M. (Ontario), mention of, 238. Buell, C.J., Chairman, 397-403. Buisson, B., referred to, 11. remarks by, 49. on recent leforms in public instruction in France. 111-119. Buisson. F., Honorary Chairman of Elementary Section, 57. Bureau of Education, referred to, 115, 126, 128, 410, 417. circular of, relating to the instruction of the deaf, referred to. 292. Bureau of Indian Affairs hampered by want of funds, 515. Burke, Hon. E. A., Director-General of the Ex- position, 7. Burns, Rev. Alexander, on female education iu Ontario, 199-203. Bush. Hon. Lewis, remarks of, 11. Butcher, Hon. B. L.. Secretary International Con- gress of Educators, 9. Campbell, Principal F. J. (England), Honorary Secretary of Section D, 283. Capper, Hon. Thomas, Chief Inspector of .Schools in Jamaica. 68. Carbonic acid and other impurities in school-room air, 349-302. in the atmosphere, normal amount of. 351. amount of. in vitiated air, 354-355.359. limit of. allowable in rooms. 361. Pettenkofer's method for the determination of tlie atnount of, in the air of a room, 366-370. Hesse's method for the determination of tlio amount of, in the air of a room, 385-388. other metlioils for the same, 388-392. See also Air and Ventilation. Carling, Hon. .lohn (Ontario), quoted, 206. Carlyle, William, on examinations iu public ' schools, 154-1.57. 807 570 INDEX TO PART II. Carpenter, "W. L.. promotes pcience instruction in England, 165. Castle, Rev. John H. (Ontario), mention of, 278. Catalog, the A. L. A., 412-417. features of, 413-415. uses of, 415-416. preparation and publication of, 417. Catalogues for libraiies, expense and unsatisfac- tory character of, 412-413. functions of, 413. Caven, Eev. Principal (Ontario), mention of, 276. Chadwick, Edwin (England), on corporal punish- ment, 133-1.36. on variations of mental receptivity, 567-568. Character, importance of, in teachers, 142, 144-145, 182. 262-263. developed by the discipline of the school-room, 143. influenced by the associations of the school- room, 144. ' Christianity a part of the common law of the land, 554. Christianize the incoming tide, how shall we ? 554-558. Christie, Hon. David (Ontario), on agricultural education, 206. Church of England theological colleges in Onta- rio, 266-272. Church, position of the, in regard to education, 22-23, 125. Cities, the education demanded by the modern growth of, 474-481. Clark , T. M., A ssistant Secretary of Section E, 347. author of circular of iuforniatiou, 410. Clarke, James Freeman, on time lost by recita- tions, 260. Classics, (iarfield on the study of the, 260. no liberal education without the, 494. Clay for modeling, uses of, in the educatioi^of children, 43-48. • Co-education of the races, at Eerea College (Ken- tucky), 230-232. Co-education of the .sexes, in the field of superior instruction, 42. in Ontario, 191. 200-201. in normal schools in Ontario not practiced, 226. at 15erea College (Kentucky), 230-232. at University College (Ontario), 237 and note. College gymnasia in the United States, 425-436. l^oUeges, how to increase the attendance in, 251- 263. how the time required to master course of study of, may be abridged, 181, 258-261. expensiveness of, 261-202. should be centers of Cht istian influence, 262. Collegiate Institutes of Ontario, 18.5-195. Colored children, inadequate provision for the education of, in the South, 231. Colored people, status of the education of, in Ken- tucky, .53. See also Negro. Commissioner of Education, Report of, referred to, 126, 350. 433. 489, 541. Common School Journal, 524-526. Common schools. See Public schools. Competitive studies and resultant prizes, 532-536. Conipnlsorv attendance, no need of in Jamaica, 75. in Ontitrio, 86,89. in Alassachusetts, 104. in Japan, 109. in France, 116-117. Connecticut, educational journals in, 526-527. Connecticut Common School Journal, 524-525, 526- 527. Connecticvt School Manual, 526-327. Cookery, instruction in. in public schools of Liv- erpool, 162. Corporal punishment discussed, 133-136. antiquity of, 134-135. ineSiciency of, 135. Country school-house, description of an improved, 126. Country schools productive of better results than city schools, 120. inspection of, 122-123. gradiag of, 124-126. condition of teachers in, 125-126. 808 County model school system of Ontario, 169-173. Course of study, in the schools of Jamaica, 70-71. what it should be based on, 92. in common schools of Japan. 109. in primary schools of France, 118. for public schools, advantages of, 125. for high schools of Ontario, 192. at Wesleyan Ladies' College, Ontario, 200-201. of Ontario Agricultural College, 206-207. for mechanics' institutes, 214. in Oniario normal schools, 226-227. in Ontario School of Art, 239. in higher inatitiitions in Ontario, 238. 243. in theological colleges of Ontario, 267, 271, 272- 273, 274, 276, 278-279, 280. Coward, Hon. A.ibuiy, mention of, 9, 48. Coxe, Hon. Eckley B., referred to, 209. Crooks, Hon. Adam, report of, on Indian schools in Ontario, 324-346. Curry, J. L. M.. Vice-President International Con- " gress of Educators, 9. Deaf children, classification of, B85-290. varieties of deafness in, 286-288. 291. should be taught in company with bearing children, 289-290. should be placed at school at an early age, 290, 294, 297. on the necessity of providing for the better education of, in the public schools, 291-298. estimate of the number of 293. injustice to, from neglect, 295. duty of the State in regard to, 296. expense of educating the deaf in the public school's, 296. teachers of, 297. Dearness, John, on school architecture in Ontario, 408-411. De Chaumoiit's experiments to determine the vi- tiation of room air, 362-364. Degrees, examinations for. in theological colleges of Ontario, 268-270, 274-275, 276-277, 279-280. Delaware Indians, hardships and migrations of the, 512. Desks used in schools of France, 439-440. Desert, the Great American, no desert at all. 506. Dewey, Melvil, on the A. L. A. Cat.ilog, 412-417. Dickinson, Hon. J. W., referred to, 11, 41. on the public school system of Massachusetts, 10.3-lOS. quoted, 122. Discipline of the school-room an important agent. in developing character, 143. Divine law, no stability without the, 451. Dougherty, Hon. N. C, refeired to, 1 1. Drawing, extent of application of, 200-212. Drifton (Pa ) Industrial School for Miners and Mechanics, 209. Dymond, Alfred H., on the education of the blind in Ontario, 299-302. Easton, Hon. Warren, referred to, 11. remarks by, 46, 47. Eaton, Hon. John, letter of, to the Secretary of the Interior, 7. President of the International Congress of Educator.*, 9. refened to, 11, 111. address by, 17-30. quoted, 77. Report of, cited, 252-253. See also Commissioner of Education. Educated men, how to increase the proportion of, 251-263. Education, asafactor in modern civilization, 17-30. not limited to any department of man's na- ture, 17, 28. modifies the hereditary nature of man, IS. influenced by the associations of the school- room, 18-19, 144. functions and qualifications of the adminis- trators of, 19, 197. competency of, to ameliorate bodily and men- tal defects, 20. extent of field of, in modern times, 21. universal application of 21. direction of, by the State, 22-23, 126. sboold be free to all, 23-25. INDEX TO PART II. 571 Edncation, greatest possibilities of man, secured by, 26. sphere of woman in relation to, 27. benefits of, extend to all vocations, 27-28. capabilitie.. importance of character in the administrators of, 26J-J63. the kind of, demanded by the modern growth of cities, 47^-481. necessary in a self governed community, 481. sngaestions concerning national aid to, 482- 492. the railroad as an element in, 493-507. etymological signilication of, 494. Indian, historical skovj." of, 508-516. the great revival of, i",i America, 517-518. what it shonld include, 521. the object of 538. what it can and cannot effect, 542. .should develop the faculties harmoniously, 559. Educational association, the first, .520. Educational journalism, in 3«ew England, a brief history of, 517-.531. in Connecticut, 526-527. in Jtaine, 527-528. in Vermont, ,528-529 Elective system for studies, 198. Elementary section, ofiicers of, 57. Elgin, Lortl, promotes the cause of popular edu- cation in Ontaiio, 86. Eliot, John, work of, among the Indians, 511. £mul,iti(m, as an incentive to the pursuit of knowledge. 535. the spirit of does not need stimulating, 535. See also Prizes. Endowments of tbeolog?calinstitutions in Ontario. 265. Engineerins science, triumphs of, 493-496. Evening schools, condition of, 489-490. Examinations, in Jamaica, 68. sy.stems of, in California and Minnesota, 125- 126. in 1. A., on how to Americanize and Christianize the incoming tide, 554-558. Louisiana Educational Society referred to, 54. Lubbock, Sir John, quoted, 162. Machinery, the condition of workingmen has bee.n ameliorated by the introduction of, 473. Magnus, Phihp (England), Honorary Chairman of Sertion B, 175. Maine, school journals in, 527-528. Maine Journal of Education, 528. Mankind, the welfare of, as an incentive to the .pursuit of knowledge, 532-533. Mann, Horace, report of, on the ventilation of school-houses, referred to. 350. mention of, 517, 520, 523, 524. editor of Common SchoolJournal, 52.5-526. Manners in school, 137-138. Mansfield, D. L., on morals and manners in school, 137-1.38. Manual training. See Industrial training. Marble, Hon. A. P., mention of, 57. Marling, Alexander, on simultaneotusand uniform examinations in Ontario, 544-553. Mason, L. W., remarks by, 40. Massachusetts, school system of, 103-108. branches taoght in the public schools of, 103. duties of school committees in, 104. duties and rights of children in, 104. .statistics of education in. 105. Board of Education of, lO.'i, 100. theory upon which the educational institu-. tioiis of, are conducted, 107. illiteracy in, 108. Massachusetts State Board of Education, extract from report of, 490. llassachrmetts Teacher, .J25-520 Mather, William, extract, from rejwrtof, on tech- nical educatitm in the United States, 120. Mayo, Rev. A. D., referred to, 11,41,1 LI, 531. address by, 31-'!4. remarks by, 46.47. on public .schools in the South, 177-184. McCaul, Rev. John, referred to, 2.36. McGill, Hon Peter, indorses Dr. Ryerson's Ap- peal. 241. McHenrj-, D. C, on secondary education iu Onta- rio, 185-195. McKinnon, Donald J., on examinations in the public schools of Ontario, 150-153 Mechanics' institutes in Ontario, 213-219. course of study for, 214. legislative aid to, 215, 216. libraries of, 215-217. statistics of, 217. Memory, functions of the, 562. Mental receptivity, variations of, .'567, .568. Merrill, Moses, Assistant Secretary ot Section B, 175. Meteorological stations in connection with public schools, 88. Methodist theological college in Ontario, 272-27". Military drill in the South, 435. Military instruction in high schools of Ontario, 192. Mill, John Stuart, the mission of public schools as stated bv, 107. Mills, James (Ontario) referred to, 204, 208. Mitchell, Dr., remarks by, 47. Model schools of Ontario, 109-173. Monopolies, 5.07. j!lIoral insti uctiou in public schools, necessity of, 49-51, 139. Moral nature, growth of the, 452. Moral training in schools of Ont>.rio, 139-140. desirability of text books on, 142-143. in the young, indirect agencies of, 143. Morals, improvement of. in Jamaica, 64. 75 instruction in, in public schools of France, 118-119. in school, 137-138. Museums for common schools in France, 441-442. Musgrave, Sir Anthony, on labor in .lamaica. ~r> Music, instruction in, in Kew Haven, Conn., 166- 168. should begin with the lowest grade, 160. plan of, 167. Xatioual aid to education referred to, 30. remarks on, by Dr. Mayo, 33. should be unconditional, 51-52. not a novel theory, 4S2-4S3. provisions adopted by the Inter-State Com- mission concerning, 485-486. the principle of established, 486 suguestious concerning, 480-492. justilicalion of, 492. See also Grants md School fund. Kational Council of Education, puipo.se of, 36. Natural history, study of, in common schools, 147- 149. Near-sightedness among schoolchildren, the al leged increase of, 393-397. in schools, statistics of. 393-395. caused bv had methods of management, 396- 397, 400I402, 403. report on the causes of, 398-403. how to avoid. 399-402. age at which mo.st to be apprehended, 402. influence of heredity upon. 403 Negro, education of the, discussed, 40-53. necessity of moral trainiuir for the, 49-50. capacity of the, for labor, 75. education of the, at BereaCollego (Kentucky). 230-232. antipathy of the white race to the, not natu- ral, 231. interest taken in education bv the, in the South, 487. problem in education, .537-543. development of character thu first essential in the eduratiun of the. 538. should bo educated on a low plane, 538-539. religions and moral training of the, .'> .9. 811 574 INDEX TO PAET II. Negro, indnstrial training needed for the, 539-541. must develop his liberty; 54:;. Nelles, Kev. Dr. S. S. (Ontario), mention of, 83, 242, 272. prosperous career of, 240. Newell, Hon. M. A., mention of, 9, 49. remarks by, 38, 4o, 54. New England,' educational journalism in, 517-531. Nerv £ngland Jotirnal of Education , 529-531. New Hampshire Hchool Journal, 5"^9. New Haven, study of music in, 16t)-168. Newman. Prof. Albert H.. on theological educa- tion in Ontario, 264-281 . Newspaper, functions of the, in modern society, 480-481. Newton, Sir Isaac. 534. Noah, Brother, referred to, 35. Vice-Ohairmau of Elementary Section, 57. Normal school first proposed, 518. Normal training, in Jamaica, 68. in France, 11. 5-116. in Ontario, 169-173, 192, 223-229. See also Teachers. Norman, Sir Henry W., Governor of Jamaica, 68. Ogden, Mrs. Anna B., referred to, 38. on the application of kindergarten principles to the child's earliest development, 94-102. Ontario, progies-s of the kindergarten in, 38-39. prog/ess of education in, 77-91. character of early educational institutions in, 80. former lack of common schools in, 81-82. outline of school system devised for, by Dr. ■ llyerson. 83-86, 89. statistics of school system of, 90-91. religious and moral training in, 139-146. general moral tone of the schools of, 144, 145. examinations in the public schools of, 150-153, 154-1157. county model school system of, 169-173. aecoiidary instruction in, 185-195. female education in, 199-203. agricultural education in, 204-208. mechanics' institutes in, 213-219. normal schools in, 223-229. university system of, 23.3-250. theological education in, 204-281. education of the blind in, 299-302. report on Indian schools in, 324-346. school hygiene in, 404-407. school architecture in, 408-411. libraiies and the library system of, 418-424. simultaneous and uniform examinations in .'•.44-.553. Ontario Agricultural College, account of, 206-207. Ontario Institution for the Blind, 299-302. Ontario Ladies' College, 199, 203. Ontaiio Sc-bool of Art, 239. Orcutt, Hiram, 428, 430. Orr, Hon. G. J , mention of, 48. r>>marks by, 50-52. Vice-Chairvnan of Section C, 221. Ottawa Ladies' College, 200, 203. Pacific Coast, sparsenessof population of the, 129- 130. extent of foreign element in the population of the, 129. cost of education on the, 129-130. libraries for schools on the, 130. teachers of the, 130. characteristics of the children of the, 131. supervisiim of the schools of the, 131-132. Packard, E, L., referred to, 41. on school-loom air, and methods of examining it, 349-392. Palmer, Bev. B. M . referred to, 11. ' Parents, right and duty of, 560. Parbam, Hon. J. G., referred to, IX. Pairsh. Aiiel, on the study of music in New Hiiven, Conn., 108. Parker, W. D., Secretary of Section B, 175. Parry Sound Indian schools, 344-346. Partisanship in school affairs, lofereuce to, 90. Pay of teachers on the Pacific Coast, l')0. See also Teachers. 812 Payne, Eev. C. H., on increasing the proportion of liberally educated men. 251-263. Payne, Prof. W. H., mention of, 9. Pecuniary emolument as an incentive to the pur- suit of knowledge, 1)33. Pettenkofer's method for determining the amount of carbonic acid in room-air, 366-370. Phelps. \Vm. F. , Vice-President International Congress of Educators, 9. Philbrlck.John D., Vice-President International Congress of Educators, 9. Physical trajjiug, Greek, monkish, and knightly ideals of, 425-426. at Bound Hill School, 427. at University of Virginia, 428. at Amherst College, 428-430. at Harvard Colleiie, 430-431. influence of the War on, 434. play-grounds for, 434. amount of, requisite, 443. Physical well-being of the pupil the flr.st care of the educator, 559-5<)0. Pickard, J. L., Secretary International Congress of Educators, 9. Play-grounds for schools, 438. Porter, Eev. Noah, Chairman of Se'ction C, 221. Prentiss, Sargent S., quoted, 13. Presbyterian theological college in Ontario, 273- '277 Primary education, application of kindergarten principles to, 92-93. See also Public schools. Prizes, the giving of, does not generate a noble character, 535-536. does not cultivate steadiness of purpose, 536. Prizes and competitive studies, 532-536. Public schools, former opposition to,in Canada, 85 the mission of, 107. of the Pacific Coa.st, 128-I3i in the early days of the Eepublic, 517-519. See also Sihool system. Punishment of school children, what form it should take, 134. Quakers, missionarv work among the Indians by the, 513. Queen's College University (Ontario), 243-246. theological department of, 273-275. 280, 281. Eace in education, 537-543. Eailroad, the, as an element in education, 493-507. Eailroads, accuracy and precision in the manage- ment of, 497. are solving commercial and social problems, 497. relation of number of, to school facilities, 498. value and eai'nings of, in Texas, 499. have cheapened transportation, 499-500. legislative restrictions with regard to, 500-.501. temperance among employfis of, 501. are extending civilization, 502-503. use 01 standard time in the management of, 503. needed to develop Africa. 506. Eailroad magnates, benefactions of, 503-506. Eauch, Dr. John H., Vice-Chairman of Section E, 347. Eeading, importance of developing a taste for, 144. Beading clubs in .lamaica, 69, 76. Bcay, Lord, Vice-President International Congress of Educators. 9. Eeceptivity, mental, vai-iations of, 567-568. Becitations, time lost by, 200. Beligion in the school-room, 93. what form it should take, 180. Eeligious instruction in common .schools, 49-51. in schools of Ontario, 139-146. efibrt to banish it from the schools of Ontario, 140-141. See also Moral training. Beligious influence of colleges. 262. Eensselaer Institute, establishment of, 519. Rhode Inland Schoolmaster, 529. Rioharilsou, Dr. T. G., referred to, 11. Biggs, Eev. A. L., a successful educator of Indians, 304. Bobertson, T.J. (Ontario), tribute to, 228-229. Eopers, Father, undertakes to civilize the Indians of the Carolinas, 510. INDEX TO PART IT. 575 Rogers, Col. William O., referred to, 11,41. Secretary of Elementary Section, 57. Roman Catbolic public scliool.s in Canada, 84. education of women in Ontario, 200-203. university in Ontario, 248-249. theolojiic'il institutions in Ontario, 280. education of the Indians in Canada, 307-308, 314. Indian mission work, 510-51 1 . Ross, Hop. G. W., Minibter of Education for On- tario, 141, 4!' with us 1 am sure will be an occasion of much pleasure and profit to us all. A gathering of men ranking, and, I often think, overshadowing the ministers of the Gospel in their self-sacrificing eflbrts for the advance- ment of their profession can find but one place in the hearts of our people. The welcome I extend is most hearty and cordial, and nuiy the time spent with us ever be in your memories as green and fresh as the tiny blades of grass you see around you. Our city is one of interest, and invites study; gathered within her limits are found people from all quarters of the globe, aud within an area of a half a mile may be heard the tongues of every nation, which, I think, will be of particular interest to the learned linguists who have met with us. To the scientist, who loves the study of nature, I offer the " Father of Waters," still flowing as he did when the great De Soto first smiled upon his turbid bosom. Here the scientist can study how we battle with this river and keep him from sweeping away our homes. A short trip to the mouth of this majestic body of water will show him how the brain of man can bridle the forces of nature aud guide them for the good of mankind. The botanist I turn to our woods, fields, and gardens; and here he may revel in the foliage of a tropical clime, while his brethren at home are shivering under the i(5y darts of stern winter's blasts. To the thousand-fold wonders of our great World's Cotton Exposi- tion I ask your attention, and 1 have no doubt that your pilgrimage through those collections of man's ingenuity and God's boundless re- sources will fully repay you for your long journey into this far southland. The business to be transacted at this meeting covers a wide field, pre- senting many of the prominent questions of the day, and will result in much good to the cause of education. The absorbing question in this section is. Where are we to get the means to educate our children ? The Southern States are doing what they can. Louisiana appropriated $300,000 this year and as much for next year for the common schools, but her local taxation is not suffi- cient to educate the 300,000 educable children equally divided between 823 10 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOStTlOJf. whites and blacks. More than 27 per cent, of the whites and 73 per cent, of the blacks of this State cannot read or write. Here is this 'fearful cloud of illiteracy hanging over us and we are powerless. But we stretch forth our almost shackled hands and call upon our great Government to render us the aid necessary to save us from ruin. Friends, I ask you, as I welcome you, to carefully consider this ques- tion of National Aid to Education, and again with greater emphasis call upon the National Government to render this much-needed assist- ance as soon as possible. Finally, dear friends, you have the hospitable welcome of the Southern homes awaiting you, and in this land of magnolia and palm there will be nothing left undone to make you feel that jont coming among us was in vain. The President then called upon Hon. E. E. White, LL. D., of Ohio. Dr. White began by alluding to the fact that at the meeting of the National Superintendents' Association in Washington, D. C, in 1866, he was made a life member, and that he presided at the meeting held in Nashville, Tenn., in 1868. These facts, as he assumed, gave him the honor of now making re- sponse to the very earnest welcome just voiced by the Honorable State Superintendent of Schools of Louisiana— a welcome that needed no for- mal expression, as its reality is otherwise evident to all. He stated that he spoke for a body of men who had in their. official keeping the deepest and widest interests of the country. The time has at last come when all intellige nt men recognize the vital relation of ed- ucation, not only to the higher interests of society, but also to mateiial civilization — a relation that is made manifest by every international exposition of human skill and industry, and most impressively by the marvelous exposition now in progress in this city. Education teaches both of the great laws of wealth : it awakens and intensifies human desires, and then, through these, impels man to effort to secure the means of their gratification. As a result of this twofold influence and impulse, human industry exists, and the land is filled with the hum of varied and multiplying forms of labor. Wealth is the child of education. In the face of these obvious facts it is strange to hear the charge which Bacon made against the schools of England in his genera, tion, that they were "filling the realm with idle, indigent, and wanton people," repeated against the public schools of the United States. The truth is, that just where education has done its work most uni- versally and most completely, there will be found the least idleness, the intensest industry, and the greatest wealth. As a few pounds of im- Ijrisoned steam in the great engines in Machinery Hall in yonder Expo- sition is the unseen force back of all that marvelous motion and deftness of machinery, so the school is the force back of the still more marvelous industry that is filling the world with comforts and satisfactions for man. 824 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 11 There is danger that we may be dazzled by these impressive displays of human skill and forget that the mind is back of hand and eye ; that all human inventions and all jjroducts of human skill borrow their sig- nificance and their value from man himself; that man is higher and greater than the material civilization he has created, than even the governments and institutions which he has organized. The supreme end of education is the well-being of man, and hence the highest function of the school is not to make an artisan or an art- ist, a merchant or a soldier, but to educate men. Manhood is the rich- est and best product of education. The school is under an almost divine contract with every child that enters its door to do its best to help him to the highest and truest manhood of which he is capable. The speaker said in conclusion that he was speaking for a cause that knows no section, no race, no condition, but is as universal in its reach as the human family. Education is the common interest and the uni- versal need of all peoples — of the entire race. The Secretary then made an appeal to all persons present to become members of the Association. The Chairman : We will now proceed to the first regular subject on the programme. I have the pleasure of introducing Hon. Andrew J. RiCKOFF, who will read a j)aper on " School Economy." Mr. RiOKOFF then proceeded as follows: SCHOOL ECONOMY. Gentlemen — My subject will at once be recognized as of interest to tax-payers and educators. The former will reflect that, according to Mr. Eaton's Reports, nearly a hundred millions of dollars are annually spent in the United States for the support of the public schools, and that tlie expenditure is leaping np by from three to five millions annually. On the other hand, the educator reflects that there are ten millions of children who are fit subjects for education, as witnessed by the fact that that many were actually enrolled in the schools last year. The tax- payer justly inquires whether he gets a fair return for the money spent. On the other hand, the educator cannot fail to consider how tar short it comes of meeting the wants of the ten millions of children. Thus we are brought to face the question. Is the money spent to the best advantage'? Were our school resources equal to the real wants of the schools, it would even then be of interest to know whether the expenditures were ])roperly balanced for difi"erent purposes. But the school moneys are not illimitable. A certain amount of real estate and personal property, at a rate of taxation pretty well deter- mined by the circumstances of each State and locality, yields annually only a certain income. In most cases this sum falls within the real or supposed wants of the schools. I have, in fact, never known it to equal the demand. IIow then to lay it out to the best advantage, how avoid waste of every kind, becomes a proper - it. I think that there must be a revolution in this direction. I would pay apprentices as apprentices, and I would pay master workmen as master workmen. Mr. EoTE : Who is to decide who is the master workman? Mr. EiCKOFF : I should say, an expert. The Chairman : The time for discussion is closed. The most im- portant point that has been presented, and well presented, is the pay- ment of work according to its ability. Mr. Jas. L. Hughes, of Ontario, Canada, inquired if there was a committee on resolutions. He thought that, if they had opinions, they should crystallize them in the form of resolutions and send them out. The Chairman stated that there was no such committee, and called for resolutions, if there were any. No response being made, he stated that he would take the responsi- bility of ofiering such resolutions himself during the session. The Chairman: I now have the pleasure of introducing Prof. Jas. M. Garnett, who will read a paper prepared by him. Professor Garnett proceeded as follows : THE INNER WORKINa OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, AND THE PREPARATION NECESSARY FOR THE UNIVERSITY. When I received an invitation from the chairman of the Executive Committee of the National Educational Association to read a paper at the present meeting, it was accompanied by the suggestion that I should give ''a brief historical account of the duiversity of Virginia and a de- scription of its present organization." It happened, however, that just such a pamphlet, entitled "A Sketch of the University of Virginia," had been recently prei)ared by the venerable senior Professor of Law in tlie University (Prof. John B. Minor), chairman of the committee of the Faculty appointed to prepare such a sketch, as a part of the Uni- versity exhibit in the World's Exposition; and it had been directed by the Faculty that copies should be i)laced for gratuitous distribution in both the Virginia State exhibit and in the National educational exhibit. It is, therefore, unnecessary for me to do more, in response to the above suggestion, than to call attention to this pamphlet, which contains a brief history of the origin of the University, an account of its early or- ganization, and the subsequent additions to its subjects and mean^ of instruction in both the academic and professional departments, and a par- ticularly full account of its local arrangements, endowments, and inconie. I thought, however, that it would not be uninteresting to this body if I were to supplement this pamphlet with a more detailed account of the "Inner Workings of the University of Virginia," and a statement of the "Preparation Necessary for the University," which would make 18 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. its elective system better known, and enable this audience to judge of it more intelligently ; for, notwithstanding the many publications that have been made by the University, there still seems to be in some quar- ters a lack of knowledge concerning it, and even a misunderstanding of its working. If I were addressing an exclusively Southern educational association, this would be but " carrying coals to Newcastle"; but in this "International Congress of Educators," it is not to be taken for granted that the system of the University of Virginia is so well known as to need no further exposition, as, indeed, the invitation extended to me showed, and 1 offer this paper simply as a contribution to tlie gen- eral educational work now going on in this country. The University of Virginia was first opened for the reception of students on March 7, 1825, so that it may now be said to have com- pleted its period of middle life, and to have attained the comparatively venerable age of sixty years. The system with which it started, then altogether unique in this country, continues to be the system at the pres- ent day, notwithstanding the many changes and additions which have since taken place. This system was an arrangement of the subjects of instruction taught at that time into eight separate and distinct schools, as they are technically termed, namely, Ancient Languages, Modern Languages, Mathematics, Natural Philosoi)hy, Natural History (same, however, limited to Chemistry), Moral Philosophy (including Mental Philosophy), Anatomy and Medicine combined, and Law. These eight schools have expanded into nineteen, in some of which, besides the pro- fessor, there are assistant instructors, and of these ticelveaxQ academic schools, six being literary and six scientific (though two of the latter are attended only by specialists), and seven are professional schools, tliree being in the Medical Department, tico in the Law, one in the En- gineering, and one in the Agricultural.^ Each of these schools is inde- pendent of every other as far as its course and methods of instruction are concerned. The professor himself is the sole judge of the special ' These schools are now designated as follows : ACADEMIC SCHOOLS. Literary Department.— Schools of Latin, Greek, Modern Languages, English Lan- guage and Literature, Historical Science, and Moral Philosophy (six). Scientific Department. — Schools of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, General and Industrial Chemistry, Analytical and Agricultural Chemistry, Natural History and Geology, and Practical Astronomy (six). PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. Medical Department.— Schools of Physiology and Surgery, Anatomy and Materia Medica, Medicine, Obstetrics and Medical Jurisprudence, and Chemistry and Phar- macy — same as Academic (four). Laiv Department.— School of Common and Statute Law, and of Constitutional and International Law, Mercantile Law, Evidence and Equity (two). Engineering Department.— School of Matheti-atics applied to Engineering (one). Agricultural Department.— School of Agriculture, Zoology, and Botany (one). 8:32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 19 subjects which he shall include in his course, and of the manner in which he shall teach those subjects. Within the limits, then, of each partic- ular chair, there is the greatest freedom allowed in the selection of sub- jects and arrangement of the course. One of the cardinal principles of German university organization, Freiheit des Lehrens (freedom of teaching), was thus initiated in this country sixty years ago. The Faculty, as a whole, consisting of the professors at the head of each school, is the immediate governing body of the University, and controls the number of hours, and even the particular hours, which are devoted to instruction in each school ; and, subject to the approval of the Board of Visitors, representing the State authority, directs what* honors shall be awarded in a part, or the whole, of the course taught in each school, and what schools, in whole or in part, shall be required for the academic and professional degrees of the University. The Fac- ulty is presided over by a chairman, appointed annually by the Board of Visitors, although, in practice, the same professor is reappointed as often as he is willing to undertake the onerous duties, which no one de- sires to undertake, notwithstanding the additional compensation. Upon the chairman devolve all the administrative and executive duties usually discharged by the president of a literary institution, but his power is more limited, for every question that arises outside of the ordinary rou- tine must be referred to the Faculty, and be decided by that body. The Faculty acts usually through committees, but no decision of a commit- tee is tinal unless approved by the Faculty. This feature of the univer- sity system is thought by some to be open to objections, and the more common organization, with a president at the head of the institution, is considered, in some respects, better; but the plan has been found to work well in practice, it is thought to place more responsibility upon the individual professor, and it is at least an open question whether a different organization would be better for this particular institution. Moreover, it was a pet idea of Mr. Jefferson's, derived, perhaps, from the annual election of a Rector MagniJiGus in the German universities, and we are told in a paper from the pen of Professor Minor, written thirty years ago, that "Mr. Jefferson attached not a little importance to this rejiublican feature of rotation, insomuch that at the very last meeting of the Board [of Visitors] before his death [in 1820], Mr. Wirt, then Attorney-General of the United States, having been appointed Professor of Law and President of the University, Mr. Jefferson, while expressing his hearty concurrence in Mr. Wirt's appointment to the Chair of Law, entered upon the minutes, with his own hand, so strong a protest against the creation of the office of president that, upon Mr. Wirt's declining, the proposition was never renewed." ^ But though the rotation existed in the early days of the University, no professor hav- ing then held the ofhce more than two years in succession, this ceased forty years ago, and, as already stated, it is customary for the Board of ' Jefferson and Cabell Corred^oiidence, Appendix Q, p. 519. 833 20 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Visitors to re-elect the same professor as often as he is willing to retain the office. Another feature of the organization of the Faculty deserves notice, and that is, that there is no distinction whatever between the professors in the academic and in the professional departments. They all meet on an equal footing as one body, and questions relating to each department are decided by the whole body. The division of the Philo- sophical Faculty, which has recently agitated the German universities, has not yet been suggested here, even so far as relates to a separatiou of academic and professional schools, but each professor avails himself of whatever light may be thrown upon the subject under discussion by any one of his colleagues. This tends to prevent narrowness, to avoid considering the claims of one school, or department, separate from the rest, and to give force to a decision of the Faculty as that of the whole body, and not of a fractional part of it. The Board of Visitors has been referred to as the highest authority of the University. This Board consists of nine members, api)ointed every four years by the Governor of the State and confirmed by the Senate, — three from the Piedmont Region, in which the University is situated, and two from each of the other three grand divisions of the State, the Val- ley, South-west Virginia, and the Tidewater Eegion. In the hands of this Board are lodged all powers usually exercised by boards of trustees, and especially the control of the finances of the University, although in respect to these the Faculty, at the close of each session; through one of its com- mittees, prepares for its annual report a statement of estimated receipts and expenditures for the ensuing session, with such suggestions as it may think proper in respect to expenditures for special purposes, which statement serves as a guide to the Board of Visitors in authorizing the disbursements. This Board is required by law to make to the Legislature an annual report of the condition of the University. The University receives from the State an annual appropriation of forty thousand (40,000) dollars, in return for which it is required to admit, free of charge for tui- tion in the academic schools, all Virginia students sixteen years of age who pass an elementary examination for admission into the respective schools which they desire to attend, or who present certificates of satis- factory attainments from some college or preparatory school. The limit of age has heretofore been eighteen years, but this was changed by the Legislature in 1884 of its own motion. Having thus briefly sketched the organization of the University as regards its subjects of instruction and its governing bodies, let us con- sider it from the point of view of those for whose benefit the University is established, and see how it affects them. A student who enters the University is su])posed to have arrived at such an age as to know what he wishes to study, or to have had directions from his parents to pursue certain subjects of study. This is, of course, true with respect to i>ro- fessional students, whose average age on entrance is over twenty-one years, and it is presumed to be true with respect to academic students, 834 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OP SUPERINTENDENCE. 21 The average age of these students ou entrance is about nineteen years, so that the presumption is reasonable,^ The entering student finds at least te7i academic schools open for his selection, three of which he is required to enter, uuless he is of ago or has his parents' authority to enter a less number. Sometimes as many as four are entered, in whole or in part, but it is seldom advisable for a student, and especially a first-year student, to enter more than three. Cases frequently occur where a student has taken up more studies than he can attend to, and therefore applies to the Faculty for permission to drop some one school. If the student is a candidate for a titled degree, he will find these schools grouped in accordance with the requirements for that degree, but the order in which he shall take up the specified schools is left entirely to his own selection. The schedule of hours is to some extent a limitation upon his selection, as, of course, students cannot enter the same year schools of which the lecture-hours conflict. If the student is not a candidate for a titletl degree, he may select any three schools he pleases ; there is absolutely no restriction upon his choice but that necessarily imposed by the schedule of lecture-hours. Thus another principle of German university organization was introduced into this country at the inception of the University of Virginia, sixty years ago, that is, Freiheit des Lernens (freedom of learning). As is well known, this is termed the elective system in distinction from the cvr- riculum system, and it has been gradually introduced into many of our higher institutions of learning. But the mistake has been made, as it ^ Table of ages of First- Year Students in the ' University of Virginia for Session 1884-85. Ages. Academic. Professional. Mixed. Virginia. Foreign. Virginia. Foreign. Virginia. Foreign. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 27 29 30 *36 *38 40 1 10 c 11 7 4 7 9 7 2 1 1 2 3 4 8 9 6 4 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 4 1 2 8 4 6 9 6 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 i Total 42 19i 33 18i 35 214 40 21i 13 20J 7 1 Average age.. Average age of Virginia students in Academic Department, excluding those marked with an asterisk as resident clergymen, 19. Total number oi ftrsi-ijear students of all kinds, 170 ; average age of first-i/ear students of all kinds, 20J. Number of students of 1884-'85, according to duration of attendance: Ist year, 170; 2d, 64; 3d, 44; 4th, 14; r.th, 8; Gth, 1 ; 7th, 1 ; 8th, 1. Total, 303. 835 22 EDtJCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. seems to me, of iutrodiiciug it into many of our lower institutions of learning also. We are told by Professor Charles F. Smith, of Vander- bilt University, in an article on " Southern Colleges and Schools" in the Atlantic Monthly for October, 1884 (p. 548), that " at least thirty-Jive Southern colleges and universities have adopted this system, following the example of the University of Virginia." I am inclined, however, to agree with the President of Tulane University, who is quoted in the above article as saying (p. 551) : " It Is just as demoralizing for a college to invade the domain of true university work as for a preparatory school to attempt to be a college"; and again: "While I approve of the 'elec- tive system' for real universities, I regard its application to colleges and schools as a misfortune." The elective system as it prevails in the University of Virginia, which has never known any other system, has been often misunderstood. It has been sometime imagined that the University of Virginia confers a titled academic degree for any combination of studies that the student himself may select, provided that he fulfills the requirements of the written examinations. This is, of course, an entire mistake. There is attached to each school the degree of graduate in that school, conferred on completion of the entire course taught in that school, which is tested by means of rigid written examinations, on which the student is required to attain at least three-fourths of the total value of the questions. A student who has received this diploma "of graduation in Latin, say, is entitled to call himself a " graduate of the University of Virginia in Latin ^''^ and so for all other schools. In some schools, where the subjects are capable of division, the degree of proficient is similarly conferred oh completion of certain specified partial courses in these schools, and in a few schools the attainment of tioo such profi- ciencies on distinct subjects constitutes graduation in the school. These degrees, however, are not titled degrees. The requirements for titled degrees are strictly specified.^ In some of these degrees there is no op- tion possible, but certain fixed requirements are made, which the stu- dent must fulfill if he wishes the particular degree ; in others option is permitted within very narrow limits ; and in only one — the recently- established degree of bachelor of philosophy — does the option vary to the extent of one-half oi the academic schools of the University, gradu- ation in five schools, any three of the six literary and any two of the /our scientific schools, being requisite for the attainment of this degree, which is, to my mind, more consonant with the genius of the elective system and of a university than any other one of the bachelor's de- grees. It will thus be seen that the requirements of the University of Virginia are stricter with respect to subjects for the titled degrees than those of many institutions which still retain the curriculum system ; which fact, combined with the high standard requisite for graduation in each school, will account for the small number of titled degrees con- ^ For these see Annual Catalogue. 636 pRocEi^DiNCS OF The department of superintendence. 23 ferred by the University. In respect to titled degrees, there is another point which deserves mention. The B. A. degree is not preliminary to the M. A. degree, as in most institutions ; it is merely a degree con- ferred for lower attainments. A student may attain the M. A. degree without ever having received the B. A. degree, or, in certain cases, without ever having studied some of the subjects specified for the B. A. degree, as in this last a limited substitution is allowed. Again, a stu- dent may receive the B. A. degree and never attain the M. A. degree, for it is not conferred incourse, but only after graduation in the specified schools. The two degrees have, then, no relation to each other, and, as a matter of fact, the M. A. degree was established in 1831, seventeen years before the institution of the B. A. degree, the only degree origi- nally instituted being that of graduate in a school, which may be called the basis of all degrees. Just here I may be permitted to correct a slight error into which Professor C. F. Smith has fallen, in the article above referred to, with reference to the requirements for the M. A. de- gree in the University of Virginia. There is no such " student public oi)inion" which " hold students to a certain order of studies" (loc. cif. p. 540) as that with which the University is credited. I presume none would be more surprised than the students themselves to hear that such "public o-pinion" was reported to exist. The illustration given, namely, that " a student who has taken French and Spanish as the two modern languages for his [M. A.] degree found, after he had gotten his certificates of proficiency [read, diplomas of graduation], that student public opinion regarded no other modern language as an equivalent for German for the M. A. degree, and he therefore took Grerman in addi- tion," — must have been based on misinformation as to the requirements for the M. A. degree. From 1832, when graduation in the school of Modern Languages was first required for the M. A. degree, to 1859 the student was at liberty to take any two of the four modern lan- guages taught for his M. A. degree. In 1859 the requirement of French and German as the two modern languages necessary for this degree was made obligatory, and has so continued ever since. It is the Faculty, under approval of the Board of Visitors, that regu- lates the requirements for all degrees at the University of Virginia, as at other institutions, and no "student public opinion" affects these or concerns itself in any way with the order of studies that any student chooses to pursue. As already stated, if the student is a candidate for a titled degree, he finds the requirements strictly specified ; if not, he is at liberty to study any subjects he pleases, and the only concern of the Faculty is to see that his time is fully occupied, which is souglit to be effected by the requirement that he must enter at least three schools, unless special circumstances exempt him from it, and that, having entered these schools of his own choice, he attends the lectures regularly and discharges the duties incumbent upon him. If the student is a candidate for any titled degree, he will find, also, 8:^7 24 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. that no limit of time is specified for its attainment; tliis depends en- tirely upon liis ability to fulfill the requirements. Of nine M. A. grad- uates of 1884, the time of attendance at the University varied from three years to six, the usual time being three and four years. The one B. S. had attended for two years, and the one B. A. for six years. (I should add that the last was a professor's son, who had entered quite young, — only fifteen years of age, — and had therefore gone very slowly through the coarse.) In like manner graduation in a sc/ioo? is not dependent upon the time of attendance. While a student who is well prepared may graduate in a particular school the first year, another may take several years to accomplish graduation; and cases have occurred where a student has attended the senior class of the same school for three years, and still failed to graduate. As there is no annual j^romotion from class to class, as in a curriculum, the element of time does not enter, and a student may accomplish his course fast or slow, according to his inclination and ability. The same standard is set for all, and it must be reached regardless of time. There is also no entrance exam- ination, except for Virginia students who desire free tuition, — and this is of a very elementary character in each school, — so that no student is rejected for lack of preparation. Upon the student himself rests the responsibility of undertaking the courses prescribed. In the schools of Greek and Mathematics there are three classes, — junior, intermedi- ate, and senior, — and in those of Latin, Modern Languages (that is, in French and in German), and Natural Philosophy, there are two classes, junior and senior, and the student enters whichever one, after consul- tation with the professor, he finds himself prepared for ; but only those who complete the course of the senior class can apply for graduation iu the school. The class- work during the year, consisting of the i)reparation of cer- tain portions of the text-books, the writing of exercises in the languages, and the preparation of the notes taken from the oral lectures of the professor, is by no means all of the student's work. In all the language- classes certain authors are assigned to be read privately, from which reading of the senior classes one of the pieces for translation in the graduation examination is usually taken, the other being taken from the classical writers of the language at will. The j)ieces for translation in the graduation examination are never taken from what has been read in the class-room. It was formerly customary to leave to the stu- dent himself the selection of his private, or extra, reading, both pieces for translation in the examination being taken from the classical writ- ers of the language at will, but now the so-called " parallel-reading " is assigned by the professor at the beginning of the session, and the stu- dent reads it from time to time during the year. In the mathematical classes extra problems are assigned for -solution each week, or even each day, so that the student's original iiower for this kind of work is continually tested. In some other schools a course of parallel- reading 838 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 25 in coiiuection with the subjects studied — or corresponding jn-ivate work in addition to tliat of the class-room — is assigned, tlie object being to encourage the habit of private study along with the preparation of a certain portion of the text-book or a certain quantity of lecture-notes from day to day. The proper i)reparation of this last also is tested by careful questioning at each lecturfe on the portion of the textbook as- signed and on the subjects of the preceding lecture. The student's presence at each lecture is ascertained by a regular roll- call , and if his absences reach as many as three durin g the month in any one school without valid excuse, his name is reported to the Faculty, and he is admonished to be more particular in attendance. Also the number of times that he has absented himself from lectures in each school, and a brief statement as to how he is doing, are entered upon the monthly report regularly rendered to his parents. A student who is persist- ently idle and neglectful of admonition, or whose conduct is deserving of severe censure, is usually informed at the close of the session that his presence during the following session will be dispensed with ; or, in flagrant cases, his parents are requested to withdraw him forth- with. It may be truthfully said that cases of this kind seldom arise, and I do not suppose that any institution in the country en- joys greater immunity from i^ad conduct on the part of its students tlian the Univer»ity of Virginia. Every student is treated as a gentleman, he respects himself as. such, and conducts himself accord- ingly, and cause for censure very seldom arises. Supposing that the student has applied himself to his studies, and maintained a good class- standing during the year, which is determined by the regularity of his attendance at lectures and by the judgment of the professor as to the student's answers in the class questioning, — for there is no marking- system in vogue in the University, — he presents himself for the written examinations. These occur twice during the year, in February and in June, and in some schools flie two examinations count as of equal value, being on difterent i)ortions of the course, while in others the whole stress is laid on the final examinations. The professor endeavors in these examinations by a series of questions, some of which often require lengthy answers, to test thoroughly the student's knowledge. A list of examination questions is often very deceptive; so much depends ui)on the character and extent of the answer required, and even upon the judgment of the examiner. While the x>rofessor in each school sets the questions and examines the papers, two other professors along with him constitute the committee of examination for that school, and any question that may arise relative to the examination or to the student's papers is decided by the committee and not by the professor alone. The examinations for graduation last usually from six to eight hours on each subject, though sometimes, in the case of students who write slowly, they may extend to ten hours or more. They are seldom lim- ited to a shorter period than six hours, so that a student is not re- 839 26 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. quired to write against time ; he is giveu a full opportunity to state what he knows,- even if he may think slowly. As already stated, he must attain threefotirths of the total value of the questions, or he fails of graduation, and in the professional schools the standard is higher, hein g four -ffths in the Medical Department, and Jive- sixths in the Law Department. Each student ajjpends to his examination paper a pledge that he has "neither given nor received any assistance during the ex- amination," which pledge is most rigidly observed as a point of honor by all the students. I have never known, personally, of but one viola- tion of this pledge, and in that case a committee of his fellow-students waited upon the offender and informed him that he must leave the University, which he did forthwith. I have heard that a few similar cases have occurred in the history of the University, which were simi- larly treated. Here it ?'s "student public opinion" that regulates the matter and sets the tone of the University. A violation of the examina- tion pledge may not even reach the ears of the Faculty, but is dealt with by the students themselves. It is simply an imj)ossibility for any Facmlty to regulate this, and it must be left to the honor of the students. The University of Virginia is not peculiar, however, in this respect, for the same tone and practice exist in other institutions in Virginia and the southern States, and have extended to the preparatory schools also. They may, too, exist in institutions in the Kortliern and Western StateSj but as to this I am not so well informed. Thus by means of class teaching and private study during the year, and rigid written examinations at the close, the University of Virginia endeavors to secure thoroughness of attainment on the part of its stu- dents. A diploma of graduation in any school is an evidence that the student has worked hard on the subjects taught in that school, and has come up to the standard required, whether he has spent one, two, or three years in obtaining his diploma. A titled degree is evidence that the student has accomplished such hard'work in several specified schools, and as the M. A. degree requires graduation in more schools than any other, it has always been regarded as the highest honor of the University. There have been established, however, recently, Doctorates of Letters, Science, and Philosophy, which require that a student who has obtained the corresponding Bachelor's degree, or, in the case of the last, the degree of B. A. or of B. Ph., shall i^ursue post-graduate courses in ttco schools of his own selection out of those in which he has graduated. His proficiency' in these courses is tested by theses and examinations, and while no limit of time is fixed, it is estimated that the com])letion of the post-graduate courses will require at least two years of study after attainment of the Bachelor's degree. The candidate's thesis must show independent research in the subject of his selection, and, on ap- proval, must be printed. The eifort is thus made by means of the Doc- torates to encourage and reward specialisatio7i. The system has l)ecn 840 PROCEEDINGS OP THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 2t in openition too short a time as yet to produce results, but there are now certain students pursuing- post-graduate courses who will apply for the Doctorates in due time.^ It deserves to be added here that no lionorary degree is conferred by the University of Virginia. It may be taken for granted that any one of its graduates who writes a titled degree after his name has worked hard for it, and has attained on the written examinations the standard re(|uisite for graduation in the several schools specified for that degree. In order not to prolong this paper to too great length, it remains to notice briefly, in conclusion, the character of the preparation necessary lor academic students to enter the University of Virginia profitably. Professional students, of course, being over twenty-one years of age, will enter with whatever preparation they may have been able to ac- (|uire, and will profit accordingly. From the average age of entrance of the academic students, already stated as about nineteen years, it will be seen that they have attained greater maturity of mind than the first-year students of many institutions of learning, and their prepara- tion should correspond. In several schools of the University no previous knowledge of the sub- jects taught is required, and a student may enter these schools without further preparation than is implied by the possession of a good common English education, such as the highest grade of public schools can sup- ply, for the teaching begins wjth the elements of the subject, as in chemistry, for example, or moral philosophy ; but some maturity of mind is requisite in order to j)rofit by the courses taught. In judging of this preparation, then, it will be necessary to take those subjects which the preparatory schools profess to teach, namely, Latin, Greek, mathematics, French, and German, if, indeed, these last can be rightij'^ added. I wish I could add English also, but as yet the courses in English are so mea- ger and so varied in the preparatory schools that one cannot, for the large majority of students, count upon more than instruction in the ordi- nary English grammar, and in the elementary principles of composition and rhetoric. There are some important exceptions to thjs statement, but I think that 1 speak rightly as regards the English course taught in the great majority of preparatory schools in the South, which is the chief constituency of the University of Virginia, and possibly in the North and West, — but of these I speak under correcti^)n. In my judg- ment, the great want in most of our preparatory schools is a thorough course in English parallel with the courses in Latin, Greek, and math- ematics, and of equal importance. We are not so deficient in good preparatory schools, at least in Virginia, as one would infer from a letter of Professor W. M. Baskervill, of Vanderbilt University, printed i.The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred for the first time in 188Q, and it was in that year also decide(f to recognize the B. A. degree from other repntable institntions as a preliminary to this Doctorate, the reqniremenr, however, of gradua- tion in the two selected schools of the University being still maintained. fc41 28 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. in The Nation of December 18, 1884 (No. 1016), in which, after enumer- ating five schools by name, — one in North Carolina, one in Tennessee, and three in Virginia, — he adds: "All the rest of the South cannot add five more such schools to this list." I would beg leave to say that I can easily add, from Virginia alone, "^ye more such schools," and over, whose course is equally as high in grade as that of those men- tioned, and, in fact, a colleague informed me that he could count fifteen. But these schools have not yet established full and thorough courses in English equal in extent and importance to their courses in classics, mathematics, and modern languages, though I look hopefully for this to come in time, even if something else must " go by the board." While our schools are doing good work, and sending up some students every year prepared to enter the senior classes in the university, they are not now equal in numbers, nor, perhaps, in the grade of their work, to the schools in what was " the golden age" for Virginia preparatory schools, and for the University, — the decade from 1850 to 1860. Then there were at least a half-dozen schools in the State, whose number of board- ing-pupils varied from sixty to a hundred, and several others with a less number, all preparatory to the University, and drawing their pupils from all parts of the South. The University during this period was in its most flourishing condition, having, for at least six years successively, over six hundred students in attendance, — nearly four hundred of whom were aeademia students, — coming from all of the Southern States from Maryland to Texas. Almost all of these preparatory schools either were conducted by graduates, usually M. A.'s of the university, or drew their principal teachers from it. Having been educated in oue of these schools, and having taught in another, I may be permitted to speak from personal experience of the preparation afforded, as an illus- tration of the school course. In the school attended we had been read- ing, for three years, the higher Latin and Greek authors, — others hav- ing been previously studied, — of which I recall, in Latin, Tacitus and Juvenal, Plautus and Terence, Cicero's Letters and Tusculan Disputa- tions; and, in,G-reek, Euripides, Sophocles, Thucydides, and Theocri- tus, — and we had written weekly exercises in Latin and Greek comi)osi- tion, retranslating into these languages a piece of Euglish translated from some classical author; we had studied trigonometry and surveying, ana- lytical and descriptive geometry, and the class succeeding ours studied also the differential and integral calculus ; we had pursued a French course during the three years, reading lastly Kacine and Moliere, and writing weekly exercises. I do not now recall any English studies pursued, ex- cept spelling, which was rigidly insisted on for the whole school, and composition and declamation, — for the time of English was not yet. I cannot say that all, or even a majority, of the students entering the University enjoyed this amount of preparation, but it was not any too much for entering the senior classes in the respective schools, and any student who desired to graduate the first year in the schools named must 842 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 29 have had somewhat equivalent preparation, even if he had not read quite as much Latin and Greek. I speak of " senior classes," and of " gradua- tion the first year," because a student may enter the lower classes in the schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, and modern languages, with verj" much less preparation, or he may even enter the senior classes and profit by the instruction given, but he will not graduate the first year. Comparing the courses taught in these schools of the University note with those taught twenty -five years ago, I should say that graduation in Latin and mathematics is somewhat more difficult now than it was then; in Greek and modern languages it is about the same. The preparatory schools have, therefore, now a somewhat harder task than they had then, and, with some exceptions, it does not seem to me that they fulfill it as well, but I may be mistaken. Education in Virginia, if not in the whole South,, does not seem to have recovered from the great cataclysm, notwithstanding twenty years have elapsed, and a new generation has come on the scene. The University of Virginia is certainly now much better equipped for its work than ever before. Its thirteen schools of 1860 have expanded to nineteen; it possesses a chemical laboratory and a nuiseum of natural history and geology of extraordinary value ; its gifts, endowments, and appropriations are greater than at any former period ; and it has just been provided with an endowed observatory and a refracting telescope equal to any in this country, and excelled by few in Europe. That its students are not as numerous as formerly is due, in my opinion, to two causes, — the one, perfectly just in itself and not to be regretted but in its effect, that other southern States are building up their own institutions, and are educating for tliemselves the students whom Virginia formerly educated for them; in this they are wise, and are to be congratulated, and no lover of education would wish to see them take one step backward ; the other cause is, I fear, not so creditable to our people, as a whole, and here I include Virginia, as well as other southern States ; it is, that there is not as great a desire for higher education as there once was; our people have been occupied with their material interests, and have starved their minds; young men are growing up all around us with a mere smattering of education, but as it is suflficient to enable them to enter upon an agricultural, manufactur- ing, mercantile, or commercial life, they are satisfied ; education costs money and postpones the time for making money, and we are content to do without it. But the "three E's" will not suffice; the education given in our i)ublic schools is very desirable as far as it goes, and these schools should, by all means, be extended ; but, if we are content to stop there, it will not answer; we can never rear a cultured community on the rudiments of learning; we can never take the position we once occupied in the statesmanship of this great country, nor even hold our own, if our higher institutions of learning are neglected. The so-called "Xew South" has developed in many ways, has ex- panded prodigiously, from a material poiut of view, and has extended 30 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the blessings of elementary education to a much larger number than ever before. But I question seriously whether, in proportion to the l^opulation, there are as many young men now seeking a higher educa- tion as there were in 1860.^ Some who write about the condition of education in the South previous to 1860 do not know what was the real condition of affairs. They do not reflect that the higher institutions of learning in each State, and the private schools preparatory to them, were generally well attended, and that the character of the liberal edu- cation supplied by them was in no whit inferior, if it was not superior, to what it is now. While we have broadened, we have not deepened. Lack of private means, doubtless, has had much to do with this, but as material interests have progressed, this lack is being gradually supplied. The caution which, it seems to me, is now most needed by the people of the South is not to let regard for material interests override considera- tion of intellectual growth. Mind must rule, and mind must have the op- portunity of being developed to its highest capacity if we would keep pace with the intellectual progress of the world. Our higher institutions of learning must be cherished, not only supported from the public funds, but aided by private benefactions, and especially sustained by receiving for education the sons of all who can afford to send their sons to be educated. With much increased facilities for instruction, the colleges and univer- sities .should not lack students, for whom these facilities are provided. Higher education should be at least as highly appreciated now as it was bj' our fathers, or the result will inevitably be seen in the career of our sons. We cannot alford to neglect the higher education, for, if we do, it will undoubtedly react upon the lower, and we shall stand before the world a half-educated people, regardless of our most important inter- ests. Moreover, we can never contribute our share to the literature of the world unless we lay the foundation broad and deep. Writing nov- els and works in the negro dialect is not contributing to the highest forms of literature. Does any of this ephemeral literature, or all of it together, deserve to be placed beside the papers which emanated from the statesmen of the past, or the speeches with which the halls of leg- islation once resounded'? Let us not deceive ourselves. Let us realize that the higher education must be maintained, and that we must take advantage of it if we would be an educated people ; that there is a higher life than the mere material, and that making money is not the chief end of man. This sketch of the way in which the University of Virginia is en- deavoring to do its part towards securing that thoroughness in the higher education which is so essential to success, is oiiered as a contribution 1 This view is expressed also iu two thoughtful and well-written articles ou " Educa- tiou in the South," which ajipoared iu the Nashville Christian Advocate of January 24 and 31, 1885, but the anonymous writer is rather pessimistic in regard to edupj),tioii, not only iu the South, but ia the whole country. 844 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 31 to the geiieiiil educatiounl work in this country, and especially as a l)laiu description of one modest phase of that work. APPENDIX. DEGREES. No honorary degree is couferred by the University of Virginia. The degrees are conferred only uj)on examination, as follows : 1. A Certificate of Proficiency is conferred on one who has passed examination on any of the following special subjects : Anglo-Saxon, English language, rhetoric and English literature, general history, political economy and science of society, logic, philosophy, junior and intermediate mathematics, junior physics, agricultural chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, physiology, human anatomy, medical juris- prudence, pharmacy, and international and constitutional law. 2. A Diploma of Graduation is conferred on one who has passed examination on any of the following general courses : Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, Italian, modern languages (any two of the last four), English, historical science, moral phi- losophy, pure mathematics, mixed mathematics, applied mathematics, natural phi- losophy, practical physios, practical astronomy, general chemistry, industrial chem- istry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy and geology, natural history and geology, and agriculture, zoology, and botany. Academical degrees with titles. 1. The title Bachelor of Letters of the University of Virginia (B. Let. Univ. Fa.) is conferred on one who has graduated in Latin, Greek, and moral philosophy, and in modern languages, or English, or historical science. 2. The title Bachelor of Science of the University of Virginia (i?. 5. Unii\ Fa.) is con- ferred on one who has graduated in pure mathematics, natural philosophy, general chemistry, and natural history and geology. 3. The title Bachelor of Philosophy of the University of Virginia {B. Ph. Univ. Va.) is conferred on one who has graduated in any three of the following : Latin, Greek, French and German, English, historical science, and moral philosophy ; and in any two of the following : pure mathematics, natural philosophy, general chemistry, and natural history and geology. 4. The title Bachelor of Arts of the University of Virginia {B. A. Univ. Va.) is con- ferred on one who has attained: First, aDistinction(|)in the work of senior Latin, and of junior and intermediate Greek, and a Proficiency in junior and intermediate mathe- matics, in junior physics, and in either class of moral philosophy; second, any two of the following : a Distinction in a prescribed course of general chemistrj-, a Proficiency in geology, in either class of English, in either class of historical science, and a Di- ploma in either French or Gorman; third, Graduation in any two of the ten schools indicated. N. B. — The examination in senior Latin for this degree is limited in the translation of Latin into English to the Latin read in the lecture-room, and iu the translation of English into Latin to a desig- nated one-fourth of the exorcise assigned for graduation. f). The title Doctor of Letters of the University of Virginia (D. Let. Univ. Va.) is couferred on one who has attained the degree Bachelor of Letters, and accomplished a graduate course in any two or more of the literary schools. 6. The title Doctor of Science of the University of Virginia ( D. S. Univ. Va.) is con- ferred on one who has attained the degree Bachelor of Science, and accomplished a graduate course in any two or more of the scientific schools. 7. Tlie title Doctor of Philoso])hy of the University of Virginia (D. Ph. Univ. Va.) is conferred on one who lias attained the degree Bachelor of Philosophy, or Bachelor of 840 32 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Arts, and accomplished a graduate course in any two or more of the literary schools or iu any two or more of the scientific schools. N. B. — The candidate for a doctorate is also required to prepare and have printed a fortnight before Public Day an approved thesis, sho-wing independent research in the subjects of one or other, as he may elect, of the schools in which he pursues a Kraduate course. Candidates for the Doctorate of Phi. losophy may come up for examination a.t any time which the committee of the examination may fix upon. Gradnation in a school is piorequisite to admission to the advanced sraduate course of that school. Graduation in practical astronomy may replace the graduate course in mathematics and natural phi- lo.sophy. The elections of a candidate for a doctorate are subject to the approval of the Faculty. 8. The title Master of Arts of the University of Virginia (M. J. Univ. Va.) is con- ferred on one who has gradnated in Latin, Greek, French; and German, moral i)hi- losophy, pure mathematics, natural philosophy, and general chemistry. Professional degrees with titles. 1. The title Bachelor of Law {B. L.) is conferred on one who has passed examina- tion on all the subjects of instruction iu the schools of the Law Department. . 2. The title Doctor of Medicine {M. D.) is conferred on one who has passed exam- ination ou all the subjects of instruction in the schools of the Medical Department. N. B.— A candidate for the degree Doctor of Medicine, who in a previous session has become a Pro- ficient in phytiiology, anatomy, or medical jurisprndence, or a Graduate in general chemistry, is not required to stand examination in these subjects anew. The same rule applies to a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Law, who is a Proficient in international and constitutional law. 3. The title Civil Engineer (C E.)\& conferred on one who has attained a Proficiency in junior and intermediate mathematics, accomijlished a i^rescribed course on the in- finitesimal calculus, and graduated in natural philosophy, general or industrial chem- istry, mineralogy and geology, and applied mathematics in the course of civil engi- neering. 4. The title Mining Engineer {M.E.) is conferred on one who has attained a Profi- ciency in junior and intermediate mathematics and in junior physics, accomplished a prescribed course on the infinitesimal calculus, and graduated in general and indus- trial chemistry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy and geology, and applied mathe- matics iu the course of mining engineering. fj. The title of Bachelor of Scientific Agriculture {B. S. A.) is conferred on one who has attained a Distinction in junior applied mathematics and in analytical chemistry, and a Proficiency iu junior physics and in agricultural chemistry, and graduated in general and industrial chemistry, natural history and geology, and agriculture, zo- ology and botany. There was no discussion upon Prof. Garnett's paper, and, after the announcement of the pro<;ramme for the next session, at 12.40 o'clock p. M. the Association adjourned. SECOND SESSION. The second session of the Department was called to order at ten o'clock A. M., Wednesday, Feb. 25th, Hon. John Hancock presiding, and prayer was offered by Eev. L. G. Baebour. The Chairman: I am requested by Dr. Traver, of Leland University, to extend to the educators who may be in the city a cordial invitation to visit that institution. The Secretary: I am requested by the Treasurer of the National Association to state that the comuiittee in charge of the publication of «46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPER1NTENDE.NCE. 33 the proceediugs of the meetiug at Madison will have the volume ready for delivery to meinbei'S about the first of March. The voUiine will be unusually large, and will be valuable. The Association is obliged to defray the cost of publication, which will be about $500. The Treasurer desires that no volumes shall bo sent out that will not ])ositively reach persons desiring them. It is therefore requested that all persons de- siring copies will forward their present address to N. A. Calkins, 124 East 80th St., New York City, and also send fifteen cents in defrayment of postage. Dr. E. E. White, of Cincinnati, O., then read the following paper: A TRUE COURSE OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION; ITS PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. Education as an art is based primarily on the nature of the being • educated. This fact is illustrated, not only in the education of difi"erent classes of human beings, as infants and adults, the blind, the deaf, and the feeble-minded, but also in the training of dififerent brute animals, as the horse, the dog, and the monkey. It follows from this fact that the devising of proper methods of edu- cation for any class of human beings involves a knowledge of their edu- cable nature, and hence the devising of methods and courses of school education involves a knowledge of the nature of children and youth, and especially of their 2)sychical 7iature. How is this guiding knowledge best obtained? It is believed to be best reached by a careful analysis of psychical processes and powers as revealed in consciousness, and then determining the relations of these processes to each other and the relative activity of the corresponding powers in the successive periods of school life, by a wide and careful comparison of children of different ages and conditions. The true basis of child psychologj^ is general psychology. We can only give a brief summary of the results reached in an earnest attempt to pursue the line of inquiry thus suggested. Analysis of Psychical Processes and Powers. The human soul is capable of three distinct activities, — knoicing^ feeling^ and icUling. The power of the soul to know is called the Intel- lect; the power to feel, the Sensibility; the power to will, the Will. These three capabilities, or powers, of the soul are called Faculties. A faculty is not a separate organ or part of the soul, but a power of the soul as a unit. The human soul is a unit in essence, with a trinity of distinct powers or capabilities. It is also important to observe that the intellect, sensibility, and will are distinct, but not independent, powers or fViculties. They act and react upon each other, and their interactions are marvelously blended in many complex psychical a<;ts and states. They condition each other. 847 34 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. For i^edagogical reasons, we would prefer to begin our analysis with the Sensibility, but the limits of this address compel us to omit the phenomena of the Sensibility and the Will, and pass at once to an analysis of the processes and powers of the INTELLECT. To know an object is to be certain that it is, and hence knowing may be defined as the perceiving of the certain existence of an object of knowledge. I. The Intellect is endowed with the power to know directly and immediately present objects of Jcnoicledge. This power is called the Pre- sentative Faculty. The present objects of knowledge, thus known by the Presentative Faculty, include (1) subjective or psychical objects — the acts and states of the soul and the soul itself; (2) objective or material objects; and (3) the necessary relations between objects of knowledge, as the rela-* tions of space, time, cause and effect, means and end, design, etc. The i^ower of the soul to know directly its own acts and states and itself as the knower is called Consciousness. On the certainty of this subjective perception depends the validity of all knowledge. The power of the soul to know directly external material objects is called Perception; and since the soul perceives physical phenomena through, or by means of, the six senses, this power may properly be called sense-perceptive. The power of the soul to perceive or know directly the necessary re- lations of objects, i. e., to know necessary truths, is called Intuition. The necessary relations of objects are known directly and immediately, and the act is presentative. Every act of the presentative faculty results in a psychical product. The products of consciousness and intuition are called ideas, and the products of sense-perception, percepts and concepts — a percept being the result of a single act of perception through a single sense, and a concept . being a synthesized whole, composed of several percepts and ideas. All sense-concepts are individual., that is, they represent individual objects. What would be man's intellectual condition were he endowed only with this presentative power — tlie power to know present objects of knowledge? It is evident that the products of consciousness, sense- perception, and intuition would constitute the sum total of human knowl- edge, and each of these would vanish with tJie act that produces it. There would be no past in consciousness and no anticipated future. The con- scious psychical life of every human being would be its present — a moving point. Tlie so-called universe of man's knowledge would be bounded by the limited reach of the physical senses, and, without the aid of the higher powers of the mind, as hereafter shown, this reach would indeed be very limited. The effects produced in the sensorium by ma- terial objects, through the senses, are at best but very imperfect indicia 848 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 35 of what the mind actually sees. In all sense-perception, the mind, by the power of thought, perceives much more than the eye or other sense discloses. II. But the Intellect is further endowed with the power to represent to itself and reknow objects previously known — to reproduce, in a sense, its past experience. This power of the Intellect is called the Represent- ative Faculty. The power of the mind to represent an object previously known with- out recognizing it as an object of previous cognition is Simple Represen- tation. This is the basis of what is called Phantasy. The power of the soul to represent and reknow an object previously known is Memory. Memory includes two distinct acts, to wit: (1) the representing of an object previously known, and (2) the reknowing of it. It includes, in other words, Representation and Recognition. The power of the mind to represent and modify^ or recombine, objects previously known is called the Imagination. It is this power to modify objects of previous cognition that distinguishes the imagination from memory, which represents and reknows without modification, and from simple representation or pure phantasy, which represents without either recognition or modification. The imagination is not only the representer, but the modifier, constructor, and creator of psychical images. Phan- tasy may passively or wildly recombine represented objects, as in dreams and delirium. The imagination acts under the guidance and control of the intellect and the will. It seems imi)ortant to note, in passing, that the imagination has three phases of activity — modifying, constructive, and creative. The modify- ing phase includes, (1) the imagining of one known object to be another known object, as a broom to be a horse, or a doll to be a live baby ; and (2) the conceiving of a known object, material or spiritual, enlarged or diminished in size or intensity, or otherwise changed in some quality or attribute, as the conceiving of a mouse to be as large as a horse, or a horse to be as small as a mouse, snow to be red, ice to be warm, etc. The constructive phase is the combining of known psj'chical materi- als presented by another mind into suggested wholes, as the imagining of a house, a tree, or an animal, from a few lines drawn on paper or other pictorial representation, or from a description in words, oral or written. The creative phase is the construction of new wholes from materials furnished by representation, the whole thus constructed being an orig- inal creation, as the imagining of an unseen landscape, a dramatic scene that represents no real occurrence, etc. It is this phase of imagination that furnishes the artist, the inventor, and the discoverer with their ideals, and that characterizes the poet, the dramatist, and the novelist. In all forms of its activity the imagination uses the materials fur- nished by experience. It creates no new element. The painter cannot imagine a new color, nor can the dramatist imagine a new emotion, afifection, or desire. 849 36 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. What knowledge would be attainable by man, and what would be his intellectual condition, were the intellect endowed only with the present- ative and representative powers? Since every object known directly by the presentative faculty is individual (the intuitions possibly ex- cepted), every representative object would be individual, including the creations of the imagination, and hence all knowledge would relate to individual objects, and each man's knowledge would be limited to his individual experience. His language, if any, would be limited to the few vocal and visual signs which instinct marvelously interprets. The sentence, if not the word, would be impossible. III. But the soul is endowed witk the further power to form and apply general concepts and ideas. This psychical process is thinJcing, and its product thought. The power to think is called the Rational Faculty, or Thought Faculty, or more simply, Thought. The simplest act of thinking is the forming of the general concepts or notions which represent classes of objects. It includes comparison, analysis, abstraction, synthesis, and generalization ; but since these processes all assist in forming the general concept, the entire process may properly be called Conceptive Generalization, or, more simply. Con- ception. The forming of the general concept is the primary act of think- ing. Each general concept or idea maj" be represented by a sign or word. This is the primary source of words. The applying of a general concept to the individual objects which it represents and arranging them in a group under it is Classification. The next thought process is the comparing of objects of knowledge and formally affirming their likeness or unlikeness. The concepts grass and herb may, for example, be compared, and their discerned likeness affirmed by the sentence, Grass is an herb. This thought process is called formal judging, to distinguish it from the comparison, or simple judging, involved in conception or the forming of the general concept. The power of formal judging is called Formal Judgment, or, more briefly, Judgment. It is thus seen that judgment is the psychical source of what are called facts — the affirmed results of observation and thought. A fact may be defined as a true judgment formally affirmed. A judgment for- mally expressed in words is a proposition or sentence, and thus by for- mal judgment we pass from words as such to sentences, or language proper. But the tendency of thought is to pass beyond the particular or gen- eral facts of judgment, limited to known objects, to universal truths, and hence the third and final thought process is the forming and apply- ing of general facts or universal truths. This form of thinking is called reasoning, and the power thus to think is called the Reason. In reasoning the mind passes from particular facts as reasons to a general truth, or from a general truth to the included particular facts. It is thus seen that there are two forms or processes of reasoning, to 850 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 37 wit: (1) the iudiiciug of a general truth from particular facts, called Induction, and (2) the deducing of particular facts from a general truth, called Deduction. In inductive reasoning the mind passes from particu- lars to a general; in deductive reasoning it passes from generals to par- ticulars.^ The foregoing analysis of psychical processes and powers brings us to an important inquiry respecting the — Order of Activity and Development of the Intellectual Powers. The presentative faculty awakens into activity before the representa- tive, and both of these faculties before the thought faculty. This order is n psychical necessity. It is impossible for the mind to recall and represent an object not previously known, and it is equally impossible for the mind to foim and apply general concepts of any kind if it be not in possession of individual concepts and ideas to compare and gen- eralize. In activity both consciousness and sense-perception must pre- cede memory, and consciousness, sense-perception, and memory must precede conception, the simplest form of thought activity. In like manner and for a like reason, the activity of the several powers of the same faculty and the higher phases of activity of the same power are conditioned upon the lower. Sense-perception is conditioned upon sensation — the primary psychical act, and consciousness is conditioned upon both sensation and percep- tion. The cognition of objects of knowledge must condition the in- tuitive perception of their necessary relations, and, in turn, the intui- tions condition the completed acts of sense-perception. It is not meant that there is necessarily a conscious interval between these related presentative acts. Consciousness accompanies and blends with the aets and states which it perceives, and the intuitions are blended with the acts of perception and consciousness. The idea of ex- tension arises in connection with and conditions the j)erception of ma- terial bodies as extended. The activity of the three representative powers follows the same order. Memory is conditioned upon simple representation, since an object previously known must be represented to be reknown, and the imagination is conditioned upon both simple representation and mem- ory, since these furnish the imagination with the materials which it modifies and recombines into new wholes. The higher phases of the 1 There is an important distinction between a general fact of judgment and an in- duction. A general judgment includes ouly knowu objects; an induction includes all objects of a class, known or unknown. I have seen, for example, several elephants and have observed that each has a proboscis, or trunk. I now generalize these par- ticular observations into the f;ict, All these elephants have trunks, which is a formal judgment. If now I enlarge this general judgment by an inference, based on some discovered reason, to the general i'-M't. All elephants have trunks, I make an induction — a general assertion that includes all elephants, knowu and unknown. Every sure induction is an important addition to our real knowledge. 851 38 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. imigination likewise succeed the lower. It is not easy to determine ■which of its two modifying phases appears first, since they both appear very early, as every nursery clearly shows. The constructive phase appears later, and this is succeeded by the creative phase. It is not meant that these successive phases whollj^ disappear before the higher phase appears. They characterize the activity of the imagination in the order indicated. The same order is observed in the activity of the several thought powers. Conceptive generalization precedes formal judging, and both conception and formal judging precede reasoning. It is thus seen that reasoning is conditioned upon judging, and judging upon conception. The order observed in the activity of the several intellectual powers also prevails in their development. The presentative faculty reaches what may be called its maximum natural power before the representa- tive, and both before thought. The last of the representative powers to reach an activity and energy equal to that of the presentative power is the creative imagination, and the last of the thought powers to reach a like development is reasoning, the power of deductive reasoning ap- pearing and developing later than that of inductive. There are considerable intervals between the periods in which the higher faculties reach a development equal to that of the lower, but it is an error to infer that there are corresponding intervals between their awakenings into activity. The first conscious acts of perception and memory accompany each other; the forming of general concepts and ideas is near the synthesis of sense-concepts; formal judgment follows conception closely, and inductive reasoning appears only a little later. The two powers which awaken into activity latest are the creative im- agination and deductive reasoning. But how early do the several intellectual powers become active, and what is their relative activity and energy in the successive periods of the child's lifef The answers to these important questions can only be determined by the observation and study of children, and fortunately this is not a new field of inquiry. Ko other beings have been so carefully and lovingly studied. The recorded results of these observations cover many centu- ries, and they present child life under many and diverse conditions. This study of children has been greatly stimulated in later years by the writings of Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and other educational reformers, and it is now receiving the earnest attention of progressive educators both in this country and in Europe. The stud J of individual children is rendered difficult by their marvelous power to divine the answer in the mind of the questioner, and the equally marvelous facility with which they use words with or without the ideas which they represent. There is also great difficulty in applying the general conclusion reached to individual cases — a fact due to the marked differences among children of the same age and often of the same family. 852 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 39 One child may possess a power of imagiuatioii at six years of age which a brother or sister may uot reacli before sixteen, and like striking con- trasts are observed in the development of the several thought-powers, and especially of the reason. But notwithstanding the difficulties in- volved, the results already reached by this child-study indicate, with some clearness, the psychical activity of children at different ages; and this is especially true when these results are interpreted in the light of general psychology. . The accompanying diagram represents the results of my study of this problem. It is designed to show the activity and ouergy (more especially the activity) of the several intellectual powers of the average child from birth to twenty years of age. It seems unnecessary to add that, like all graphic devices, it represents the facts only approximately. [A large graphic chart was here presented and explained.] What light do these psychical facts throw on methods and courses of instruction ! It is believed that they clearly disclose the following prin- ciples — the most important that underlie the art of teaching. Principle I. Instruction, hath in matter and method, must be adapted to the capability of the taught. Tliis is a primary axiom of teaching, requiring neither proof nor elu- cidation. The most elementary conception of education involves the truth that the what and the how of instruction must be adapted to the pupil's capability, psychical and physical. This principle is funda- mental, since all other {principles are based upon it. The application of this principle to school instruction raises two im- portant questions, to wit: (1) Do the pupils in our schools present a varying capability as they pass up through the successive grades ? (2) If so, in what respects does their capability vary, and to what is the variation due 1 The fact that the caijability of pupils varies as they pass from the primary to the higher grades is too obvious to require formal proof, and so we pass at once to the consideration of the sec- ond question — the most important and fruitful question which modern pedagogy is called upon to answer. The varying intellectual capacity of pupils in the successive grades of school must be due to one or more of three facts, to wit: 1. A va- riation in the activity and energy of the intellect as a tchole. 2. The absence or non-activity oi ceitain faculties in the younger pupils, and the successive awakening of these dormant faculties to activity as pupils grow older. 3. A variation in the relative activity and energy of the several faculties at different ages. The first of these supposed facts is the basis of the theory that pri- mary pupils may be taught the same kinds of knowledge as the pupils in the higher grades, and by essentially the same methods, the only 853 40 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. radical difference between primary and advanced instruction being in the amount of matter taught, the former covering daily less ground than the latter. Forty years ago, and evefi later, elementary text-books were constructed on this theory. The earlier elementary arithmetics began with formal definitions, and rules preceded the problems. The primary geographies began with the same definitions as the more ad- vanced treatise, even including mathematical definitions, and otherwise covered substantially the same ground, the only essential difference be- ing the fact that the first book was thinner than the second. The second of these supposed facts, in its more extreme interpretation, assumes that the intellectual powers active in primary pupils are the presentative, especially the power of observation ; that later in school life the representative powers, memory and imagination, become active, and still later the thought powers, generalization and reason. It is the basis of the theory that a course of school instruction may be cut horizontally into three distinct sections, or periods, — primary, secondary, and advanced, the primary including sense, or perceptive, knowledge, the secondary reproductiv^e knowledge, and the higher or advanced period generalized and rational knowledge. These three periods of school instruction have been respectively designated as per- ceptive, conceptiv^e, and rational; also as objective, reproductive, and elaborative. The third supposed fact assflmes that all the intellectual faculties are active when the child enters school at six years of age, and that his intellectual condition as he advances in the course is characterized by changes in the relative activity of the several intellectual powers. This view supports the theory that both the matter s^\d the method of school instruction should correspondingly change from year to year — the suc- cessive phases of instruction being characterized by the relative atten- tion given the different kinds of knowledge, and especially hy the manner or method in ichich snch Inoicledge is taught. Which of the above suppositions is true % The foregoing diagram, presenting the activity and growth of the powers of the intellect, shows that the nine intellectual powers are all active, though not equally so, at six years of age, the child's intellectual condition being then characterized by the activity of sense-perception or observation, constructive imagination, and conceptive generalization (the word-faculty), sense-perception being the leading faculty ; that later the imagination, judgment (the fact-faculty), and inductive reasoning become more active, and characterize intellectual activity; and that the higher phase of development is characterized by the activity of the creative imagination and the reason, inductive and deductive. There is a marked change in the relative activity of the three thought powers, conception, judgment, and reason — the first being the leading thought faculty at six years of age and the last at sixteen. It is true that there is an increase in the activity and energy of the mind as a whole, but the ii54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 41 characteristic feature of its activity and development — aud the guiding one in teaching, is the variation in the relative activity of the several in- tellectual poicers. It is also to be noted that in these changes in the relative activity of the different faculties there are no sudden transitions. While the pre- sentative powers are at first the most active, the higher powers increase in activity from year to year until they become the leading powers of the intellect. We have found no psychical basis for the theory that children do not reason before they are near ten years of age. When a child asks for the why, or reason, of things that interest him, the rea- soning faculty is active. A bright child makes many inductions, and intelligently acts on some of them, before he is six years old. Ask a bright boy in his sixth year why dogs cannot Hy, why people wear thicker clothes in winter than in summer, why a stone will fall if you drop it, and he will give reasons, though not scientific ones. It is doubtless true that most of the generalizations of young children are judgments, not inductions, aud as such are limited to known objects; but it is a mistake to supi)ose that primary pupils do not reason. Locke held that children reason as early as they understand language, " and," he adds, "if I misobserve not, they love to be treated as rational creat- ures sooner than is imagined." But it is to be observed that, in their earlier thinking, children acquire concepts aud facts which involve the more obvious qualities and relations of things, and they reach one by one inductions w^hich are based on in- dications admitting of easy interpretation. As they grow older, thej^ are increasingly able to discover less obtrusiv^e attributes and relations, and form more sharply defined concepts, and at length they acquire by training the power to form what are called scieniijic concepts, and, gen- eralizing and applying the resulting facts, reach scientific inductions, principles, laws, etc. — in a word, science. It should, however, be noted that this scientific phase of thought depends on no newly awakened fac- ulty, even deductive reason being active long before it is reached. The inductions of common life, even of child experience, differ from the in- ductions of science in "subject matter," as Dr. Porter expresses it, and not in the essential thought processes involved. Scientific thought re- quires closer and longer continued observation, more accurate concej)- tion and judging, and a deeper insight of the reason thau common thought. This fact will be made evident by comparing the thought pro- cesses involved in the common concepts, facts, inductions, and classifi- cations which make up a child's knowledge of common plants, with the thought processes involved in the scientific concepts, facts, inductions, and classifications which constitute the science of botany. I can only allude to the fact that the development of the intellect in- volves the corresponding development of the sensibility and the will, and, in children, the growth of the body. The activity of the mind in knowing depends on the acuteness of the senses, the intensity of the 855 42 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. emotions and desires, and the energy and constancy of the will; and these are conditioned upon the sustaining power of the body, which, other conditions being favorable, increases as children grow older. The young child can not attend to one object as long as an adult, and the same is true of the relative duration of all psychical states. There is a general law of interdependence and interaction that runs through all psychical activities. We are now prepared to state and consider — Principle II. There is a natural order in which the facilities should he exercised and the corresponding Jcinds of knowledge taught. The natural order of exercising the faculties is necessarily the same as the order of their activity, to wit : first the preseutative, second the representative, and third the thought faculty; and the natural order of exercising the thought powers is, first conception, second judgment (formal), and third the reason, first inductive and later deductive. The movement of the mind in the earlier processes of knowing is from per- ception through representation to conception, and from conception through judgment to reason; that is^ from sense-activity to reasoning through the activity of the intermediate powers. This principle has been specialized in the form of maxims of ele- mentary teaching, including the following : 1. Observation before reasoning. 2. The concrete before the abstract — sense-knowledge before thought-knowl- edge. 3. Facts before definitions or principles. 4. Processes before rules. 5. From the particular to the general. 6. From the simple to the complex. 7. From the known to the related unknown. It should be specially noted that these maxims relate to that phase of the process of knowing in which the mind is acquiring primary con- cepts and ideas, elementary facts, and simple inductions, as a prepara- tion for the acquisition of higher or scientific knowledge. They are maxims of elementary teaching^ and not universal principles. The maxim, " Processes before rules," is, for example, an important precept for teach- ing elementary arithmetic, but no wise instructor would uniformly or generally follow it in teaching the higher mathematics, and it has its exceptions in the higher applications of arithmetic. The same limita- tion obviously applies to the maxims, " The concrete before the abstract," and " From the particular to the general." In the higher phases of in- struction the true order is often from the abstract to the concrete and from the general to the particular, this being always true in deductive processes. It is, however, to be observed that this inverse order is only 856 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 43 possible when the mind is in possession of those primary concepts, ideas, and facts, which are essential to the apprehension of the abstract and the general. The above maxims are true directions for the teaching of all inductive branches, but they have more special application to elementary schools. They are the criteria which differentiate an ele- mentary method from an advanced method or a general method. The observing of this natural order in school instruction does not im- ply that there should be long intervals between observatiion and reasoning, or between any lower activity and the related higher. The successive steps may be taken in the same year, and even in the same lesson. The principle does, however, imply that the several intelleetual powers are best developed and trained by observing their natural and harmonious activity. The child must observe as a child, must think as a child, must reason as a child in his psychical condition. Any attempt to force the young mind to do what it has not the preparation or energ3' to do, is to weaken it. There is, however, danger of falling into an opposite error and limiting the mind to one kind of activity, when it is prepared and has a natural impulse for a higher activity. Children may unwisely be kept swinging on the gate of sense when they are prepared to make fruitful excursions into the garden of thought. Principle III. There is a variation in the relative attention to be given the several faculties and the corresponding lands of knowledge., in the successive years of school instruction. This is a corollary of the two preceding principles, but its practical importance justifies its separate statement. In the first years of school instruction, the presentative powers, being naturally most active, should receive most attention ; later, attention should be more equally divided between the presentative, the representative, and the lower thought powers ; and still later, chief attention should be given the higher powers. This change in the attention given to the several faculties is also true of the attention that should be devoted to the corresponding kinds of knowledge. In the primary school, chief (but not exclusive) attention should be given to observation and sense-knowledge ; but as pupils pass up in the grades or classes, more and more attention should be given to thought knowledge, and especially to rational knowledge. This leads to — Principle IV. The primary concepts and ideas in every branch of knowledge must be taught objectively in all grades of school. The psychical processes involved in sense-perception show that the forming of an individual concept reciuires the presence of the object; and since general concepts are derived from individual concepts, it fol- 857 44 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. lows that no concept, individual or general, can be tauglit without pre- senting the appropriate object or objects to the mind. The same is true in teaching ideas, particular or general. A concept or idea is the product of the mind's action, and the act of perceiving an individual object re- quires the presence of the object. It follows from the above principle that no primary concept or idea can be taught through its tvord. A word can recall and represent a known concept or idea associated with it, but a word can not summons a new idea into what has been called the " presence chamber of the soul." The futile attempt to teach primary concepts and ideas through words is responsible for more unsatisfactory results than any other error of ele- mentary instruction. Carlyle characterizes his teachers as "hide bound pedants," who crammed him "with innumerable dead vocables and called it fostering the growth of the mind." Carlyle's pedants once represented a very large class of so-called teachers, and it is feared that this race of word-cramming pedants is not yet extinct. The so-called maxim, "Ideas before words," may not be a necessary principle even of primary instruction, but it is excellent advice. The essential thing is to teach both the idea and its sign, and especially to connect them indissolubly together, and to maJce this connection sure, it is wise to teach the idea before the word, whenever this can be done. The facility with which children learn words, especially as sounds, is constantly giving them new words which to them have no meaning. It is important that these empty words be tilled with their ideas, and especially that all new words learned and used in school be associated with clear ideas. To this end, all primary concepts and ideas must be taught objectimly. It is true that a general word may at first only represent an indi- vidual concept. A child sees a strange animal, a monkey for example, and learns its name. The word is associated with the individual mon- kej' and recalls it in memory. When, however, the child has seen sev- eral monkeys, the individual concept is unconsciously generalized, and the word monkey then represents the class. It is believed that young children learn most of their words in this way — learning the word be- fore they form the general concept. This principle of objective teaching applies to all grades of school — to the high school and the college, as well as to the primary school. The modern method of teaching the physical sciences is increasingly recognizing the fact that all primary concepts are acquired by the study of the objects to which they relate. This is the meaning of the labora- tory and the museum. They afford- facilities for the study of things as a preparation for the study of books. When the concepts and ideas back of words are thus objectiv^ely learned, books become important means of acquiring knowledge. 858 PROCfiEDlNGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 45 Principle V. In the teaching of any school art, clear and correct ideals should inspire and (j Hide practice. The first step in learning any art is the forming- of ideals of the re- sults to be attained, and, as a rule, the clearer and more correct the ideals formed, the better will be the results reached by practice. This is not only true in the practice of such simple arts as the pitching of a ball or quoit, the drawing of a line, etc., but also in the higher arts of oratory, music, painting, sculpture, etc. It follows that the first step in teaching any art is to lead the pupil to form correct ideals of what he is to do; and, to this end, he should be presented with models and examples. Tliis is not only true in teach- ing the formative arts, as drawing, painting, etc., but also in teaching oratory, music, and literature. Jenny Liud gave to her generation a new ideal of human song, and that ideal has awakened in many hu- man voices an almost divine melody. Wendell Phillips and John B. Gongh have, respectively, given to many American speakers their in- spiring ideals of oratory. The next step in teaching any art is to give the pupil a Icnowledge of the processes by which his ideals can best be embodied. The earlier this knowledge is acquired, the more fruitful will be his practice. But the processes of every art are based on principles which are included in a complete knowledge of it. These guiding principles are of little, if any, value to the young learner, and hence should not be taught too early; but in the later and higher practice of an art they are of great value, and may finally take the place of the living teacher. It is thus seen that the so-called Comenian maxim, " We learn to do by doing," is at best only a half-truth. Simple doing, without the guid- ance of knowledge, never made an artist or an artisan. The poorest teaching, for example, is often done by teachers who have grown gray in the school-room. What is needed to transmute practice into teaching skill and power is the inspiration of true ideals and the guidance of cor- rect principles. Blind experience is always and everywhere a plodder. The arts taught in elementary schools, as reading, writing, drawing, language, music, etc., are never properly mastered by mere practice. Au- tomatic exercises may increase mechanical facility in the repetition of known processes, but such practice never corrects errors or suggests better methods. On the other hand, no mistake in elementary teaching is more futile than the attempt to teach a school art by simply imparting a theoreti- cal knowledge of its principles and processes. The mastery of an art involves the acquisition of sMll, and a knowledge of its processes and principles is chiefly valuable as a means t) this end. Instruction with- out practice cannot impart skill, and hence cannot make an artist. The old-time attempt to teach the art of using good English by means 859 46 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of tecliuical grammar is an illustration of this error. This attempt was based on the false notion that skill in speech and writing is a necessary result of a knowledge of the rales of language — an error still too com- mon in American schools. The stupid custom of teaching formal anal- ysis and parsing before practical composition richly deserves the ridi- cule now heaped upon it, but is there not evidence of a tendency to the opposite extreme ? It now looks as if there would soon be an oppor- tunity to laugh at the equally futile attempt to teach the art of correct speech by haphazard, cut-feed language lessons, some of which are about as mechanical as the filling of a basket with chips, and result in about the same kind of skill. The function of language is to express thought., and no exercise in the use of language can impart much skill, that does not begin with thought and end with its correct expression. What is needed is a language training that begins with the use of language under correct ideals and ends with its scientific study. In such a course there is a j^lace for technical grammar and rhetoric. For one, I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Lindley Mur- ray" for some of the little skill which I have acquired in the use of the English language, and especially am I indebted to what has been char- acterized as the " grammatical dissection " of good English. The thor- ough grammatical analysis of Pollock's "Course of Time," Pope's "Es- say on Man," and Milton's " Paradise Lost," and later the rhetorical analysis of Goldsmith's "Deserted Village" and Shakespeare's "Mac- beth " and " Julius Cjiesar," gave me guiding ideals of correct, forcible, and elegant English. It is, however, important to note that these were not the studies of early childhood, and that manhood has afforded me some of the practice which was so unwisely denied in school and college. Principle VI. Oral teaching and text-hooh study are complementary means of school in- struction, the former being chiefly preparatory to the latter. Oral teaching has three somewhat distinct phases. It includes — 1. The presenting of objects, material or psychical, to the pupil's mind, including the exciting of his curiosity, the directing of his observation, the fixing of his attention, and the affording of such other assistance as may enable him to know these objects. This may be called objective oral teaching. 2. The leading of the pupil to recall and reknow absent objects, pre- viously presented to the mind and known, and by thinking to discern their likenesses and differences, their relations as parts of classes or wholes, as means and ends, as causes and effects, etc. This involves the use of words which represent concepts and ideas known to the pupil, and, being reknown, become present elements of thought. The teacher's special function is to lead the pupil to reknow these elements, and by 860 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 47 tbouiibt to attain the desired knowledge. To this end, tlie teacher does not directly tell the pupil what he wis'ies hint to learn, bat by skillful direction leads him to discover or discern it for himself. This may be called indirect oral teaching. 3. The direct communication of facts to the pupil by means of oral language. To this end, the teacher expresses relations (new to the pupil) between known but absent objects of knowledge by means of words which represent ideas of things, qualities, actions, and relations, iamiliar to the pupil. The words of the teacher recall known concepts and ideas, and the pupil apprehends or thinks the relation or thought expressed, which completes its communication to his mind. This pre- senting of new relations of known objects to the pupil by means of lan- guage may be called direct oral teaching. Direct oral teaching has been seriously and widely abused ; but it is a mistake to sui^pose that it has no place in school instruction. Speech is one of man's highest and best endowments, but its practical value depends on its being understood. It is an important function of school education to train the pupil to apprehend thought expressed in language — to pick thought out of its verbal husk. All true teaching contributes directly or indirectly to this result. Every oral direction for observing, every question asked, and every expression by pupil or teacher of the results of observation or thought, increase the pupiFs power to inter- pret and use language. Even an object lesson is not a " dumb show." The pupil is not only led by questions and suggestions to observe and think, but related facts may be directly told to excite his curiosity, deepen his interest, and widen his knowledge. All three forms of oral teaching (objective, indirect, and direct) are often blended in the same lesson. It is, however, an important principle of oral teaching that the pupil should not be directly told ichat he can be easily led to observe or dis- cern/or himself. The function of oral teaching is not only to train the pupil in the acquiring of original knowledge, but also in the acquiring of knowledge expressed in language, and it thus prepares the pupil to obtain knowledge from books. Books are the depositories of the re- corded knowledge of the race, and it is only by reading books that man can come into the possession of this rich inheritance. The ability to read is the key that unlocks these treasuries of knowledge, and hence the training of the pupil in the intelligent reading of the printed page is an important function of school instruction. When a pupil apprehends facts expressed orally, he may be scarcely conscious of the word-medium through which they are presented to his mind; but in acquiring facts expressed in written language, his activity is directed immediately and constiously to the language, and his energy is put forth to discern and grasp the thought embodied in it — to go from the verbal expression to what is expressed. This is evidently a more difficult task than the grasping of thought expressed in oral language, «G1 4§ EDtfCATIONAL CONVENTIONS At I^EW ORLEANS E^P0SITI6^^ and this suf^gests at least that oral teaching should precede and prepare the way for text-book study in elementary schools. The union of oral teaching and text-book study is illustrated in the teaching of reading. Heading proper is the apprehension of the relations between known but absent objects, when these relations are presented to the mind by written or printed language. In primary classes, pupils are prepared to apprehend these relations, thus expressed, chiefly by oral teaching; in secondary classes, by oral teaching and text-book study united; and in more advanced classes they are apprehended chiefly by study. As pupils j)ass up in the grades, they should be increasingly trained to acquire Imowledge from books by study, and, to this end, the oral lesson should be increasingly supplemented by the recitation ivith its searching tests. There ought to be no chasm between oral teaching and text-book study in school training, but they should be harmoniously and effect- ively united as complementary means of instruction — and this, I take it, is the most important problem of instruction that now demands the attention of American teachers. All that has been said leads to and sustains — Principle VII.' A true course of instruction for elementary schools cuts off a section ofpre- sentative, representative, and thought knowledge each year. Children at six years of age have not only acquired much presenta- tive knowledge, but are in possession of a considerable number of gen- eral concepts and facts, and by the natural activity of their minds are passing increasingly from sense knowledge to thought knowledge, and from the particular facts of observation to general judgments and, to a limited but increasing extent, to the general facts of reason. It follows that while primary instruction should give chief attention to presentative knowledge, the concepts and facts of observation and experience, it should also increasingly teach the more obvious general- izations of these facts and their expression in language. The first year's instruction in reading, for example, should exercise not only the pre- sentative powers, but also memory, imagination (modifying and con- structive), conception, formal judgment, and sparingly inductive rea- soning. The reading lessons of the first year abound in words express- ing general concepts and ideas, and their little sentences express facts which relate to the feelings, actions, and duties of children and adults, the characteristic actions of domestic animals, birds, insects, etc., the more obvious qualities and relations of common objects, including their class relations, and other common phenomena. These facts are both particular and general, as a glance at any primer or first reader will show. ' This principle was illustrated by a large diagram based on the facts of psychology. i*ROCEEDtNGS OV tflfi DEPARTMENT OE SUPERINTENDENCE. 49 It is to be specially noted that while a course of elementary instruc- tion should include general knowledge from the beginning, the general knowledge first taught should consist of common concepts, common facts, and common inductions — the concepts, facts, and inductions of child experience — the higher iorms of thought knowledge, called sci- ence, appearing later in the course. There should, however, be no sudden transition from common to scientific knowledge. The more ele- meutary concepts and inductions of science may be taught certainly as early as the fifth school year, and should thereafter receive increasing attention until the so-called scientific phase of instruction is reached. It is not possible to draw a line through any branch of knowledge, as developed by the race or the individual, and say that here elementary knowledge ends and science begins. The elements of every branch of science include not only its primary concepts and ideas (its simplest elements), but also those elementary facts and inductions which are the basis of its higher generalizations; and it is neither possible nor wise to hold the mind back from these simple generalizations until the period specially characterized by scientific thought is reached. It has already been seen that mental development has its successive phases, each characterized by certain leading activities of the mind, and it is important that these successive phases be properly recognized in arranging courses of elementary instruction. If the first four years of a school course be called primary, the second four years secondary, and the next four years higher or high-school, the primary course may be characterized as sense conceptive^ the secondary course as transitional, and the high-school course as scientific — these terms respectively desig- nating the characteristic features of the course in the periods to which they are apj)lied. In that educational classic, "The True Order of Studies," Dr. Thomas Hill compares a true course of study to a spiral stairway, surrounding the five great columns of human knowledge and cutting off" a section of each at every round of its ascent. While this famous simile clearly recognizes the important fact that there is a natural sequence of knowl- edge to be observed in teaching, it fails to indicate that this sequence is lateral as well as vertical. A true course of study not only cuts off a section of all the great branches of knowledge each year, but each section includes presentative, representative, and thought knowledge and activity. In its progress through each annual cycle of its ascent school instruction passes from sense knowledge to thought knowledge — from sense to reason. The Chairman : Hon. John G. Parham, President of the School Board of New Orleans, desires to say a few words. Mr. Parham said : Ladies and Gentlemen of the Department of Superintendence and Inter- national Congress of Educators — I do myself the pleasure to call upon you this morning for the purpose of extending to you an invitation to 7950 COT., FT. 3 4 863 50 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. visit our city schools at whatever time may suit your convenience, and in any numbers you may choose. I have sent to the Secretary's table a printed list of the public schools of New Orleans and of our teachers. This gives the exact locationsof the schools, and I extend toyou, in behalf of the Board of Directors, a cordial invitation to visit them, and I take pleasure in referring you to the honored secretary of the University, Prof. Richards, who has been superintendent of our schools since 185G to the 31st December last, and to whose untiring exertions their present efficiency has been to a great extent due. I am proud to say that be- tween the old Bay State and our State of Louisiana, and especially between its capital and our commercial metropolis of the South, there exists the warmest feeling. I had the pleasure of spending several months in that State within a few years, and was most cordially re- ceived, and I extend to the representatives from that State, and from all the other States of our glorious Union, this cordial invitation this morning. The first superintendent we had for our schools was from Massachu- setts, — John A. Shaw, of Bridgewater. He remained with us many years, and finally went back to spend the last days of his life in his native State, and to his exertions we are indebted for what we think is a fine system in this city. Giving you this invitation and stating that our present superintendent will be haj^py to accompany any gentlemen that may wish to visit particular schools, I will leave you. Before further proceedings, the chairman announced N. C. Dougherty, W. H. Bartholomew, G. J. Orr, and J. W. Dickinson, as a committee on the nomination of officers, and requested a report the following morning. Dr. White's paper was not discussed. The Association then took a recess for five minutes. After the recess, W. C. Rote, Superintendent of Schools, San Antonio, Texas, read the following paper: THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN TEXAS. I come today to bring you greetings from the Lone Star State, a State noted for the vast extent of its domain and for the graudeur of its historical ascociations. Texas, though one of the younger States of the Union, has a history beginning before the landing of La Salle in 1685. The same year when the Duke of York, James 11, fiscended the English throne, and when Governor Audros demanded the royal charter of Connecticut, afterwards hid in an oak by Captain Wadsworth, La Salle with streaming pennon entered Matagorda Bay and took posses- sion of the soil of Texas in the name of his sovereign, the Grand Mon- arch, Louis XIV of France. More than a century before this ev^ent the Spanish adventurer, sol- dier, and priest, had traversed its broad extent ; and whiie La Salle and his heroic baud were erecting their stockade fort, or angling in streams skirted by the live-oak, pecan, yucca, ebony, cypress, and va- 364 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 51 rious species of acacia ; or while they were chasiuji' the deer and bison on its broad savannas, the rude children of the forest, gathered into the missions by the Franciscan Fathers, were worshiping in chapels, and paying orisons which rose and fell at the tinkling of the sanctus bell. This early period may be called the period of exploration and advent- nre. From 1685 to 1820 Spain and France were rival claimants to at least a part of this territory ; but the Spaniards held permanent pos- session, and established numerous missions which have given to this era the name of the "Mission Period." Most of those earlier mission buildings are now in ruins, but the few that remain give evidence of the skill and zeal displayed by their founders in behalf of those na- tive children of the sunny plains. During the first part of this period, down to 1725, Texas was united with Coahuila ; after that time Texas had a governor of its own, whose headquarters were at San Antonio. For nearly three centuries Mexico was under the iron rule of Spanish viceroys. Long had the people borne the spoliation of plundering ty- rants, enriching themselves in the offices purchased in the city of Mad- rid. While the native Mexicans were denied almost every kind of use- ful learning, the printing-press was illuminating the dark corners of the wA'ld. The discovery of America had aroused a spirit of adventure and enterprise which could not brook the shackles of despotism, nor give passive obedience to kingly authority. This bold and independent spirit first bore its fruit and ripened into the federal republic of the United States. The contiguity of our own country to Mexico helped to spread among its people ideas of liberty and self-government. After 1810 revolt followed revolt, until success in 1821 crowned the leader- ship of Iturbide. Ten short months brought his reign to an end, but out of insurrection and blood finally developed in 1824 a constitutional government similar to that of the United States. In the constitution of 1824, no provision was made for the establish- ment of public schools, but the constitution of the state of Coahuila and Texas, adopted in 1827, provided for the establishment of common schools {prlmeras letras)^ in which should be taught "reading, writing, arithmetic, and the catechism of the Christian religion;" but no laws for the benefit of Texas under this provision were ever enacted. The unsettled political affairs in Mexico caused by the rivalry of leaders, affected the peace and prosperity of Texas to a greater or less degree, especially the liberty-loving Anglo-American colonists. Dis- content, under Mexican rule, was everywhere springing up. Convicts were transported to Texas, armed troops quartered among them, and immigration from the United States was prohibited. Great excitement and indignation were aroused; but at this juncture of affairs, in 1832, Santa Anna pronounced against Bustamente and in favor of the abro- gated constitution of 1824. This movement of Santa Anna was favora- bly received in Texas, and they looked upon him as the representative of 865 52 EDUCATlOiNUL CONVENTIOIsTS At NciW OKLEANS EXPOSITION, popular liberty and republicanism. But that bright prospect was soon overshadowed. The ambitious and unscrupulous leader who, through revolution and blood, placed himself in the presidential chair, was not long in abrogating all constitutional government and proclaiming himself Dictator. Nearly all parts of the country, except Texas, ac- quiesced in the revolution. The Texans refused to submit to this centralized government and the usurpation of Santa Anna. To sub- due their proud and haughty spirit, and to hold them in subjection, troops were quartered in various objective points. The Texans formed 'Committees of safety and finally a provisional government. At last, believing a general invasion and subjugation imminent, and for the purpose of presenting the justness of their cause before the civilized world, delegates of the people assembled in convention March 1, 183(5, and issued a declaration of independence, which recited, among the enumerated grievances against the Mexican Government, that "it has failed to establish any public system of education, although possessed of almost boundless resources (the public domain), and although it is an axiom in political science that, unless a people are educated and enlightened, it is idle to expect the continuance of public liberty or the capacity of self-government." * This first public utterance in behalf of general education indicates the soundness of the public policy held by the patriots of Texan inde- pendence; but it is a remarkable fact that the same men that enun- ciated their grievances in regard to public education, did not, in ])re- paring and adopting the first and only constitution which the Eepublic of Texas ever had, insert in it any section referring to public schools or public education ; and yet both instruments emanated from them within fifteen daj's! This magna charfa had yet to be sealed in blood. It was freely and heroically shed at the fall of the Alamo, the Thermopyl.-B of Texas, and at the direful massacre of Goliad ; but the great and eventful day of Texas was drawing nigh. Ou the victorious field of San Jacinto, rever- berating with the cry of "Remember the Alamo!" the invaders were vanquished, Santa Anna, the President-General and Dictator, was taken prisoner, the independence of Texas acknowledged, and a treaty of peace (joncluded. The reason why the omission was made in the constitution in regard to education may be accounted foi- by the sanguinary scenes of the revo- lution then going on around them, diverting the public mind from all other objects save those pertaining to present security and the imme- diate preservation of the young government. isTotwithstanding this omission in the fundamental law, the Third Congress, by act of January 20, 1839, established a system of general education, and for that pur- il)Ose appropriated three leagues (a league = 1,428 acres) of land to each. Hjouuty, and fifty leagues ot land for two colleges or universities to be thereafter created. H66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 53 The Fourth Congress, by act of Feb. 5, 1840, created commissioners in each county to carry out the provisions previously made, and to or- ganize common schools in their respective counties. There being no his- torical record of the establishment of any schools under this act, it is presumable that, while the several counties obtained the grants of laud, the schools continued as before under i)rivate auspices. But now the time had come when another change was to take place in the political status of Texas. From a republic she passed, a lone star of bright effulgence, into the galaxy of States. The first constitu- tion of the State of Texas, adopted in 1845, provided, in Art. X, for the maintenance of free schools throughout the State, by directing that not less than one-tenth of the annual revenue of the State derivable from taxation shall be set* apart as a perpetual fund for that purpose; and that all public lands heretofore granted, or that might thereafter be granted, for free schools, should not be alienated nor diverttnl from the uses to which they were consecrated. The Third Legislature, by act of Jan. 1(5, 1850, appropriated four leagues of the public domain for free schools for each county organized after Feb, 16th, 1846; and it also appropriated, by act of Feb. 11th of the same year, one-tenth of the annual revenue of the State for the suj)- ])ort of free schools during the years 1850 and 1851. It also, by act of Dec. 2, 1850, ordered the issuance of five per cent. State bonds to the amount of $36,000, to be deposited In the Treasury' to the credit of the common school fund. The Fifth Legislature, by act of Jan. 31, 1854, set apart as a public school fund the sum of $2,000,000 of five per cent. U. S. bonds then in the Treasury, the interest arising therefrom to be annually distributed among the several counties according to scholastic population between the ages of six and sixteen, for the maintenance of public schools there- in. The same act also provided for the organization of a public school system throughout the State. The same Legislature, by act of Feb. 11, 1854, also appropriated for educational purposes one-tenth of tlie annual revenue of the State arising from direct taxation. At this time there were reported 65,463 pupils of scholastic age, but it is probable that the census was imperfectly taken. The first free school established in the State was in the city of San Antonio in 1854. The Comptroller of the Treasury was then exofficio Superintendent of Public Instruction. The Sixth Legislature, by act, February, 1856, again ap|)ropriated one-tenth of the annual State revenue for the years of 1856 and 1857, and it provided also fof the re-investment of the $2,000,000 for ten years in first mortgage railroad bonds bearing interest at six j)er cent, per annum. The same Legislature, by act of Aug. 30, 1856, author ized the sale of alternate sections of the fifty leagues of land api)ro- priated in 1830 for colleges or universitiesj the proceeds to constitute 4 867 54 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. fund for sucli institutions, the minimum i^rice to be $3 per acre and a credit of twenty years given to the purchaser. On the same day, by act, the Governor was directed to cause the survey, out of unappro- priated lands, of the unlocated balance of the fifty leagues donated to the universities. On the same day also, by act, it was declared that no statute of limitation should ever be pleaded against the universities by settlers or occupants of any part of the land donated for public edu- cation. And again, the same Legislature, by act of Aug. 29, 1856, directed all specie belonging to the school fund to be converted into United States bonds, and the interest arising from the special school fund of $2,000,000, together with the one-tenth of the State revenue derived from taxation, to be- distributed annually among, the several counties for public education, according to scholastic population ; the school age had been fixed by this legislature at 6 to 18 years, instead of G to IG, as before. The Seventh Legislature, by act of Feb. 5, 1858, provided for a more efficient government of public free schools, and also for the distri- bution of the school fund anfong the several counties. It also, by act of Feb. 11, 1858, established the University of Texas, and set apart for its maintenance and endowment the fifty leagues of land previously appropriated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas in 1839 for the two colleges or universities. It provided that it should be located, built, and conducted, under the supervision of a board of administrators, and it further appropriated one-tenth of all the land surveyed and re- served for the use of the State under an act donating lands to railroad corporations, for making such surveys. The Eighth Legislature, by act of Jan. 31, 1860, authorized to be used for future defense $100,000 of the United States bonds belonging to the University fund, the same to be returned to the said fund out of the general revenue, without interest. Provision had been made for the organization of the University of Texas by the Seventh Legislature; but as the Eighth Legislature had borrowed a hundred thousand dollars of its available fund for defense against the Indians, who were committing serious depredations upon the unprotected settlers along the Rio Grande, no university was estab- lished for want of available funds. The donation of the public domain for various educational objects was at that tinie a magnificent fund in futurity. Up to this time, from 1855 to 1861, the school population had increased from 65,463, as previously stated, to 105,200, and the average amount annually distributed during that period was a little in excess of one dollar jj;er capita. The money was usually a])plied to pay for the tuition of indigent children. The generosity of the people of the State, in *hose times, |)rovided for the education of the poor, and, in the various pro- visions thu§ madej they were buildiug wiser thai^ they knewj for out PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 55 of such generous and charitable sentiments have grown such facilities of education as to embrace all classes with beneficence. But another event was impending which again changed the political status of the State, the War of the Rebellion and the secession of Texas from the Federal Union. Like a star she entered the Union, but like a meteor she darted beyond its confines. The constitution of 18G1 was the same as that of 1845, with the ex- ception of such changes as was made necessary by the secession of the State from the United to the Confederate States. The article on pub- lic education remained the same. Under the new constitution the Eighth Legislature, by act of April G, ISGl, provided that the whole of the one-tenth of the annual revenue from taxation should be distrib- uted for public education. The absorbing interest felt by all men in the terrible conflict over- shadowed all other considerations, and left a legislative hiatus of five years in educational affairs. The constitution of 18GG, Art. X, directed that all the funds, lands, and other property that had been set apart for the supi)ort of public schools, should constitute a school fund, which, together with the in- come derived therefrom, should be devoted to the white scholastic in- habitants of the State; and it further provided that the Legislature might levy a special tax for educational purposes, of which tax all amounts collected from colored persons should be applied to the educa- tion of colored children. It also appropriated as a perpetual school fund all the alternate sections of land reserved out of grants made to railroads and other corporations. It also prohibited the loan or invest- ment of any part of the school fund for other purposes than public education, except that the money on hand and that derived from sale of lands should be invested in State or United States bonds, or such other bonds as the State might guarantee. It also provided that under the direction of the Legislature, and with the consent of the coun- ties concerned, the school lands donated to the respective counties might be sold and the proceeds of sale added to the school fund of the State, the interest of such proceeds to be reserved to the counties re- spectively. It also provided that the money and lands belonging to the universities should constitute a sacred fund for their maintenance and endowment, and until they were located and commenced, sucii fund should be invested in bonds as provided for the perpetual school fund; and it directed the Legislature to make provision for the opening of a university. It also provided for the appointment by the Governor of a superintendent of public instruction, who, together with the Governor and Comptroller, should constitute a board of education. The constitution of 186G, like the constitutions of 1845 and 1861, with all the legislative acts under them, solemnly reiterates the sacredness of the school fund, as previously set apart. The only striking anomaly in this constitution is the discrimination made against colored children. 8tj9 56 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. But when we cousider the growth of the civilization of Texas, the loss of its personal property caused by the incidents of the war and the Thirteenth Amendment, reducing many of its foremost citizens to a state of helplessness, we may understand why the benefit of general educa- tion was denied to a class never before educated, and who, from time almost immemorial, had been held by. the people as a species of property. The Eleventh Legislature, by act of Oct. 20, 1866, granted an ex- tension of time till Jan. 1, 1869, to purchasers of university lauds to pay interest due. By act of Nov. 1, 1866, the police court of the sev- eral counties, upon a vote by the people in favor thereof, was author- ized to sell the school lands belonging to the several counties respect- ively, and to send the proceeds to the State treasury to be kept as a per- petual school fund, the interest thereof to be applied to the education of the w^hite children of such counties respectively. By act of Nov. 6, 1866, further provision wSs made for the sale of alternate sections of the university lands ; and also by act of same date was directed the transfer of $25,616.10 from school fund to State revenue, the same hav- ing been wrongfully credited to the school fund. Also, by act of N"ov. 12, 1866, the j)ublic schools were reorganized by constituting the police court of each county a board of school commissioners for the same, which board should divide its county into school districts to be ad- ministered by trustees; the fund belonging to each county to be dis- tributed by the police court to the trustees of the several districts for purposes of general education, and the amount of fund so distributed to be determined bj- the apportionment made by the State treasurer, based upon the record of free white children between six and eighteen years of age on file in his office. The police court of each county was also required to appoint a board of examiners to determine the qualifi- cation of public school teachers. Also, by act of Nov. 12, 1866, the pre- vious legislation of Feb. 11, 1858, establishing a University of Texas, was so amended as to set apart only one-half of the university endow- ment for the university then established, and to reserve the other half for a similar university to be thereafter established in a different section of the State. Other amendments were enacted relating to the curriculum and general conduct of the institution. The same act further providedfor conflict in locations of alternate sections of lauds sold under previous legislation ; and it also authorized police courts to levy a tax, not exceeding one-half of the State tax, upon the property of white persons for the education of the indigent white children of their respective counties. It also by act of same date directed the issuance of five per cent. State bonds in the sum of $134,472.26, to be placed to the credit of the university fund, as a reimbursement of United States bonds and interest transferred in February, 1860, from the university fund to the general State fund ; and also the issuance of similar bonds to equal in amount the suuj realized from U. S. bonds belonging tQ 670 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 57 the common school fimd which had been used as general revenue, to be returned to the credit of said fund. The joint resolution of Xov. 13, 1866, provided for the establishment of a second university, and appointed a board of administrators to select the site thereof; and by another joint resolution requested the Governor to appoint the board of administrators for the first univer- sity, authorized by the Seventh Legislature, Feb. 11, 1858. The constitution of 1866, framed under the amnesty proclamation of President Johnson, was made inoperative by acts of Congress during that memorable period when the great antagonism prevailed between the President and Congress. The government of the State of Texas was declared a provisional one, subject to the authority of the United States, to be abolished, modified, or suspended at any time. The gov- ernment was suspended, and a military Governor appointed, July 30, 1867. Up to 1869 there was another legislative hiatus, when, in order to conform to the Fourteenth Amendment and provide for the princi- l)les enunciated by the Fifteenth Amendment, yet on its adoption by the States, it was necessary to form a new constitution for Texas before she could be thoroughly reconstructed. The constitution of 1860 provided for compulsory attendance at school of all children between the ages of six and eighteen, four months each year ; it provided for a superintendent of public instruction, and for a uniform system of public schools. It set apart as a sacred fund for pub- lic schools all lands, funds, and other property previously acquired for that purpose, and also the proceeds of all sales of public lands to be thereafter acquired by the State, and also one-fourth of the annual rev- enue derived from all taxation, and also the whole of the poll-tax. It also iH'Ovided for the sale of lands belonging to the school fund of the several counties, to be used for scholastic purposes therein, and it pro- vided for all scholastic children without distinction, by annual appropri- ations of interest derived from the school fund and of the part of the general tax collected. It also set apart for school purposes all sums derived from fines and forfeitures. The Twelfth Legishiture, by act of Aug 12, 1870, authorized the Comptroller to invest $60,258 of the school fund in five-twenty U. S. bonds and deposit same in State treasury. By act of Aug. 13, 1870, the Legislature provided for the election of a superintendent of public instruction, with large powers, and directed that county courts should be ex-officio boards of school directors for their respective coun- ties ; and it also directed that all children between six and sixteen years of age should attend school at least four months in the year. By act of April 17, 1871, the Legislature directed the Comptroller to invest the school fund in U. S. bonds, and on the same day by another act provided for the establishment of the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- Jege, in view of the 180,000 acres of laud donated by (Jongress to the sev- 87X ■ 58 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. eral States; the Governor was authorized to appoint three commission- ers to select a suitable site of at least 1,280 acres of good land, and $75,000 was appropriated out of the school fund for the erection of buildings. The control and care of said college was to be governed by act of Feb. 11, 1858. The same Legislature, by act of April 24, 1871, granted to the super- intendent of public instruction almost absolute power. He was author- ized to appoint school supervisors for each judicial district, and they had the right to subdivide each county into school districts aiul apjjoint live school directors for each. The superintendent with the Governor and attorney- general formed the State Board of Education. This board, by law, was empowered to adopt all rules, provide for the exam- ination and employment of teachers, fix their compensation, define a course of study, and select text-books and apparatus to be used. Schools were to be maintained under the provisions of the constitution, besides such a tax as the directors might levy, not exceeding one per cent., for the erection of school buildings and for maintaining schools in their respective districts. Comi^ulsory school attendance for four months annually, either at a public school or at a private school taught by a certificated teacher, was required of every child of scholastic age under a penalty of $25 and costs, provided such child was in good health and lived within three miles of any i)ublic school. By joint resolution of Feb. 14, 1871, the Texas & New Orleans E. R. Co., having complied with their contract to pay a certain amount to the school fund, were released. Also by joint resolution of March 31, 1871, the Comptroller was directed to transfer $35,950 from the school fund to the State revenue account, as it had been wrongfully cred- ited to the school fund. The Twelfth Legislature, second session, by act of Nov. 29, 1871, enacted that the Board of Education divide the State into educational districts, not exceeding twelve, and that the Superintendent retire all supervisors previously appointed, and with the approval of the Gov- ernor appoint one supervisor for each newlj-created district, such su- pervisor to act as examiner of teachers, to divide counties into suital)le school districts, and, by and with the approval of the Superintendent, to appoint five directors for each school district. The scholastic population in 1861, as previously stated, was 102,200 ; in 1871 it was 228,355. The first annual report under the law of 1871 shows that 1,324 schools, enrolling 73,804 pupils, had been taught by 1,578 teachers. The Thirteenth Legislature, by act of April 30, 1873, vetoed by the Governor, but passed by a constitutional majority May 23, 1873, dimin- ished the power of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, provided for the election of five school directors in each county, one from each magistrate's precinct, aiid the president of tlie board became ex-o^icio m PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 59 county superintendeut, who was to examine all applicants and certifi- cate teachers on the last Saturday of each mouth. For each sub-dis- trict three trustees were to be elected, schools were to be in operatiou at least four months annually, and the directors were empowered to levy a tax which, with the State fund, would kee]) the schools open that length of time. The act levied an ad valorem tax of twenty-five cents on the hundred dollars. Compulsory education was still continued, though somewhat modified. Appropriations out of the available school fund, as usual, were authorized. It also permitted the trustees of any school district to contract witii any high school to teach the children within the scholastic age, provided such high school be placed under the super- vision of the county board of directors. By act of June 2, 1873, $400,000, or so much thereof as might be necessary, was appropriated out of the available school fund to i^ay the amounts that might be due the teachers of the public free schools throughout the State before March 1, 1873. By act of June 3, 1873, $1,000 was appropriated to pay for an addi- tional clerk to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and also scho- lastic census takers were to be allowed their pay for the year 1872, if they had sent in their reports before March 1, 1873. The Fourteenth Legislature, by act of April 24, 1874, enacted that all the alternate sections of land theretofore surveyed, or which might thereafter be surveyed by any railroad company and not set apart by the State for common schools, should be sold as further provided. By act of May 2, 1874, the school law of April 30, 1873, was so amended as to require the Superintendent of Public Instruction to apportion, on the 1st day of August annually, the school fund to the several counties, and to interpret the school laws; and it directed the Comptroller to make an exhibit of the school fund on the first day of January and July of each year. It provided, in case of necessity, for a lower grade of teachers. The election of trustees was changed from the first Tuesday in Sep- tember to the first Saturday in July. Trustees were directed to take the scholastic census within ten days after their election and forward the same to the county superintendent, who was required to forward it to the Superintendent of Public Instruction five days after its receipt. This act permitted, not only high schools, but also colleges and univer- sities to contract with the trustees for the education of scholastic chil- dren in any district. The Fourteenth Legislature, second session, by act of February 8, 1875, appropriated $32,000 out of the State treasury for completion of buildings and iuclosures for the use of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas; and by act of March 9, 1875, enacted that the Gov- ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, Speaker of the House, and six directors chosen by the Legislature, one from each Congressional district, shall .constitute the board of directors of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. J3^V act of MarcU 15, 1875, it was j>rovicjed that au;^' iqcorporated city 873 60 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. could assume control of the public schools withiu its limits, subject to the general laws of the State ; that appropriations could be made direct to any such city ; and that such city could levy a tax for school purposes, provided a two-thirds majority of the voting tax-payers voted in favor of such a levy. This act started the great onward movement of public education in Texas. At first a few cities availed themselves of the privilege granted by this act. These soon demonstrated the value and efficiency of a graded system of public schools, and one city after another wheeled into line. The value of public schools properly conducted began to in- fluence public opinion in favor of popular education. Also, by act of same date, the act of 1874 was so amended that only one school for white and one for colored pupils, except in cities, could be included in a district, and no teacher was to receive more than ten cents per diem for each pupil in actual attendance, and sheriffs were authorized to collect school taxes assessed by the justices of the peace in their respective counties. The constitution of 1869, dictated by military rule, was objectionable in many respects to the party then in power. A convention having been called, there was framed a new constitution, which was adopted by the people, and known as the "Constitution of 1876." This consti- tution in its article concerning public education was no improvement on its predecessor, as it did away with the office of superintendent of public instruction and with local taxation for the support of schools, to which a more enlightened view has again partially returned through amendments since added to the constitution. Yet the constitution im- partially provided like facilities of public education for white and col- ored children ; added a million of acres of land to the university fund ; set apart $40,000 for the Agricultural and Mechanical College ; donated all alternate sections of land granted to railroads or other corporations ; and provided for the establishment of a branch university for colored youths. The Fifteenth Legislature, by act of June 30, 1876, authorized the Board of Education to convert United States bonds belonging to the permanent school fund into State bonds, in order to obtain a higher rate of interest. By act of August 14, 1876, the Governor was author- ized to appoint a commissioner to select a site and to erect build- ings, for which $20,000 was then ajipropriated, for an agricultural and mechanical college for the use of the colored youths of the State. By act of August 19, 1876, the Governor was made President of tbe Board of Education, for which a clerk was j)rovided; and there was ap- propriated one fourth of the occupation and ad valorem taxes assessed, all poll taxes, and the interest derivable from the permanent school fund, to the several counties and cities as per scholastic population. The scholastic age was fixed at from eight to fourteen years, without^ 874 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF StJPERlNTENDENCE. 61 • regard to race or color. The principal feature of this act was tbe or- ganization of school communities; and they ha\'e become the incubus which has retarded our educational progress. A good feature, how- ever, of this act invested the council, or board of aldermen, with larger power to establish and maintain a system of public schools. The Sixteenth Legislature, by actof Feb.21, 1879, appropriated $rOO,()00 out of the available school fund as an emergency fund to pay teachers then teaching in the public schools. By act of April 3, 1870, the mayor of any city, upon the i)etition of fifty qualified voters, was authorized to order an election to decide whether such city should assume control of its public schools. If the vote was in favor, the management of the schools was to be placed in the hands of six trustees to be elected, of which board the mayor or county judge was to be an ex-officio member. By act of April 21, 1870, a normal school was established at Huntsville, and placed under the general control of the Board of Education. Two students from each senatorial district, appointed by the senator thereof upon competitive examination, and four from the State at large, were l)ermitted to enter the normal school and to receive instruction one 3'ear or more, and the Legislature appropriated $14,000 in addition to the $0,000 donated by the Peabody Fund, to pay for the tuition, books arvl board of said students. ' if^ Seventeenth Legislature, by act of March 16, 1881, authorized citii'.- ind towns to levy a tax of one-half of one i)er cent, for school pur- poses, |»rovided that two-thirds of the voting tax-payers shall vote in favor thereo'", such tax to continue for two years or more, unless discon- tinued by a vote of such tax-payers. By act of March 30, 1881, it was ])rovided that the Governor shall appoint, from the different sections of the State, five directors for the Agricultural and Mechanical College, who should hold office for six years. It also jirovided for the appoint- ment by the senator of each district three students from the same, who were to be maintained and instructed free of charge in said institution. The actof March 20, 1881, sets apart from the unappropriated domain three hundred leagues of land, to be held in trust for the unorganized counties, in order to grant each its four leagues of land. Another act, March 30, 1881, provided for the location of the university. It pro- vided that the medical department may be located, by a vote of the people, at a different point from the university proper. It provided that its government should be vested in a board of eight regents ap- ])ointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. The board was directed to establish a university of the first class, and $150,000 was ap- propriated to erect a building which was to form a part of its general plan. The people bj' vote located the main university at Austin and the medical department at Galveston. By act of April G, 1881, towns and villages having two hundred inhabitants and over were authorized, if a !uajority of the votes cast was in favor of such incorporation, to 875 62 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. elect a board of five trustees to organize and levy taxes under the re-» strictions laid upon cities, and receive their pro rata of the available school fund. This act was a great advance in educational affairs. An- other act of same date reiterates the setting apart of alternate sections of land for school purposes, and it provides for their sale and makes discrimination in price when watered. The called session of the Sev- enteenth Legislature, by joint resolution of May 5, 1882, provided for an election to be held to locate a branch of the university for colored youths. By act of May 3, 1882, there was appropriated $13,837 for the support and maintenance of the Prairie View Colored Xormal Institute. The Eighteenth Legislature, by act of February 3, 1883, provided that all lauds surveyed by anj^ railroad or other corporation, whether valid, void, or not, should be lands belonging to the public schools, and by act of April 7, 1883, it was enacted, that though the act of 1881 only granted three hundred leagues of land, yet as three hundred and twenty- five leagues of land had been surveyed, the whole should be donated for the use of the unorganized counties; and by act of April 10, 1883, one million acres of laud were set apart for the university fund, and one million for the public school fund. The act of April 12, 1883, provides for the sale and leasing, under certain restrictions, of lands belonging to the public schools and university. By act of April 14, 1883, prospectors or miners could acquire certain interest in school lands. The Legislature also appropriated from the available school fund $18,000 tp maintain the Sam Houston Normal School, $6,000 for the summer normal schools, and $10,300 for the Prairie View x^ormal School for colored teachers. The amendment to the constitution adopted by the people August 14, 1883, forbids relief to purchasers of school lands ; prescribes the invest- ment of the proceeds ; sets apart one-fourth of the sum derived from State occupation taxes, a poll-tax of one dollar, and a special ad-valorem tax for schools not to exceed twenty cents on one hundred dollars, in order to maintain, with the aid of the interest derivable from the per- manent school fund, free schools for a period of six months annually; and provides that the Legislature may authorize the districting of all or any of the counties of the State for school purposes, and the levying by districts of a tax not exceeding twenty cents on one hundred dollars of taxable property ; provided, however, that this limitation of assessment does not apply to cities and towns. At a special session of the Eighteenth Legislature, February G, 1884, provision was made for the election of a State superintendent, who should also be secretary of the Board of Education, which is composed of the Governor, the Comptroller, and the Secretary of State. The State Board is required to make the apportionment among the several counties, cities, and towns, and the commissioners' court is to divide the appor- tionment to each county among the several districts or comnuinities of each. It also provides that any district may vote for the levy of a spe- 876 PROCEEDINGS OP THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 63 cial tax, not exceeding twenty cents on one hundred dollars, under the restrictions applied to cities, and that the tax, collected by the county collector, shall be paid out by the treasurer upon proper warrants drawn by said district. The county judge is ex officio county superintendent. Every teacher must pass a satisfoctory examination in ])rescribed sub- jects before a board of examiners appointed by the county judge, and will receive a certificate which shall be good for one year in the county in which it is granted. Diplomas from any State normal school shall be good in any part of the State during good behavior ; a certificate granted after an attendance of one year at any State normal school shall be good for three years, and a certificate from a summer normal insti- tute shall be good for two years ; both diplomas and certificates shall be good in any part of the State. By this Legislature some counties were exempted from the district system. The same session of the Legis. liiture directed that the State should levy and collect twelve and a half cents on one hundred dollars annually for the support of public free schools, as prescribed by the constitution. Tlins I have detained you with the legal aspect pertaining to the changes, growth, and development of educational affairs in Texas. Through all the changes of the government the people have j^reserved with jealous care the several funds set apart for educational purposes. The brief synopsis of the several constitutions, and of the various legis- lative enactments under each, is not adequate to form a due conception of our permanent school fund. Hence it will be necessary to present you with a summarized statement in order to comprehend the full force and meaning of grants of alternate sections and donations of millions of acres of land. The permanent university fund consists already of invested bonds amounting to $523,156, and of 2,025,000 acres of land re- maining unsold, an area nearly equal in amount to the combined area of both the States of Delaware and Rhode Island. The permanent public school fund at present invested in bonds amounts to $5,397,206, and the public lands donated to the same fund remaining unsold amount to 32,000,000 acres, which in area is greater in extent than the great Empire State of New York. You remember that in my synopsis mention was-, made of the grants of four leagues of land to each county. This is stil) separate and apart from the land granted to the university and i)ublic schools, and constitutes by itself an area greater than the States of Delaware and Rhode Island. Besides the various private schools and other higher institutions of learning, we have the University of Texas, situated in the city of Austin, with its nine professors and four assistants imparting instruction free to students resident in Texas ; the Agricultural and Mechanical College, a branch of the university, situated at Bryan, employs eight professors and one assistant, who are training tlie young men of the State in the sciences of agriculture and mechanics. For instruction in the science 877 64 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTlOJfS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITlOJ^. and art of teaching, the State has provided two normal schools, one for . tbe training of white teachers, at Hun tsville, called the Sam Houston iSTormal Institute ; another for the training of colored teachers, the Prairie View Normal Institute. No tuition is charged, and the State furnishes books and board free to all appointed students. Over two hundred are now enjoying the benefits of this generous provision. Besides the training afforded by its normal schools, the State has pro- vided a summer normal institute of four weeks, in each senatorial dis- trict for white teachers, and one in each congressional district for colored teachers. Last year the State, at a cost of over $6,000, employed forty- one principals to teach a like number of institutes. At these institutes there were enrolled 1,270 white teachers and 518 colored, in all 1,788. Of those who entered for examination, 227 white teachers and 27 colored obtained certificates of the first grade ; 99 white teachers and 77 colored, certificates of the second grade; 21 white teachers and C7 colored, cer- tificates'of the third grade. In an address, '*• On Normal Schools," delivered before the Superin- tendents' Association convened at Austin in 18S3, during the Christmas holidays, your speaker recommended a syllabus of a course of study, to guide teachers in study preparatory to the instruction to be imparted at the summer normal institutes; and he also recommended that at the close of each institute there should be an examination, and all those who passed the different standards upon a uniform set of questions pre- l)ared by the State department of educatio n should be granted certifi- cates. Subsequently the Legislature provided for such examination, and enacted that certificates so granted should be valid in any part of the State for two years, and the State superintendent authorized the prej)- aration and publication of such a syllabus. The syllabus is j^ublished monthly in our valuable School Journal, and is one of its most attractive features. The scholastic population between the ages of eight and sixteen years, for the year 1884, as reported by the seventy-four towns and cit- ies, and by most of the counties of the State, reached a total of 400,574, for whose benefit there was appropriated by the State $2,032,870, de- rived from taxation and from the revenue of the permanent school fund, being $5 per capita. The seventy-four cities and towns with graded schools are awakening an interest in public schools never felt before. The State is moving onward to grand educational results, and with its extensive domain granted for public education monetized, it bids fair to become ere long the foremost State in the Union as regards its common schools and higher institutions of learning. The tide of youth moving toward the East, seeking knowledge, will at no distant day ebb toward the beautiful, semi-tropical plains of Texas, to be reared in her grand institutions of learning, and then to woo and wed her dark-eyed maidens and dwell in her genial clime. 878 PROCEEiDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 65' Brother Noah, of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, then contrib- uted the following paper : CO-OKDINATION IN INSTRUCTION AND IN EDUCATION. This subject, which I shall treat in the most cursory manner, owing to pressing engagements at the Exposition, is one which must deeply interest every educator worthy of the name. Yet this co-ordination in instruction is a subject which an experience of over a quarter of a century in the schoolroom and the lecture-hall convinces me is not fully grasped, and therefore not carried into prac- tical use. But before going further it is necessary to define what is meant by co-ordination in instruction and in education, and also to state why the distinction should be made between instruction and education. By co-ordination in instruction is meant that combination of ideas, the gathering of such a sum of information, the eliciting from children that collateral knowledge, which will go to make of any subject or lesson a> matter of such interest that each pupil will feel that he has contribu- ted his mite to the general fund which the discussion of the Jesson has determined. It will be seen that this idea of co-ordination Implies that the children should have a large share of the talking. Most American children will take this share, in any case, if encouraged or allowed ; why not turn this national characteristic to good account ? It is only the master or pro- fessor whoknowshow to make the very defects of his pupils a source of progress and improvement, who is fit to maintain the mission he has undertaken. We are told that our children are tanght too many 'ologies and 'ogra- phies ; that physicians deplore the cramming and the urging to which children are now subjected. This reminds us forcibly of a remark made to the writer at the London International Health Exhibition, during the educational conferences, by one of the oldest and most respected in- spectors of schools in Her Majesty's service ; said he, " Feed a boy or girl well, see that they sleep at least seven hours daily, and you cannot give them too much to do." Remark, the experienced inspector did not say that you could not give such a boy or girl too much to study or to memorize, but " too much to do," a distinction which must not be lost sight of. Doing and studying are indeed different things; the professor who forgets this, remembers but half his duty. By coordination, then, is not meant the teaching of a great many sub- jects, as such, but simply their introduction in such times and places, in such manner, and to such degree, as may be necessary for the proper interpretation of any subject. Certain topics now separately taught would, on the plan here sug- 7950 COT., PT. 3 5 - 879 66 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. gested, be acquired to a sufficient degree without becoming the burden they now are to master and pupil. As suggested in so many of the latest works on method in teaching, the professor should, by means of " class talks," give such information, either by directly communicating it himself, or by eliciting it from the pupils, who, if twelve years of age or over, should be encouraged to take notes, however imperfectly. It may be said, and has often been asserted, that boys or girls of this age cannot be expected to take notes, or that if they do take them, these are generally useless. To this we may reply that such notes on various subjects, or developed into short literary efforts, are sufficiently numer- ous in at least one of the educational exhibits to prove their feasibility. Children may be induced to do almost anything if they have a live teacher, up to the times, ever awake to any issue which may interest his pupils. And this is truer of American children and their teachers than of any others in the world. The American child learns earlier, is more inquisitive where real subjects of importance are concerned, than his Continental or English cousins, and, it may safely be asserted with Brother Achille in his latest work on method, that it is only by giving intelligent* direction to this natural curiosity of children that its danger- ous tendencies may be controlled and corrected. And here would be the point at which it would be desirable to intro- duce a few remarks about that co-ordination of ideas and sentiments so essential to the formation of the heart, teaching it and causing it to love that positive morality, that fixity of Christian principle, without which instruction is, in the language of Voltaire, a double-edged tool which is sure to injure its possessor. Here might that magnificent utterance of the illustrious Guizot be dwelt upon : " I wish religion to be the permeating atmosphere of the school-room." Well will it be for peoples and n ations to heed in time warnings which are not wanting to show, in the language of a Pontiff whose first acts proved his love of true liberty, that " if the world is to be sa.ved, instruction must be made more Christian"; and, with our distinguished United States Com- missioner of Education, Hon. John Eaton, we may add, "Educators may well seriously inquire whether the tendency of the systems they are conducting are as thoroughly promotive of the practice of virtue as they ought to be and can be, * • * yet no one, contemplating the means of promoting the individual good or the public welfare, can be satisfied with an education which so intensifies intellectual activity as to overlook the necessity for the training and direction of the moral nature." In speaking of the manner of co ordinating matter, it has been said that the professor may be obliged to furnish the greater part of the information, in which case it may be claimed that we will need a higher order of intelligence among our elementary teachers, to which it is only necessary to answer that the passing of the ordinary normal schooj. 880 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 67 examination is sufficient proof of intelligence in the young teacher. What we need is that study should not be dropped, as it is so fre- quently after the normal course. Teaching is a profession, a vocation, it is a special mission from above ; no lower estimate will beget the constant study, not only of books, but of human character, of the souL its power, its relations to human nature, and the many other interest- ing questions which the subject involves. In brief, the true teacher must bo a man of thought, and this thought must be directed to his daily betterment in his profession. It is for this reason that many founders of teaching bodies in the Catholic Church require their disci pics to devote at least two hours dail^' to the study, meditating upon, and discussion of topics bearing upon their mission as teachers, apart from their character as religious, and the venerable De la Salle, foun- der of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, has written a series of studies, or meditations, simply to convince his followers that without becoming men of thought, without making of their mission as teachers their sole occupation, they can not be worthy of their calling, nor real- ize suitable results. The same vein of thought pervades his '■'• Treatise on the Government of Schools," and his "Twelve Virtues of a Good Master." These same habits of study and thought, outside of a teaching com- munity, may be realized by appointing and requiring the following of certain courses of educational reading ; and, as is the case in several Continental countries, some further tests should be required to show that the teacher keeps up the sacred fire of study. Probably this may best be done, not by examining the teacher anew, but by an intelligent inquiry into the intellectual progress of the children, requiring the teacher to show his or her " Xotes of Lessons," just as they have been used in the class-room. Personally, we have little faith in diplomas granted for mere knowl- edge, nor does experience go to show that the measure of a teacher's information is the measure of his usefulness. This has been tested so often, and so often admitted, as to be, probably, beyond the line of dis- cussion. Why not adopt the more rational plan of judging the tree by its fruits, instead of by its leaves ? Why not award the diploma to that person who, in a given time and under ordinarily faii; conditions, pro- duces the best results "i At this moment, the best infant class teacher in the city of Liverpool, perhaps in England, since Inspectors come from all parts of the CJnited Kingdom, and send their teachers likewise, to study her methods, is a lady who has never taken a diploma, will not ask for one, and, sensibly enough, is accepted on her own conditions by the Government. Examples are not wanting to prove that this is not an isolated case. It may be said of the teacher as of the poet, that he is "born, not made." The first topic to which this paper calls attention must be our arith- metics. Co-ordination in them is almost unknown. Let us take a prob- 881 68 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. lem in simple division, or, as some boys and girls call it, a sum. Their classification is eminently just. Indeed, youngsters often use terms ■whose full force they do not seize. Yes, our problems, especially in the elementary rules, are sums, great weights, huge nothings, having no earthly interest for our little ones. Thus, how insipid the problem, di- vide 2,150,000 by 5. What idea does this bring to the child's mind ? Is there anything about it in any shape, manner, or form, that is inter- esting I On the contrary, suppose a little New Yorker is told that in Brooklyn and New York there are 2,150,000 persons ; that in each family there are about five persons; how many families in the two cities ? The child has the same work to do, but he learns four things instead of one. He learns how to divide by 5; he knows the combined population of ^ew York and Brooklyn ; he finds that five is the average number in a family, and the number of these families is the last point of information Going back, with this same problem, and talking the matter over leis- urely, the child is taught that five in a family will leave about three children io each, supposing both parents living. Here is another piece of information quite easily taught, and in a review lesson in multiplica- tion, I would make them find the number of children, and of the grown persons in both cities, all of which would i:)rove interesting. It would afford pleasure to discuss our geographies and atlases, just as our arithmetics have been examined — those ponderous volumes, three- fourths of whose matter is as worthless as dead sea fruit. If in all this distinguished assembly there is one lady or gentleman who can say that during any one year, or in any school, there has been a single student who mastered the entire matter of the highest numbers of any of our ponderous atlases, let me ask as a special favor to make that person's acquaintance. I have been looking for one such teacher for the last fifteen years, but have had a bootless search. How much more sensible the plan of pre- paring small "year books," in which only so much matter is introduced as may be easily and intelligently co-ordinated in a twelve-month ; these manuals would, moreover, be of such a limited price as to i)revent either the State or the individual from " paying too dear for its whistle." With such ponderous volumes as we now use, co-ordination is impossible. The whole lesson becomes a mere recitation, the pupils so many ma- chines, and the teacher the great hear-all, who has no time to interest his liupils There is one subject, however, among the many to which reference might be made, that must call for notice here. That subject is read- ing. With many leading educators it may fairly be assumed that, in grammar and high schools, the students read too often. Two readings per week, intelligently given, are sufficient. If properly co-ordinated these would create a vast improvement in the status of our schools. Suppose we take Eobertson's delightful description of "Three Days in the Life of Columbus." After the plan which co-ordination sug- 882 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. G9 gests, it might be well, a few days before this reading, to aunounce a "class talk," in which Columbus and his times would be discussed. Easily procured manuals should be suggested, and instructions givea to a certain number of pupils to consult the local library, with whose librarian an understanding should be previously established. Next, the teacher might draw a rough sketch of the island of San Salvador, or, using the more modernized name, Cat Island. This done, the subject might be dropped till the day for the reading lesson, when the entire subject might be divided as follows : Suppose a class of thirty, let the pupils be divided into groups of four, five, or six. The first group might undertake the geographical tracing required to show the course taken by Columbus. The second could memorize De Lisle's exquisite poems on this same lesson, each boy or girl only learning enough to complete the poem in the group. The third would be directed to read something about the Moors in Spain, with a request to furnish a very short resume of same. To the fourth might be assigned the sketching of the coats-of-arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, while the fifth would be busily engaged reading up the sketches of other American explorers. Finally, to the fifth, composed of the so called duller lads, but often the most practical, could be as- signed the collecting of sea- weed or moss, or the cutting out and fash- ioning of a little ship similar to one of those shown in the illustrations. Of course, if there were any girls in the class the making of the sails would fall to their share. These objects would next be placed in the school museum, and it may safely be claimed that the afternoon selected for such a reading lesson, thus co-ordinated, would find all seats filled, few dull, and assuredly fewer uninterested listeners. The chairman called attention to the meeting of the International Congress of Educators in the afternoon, and at 12.35 p. M. the session adjourned. THIED SESSI0:N^. The third session of the Department was called to order on Thurs- day, February 2Gth, at 9.30 a. m., Hon. John Hancock presiding. The Chairman announced as first in order the following paper by Dr. W. T. Harris : MORAL EDUCATION IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS. The separation of Church and State is an acknowledged i>rinciple in our national government, and its interpretation from generation to gen- eration eliminates with more and more of strictness whatever ceremo- nies and observances of a religious character still remain attached to secular customs and usages. Inasmuch as religion, in its definition of what is to be regarded as divine, at the same time furnishes the ultimate and supreme ground of ■ . b«3 70 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. all obligation, it stands in the closest of relations to morality, which we may define as that system of duties or obligations which govern the re- lation of man'to himself as individual, and as race or social whole. To the thinking observer, nothing can be more obvious than the fact that the institutions of society are created and sustained by the moral activity of man. The moral training of the young is essential to the preservation of civilization. The so-called fabric of society is woven out of moral distinctions and observances. The network of habits and usages which make social combination possible, which enable men to live together as a community, constitutes ao ethical system. In that ethical system only is spiritual life possible. Without such a system even the lowest stage of society, that of the mere savage, could not exist. In proportion to the completeness of development of its ethical system, a community rises from barbarism. It is quite clear that so deep a change in the principle of human gov- ernment as the separation of Church and State involves the most im- portant consequences to the ethical life of a people. All thoughtful people, therefore, look with solicitude on the institutions of an edaca- tional character that are founded among us, in order to discover what means, if any, can remain for moral education, after its ecclesiastical foundation has been removed. It happens quite naturally that the best people in the community struggle to retain the ecclesiastical forms and ceremonies in the secular. They find themselves unable to discriminate between the provinces of. morality and religion. With them education in morality means educa- tion in performing religious rites. This religious view certainly does not harmonize with the political convictions of our people. From year to year we see the religious rites and ceremonies set aside in the legislature, the town meeting, tlie j)ub- lic assembly, the school. If retained, they become empty forms with no appreciable effect. In this sad state of affairs it becomes important to consider all other means of cultivating the ethical sense, and especially to discover how it is that institutions may be emancipated from the direct control of the Church. Without entering into this question in its details, at the present time, we may remark that the history of Christiau civilization shows us a con- tinuous spectacle of the development of institutions into independence. It is a sort of training or nurture of institutions by the Church into a degree of maturity, in which they come to be able to live and thrive without the support of mere ecclesiastical authority. Bat an institution attains its majority only when it has become thoroughly grounded on some fundamental divine principle. The State, for instance, is organized on the principle of justice — the return of each man's deed to himself. On such principle the State may be 8-^4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 71 couducted without fear of collision with the Church or other institu- tions. The school, too, has certain divine principles which it has borrowed from the Church through long centuries of tutelage, and may perhaps be conducted by itself without Church authority and yet be a positive auxiliary to the Church and the cause of religion. Let us study these characteristics. The school proposes at first this object — to implant in the pupil a knowledge of man and nature ; in short, to initiate him into the realm of truth. Certainly Truth is divine, and religion itself is chiefly busied with discovering and interpreting the divine First Principle of the universe and His personal relations to men. In so far, therefore, as truth — real truth, in harmony with the personality of God, and not spurious truth — is taught in the school, it is a positive auxiliary to the Church and to religion. But the intellectual pursuit of truth in the school is conditioned upon a deeper principle. Order is the first law, even of Heaven. The gov- ernment of human beings in a community is a training for them in the forms of social life. The school must strictly enforce a code of laws. The so-called discipline of the school is its primordial condition, and is itself a training in habits essential to life in a social whole, and hence is itself moral training. Let us study the relation of school discipline to the development of moral character, and compare its code of duties with the ethical code as a whole. First, let us take an ideal survey of the whole field, and see what is desirable, before we examine the results of the school as actually fur- nished. One may distinguish moral duties or habits which ought to be taught to youth into three classes : {a) Mechanical virtues, in which the youth exercises a minimum of moral choice and obeys an external rule pre- scribed for him. In this, the lowest species of moral discipline, the youth learns self-denial and self-control, and not much else, (b) Social duties, those which gov^ern the relation of man to man and which are the properly called "moral" duties. In this form of moral discipline the youth learns to obey principle rather than the immediate will of another or a mechanical prescription, (c) Eeligious duties, or those based on the relation to God as revealed in religion. In these the youth learns the ultimate grounds of obligation, and gains both a practical principle for the conduct of life, and a theoretic principle on which to base his view of the world. In his religious doctrine man formulates his theory of the origin and destiny of nature and the human race, and at the same time defines his eternal vocation, his fundamental duties. The mere statement of this obvious fact is suflBcient to indicate the rank and importance of the religious part of the moral duties. Turning now to the school, let us take an inventory of its means and 885 12 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION- appliances for moral education in the line of these several divisions. Let us remember, too, that morality consists iu practice rather than in theory, and that the school can teach morality only when it trains the will into ethical habits, and not when it stops short with inculcating a correct theoretical view of right and wrong, useful as such view may be. (I) In the school we note, first, the moral effect of the requirement of implicit obedience, a requirement necessary within the school for it» successful administration. The discipline in obedience in its strict form, such as it is found in the school-rooiTi, has four other applications- which remain valid under all conditions of society : {a) Obedience to- ward parents; (&) toward employers, overseers, and supervisors, as re- gards the details of work ; (c) toward the Government in its legally constituted authority, civil or military ; (d) toward the divine will, how- soever revealed. In each of these four forms there is, and always remains, a sphere of greater or less interest, within which implicit obedience is one's duty. In the three first-named this duty is not absolute, but limited, the sphere continually growing narrower with the growth of the individual in wis- dom and self-directive power. In the fourth form of obedience (to the divine will) the individual comes more and more to a personal insight into the necessity of the divine law as revealed in Scripture, in nature, and especially in human life, and he becomes, through this, emanci- l)ated relatively from the direct personal control of man, even of the wisest and best, and becomes rather a law unto himself. He outgrows mere mechanical obedience, and arrives at a truly moral will, iu which the law is written on the heart. Obedience, as a habit, to what is prescribed by an authority is obvi- ously a training that fits one for religion, even if religion has no direct part in such training. Hence the school, even when perfectly secular, in securing implicit obedience, is iu so far an auxiliary of the Church. The pillars on which school education rests are behavior and scholar- ship. Deportment, or behavior, comes first as the sine qua non. The first requisite of the school is order ; each pupil must be taught to con- form his behavior to the general standard., and repress all that inter- feres with the function of the school. In the outset, therefore, a whole family of virtues are taught the pupil, and taught him so thoroughly that they become fixed in his character. In the mechanical duties habit is everything and theory little or nothing. The pupil is taught: (a) Punctuality; he must be at school in time; sleep, business, play, indisposition, aU must give way to the duty of obedience to this exter- nal requirement — to observe the particular moment of time and con- form to it. Punctuality does not end with getting to school, but while in school it is of equal importance. Combination cannot be achieved without it. The pupil must have his lessons ready at the appointed time, must ris& 886 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 73 from his seat at the tap of the bell, move to line, return ; in short, he must go through all the class evolutions with this observance of rhythm. (b) Regularity is the next discipline. Regularity is punctuality re- duced to a system. Conformity to the requirements of time in a par- ticular instance is punctuality; made general, it becomes regularity. Combination in school rests on those two virtues. Thej^ are the most elementary' of the moral code — its alphabet, in short. This age is often' called the age of productive industry, the era of emancipation of maa from the drudgery of slavery to his natural wants of food, clothing, and shelter. This emancipation is effected by machinery. Machinery has quadrupled the efficieucj' of human industry within the past half cen- tury. There is one general training needed to prepare the generation of men who are to act as directors of machinery and managers of the business that depends upon it. This training is in the habits of punctu- ality and regularity. Only by obedience to these abstract external laws of time aiid place may we achieve social combination complete enough to free us from thralldom to our physical wants and necessities. (c) Silence is the third of these semi mechanical duties. It is the basis for the culture of internality or reflection, the soil in which thought grows. The pupil is therefore taught habits of silence, to re- strain his natural animal impulse to prate and chatter. All ascent above his animal nature arises through this ability to hold back the mind from utterance of the immediate impulse. The first impression must be corrected by the second. Combination • and generalization are required to reach deep and wide truths, and those depend upon this habit of silence. Thus silence in the school-room has a twofold significance : It is nec- essary in order that there may be no distraction of the attention of others from their work; secondly, it is a direct discipline in the art of combining the diffused and feeble efforts of the pupil himself. These mechanical duties constitute an elementary training in morals,, without which it is exceedingly difiQcult to build any superstructure of moral character whatever. Moral education therefore must begin in merely mechanical obedience, and develop gradually out of this stage towards that of individual responsibility. (II) The higher order of moral duties falls into two classes, those that relate to the individual himself, and those that relate to his fellows. (a) Duties to self. These are — (1) Physical, and concern cleanliness, neatness in personal clothing,^ temperance and moderation in animal appetites and passions. The school can and does teach cleanliness and neatness, but it has less power over the pupil in regard to temperance. It can teach him self-control and self-sacrifice in those disciplines already named, punctuality, reg- ularity, and silence, and in so far it may free him from thralldom to 8«7 74 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the body iu other respects. It can and does labor efficiently against obscenity and profanity. (2) Self-culture. This duty belongs especially to the school. All of its lessons contribute to the pupil's self-culture. By its discipline it gives him contrpl over himself and ability to combine with his fellow men ; by its instruction it gives him knowledge of the world of nature and man. This duty corresponds nearly to the one named prudence in ancient ethical systems. The Christian Fathers discuss four cardinal virtues, — temperance, prudence, fortitude, and justice. Prudence places the individual above and beyond his present moment, as it were, let- ting him stand over himself, watching and directing himself. Man is a twofold being, having a particular, special self, and a general nature, his ideal self, the possibility of perfection. Self-culture stands for the theoretical or intellectual side of this cardinal virtue of prndence, while industry is its practical side. (3) Industry. This virtue means devotion to one's calling or business. Each one owes it to himself to have some business and to be industri- ous. The good school does not tolerate idleness. It has the most effi- cient means of securing industry from its pupils. Each one has a def- inite task scrupulously adjusted to his capacity, and he will be held re- sponsible for its performance. Is there any better training yet devised to educate youth into industry and its concomitants of sincerity, ear- nestness, simplicity, perseverance, patience, faithfnlness, and reliability, than the school method of requiring work in definite amounts, at defi- nite times, and of an approved quality % The pupil has provided for him a business or vocation. By industry and self sacrifice the pupil is ini- tiated into a third of the cardinal virtues, fortitude. * (&) Duties to others. Duties to self rest on the consciousness of a higher nature jn the in- dividual, and of the duty of bringing out and realizing this higher nature. Duties to others recognize this higher ideal nature as some- thing general, and hence as also the true inward self of our fellow men. This ideal of man we are conscious that we realize only very imperfectly, and yet it is the fact that we have the possibility of realizing a higher ideal in ourselves that gives us our value above animals and plants. In our fellow men we see revelations of this ideal nature that we have not yet realized ourselves. Each one possesses some special gift or quality that helps us know ourselves. The experience of each man is a contribution toward our self-knowledge, and vicariously aids us with- out our being obliged to pay for it in the pain and suffering that the original experience cost. Inasmuch as our ideal can be realized only through this aid from our fellow men, the virtues that enable us to com- bine with others and form institutions, precede in importance the me- chanical virtues. There are three classes of duties toward others : (1) Courtesy, including all forms of i>oliteness, good breeding, urbanity, H88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 75 decorum, modesty, respect for public opiuiou, liberality, maguaniinity, etc., described uuder various uames by Aristotle and others after him. The essence of this virtue consists in the resolution to see in others only the ideal of humanity, and to ignore any and all defects that may be apparent. Courtesy in many of its forms is readily taught in school. Its teach- ing is often marred by the manner of the teacher, which may be sour and surly, or petulant and fault finding. The importance of this virtue, both to its possessor and to all his fellows, demands a more careful at- tention on the part of school managers to secure its presence in the school-room. (13) Justice. This is recognized as the chief in the family of secular virtues. It has several forms or species, as, for example, («) honesty, the fair dealing with others, respect for their rights of person and prop- erty and reputation ; {b) truth-telling, honesty itself being truth-acting. Such uames as integrity, uprighcness, righteousness, express further distinctions that belong to this staunch virtue. Justice, like courtesy in the fact that it looks upon the ideal of the individual, is unlike courtesy in the fact that it looks upou the deed of the individual in a very strict and business like way, and measures its defects by the high standard. According to the principle of justice, each one receives in proportion to his deeds, and not in proportion to his possibilities, wishes, or unrealized aspirations. All individuals are ideally.equal in the essence of their humanity; but justice will return upon each the equivalent of his deed only. If it is a crime, justice re- turns it upon the doer by a limitation of his personal freedom or prop- erty. The school is perhaps more effective in teaching the forms of justice than in .teaching those of courtesy. Truth-telling especially receives the full emphasis of all the power of school discipline. Every lesson is an exercise in digging out and closely defining the truth, in extend- ing the realm of clearness and certainty further into the region of igno- 'raiice and guesswork. How careful the pupil is compelled to be with his statements and with his previous preparation ! Justice in discovering the exact performance of each pupil, and in giving him recognition for it, may give place to injustice in case of care- lessness on the part of the teacher. Sucli carelessness may sulfer the weeds of lying and deceit to grow up, and it may allow the guilty pupil to gather the fruits of honesty and truth, and thus it may offer a pre- mium for fraud. The school may thus furnish an immoral education, notwithstanding its great opportunities to inculcate this noble virtue of honesty. The private individual must not be permitted to return the evil deed upon the doer, for that would be revenge ; hence a new crime. All possibility of self-interest must be sifted out before justice can be done to the criminal. Hence we have another virtue — 889 76 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. (3) Respect for laio, which, as the 011I5' meaus of protecting the inuo- cent and puuishiug tlie guilty, is the complemeut of justice. It looks upon the ideal as realized, not in an individual man, but in an institu- tion represented in the person of an executive officer who is supported with legislative and judicial powers. The scxbool. wlien g;jverned by an arbitrary and tyrannical teacher, is a fearfully demoralizing influence in a community. The law-abiding virtue is weakened, and a whole troop of lesser virtues take their flight and give admittance to passions and appetites. But, on the other hand, the teacher may teach respect for law very thoroughly. In this matter a great change has been wrought in the methods of discipline in later years. Corporal punishment has been very largely disused. It is clear that with frequeut and severe corporal i)uui8hment it is next to impos- sible to retain genuine respect for law. Only the very rare teacher can succeed in this. Punishment through the sense of honor has therefore superseded for the most part in our best schools the use of the rod. It is now easy to find the school admirably disciplined, and its pupils en- thusiastic and law-abiding, when governed entirely without the use of corporal punishment. The school possesses very great advantages over the family in this matter of teaching respect for law. The parent is too near the child, too personal, to teach him this lesson. At this point we approach the province of (III) Keligious duties. Higher than the properly moral duties, or at least higher than the secular or cardinal virtues, are certain ones which are called "celestial" virtues by the theologians. These are faith, hope, and charity, and their special modifications. The question may arise whether any instruction in these duties can be given which is not sectarian. An affirmative answer will have to show only that the essential scope of these virtues has a secular meaning, and that the secular meaning is more fundamental than in the cases of the so-called cardinal virtues. (1) Faith in a theologic sense means the true knowledge of the first> principle of the universe. Everybody presupposes some theory or view of the world, its origin and destiny, in all his practical and theoretical dealing with it. Christendom assumes a personal Creator, of divine- human nature, who admits man to grace in such a way that he is not destroyed by the results of his essential imperfection, but is redeemed in some special way. The Buddhist and Brahmin think that fortitude and imperfection are utterly incompatible with the divine being, and hence that the things of the world cannot be permitted to have real ex- istence. They exist only in our fancy. Here is no grace, no redemp- tion. Nature is not a real existence to such a theory, and hence there can be no natural science. In Christian countries the prevading institutions and confessions of faith recognize this belief in a divine- human G-od of grace, and their 890 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 77 people more or less cultivate science. Some persons tlieoretically deny this belief, but cling to science, wbicli is itself based on the deep-lying assumption that the world is a manifestation of Reason. Such skeptics have not yet measured the consequences of their theories, and for our purposes may be said to belong to the Faith, inasmuch as the reality of a finite world presupposes a personal God whose essential attribute is grace. The agnostic, too, is strenuous in acknowledging the practical importance of the code of moral duties. The prevailing view of the world in Christian countries is very prop- erly called Faith, inasmuch as it is not a view pieced together from the experience of the senses, nor a product of individual reflection unaided by the deep intuitions of the spiritual seers of the race. • Faith is a secular virtue as well as a theological virtue; and whoever teaches another view of the world, that is to say, he who teaches that man is not immortal and that nature does not reveal the divine Eea- json, teaches a doctrine subversive of faith in this peculiar sense, and also subversive of man's life in all that makes it worthliving. (2) Hope, the second theological virtue, is the practical side of faith. Faith is not properly the belief in any theory of the world, but in the l)articular theory of the world that Christianity teaches. So Hope is not a mere anticipation of some future event, but the firm expectation that the destiny of the world is in accordance with the scheme of faith, no matter how much any present appearances may be against it. Thus the individual acts upon this conviction. It is the basis of the highest practical doing in this world. A teacher may show faith and hope in the views of the world which he evinces in his dealings with his school, in his teaching of history, in his comments on the reading lessons, in his treatment of the aspirations of his pupils. Although none of these things may be consciously traced to their source by the pupils, yet their instinct will discover the genuine faith and hope. Nothing is so diflQ- cult to conceal as one's conviction in regard to the origin and destiny of the world and of man. (3) Finally, Charity is the highest of these virtues, in the sense that it is the concrete embodiment and application of that view of the world which Faith and Hope establish. The world is made and governed by divine grace, and that grace will triumph in the world. Hence, says the individual, " Let me be filled with this principle, and hold within myself this divine feeling of grace toward all fellow creatures." Charity is therefore not almsgiving, but a devotion to others. "Sell all thou hast, and follow me." Faith per- ceives the principle; hope believes in it where it is not yet visible ; charity sets it up in the soul and lives it. There might be conceived a faith or insight into this principle of divine grace, and a hope that should trust it where not seen, and still there be in the possessor of the faith and hope a lack of charity. In that case the individual would ac- 891 78 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. knowledge the principle everywhere, but would not admit it to himself^ With charity all other virtues are implied, even justice. While courtesy acts toward men as if they were ideally perfect and had no defects, while justice holds each man responsible for the perfect accordance of his deed with his ideally perfect nature and makes no allowance for immaturity, charity sees both the ideal perfection and the real imperfection, and does not condemn, but offers to help, the other, and is willing and glad to sacrifice itself and assist the imperfect to struggle toward perfection. The highest virtue, charity, has, of all the virtues, the largest family of synonyms: humility, considerateness, heroism, gratitude, friendli- ness and va^'ious shades of love in the family (parental, filial, fraternal, and conjugal), sympathy, pity, benevolence, kindness, toleration, pa- triotism, generosity, public- spirit, philanthropy, beneficence, concord, harmony, peaceableness, tenderness, forgiveness, mercy, grace, long- suffering, etc., etc. The typical form of this virtue, as it may be cultivated in school, is known under the name of kindness. A spirit of true kindness, if it can be made to pervade a school, would be the highest fountain of virtue. That such a spirit can exist in a school as an emanation from a teacher, we know from many a saintly example that has walked in the faith of the Great Teacher. From the definition of this principle it is easy to deduce a verdict against all those systems of rivalry and emulation in school which stim- ulate ambition beyond the limits of g^erous competition to the point of selfishness. Selfishness is the roorof mortal sin, as theologians teU us, and the lowest type of it is cold, unfeeling pride, while envy is the type next to it. Returning to our first question, we repeat, In a state which has no established Church, and in a system of public schools that is not per. mitted to be under the control of sects or denominations, what shall be the fate of dogmatic instruction in morals, especially instruction in that part of morals which rests upon the celestial virtues 'I Of course, the problem is still a simple one in parochial schools and denominational schools. But it is not proper for us to ignore the dangers incurred even in strictly parochial schools. The more strict the denominational con- trol, the less likely is there to pervade the school that spirit of toler- ance and charity toward others which is the acknowledged deepest taproot of the virtues. Were the community, however, generous in its confessions of faith, religious instruction could still properly remain in school. The move- ment of American society is not, however, in that direction, and it is quite likely that the Church must see formal religious instruction, even to the ceremony of reading the Bible, leave the common schools alto- gether. But a formal reading of the Bible " without note or comment,'^ or a formal prayer on opening school, is surely not religious or moral 892 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 79 instruction in any such ejBBcient sense as to warrant any Christian man or woman in sitting down in content and claiming a religious hold on the popular education. Such a delusive content is indeed too prevalent. There never was a time when the need was greater for a widespread evangelical movement to begin, that shall make real once more the faith that is well-nigh become a mere formula. A Eobert Eaikes, now and here, to give new vitality to the Sunday- school movement, a concerted series of movefnents like that of Dr. Vin- cent, are needed. It is not the undoing of the separation of Church and State, even in the common schools, nor the struggle to maintain a frigid and bloodless '' non-sectarian " (so-called) religion in our schools, that is to succeed or to do any good. It is for the Churches to rouse from danger, and proselyte by new means and appliances, as well adapted to the present day as the Sunday-school movement was seventy years ago. It is for the teachers, not to claim the right to introduce formal re- ligious ceremonies, but to make all their teaching glow with a genuine faith, hope, and charity, so that pupils will catch from them their view of the world as the only one that satisfies the heart and the intellect and the will. Let us note the fact that in the mechanical virtues, so important to making good citizens, the training in the schools is already admirable. Human freedom is realized, not by the unaided effort of the individual, but by his concerted or combined effort in organized institutions*like the state and civil society. Those mechanical virtues make possible the help of the individual in this combination, and fit him for the modern world now bent on the conquest of nature. The social virtues, justice, politeness, and obedience to law, may be equally well provided for, although in fact they are not successfully taught in every school. The celestial virtues can be taught by teachers inspired by those virtues, and hy none others. The empty profession of such virtues with- out the devotion of the life to them, is likely in the school, even more than elsewhere, to produce the well-known practical result of altruism. Finally, let us call up the main conclusions, and reduce them to their briefest expression. 1. Moral education is a training in habits, and not an inculcation of mere theoretical views. 2. Mechanical disciplines are indispensable as an elementary basis of moral character. 3. Lax discipline in a school saps the moral character of the pupil. It allows him to work merely as he pleases, and he never can re-enforce his feeble will by regularity, punctuality, and systematic industry. He grows uj) in habits of whispering and other species of intermeddling with his fellow pupils, neither doing what is reasonable himself nor allowing others to do it. Never having subdued himself, he never will subdue 893 80 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the world of chaos or any part of it as his life work, but will have to be subdued by external constraint on the part of his fellow men. 4. Too strict discipline, on the other hand, undermines moral charac- ter by emphasizing too much the mechanical duties, and especially the phase of obedience to authority, and it leaves the pupil in a state of perennial minority. He does not assimilate the law of duty and make it his own. The law is not written on his heart, but is written on lips only. He fears it, but does not love it. The tyrant teacher produces hypocrisy and deceit in his i)upils. All manner of fraud germinates iu attempts to cover up shortcomings from the eye of the teacher. Even where there is simple implicit obedience in the place of fraud and the like, there is no independence and strength of character de- veloped. 5. The best help one can give his fellows is that which enables them to help themselves. The best school is that which makes the pupils -able to teach themselves. The best instruction in morality makes the pupil a law unto himself. Hence strictness, which is indispensable, must be tempered by such devices as cause the pupil to love to obey the law for the law's sake. The committee on nominations then made the following report, which was adopted unanimously: President — Hon. Wareen Easton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Louisiana. Vice-President — Hon. T. B. Stockwell, State Superintendent of Education of Rhode Fsland. Secretary — Hon. D.B. Johnson, Superintendent of Schools of Colum- bia, S. C. These officers were declared elected for the ensuing year. Col. W. P. Johnston, President of Tulane University, then read the following paper: ON THE RELATION OF THE UNIVERSITY TO THE COMMON SCHOOL. Oentlemen of the Department — The topic you have assigned me for discussion is one of great moment in our educational system. To pre- sent the question fully would require more time than your jjatience or the limitations of the occasion would readily allow ; but there are some obvious points which occur to me, that may do somewhat toward plac- ing the subject in its true light before this audience. You will be told, and truly told, that universities may exist where there are no common schools, and that the light comes from above; but to have preceded them even, and to have made them possible, is some relation at least. But whether the common schools are the intellectual offspring of the universities, as is the case in all other countries, or, as some may claim in newer communities, the universities are the product and flower of the common schools, they deal in both cases with the de- 894 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 81 velopmeut of the citizen, the oue beginning and the other finishing his education ; the one lays the foundation, the other sets the capstone of the edifice. What is a university ? It is an institution representing the best learn- ing and highest teaching-power of the community in which it exists. The universities in the Middle Ages, with their trivium and their quad- riviujn, taught the best of what was then known ; and now, though they fall so far short of their full scope and ideal, they are still the citadels of science, the strongholds of culture and high thought. They consti- tute that OapitolineHill from which the standards of the Eternal City are carried down by its panoplied legionaries for service or strife. If the common school is the starting point and the university the close of edu- cation, they certainly have a connection and relation. Let us consider what this is. Education is integral. In whatever terms defined, it is a preparation of a younger generation by an older for the work of life. Some of it is carried on in the streets ; this is unconscious education. Some in the shop or office ; this is . special. The last of all is the education of the home, which combines all these. What is then left for the school-room ? Intellectual training is a comparatively small part of the whole. It has monopolized the term " education" to the exclusion of other influences, because while the others are more or less implicit or indirect, school education is avowedly and aggressively informing, instructively educa- tional in its purpose and methods. It is the preparation for life, so far as it can be given by formal didactic methods. Where education shall begin, and how far it shall proceed, and by what agencies and studies it must be carried on, will depend on many circumstances in the condition of the community and of the individual. But with each individual mind that enters on this formative process, the progress is, while it lasts, continuous. We differentiate time by day and night, by the seasons, by years, and by cycles, but time itself flows on past our landmarks like a great river. So a human life in its indi- viduality, its continuity, its development, flows on past the landmarks we would set up for it. It is one. It has its dawn, its matin hour, its noon, its prime, its evening, its gloaming, its final shadows, and its cur- tained darkness in death ; but it is day till the night comes. It is one. So we differentiate the long day of educational preparation which is closed only by the nightfall of death. We mark it off into spaces. We assign this to the nursery, and that to the kindergarten, and still other spaces to more advanced education, and the last of all to the work of life. But, still, it is essentially one process, the development of the man. We must remember that all the agencies we employ in this process, common school, high school, college, and university, are but successive mansions in our Father's house, even as the vestibule, the antechamber, and the audience hall lead us to the foot of the great throne, from which is the effluence of all light and knowledge. 895 82 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. The relatiou of the university to the commoa schools is through the high school and the college It is but a higher link in the golden chain that depends from above. It represents the highest phase of formal school education. If any higher is yet to be discovered, it will still be- long to the university. The common school, in its different strata, rep- resents the lowest, and likewise the broadest, phase of popular educa- tion. Between them are the high school and the college. I take the liberty of quoting from a report which, though printed some eighteen months ago, has not been published. The educationul system of auy people, to be complete, must constitute a finished and homogeneous structure. It should be a pyramid with the common schools at its base, and the university at its apex. Such is the much admired German system, which is consistent with itself and complete in all its parts. Whether, then, our uni- versity owes its existence to legislative wisdom or private munificence, intended aa it is to perform an important part in the public education of the State, it should recog- nize fully its relations to every other part of the educational system, and seek to bring each and all into that harmony which will insure improvement. It is both good pol- icy aud wise administration to i)lant the university on the popular affections and in- terests, and to aid ptiblic instruction wherever it can be safely done. Of course, the fundamental principle of such a policy is to make the beneficence of our work as real, expansive, and manifest, as human fallibility will permit. In the first report I made as the President of the Louisiana State University, in December, 1880, I set forth the mutual interdependence of all the parts of our educational system and the urgent need of help in securing its blessings to our population. The following was my lan- guage : On the free-school system of etlucation rests the hope of the development, if not of the preservation, of our material interests and of our liberties in the United States. This is especially true of the South, and in no State has it greater significance than in Louisiana. The control of the most sacred rights of property, of the subtlest ques- tions of morals and law, of the most delicate functions of polity, and of the funda- mentals of civilization itself, are now, perforce, intrusted to the masses, largely made up of Ignorant freedmen. It behooves the State, as the conservator of society, to use every power and energy to enlighten this dense and dangerous darkness. It should extend to its colored citizens the benefits of education, and lead them to a higher and purer plane of intelligence. But it should remember that it must depend chiefly upon the white race, with its immemorial right of leadership, for its ability to keep pace in the march of civilization with happier and more favored commonwealths. It should not withhold nor stint its hand in giving, to equip these of its sons for the struggle of life. To this end, common schools should invite the humblest of its citizens to learn those elements of knowledge which should be the general heritage of freemen. Higher schools should receive generous State aid, so that those willing to make sacrifices should not be without the opportunity of advancing along the rugged path of knowledge ; and, crowning the public school system as a cap-sheaf, the most fruitful gift of this benignant harvest of learning, should be the university. A part of that system and its culmination, the university should open its doors freely to all who aspire to the higher education. It oughu not to usurp the functions of the primary school or of the high school, but should reserve its energies for those who have pa- tiently undergone their preliminary training. These it should foster with the most sedulous care, and the university should be the nursery of the teachers of our public schools. From its walls yearly should go forth men fully equipped by training, gen- 896 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 83 (Piral information, and special instruction in the best methods of the normal school, which has its greatest efficiency as a branch in a imiversity. These men should constitute that army of schoolmasters who are to vanquish ignorance in Louisiana. A king of Sparta, when asked with reference to its walls, pointed to his soldiers and replied, "The city is well fortified which hath a wall of men instead of brick." So in the great edifice of popular education, every human soul in the community should be built into the solid struct- ure, in its place, at base or at summit. But if the university and the common schools represent successive phases of a man's development, they should not do the same work. One deals with the multitude, with a mighty host, the levy en ?na«S6, who go out to fight the battle of life. These have but a brief time for disci- plined drill. In it they can learn but a few things well ; but if these are learned very well, as they may be, they are a great help in the life of the learner; they are sufficient for his purposes as a private in the grand army. And as in a truly constituted array every private may carry a marshal's baton in his knapsack, so in a free country every citi- zen, with this start, has his chauce, if ability, courage, and good fort- une are with him. But though the high school and the college afford the training that fits men to be officers in this army, neither they nor the university can make generals of them, even though it had a power to commission as such. "A prince can mak a belted knight, A marquis, duke, and a' that ; But an honest man's aboon his might, Guid faith he mauna fa' that! " The king who creates a peer cannot make him a gentleman. The school cannot make a scholar, because it does not furnish brains to its pupils. The university creates the elite corps of culture, the engineers of thought. I would not have the approaches to it along a narrow decliv- ity, but, with its wide gates thrown open to every quarter of the heavens, it should welcome every comer whose faculties and powers are trained for service on the field of life. The university fits him for still more difficult achievements. The common school, then, gives the elementary education. The sec- ondary schools should begin the work of differentiation in courses of study, which branch out, as you rise in the scale through high school and college to the university, where the work becomes special and pro- fessional. The comn)on school gives the general education, the sec- ondary schools the higher education, and the university the highest of all. But the university has still another function, whatever may be its re- striction in a highly specialized system, like the Prussian. Here it has much work to do which may be called supplementary work, which ia 897 84 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. not done and cannot be done by primary or secondary schools, for lack of means or other sufiicient cause. Permit me to quote myself again : If education has been correctly defined, and the university represjents its highest phase, the question naturally arises, " Where does this phase commence ?" In a highly organized society, the whole work of education may be regularly distributed to the primary school, the high school, the college, and the university, with the aid of pro- fessional, technical, and other special schools. But in America, and especially in the South, we must do what we can, not what we would. The university is, without ex- ception, obliged to perform the duties of the college, and generally of the high school also. There can be no objection to this, if such an institution grasps the whole prob- lem in its entirety, and yet recognizes the essential difference between the spirit and methods of its lower and higher departments. A university may begin where its cir- cumstances and the condition of its people require, so only that it shall not close its work without offering to its students those chartered rights to liberal knowledg.^, that emancipation of thought, which is the true key-note of academic freedom and uni- versity life. That this is not the idea of the German university, I admit. That idea involves a complete severance of the gymnasium, or college, from the university. But forms and ideas must yield to actual conditions. And, much as it would shock a Ger- man university professor to tell him so, I am sure that for the teacher himself it is a higher discipline to be able and compelled to teach in both the university and the college, than in either alone. If a higher discipline, then a higher man is the out- come ; and, though the direct results may be less obvious, the indirect evolution of all concerned should be larger. Now let me illustrate from our work here. If you will pardon me, I will quote from the leport already cited as made to my Board, as to one of the functions of a university : A university should combine in its work three objects : the higher education of the young, the extension of the area of original research, investigation, and discovery, and the elevation of the public tone and culture. This last is done, in part, uncon- Bciously and without any direct effort. [The speaker then showed how it was effected through the influence of the faculty and alumni, and through the influence of a free public library, offering and opening its benefits to all.] This is true also of art galleries and museums. The museum is the workshop of the scientist and the kindergarten of the people. It teaches natural science without a master. The most direct method of reaching the popular mind, however, is through popular lectures. Conducted by able men, they awaken the spirit of inquiry in many breasts, and diffuse important information. This is said to be a difficult community to reach by this method. But if free, and guaranteed by the university, and on subjects interesting to the community, it will after a while become the habit, and perhaps the fashion, to attend them. This university is doing what it can to raise the popular intelligence by free lectures on physiology and hygiene, and by free systematic instruction in drawing to teachers, and in night classes for the benefit of mechanics and others. There is just one other point I wish to allude to in a paper which pro- fesses to touch the surface of the subject merely. It is the reiterated demand of this or that educator for a university or a college to adopt 898 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 85 his standard of scholastic orthodox}-. You shall follow this method or that method, or issue only this degree or that degree, and for such and such courses of study j otherwise you are schismatic, heretical, out of the ring. This is all nonsense. Who shall fix the standards'? Cer- tainly not those who are changing color as fast as the forest leaves when the frost comes. Education in America, in the world, is growing. It is feeling the full consciousness of its own expanding power. It has burst its shackles. It feels its strength. The great danger now is, that in the consciousness of new-found powers it may waste its energies in wrong directions, that it may forget the wisdom of the past. But while so much is tentative, while new problems are presented daily for our solution, we must beware of a slavish adoption of models. To do a thing merely because it has been done somewhere else, is the worst rea- son that can be assigned, unless we can show that the situations are ex- actly the same. You may make your coat of the same material as another man's, because he commends its texture, but you will h ave it cut to fit yourself, and not by his pattern. So we must adapt our educational institutions in each particular case to our own wants, and not another's. Solon made not the best code, but the best code for the Athenians. In arranging our schools, of whatever grade, we have to diagnose the case, as the doctors say. All the circumstances must be studied. We must do the best we can, not the best we would. In striving after ideals, it is not well to forget that we are of the earth, earthy. If we have a university, or a system of private high schools, and no common schools, it is well to regard the former in framing the latter. If the re- verse is the case, we must build on the public schools. In either case we are bound to regard the social culture and the educational condition of the people for whom we legislate. In a word, we should use a little common sense. And we need not be discouraged in either common school or university organization and work, if we fall far short of our hopes and plans and ideals. Experience teaches that such is the com- mon lot; and, if we are more fortunate, a wise humility will lead us to suspect that it is due more to luck than management ; or, to express the thought more truly and exactly, that Providence has favored us beyond our deserts. For, " Man proposes, but God disposes." In a word, then, I may say, that a direct relation exists between the university and the common schools, as successive phases of educational development, through the secondary schools and colleges, and that the relation should be recognized in the organization and development of each; and, moreover, that where circumstances require it, the univer- sity should do all necessary supplementary work within its power. Hon. D. L. KiEHLE, State Superintendent of Public Instruction for Minnesota, said : The theories announced here I cannot stop to con- sider. I will add, however, that our law requires that high schools receiving State aid shall receive uou residents to the liigh school upon •V satisfactory examination, so that these schools become free schools 899 86 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. for the use of the neighborhood. Professor Payne, of Ann Arbor, visited us, and gave a course of lectures at the University, and became acquainted with our work there, and he approved it as very superior. The promises are excellent. I desire to have it known what atten- tion we are giving to this matter. You can think about it from time to time, and in the future we shall know more about it than at present, but our confidence is continually growing. I will also say that the normal schools have passed a rule that in the case of students coming from high schools their certificates from the high school boards shall be accepted in lieu of an examination. The Chairman stated that Wisconsin had also adopted a similar rule. Mr. Bote asked whether any particular number of pupils was re- quired. Mr. KiEHLE replied that every school should have a minimum of twenty. Dr. Harbis. I suppose, Mr. Chairman, by the report from Harvard alluded to, that Harvard proposes to throw open its doors and allow persons not fitted in Latin and Greek to be admitted to certain uni- versity courses preparatory to a degree, in case they are sufficiently qualified in other things. During the move in that direction some years ago, instead of requiring less preparation in Latin and Greek, we se- cured more. It seems to nie that it is the desire of the Faculty that it shall be on a healthy basis, and not on an artificial basis. In Harvard there is certainly more desire for Latin and Greek than there used to be, and to enter Harvard College one has to be better posted in those languages than he used to be to graduate. The study of these lan- guages is much more scientific. Of course we hear of those who are against these studies. The sentiment of the community is not to be judged by them. It seems to me that the best way is to stimulate a desire to go into the college. I had some talk with a high-school teacher, and he made the following remark: "The trouble is that our graduates do not go to colleges or universities, nor do thej'^ leave the community when they leave the high school. Personal influence of teachers can double the number of pupils going to colleges, and it is their business to do it. You know I do not believe entirely in a college course of study, but if the mountain is not coming to Mahomet, Mahomet should go to the mountain." The Chairman. As presiding officer of this section of the session, I have determined that I will not admit any exercises during the session until our programme was exhausted. "The Status of Education in the South" has been transferred to the International Congress, and will be discussed to-night in Dr. Bicknell's paper and such others as may have been designated. The programme of the Superintendents' Association is now closed. At the request of several gentlemen, I have consented 900 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 87 to hear from Mr. Angell, but will warn him that we can give him only a ver^' limited time. Mr, Angell then read the following paper : THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING KINDNESS TO ANIMALS, AND THE AMERICAN "BANDS OF MERCY." Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen — I have your kind invitation to occupy fifteen minutes in behalf of the innumerable millions of God's lower creatures, who have no power in any language we can understand to speak for themselves — the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, the cattle on a thousand hills. I have no time to tell you about the hundreds of thousands that an- nually die on our cars and steamboats in transportation; how their flesh, with that of animals taken from cars and steamboats almost dead, are sold in our markets ; and of the effects on public health of eating those meats. I have no time to tell you of the cruel methods by which millions of animals are annually slaughtered; and how every animal can be killed without fore-knowledge, and almost without pain, and ought to be ; and of the effects of this cruelty also on those who eat their meat. I have no time to tell you how, over a large part of this country, calves are taken from their mothers when too young to eat hay, and kept four to six days before they are killed without any nourishment what- ever, and during this time are bled, in some instances several times, to make their flesh whiter, more delicate, and more dangerous to eat. I have no time to tell you how in some parts of our country sheep are sheared in cold weather, and left standing in cold yards, without fleeces, several days before they are killed. I have no time to tell you how milch cows are ill treated, and the effects on the milk and its products, making it sometimes as poisonous as the milk of the ill-treated human mother. I have no time to tell you of the importance of our insect -eating birds to agriculture ; that we could not live on the earth without them ; and that they are decreasing in this country, while insects are increasing. , I have no time to tell you how our old and injured domestic animals can be killed in the most merciful ways, and are so killed where we have societies to do it. I have no time to tell you of cock fights, and dog fights, and bull fights, and their influence wherever they are practiced. I have no time to tell you of the useless unrestricted vivisection which has been practiced so largely in this country many years ; how one man has taken already the lives of more than three thousand animals in his useless experiments; how these animals are kept in suffering some- times days, and sometimes weeks. Dr. Henry J. Bigelow, Harvard Uni- versity professor of surgery, told me some time since that from all this 901 »0 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. animal torture and destruction not one useful fact has thus far, to his knowledge, been discovered in America. I have not time to speak of the ten thousand wrongs that are inflicted on man's useful servant, the horse, and his Southern cousin, the mule. If you stay long in this city you will see enough of them to mak6 your hearts sad with pity. I have not time to talk to you about the immortality of animals be- lieved in by more than half the human race, and in that half such men as Agassiz, who was a lirm believer in the immortality of animals. If I had an hour instead of fifteen minutes, I could tell you about all these, and many other things which I think you would never forget. A few days since I had the pleasure of addressing one of the large educational institutions of this city, and at the close of my address a gentleman rose in the audience and said that some ten years ago he was a student at Dartmouth College when I had the pleasure of putting this information before some four hundred of them in the college chapel ; and though he had never hardly thought of the subject before, he car- ried from his whole college course, when he graduated, no stronger or more durable impression than that of our duty to God's lower creatures. He is now a superintendent of the public schools of one of our most im- portant cities, and I believe a member of this convention. The wonderful growth of societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals is a subject with which probably some of you are familiar; how they have stretched out their protecting arms, not: only in this country, but in Europe, Asia, Africa, and many islands of various oceans, num- bering among their members many of the noblest, and best, and most illustrious of the world's citizens. In England the Koyal Society is under the patronage of the Queen, and its president a member of the Queen's Privy Council. The first audience I had the pleasure of aiddressing there some years ago was presided over by one of the most learned men in England, the Lord Bishoj) of Gloucester and Bristol, and the gentleman who moved the vote of thanks was Field Marshal Sir John Burgoyne, very near the head of the British army 5 the second was at the house of the Baroness Burdett Coutts, probably, next to the Queen, the most highly respected woman in England. In France, Germany, and elsewhere, wherever I have traveled in Europe, I have found the same. One German society numbers among its members twenty-three generals and over two liundred oflicers of the German army. In my own State of Massachusetts I think that no charitable society of the State has on its roll of officers and members more distinguished and influential names than the Massachusetts Society for the Preven- tion of Cruelty to Animals. I think that no society in the State is better known or more popular. But, in the limited period allotted me, one thing I do have time to tell 902 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 89 you ; and that is, that we long ago found that the great remedy for all these wrougs lies, not in laws and prosecuting officers, but in the public and private schools; that a thousand cases of cruelty can be prevented by kind words and humane education, for every one that can be pre- vented by prosecution ; and that if we were ever going to accomplish anything of permanent value for the protection of those whom our socie- ties were organized to protect, it must be through the kind assistance of the teachers in our public and private schools. We found another important fact — that when children were taught to be kind to animals, to spare in spring time the mother bird with its nest full of young, to pat the horses, and play with the dogs, and speak kindly to all harmless living creatures, they became more kind not only to animals, hut also to each other. If there were more time, I should be very glad to give you the expe- rience of European teachers proving what I state. Out of two thousand convicts inquired of in American prisons, only twelve had any pet animal during childhood. Out of nearly seven thousand children carefully taught kindness to animals through o series of years, in an English school, not one has even been charged with a criminal offense in any court. To many of you it will be no new thing when I state that crime has grown in this country, for many years, far beyond our growth of popu- lation. If there were more time I would give you statistics. And it is becoming a great question how long our present form oi government, and the proper protection of property and life, can be maintained with this constant growth of crime over population, and how we are to stop it. Kot more than one- half the people of this country, and in some States not more than a quarter, attend any church, or their children any Sunday-school. The churches cannot reach them. Science is making wonderful ijrogress. A Nihilist lecturer rev;eutly stated to a large audience in Tremont Temple, Boston, that there were about four hundred schools in Europe (he did not say how many in Amer- ica) whoto only object was to teach the use of explosives, and that two ounces of an explosive he then had, placed at the entrance of Tremont Temple, would destroy the lives of every person in that building ! We want no French revolutions here, with barricades, and guillo- tines, and the streets red with blood ; and we think the best waj- to avoid such thing is through widespread merciful and humane educa- tion in our schools. Kow can you better reach the Nihilistic father or mother, wiio never enters the door of a church, or uses the name of the Supreme Being except in blasphemy, than through his or her child in our public schools? And how can you bettei' reach the heart of the child than by teaching 9U3 90 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. it kindness to the weakest and most defenseless of God's creatures, with such other merciful teachings as may be easily added ? For this very purpose was founded, in Boston, on the 28th of July, 1882, the "American Band of Mercy," whose badge I wear. Among- its earliest members were the Governor of Massachusetts, the mayor of Boston, the chief justice of our commonwealth and other judges; also the Roman Catholic archbishop of Boston, who caused a branch to be established in his cathedral, with about 1,500 members and gave permission to establish them in all the Sunday and parocjiial schools of his diocese. The leading editors of our religious and educational papers, and sev- eral hundreds of clergymen of all denominations, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, also joined. It has now about four thousand seven hundred branches, reaching from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, and numbering over three hundred thou- sand members. They are in Sunday-schools of all denominations, Protestant and Roman Catholic, and in week-day schools of all grades, from the pri- mary to the university. Their badge is a five-pointed star, on which are the mottoes, "Glory to God," "Peace on earth," "Good will to all," and on the five points of the star, "Kindness to a,ll harmless living creatures." On a recent public occasion the President of the United States, who belongs to a Bufl:alo branch, wore this badge while reviewing some ten thousand children. Their cards of membership have a beautiful picture of the signing of the pledge. Their object is to encourage in every possible way brave, generous, noble, and merciful deeds ; to protect not only the lower races, but also every suffering human being that needs and deserves protection. For this purpose they aim to use the best literature of the world, — songs, poems, pictures, and stories which will promote these objects j and, by public "Baud of Mercy" concerts and meetings, to reach all outside whom they can Influence. Their methods of organization are so simple that a boy or girl can organize. Their meetings occupy various lengths of time, from an hour to ten minutes once a month or once a week — sometimes more often ; some- times separately, and sometimes as part of school or Sunday-school exercises. They cost nothing, for they require only the simple pledge, "I will try to be kind to all harmless living creatures, and try to protect them from cruel usage." To be sure, they have membership books for registry of names of members for those bands that want them ; beautiful imitation gold and silver badge pins for those who want them ; ribbon badges and cards 904 PROCEEDINGS OP THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 91 of membership for those who want them ; some hundred thousand of these badges and cards have been sent out over the country, and they cost but a few cents each. But they are not necessary. All that is required is the simple pledge, " I will try to be kind to all harmless living creatures, and try to protect them from cruel usage." The parent Band of the Massachusetts Society sends to each Band formed from it, without cost, (1) Full information ; (2) ten interesting lessons on kindness, full of anecdote and instruction ; and (3) a copy for one year of its monthly pai)er, " Our Dumb Animals," tilled with stories, songs, and instruction, encouraging kindness both to animals and human beings. Tt sends also to each Band specimens of Band of Mercy hymns and songs, adapted to popular music and suitable for school and Sunday-school exercises. They are already sung from the Atlantic to the Pacific. AU these it sends without cost. To every teacher who forms a Band of twenty or more, it sends in ad- dition its beautiful badge pin without cost. I have spoken of distinguished educators, statesmen, governors, judges, the President of the United States, and other distinguished per- sons who have joined the Bands of Mercy. Why did they join ? To make themselves more merciful ? Because they thought they needed it ? Probably not, but because they wanted to give the weight of their influence to lessen pain and suffering in the world ; to aid in carrying an education of mercy into all our schools ; to aid in hastening the day, " Wiicu Peace shall over all the earth Its ancient splendors fling, And the whole world give back the song That now the angels sing." But will the Bands last? We think the man, or woman, or boy, or girl, who once takes the pledge, will never forget it — not in fifty years. If the pledge is repeated once a month, or once a week, we think the impression will be still stronger. Jf followed by proper reading and instruction once a month, or once a week, we think it will be stronger still. I can give instances in which a single talk on kindness to animals has produced wonderful results. President Hayes told me at Washington some years ago, that a sin- gle talk he once heard on the subject when at school in Massachusetts he had never forgotten, and so he put in his annual message what I wrote for him in regard to the cruel transportation of animals on our railroads. Seven to eight millions of animals in the great Chicago stock yards are now annually protected from cruelty, largely through the influence of one man, whose teacher fifty years ago, away up in the mountains 905 92 EDUCATIONAL CONT'ENTIOXS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. of New Hampshire, put into his little boyish hand some verses on kindness to animals. Will the Bands last? We want everybody's influence to help us make them last as long as the world lasts aud cruelty. We want to baptize them once, and then if they fall off baptize them again; and so keep baptizing them to the end of time, or cruelty. In behalf of all whom I represent, and for the good of our own race and our common country, I pray you help us to form and baptize these Bands of Mercy in all your schools. The Chairman: Before we adjourn, I have a request from a State superintendent to present to this Association Johnson's Encyclopaedia. I can speak of it in the highest terms, but particularly of the philosoph- ical portion of it, by that most eminent of our thinkers, Dr. Harris. Mr. Newell then announced that Mr. Packard's paper would be read at the afternoon session of the International Congress of Educa- tors. Gen. Eaton: I may add that Mr. Packard's paper will show you the climate of the schools as scientifically regulated. The Chairman: The business of this section of the National Associa- tion is now concluded, and therefore we are ready to adjourn until the meeting called by the executive committee of this section. I therefore declare this Department of the National Association adjourned sine die. 906 EDUCATION DAYS AT THE NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 907 LETTER Department of the Intekior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, August 1, 1885. Dear Sir — A pleasing feature of the receut World's Exposition at New Orleans was the celebration of days set apart in honor of States, socie- ties, classes of men, or notable events. The early months of the Expo- sition passed away without any public gathering within its grounds to do honor to the Educational Department, or to recognize the wisdom of the management in determining upon its existence and promoting its organization and successful continuance. The custom of presenting collective exhibits to the officers of the Exposition had not been fol- lowed. Many regretted that the instructive lessons of the Department had not been brought by these means into greater notice; and, upon the suggestion of those who entertained this belief, the acting Director- General selected May 12 as "Education Day." The programme was arranged so as to have the exercises of an inter- national, as well as national, character. Gentlemen from widely dis- tant localities and countries were then examining the educational ex- hibits. Their large experience in educational fields enabled them to judge correctly the merits and usefulness of the displays which they had under observation. The examination had proceeded so far as to permit them to speak of the exhibits, or to present other toi)ics sug- gested by the peculiarities of different systems of education. The ^me proved to be propitious, and the enthusiasm of the audience that listened to the addresses was more than was expected. A desire that these addresses should be printed was expressed, and I have the honor to transmit them to you for your consideration. They are broad in spirit, varied in character, rich in information, encouraging in tone, and representative of many differing yet allied methods of education. Near the close of the Exposition, at another reunion of the friends of education, William O. Rogers, Esq., who has long been a foremost man in the South, and ably filled the position of superintendent of the city schools of New Orleans, made a most appropriate address, full of thoughts derived from his experiences with the Exposition. It may well be counted as the New Orleans contribution to Education Day, though delivered on a later occasion. 909 P6 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. Ou the 14th of May Colored Education Day was celebrated. Emi- nent men addressed a large audience on a subject of great moment to the country. I submit these able addresses as worthy of your attention. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Lyndon A. Smith, Representative of Bureau of Education, W. I. & C. G. Exposition. Hon. John Eaton, Commissioner of Education. 910 ADDRESSES DELIVERED ON EDUCATION DAY, MAY 12, 1885. Presiding Officer. HON. J. W. HOYT, ex- Governor of Wyomhig. Vice-Presidents. Col. WM. PRESTON JOHNSTON, President of Tulane University, New Orleans. AVILLIAM H. GARDINER, Esq., Chief Cleric of U. 8. Bureau of Ed- ucation. JOHN G. PARHAM, Esq., President of School Board. New Orleans. BROTHER MATTHEW, of Christian Brothers^ College. Marshal. A. B. BUCKLEY, Esq., Superintendent of Indiana Educational Exhibit. address of ex-governor J. W. HOYT, OF WYOMING. Officers of the WorkVs Industrial and. Cotton Centennial Exposition, Ladies and Gentlemen — As the chairman of this day's ceremouies in ob- servance of Education Day, I have much pleasure in tendering grateful acknowledgments to the ofificial board of this great Exposition for the fitting recognition they have given to the important cause this meeting represents. They have not only granted liberal space in these palaces of industry for the multitude of objects embraced in the' various exhib- its, individual, municipal, State, and national, but they have also made provision for the careful inspection and comparison of these exhibits, with a view to suitable recognition of them, and to an ofiicial report that shall make the knowledge thus gained by those, the common prop- erty of all who may be interested in it throughout the world. Last of all, they have designated this dsiy as the appointed time when tlie lessons of the educational exhibit may be publicly referred to, and wiien the noble cause it represents may be publicly honored. For these evi- dences of intelligent and just, nay generous appreciation, I thank them in the name of educators and the friends of education everywhere. That there was propriety in the handsome recognition tlius accorded them is manifest, since education is a world-wide interest. Other inter- ests, however important, are of necessity more or less local and partial. The mighty machinery, the cunning inventions, the beautiful and mani- fold products of mechanical skill, the great collective exhibits of our 7950 COT., PT. 3 7 911 98 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. own country and of foreign lands, so attractively displayed in these vast buildings, — all these relate to partial aims and interests, whereas education is an interest underiyiug and embracing every other. Who shall define its boundaries, or measure the vital importance of its rela- tionships ? More than this, education is also the primary interest of man, since it means human development and perfectionment, which last constitutes the true end of being. We are wont to honor material things and to glorify material power. Wealth, dominion, — such are the common aims of human ambition. But what are these, rightly considered, if not means only? The innu- merable contrivances of man's ingenuity, and his mastery over the forces of nature, — what are they but vautage ground for the grander achievements of intellectual enlargement and spiritual exaltation ? . I said human development was the great work of life, using thus the word human in its broadest significance. But to this grand conception the world has come steadily, because of false notions of prerogative and privilege. IsTevertheless extraordinary progress has been made during the last half century — a progress so marked that we find in ourselves amazement at the past mingling with glad hopes for the greater future : and not alone in this happy laud ; there is progress of liberal ideas among civilized nations everywhere. Our ideas concerning the limita- tion of class, race, and sex, are rapidly changing from the narrow to the broader view. In the long past education was for the few ; to-day it is for the many ; on the morrow it will be for all. We already stand in the dawn of that blessed day when none, not even the weakest and lowliest, shall be left to grope in darkness; when all shall rejoice in the sunlight of intelligence. In yonder galleries of the Government Building, and wherever else the schools ai*e found represented, will be found abundant grounds for these high hopes. To them, Mr. Director-General, I point with confidence and gladness. There you will find evidence that the old distinctions are passing away; that the once lightly honored pursuits are taking tlieir i)lace among the i)rofessions ; that useful labor, of whatever sort, is honored as never before; that there is a growing appreciation of the necessity for titting the worker for his work by giving him the best equipment that science and general intelligence can furnish ; that the newer views of woman's powers, and of her consequent rights to better and the best possible facilities for education, are fast gaining ground in all parts of the world ; that the old prejudices against color, because of its long association with conditions of inferiority and subordination, are giving place to just views of the importance of utilizing the forces of the colored population, as of every other, by securing to them the best available opportunities for gaining the knowledge and skill requi- site to the varied pursuits they may be fitted to follow ; that civilized communities in all countries are moved in these latter days to efforts 912 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 99 for cultivating in children everywhere a taste for the beautiful in nature and art ; that moral culture in the schools is coming to be considered a needed security, as well for free institutions as for the individual soul. For these great ends the noble army of teachers must earnestly and ever strive. The final result of their labors will be the highest happi- ness of the individual, the peace of the nations, the brotherhood of the races, the dignity and glory of humanity. ADDRESS OF DIRECTOR-GENERAL BURKE. Ladies and Gentlemen — Only some half hour ago did I expect to be able to give myself the pleasure of joining with you in the celebration of to-day. I say pleasure, for it would have been a sincere pleasure- to me, not only to have borne testimony to the high appreciation enter- tained by the Board of Management of the success achieved in this de- partment, but to have borne testimony to their great appreciation of the effec t of this work of education upon the people, not only of the city, but of the South and of the whole country. Down at the bottom of all of our plans, and among the very first plans that were cherished by the Board of Management, was the idea of organizing an educational exhibit, which would not only represent the feeble efltbrt of the South in that direction, but which would represent the effort of all the States and also of foreign countries, and which would be for the benefit of the South, inasmuch as it would show them the progress and the advance- ment made by other sections of our common country and by other countries. We knew that we of the South had nothing to boast of compared with our more fortunate neighbors of the North and East, and it was from our desire for improvement, and from our desire for learning, that we determined to make this department. We had hoped that we would gather to this standard the educators of the country; we had hoped, indeed, to bring here the prominent educators of all parts of the world. That we have not been able to do so has been due entirely to the very short time allowed for the preparation of exhibits, etc., a time dating only from July, 1884; and the brevity of the time allowed for these preparations makes us of the Board of Management feel all the more deeply indebted to those representatives of foreign countries who have honored us by their presence here, and on behalf of the management I extend my sincere thanks, not only to the repre- sentatives of foreign countries, but to the countries who have sent them. [Applause.] To the gentleman who has i)resided over that department, who has labored so zealously, so industriously, so effectively, not only through- out this country, but throughout foreign lands, the people of the United States owe a debt which they will be long in repaying. I will not un- dertake to say how many thousand miles this gentleman has traveled, how many weary days and nights he has spent in carrying out this matter. 913 100 JiDlJCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. I know liis heart was in the work fi'oiu the very conimeucemeut. To the able geiitleiuiMi wlio have assisted liiiu we also return our uiost cordial thanks. We extend to theiu all, not alone the tlianks of the manage- ment, but the thanks of the people of the whole South, on behalf of that section of our country (I say it -without nwy sectional feeling) which is to be the chief beneficiary of this great work ; for it is idle to deny that, from the very commencement of this Exposition, the i)resent con- dition of the people of these southern States, and the means by which they could be raised to the level of their more fortunate neighbors, obtained full recognition. For the weary twenty years that have ]mssed a.way since the late unpleasantness, the people of the section in which we. live have been engaged in a continual struggle with this great question. And why is it they have not made the progress that other com- munities, differently situated, have made? It is not because. they have not the same interest in the welfare of their children as is entertained by the people of other and more fortunate sections. No; it was solely because of the difference of the conditions that surrounded them. The $400,000,000 of indebtedness piled upon the people of the South since the war has compelled the people, in the maintenance of their honor and their credit, to rob their children of education. The taxation suf- fered by the southern States and cities to maintain their governments has been so great that it has been impossible to do those things for the education of the mass of the children that they would have desired. How is it in our own city? It requires $1,000,000 of the alimony of the city to provide for the honor and the credit of the city. I do not say that this o ught not to be so, because it would be a poor system of education that inculcated upon the children of the city, or upon the children of the South, that they should disregard their legal obliga- tions. I mention the matter merely in exi^lanation of the fact that the I)eople of the South have not made that progress in education that would have been made had it not been for the great expense of carry- ing on their governments. But in this State, as in others in the South, these conditions have to a large extent passed away. The cry that goes up from Iowa of a school-house upon every hilltop is re-echoed throughout the South. We will have a school-house in every valley. [Applause.] And what is the effect of this display upon the people? We know that it will bear speedy fruit. It will no longer be a reliec tion on our fair State that the teachers of our children must go for half the year unpaid. I regret that I cannot speak on behalf of the progress made in edu- cation by the South during the last ten years, but I know it has been great, and I know of the abiding interest the ])eople of the South feel in the question of the education of their children; and I know that in the future the people who have engaged in this work, whethei' from France, Mexico, Japan, or Honduras, when they have witnessed the 914 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 101 great results to be produced tliroujjliout the State and throughout the South, will feel proud that they have played a part in this extraordi- nary display. I regret on belialf of the Board of Manauenient that we have not been able to hold up their hands more in the work they ha\'e been engaged in. But for the circumstances that hav^e surrounded us it would have been a pleasure and a i)ride to us to have done so. But the honor and the credit of the suc(;ess they have achieved is all the greater, and therefore they have our heartfelt thanks. ADDRESS OF HON. J. GEORGE HODGTNS, LL. D., Deputy Minister of Education, Ontario, Canada. I feel honored at being permitted to take part in the proceedings of to-day. I have had for many years a more or less intimate knowledge of the progress of education in various States of this great Republic. But my experience during the last few weeks, as an educational juror, has impressed me very deeply with the fact that "great and substantial advance has been made in every direction since the Ceutennial Exhibi- tion of 187G. I have been requested to represent Canaila on this occasion, which I do with pleasure. As a subject of Her Majesty the Queen in that Dominion, I desire briefly to refer, first, to the state of education in our dear old mother land of England. Having recently visited that country, I can speak from i)ersonal knowledge. And I am glad to say that since the passage of what may be called the " Charter" (Education) Act of 1871, great and very gratifying progress has been made. The number of pupils attending school in England has immensely increased, and the parliamentary grants and local rates have, in the aggregate, been somewhat munificent. The general tendency of public sentiment in England is in favor of still greater effic/iency in the various depart- ments of jjopular education, and also of its further expansion to meet the needs of all classes of the community. Some difficult aud trying- questions, too, in the educational problem have been practically solved, particularly those relating to local school rates, the inherent right of children to education in the schools or elsewhere, and the more difficult one of religious instruction. At all events, in the near future these questions will cease to be subjects of such bitter contention as hereto- fore amongst the educators of England. What I say of England is also largely true of the sister kingdoms of Ireland and Scotland. For fifty years a national system of education has been in efficient operation in Ireland, while the schools of Scotland have long beeu, especially of late years, famous for their numbers and excellence. As to the Dominion of (Canada, which I liave the honor to represent on this occasion, t may say that thei-c arc in tliat Dominion seven Prov- inces, not including Newfoundland nor the vast Territories in I ho 915 102 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. North-west, now unhappily in a partial state of insurrection on the part of the half-breeds and Indians. The brave and enthusiastic vol- unteers who have so nobly responded to the call of duty and gone out from each of the Provinces, will no doubt soon restore peace and har- mony in the disturbed districts north of your Territory of Montana. I may here give a brief statement (so far as I can) of tlie condition of education in these Provinces : Provinces. No. of schools. ' No. of pupila. Expenditure. Ontario 5,362 5,039 1, 943 1,447 484 464, 360 245, 225 98, 807 66, 775 21, 843 (no report) 2, 693 $3, 108, 429 (not reported) Quebec Nova Scotia New Brunswick (not reported) 14'^ 319 Prince Edward Island Manitoba British Columbia 53 60 758 I would just mention one or two things which have struck me very forcibly while acting here in my capacity as an educatioual Juror. No one can visit the French educatioual exhibit without being pro- foundly impressed with its wonderful extent and completeness. The exhibit, too, under the direction of my friend, the Commissioner from Japan, Mr. Hattori, was to me a complete and most, gratifying sur- prise. Not that I did not expect an advance even upon the excellent educational exhibit from Japan which was seen at the Ceutenulal Ex- hibition of 1876; but 1 was scarcely prepared for the very coiui)lete and most admirable exhibit in the various departments of education from that wonderfully progressive country, including examples of work from the primary school up to the university, which Mr. Hattori so fully and so courteously explained to the jurors. In speaking of the French educational exhibit, I cannot too strongly emphasize our estimate of its completeness and of its great practical value. The variety and extent of the multitudinous appliances for work of the schools and colleges was the subject of constant remark and commendation. The French seem to have excelled themselves in the beauty and finish, as well as excellence, of chart and model, map, and varied illustration of the subjects which go to make up tlie curriculum of study in each of the primary, intermediate, and higher schools of France. To our most courteous friend, M. Buisson, we were all indebt- ed for a most satisfactory exijlanation of the many points of interest in the great exhibit from France. There were one or two features in the French and Japanese exhibits which are of special interest, — in the French, for instance, the great variety of examples of industrial work from schools of all kinds. This is an entirely new feature, and quite a new departure in the schools of France. Within the last few years industrial education has been made compulsory in that country. The effect of it has been remarkable, as 916 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 103 the extent and variety of the work of the pupils exhibited abundantly testify. Time will not further allow a reference to other features of this remarkable exhibit. Those present can see and judge for them- selves. In the Japanese exhibit the inventive skill of the nation is admirably illustrated in the extent and variety of their educational appliances. In the kindergarten they are unequaled. Their collection is unique. In elementary science, simplicity and cheapness of illustration are com- bined in a remarkable degree; while in the appliances for higher edu- cation in the college and university they have in some things surpassed even France herself. I shall not be doing justice to other parts of the great exhibit if i did not refer to the very extensive and admirable collection of the Christian Brothers, under the direction of our excellent friend, Brother Maurelian, President of the College of Memphis. That exhibit is one of the most interesting in the Exposition. Its educational appliances are admirable, while the benevolent and truly Christian work done by the "Catholic Protectory" was a surprise and a gratification to myself and to other members of the jury. Then the work exhibited by the Freedman's Aid Society of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church was most interesting. It gave to those of us from foreign countries a vivid practical insight into the self-denying labors of that great organization for the education of the colored race in thirteen of the southern States. The exhibit of the American Mis- sionary Society was also interesting and valuable, while the extensive exhibit in one of the galleries of various colored schools in several States was both unique and instructive. I shall now for a few minutes briefly refer to two or three questions to which educators in the future will have to give heed. We have not reached our present proud position in the matter of popular education without a great struggle and without passing through many a conflict. Others may loom up in the distance, which may, or may not, be as for- midable in their character as those we have had to deal with, but yet they may be no less inimical to the cause which we have at heart. In the first place, the objection is frequently urged that we are edu- cating the people overmuch, and thereby unfitting them for the practical and homely duties of life. This is but the old cry, dating back many cen- turies, in a new form, that we are disturbing the social relations of the various classes in the community, that we are bringing these classes too near together, and that the necessary distinctions between the ar- tisan and the professional man, the employed and the employer, are being almost obliterated ; in fact, that the tendency of this over-education is to make ''Jack as good as his master", and that thus we seek to over- turn the very foundations of society. The simple answer to all this is, that we are but endeavoring to reach a higher plane of intelligence, to equalize it for those classes which 917 104 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. were hitherto kept in ignorance, often designedly so; that the age and our country demand that this ignorance shoukl be removed; that the general enlightenment of any community or people is a real substantial boon conferred upon that community or people; that in this general en- lightenment of the age, the relations between employers and employed will adjust themselves; and that educated labor is more valuable and less expensive to the employer than unskilled and uneducated labor. Another objection is, that in certain other classes, which afterward live, as it is said, by their wits, we merely develop their mental powers, and thus make them clever in the ways of wickedness and dishonesty. It is true that hitherto national systems of education did not pretend to do more than give an intellectual, and, as far as ijossible, a moral training. Of late years, however, the force of the objection made has been felt, and France and England and some other countries have sought to practically meet it. Within the last three or four years it has been decreed in France, and is now the law of the land, that all educa- tion in primary and intermediate schools must include in it industrial training also, and that thus a i^ractical direction shall be given to the intelligence acquired at school. The result can be seen in the extensive school industrial exhibits from France. England is addressing herself (as Germany has done for many years) to this great educational reform, and in many of the exhibits here I am glad to see that the subject is receiving practical attention in several States. The third and only other objection to which I shall have time to refer comes from an unexpected quarter, from a distinguished authority on educational subjects, Herbert Spencer. In a series of articles published in the Contemporary Review last year, Mr. Spencer, under the head of the "Coming Slavery", discusses, among other things, the evil of ad- mitting the principle that education should be directed by the State. He says : " Legislators who, in 1833, voted £20,000 ($100,000) a year to aid in building school-houses, never supposed that the step they then took would lead to forced contributions, local and general, now amount- ing to £0,000,000 ($30,000,000); they did not intend to establish the principle that A should be made responsible for educating B's oft- spriug," etc. He further illustrates the point which he wishes to make against State systems of education. It is difficult in a brief address like this to ofter anything like a rej)ly to so distinguished an authority as Herbert Spencer, especially as he is in fact discussing the broader principle of allowing government to ab- sorb so many things under its control, such as railroads, telegraphs, care for the poor, etc. All I can say is, that the tendency in the present day is to a division of labor ; and if in free countries, like yours and ours, the people (with a view to efficiency and economy) decide that the government should control and dii ect these things, who can reasonably object to its doing so ? Among the mottoes which adorn the display of the United States 918 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 105 Bureau of Education, I notice one which speaks of edacation as the basis imupil grasp more earnestly his daily lessons, but it stretched out from its narrow and familiar sur- 931 118 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. foundings to another and a dissimilar place. Our country is great and wide, and it is well for the child even to have his thoughts and sym- pathies extended to plS,ces distant in miles, but near in common inter- ests and common dangers. The need of patriotism is as great as ever, and that grand sentiment is nourished by every tie that binds together in thought, in sympathy, and in interest the citizens of our spacious country. The value of the Exposition is most realized, and its advantages best gained, by those who visit and examine its wealth of display in agri- culture, in commerce, in manufactures, in art, in education. The in- spection of the last- mentioned display has not been forgotten by numerous classes of visitors. Especially has the collection of school work and educational material attracted attention from the progressive citizen, the professional educator, and the student of human affairs, as they affect the welfare of the State and the progress of civilization. There are many things in an educational display attractive to the ordi- nary observer. The work of some child of his acquaintance lies con- cealed in a bound volume or is spread on the wall. The memory of his own school days is quickened by the likeness and unlikeness of the text-books and furniture of to-day to ruder ones that once bore the marks of his thumb and his knife. The drawings, the collections of natural science, and the classes in operation invite his attention by their novelty and usefulness. The drawing that composes a large part of the exhibit of any series of schools has specimens attractive to every eye. The displays of art receive admiration and commendation from those not yet interested materially in the system of education they rep- resent or the results they represent. Not less works of art are the combined effects of the marvelously systematic and orderly appoint- ments of the Christian Brothers' exhibit, and the artistic effects pro- duced by the arrangement of form and color in the admirable display of France. The scientific collections have been visited by great numbers of per- sons. The discovery of common natural objects in a systematic collection tends to increase a person's respect for them as he ujeets them day by day, and draws his attention to them, whether they be rocks, flowers, trees, birds, or other animate or inanimate things. The casual obser- vation of animals is not eminently an intellectual occupation, but it may be a first insight into the animal world. It is a step, only, from the still meuageiie of a museum to the wild and unrestrained denizens of the forest and the swamp and the lake. Such a habit in any child or adult is a lump of leaven to raise up from degrading or selfish thoughts, and to neutralize or replace desire for debasing indulgence or trifling amusement. All grades of museums, from those collected by the indus- try of almost baby hands to those of the veterans of world-wide tours 932 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 119 aud life-loiicf efforts, have been examiued aud yielded their beaetits to the passing visitor. Actual school operations, kitchen g^arden, kindergarten, aud manual training, have been noticed by people of all ages and circumstances. We cannot watch the seeds sown in their minds as they watch these forms of meutal aud physical development, yet we cannot doubt but they sometimes fall on good ground, to bring forth fruit a hundred fold. The experiments in physics (especially in electricity) and the per- formances in gymnastics which have been shown, have been suggest- ive to those that have seen them of the wouderful powers that surround them or lie dormant within their own bodies. The immediate i^urpose of the educational exhibits was to furnish opportunities to teachers and educators to study methods aud systems of instruction. The systems of our country -differ both among them- selves and from those of foreign countries. Those familiar with the principles of each system are anxious to know the workings of its schools and find them illustrated in the collections of school work and appli- ances. If these systems were to be studied merely to discover how the best educational results could come from the vast expenditures of money for education {$90,000,000 in 1882-'83) it would be most profitable. When they are considered in view of their influence on society and on prog- ress they assume greater importance. Not only the systems of instruc- tions adopted by legislatures and educational authorities, but the methods used by individual teachers are shown in the volumes of ex- amination papers, the reports of work being done, the siiecimens of drawing, the articles made by boys or girls where the industries have made their presence felt in the school-room. Teachers are not alike, and they excel in different qualities. Their excellences aj)pear in the results of their work with the scholars. Only educators dull of com- prehension can fail to find in examination of these exhibits their own defects painfull^^ reflected in other's work, and methods of teaching unthought of before. The exhibits of normal schools are rich in these suggestions. The methods by which persons are prepared for the teacher's profession are outlined in them. That profession has to deal, not with values, but with lives. We admire the skill of the electrician who transforms that subtle fluid harmlessly into power and light. A more subtle influence pervades the child than that which fills yonder wires, and the teacher may make it yield a light more beautiful than at evening shines from these globes, or end in darkness most deplora- ble. The means and instrumentalities used by the most discerning and taught by them to the multitude of teachers now passing out of our normal schools, are amply illustrated in the Department of Education The student of i^olitical and social science is mostly richly rewarded for his time spent among the educational exhibits. They indicate the ability of the political bodies they represent to govern themselves, to restrain violence, to extend a cordial welcome to new citizens and new 933 120 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. industries, to grow rich in material wealth and productive power, to in- crease in character and influence. No State neglectful of its educa- tional interests can hope to prosper. It may have fertile soil, but its harvests will be meager without intelligent husbandmen. Its mineral resources may be unlimited, but they will not avail in ignorant hands. It is the increase in intelligence, the multiplication of school-houses, that convert the natural resources of a country into the means of life and comfort. Two other points, noticeable to all examining closely the Department of Education, are, the moral atmosphere of the schoolroom and the ten- dency to teach a child that which he is to know and to do in after life. The exhibits contain industrial features, specimens of carpentry and iron work and sewing. These do not illustrate what skill an apt me- chanic may acquire. They do not show intricate design and perfect finish. But they do show that youth may learn to use the implements of industry with intelligence, and cultivate the hand and the head together. We need and are to have more skillful laborers, and a generation more proud of labor and less ashamed of its requirements. The moral tone of our education is shown in the character of the compositions, and the mottoes of the books of school work. The read- ing-books in use contain selections possessing not only literary excel- lence, but an elevating moral tone. The contents of geographies and histories are strengthening to children in many ways. The ideas that pervade the school-room are proven by the testimony of a multitude of exhibits, which taken alone might not be convincing, but which corrob- orate each other to such an extent that their evidence cannot be doubted. The teacher has an ambition to lead children forward, not backward. No parent need feel that our schools are likely to build other than good characters in their children, so far as they build any. If they are not all that could be desired in the cultivation of character, theyarfe vastly superior to the ordinary surroundings of childhood and are full of safe- guards against moral injury. ADDRESS OF WM. O. ROGERS, ESQ. Delivered, May 30, 1885, at a meeting of educational exhibitors,^ W. I. if C. C. Exposition. One of the side lights of the great Exposition to the people of New Orleans has been found in the great number of intelligent and agree- able persons which it has brought to our city during the past winter. Some of the great educational associations of thecountry have assembled 'This meeting was called for the purpose of passing resolutions relative to the man- agement of the educational department of the Exposition. The resolutions adopted were as follows*: Whereas, We, the representatives of difterent departments of public education in the United States and foreign countries, ha^e been associated most profitably during the World's Exposition at New Orleans, La., in showing the recent progress and present facilities of public education of every grade, and now, at its close, wish to 934 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 121 iu coaveutioii. It is not necessary to enumerate all of them, but to re- fer ouly to the International Congress of Educators, the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, the National and State Medical Associations and various press associations, the conv^ocation of Jewish rabbis and the like. There has been a steady stream of distinguished men from our sister States and from the enlight- ened nations of Europe and Asia. The commissioners in cliarge of the various exhibits, in raauy instances, have been men distinguished for learning and of high social positions in their own countries. They have been ably assisted by men selected for their peculiar fitness for the posi- tion. The intercourse of our people with men whom we had known oidy by fame, or who had made themselves respected by their talents and esteemed for their personal worth, has been an agreeable feature of the past season. I do not know how many hearts have been stolen from our Southern land by the eloquent whispering of the north wind among the stately pines and the bearded live oaks during the continuance of the Exposition, but I do know that many pleasant friendships have been formed ; that manj' agreeable memories will remain, giving a larger and fuller appreciation of the enjoyments of refined social intercourse. We shall think long and pleasantly of the many good, kind-hearted, clear-headed, learned men who have come and gone, or are about to go, with the great Exposition. Nor can I, as a citizen of Louisiana, fail to be grateful for the fact of the Exposition. A profound sorrow is felt by all, young and old, rich and poor, at the tbought that a life so brief may soon pass out into dark- ness and silence. Already the sound of the hammer may be heard in the work of removal, and the echo falls upon our hearts as when one hears the sod fall for the first time upon the coffin of a friend. It is express onr appreciation of the hearty co-operation of the Bureau of Education at Washington, D. C, in furtherance of these interests: Therefore, Resolved, That hereby we commend the plan devised by Gen. Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education, in providing means to represent at this Exposition the various phases of education, at home and abroad, as wise and very successful in giving all governments, States, and institutions of superior education, the fullest liberty and opportunity to present their respective methods of educational work in their own way, so far as consistent with a needful unity, to serve an intelligent purpose for comparative study in the minds of teachers and educators generally. Resolved, That our most cordial thanks aro due to Prof. Lyndon A. Smith, Gen. Eaton's official representative here, for his untiring attention and discreet supervision, uniformly given in the discharge of the difficult and delicate duties assigned him, and we very gratefully acknowledge that no small part of our success and pleasure has been due to his effort and zeal in our behalf. Resolved, That these resolutions b« printed in the city papers, and copies of tlie same be sent to all exhibitors connected with the educational department of the Ex- position. ^ WM. W. FAYl^iK, of Minnesota, • E. C. HITCHCOCK. »>/ LoHi«iaHa, LE ROY D. BROWN, of Ohio, Committee on resolutions, 935 1 22 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. (lifiicult to roalize that we shall in a few hours or days cease to h)ok upon these rich and varied treasures, the resources of great States aud countries and the products of a skill and industry which dignify human- ity everywhere. Our only consolation is the hope that we have not been insensible to the lessons of the Exposition while it lasted, and that we shall be able to i)rofit by those lessons after it has ceased to exist. In that s])ecial branch of the Exposition witli which we who are here assembled have most to do, there has been much to excite our admiration and to pro- voke our most earnest investigation. In the extent and variety of material ; in the carefully prepared tracings of progress through all lines of school instruction ; in the presentation of results actually ac- quired and the indications of possibilities yet to be attained, the edu- cational exhibit is, unless I greatly err, the largest, fullest, best devised, and best prepared exhibit ever found in any of the great expositions. Much of this result is unquestionably due to the foresight and energy of the Commissioner of Education, and to the cheerful co-operation ex- tenast, we who have been i)ermitted to study within its walls have the grave responsibility which is always attached to golden opportu- nity. I believe that notwithstanding the embarrassments under which the Exposition has labored; notwithstanding exceptional difficulties of an execrably bad season, when we treated our friends to chilling winds and mud-lined streets, and desolate gardens, instead of genial zephyrs, clean crossings, and blooming flowers; notwithstanding an attendance at times almost meager; notwithstanding all these things, I believe the Exposition was wisely planned, and that it has accomplished an im- men-se influence for good. Thousands upon thousands of earnest, intel- ligent i)ersons have come here from far and near, with pencil and note- book, in earnest, thoughtful study. They have taken their lessons with them, and the school-houses of the world and the world, must beat more bravely for the fresh inspiration. In the early days, when Truth and Fiction were strangely blended, the story goes that in Kome there stood, where two ways meet, a lofty pedestal, ui)on which was an image of brass. The right arm of the statue pointed to the ground and on the extended forefinger were en- graved the words, " Strike hereJ^ Xo man could tell the meaning of those words. Children played and grew in years around the base of that monument. Some curious persons, rougher in their ways, would beat the hollow finger aud form, and then move on again. One day a 936 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 123 thoufjlitful clerk, fjazing earnestly ou tlie linage, suddenly noted how the sha(U)\v fell from the foretinger ou the cross-roads, and there came to him a flash of diviuo light. Silently and secretly he marked the spot, and at night, with pickaxe and spade, began to remove the soil. He was rewarded by finding a stairway which led to a subterranean cave. Tliere he beheld beauty and riches which I may not take your time tt) describe, and only when he was recreant t(H the spirit which presided over that gorgeous scene the darkness closed upon him and he well nigh perished. The motto which, I think, could have been l)roperly inscribed upon the tower of this grand building is tiie sim- l)lc yet mystical phrase, " Strike here." Those who have wisely availed themselves of the opportunities here presented may mingle some satis- faction M'ith regret at the close of the Exposition. 937 124 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. ADDEESSES DELIVERED ON COLORED EDUCATION DAY, MAY 14, 1885. ADDRESS OF REV. T. R. MARKHAM, D. D. No view, however expanded, and no words, however heightened, can overpass the bounds or exaggerate the praise of a true and proper edu- cation, just, consistent, and honest in its aims, judicious, earnest, and thorough in its plan. And when in the end proposed and the plan i)nr- sued there is a right harmony in the relations and d. conscientious fidelity in the execution, there is also a sweetness in the pursuit and a joy in the attainment, which, in certain stages in its progress and certain points in its development, is so repaying and refreshing that the toiling learner, enamored of his work and its gains, catches the enthusiasm of the great Syracusan, who, when he had solved a famous problem, running through the streets of his city exclaimed : '•'■Eureka! eurelm! I have found it! I have found it!" And Milton's words are familiar, who likens the as- cending path of a noble and virtuous education to "a hillside, laborious indeed at the first ascent, but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospects and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Jrpheus was not more charming." And Bacon calls the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making or wooing of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it, and the belief of truth, which is the enjoying it, the sovereign good of hu- man nature. For truth, all truth, truth as to matter, truth as to mind, truth as to the universe, truth as to man, and truth as to God, is the food of the soul, and its attainment the aim of a right education. But education in its parts, relations, and co-ordinations, and in its aspects, general and technical, will be presented to you by two renowned students — one an experienced educator, and both accomplished thinkers. I shall, therefore, offer only the application of education in one of its concrete forms, and in a connection possessing interest to those to whom I speak. For the application of education, the use to which it is set, the end it subserves, — these are vital points in estimating its value. Urfed by knaves and fiends, it becomes an instrument of evil, a destructive force; used by loving hearts in doing good, it becomes an agent of blessing, angel- like, scattering healing with its wings. You, as a people, are a peculiar people in this land, as much so as the 938 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 125 Jew in the lauds in which he lives. This thought especially impressed me as I sat here "Louisiana Day," listening to a representative of your race who spoke for bis people so well, so earnestly, that he gained our close and iiiterested attention. Accepting his views as embodying your convictions and aims, I shall offer some thoughts based on his statements. In speaking of his race he used a word which impressed me as giving you your right and your classifying name. I think it was Senator Bruce, of Mississippi, who represented that State in the upper House of the United States Congress, and who now holds a government ofl&ce in Washington City, who said that he preferred the word negro as applied to his i)eople, because it was defining and distinctive, while the phrase colored people was indefinite and vague, indicating and includnig a num- ber of different races and peoples. The frankness and manliness of that; brave and independent utterance was sustained by Eev. Mr. Albert, a printed copy of whose address I hold in my hand, and from which I read. Speaking of the "Colored Department's Day," he terms it the "American J^egroes' Day," and mentions the " negroes' extraordinary attejidance on that and the opening day of the Exposition." Walking through your department in the Government Building, the impression til ere received prepared me to appreciate his statements as to your "in- crease in education, character, and wealth," the exhibits giving evidence of your " thrift, industry and intelligence," and of your "aptitude in the arts and sciences, as well as in profitable and useful inventions, and showing the improvement the brother in black has made since the war." nis statistics were also striking and suggestive — "7,000,000 negroes owning 5,000,000 acres of southern soil, with nearly 1,000,000 children; furnishing nearly 16,000 teachers, and about 15,000 students in high schools; publishing ov^er 80 newspapers; producing annually 1,000,000 more bales of cotton since than before the war; witli savings of $50,000,000 in the fraudulent Freedman's Bank, and an assessment of $100,000,000 of taxable property — figures gathered not by black, but by white men." Well might he add, "Is not this marked and rapid prog- ress in a race which the publisher of these figures said did not own itself twenty-three years ago?" Facts like these prove the possession of a growing power and influence. And at this point I enter on my application. What shall be done with this gathered treasure, these resources, these attainments ? To care for and transmit all this to worthy successors, careful trustees, and wise stewards, your children, the generation after you, ran t receive mental, moral, and religious training. But is this all? Is there no higher aim, no broader and wiser use of all this? Friends, we are not reservoirs, but fountains; we are not pools, but running, dispensing, and distributing along all our lines of influence. Education, like every otlier gift, bestowment, attainment, is a trust, a stewardship. Education, like religion, which, alas! is too often made 939 126 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the means of self-indulgence and self-congratulation — " thanking God we are not as other men" — education, like religion, is a grace to be used, an influence to be exerted, a power to be applied. An(i is there no career before you"^ no manifest mission? no broad and blessed use of this trust and these talents committed to your stew- ardship? no outlook? no horizon with an inviting land and a beckon- ing field ? Let the answer come from an impressive parallel. I have likened you to the Jew, in that, here, you dwell a peculiar people. There is also a period in his history marked and suggestive in its resemblance to yours. He spent 400 years in a house of bondage. It pleased an all-wise Providence to place him there, but a family, a tribe, that he might become a nation, and grow to be such beside the first people of his day — the people foremost in knowledge, in science, in art. Israel expanded under the influence of this civilization, and when they went forth, their leader, Moses, went before them skilled in all the learning of the Egyptians. Taught thus by those who held them in bondage, they went forth on their mission, the preservation and perpetuation of the unity and the worship of the one God, the one only, the living and the true. And now for the resemblance. Speaking for you, to us, Mr. Albert says: "Except in so far as our condition has been modified by our for- mer relations of slaves and masters, freed men and freemen, we have ever shared a common destiny. Our ancestors came here almost con- temporaneously with your ancestors. Now, here we are, bound to this country and this State by all that is most dear to man. Here are our homes, our altars, and the graves of our fathers * * * and, for weal or woe, the American negro has come to stay." To which I add, if God means you shall stay, in God's name stay, aye! and prosper in all that is good and right and true. But remember that through these centuries you, too, have grown into your proportions under the influence of the foremost civilization of your day, side by side Avith the first people of your time and of your generations in this land. To attest this, hear that great German states- man whose renown to-day fills the world. Three days since, May 11th, as the telegraph told us, when in the Reichstag a deputy said that Eng- lish and American manufacturers were far beyond those of Germany, Bismarck answered that England was centuries in advance of Germany in civilization. Yes, and the training of this civilization has placed you where you are to-day. Under the nurture and admonition of this English-speaking people, this Anglo-Saxon race, you have developed, attained, and achieved what of progress and possession is yours to-day. And now is there no sphere, no work, no mission outside yourselves, where your training in this mental, moral, and material civilization may be put to practical and beneficial use j one that appeals especially 940 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 127 to you ? I tliiiik that when you hear me you will agree with me that there is. Here is this matchless Exposition, a microcosm, a world in miniature, with its wondrous showing of the products of sea and earth and sky, aiid its amazing exhibitions of the works of human industry and skill. Here the continents have come together, and the islands. But one place is vacant, one record is blank. Day before yesterday was "Edu- cation Day," when from one vast continent, covering seventy degrees of latitude and longitude, a land larger than Europe; five thousand miles long, and in its wider portion nearly as broad: a land unlimited in capabilities and possibilities, — not one teacher appeared, not one map, one book, one chart ; no work of art, no school of science ; not a system shown, not a treatise read. i^ow understand me, I am entering on no discussion and pronouncing no opinion on perplexing questions or vexing problems of deportation, expatriation, or colonization. I say but this, that land is the home of your ancestors. Into its darkness, from the days of Mungo Park, that adventurous Scotchman, who, at the close of the last century, became a pioneer explorer. Frenchmen, Germans, Portuguese, Englishmen, and Americans have penetrated, one affer another, and laid their lives on the altar of sacrifice. You are now on their vantage ground. You are the inheritors of their civilization. It is your time, your turn, your day, and your op- portunity; the day when from the ranks of these 1,000,000 school children, these 10,000 teachers, these 15,000 advanced students, and from these hundred million dollars of tax lists and these 5,000,000 acre owners, shall come forth the Peabodys and the Tulaues of your race, and the men like Livingstone and Moftat, who shall render service and lay down life for those who dwell in this thick darkness. Friends, I am making no holiday talk, offering no oration to while away an hour. I am speaking with earnestness my convictions, and laying these upon your consciences and affections. And I appeal to you, preachers, who are the leaders of your people, to impress upon them this obligation that is theirs — a clear, a grave, a present respon- sibility, that cannot be shifced to other shoulders or left to other hands. And if you answer as you should, if through your ofiered resources and your consecrated and representative men and women, with the Christlike spirit and the Christlike love, shall come forth from the ranks of your two million church members missionaries to be sent by you to bear to your ancestral kindred across the sea the benefits and blessings of that civilization, physical and material, mental, moral, and spiritual, that has blessed and elevated you, it will be an application of your education, a use of your attainments and advancements, that will approve and exalt you among men and get for you the commenda- tion and benediction of God. And if thus true to your day and time you do this, looking through 941 128 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the 3'ears we may forecast a day when, iu another land and perhaps under a warmer sky, there shall arise another temple of the industries and arts, beneath whose arches, beside the other favored nations, a new banner shall be unfurled, bearing upon its folds the names of nations now dwelling in the darkness, but then living iu the light iu a land through your instrumentality "redeemed, regenerated, and disen- thralled." ADDRESS OF KEY. B. M. PALMER, D. D. I speak with the greater pleasure to this assemblage because it is not, in my judgment, a mere holiday occasion ; it is not gathered here for the gratification of a sentiment. There lies iu this assemblage, and in this occasion, a purpose so grand and so earnest that it wil require years of patient thought aud labor to accomplish it hereafter. The problem pre- sented for solution here, my friends, is that of the elevation of an entire people to as high an intellectual, and moral plane as can posvSibly be achieved. You have done me the honor to ask for the utterance of my thoughts on this occasion, and I will take the liberty of speaking with entire frankness all that is in my heart, for I do not know how I can in any other way contribute to the solution of this grand problem. Let me say at the very outset that I recognize very heartily both the distinction and the instinct of race. Of course, as a Christian man, I be- lieve in the unity of the Christian family, all springing from one original stock, for it is written in the Sacred Book, "God has made of one blood all the nations of the ea.rth." But I believe just as firmly that it is the policy of Almighty Grod to divide this family up into distinct and sepa' rate members for His own beneficent ends, ^^"hen the great bow was placed in the heavens as the sign of that covenant that God made with man after the Flood, that He would never again destioy the earth with a universal deluge, it had become necessary, in accordance with the principles upon which God's government is founded and organized, tliat He should put a restraint upon the license and wickedness of man, so that he should not rise to that extravagant height which had brought upon the earth the catastrophe of the Deluge. Hence, it has become a matter of history that He broke the unity of human speech, and stamped upon the peoples of the earth those characteristic marks by which the great families or groups of nations have ever since been distinguished. So much for the distinction of race. 1 said that I believed also iu the instinct of race. 1 believe the in- stinct of race springs from that principle of self-respecl which is ])roper to every man, aud which is placed in the human breast as the basis of whatever of good may be developed there; and planted thus in the in- dividual, it widens out into the family when the individual becomes con- stituted so that the resi)ect and aflection which a man pro])erly enter- tains for himself is developed into that domestic affection which binds together the members of a household; broadening out from that uutil it 942 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 129 spreads over the world, and becomes what we call patriotistn ; wideiiiug out still, in broader circles, until it overtakes the universe and is recog- nized in the cause of philanthropy, ^ow, this instinct of self-respect and self-appreciation, which I hold to be indispensable as the basis of individual and personal character, extends to every race of men that ex- ists. When, therefore, it became apparent in your history, when you were some twenty years ago suddenly thrust to the front to make the most of your own resources, it was perfectly natural that there should be developed in your bosoms, as in mine, and as in that of every honest and true man, the instinct of race. It was right that you should create those associations among your- selves which should develop and occupy the social element of your peo- ple. It was perfectly right and altogether in accordance with the prin- ciples of the highest reasoning that you should be gathered in your own schools, and that you should be taught by teachers well instructed of your own race ; that you should be gathered in your own churches, and taught by pastors well instructed of your own race. I say again, and with renewed emphasis, that I recognize distinctly, not only the dis- tinction, but the instinct of race. And now, my friends, permit me to add, as the climax of this thought, that as a race you are put this day upon an elevated i)latform before all the nations of mankind. Here, in connection with this Exposition, you touch the highest civilization upon earth. You behold with your eyes the products of every part of this great continent. Not only so, but you behold the products which represent the education, and the civilization, and the thought of the more ancient nations of the earth. It was a wonderful history, that of the means by which four million of people — at that time, twenty years ago— by that high Providence which rules over nations as well as over men, were brought out from that state of dependence upon the will of other men and made to develop be- fore all mankind upon a platform as elevated as our own Rocky Mount- ains, or as the mountains upon the eastern shore of our continent, to workout before the nations of the earth your own history and distinc- tion. I congratulate you upon that event. Providence has brought you as a people and as a race, and put you upon this exalted platform to work out your own history and career. T say, from the depths of my breast, a hearty "amen " to it all. But now mark. If you are to be a historic people, you must make yourselves worthy of a history, for it is a law of nature in all of her departments that everything must grow from its own roots. There are parasitic plants th;it climb about the trees upon which they live, and that sometimes even put forth little tlowers of their own, but they have no root of their own, and therefore no strength and no glory. It is an ordinance of Him who has made nature and man, and it is as true of races as of plants, that everything must grow from its own root. And I am here today in accordance with your own wishes to emphasize that 7950 COT., PT. 3 9 943 130 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. thought. You are to be in history just as you are worthy to be, neither more nor less, and I am here to exhort you all, so that your roots may take hold in time. Now, to recur again to the analogy of the plant: there must be a living seed, and that living seed must stand in direct relation to the soil, and when put into the earth it must be strength- ened and warmed and refreshed and nourished until it bursts its shell and tlie hidden life goes forth into the plant; and as soon as it emerges from the soil it must shoot out its leaves, the lungs of the plants, through which it breathes the pure air of heaven, and be painted as to its colors by that highest of all artists, the sun, which God has placed in the zenith of the heavens. Just so with man. He must have capacities. There must be within him the qualities of courage and patience and hopefulness. There must be those mental and moral traits that give life to the seed that produces corn in harvest time; and there must be time for all this, and there must be the proper surroundings, and the proper agencies at work. Now I come to the point which is submitted for our consideration in the programme of this occasion. What are to be the agencies by which you are to rise to a historic position among the nations of the earth? For here I have to say that you shall have what all other nations have had, just that place in history that you make for yourselves. When you develop the qualities that are in you, and form a character upon which that history is to be built, unquestionably, according to the a[)pointmeut of Him who rules the universe, you will have your own orbit described for you. For as there are orbits in which the planets jnove, orbits in M'hich the solar systems themselves move, all sweeping around that great common center, which for aught we know may be the abode of the Almighty, so there are orbits i)rovided for men and for races and for nations just according to their own fitness. I point again to the responsibility that lies upon you, and I take the full share of responsibility upon myself. We are here on this occasion standing side by side, white men and black men. We have known each other through the centuries that are past. We white men were born and brought up in the arms of nurses that came of your race. If there are any two classes who should be l^erfectly friendly one to the other, who should rejoice in their mutual advancement and prosperity, the.y are the Southern whites and the negroes of America. Xow as to that which we call character, the basis of all history, how very remarkable it is that even the nations that be- long to the same race yet differ in the characteristics they de^'elop. Look upon the map of Europe. There you find England and France and Germany and Spain and Italy— all of them of the Caucasian stock, all of them bearing the impress of the race to which they belong, yet with individual distinctions by which they are perfectly separated one from the other. You cannot confound the Englishman with the French- man, the Frenchman with the German, nor the German with the Italian 944 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. id I or the Spauiard. What are the causes that eoiubiue to produce those minute diftiereuces that exist between nations of the same stock 1 I, perhaps, am not competent to indicate. At any rate this is not the place to discuss the subject. It is the same with regard to the nations of the East. The Arabian and the Persian, for example, came from the same stock ; so did the Chinese and the Japanese; and yet, though they have traits in common that have descended to them, they are distinct from each other in the traits they have developed. Hence, as has been suggested by the speakers who have preceded me, there is to be a type of character, per- haps a type of civilization, that is to be peculiarly your own. A type of civilization that shall produce new qualities even. What are the agencies that are to be brought into operation to effect this? I reduce them to three. They are : First, the home ; second, the church ; third, the school. I say home, because it is the primary state, the flrsr society, out of which all states and societies spring. Home ! Knit together by the bonds of chaste affection in which children shall be taught the law of obedience to authority, and in the exercise of that obedience, all their faculties, intellectual and moral, shall be trained. If it were not for the despotism of the family — I say despotism; it is a strong word, but not too strong — 1 do not believe that men would be capable of sub- jection under any form of government in the world. Then there is the church. Streams {]o not rise higher tlian their sources. Tell me the religion of a people, and I shall know the people themselves. Xot until the religious character of a man or of a nation is developed does he be- come capable of subjection to human law ; until then he is entirely use- less to the society around him. But it is more appropriate on the present occasion, seeing the char- acter of the object that has called us together, that I should dwell upon the third and last of the agencies to which I have referred, namely, the schools. Through the generosity of friends at a distance your people have been wonderfully well supplied with the higher class of schools. I have sometimes thought that perhaps there had been a mistake in putting so much of that liberality in that direction, and not a little more lower down in the scale of literary development. However that may be, it so happens that through all this southern country, from the Gulf up to the border of the northern States, you are everywhere provided to a good degree with the institutions that impart a high education. But besides these institutions there are the technical schools, that have been so eloquently relerred tobvmyfriend,ColonelJohuston. These furnish a supplementary education, as it were, an education that should everywhere be encouraged. Such schools bring your young people into intimate connection with those requirements and those pur- suits of life in which many of them will have to earn their bread. Let me say, in closing, that in all your efforts to advance yourselves, 945 132 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. whether socially or educationally, you have the very heartiest sympathy and co-operation of all wise and thoughful men upon the face of the earth. ADDRESS OF REV. A. E. P. ALBERT, D, D. Mr. President and Fellow-citizens — In the spirit of our lamented Presi- dent Garfield, I bow in reverence before the school-children of to-day, because no one knows what undeveloped possibilities are wrapped up in their tiny suits. Among them are those who are to be the future mas- ters in oratory, in music, and in arts; those who are to be the invent- ors, scientists, scholars, professional and business men; the mechanics, farmers, manufacturers, law-makers, judges, and rulers of this nation. They are the heirs apparent in the line of succession, to whom we must soon turn over the sovereignty and destiny of the Eepublic. Upon their present training depends whether they shall ble-5s the world with their greatness, or curse it with their wickedness. Divine Providence, as well as human economy, commits to us the "sacred charge of preparing these coming millions for the active respon sibilities of life. Primarily, this burden rests upon the parents of the present. And well might it rest there, because, for weal or woe, "the hand that rocks the cradle rules the world." How solemn the charge! how vast the re- sponsibilities! — so sacred, that had I the voice of a trumpet, and the power of an archangel, I would g-o up and down the earth, awakening with thundering blasts the parents of this nation to the sacredness and solemnity of their charge. Infidelity, with its withering curses; vice and immorality, with their seething mass of pollution; intemperance, the hydra-headed, bloody monster, whose stony heart, blinded eyes, and listless ears, unaffected by the poverty, misery, and crimes which it pro- duces, and the hundred thousand drunkards' graves which it digs an- nually, — are threatening the very foundation of the home, and calling loudly for the interposition of parental training and influence to stay the coming destruction. Secondarily, this responsibility rests upon the States and the nation, whose welfare is vitally involved. The monarchical powers of Europe find it to their advantage to aid the cause ofpublic education from their natioiuil treasuries, and, with Edmund Burke, they believe it to be the " cheap defense of nations." The British Parliament expended for public education in 1882, in England and Wales, $1:3,749,315 ; in Scotland, $1,730,160; in Ireland, $2,077,080, besides the local revenues for educational purposes. Prussia, during the same year, spent $11,458,856; Russia, $9,000,000; Austria, $8,800,000; Italy, $6,000,- 000; Belgium, with a population of only 5,403,006, spent for education during the same year 20,000,000 francs. The French Republic, wiser if not better for her dearly bought experience with the Prussians, — that an educated soldiery is superior to an illiterate one, spent in 1881-'82, $22,- 946 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 133 717,880. These sums, be it remembered, are simply supplementary to tbe millious raised and expended from endowments and local taxation for the cause of education. And, in order to further the cause, not only are these millions of dollars spent annually, but Prussia, France, Italy, Aus- tria, and even Japan, and many other countries, have adopted compul- sory systems of education. The purpose of the American Union, based upon universal suffrage, and where every man is a sovereign, is " to establish justice, insure do- mestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our pos- terity." The question of imiiortauce to a government thus coustituted, is, by what methods can these purposes be best fulhlled? Since expe- rience has demonstrated that no republic can live and prosper amid the rank and noxious growth of vice and ignorance, we answer, unquestion- ably b3" promoting universal education. The strength and stability of republics do not consist in floating batteries, swarming battalions, and terror-striking guillotines and gibbets, but in the virtue and intelligeuce of their citizens. And this education, to produce the greatest blessing, must be sanctified by the holy influence of the pulpits of the laud. Vice is the twin sister of ignorance. They constitute the greatest danger menacing our free institutions. Universal suffrage, not unlike the use- ful benefits of steam, electricity, and the chemical forces, is a blessing fraught with the direst consequences, if exercised by an ignorant and vicious people. The nation needs to be fully aroused to the enormity of the evil which, above all others, endangers her life and happiness. Intelligence is necessary to the proper exercise of the elective franchise, and to day, as in the days of the fathers of the republic, " we must edu- cate or we must perish." " Self-preservation is the first law of nature," to nations as well as to individuals; hence the imperative duty of the na- tional government in this her vital interest. It is not be assumed, however, that intelligence is but a mere synonym for honesty, integrity, and patriotism, and that it transforms every one into an Aristides, a Leonidas, or an Horatius. Nay, one may possess the eloquence of a Demosthenes or Cicero, the polish of a Pericles, a Livy, or a Tacitus, and yet be a Judas, a Benedict Arnold, or an Aaron Burr. Education, however, increases the value and self-respect of every citizen ; hence its tendency to decrease pauperism and crime, the two greatest burdens on a State. In these the State, and not the national, government is vitally involved; but every citizen of the State is a co-ordinate king of the Republic, upon whom rests the mighty fabric of our national institutions, and by whom its questions of policy must be decided. This the voter must express by his ballot. But how can the illiterate voter so express himself intelligently, hon- estly, and effectively? This he cannot do without that intelligence which enhances the moral senses, and that is capable of baffling corrup- tion. In this the national life is at stake. A dreadful pall of ignorance, 947 1J4 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. l)reediiig" death and destruction, o verb a ugstlie Republic! Over 2,000,000 voters, or one in every five of the voters in the United States, are un- able to read the ballots which they cast. The great storm center is in the sixteen southern States, where the 7,000,000 colored peoj)le are chieiiy to be found. From 40 to 55 per cent, of the voters of that sec- tion are unable to read their ballots. Eighty per cent, of the colored and 30 per cent, of the white population of the South are illiterate. The South, with only one-third of the population, has three-fourths of the illiteracy of the nation, and luUy a third of her voters are illiterate. But the most alarming- aspect here presented is that the cloud of ignorance is becoming denser. The ten years preceding the taking of the census of 1880 show an increase of 187,071 illiterates in the South. The work of ed- ucation is not keeping pace with the increase or our population, to say nothing of removing the vast cloud of ignorance which hangs over mul- titudes of our older masses ; 10,337 white, and 80,555 colored voters, or nearly half of our voting population in Louisiana, cannot read their ballots. There are more illiterate voters in South Carolina than there are voters able to read their ballots, while in Kentucky there are more white than colored illiterates. South Carolina has five times as many illiterate voters as New York, with her millions of inhabitants and all her foreign population ; while Georgia, which has nearly the same popula- tion as Iowa, has nine times as many illiterate voters, and twice as many, without counting her colored illiterates. These figures show that not only the colored, but that the white people, too, of the South, are sadly wrapped up in the abject bondage of ignorance. But how else can it be, when the States of New York and Michigan alone have a larger in- come for [)ublic schools than the whole South combined"? The census shows farther that the States suiferi?ig the most from illit- eracy are those most financially disabled to provide the necessary means to educate the masses. Is not this fact an eloquent appeal for national aid for public education in such States'? Can the national government guarantee for the future a republican form of government to such States, while she indifferently allows the increasing growth of the poisonous upas which threatens her own existence, and against which such States are helpless? Not only in the South is this great danger, but the great cities of the country also furnish cause for alarm. Fiftj^-seven percent, of the children of school age in Chicago are not in school; eighty-two per cent, of those of Wilmington, N. C, are not enrolled in school; while in thirty -four cities fifty per cent, and upward are out of school. The growing political intiuence of our cities <>ives significant importance to such fearful figures. The salvation of the Union against internal ruin and forei;?u invasion is in the idea of universal education, by national aid, as a safeguard around universal suffrage. The igno- rant masses easily become the pliant tools and the turbulent rabble of schemers and designing politicians. They are the ready converts to socialism, communism, and every 948 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 135 other ism destructive of the euds for which the goverumeut was founded. The menacing clouds call for vigorous efforts to wipe away the curse, before, like a mighty cyclone, it sweeps the nation and her liberties from the face of the earth. The evil is national and calls for national remedies. The panacea is universal education, or national ruin follows. However statesmen might differ upon States rights principles involved, they are all agreed as to the dire necessity which calls for national aid, and as to the duty of the Government to provide it. The voice of the l)eople, which is the voice of God, is that statesmen should settle their differences forthwith, that the aid, which all have agreed is needful and reasonable, may be made available. The evil to be eradicated is a tre- mendous one. To remove it every agency should immediately be put to work. The home and the pulpit, the State and the nation, — they are all threatened; they all should defend. Our colored population, freed amid shot and shell, fire and smoke, rivers of blood and millions of treasure, is intensely interested in this matter. The negro craves education. He wants to learn to make himself in- telligent and more valuable, as a man and a citizen, in every sphere of usefulness. Twenty-two years ago he entered the race of life, bound up in the densest ignorance. Nearly every man's hand then was against him. Having demonstrated his ability to acquire elementary, classical, and professioual education quite as readily as any other race, his value as a producer no less than a consumer, and his political im- portance, he has now succeeded in arousing the sober reflection of his fellow-citizens; and to-day all classes recognize the obligation of his preparation for the duties and privileges of citizenship. Public opinion, based upon substantial facts, declares that the progress made in educa- tion amid the hindrances encountered, has been most flattering. The educational exhibits — examination papers, drawings, and so on — from every State and Territory in the Union, prove conclusively, from actual residts, the ability of the race. Already we can point with pride to a growing and distinguished class of scholars — authors, college pro- fessors, teachers, lawyers, physicians, and clergymen — many of whom were born under the yoke of slavery, besides the vast numbers who have become intelligent business men, mechanics, farmers, and more valuable and reliable laborers, and better citizens. These are but the first fruits of a grand harvest. We can now discover a promising sil- ver lining to the thick and murky cloud of ignorance which stdl over- casts our sky. The census of 1880 shows that there are 4,001,207 colored persons ten years of age and over in this country, and that of this number 3,220,878, or 70 per cent., cannot write. Over half of the illiterate voting population of the nation are col- ored, although we form but one-eighth of the population. The increase of school population among the whites in the South during the year 1880-'81 was 54,030, while the increase of enrollment was only 19,203, 949 136 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. but little more than oue-thirtl what it ought to have been. Among the negroes the comparison is still more unsatisfactory. Our increase in school population was 125,930, while the increase in enrollment was only 17,663— that is to say, that but little over one-seventh of the in crease of our youths in the South were enrolled during that year. Ed- ucate a man's head, hands, and heart, and he learns his duties and privileges of his citizenship, and he becomes better and more valuable. The negro is a man, therefore education ameliorates his condition and enhances his material and moral worth. To accomplish these results for our people, 18,000 public schools, with 1,000,000 scholars and 3 7,000 colored teachers, beside a number of white teachers, are now in successful operation. The religious denominations, too, are at work. The Methodist, Baptist, Congregational, and other Kortheru denominations have dotted the South everywhere with their high schools, colleges, and universities, as so many central fires, to pre- pare teachers, ministers, physicians, artisans, and leaders for the race, and to lighten up this Southland. The Methodist Episcopal Church alone has disbursed over $1,500,000, over $500,000 of which has been invested in permanent school pro|)erty, toward our higher education since the war, beside the multiplied thousands of dollars expended through her church extension, missionary, and other benevolent agen- cies. Her freedmeu's aid institutions have taught over 100,000 pupils, and these in turn have instructed 1,000,000 children, and still the work goes on increasing every year. The Baptist Church, through her Home Missionary Society, has spent over $ 1,000,000, over $400,000 of which is in permanent property. The American Missionary Society, with her twenty chartered and normal institutions and thirty-five other schools, 350 teachers, and 9,000 scholars, is quite abreast of either of these de- nominations in this divine mission. The Presbyterians, Unitarians, Friends, Episcopalians, and some of the churches of the South, are more or less engaged in the good work. These churches have expended over $25,000,000 for negro education since Lincoln's proclamation. Their continued efforts and interest, and the incessant labors of such philanthropists as Chamberlain, Gen. Pisk, Dr. Bust, Dr. Braden, and our own Bishop Mallalieu in this city, Drs. Streiby and lloj-, Drs. Morehouse and Haygood, and the charitable remembrance of such noble Christian-hearted benefactors as John F. Slater, Mrs. Valeria G. Stone, and many others whose names are house- hold treasures among us, all inspire us with encouragement for the future. The presence here of these students from our public schools, from the Southern, Straight, Leland, and New Orleans Universities, together with their overworked and underpaid teachers and faithful presidents, all mark the coming dawn. The presence among us to-day of such men as the Rev. Dr. Palmer, the scholarly and eminent divine, whose superior qualifications place him at the head of the Southern clergy; of Col. William Preston John- 950 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 137 ston, the distinguished university president; Eev. Dr. Thos. R. Mark- ham, the popular pastor and one of the most influential Southern divines; the generous temper manifested by Director-General Burk« and by the other managers of this Exposition ; and the encouragement afforded us by the recognized leaders and formulators of Southern pub- lic opinion — all point to a better and brighter day for the future intel- ligence and well-being of our people. Education is the consummate flower of modern civdization, which gives fragrance to the condition of all races and na,tions. Let us cultivate it. It is the great center around which our national life and happiness revolve. Under its influence, fostered by charitable, State, and national aid, the night of darkness shall soon pass away. Ignorance, vices, and race prejudices shall perish, and the sunshine of intelligence shall penetrate the darkest nook^ the bonds of brotherhood shall be strengthened, and the blessings of our free institutions, founded upon universal suffrage and protected by uni- versal education, shall here be enjoyed by every race alike, and shall be handed down to our children's children unimpaired. ADDRESS OF COL. WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON. I am here by invitation, to-day, to address you on the subject of indus- trial education in its bearings on the colored people. I presume I am invited in view of the fact that I am known to favor industrial educa- tion in all its aspects, in every race, class, and condition, and because I am myself a teacher. But it may not be known to you, though I recall the incident with pleasure, that the very first teaching I ever did was in giving lessons in reading and ciphering to a colored man. He was a very large and a very black man, indeed, and I was a very small boy, but we were the best of friends. He was a cornfield hand, not one of our own servants, but a neighbor's, and he used to walk several miles on Saturday nights or Sundays, to say his lessons. He was only a mod- erately apt scholar, and I was not a very skillful teacher, but what I lacked in experience I made up in zeal. We had a great deal of talk outside our lessons, and I hope we were both the better for it. You will pardon this little reminiscence, but I offer it to show that I have, in my humble way, been from the first anxious to impart to my colored friends the best treasure I ever had, my share of knowledge. And I wish to say right here, before I begin to discuss the subject matter in baud, that if I know my own heart, no one can feel a sincerer or deeper interest than I do in the welfare, happiness, and i)rogress of the colored l)eople, with whom I have been brought up, and have been associated, in so many ways, all my liie. The friendship I have toward your i)eo- ple is honest and genuine, and I am always glad to lend you a helping hand or a word of cheer when needed. It is prompted solely by this feeling that I am here now. But I may well add that I am touched by 951 138 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. this mark of your confidence in inviting me to confer and advise with you on this important occasion. Before we talk about how we are to educate a man, we ought to de- cide what we are aiming at. To educate him is nothing more nor less than to train him, or break him, into his work in life. You all know what is meant when we talk of training, or breaking, a horse. It may be to haul a dray, to draw a carriage, to run a race, or to take his paces under the saddle. We train him for what he has got to do, however, and not to dance hornpipes or play trick-mule in a circus. Now, just so, educating a man is training or breaking him in for his work in life, and not to make a show merely. But a man's work is a good deal more difficult than a horse's. He has to work like a horse, it is true; but a horse has somebody to think for him, and the man has to do his own thinking, if lie is a man. More- over a horse's morals consist in obej'ing the bit and curb of a master mind; but a man, no matter how abject, has attectious and a conscience, and these must be kept sound and healthy, or the man becomes a nui- sance to himself and all the world. Now a great philosopher, as Mr. Herbert Spencer is called, informs ns that "knowledge immediately conducive to self-preservation is of primary importance." In plainer language, the first thing we have to learn is to keep out of the fire — to take care of ourselves. Fortunately, nature and the rude exj)erieuce of most barbarous races heli) toward this most important knowledge of all, though it leaves much for even the most civilized to learn, and more for them to act upon. We see this illustrated here in New Orleans, where we do not clean our streets and back yards, though Azrael, the angel of death, is on the wing, holding aloft the vial of [)estilence with broken seal and filled to the brim. As self-preservation is the first law of nature — that is to say, in the material world — we ought to learn in our very infancy all the laws and rules to keep in health and good working order the machine we call our body; and to this end we must be prepared, or educated, to provide for it the food and clothing and dwelling place that are necessary for its comfort and well being. It is not necessary or desirable that the body should become the servant of the clothes it wears, or of the food it con- sumes. Health, not luxury, should be our aim. But a man is badly educated who does not easily win bread and .secure comfort for himself and his family; and this, not through cunning arts, but by honest toil. In training a man, we must train hiui first to make his own living, and next to make a good living for his family. I f we can do this with the great majority of men, the problem of education is nearly solved. A very large proportion of the people of the world must make their living by the sweat of the brow, by the labor of the hand. Only a small number are needed for the professions, for managing that share of the world's business in which the hands do not perform the greatest part, though not the best part of the work. There is only oue physi- 952 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 139 ciau for 115 families, aud that is too many; there is only one lawyer for 156 families; and, taking all the professions together, their members include only one man out of every 220 of the entire population. There are men evidently fitted by nature for professional life, and it is a great pity when any such should be debarred from it, or kept out of it; but they are exceptional men. The real trouble is that the wrong men get into it, and the business of the world is badly done. There is a mistake, too, in believing that professions necessarily con- fer greater rewards in wealth, honor, or happiness, than industrial pur- suits. The intellectual life confers a happiness of its own, a peace which the world cannot give, but it is not the sort of happiness that most men are seeking. Xow, if there should be a rush to any profession, or indeed a very small addition to its percentage, the supply would be greater than the demand ; many would be left unemployed in it, and poverty and suffer- ing would follow. This is not so with the hand workers. You cannot have too much corn, for the world is your market. But 1 will be told that you can have too many carpenters, or iron- workers, or shoemakers. I confess this would be true under the old system of education, tho,ugh not under the new. But this is a large question, and one which I am not dealing with to-day. On some other occasion I may attempt to show how I think labor may protect itself from the oppressions of monopoly, and reconcile justice, progress, and happiness, by the equable aud equitable condi- tions of peace, instead of making hostility, or at best armed neutrality, the basis of the social and economic life. Suffice it now to say, that if a man must be taught, as was the case in old times, to do a few things by rule of thumb, so that he would know those things and nothing else, then, as soon as an invention came along which showed a shorter, easier, and cheaper way of doing those few things, he would be left liigh and dry on a shelf, to lift up his idle hands to heaven in prayer and starve. But such is not the case now under our new system of training, though I admit that it was under the old apprenticeship system. We do not make a carpenter, or a turner, or a blacksmith, or a foundryman of him, but a mechanic. We teach him principles, and how to apply them ; tools and how to use them. When one set of tools fails to pro- vide a competence he turns his hand to another that will, for he has a mastery of all. Our modern education manages these things better than the old method did. We put brains into the fingers. We find out the best way to do a thing, aud the reason why it is the best way. Then in teaching a man how to do it we teach his fingers to do the job, not like a dumb, blind piece of machinery. But we say: "Come, ears, listen while I tell you ; come, eyes, look upon this work, not with a dazed, uncertain stare, but keenly ; come, tongue, tell me hoic to do this; and 953 140 EDUCATIONAL COXVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. last of all, come, O thou captaiu of the Lost, Boss Braius, understand this work, what it is for, how it is doue, why it is carried out in this particular way and not iu another." And when Boss Brains takes charge of a piece of business, my friends, it is well done. When you find the mark of that master mechanic on it you may be satisfied. Now, one thing about this new, or modern, education. What would you think of a schoolmaster who would take up a book and read it glibly, and then turn to a little beginner and say, " Now, my boy, you have heard me read, take this book; and here is a spelling book, too, with the alphabet in it, and lots of nice words ; you just learn your letters, and spell these words all out, and then after you practice read- ing you will get to be a nice reader like me." Would you blame the boy for saying, " Master, I do not know how to do all this*' ? A sensible schoolmaster would first teach the boy the words which make up the sentences, and liow he must use all his faculties to learn, before he put him to read by himself. Nine numerals and a cipher, or zero, make up all the signs needed for the vast numeration and complicated calculations in arithmetic. So handicraft has its alphabet and its master- words. Its has its digits and numerals. There are a few typical forms, as they are called, in wood or iron, a few shapes into which the carpenter saws and planes his wood, which, put together, make up all the vast variety we see in joinery, car- penter's work, or cabinet-making. He does not call these A, B, C, D, X, Y, Z. lie calls them square, flat, dov^etail, mortice, tenon, etc., etc. When a man learns to make these typical forms j>erfectly well, and how to put them together, he can get anything he wants in wood by az^anging them properly. The little schoolboy takes D, O, G, and finds it spells dog ; but when he arranges the same letters dittereutly they spell (jod. So the worker in wood, who is properly taught, soon begins to spell new words in wood ; and I have seen a lad spell box with pieces of plank, after a few lessons. And so he goes on, with the teacher showing him every step, spelling harder and harder things in wood, till he can spell bureau without help, and, may be, house ; and I exiiect that same of our boys will one of these days be able to spell WorWa Exposition. The same happens in teaching iron- working. The student has to learn the typical forms, or letters, for iron. And these are as difl'erent from the wood alphabet as Grreek is from Latin, or German from Eng- lish. He has to work with difterent tools, too; and these must be learned. But by this time he has been taught to think, and, though the iron is harder than wood, the thinking has become easier. So much for the alphabet and syllables and words of hand- work; so much for the digits and ciphers. This short and easy way I have of t^xplainitig hand-work will make you understand what we are trying to do m the Tulane Manual Training School. But you will understand it better, if you will go any day, ex- 954 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 141 cept Sunday, between three aud five o'clock, to the Govern iiient Baikl- ing at the Exposition, and see the teachers and the boys, not saying, but doing, their lessons. You will see there, too, another teacher instructing the same classes in drawing. I want every boy in the South, white and black, taught how to draw. I do not wish this done as an accomplishment. Heaven forbid that I should advise any large class of my countrymen to quit the serious business of life to learn pretty things. We do not want dudes of any complexion. But to know how to draw is to be able to tell with your fingers and pencil to another man's eyes what you cannot tell with your tongue to his ears. Hence it is another language, which talks things instead of words, just as handicraft thinks in things instead of in words. It is hard to be a first-rate mechanic without being able to draw and read drawings, for thus only can you best arrive at what is wanted. I remember the time when th^ shoemakers used a tape to measure the foot for a shoe; but, afterward, some genius caught the bright idea of making you put your foot flat down, and then drawing its outline on paper. After that any fool knew the shape of the sole better than a wise man could before by half a dozen measurements; aud, ever since then, shoes have been easier to wear. Now iron-working and wood-working are not the only arts, and it would be very desirable if others were taken up and taught on the same general ideas that 1 have described. I am quite aware that other trades are taught, but what 1 wish to see is the same scientific method applied in them, as now in the manual training in wood and in iron. I wish to see the elementary principles sought out by able men, the al- phabet of the art invented, or formulated rather, and principles taught. I wish Boss Brains in every shop. Before the trustees of the Slater Fund had made their plans, one of their number did me the honor to consult me as to how it should be emploj'ed, and he heartily approved my emphatic recommendation that it should go to the industrial education of the colored people. It was a matter of sincere gratification with me when I saw that this disposition was made of it. And here I may say that your white brethren rejoice with you that wealthy and generous men at the jS'orth have .been moved to bestow such large donations for the exclusive education of our colored people, amounting, it is said, to $15,000,000. We know that what helps you helps us, though the gifts for the exclusive use of the white youth amount onlj^ to two or three millions, and we cannot feel otherwise than grateful when good fortune befalls you. So, too, I am sure our colored friends are pleased to see the good which is being done by the splendid donation of Mr. Paul Tulane for the exclusive use of the white youth of Louisiana, who need it so much. They will, in fact, themselves indirectly profit by it, for whatever raises 955 142 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. tlie grcueral lev^el of education, and gives a broader, more tolerant, and more Christian aspect to our civilization, will benefit tbeni. Now, my friends, I have no wish to deter any young persons from availing themselves of the best education they can get in any occupa- tion for which they feel they have a special call or vocation. But you must recollect that the man who spends his youth in preparing for a learned profession for which he has no fitness, is after that not good for much of anything. A gentleman once met Beau Brummell's body servant coming down stairs with a clothes basket full of white cravats rumpled by the beau in trying to tie one to suit himself. " Why, what are those f" asked the astonished visitor. " Those," replied the valet, "are our failures^ I fear that, under ordinary systems of college edu- cation, the danger will be that we may have a basket full of failures as useless as rumpled cravats for each one perfect success. I belie v^e in the transcendent power of wise words, words which ex- press well great thoughts; but talk without good thinking behind the tine language is worse than the chatter of monkeys. It is what the newspaper men call in expressive, but not very elegant, slang, " rot." And so of the education which teaches this art of twaddle and bosh. We are now wanting men who will do things, rather than those others who merely talk about doing things. Without derogating at all from those persons who honestly and conscientiously tal^e up tJie buvsiuess of teach- ing or preaching, for instance, I can say that I believe the workers, the handicraftsmen, will soon outstrip the ablest of those in wealUi and social importance. The reason is plain enough. The former have only religion and knowledge to offer, articles held very cheap in the market; the latter have something to sell which everybody wants — skilled labor. Now, my friends, I have said to you that education was a preparation for life, a training or breaking in of the man for the work he has to do. What is true of an individual is likewise true of a race or nation. Every great nation now in the world has had an education not unlike that of a man. It has risen by slow and painful steps from ignorance and bar- barism, yea, from the depths of savagery, to the high plane of modern civilization, on which it is now living with its destiny for better or worse, ac- cording to the way it has profited by its advantages. Take, for example, the most powerful, humane, and orderly of European nations, the British people. When Disraeli was taunted by an Englishman as a Jew, he re- torted truly and wittily : " When your ancestors were hunting the wild boar in the marshes and forests of Germany, mine were princes and poets in Israel." Some of you may remember the story which led to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, who were the forefathers of the modern English, to Christianity by St. Augustine. Pope Gregory saw some beautiful Sax- ons, or Angles — which is only another name ior the Saxons — for sale in Eome ; and when told that they were Angles, he said, '' No; they are not Angles, but angels, and like the cherubim." These poor children 95G EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 143 had })robably been sold by tbeir own parents, which was not unusual. The Anglo-Saxon has risen from a savage hunter and child-dealer to a man armed and equipped with all the infinite possibilities of civilization. But in reaching this high estate he passed under the yoke of the Nor- man. He went to school, so to speak, to one of the best and hardest schoolmasters the world has ever known, the brilliant, energetic, organ- izing Norman. He endured servitude, or to call things by their right names, slavery, for centuries — for a period longer than the African has endured it in America, with the grand and beneficent result that we see. Other nations have had a similar experience. Is it not plain, then, that, in the Providence of God, a nation, like a man, must learn to serve before it is fit to command; must learn to submit the lawless, individual will, to the authority of law fexercised for the good of all ? Subordination is necessary to order. The tribes and races which can- not submit to the authority of superior intelligence, perish, as we have seen so many Indian tribes vanish from the earth. The docile races survive, and grow, and wax great, as we have seen the African on the soil of America, and in the house of bondage. Some foolish people will make it a reproach to you that your race has endured slavery. It is no shame to you. On the contrary, it should be your pride that you were not a wild race, but a domestic one, which could learn and become civilized. The colored race has had a tutelage of two centuries on this continent. There are those who will tell you that this servitude tended to encourage every servile vice, and to crush every manly aspiration. This is not true. It is just neither to master nor to servant. The direct contrary is true. And the answer to the charge that the bondage of the colored race was unnecessarily harsh or repressive, in its larger aspects, is to be found in their tremendous progress. Eeal progress is inconsistent with bad government. It would be the part neither of a philosopher nor a historian to pict ure slavery as an Arcadian j)astoral. There was enough of sin and sorrow and suffering in it to touch any heart; but some of the wisest of men find human life, in all its aspects, a profound tragedy ; and Sol- omon, the wisest and most prosperous of kings, declared that all is '' vanity and vexation of spirit." When Christ comes to reign on earth you will see the niillenium, but not till then. What I now want to call your attention to is this : The colored race in the South has been at school for two centuries. Have they learned anything ? Has their progress been real? The answer to this can be fully made on]y by a comparison of their condition when they left the shores of Africa and their condition to-day. This comparison I cannot on this occasion undertake to make at length ; but when we remember the naked captive sold on the Guinea coast b^' the slave-hunter of his own race for a string of beads — the poor trembling heathen, ignorant of all that concerned himself here or hereafter, and compare him with 957 144 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. the men and women that I see here present, well may we exclaim, with the Psalmist : He brought them out of darkness, and out of the shadow of death, and brake their bands in sunder. O, that men -would therefore praise the Lord for His goodness, and deohire the wonders that He doeth for the children of men. What do I see before me and around me to-day? Not a people who refused to be taught, but a teachable people. Not Ishmaelites, with their hands against every man's hand, but a people like unto the chil- dren of Israel, who, while they served their task-masters, possessed themselves of all the learning of Egypt. What is the result"? Take this audience as an example. I see before me a well-clad, well-behav^ed, intelligent Christian com- munity, with the light of intelligence in their countenances and the flame of moral purpose warming and brightening their hearts. I say, is there any art, or trade, or calling, in the great workshop of civiliza- tion, in which the colored man cannot be found? No. You have been at school, and you are now entering on the manhood of your powers. I wish you God-speed. The great problem before us that must be solved is what you are to do next. After the war, too many of you, like boys just out of school, believed life one long holiday and acted accordingly. I am not blam- ing these for what was so natural ; but much time has been wasted, and there has been a good deal of headache and heartache in consequence. Twenty odd years have passed, and if there is to be any serious life in the great future for the colored race on this continent, it must now re- ceive a new and stronger and final impulse. What direction shall this impulse take? I speak for myself, it is true, and there may be many who will differ with me, but I believe that I speak also for the best part of the white people of the South. The hope of the colored race and of the South, of which they are a part, lies in their education. But education is a broad term, and, we must determine what sort of an education it shall be. I have said all my life that books make only a small part of education. Coleridge said that " he did not believe in ghosts, because he had seen lOO many." Perhaps a like reason may make me doubt the power of mere book learning to civilize and human- ize and Christianize a people. The book cannot tell any more than the man who made it. And there must be a man behind every book to make it a real, living power for good. But books do give a haud.v way of getting at the truth, when you know how to use them, and reading and writing and study in books do help people to think. So does draw iug. So does talk, if it is of the right sort. So does a u^n's trade. So does a woman's sewing and cooking and setting her house in order. All these things require thought. All of it is hard thinking to begin with, and easy after it has been practiced. And all good thought and all good work go to improve the mind and conduct of people, and make them better. And that is what education is for. 958 EDUCATION DAY ADDRESSES. 145 The colored people, when the war closed, knew a great deal which the rising generation has not learned. Industries have been forgotten which ought to have been kept up and improved. ITew industries have been started, which would help you if you would learn them. If you do not know it yet, you will soon discover that the wealth and position of the next generation of men will be measured by the amount of labor in thi^; the skill, intelligence and industry of parents will determine where their children are to stand. What do I advise, then If That you avail yourselves of every opportunity to make yourselves intelligent and skillful in those arts which pay — which pay in health, wealth, and happiness. Agriculture claims more than one-seventh of our popula- tion — nearly one-half of the workers. I believe it the best of all occu- pations in the long run. But it needs brains, just like all others, and I advise the colored man who follows it to put brains into it. But the people I see around me to-night are not country people, but town folk. 1 do not advise them to turn farmers. I advise them each to stick to his own trade or business, and try to learn all about it — its in's and its out's, what is in it and the outcome of it. Try to do your own work honestly and better than anybody else, and you will succeed; and if anybody can teach you anything about it which you do not know, learn by all meaos. As for the children, teach them their A, B, C's; teach them to read, write, and cipher, and as much more as they will learn ; but, first of all, and above all, teach them to work, to use their eyes, to use their fingers in honest industry, to make their own living, so that they may be neither idlers nor paupers, nor beggars nor thieves, but independent, useful, God-fearing citizens. Fingers busy with steady work do no harm ; brains busy with innocent thought help us toward heaven. Work is not a curse ; it is not only the bread-winner, but a balm for sorrow, and one of the rungs of that ladder on which Jacob saw the angels ascending and descending. The great world does not ask or care what the colored people are talking about, but what they are doing. The questions in which it con- cerns itself are : " What is the cotton crop 1 " " What is the sugar crop ? " "Do the colored people read books?" "How many thousand shoes do they wear ? " " How much soap do they buy I " " What houses do they live in ? " etc. Newspaper articles do not really answer these questions. Trade columns to some extent do. But the best answer is a colored man in decent clothes, in a good house, with his family at church on Sunday, and with good humor in his face and sunlight in his heart. I do not profess to have the spirit of prophecy. But a great future seems opening in Africa; light is shining into the dark continent. Every European nation is laying an iron hand on some portion of that silent and unknown country. Millions of dark-skinned men swarm its valleys and mountain sides aud plains ; and now, as its gates are thrown open to the world, greed of gain and lust of power will compete with Christian zeal for a footing there. In this great movement of civilized 7950 COT., PT. 3 10 959 146 EDUCATIONAL C0NVE4TTIC«SrS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. thought and action toward those tropical shores. I believe that our col- ored people will play the most useful and prominent part. I am not talking of any exodus, or dreaming the opium dreams of the philan- thropists; but I mean that, as a practical question, as merchants, as engineers, as teachers, preachers, missionaries, as leaders in every arena of thought and action, our educated colored people, trained in mind and eye and hand and heart, and accustomed to a hot climate, will be found among the most useful and successful pioneers in that great and unexplored field. They will carry with them the blessings of modern progress to their ancestral land, and sit down in the high places of the states and nations which will soon crystallize from this new-born civili- 2sation. And they will serve, too, as golden links between the colored people in America, — between all the citizens of the United States, in- deed, and the rising star of the Southern hemisphere. 960 INDEX TO PART III. Achille. Brother, referred to, 66. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 61, 03. Albert, Rev. A. E. P., on the position of the negro in the Sonth, 126. address of, 133-137. American Band of Mercy, 90. Angell, Mr., on teaching kindness to animals, 87- 92. Animals, kindness to, 87-92. cruelties practiced upon. 87-88. societies for the prevention of cruelty to, high character of. 88. kindness to, should be taught in the common schools, 89. Architecture, school, improvement in, 12. of schoolhonses a secondary consideration, 13. Arithmetic, methods in, 68. Barbour, Rev. L. G., men*«on of, 8, 32. Bartholomew, W. H., referred to, 50. Bell, A. Graham, system of vocal physiology of, 112. Brown, Hon. Le Roy D., mention of, 8. address of, 115-117. Buckley, A. E., mention of, 97. Buisson, B., address of, 105-108. Bureau of Education referred to. 105, 106. Burke, Director-General, address by, 90-101. Canada, statistics of education in, 102-103. Chaiity, the highest of the virtues. 77-78. Children, vaTviiiff intellectual capacity of, to what due. .19^2, Christian Brothers, exhibit ol. referred to, 103. society of, founded by La Salle, 113. extent and completeness of system of, 114. Classics at Harvard, studv of the, 86. Colored Education Day addresses, 124-146. Common .schools, relation of universities to, 83. Compulsory education in Texas, 57, 58, 59. in Japan, 109. Co-ordination in instruction and in education, 65- 69. Corporal punishment, diminution of, 76. Courtesy, as taught at school. 74. Deaf-mute education, progress in, 110-112. Department of Superintendence, proceedings of, 7-92. list ot persons in attendance, 7-8. Development, human, progress in, 98. Dickinson, J. W., referred to, 50. Discipline, school, as a moral training, 71,79-80. Dobyns, J. R., address of, 110-112. Dougherty, Jf. C, referred to, 50. Drawing, study of, 141. Duties, semi-mechanical, 71-73. moral, 7.3-76. to self, physical, 73. EatOD, Hon. John, htte^ of referred to, 11. lOR 122 quoted, 66. remarks by, 92. gj'eat work of, 105, 117 lesolutions of thanks to, 120-121. Easton. Hon. Warren, address of welcome by, 9-10. lUentiOU of, 80. >tdiicat.!on, relation of, to material civilization, in-ll. tlic supreme end of. 11. and instruction, co-oidinuliun in, 65-69. Education — Continued, agencies of, 81. the primary interest of man, 98. cause of lack of, in the Sonth, 100. popular, a real scheme of, founded in France, 107. centralization in, 107. a preparation for life, 138. modem system of, 139-140. Education Day addresses, 97-146. Educational institutions should be adapted to cir- cumstances of locality, 85. Elementary instruction, principles and methods of, 33-49. Examinations at the University of Virginia, 25-26. of teachers in Texas, 64. Exhibits, educational, remarks on the general characterof, 117-120. Expenditure for schools, necessity for preserving a proper balance in, 12-13. wast>e in, a result of inefficient teachers, 14. for education, statistics of, 132. Faculties, the, should be exercised in their natural Older, 42-43. Faith considered, 76-77. Freedmen's Aid Society exhibit referred to, 103. French exhibit, extent,' &c., of, 102-103. Gallaudet, Rev. T. H., referred to, 1 11. Gardiner, William H., mention of, 97. Garnett, Prof. James M., on the inner working of the University of Virsrinia, 17-32. Grammar, methods of teaching, 46. Great Britain, progress of education in, 101. Hancock, Hon. John, mention of, 32, 69. Handiciaftsmen more needed than talkers, 142. Harris, Dr. W. T., on moral education in the com- mon schools, 69-80. remarks by, 86. Harvard University, the study of Latin and Greek at, 86. Hattori, Ichizo. address of, 108-110. High schools of Minnesota, remarks on, 85-86. Hodgins, Hon. J. George, addressof, 101-105. Hope considered, 77. Hoyt, Hon. J. W., address of, 97-99. Ideals in teaching, 45-46. Ideas must be taught objectively, 44. Ignorance endangers free institutions, 133. Illiteracy in the South, 10, 134. Industrial education, compulsorv in France, 102, 104. for the colored people, 137-146. Industry, habits of, acquired at school, 74. Instruction, efficiency of, as related to cost of school-houses, 14. must be adapted to the capacity of pnpils, 39-42, 43. theoretical and practical, 4.")-46. Intellect, processes and powers of the, 34-37. Intellectual powers, order of development of, 37- 39. Japan, sketch of educational progress in, 108-110. Japanese exhibit, extent of, 102. Jefferson, Thomas, opj)osed to governing a college through a president, 19. system of public instruction devised by, 116. Johnson, Hon. D. B., mention of, 80. 961 148 INDEX TO PART III. »_> Johnston, Col. William Prrston, quoted, 22. on the relation ot the university to the com- mon school, 80-85. mention of, 07. address of, 137-146. Justice, the school eflective in teaching, 75. ^iehle, Hon. D. L., remarks by, 85-86. Knowledge conducive to self-preservation of pri- mary importance, 138. La Salle, educational work of, 113. founder of first normal school, 113. Law, respect lor, inculcated in the school-room, 76. Lectures, popular, advantages of, 84. Mann, Horace, the first great school executive oflB- cor, 116. Markham, Rev. T. E., address of, 124-128. Matthew, Brother, mention of, 97. Maurelian, Brother, address of, 112-115. Minor, Prof. John ii., mention of, 17. Moral in education, the, importance of, 115. Moral instruction in the public schools, 69-80. Moral training, necessity of, 66. Morality, definition of. 70. consists in practice rather than in theory, 72, 79. National aid, appt i\ for, 9-10. need of, 134. Negro, the, education of, in Texas, 55, 60 62. material progress of, 125. mission of, 127. place in history of, 130. agencies for the development of, 131. charact r of the edncation needed for, 131. capabilities of, 135. statistics of the education of, 135-136. denominational work for, ]36. industrial educution for, discussed, 137-146. teachableness of, 143-144. comparison of the present with the past of, 143-144. Newell, Hon. H. M., remarks by, 92. Noah, Brother, on co-ordination in instruction and in educiition, 6.5-i)9. Normal schools in Texas, 64. Notes, pupils should be made to take, 60. Obedience, 72. Oral teaching before text-books in elementary schools, 46-48. Orr, G. J., referred to, 50. Over-edncation considered, 103-104. Palmer, Eov. B. M. , .address of, 128-132. Parents, responsibility of, 132. Parham, Hon. John G., remarks by, 49-50. mention of, 97. Pay of teachers discussed, 15-16. Prairie View Colored Normal Institute (Texas), 62. Preparatory schools in the South, 27-29. Professional men, limited number of, needed, 138- 139. Public schools, moral instruction in the, 69-80. the place to teach kindness to animals, 89. Punctuality, 72. Eace, distinction of, 128, 130-131. instinct of, 128-129. Reading, importance of, 47. model lesson in, GS-tiO. Recitations, to supplement oral teaching, 48. Rejjularity, the discipline of, 73. Reid, J. Whitelaw, quoted, 115. Religious instruction in common ^