*A ^fttr 1 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 1 89 fc£ gUXITED STATES OF AMERICA. THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES, AND OTHER PAPERS. BY y FRANCIS WHALEY HARPER, M.A. FELLOW OF ST. JOHNS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. CAMBRIDGE : PUBLISHED BY W. P. GRANT; AND G. BELL, 186, FLEET STREET, LONDON. MDCCCXLI. *fcft CAMBRIDGE ' PRINTED BY METCALFE AND PALMER, TRINITY-STREET. TO THE REVEREND HENRY CREWE BOUTFLOWER, M.A. MEAL MASTER OF THE FREE GRAMMAR SCHOOL, BURY, LANCASHIRE, THIS VOLUME IS, BY HIS SOMETIME PUPIL, AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED. PREFACE. The following pages are designed for the higher classes of schools, and the younger part of the students in our Universities. My object has been to give learners a clear, connected, and, to a certain extent at least, systematick knowledge of the powers of the several Greek tenses, — a sub- ject, notwithstanding its importance, very likely, from certain deficiencies in the verbal forms of our own language, to be more or less overlooked. With regard to the method employed, it should be borne in mind that the form of delivery best adapted for teaching any doctrine, is not the same with that most convenient for the mere statement and preservation thereof. I cannot think that, with reference to this purpose of teaching, I shall seem either to have given too many ex- amples, or to have repeated too frequently the doctrines which they are intended to illustrate. No one who has been engaged in tuition, and but very few, I imagine, who have paid any at- tention to the steps of their own intellectual pro- gress, can be unaware of how little practical VI PREFACE. avail, for the most part, knowledge is, until it has grown into familiarity by varied forms of re- petition and renewal. The mind of man, it has been well observed, will not, any more than his body, thrive upon concentrated nutriment. The usage of dV is closely connected with that of the tenses. The other papers, though not im- mediately pertaining to those which precede them, will not, I trust, prove useless or unacceptable. I need hardly say that the last of these, except where I have endeavoured to correct what I conceive to be his errors, is, in substance, bor- rowed from Mr. Donaldson. The earlier papers were originally drawn up for a pupil, without any view to publication. Under these circumstances, it was natural to employ freely, whatever any where lay ready for my use. Most of the examples, however, were noted in my own reading, and for a considerable part of the doctrine, and a much greater pro- portion of its form and arrangement, I am not, consciously at least, a debtor to any one. Besides, as my object is to be useful, I am nowise con- cerned, though I should seem altogether to fail of being original. F. W. H. St. John's College, Cambridge. February \0(h, 1841. CONTENTS PAGE The Powers of the Greek Tenses 1 I.-Dimculties in translation arising from the deficiency of verbal forms 4 II.— Classification of Tenses .. III.— Dramatick power of the Imperfects IV.— Comparison of Greek and English verbal forms . . . . 26 IV.— "Ai/ in connection with the Subjunctive V.— The Participles of Purpose, ^9, 1**, 'cttws, etc. VI.— 'Av in conjunction with nrpiv and S«h Of Greek Accentuation.. A First Lesson in Psychology The Attick Usage of the Particle av 71 77 I.— "Av with the Indicative • 88 I \,— Av with the Optative HI __" 4„ with the Infinitive and Participle •• 94 98 108 12S 153 ICG THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. I. — Difficulties in translation arising from the DEFICIENCY OF VERBAL FORMS. I shall attempt to state exactly the values of the Greek tenses respectively, with the equivalent, or most nearly equi- valent verbal forms of our own tongue, with a view to the fuller perception of the meaning of Greek, and a nearer approach to accuracy in such translation therefrom as has for its object merely the evincing of the translator's know- ledge of the language. Were we comparing two languages, each possessed of the full complement of tenses, such a statement would be easy. Every tense of the one would have its exact correspondent in the other, and having ascertained these, and further noticed what tenses in each, from circumstances connected with the genius of the language, or, which is indeed nearly the same thing, the character of the people, were most em- ployed, — our task would be performed. But it may happen that in one of the languages under comparison some tense is deficient. In this case a speaker or writer, not finding the precise form which his intended 2 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. meaning requires, will either, to the abandonment of its exact expression, make use of the tense nearest, among those at his command, to the one sought for, the force of this sub- stituted tense being frequently slightly modified by the connexion in which it is placed, or he will have recourse to a combination of the substantive verb with the parti- ciple — an expedient which makes much nearer approach to precision, though frequently not without the sacrifice of ease and neatness. Now this deficiency of verbal forms occurs in various languages to a greater or less extent, and takes place in different instances. Thus, each form of the one language having no longer its exact equivalent in the other, trans- lation begins to be difficult, and to a certain extent neces- sarily inaccurate, — the more so the greater is the discrepancy between the two languages in respect of the verbal forms existing in each. The case and the difficulty arising out of it may perhaps be stated thus. Let the first language (X) have belonging to it, tenses A, B, — , D, E, but be deficient of C ; and the second language (#) possess a, b 3 c, -, e, but no d. Then (X) will use for C sometimes B (the tense most nearly ap- proximating to C),and sometimes a circumlocution with the participle, P. In such cases the force of B and P* will be slightly modified by the connexion in which they are placed; each will have imparted to it something of the peculiar force of C. And this occurring frequently, B and P will come to have a twofold value, B and B', P and P' respec- tively, easily determined in each case (by familiar ears) from the context, the tone of the speaker's voice, and the like. In the same manner in (#) sometimes e and some- * For even P is by no means to be considered as perfectly equiva- lent to C. DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATION. 3 times the circumlocution q will be used to supply the place of the deficient d, and so (as with B and P in X) e and q will acquire the modified values e' and q\ the application of which must be determined from the connexion. The case then of the translator from (X) into (x) stands thus. He finds the verbal forms A,B (sometimes as B, sometimes as B'), D, E, P (as P or V). To render these, he has in his own language a by which A may be always render- ed exactly, B will be rendered sometimes exactly by b : sometimes it cannot be rendered exactl) T at all, but may be most nearly approached by c. For D he has never a precise correspondent, but must express it, as well as his language will permit, sometimes by e, some- times by q. P is sometimes exactly represented by p, sometimes most approximately by c. Moreover, even when the meaning of D would be most nearly given by e, it may be necessary to employ q instead, for sake of representing the variety of the original, e having gone before, or being to follow frequently. Such are the difficulties of translating from a language not corresponding in its tense-forms with our own. The Greek and English tongues (if we take the word in its strict sense of an inflection of the verb) have but one tense in com- mon. I am disposed, however, to regard the future " I shall dine," and the perfects " I have dined," " I had dined," " I shall have dined," as properly tenses, inasmuch as their parts are not significant except in combination. At all events, it will be convenient for our present purpose so to consider them, seeing that (excepting the last) they have all precise equivalents in Greek, and it is our object, not to investigate the nature of the verbal forms, but to gain an acquaintance with their value. b2 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. II. — Classification of Tenses. Exclusive of the mere copula, and for the purpose of these remarks, we may define a verb to be a word predicating, or by means of which a predication may be made. A verb is used intransitively when it predicates some action or state of its subject with reference to the subject alone, e.g. dXrjdevet " he is true ;" rl fy£ " what is he doing V* answer, rinrrei "he is striking." A verb is used transitively, when it predicates the action or state with immediate relation to some object to which the predication passes over, and which is, not improperly, said to be governed by it, e.g. aXrjdevei tclvto. " he is true in this;" tvtttel tov av0p(o7rov " he is striking the man."* Any action may be spoken of as present, past, or future. Also as at each of these times, either (1) going on, or (2) complete, or (3) its taking place only may be indicated, without any notice of it as going on or as complete. * In the words of a philosophical grammarian, " transitive verbs are such as suppose a separate agent and object, while the intransi- tive verb supposes an action terminating with the agent." — Encyclop. Metropol. A verb is usually termed transitive or intransitive in accordance with its prevalent usage. But, even from the examples already given, it is apparent that the same verb may often fall into each class alter- nately. Any verb commonly transitive may, on occasion, be used intransitively, (i. e. subjectively, with reference to the subject only,) and almost any verb ordinarily intransitive may, in certain cases, be used with reference to an object, and so become transitive. That the truth of this view is, at first sight, less obvious, is owing to the small number of verbs commonly intransitive possessed by our language, from the want of verbs expressive of quality, equivalent i. e. to the adjective with the substantive verb, e.g. in the example given above, we have no verb identical in meaning with a'XtjOeu'ei, and therefore translate " he is true." CLASSIFICATION OF TENSES. 5 A tense by which an action is represented as in progres- sion, is called an imperfect ; and one by which it is repre- sented as complete, is called a perfect. Hence, (a) A tense by which an action is represented as now in progression, is called a present-imperfect: fanrvui M I am dining," the action of dining is now going on. (b) A tense by which an action is represented as now complete, is a present-perfect : hdei7rvr)Ka " I have dined," the action of dining is now complete. (c) A tense by which an action is represented as at some past time in progression, is a past imperfect : e.g. Zldirvow " I was dining," at some past time the action of dining was in progression. (d) A tense by which an action is represented as complete at some past time, is a past perfect, e.g. efcfenrvrjicr) " t had dined," e.g. when he arrived, when this or that took place ; at some past time, the action of dining was complete. (e) A tense by which an action is represented as at some time to come to be in progression, is a future imperfect: e. g. " I shall be dining;" at some future time the act of dining will be in progression. (f) A tense by which an action is represented as at some future time to be complete, is a future perfect ■ e. g. ccena- vero " I shall have dined ;" at some future time the action of dining will be complete. The perfects and imperfects have thus much in common ; they all suggest the notion of the time at which, or during which, the action is complete or in progression. For when we speak of an action as in progression or as complete, we speak of it as in progression or complete at some particular time, some definite period or moment. No one e. g. says ihiTrvovv (I was dining) without at the same time particu- 6 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. larising some definite period at which the action of dining was in progression, e. g. " when he was doing this or that/' " when you were in court ;" or in answer to a question in which a particular time is mentioned or implied, e.g. " what were you doing when he arrived ?" "1 was dining," and the like. In the same manner ihhnrvijieri " I had dined " implies that at this or that moment the dining was over and complete : " when you departed I had dined," and so on. It will be easy to apply to the futures imperfect and perfect what has been said of the past tenses, and the presents ob- viously have reference to the definite moment now passing. The imperfects then and perfects agree in referring to a period or moment definitely fixed, the time viz. at which, or during which the action is spoken of as complete, or as pro- gressing, the sentences in which they occur answer or sug- gest the question " when V We may therefore classify them under the common name of definite tenses, — tenses t. e. which speak of an action as in progression or complete at some definitely fixed period or moment of time past, present, or future, which suggest the notion of the time contempo- raneous with the progression or completion of the action denoted by the verb. But very often we wish to speak of an action merely as taking place in time present, past, or future, without at all drawing attention to the definite period during which it is in progression, or the definite moment at which it is complete. To meet these cases tenses have been formed in Greek and other languages, which, from their speaking of actions with- out definite regard to the time when, have received the name of indefinites or aorists. Thus, ekteive (ekteive tov q.v- BpwTrov "he was killing the man") is a definite tense sug- gesting the notion of the time contemporaneous, during which the action of killing was in progression ; but ektuve CLASSIFICATION OF TENSES. {hravE tov avfyunrov " he killed the man'') is an aorist, merely stating the fact that in past time the killing took place, but without at all regarding the definite period dur- ing which it was in progression, or moment at which it was complete. It appears then that, for the completeness of its indicative mood, the verb requires nine tenses, — three imperfects, three perfects, and three aorists. The following table will show how many of these tenses are possessed by the Greek and English languages respectively, those which they have in common, and the manner in which the others are supplied ; and this last will afterwards be illustrated by a comparison of a few passages from the writers of both languages. 'Present cinrvw, usual English substitute "I am dining;" sometimes, but rarely, " I dine." Past itv'nrvow t English substitute "I ' Imperfects <{ - dining." Future, deficient in both languages, titutes, the future aoris- Uefimtes^ tick, or (much less frequently) i cro fiat cenrvuJv. r Present ftifcAmpm «' I have dined." Past iotctnrvtjKii «' I had dined." v, as Trlfxirovtri tolaffii> vno llfxepag ipaadeiarjc dp7raodrjycu. Conon the restorer of Athens, Timotheus Conon's son, and Evagoras, king of Cyprus, honoured thus for his filial affection towards the country of his forefathers ; Theseus the revered author of Athenian liberty, and Demo- cratia herself personified; a picture testifying of the aid given by Athens to her Spartan rivals at Mantinea ; the temples of Apollo Patrous, and of the mother of the gods, (owcofiriTai ci kcu fii]Tp6g deuiv upuv ijv &eiciag elpyaaaTO ; — these are a few of the objects of various interest, amidst whose numbers we are moving in our progress towards the Acropolis. And the Acropolis itself— the mighty presence which has all the while been making itself felt, even when our atten- tion was most engaged by what lay nearer hand— that great ]2 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. altar, as it has been called, dedicate to the Attick gods,— try- in some sort to see it before you as it was of old, as it was presented to the imaginations and hearts of those Athenian men before whom was spoken in their temple-theatre the dyoiyvvfxevojp \po(pog rjdrj riov Upowv\aiu)v . 'AXX' o'XoXvijare tyaivojiivaKJi ruig dp^aiaunv 'Adrjvatg Kcu dav/JtaffTcuQ kcu TrokyvfivoiQ, iV 6 kXewoq Afjfioc, ivoacei. Think of its temples and statues, of the materials of which they were composed — the pure white marble of Pentelicus the least rare and costly among them — of the infinite excel- lence of their forms and proportions, the marvellous sculp- tures of their pediments and friezes, the delicately worked maeanders and honeysuckle ornaments which wound beneath their cornices, " the profusion of vivid colours which threw around a joyful and festive beauty, admirably harmonizing with the brightness and transparency of the encircling at- mosphere," and add to all this the severer grace which waits upon sanctity. Thus endeavouring to reproduce for yourself these elements one by one, and to combine them all into the life of their union, seek to realise for your own feel- ings what the Acropolis was — what Athens was. But to do this in any adequate degree is impossible. The imagina- tion is overpowered, *' The very spirit fails" in the attempt to conceive the beauty present there — present above all to the apprehensive and susceptible Athenian, to whom all around him was native to his own soil, akin to his own genius. If it be a sound philosophy which holds that from all beautiful objects are effluences perpetually proceed- ing, and that in the action of these upon the sense it is that our perception of the beautiful has its origin, — what a cloud and mist, as it were, of unspeakable beauty, effluxes so close and multitudinous as to be almost palpable, must DRAMATICK POWER OF THE IMPERFECTS. 13 evermore have been ascending and diffusing themselves from this Athenian Acropolis. How must they have clung around it, as it were, a charmed atmosphere, trancing the souls and senses of all who came within its influence. Can we wonder then to find that they whose genius devised such works, and who had them, and those many other objects of kindred excellence, daily before their eyes, — can we, I say, wonder to find that these men, habituated to the perception of so much beauty in the sensible, and the receiving of so many feelings through it as a medium ; who, in the words of Coleridge, " idolized the finite, and therefore were the masters of all grace, elegance, proportion, fancy, dignity, majesty — of whatever, in short, is capable of being definitely conveyed by defined forms or thoughts ;" who were, as the same great master tells us, "remarkable for complacency and completion, and delighted in whatever pleased the eye ;" to whom " it was not enough to have merely the idea of a divi- nity, they must have it placed before them, shaped in the most perfect symmetry, and presented with the nicest judgment ;" — is it strange that we should find in the forms of their lan- guage also, a preference of sensuous images over abstract thoughts, of picturesque description over bare declaratory assertion ? As a further cause which would operate to draw the attention of an Athenian almost exclusively to the out- ward and sensuous, I might add the continual restlessness and turbulence of new plans, with bustle and struggle to effect the execution of the same, which kept that sanguine, enterprising, onward-looking people in so frequent motion and excitement, and the tendency of all of which was, of course, to fix the attention on the outward, with its pomp and magnificence.* But it is time to return to our more * Lest what has been said of the external beauty amidst which the life of an Athenian was passed appear to any exaggerated, I add, from 14 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES, immediate subject. For a few lines more, however, and this time for a real digression, I must still crave indulgence. I may not improbably have some young reader, who is conscious to himself that the language of ardent and enthu- siastick admiration, which he so often finds applied to Greece and Grecian art and literature, is to his own mind and feel- ings of small meaning, touches upon what is to him at best matter of faith rather than of knowledge ; one to whom in the works of the English traveller, Dr. Clarke, the following passage, referring, be it observed, not to Athens and its Acropolis, but to what Dr. C. Wordsworth has called "the Propylaea of the land of Attica." " We passed Macronisi, once called Helena, because Helen is said to have landed here after her expulsion from Troy ; and we had such glorious prospect of this island, and of the temple of Minerva Sanias standing upon the Cape, together with other more distant objects, that we could recollect nothing like it : such a contrast of colours, such an association of the wonders of nature and of art ; such perfection of grand and beautiful perspective, as no expression of perceptible properties can convey to the minds of those who have not beheld the objects themselves. Being well aware of the transi- tory nature of impressions made upon the memory by sights of this kind, the author wrote a description of this scene while it was actually before his eyes : but how poor is the effect produced by detailing the parts of a view in a narrative, which ought to strike as a whole upon the sense ! He may tell, indeed, of the dark blue sea streaked with hues of deepest purple — of embrowning shadows — of lights efful- gent as the sun — of marble pillars beaming a radiant brightness upon lofty precipices whose sides are diversified by refreshing verdure and by hoary mosses, and by gloomy and naked rocks ; or by brighter surfaces reflecting the most vivid and varied tints — orange, red, and grey; to these he may add an account of distant summits, more in. tensely azured than the clear and cloudless sky — of islands dimly seen through silvery mists upon the wide expanse of water shining, towards the horizon, as it were ' a sea of glass ;' — and when he has exhausted his vocabulary of every colour and shape exhibited by the face of nature or by the works of art, although he have not deviated from the truth in any part of his description, how little and how ineffectual has been the result of his undertaking."— Travels, vol. v. p. 177. DRAMATICK POWER OF THE IMPERFECTS. 15 honest truth his Greek studies have hitherto, save in few and unconnected particulars, been gone through as mere task- work, without either the expectation or the experience of enjoyment. Let me then be permitted earnestly to advise him that he forthwith procure and peruse the 'Arnica of Pausanias. The translation of a part of it given in Colonel Leake's work may, if need be, aid his progress through the Greek, but should on no account be made a substitute for it. He will of course make use of such maps, plans, and engrav- ings as may be at his command ; and especially let him not fail to have Col. Leake's book mentioned above, and Dr. C. Wordsworth's two works on the same subject. Let him so read these as if they described still existing objects, and he were preparing himself to act as guide (mystagogue is the Greek word, and it has a better sound) to the land of Attica and the city of Athens. And let him for a while make the task his epyov, his principal business. I ask of him no great thing— a fortnight it may be, or perhaps three weeks of his life, for an employment pleasant in itself, and which will, I am persuaded, be a step more likely than any other to conduct him to such an enlering-into of Athenian charac- ter, and such an appreciation and enjoyment of the works of Athenian literature and art, and in this, be it remembered, such a sympathy with the most refined and cultivated of all ages, as his own mental contexture and constitution render him capable of. True it is, I can give him only assurance of my own confident belief to induce him to act upon my advice ; and if he be inclined to demur to the authority, I have nothing to add but a repetition of the assurance. Yet let me again remind him that the effort risked, even should it prove to have been thrown away, is no great one ; while the good achieved, if it be successful, is inestimable, mi kivSvvojv ovtol ff7rav iututol ol ay iXaxiara tV tov ffXoya 1300 Qvaovaa ra< Kadapfxov, bv \iETu>yETO. uvrrj c o-itrde ceap e\ovaa roiv £,ivoiv E(TTEL^E X 6 ? 07 - ^ a * T< *^ *I V fiKOTTTa fJLEV, Tjpeaice fxiv-oi aoiat TrpomroXoig, cli'Ul,. Xpova) £' tw iifuv £p<£ v Tl ^V SoKoi ttXeoi', aVw\d\v£e Kal Karrjce fidpfiapa fieXr] fiayeuov6fi c a firj ypiiv Eiaopav KadrjfiEda o-iy/7, teXoq Ce ttcloiv tjv dvrog Xoyog, GTEiyEiv 'iv r/aav, KaiiTEp ovk iiofjiyotg. K without any of the heaviness of f< she was going," not only declares the fact, but portrays it, places it before the eye of the hearer's fancy. So in the next line, rjpeffice expresses not merely the fact of the content on the part of the TrpoWoXoi, (Jipeas. would have sufficed for this purpose,) but also that it was their continuous state. The notice of the reader is called to the time during which this state was enduring. And so Ipav, where in English also we should probably have had il to be doing," and (Wot, which, referring to the same time and duration with Ipqv, is naturally also of the same imperfect form, though the awkwardness of our own language's nearest equivalent, " that she might be seeming," would assuredly lead us to substitute the aoristick, " that she might seem." In v. 1306, we have aVwXd\v& the aorist, followed by the imperfect rar^t, i. e. " she uttered a cry aloud, and was then for some time singing;" the cry being momentary, and making upon the hearers but a single impression, the DRAMATICK POWER OF THE IMPERFECTS. 21 aorist is naturally used : but in speaking of the singing, mental reference is made to the time during which it was heard to continue, and the imperfect is employed accord- ingly. In an examination paper it would be best to trans- late, " she cried aloud and then began to sing" but the simple aorist " she sang," would probably have been pre- ferred by an English writer. In v. 1309, eiffrjXdev might, had the speaker chosen, have been datjpxrro, but the mean- ing would then have been " it was occurring to us — it began to occur to us" — a continuity of time during which the thought was present to the speaker's mind. kto.volev " lest they might kill her;" an imperfect would have conveyed the notion " lest they might be killing her, be for killing her, be going about to kill her." On the other hand, in ol\oiaro (from o'tx^flai " to be gone"), we have an imperfect because a fear is to be expressed lest " they should kill her and be gone." The action of killing is considered as momentary, but the state of being gone as continuous and lasting. In v. 1311, it lay in the speaker's choice to have said £i&6voy t Trdcriy it p o

Xeyu>y dicr'taiy rjXiog ^fto'va XtJItj, Kvetyag ce Tejxevog aWepog Xdfiy, Talai yeujy arlcpog /xcV ev trrlyoig rptcriv, EKirXovg tyvX a a a e i v cat iropovg dXtppodovg' 370 dXXag ce k~vkX(o rrjaoy A'iay-og Tripil* u>g, el fiopoy (pevloiaff "EXXrjyeg KaKOV) 24 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. vavcriv Kpvcpaiiog Bpavjjidv evpovreg rtvd, iratn arepeladai tcparog i]v it ponei jievov. roaavr eXe^e Kctpd' V7r sKdvfJOV (j>p£v6g' ov yap to fiiXXov ek Qeiov rj w i a t a r o. ol B* ovk aKoarfjiioQ, dXXd ireiQapx"}* K0V% H^ 'EXA^j/wj/ crparoQ Kpvtpalov ekttXovv ovBa^irj KadlaraTO. Eice'i y£ fxevTOi XevkotojXoq r] fie pa TTQifTav KaTEaye yatav, £V(j)£yyrjg IBeIv, 390 irpioTOV fjLEV t]")(ij KEXaBog 'JLXXrjviov rrdpa fjtoX7rr]Bov £V(j>rjjj.rja£v, opdiov B" a/xa dvTt]XdXa£,£ vrjaaoTiBog Trirpag 'H^w* 6fioQ Be xdffi fiapfidpoig napfju yviofirjg a7roff(pa.X£i(nv' ov yap tog dXX eIq fxd\r]V opfxiovTEg Ev^vytj) QpdaEi. (rdXinyZ, 3' dvrrj icdvT ekeiv ett e tyX ey e v' evOvq Be K(07rrjQ podidBog ZwEfifioXij ETzawav dXfjtrjv fipvyiov ek KeXeva^aroQ. 400 doiog Be Trdvreg r)crav EK§av£~ig iBeiv. TO BellOV fJLEV TTpiOTOV EVTaKTOV KEpag J]y£l.TO KOfffJKp, BEVTEpOV B' 6 TTCLQ GToXoQ £ IT £ £ £ )(W p El, Kal TTapijv 6/AOV K X V E I V 7coXXr}v fiorjv, '£2 iralBEg 'EXXrjviov, 'ite, eXev 6 £ pov t e 7raTpiB\ eXevOepovte Be 7ra ~iBag, yvvalKag, Qeiov te TraTptotov sBy, dtJKag te irpoycvtov' vvv virip iravriov dywv. /cat fxrjv nap' rjfiijjv HspcriBog yXioffffrjg podog DRAMATICK POWER OF THE IMPERFECTS. 25 v 7r r\ vt I a £ e' kovket 1\v jaeXXeiv d^f.irj' 410 Eidvg de vavg iv vrfi yaXKriprj otoXov ETtaifftv. -qp^e c ifJil3oXfjg 'JLXXrjviKrj vavg, Ka-rrodpavEi TTUvra <$>OLvi(rarT]g VEuig jcopv/i/3'* fiV aXXrjV d' dXXog i d v v e v c*6pv. rd 7rpioTa fxiv %r} pEUfia U.EpatKov arparov dp T E~t \ £P ' °*G ^ TfXfjdoQ EV (TTEVfp VElZv rjQpoMTT, dpioyrj c ovTtg dXXrjXuig naprfv, avrol & v(f>' avruJv E^xjooXa'tg ^aXfcoaro/jiOig n a i o vt, kdpavov navra Kuirripi) aroXov, 'EXXrjviicai te vcleq ovk dfpac fiovtog 420 KVKXf KEpd, E d E IV V V TTT 10 VT O Ze vyrj 3' dtcuafxivg nuaa vavg ij pi a a e to, eta I vaaurEp i)oav fmpjDapov (TrpaTivf.iaTog. toi h\ vote dvvvovg jj tiv lytivutv fiuXoV) dyciiffi wrriHv Opava^aaiv r EpEiiriu>v ETTCLIOV, tppd\l£0V' OlfttjjytJ t)' OfiOV KUKvpaaiv k a r e 1 % e irEXuylav a\«, 430 Eu)g CiXatyjjfc vvtcTog ofjfx' d. 'AepofiaTui kcu it epitypov u> tov i)\iov. {Nub. 225.) which should be rendered not " I tread on air," but u I am treading," &c. So drrtfloku is more than " I entreat," yet " I am entreating you," would seem intolerably heavy. The truth is, that although the English, having no present imperfect, uses " I am entreating," as most nearly equiva- lent thereto, this form is as much too strong as el/ii dvnfioXwv would be in Greek. Again, the Greek, having no present aoristick, sometimes employs its imperfect where an aorist would have been more suitable, and in such cases the im- perfect force is modified, exactly as was above remarked to be the case, in vivid narration, with the English aoristick past.* We must not, however, forget that the dramatick * It is obvious that the aorist, simply declaring the fact without introducing any distracting notion of time at which or during which, declares it with more strength; and that the imperfect, while it repre- sents the action or state as now in progression or continuance, and therefore states it with more of dramatick vividness, does neverthe- less, by the greater number of notions which it introduces, in a measure diffuse the attention, and weaken the bare declaration of the fact : e. g. to change Shy lock's " / stand here for justice," to " I am 30 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. character of Greek would, even if it possessed a present aoristick, lead it to prefer thereto the imperfect in many instances in which the English tongue would have made a different choice. Upon the whole, then, we must call to mind the observations made in Chapter I., and seeing that neither for dptj.g, avr6v n BiaTrpiiT-Of-iEiT], Q.\\d ravrd liairpala^xkvr] r/; pi]7opu:)~], £av \iev el AiyivrjQ CEvpo awatj otfxai lu o/3o\oi)c; £ n p d £ ar o, eaV 2t f£ Alyvirrov ij it: rod Tloyrov, lav TrdfX7ro\v ravrr}Q tt}q 32 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. fxeyct\r)Q evepyecridg, awaag a vvv Srj eXeyov, Kal avrov Kal Trcuhag Kal ^pt^fxara Kal yvva~iKag, dTrofii/Sdaaa sig tov \ifxeva dvo hpa^/jidg i 7r jo a £ a r o, kdl avTog 6 e\u>v rrjv rkyy^v Kal ravra ^taTrpalajjievog EKpdg napd rrjv OdXarrav Kal rrjv vavv 7r e p lit ar et iv fierpif a^fxari. \oyi£eada.i ydp oljiai i tt i rjydodt] te tcai eg fxaKapuiv vqaovg aVeV^u^e. rdvrd ce ravra ko< o A'iatcog. EKarspog %e tovtwv pdflSop exiov h t /: d- '( e C 6 Ze Mivojg KadrjTai fiovog, E\u)y yjpoaovv OKrjTrrpov wg piL,E t Kai Tl TUV TOTE V 7T 7} X £ V CIVTOP LEl- ficiTiov, EiTa irpoaopwv tog 6eov aifjETai, Kai ti fir} ce^ieitj ti)v rrjg otyocpa fiaviag cotav, dvot dv wg dydXfxaTi Kai 0£w Tolg TrcuciKo~Lc. uoito. ce avTOv olov fV ri]g v- (Ttg dpcETai. OfpfiavdivTog ci etqkt] Ta tteo\ ti)v ek^vctiv, a irdXai v7ro aKXr)pOTr)Tog crvfj/JEfivKOTa elpyE fir} fiXaoTavEiv. ETnppvEitrqg %e rrjg rpotyrjg £cr)tXu)v ijveyKe (it bears), k. t. X. could hardly be used, considering that in ov (piptn-at, for example, the assertion is necessarily not that from time to time, ov iai teXeojq pijropixrjv dedicd^dat. ¥T}dT)(Tav " they think," but ^tcdaKovreg " when they are teaching," denoting progression, probably determined the change to the imperfect jyovvrai. Ibid. 267. C. Ticriav tie Topylav te edaofiev evSetv ; ol irpo tuv dXrjdwv rd eiKora elSov ujq TtfxrjTea jxdWov, rd te av (TfiiKpd fxeyaXa teal rd [iEyaXa ofxucpd (f>aivEa7£. Kal fidXa. 2w*r. TV £' oTav CiKaiov ?;' dyadov ; OVK a\\o£ dXXrj (piper at Kal d fx

at(5. riaju fiEv ovv. In such passages, as was before remarked, the use of the imperfect or aorist is often a mere matter of choice. Here, however, we may see a reason for the form adopted in each case. ciErojjdrj^ty is momentary, "we understand, conceive of;" cpipE-ai and d^i(ptafti]Tov^Ev are in the imperfect, as better assorting with the continuous state of disagreement, and the question arising and being discussed thereupon. Plat. Rep. VI. 508. D. Ovtu) Toivvv Kal to Tjjg \pV)(TJg wce voEi' orav fXEV ov car a- Ast and Stalbaum give a different explanation of this interchange of tenses. 38 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. Xdfjnrei dXrjdedre (where is shining both truth) Kal to ov, sk tovto aVfjOa 0777a i, ivorjffi te Kal syvio avro Kal vovv 'e\elv KEKpafXEvov, to yiyvofisvov te Kal aVoXXv/xevov, £o£a£ei te koX dfxftXvojTTEi (imperfects regarding the continuous state, " it begins to fall into the dull- sightedness of opinion,") k. t. X. Gorg. 484. A. 'EaV <)e ye ol/uai (jjvffiv 'iKavrjv ykvr\Tai tyjav dvrjp irdvra rav- ra dTroaeiad^EVOQ Kal htappri^ag koX foarpvywv, KaTarraTtjaag ra rjfjLETepa yjoa^ujuara /cat fxayyavEVfxaTa teal iirtoddg kuI vojiovg tovq irapa. eiTa x e P ao ® £V irvoalrnv yXdOrj crav eq ttovtov ttoKlv. ovtu) £e XTj/dEiQ rija^' dTrwdw/JLEcrda yrjg, k. r. X. Medea, 244. dvqp (? orav rolg 'ivdov axdr)Tai fyviov e£w ^oXoiv k 7r a v a e KapViav aor}Q. orav ax^J/rai " when he is in a state of being annoyed," EiravffE " he relieves," considered of as momentary. Instances might easily be accumulated to almost any amount. It is, however, sufficiently manifest from those already given, that (a) when a state is predicated of as lasting through the present moment, or (]3) an action is predicated of as repeated from time to time, and still liable to be repeated again, either the present imperfect or (in defect of a present aoristick) the past aoristick is employed by the Attick writers, the former or the latter according as they do or do not wish to call attention to the dura- tion or progress of the state or action, i.e. to depict as well as to declare. Hence, from the nature of the case, it is much more usual in (a) to find the imperfect, while in (]3) the aorist is at least equally common, and would be GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 41 much more so for but that fondness for depicting, which has been before noticed as characteristics of the Greek language. The frequency of this use of the past aorist to supply the place of an aoristick present in predications, which, though respecting the past as well as the present, are nevertheless mentally referred to present time, with its consequent inter- change with the present imperfect, so far caused its proper relation to past time to be lost sight of, that not unfre- quently this aorist is found even when the predication has reference to the moment actually present with the speaker. This occurs most frequently in such expressions as — Nub. 185. ri tdav fxaaaQ ; rw K.-pa7?jc» wcnrep ra 7ro\Xa eluidei, xat pEitidffag, AiKuia fiEVTOi, £v dvi)p dfxtivuiv irtpl " I address thee." lb. 460. irpofiaive vvv & Ovfii* ypa/jifii) 0tXraV?? iXri $e M.opvxIA. dXX* rjdtov av SiKtdiov (Tfiixpov iyiveia kcllvov ev dojioig ; I<&. a7T£ 7r rv a data yap cU'^wju' eirog rode* Plato, Phsedrus, 274, C\ 2£2. cikotJv y e^w \ey£ij> 7W irpoTepwv, to & dXrjdig av- rot (pi deol scil.) \aaaiv. el £e tovto evpoijiev clvtoX, dpa av kd ijfjur fxeXoL ti t&v dvdpojirivojv dolstafidriov ; $AL yeXdlov ijpov, dXX a 0^'e aKtjKoevai Xiye. lb. 264, A. 212. 'H 7to\\ov £e7v foifce iroieiv ode ye o ^rjTOvfxev, og ovde air dpyfiQ a\V aVo TeXevTtjg eE, vTzriag dvaTraXiv diavelv eVi- \eipei Ka\ ap^erai . • . . r) ovdev eiirov, QaUdpe, (j)iXrj KecpaXrj ; "or 25 it nothing what I say?" In the lines, Nub. 529, the aorists might indeed be trans- lated as preterites,but,after the passages already adduced, we shall have no difficulty in considering them rather as substi- tutes for the present aoristick, interchanged with the imper- fects for the sake of variety. wg Se aui(f)pwv earl (j)v'aei, aKeipaad' rjrig 7rpwra fiev ovhev 77 X 6 e pa\pajj.evr] okvtivov Kadet/JLevov, ovB* e a k i0ify e tovq (f>aXaicpovg, ovde KopBa^ elXicvaev, ovde 7rpe(rflvTriQ 6 Xeyo)v tcltty} rrj fiaKTrjpia r vitrei top TtdpovT d(j>avi^iov icovripd <7fcwju/zara, ovh* eiarjZe dadag eypv U7r^\- Xdyr) (he dies and (/its quit of troubles). Ibid. V. 462. C. o\ov (for instance), orav ttov (you know) rjp.ivv cdxTvXog tov T^iyi)* irdffa t) Kuiviovia 1) kutu to au>p.a irpog rrjv \pv^rjv te- rapEvr} elg fjiav avvTaliv ti)v tov dpyovrog iv avTrj tjadETO re (is both sensible of it) kui Trdaa dfia ^vyTjXyrjffE ( sympathizes ) fXEpovg -rrovrjaarrog oXtj, kai ovtio ctj X(yop,Ev y on 6 avtipuwog tov ZaKTvXov dXyE~i. Sympos. 197. A. dXXa rrjy tGv te-^viZv Crjpiovpylav ovk 'iff/JEv, otl ov /jev dv 6 deog ovTog cildaKaXog yeVijrai, iXXoyifiog ku\ tyavog d-Triflr), ov h" dv "Epiog fxrj t(j)d\l>r]T at, a::oTEivog ; 46 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. It sometimes happens that the substitution of a past form for an aoristick present, causes the past tense imperfect of a succeeding verb also to be used where the sense would require the present, e. g. Vespae, 1451. KairoL 7roWol tclvt tiradov Z,vv6vt£q yvu)jj.aig erepojv jjierefidWovTO tovq TpoirovQ. tclvt etcclQov "experience this," fiETE^dWovTt) tovq rpoxovQ "they begin to get altered," literally, " they were begin- ning ;" the past tense is used on account of the preceding past form ettclQov. Very similarly, " from the frequent connection of the per- fect with the imperfect subjunctive, it became an idiom of the Latin language to use the imperfect, even where a present action was spoken of, if it were possible to conceive it as progressive, and therefore in one part past, even while another part still continued. Such sentences as, diu dubitavi num melius sit (I have long doubted); saepe mecum cogitavi quidnam causae sit, are less in accordance with Latin idiom than num melius esset, quidnam causa? esset; even though the verb be here used as a perfect, not as an aorist." (Zumpt. Lat. Grammar lxxiv. note 2.) I proceed to notice the use of the imperfects, so common in Greek, to indicate attempt or desire, spoken of being for doing something, or of some state coming into being or about to be, e. g. Aristoph. Nubes, 1403. OifiOL itapavoiaQ, ioq efxaiv6fir]v apa ot £^|8a\\ov tovq Qeovq did Sw/cjoar^v. " when I was for expelling." lb. 61. fiETa ravd* ottojq viov iyEVEd' vloQ avToai Efj.oi te drj ical Trj yvvcuKi rdyadrj GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 4<7 7T£pl TOVVOfXaTOQ lr] \tEvQeV iXoidopOVflEda' rj fiiv yap 'itvkov ttpogetiQei "irpog rovvofia Sdvdnrnov, rj ^dpiinrov^ rj KaXXnnridi]v' iyto ce tov irdirirov \Skfir)v tyetlioviZriv. Snug vujv EyivEQ\ aorist, u when we got." iXoidopovnEda, " we were railing, began to rail at one another." npoffETtdEt, " was for attaching." indifxriv, " was for having him named." Vespae, 715. 'AXX' OTrorav jxev cEiauxf avroi rrjv Ev/3oiov dtSoacri. ** they are for giving, they are offering." In Eurip. Iphig. T. 1278, when the messenger is telling of the tricks used by the chorus to induce him to depart, he says to Thoas — xpEvCuig dp ovtoi, real p dirrjXavvov cojjiov, tog EKTog E'irjg. ov top yvrjaiov, tov TLepSiKKov viov, 7rcuCa ojq eVraenj, ov y dpj(rj eyiyvero Kara to Siicaiov, k. t. X. " whose the throne was coming to be." The * " Imperfect of commencement" would perhaps be the best name to apply to this idiom. GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 49 imperfect might indeed have had dv attached, but it is perfectly- intelligible and more strictly accurate without the particle. Thucyd. VIII. 86. Ktu idoKEi ' A\Ki(3iddriQ irpiiTOv tote teal ovMvog eXaaaov ttjv ttoXlv io(f>E\rj avr6\eipa f.iov yeyevfjaOai tovtoiq toiq epyoig' teal tote /jlev rule Siorvcriotc rrjy 7rapacrKEVi]i' t teal to <7v exe (jOv\eva.(m> fiev 'Apyeiovg oiaiv ion av fi : the perfect is exactly rendered by " kneaded from the bar- ley-meal from Pylus." So in the next line — AA. i yoj ()e fivariXas p tfiv ar 1X77 fxeva e V7TO rfjg 6eov, because the pvariXai are made already, not now in course of making. Similarly v. 960 — a'W ol y ifjol Xiyovaiv £po jie- v a g — 7rajOe/3o?f0£i, /c. r. X. The meaning would not be at all given by translating " Gylippus seeing the enemies' ships defeated and carried down," &c. Thucydides intends to say that he saw them getting defeated, and took measures to ensure that the defeat then in progress before his eyes should be matured and con- summated. Similarly in Equitt. 1299 — rd 3' (bra y av aov vrj At" kl^i^ET dvvvTO wenrep (TKiadeiov /cat 7raXtv ^vvrjyero. The use of the imperfect puts the action spoken of dra- matically before the hearer's eye : e< would be opening and closing again just like an umbrella." Where Mr. Mitchell, as usual, " aV ik^erapwro were wont to be expanded." Demosth. in Meid. 519. Xoyiov Ka\ Xoidopiag yiyvop,ivrjg /cat KartfyopovvTog tov jxev ajo- 'Xpvrog tG)v ETnji£\r]Tuv Trig tyvXrjg, tCHv V eVtjugX^rwv tov apj^ovrog, TrapeXdiov vTczayp\xr\v iyu> yopv\yy\aziv ideXovrrjg, /cat kXtj pov ue- vtiiv irpCJTog alpeladai tov avXrjTrjv 'iXaypv. "when the appointments were being determined by lot." lb. oaa fiev toIvvv . . . ^Vw'^X^ere . . . rj raXXa 7raV0' oaa roiavra, tdau), ov yap dyvooi) tovO' otl rw ETnqpeaclofxey'w tot ifio\ /cat v /3pt£o ae vo) ty\v avTijv 6pyr]v e/caorov tovtwv, 7]V7rep aXX' otlovv tCJv deivoTaTCJv, TrapiaTr)' v/jliv Se TO~ig dXXoig, toIq ei;a> tov npdy- fiaTog ovaiv ovk av 'laojg a£ta ravra /ca0' aura dytavog (paveir). GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 51 This is one of the many passages in which to translate with complete accuracy is very difficult, though, if we are familiar with the subject, there is no difficulty at all in per- ceiving the exact force of the original. An English speaker would hardly have said anything but " to me who was then outraged." In the Greek, however, the time during which the outrage was actually going on is presented to the mind ; rw eTrrfpea^Ofievi) tot e/iol teat vftpt^o/jiera) is " to me who Was then being annoyed and outraged, suffering under annoy- ance and outrage." The next passage, from p. 523 of the same speech, con- tains, in its interchange of imperfects and aorists, a good ex- emplification of what has been before observed respecting the nature of these tenses, as well as of our immediate sub- ject. iyui ce ev /ueV ekeIvo ev olhi, ra) vpuc <$£ eicerat XPV* ^ Tl ei A* 7 ) TrpovftaXofiriv uvtov, a\\A' e*8ura£oftifV| ovvavriog i)kev dv evOug pot Xoyog, ujq ei-rrep r}\> ti tovtvjv d\r)dlg, npofidXXEffdai pE i£et t kui Trap* avTa. TcuiKr/jaTa tijv Ti^topiuv 7roiela6at' 6 ti yap \opog r\v rrjg -rroXeivg, ij te Ev in epinieiis, ubi Prae- sens" (i.e. the imperfect present) "ipsam coronam impo- nendi sollemnitatem indicat." So a few lines later we have — Tivog eveko. ; OTT(og fj.rj tov i ar £(j>av oj fie vov /cat \Eirovp- yovvra to. rfj 0£w Tavrrjv rrjv -q^iEpav Kakrj ^r^S' i7rr}p£d£rf fir]^ v{3pi£,r) firjhlg e^EKiTrfiEg. " Crowned and in the discharge of publick duties." In p. 538 of the same oration is a good instance of the dramatick effect of a passive imperfect in the Greek, which is almost entirely unrepresentable in our own language : iyoj 3' vtc i^dpov, vqcpovrog, £W0£v, vfipEi /cat ovk o'ivu tovto TTOLOVVTOg, EVCLVTIOV TTOXKCJV KCU ^EVOJV /Cat IToXlT&V, vj3pi£6fjt,r}l' 1 k. r. X. " was being outraged." For an English speaker nothing but an aorist would be admissible, conveying merely the bare fact that " I was outraged ;" but it is not the less requisite to note such imperfects, if we wish to perceive the full mean- ing of the Greek which we have before us. lb. 539. (Demosthenes is telling the dicasts what took place when he was about to bring the action against his guardians) — TOTE JJLOl flE\\0Vff ticJ) kcu lit) fiocj. Ktti tuvtu ttoXvv yjwvov ovrcoc iyivETo, kcu iyio ovcettote v7ru)7rTEvaa' a'W ovtivq ijXidiioc; CiEKEifjrjv. cjote yiLT\v ti)i> Efxavrov yvvatro Tratrw* opav rac irpog rrjv -rrapovaav iv rw ffrparoxE^io Kara iravra dppwariav. tolq te yap ETn-)(Eipr}fxaaLv ioipojv ov Karop- Bovvteq fcoti rove orpanwrae d^QofievovQ rrj fiovy. vofff re yap iine- £ovro tear a'ju^oVfpa, rrjg te uipag rov iviavTov ravT7\q ov(tt)q, iv jj dadevovffiv dv0pw7roi /xa'Xtora, kui to ^wpiov dfxa iv J iarpaToirE- BevovTOf iXiofog Kcii %a\£7roV rjv' rd re aXXa on dveXinaTa avrolg i(paiv£T0. tS ovv Arjfxoadivei ovk e'co/cei en ^(prjvai fiivEiv> k. t. X. Before quitting the subject, I cannot help offering, by- way of appendix, a few remarks on the extraordinary and mischievous absurdity, the curiosa infelicitas of the system, or rather no-system, of tense-nomenclature adopted in our Greek grammars. Since the distinction between education and instruction, that is, between framing the mind and filling it, between furnishing food and supplying power well to digest and assimilate the same, between putting arms into a man's hand and imparting to him strength to wield them, and skill how to wield them, and judgment when to wield them ; since this so important distinction has begun to be recog- nised, and we have perceived that useful knowledge is one thing, and mental cultivation quite another, the defenders of our old English grammar-school system have felt it incumbent upon them to show its excellence by pointing out how it trains, as well as what it communicates, to suggest to their opponents that the proper end of schooling is not so much work as faculty of working, less 'ipya than e&tg, and that it would be unreasonable to object to the cooper that his apprentice had as yet produced no casks, nor was work- ing upon cask- wood, if the tyro were exercising his hand upon such wood and in such a way as experience had shown best fitted to render him an able practitioner GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 61 when the time of trial should come. Of the grammar- school's other benefits in this kind, I am not called upon to speak ; but it will not be foreign to my purpose to consider how it tends, or at least might tend, to produce in its disciples clearness of thought and accuracy of lan- guage, by familiarizing them to the need and the employ- ment of strictly defined terms, by means of the technical nomenclature of their grammar. No one can, at least upon a moment's consideration, be unaware of the loose inaccurate way in which many terms, bearing important meanings and commonly enough in use, are continually employed. Take the word " liberty," for in- stance. " Every brutal mob," writes Coleridge, " assembled on some drunken St. Monday of faction, is ■ the People 9 forsooth, and now each leprous ragamuffin, like a circle in geometry, is at once one and all, and calls his own brutal self ■ us the people. ,,: Hardly any word would be more common in the mouth of some such " leprous ragamuffin," than this one of " liberty," and its sound from such a mouth is not greatly different from that which it bears when uttered by the great poet and philosopher himself, in those noble lines which I trust I may be forgiven for quoting : " Ye clouds ! that far above me float and pause, Whose pathless march no mortal may control ! Ye ocean waves ! that, wheresoe'er ye roll, Yield homage only to eternal laws ! Ye woods ! that listen to the night-birds singing, Midway the smooth and perilous slope reclined, Save when your own imperious branches swinging, Have made a solemn music of the wind ! Where, like a man beloved of God, Through glooms which never woodman trod, How oft, pursuing fancies holy, My moonlight way o'er flowering weeds I wound, Inspired, beyond the guess of folly, By each rude shape and wild unconquerable sound ! 62 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. O ye loud waves ! and O ye forests high ! And O ye clouds that far above me soared ! Thou rising sun ! thou blue rejoicing sky ! Yea, every thing that is and will be free ! Bear witness for me, wheresoe'er ye be, With what deep worship I have still adored The spirit of divinest liberty." The word " liberty" sounds the same, or much like the same, in its two utterances, but how vastly different are the notions, the things, the aggregate of thoughts and associations of which in the one and in the other it is the representative and memorandum. And so for each of us, when we speak or think of liberty, the word's meaning varies with the varying amount of thoughts and feelings which in the case of each it represents and recalls. And similar observations will manifestly apply to a thousand words more, — such is the laxity of usage prevalent in " the market-place." On the other hand, if this laxity be not corrected, and its effect upon minds habituated thereto counteracted, all stable knowledge, all fixed opinion, all firmly-based, duly-compacted fabrick of science, all sure grasp of truth, becomes impossible. For if words give not substance to thought, they give it form and consistence ; it might perhaps hardly be too much to say, that by bestowing upon it an outline, they make it an object for the mental eye: they are necessary, not only that we may be able to communicate our thoughts to others, but also that we may have the power, perhaps even of contemplating them, certainly of preserving, recalling, and applying them our- selves. Frost is no constituent of water, nor any precondition of its existence; yet without frost the edifice of the Northern Sovereign's water-palace could never have been reared. But words being thus, so to speak, the forms by the connection and accumulation of which the outline of the truth-fabrick — GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 63 or at least of that copy thereof which for us is the fabrick itself— is constituted, manifestly, if the structure is to be fixed and permanent, these forms must be so too. That must needs itself be fluctuating, which is built up out of fluctuating materials. Hence it is that philosophy — at least since the era of Socrates — has ever striven to fix the value of terms, as an indispensable prerequisite to the attainment (or at any rate the preservation) of clearness of conception, and thereafter of exactness of argument, and of truth and certainty of result. And in each particular science the first thing presented to the learner is a nomenclature, a col- lection of technical terms or definitions, to be acquainted with which is as necessary a preliminary to knowledge of the subject in question, as to have learned the powers of the alphabetical characters is to skill in reading. And this nomenclature includes all terms, the application of which can admit of any doubt or variation. Thus the habits of the schools and of the market-place are in direct contrast the one to the other. In the schools each word has its exact value, is stamped accordingly, and for just so much worth passes current ; but in the market-place values are estimated in sheep and oxen, like the arms of Glaucus and Diomedes ; and though a pound-weight weighs a pound in every balance, five head of fat cattle fed by A, are not of precisely the same worth as the like number from the scanty pasturage of B. Or, to change the illustration, we may say that in the market-place words are as snow-balls, the form and mass whereof is modified by the squeeze of the hurler's fingers ; whereas in the schools they are like the leaden spheres piled up in artillery-yards, with forms determined from the mould, and weights pre-appointed and marked upon their surfaces. " It is worth observing,'* says the Archbishop of Dublin, " that the words whose 64 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. ambiguity is most frequently overlooked, and is productive of the greatest amount of confusion of thought and fallacy, are among the commonest, and are those of whose meaning the generality consider there is least room to doubt. It is indeed from those very circumstances that the danger arises : words in very common use are both the most liable, from the looseness of ordinary discourse, to slide from one sense into another, and also the least likely to have that ambiguity suspected. Familiar acquaintance is perpetually mistaken for accurate knowledge" Is it then of no im- portance that in the market-place also the usage of words should be precise rather than fluctuating ? Or is it not in the wide debateable country of indistinct thought and inde- terminate language, wherein all of us perhaps have no inconsiderable intellectual property, while for very many their whole possessions seem to be therein situate, that there spring up the rich crops of errors, fallacies, misunder- standings, disputes, — in a word those mischiefs and ab- surdities, both in argument and act, innumerable, that are daily occasioning so much vain and endless disturbance in the world around us? Since then the usage of the market-place is so lax, and that which the interests of truth require so rigid, and truth itself so important, it follows that no system of education can be complete without an element of counteraction to the ill effects of the loose talking of daily life. And as the mode wherein these ill effects are produced consists in the practice of using words inaccurately, arising out of the habit of hearing them so used by others, the remedy will ob- viously be to attempt to produce a contrary practice by the instrumentality of an opposite habit. And how is this habit to be generated, unless by employing the learner on some subject wherein he may find it prevalent ? Now such GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 65 subjects are the sciences. The collateral advantages of the study of grammar, which among these give it a right to be preferred, it is no part of my present business to consider. It will be sufficient to observe that of no other science are the rules and principles of so continually recurring appli- cation and utility. Tn the reading of ancient authors the technical terms of grammar are in the learner's daily em- ployment, and the notions represented by them are con- tinually occurring in the most varied relations to one another, all which relations it is requisite distinctly to perceive* before the author's meaning can be fully apprehended. The mental operations gone through are so many lessons in accurate thinking, and the results of these are fixed, and, so to speak, embodied by the terminology employed. It re- mains to enquire on what principles such a terminology should be constructed. To enter fully into this investigation is as much beside our present purpose, as it would probably prove beyond the writer's powers. Thus much seems plain. The object for which all words are formed is, as I before observed, that we may be able to communicate thought to others, and to distinguish, preserve, and recall it ourselves; in philosophi- cal language, to make the subjective objective, and objective for the subject itself as well as for the rest. The best words therefore are those which, being of convenient form, are most readily apprehended and most easily retained. These, in the case which we have now to consider — the invention of technical terms to aid in the learning of a science — will be either words newly introduced but self- explanatory, as made up of previously understood elements ; or old words, whether adopted entire or slightly modified, but, at all events, with their use and application strictly laid down. Such words are best, because, being at once, F 66 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. to a certain extent at least, intelligible, they aid the ap- prehension, and still more the recollecting power, in their endeavours rightly to seize and to retain the conceptions which the terms are to convey. But in proportion to the advantage of a right nomenclature is the evil of one false or faulty, and in no relation of a science would this evil be more manifest than in its office of training the learner to an accurate use of language. Now to turn to the actual tense-nomenclature of our Greek grammars. Was ever anything more confused and confus- ing ? We find a number of tenses possessing, of course, different powers, and we hope from the name of each to get some insight into what these powers respectively may be, — the rather, as most of their names have a sound of familia- rity. We examine the classification more closely. — A first principle of classificatory nomenclature surely is, that the specifick names shall involve a real distinction ; that every one shall, at least as regards the present subject, and in the same degree of existence, exclude every other. — The distinc- tive names bestowed on the first and second tenses are — Present and Imperfect. What then, is there any opposition between these two names ; or may not an action spoken of be present and imperfect too ? The first tense, it appears, be- longs to present time. And so, for aught its name implies, may the second, or to past or future time, either. From the nomenclature hitherto noticed, we learn that there is a two-fold distinction of indicative forms, according as the actions to which they refer are perfect or imperfect, and belong to time past, present, or future. Whether, however, the " Present " be a present-perfect, or present-imperfect, and whether the " Imperfect " be an imperfect-present, an imperfect-past, or an imperfect-future,— of this the nomen- clature tells us nothing. Third in order, — to the still greater GREEK AND ENGLISH FORMS COMPARED. 67 complication of the whole matter, — comes the " Aorist." It appears, then, that the verb-classification contemplates actions either simply as occurrences, or as occurrences in progress, or as occurrences complete and perfect. Is " the Present " an imperfect, a perfect, or an aorist ? Is "the Imperfect" a present, a past, or a future? And is 1 * the Aorist" a present, past, or future aoristick? So of " the Perfect," which we next meet with. Is it present-perfect, past-perfect, or future-perfect? Now comes a tense, with a mystical denomination, implying that its aidance will be at hand for us whensoever our needs ask a form for the telling of actions more than perfect. Wherefrom passing with admiration and due acknowledgments, but, at the same time, some not unnatural impression that we shall never re- quire the proffered good offices, we arrive finally at a future, whether perfect, imperfect, or aoristick, of course undeter- mined. And so concludes the indicative, after presenting us with such a confused jumble of nomenclature as I suppose can hardly be paralleled — I am sure it cannot be surpassed — elsewhere. It would have been ten thousand times better and more useful to have called the first tense " Zenith," the second " Nadir," the third " Radius Vector," and so on. These names would, to be sure, have done nothing to aid our apprehension, but neither, on the other hand, would they have done anything to confuse it ; and definitions might probably have been attached to each which would have set the matter right. The practical effect of the present state of things, in at least eight cases out of ten, is just this:— A boy has a sort of confused notion that "perfect," "imperfect," and " aorist" are, in grammar, pretty nearly synonymous, all meaning " past ;" plusquamperfectum is of course as sig- nificant as Abracadabra, though, to be sure, most boys, in their exceeding familiarity with the sound, entertain pro- f2 68 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. bably no suspicion that they have absolutely no notion whatever of the thing signified ; and, for the rest, present and future seem intelligible words enough, and are treated accordingly. And so much for the manner in which dis- tinctness of thought, and accuracy in the use of language, are promoted by the tense-nomenclature of which I have been speaking. As for its effect upon the full perception of the meaning of Greek, the learner who has gone through the foregoing pages with due energy and laboriousness, and has not been content cursorily to pass over them, to " skip and go on," when he came to an example hard to construe, and, when his memory on some preceding point had failed him, to spare his sloth the trouble of turning back to it, — such a learner needs not any remarks here upon that part of the matter. For myself, after having been for some years aware of the true state of the case, it was the drawing up of these papers which first enabled me readily and at once, in reading a passage of Greek, to receive the full force of its verbal forms. That a failure so to receive is the reverse of uncom- mon, appears sufficiently from the instances already noticed, in which some very respectable scholars have so made failure, and that too in passages where the sense is thereby very materially affected. A fortiori, it may be concluded that they have done so in very many passages, wherein to mark the exact verbal force is less absolutely requisite ; and a fortiori again, that the great mass of boys at school, and, in general, of that class of learners for whose benefit these pages are designed, do so continually, NOTE. 69 Note on a use of the Past-imperfect. The ancient artists were in the habit of inscribing their works with irolti, e.g. fteihiag i-roiei — UoXvkXeitov iiroUt* How certainly would most learners consider the word as entirely equivalent to eVcuV £ , and translate accordingly. And with what correctness they would so translate, will appear by the following passage from Harris: — " Again, we are told by Pliny (whose authority likewise is confirmed by many gems and marbles still extant) that the ancient painters and sculptors, when they fixed their names to their works, did it pendenti titulo, in a suspensive kind of in- scription, and employed for that purpose the tense [the past- imperfect] here mentioned. It was 'ATtW^g etzoiei, Apelles faciebat, UuXvkXeitoq mice, Polycletus faciebat, and never EiroiqaE or fecit. By this they imagined that they avoided the show of arrogance, and had in case of censure an apology (as it were) prepared, since it appeared from the work itself that it was once indeed hi hand, but no pretension that it was ever finished." — Hermes i. 7. And in a note he adds — " The first printers (who were most of them scholars and critics), in imitation of the ancient artists, used the same tense. Excudebat H. Stephanas. Excudebat Gail. Morelius, AbsolvebatJoan. Benenatus." Pliny's words, as referred to by Harris, are (he is speaking of the title of his book) :— " Me non pcenitet nullum festiviorem excogitasse titulum ; et ne videar Graecos in totum insectari, ex illis nos velim intelligi pingendi fingendique conditoribus, quos in his libellis invenies absoluta opera, et ilia quoque, quse mirando non satiamur, pen- denti titulo inscripsisse, ut apelles faciebat, aut polycle- tus, tanquam inchoata semper arte et imperfecta, ut contra judiciorum varietates superesset artifici regressus ad veniam, 1 70 THE POWERS OF THE GREEK TENSES. velut emendaturo quidquid desideraretur, si non esset intercep- ts. Quare plenum verecundise illud est, quod omnia opera tanquara novissima inscripsere, et tanquam singulis fato adempti. Tria, nonamplius, ut opinor, absolute traduntur inscripta: ille fecit ; quo apparuit summam artis securitatem auctori suo placuisse, et ob id in magna invidia fuere omnia." — Plin. Nat. Hist. i. 20. I have already in the preface disclaimed for a very large part of the doctrine put forth in the foregoing paper all pre- tension to originality. The classification, however, of the tenses there given so much resembles that of Harris in the first book of his " Hermes/' as to demand a special acknow- ledgment, had the one been adopted from the other. The fact is, that when the proof-sheet of the classification above given was corrected, I had never read a line of the " Her- mes." I find from Priscian, as quoted by Harris, that the name " present-perfect" is as old as the time of the Stoicks: — " Sciendum tamen quod Romani pr^terito perfecto non solum in re modo completa utuntur, (in quo vim habet ejus, qui apud Grsecos TrapaKEifievog vocatur, quern Stoici TEAEION ENEETOTA nominaverunt,) sed etiam pro dopiffrov accipitur, etc." — Prisc lib. viii. THF. ATTICK USAGE OF THE PARTICLE "an. Introduction. — The force of a% in general.* In the study of a language, there is no greater difficulty than to perceive thoroughly, and set forth distinctly, the full force and import of its particles. Perceptions such as these, resulting for the most part from obscure and vague notices, cannot, without the greatest effort, be reduced to clear and definite conceptions: and when we imagine ourselves to have accomplished the task, we often find our meanings rather evaporated than expressed ; — instead of having a * This chapter is little more than a translation, and, in part, re- arrangement of a section of Professor Hermann's treatise " De Particula «"." It was originally my intention merely to have ren- dered, on a similar plan, the remainder of that work ; and I have in fact, with the exception of the book on the usage of *» with the indicative, derived very considerable assistance from it. In his treatment of that part of the subject which I have excepted in acknowledging my obligations to him, Professor Hermann's doctrine appears to me very confused in its arrangement, and moreover materially and extensively vitiated, by the gross oversight of regard- ing the denial of the consequent of a conditional proposition, as following necessarily upon the denial of its antecedent. 72 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av. character of reality and distinctness impressed upon them, by the process to which they have been subjected, they seem to be evanished and lost in its operation, as though, belong- ing to the sphere of the sense and the feeling, they refused to be grasped by the understanding, or subjected to its laws. Moreover, in most of the particles, so various is the prin- ciple of application, so complicated the rule of usage, that, unfold it with what care you will, you will hardly find any thing which will suit all and every passage alike. And what adds to the difficulty is, that when we have recourse to what in these subjects is our surest resource, the comparison of other tongues, we can never find particles so exactly corresponding as not to convey too little or too much, or at least to possess such shades and differences of meaning, as render them no less apt to lead into error, than they are useful in assisting explanation. These observations apply with more than ordinary pertinency to the Greek aV and k<-V, which, besides that they have no precise equivalents in any language with which I am acquainted, are moreover, so slightly differenced from certain other particles in that to which they belong, as to make it no easy matter to discern what the difference is. However, seeing that enquiries such as the present can be successfully conducted only by the twofold process — of first, by long and accurate perusal of the ancients becoming possessed of that indescribable tact, that instinctive sense of the force and usage of the particles, which daily use gives in our vernacular tongue ; and next, of endeavouring to draw out these obscure notions into the light and distinctness of definite conceptions, the latter part alone belonging to the province of the teacher, — I shall make the attempt, however arduous, and have only to beg my readers not to shrink from accompanying me in the en- deavour to find a track amid the darkness and perplexities of this intellectual jungle. INTRODUCTION. 73 The four particles civ (and kev), "iowq, ttov, ri have the same general force, but in different degrees, and with diffe- rent relations. They agree in this^ that all weaken the predication in which they occur, render it I. e. less positive, distinct, and decisive ; introduce a shade, more or less deep, of uncertainty into it. Now uncertainty may be introduced into a predication, I. In four degrees ; for a predication may be spoken of as (1) Possibly true : " it may be so, but I have no ground whatever for thinking that it is so rather than that it is not so" — bare possibility, a predication with uncertainty in the highest degree. (2) Contingently true : " if the sky be red to-night, we shall have a fine day to-morrow" — (that to-morrow will be fine is the predication). (3) Very likely true : " I am inclined to think it will be a fine day to-morrow." (4) With many probabilities for its truth : " the sky is red to-night, and so we may look for it's being fine to- morrow." Obs. In the Greek, (3), for instance, would have its full force given by the indicative tense, " it will be a fine day," united to the proper particle; and in like manner (4) and the rest. (II.) With two relations. [a) Subjective; with relation to the person speaking, the subject of the thought expressed by the predication. (b) Objective ; with relation to the thing spoken of, the object of the same thought. (1) and (3) will be included by (a), and (2) and (4) by (b) ; for when I speak of any predication as (1) barely pos- sible, or (3) as likely, the uncertainty is represented as subjective, as existing in my own thoughts and opinion ;— 74- THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE CLV. but when I speak of a thing (2) as contingently true, or (4) as with many probabilities for its truth,— -the condition and the probabilities, in the mention of which the introduction of uncertainty into the predication consists, are spoken of as matters, not of my own mind and thoughts, parts of the thinking subject me, but as something objective and inde- pendent, something existing in external nature. To put the same thing in other words, when I say " it possibly may be," or " very likely it is," uncertainty is denoted in both expressions, but denoted only with relation to myself, as my opinion, i.e. subjectively. But when I say " it would be if," or " it will surely be because," uncertainty is denoted still, but not denoted merely as my view, but in connexion with and in relation to something external, outward, objective, as the condition or probable cause. A tabular summary of the preceding, with the particles proper to each case, may be given thus : Uncertainty intro- f ,. . . ( possibly true — by iVajg. duced into a pre- | SUD J ectlve > as \ ve ry likely true—by *rou. dication may be^ C contingently true — by av or keu. represented with | objective, as < with many probabilities for its relation (. ( truth — by t&. The force of each expression will be yet more evident by considering the one opposed to it. If we desire to assure of the truth of some predication a man whose doubt and uncertainty have been expressed by 'Lmq, we use the simple verb without any addition — non solum potest esse, we say to him, sed est. If his doubt were expressed by nov, we say — non solum verisimile est sed verum est (5 rav0' ovtcjq exeO- If by av, we say — non solum conditione aliqud sed omnino (Trdvrwg). If by re, our assertion to the con- trary is — non solum probabile et consentaneum est, sed necessarium (dvayKaitog rav& ovTojg cx £l )» " there is not only good reason to think it, but it cannot be otherwise." INTRODUCTION. 75 I will add from Homer a twofold illustration, giving first a line which admits any of these particles, showing at the same time how the sense varies with their interchange; and next, one which will admit none of them except that actually found. First, then, we find avv te cv tpypfJLEVh), kcu 'laioe irpo 6 rov er6i)GW t " When two go together, one may see more than another." He who says this asserts the bare possibility " it may be so ;" if he asserted that it actually was so, he would omit the to-wc- Were the line avv TE Cv ipxofxevu), K(lt ttov Tzpo 6 TOV EVOY\aEV y the meaning would be, " when two go, &c, perhaps, like enough, one sees more, etc." And the opposite assertion would be 17 ctj irpo 0, k.t.\. "undoubtedly, assuredly one sees, etc." If we read (TVV TE CV Kill KEY ~p(J () TOV E101]v jjdddwv Xeyttv ret fii\ria&- tv eKadi]/jir]v fjav\os- and Plat. Euthyph. II. D. Kivhvvevu) upa u> iralpt itelvov tov dvcpog CeivoTtpog yeyov- evat ttjv Teyvr)r ifiovXofxriV yup av jjol tovq Xoyovg fjeveiv KOt UKLVr)TOVQ IZpVoQai fJtuXXoV )*/, K. T. X. Such instances of suppressed protasis are common enough in our own language, — " I should have wished this or that to take place thus and thus ;" "I should have said that he was an abler man than his father," and the like. There is however one case of suppressed protasis, which it will be proper more particularly to notice, because, at first sight, it might seem to wear the appearance of the use of av in the protasis;— I mean the usage found in examples such as the following. Demosth. in Timoc. 1201. el Toivvv tovto layypov av rjv rovry irpog vfxag TtK^r/piov on ei,ehilov tov Al(T\piu)va KcifilA yeveoBu) TexfJijptov npog v^xug on avveictog fxe d\tj6Fi eyxaXovvTa ov roA/ucj tov Aln^piuva ■jrapafiovvai. To perceive the sense of such a passage is not difficult. u If then this would have been for the defendant a strong proof that he was ready to, &c. let it be for me also a proof, &c." Without the dv the sense would have been " if this was a strong proof, &c." And it will not be much more difficult to discover that in such a sentence dv is still part of an apodosis. It belongs, in fact, to the apodosis of a suppressed protasis ; in combination with which it forms G 82 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av the protasis of a larger sentence. This will appear more clearly if we examine the formation of such a sentence. Protasis. Apodosis. a . , a el aVe'^a&v avTO layypov av fjv tovt(0 reKfxrjpiov Apodosis. Protasis. It would have been a strong proof for him if he had shown it. Now let us make this whole sentence, protasis and apodo- sis together, a part of the protasis of a larger sentence. Protasis. , ^ , Protasis. Apodosis. A _^ A. _^ el el (XTreZeikev avro la^ypdv av r\v tovt%> reKfiripiov. Apodosis. Ka.fj.ol la'xypdv Zucaiiog av iyevero. Protasis. Protasis. Apodosis. a ^_ If if he had shown it it would have been a strong proof for him. Apodosis. it would justly have proved so for me also. Tn which manifestly the former aV, as well as the latter, forms part of an apodosis. Next let us omit the subordinate protasis, which it is easy mentally to supply, thus : — Protasis. el laj(yp6v av r\v tovtio TeKpiripiov Apodosis. Kdp:ol layypov ^iKaiwg av iyevero. Protasis. If this would have been a strong proof for him Apodosis. A it would justly prove so for me also. WITH THE INDICATIVE. 83 Wherein the former av, which at first sight seems to be connected with the el of the protasis, is in fact part of the apodosis of a suppressed protasis. Shortly then, for " if it had been so," we shall write el ovtojq 7)v, and for " if it would have been so," el ov-iog av riv, in which the connexion of av i)v with the el is only- apparent, the particle belonging in fact to the apodosis of a suppressed protasis. Immediately connected with this subject of the sup- pressed protasis, is the case in which av with the past tenses of the indicative is to be rendered by " could have," e.g. to. yap roiavra ovr eylyvero ovt av eyevero. " Such things as these neither were taking place, nor could have taken place." SoiEsch. Suppl. 581. rig yap av Karerravvev "H- pag voaovg e7rij3ovXovg; Aioq roc epyov, c r. \. " For who could have stayed, &c." Lys. in Agorat. 136. £7T£tro ce Kal erepov fieya reKfirjpiov wg ovk av dneKreive fypuvtyov ct ov Adrji'a'iog (f>rjaL yeyevfjadai. o pvvf)(og yap ovrog, x. r. X. " that he could not have hilled Phrynichus." I proceed to explain this use. tuvt eylvero is " this took place." ravr av eyevero el TrpoorjXdev 6 KXeGJWfxoQ, u this would have taken place if Cleonymus had come up," is equivalent to " the taking place of this was attached to the coming of Cleonymus, as consequent to antecedent ; there was a con- dition, viz. the arrival of Cleonymus, which would have brought about the taking place of this : this was not im- possible, for had the condition of Cleonymus' arrival been g2 84 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av fulfilled, it would actually have taken place." So, ravr av eyevero el crvvrjyopevaev 6 Ntfaa'e, declares that the advocacy of Nicias was a condition upon the fulfilment whereof this would have taken place, that it's taking place was possible conditionally upon the ad- vocacy of Nicias : and in like manner, with whatever condition we fill up the protasis or clause with el. If now, inserting no particular protasis either actually or mentally, we merely say ravr av eyivsto, the expression will be equivalent to an assertion, that there were conditions, the fulfilment of which would have brought about the occurrence of this, i.e. that its occurrence was not absolutely impossible. ravr av eyevero would be, " this might" or " could have taken place," and ravr ovk av iylv- ero, " this could not have taken place ; there was nothing among all possible happenings which would have been a condition on fulfilment whereof this would have taken place ;" rd yap roiavra ovr iyiyvero ovr av eyevero, " for such things as these neither were taking place, nor could have taken place." Hitherto we have been speaking of conditional propo- sitions — propositions, that is, in which no assertion is made respecting outward facts, nothing is declared actually to take place, or to have taken place, but it is merely affirmed that two occurrences are so linked together, that the taking place of the one brings with it that of the other. There is however, in Greek, a use of the conditional particle in categorical pro- positions, which it is necessary to notice, ravr av iyiyvero may signify not only, " this would have been taking place if such and such a condition had been fulfilled," merely linking together two occurrences without declaring the actual external taking place of anything ; but also " this WITH THE INDICATIVE. 85 was taking place on the fulfilment of such a condition," i.e. " as often as such a condition was fulfilled;" a sense expressed in English either by the simple imperfect (more frequently the aorist would be found) " this was taking place," or by the circumlocution, "this used to be taking place." This usage, as might have been expected, is much more common with the past-imperfect, but is found also with the past-aorist ; nor does there seem any reason why this latter formula should be less frequent than the other, except that Attick fondness for imperfects which we have so frequently had occasion to remark. I give a few examples for sake of illustration. Aristoph. Nub. 831. dXX otl udtiuifi eVdorore nreXavdavo^v av evOvg vtto ttXtjOovq iruiv. " I used to he forgetting directly." lb. 953. ovd av eXecrdat Ceurvovvr eO)v KttydXaiov ti\q patyavlZog. " nor yet used it to be allowed, when one was at dinner, to take," &c. Equitt. 1347. teal vrj A/a y ti duo am Xeyoiri)v pijrope, 6 fiiv TrotTtadai vavg Xeywv, 6 v uv avrovg ri Xiyotev, 'iv dfia' k: r. X. 11 I used to be asking, used to begin to ask, I would be asking them." 86 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE dv lb. Sympos. 217. B. cvveytyvofxrjv yap, io ctvdpeg, fxovog juo'vw, kou ^fxrjy avrtKa haXe^ecrdai avrov jjloi . tovtojv cf on fjidXa iyiyvero ovBev, dXX' u)ff7rep eiuidei diaXs^deig dv fxoi kcu (rvvrjfiepevaag <*>X ET0 CtTTUOP. " But I used to find him gone away and departed, after time spent in his ordinary conversation with me." Aristoph. Plut. 982. dXX dpyvpiov dpa^fidg dv yrrja e'ikomv elg Ifidnov' oktio 5' dv elg vTvod^fiara' Kal ralg dde\d. 59, D. iTEpLeixEvop.ev ovv ekolotote 'ih)Q dyoi\dEir} to heafnoTripLov . . . EirEihrj %e dyoi\dEiT], k*.r. A. By the Attick writers this use of av with the indicative in categoricals is confined to the past tenses- The Epick poets join the particle also to the presents and futures, quite in accordance, it would seem, with the nature of the sen- tences formed by its introduction.* • See note A. 88 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE dV II av WITH THE OPTATIVE. We now come to the consideration of the pure conditional proposition wherein is declared that if the condition were to be fulfilled, the occurrence dependent thereon would take place, " If Cleonymus were to come, this would happen." In this case we have the optative both in the protasis and in the apodosis ; alone in the former, combined with aV in the latter, — el eXdoi 6 KXeiovvfiog ravr av yevoiro. The determination of the particular optative form to be used, will depend upon considerations obvious enough when we are familiar with the powers of the different tenses, e.g. rravreq av eTtaivoiev rov KAewvvjuov el ravra 7rotoirj. " All would be praising," (or " be for praising") Cleomymus, if he were to be acting (or " for acting'') thus. 7ravT££ av eiraiveaeiav rov KXeiovvfiov el ravra iroirjaeuv. " All would praise Cleonymus if he were to act thus." ndvrEQ av ercaiveaeiav rov KXeiovvjiov el ravra 7rotoir). 11 All would praise Cleonymus if he were to be for acting thus." Here too, as with the indicative, the protasis is frequently omitted when it can be easily supplied by the mind. Plat Lach 198, D. doicel yap drj ifioi re /cat rwSe, 7repi oarcjv early iTTKTrrjfxrj, ovk aXXrj [lev elvai Kepi yeyovoroQ elZevat orry yeyovev, aXXr] $e irepl yiyvofievuv oirrf ylyverat, aXXrj he 6V77 av KaXXiara yevotro (i,e. el yevoiro if it were to come into being) teal yevrjaerai ro jjuJTTb) yeyovog, a'XX' rj avrrj. Similar instances may be found in abundance in any Attick writer. WITH THE OPTATIVE. 89 Exactly in the same manner that ovk av eyevero ravra comes to signify " this could not have taken place," does ovk av yevoiro ravra acquire the meaning, " this could not take place," and ravr av yevoiro " this could, can, may, or might take place." £* eXdoi 6 KXeuivvuoQ ravr av yevoiro, is equivalent to M there is a condition, viz. the coming of Cleonymus, on the fulfilment of which this would take place." So, el ideXrjaeiev 6 Nio'ae ravr av yevoiro, is " there is a con- dition, viz. the willingness of Nicias, on the fulfilment of which this would take place," and so on of any other condition which might be inserted. Now if we merely sav ravr av yevoiro, without specifying any condition in particular, the force of the expression obviously is, u there is some condition on the fulfilment of which this would happen, i.e. "this is not absolutely impossible, — this may, can, might, or could take place.'' For the sake of those who may not be familiar with this usage, 1 shall add some examples of it from Greek authors. ovk olha' y el (pdaii]Q qv. — Aristoph. A v. 1018. Plat. Gorg. 450. C. naadiv H oifjtai riHv re\vuiv ruiv fjev epyaaia to noXv eariv (some consist for the greater part in production) Ka\ \6yov (ipdyeoq ceovrai, eviai %e ovHvog dXXa to rfjc re^vi^g nepaivoiro av (" jnight be accomplished," literally, "might be accomplish- ing," i. e. the accomplishing might be proceeded with) caJ hid eiyrjg, oiov ypas yap; el jjlti irtp y dfxa avTtj y iv o i t d v ypavs te Kal via yvvi]. WITH THE OPTATIVE. 91 decided) opinion or intention. Just as in English, " it can't be true,"— « it must be false,"— " I can't," or " I couldn't do anything for you," said with a corresponding intonation of voice, are in form less decisive than " it is not true,"—" it is false,"—" I will not," or " I shall not do anything for you." The usage, both of the Greek and the English, is probably to be explained from the consideration that " it must be," — " it cannot be— thus, or thus," implies that the matter is at least so far left doubtful as to require the contingencies and possibilities of the case to be taken a review of. "I shall not" closes the matter at once; "I cannot" leaves opportunity for the pointing out of some overlooked possibility. These weaker forms are of very common use among the Attick writers. Attici quidem, says Professor Hermann, qui amant omnia dubitantius dicere, prae caeteris hoc optativi usu delectantur. Such are the cases commonly called the use of the optative with av for the future, present, or past tenses of the indicative. It is usually easy enough to perceive and mark the difference between the two forms. In the lines given by Professor Hermann to illustrate this difference, we must translate a eel yereodai ravra teal ytrtjaiTat, "what is to take place, that will take place," (the v avrrjg tov KaKXtarevovTa dyayovreg eirl rrjv Trp^prjv rrjg viiog ecrayiacrdi.vTL tovtq) bvofia rjv Ae(ov' rd^a 8' av ri ical ovofiaTog eTravpovro. "and in some measure he might perhaps be indebted to his name for what he got. lb. VII. 214. eldeirj jfiev yap ical ewv fir) MrjXievg ravrrjv rrjv drpairov Ovrjrrjgt el rfj X^PV ^oXXd iofiiXr)Kiog e'Ln. " he might know without being a Malian." lb. IX. 71. a\Ac£ ravra plv veal tydovu) dv e'nroiev, *' they might say. " lb. I. 2. e'lrjvav vriv yvovg avrov, 'l7r7ro/cpar^e, e/ rate fxiKpaig eyaipov' iroXXaKig yap av avrolg rd Trapd rG)v 7rovr)pu)v fiaXXov r\ rd Trapd rdv yjp-qoruiv elvai Ke^apicrfxeva' ovr av rolg dv6pu)7rotg ol^lov eivat i^rjv, el rd Trapd ruiv TTOvr\p , & 1 ' r b (would have been J place. ra yEvouEra the things which took place. , * , ., ... , . , , , f have taken place, ra av yevouEva the things which would < , , r Lysias, 347. Ov% virip vfiuiv diroBavovroc QtjpafiEvovg a'W virip r/je avrov 7rovT}piag, ra) htcaiiog uiv iv oXtyap-^ia ckqv tovror (t)i,f yap av-j}v K-artXi/o-c), cikuIioc c av [sc. cov~oc~] iv ciijjo^pariu. Plat. Gorg. 4.50. A. iyu> ti Ttvwv Etf.it ; tvov ijcitvg uev av iXEydivrtov (of those who would be glad to be confuted), il n fjtij dXrjdig Xe'yw, r/ceojQ C av iXEyldvTwv el rig ti fjuj dXj]tiig\Xiyoi, ov\ dr}CEcrrEpov fjtivr av iXEy^divrtov rj eXeyldvTwv. lb. 4G0. D. vvv £i ye 6 avrog ovrog (palvtrai 6 prjTopitcog ovk av iron ddttcrjaag. Here too will properly be placed the expression, so well known to the readers of Demosthenes, one among many instances of which occurs • See note B at the end of tills treatise. 96 THE ATT1CK USE OF THE PARTICLE av In Meid, 535. 7roXXovg $ dv ex iov £ ' 7r£ ' ,/ % Tl > Kai <> t( * iroXXdg irpotydffeig, eyQpovg yey evrj/JLEPOvg dXXrfXoig, ovMva irodiroTe ovte dtcrjicoa ovre iuipaKa oartg, k. t. X. " Though I could mention many," i. e. " if I would." I shall close this part of the subject with some very in- telligible examples of the omission of the verb to which dv belongs In Acharnians, 924, an attendant comes up to tell Dicaeopolis— eKeXevae (said that you were to) Adfia^pg ere ravrrjg rrjg ^pa\fjLr}c elg tovq Xoag avrS /jLeradovvai rdv KiyXdv. To which the reply is, Ovk dv fid tov At" el do\ri ye fioi trjv dffirida. " I would not by Zeus if," &c. Nubes, 5. Strepsiades complains, ol Zev fiacriXev, rfjg XewTOTtfrog twv (ppevuiv. MA. ri dfJT dv eTepov ei irvdoio "SnoKpaTOvg (fypovTifffia ; — " What would you say then if,'' &c. lb. 779. epe tI SfJT dv; " Come, what would you do then ?" &c. Equitt. 1247. io (TTetyave, -^aipdyv aTriQc Kai a aKiov eyui Xei7ro)' ere <)' aXXog Tig Xa(3u>v KeKrrjcreTai KXeTtTrfg fiev ovk q.v fxaXXov, evTV^JIQ / ce to fXEv irptoTOV ovk )/0fXe, tog av dtTfiEvrj fxE EtvpaKvla tjicovra ctd yj>6vov. M as she would, had she been glad to see me on my return after a long absence." II 98 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av IV. -civ IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. We have now arrived at the most difficult part of our subject. It is not easy to ascertain what the Attick usage exactly is, and to explain the principles which have guided it is still less so. I shall commence with a few words re- specting the nature of the moods. The essential difference by which the indicative, on the one hand, is distinguished from the subjunctive and opta- tive on the other, consists in this, that while the former regards some occurrence external, actual, objective, the conception which it conveys being in fact merely the mind's reflection of the impression produced by that object upon the sense ; the two latter are used to convey a conception which is not, as in the other case, a mere translation into the mind's language of a sense-impression, but one the very stuff and material of which, so to speak, are, immediately at least, subjective, that is, supplied by the mind itself. When I say " he is departing," my conception of the de- parture is of a thing actual and objective ; I state an exter- nal fact which is the original of my conception thereof, in- somuch that the conception itself is true only so far as it corresponds (whatever the exact nature of such correspon- dence between thoughts and objects may be) to this fact. But if I say " he is taking much pains in order that he may depart," the departure is conceived of no longer as an out- ward taking place, productive of sense-impressions which are reflected under its own forms by the understanding, of which operation again the words uttered are the exponent, the departure is conceived of not thus, but as the purpose IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 99 or object aimed at of an action, viz. the painstaking, which is thus objectively conceived of. The objective supplies facts, that is, sense-impressions, to the mind ; but all mean- ings of these facts, all relations between them, other than those of form, position, and the like,- -all relations, I mean, indicated by such words as " in order that, because, there- fore, until, before, after ;" such as these the mind does not find in the external world, but supplies from within itself and to them, as it were, applies and fits the sense-impres- sions received from the external. Now, when we desire to express a conception of something actual, or assumed to be actual, e, g< " two lines cut one another ;" " if two lines cut one another, the opposite vertical angles, &c." the indicative mood is used ; but if the matter of the conception stand only in some subjective relation to the actual, or be a mere hypothesis grounded on a formally assumed possibility, e> g. " supposing A were to be B," or " supposing A should turn out to be B," in contradistinction to " supposing A actually is, was, or will be B," in these cases the subjunc- tive or optative mood will be employed. For convenience sake, we shall term the conceptions de- noted by the indicative, and those conveyed by the optative and subjunctive, objective and subjective conceptions re- spectively. We have seen already that a subjective con- ception exists in the mind either as a bare hypothesis, (supposing such a thing were to take place, ti yivoiro tclvtu,) or as an hypothesis grounded upon the present state of things, and taking note of the uncertainty of what that state may or may not be (if such should turn out to be the case) ; or again it stands in some one of various relations to something actual and objective (" I am doing this in order that it may take place, — I am waiting until it take place, — I shall not go away before it's taking place"). H 2 100 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av We see from these examples that, in the subjective con- ception, there sometimes is, and sometimes is not, reference to a possible objective realization thereof; e g. in " I am doing it in order that he may become," the becoming is in- deed conceived of purely as the object to which my actions are tending ; and this conception of it arises from the idea of design which the mind possesses within itself, and does not obtain from any impressions ab extra, yet there is refe- rence to a time looked forward to, at which the becoming may be realized as an objective fact. So in " if it should rain to-day I shall get no walk," reference is made to a time at which the raining or not raining will be found among external realities. On the contrary, in " if A were to be B, C would be D," el eXdoi 6 KXetovvjiog ravr av yivoiro, we have merely the connexion between antecedent and conse- quent without reference to any present or future objective state. The rule of Attick usage is the following. When refe- rence is made to time present or future, for the, at least possible, objectising of the subjective conception, the sub- junctive is to be used, — if otherwise, the optative. For ex- ample, " We are doing this in order that he may become," TTOlOVfXEV TCLVTCl 07T(OQ y£VrjTCU. " We were doing this in order that he might become," i7roiovfi£v ravta ottwq ykvovro. "Supposing he were to become — el yeVotro." Now there is naturally attendant upon our looking for- ward to the future, a degree of doubt and uncertainty ; and this feeling, like all other feelings, may be expected to have a perceptible effect upon the forms of language, and upon no language more than that of the Athenians, who, to repeat Professor Hermann's observation, amant omnia dubitantius IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 101 loqui. To convey this uncertainty, the particle av is intro- duced, and introduced so commonly, as, in some instances, almost entirely to have superseded the simpler form. In fact, from habit, this formula with av is often used with little or no regard to the peculiar force of the particle, which seems to be " may be," " perchance," " as may or may not happen." The av is probably to be explained by supposing the omission of some such word as rj'ie — ttolu ravra o-kwq av, yevrjrai fiiyaq " I am doing this in order that, as may happen, he may become," as though it had been 7roiw ravra o7rwc, and then, with eh] c av ou-ug thrown in parenthetically, " and it may be so." " I am doing this in order that (and it may be so) he may become great." I do not of course mean that the full expression with ifrj was ever in use, but that av is thrown in extra constr actionem, to the regularity of which, some such insertion as that proposed is necessary, and was very probably, originally at least, mentally supplied. After what has been already said, it will not be difficult to understand that el yevrjaerat ravra is " if this shall take place," i.e. "as- suming that there will be an actual objective occurrence of these things." el yevoiro ravra " if this were to take place, supposing that such a thing were to take place." el yivrjTui ravru " if this should take place, should prove to be a consequent upon the general state of things as at present existing." tdv (el av) yevrjrat ravra M if, as may or may not be, this should take place, if this should chance to take place, if perchance this should take place." So much was this last formula preferred by the Athenians to the one immediately preceding it, that to adopt the latter in Attick Greek was long held for a solceeism by learned 102 THE ATT1CK USE OF THE PARTICLE av men. Accidit in hac quoque re, says Professor Hermann, quod saepissime, ut quae rara essent corrupta putarentur, nee quaereretur quam rationem haberent. Tantum abest enim, ut aut per se prava aut ab Atticorum usu abhorrens sit constructio particulae el cum conjunctivo, ut quum non perinde sit utrum el and idv ponatur non magis edv pro el quam el pro idv adhiberi possit. He proceeds to give instances and explain them. It is evident that as the insertion of the particle introduces an " as may or not be" into the sentence, it will be omitted whenever we desire to throw out of view the possibility either of the matter spoken of taking place, or failing to take place, or, in general, whenever the thought that " the actual taking place of this is among possible contingencies, and so neither certainly will be nor certainly will not be," would obviously be improper. The following examples, taken from Pro- fessor Hermann's treatise, will make this yet clearer. Eurip. Cyclop. 577. ovk av (j>iXt]craifi el ^dpireg netpQai fie. "Si vel Gratiae me tentaverint:" nempe non sunt facturae. Aristoph. Eq. 698. KA. Ovtoi fid tt}v ArjfirjTpd y\ el fir\ a c'fc^a'yw. e/c rfjgBe rrjg yrjg ovtJeiTOTe fiiwaofiai. KA. el fxr) 'xtydyrjc ; " If I should not eat you out of," where " if perchance I should not," would evidently be impertinent. Eurip. Iphig. A. 1238. fiXexpov npog yfidg, ofxfia Mg, (piXrffid re, IV* dXXd tovto KarQavova e\o) aedev fivrjfielov, el fir] ro~ig efioig ureLad^g Xoyoig. " Si nihil precibus meis moveris:" quod non videris facturus. Equitt. 805. el 3e ttot elg dypov ovrog dneXdiuv eiprjvalog $iarpi\pr)> IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 103 Kcii x^P a 9 a 7 w,/ dvadappijaj] rat ore^Kpi'Xw elg \6yov eXOi], yvioatrai o'tiov dyaduiv avrov rrj fxiadcxpopq. irupEMiTTov. On which Professor Hermann, observes, — Sic libri praeter Brunckii membranas, in quibus est e\6oi, quod ille recepit, scripsitque ciarpi^ei et dvadap^crei. At recte se habebat vulgata. Nam hoc dicit, " si," quod optari magis quam sperari potest, pacis muneribus frui populo contigerit, sentiet quantis bonis a Cleone fuerit privatus. In Pace v. 450. kii rig OTpaT-qyilv ftovXofxerog fju) ivXXcip//, fj BovXog avrofioXiiv 7rapE- ttivv, icui (oq av KOfffiiuirEpoi yiyvoivro ol fxijiru) ovtzq, $t~t \api- IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 105 £tfrdai Kal (pvXdrretv tov tovtiov 'ipioTa, Kal ovrog iariv 6 KaXog, 6 ovpdvwg, 6 rrjg ovpaviag Movcrrjg "Epw£" o t)£ HoXvuviug, 6 7raV^///ioc, ov ZeI EvXafiovfiEvov irpootyEpziv oig av Trpaatyeprj, u7riog UV T7)V fJLEV 7]g dv e^oi (HXrurtTL, ao(prj kX^teu 7rdXig. 11 how they might be," &c. The following examples are taken from Matthiae. Eurip. Heracl. 975. ovk cert tovtov offTig dv KaraKrdvoi. Thucyd. II. 39. Kal ovk ecttlv ote E,Evr)Xacrlaig dirEtpyoniv nva 77 fiadrffjiarog rj faa'/zaroe, o fjtrj Kpvcpdiv dv tiq ruiv 7ro\£/itW iZutv io^eX^Qeit}. 106 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av In both passages the particle is manifestly to be taken with the verb, not with the relative. Not oaTig dv "whoever," but, o(ttlq " who," dv Karanrdvoi " would kill." Plat. Euthyd. 274. E. rods Se fxoL e"l7tetov TroTEpov TT£TTEtr) Trap' vfxiop fxavddvEiv dvvaiad* dv dyadov 7roifjaai avdpa fiovov rj Kal ekeIvov tov fir]7rb) %Et:Eiaaivov • . • Kol tov ovtojq f^ovra rrjg avrfjg TEyvrrg epyov TretaaL lag /cat SifiaKrov rj dperrj Kal ovtol vfxelg eote Trap iov av /caXXtara rig avro jiddoi, if d\Xr]g ; Upon which Heindo'rf thus annotates. Recte ^ddoi, non fxddri : nam, ut hoc semel moneam, quandocunque vocula av ad pronomen relativum pertinet, ut 8g av, on a*, etc., sonent quicunque, quodcunque, etc., subjunctive* modo opus esse puto, sive rectus sit sermo sive suspensus : contra quando dv, uti h. 1. trahi debet ad subsequens verbum, optativam ad hanc voculam requiri. After referring to this note,Matthi8e, whose previous observations are by no means clear, proceeds : "And to mark the indefiniteness more distinctly, Phaedon. p. 101. E, fjieya av floatrjg, on ovk olffda dWiog iriog e/caorov yiyvojievov, r) aETaoypv rrjg l(iiiag ovalag EKaarov ov av fXErda^pi, "of whichever they may partake," Thucyd. VII. 48. f O U Niriag ivofiL^E fiiv ical avrog irovrrpd atyhjv to Trpdyjxara slvai . rdi & EU(ba\ e~l tote Xoyw ovk scpri dirdlyEiv tt)v orpaTidv. ev yap ElMvat otl 'Adrjvaloi ariEiv dv Tig ev Xiyiov 5ia/3d\\oi, ek tovtojv avrovg TceiaEodai* [T)r* Arnold paraphrases " for they who would vote upon their conduct would not be men whose knowledge would be derived, as that of the army was, from having been eye- witnesses of the facts, and not from hearsay ; but rather men who would form their judgment from the invectives of any eloquent orator."] IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 107 To put together passages so altogether diverse, and to explain this use of the optative with Sg aV by saying that it " marks the indefiniteness more distinctly," is surely a somewhat confused method of writing on grammar. If 6g av noirj be " whoever is doing," and vq av Troioi-q be good Greek to convey exactly the same meaning, only so as to " mark the indefiniteness more distinctly," it is at least sur. prising that this latter form should not occur more frequently than we find it. To me, as I read over these two passages, it appears perfectly certain that they are, both of them, instances of the use of the optative in the oratio obliqua, and as such 1 shall refer to them, when I come to treat of that form of expression. Throughout the connection of av with the subjunctive, the learner will observe that it is never the particle itself, but always its combination with some other word, which is construed with that mood. On the difference between con- nection and construction of one word with another, the reader will find some remarks, translated from Professor Hermann, in note C. 108 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av. V — The Particles of Purpose, w'c, iVa, oVwc, etc. The examples given at the close of the last chapter, naturally lead to the consideration of the Attick usage of av with the particles of purpose. Instead, however, of confining myself strictly to the proper subject, I think it better to give the learner an account of the entire usage of these particles in the Attick writers. It will, perhaps, be as well to repeat here the rule above given, for the use of the optative and conjunctive moods respectively. It was laid down that when reference is made to time present or future, for the, at least possible, objectising of the subjective conception, the sub- junctive is to be used, — if otherwise, the optative. The particles tva, oVwe, toe, etc., considered as synony- mous, are placed after a verb, to denote that the action signified by it is performed as a means to the accomplish- ment of something else expressed by a following verb, e.g. 7TOIU) TClvd' OTTIOQ 7TjO/to/XCU. "Iain doing this as a means to buying," i. e. "in order that I may buy." The action signified by the principal verb may be under- stood of either (A) as actually done, or doing (7roiw, Treiroi-qKa), or (B) merely a wish may be expressed that it had been done, the whole expression implying that in fact it was not accomplished. First then of (A). In this case the verb following iva, etc., must be in the optative or subjunctive, the choice between the two being determined according to the following rules. (1) If the time for the accomplishment of the purpose be present or future, the verb by which it is expressed follows in the subjunctive, e.g. Xen, Anab. VI. 3. THE PARTICLES OF PURPOSE (Jc, tVa, 07TWC, ETC. 109 KftciTtaTov ovv ijfuv ojQ rdyiara j3orjdelv rdlg dvZpdaiv OTTWQ ovv EKtivoic jua-^uj/jteda teal firj. K, t. X. Horn. II. E. 127. 'A^\i)v 3' av tol die o^QaXfidv eXov rj Trp\v eirrjev 0(f>p ev yiyvitiffMjg i\fiev Oeov ifie /cat culpa. Lucian, in Lapith. 437. ravrd aoi Trapedefirjv oirwg ^ddrjg. Plat. Gorg. 51.5. B. 'AXX' ov (f>iXoveiKia ye epioroj, dXX' tog dXj)duig flovXofxevog elcevat ovrivd ttots rponov out ce'iv noXiTeveaQai ev V^'tv, el dXXov tov eni^ieXjjaei iifiiiv eXOwv eVt rd rijg -rroXewg irpayfiara rj oTTiog on fieXriOTOi 01 ttoXItcu u)^.tv. (2) If the time for the accomplishment of the purpose be past, the same particles are followed by a verb in the optative, e. g. Tbucyd. [I. 75. tvXa fxev ovv refivovreg irapuMtofiOvv etcciTeptodev, oirwg /.n} layeoiro em ttoXv to ■^ojy.a. I. 109. HamXeur Tre/JTret eg Aatcecai^iova Meydj3v^ov -^py'] f.iaru l^ovTa, o7rijjg eg r//j 'Amcijy eopaXccy TreirrOevTojv tujv YleXoTrovvt](Tiu)v, dir kiyviTTOV dnaydyoi rovg 'Adrjvaiovg* Such is the grammatical rule, and the learner will easily perceive its accordance with what ha* been above stated of the inter-relation of the optative and subjunctive moods. In Greek authors, however, we continually find it violated by the occurrence of a subjunctive where we should have expected an optative. This arises from that dramatick character of the Greek language, which we have already often noticed. The same tendency which leads the narrator to depict as passing before the eye of the fancy the facts of his story, leads him also to depict them as passing vow • A short practical rule, comprehending (1) and (2), is — Render may by the iubjunctive, might by the optative. 110 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE dv. before it. The continual employment of imperfects, and the frequent return, in the course of narration, to the present tense, have a common origin. Instances of this substitution of the subjunctive for the optative abound in Greek. By way of illustration, it will be sufficient to give the following passage, which has been already quoted in the preceding pages. Lys. de Csede Eratosth. 92. e.7T£icri de to Traidiov iyevero r/julv, ?) f^rjrrfp avro idrjXa^ev' 'iva he fit], oxoTe Xoverrdat heoi, tcivhvvevrj Kara rrjg KXipaKog Karafjal vovaa, eyia /.iev dvio hii]TM^r]v ical fxerqi fie rd celrrvov to Traitiiov e(36a, m\ edvcrKoXatvev vVo rrjg QepaTraivqg eTrirrjoeg Xvirovfjievov 'iva ravra 7roirj. — ical eyio rrjv yvvalKa diuevai eKeXevov ical hovvai rw iraidio) tov tltQov 'iva izava^rai KXalov. In a similar way, perhaps, is to be explained the use of the future indicative, after particles of purpose, which is found in both (1) and (2) as a substitute for the optative or subjunctive, and indeed, after o-n-iog is very common. Herodot. VII. 8. Me'Ww £ev£ai tov 'JLXXrjcnrovTOV, arparov eXq.v did rrjg Eu- pioirrig eVt rrjv EXXa'^a 'iva ' Adrjvaiovg Ti/juvprjarofjiai.* * Bekker reads TL/Awpijacofiai. On the contrary, Creuzer's edition retains and defends the old reading. We find in Viger, " Fallitur ergo Thomas Magister, qui ait, 'Iva dxxi Xlys, ovx 'iva £e, concludes by saying, without limitation, "Cum futuro indicativi particulse jstse conjunguntur et in constructione cum prseteritis et cum prae- sente." Matthiae too, in his Greek Grammar, simply remarks, " the future is often found instead of the conjunctive, and, in particular, this is almost the regular construction after ottws." On the contrary, Buttmann, after giving the rule for joining the particles of purpose with the optative and con- junctive, says further that "the conjunction oVajs, when it refers to the future, has either the conj. or the fut. indie" Rost is of the same mind. — THE PARTICLES OF PURPOSE u>g, lva, oirtog, ETC. Ill Lys. Eratosth. 413. ETrefiovXevEfTde oirojg fxrjr dyadov fjtr)c)£V ^(piaeade, iroXXuv te ev^eelg eaeatiE. Demosth. Cherson. 93. TrpaTTE-ai Ze kcu 7rapa Kpiridv, oloi te flvai 01 tto\\o\ rd fxiyiara BCjea e^epyd^eadai, 'iva oloi te y\E\ov trdpoidev ikkiT&P fiiov, TTOlv EQ £,EVY\V (TE yttlav ifC7T6fl\l>ai t yEpo'iv xXEipaaa ralvh, Kavaaojaaodai (povov, oirujg Baviov ekekto rrj rod' quepa rvfxfiov irarpaiov koivuv Ei\i]\toc f*Epog. Electra is addres*ing her brother, whom she believes dead. DJnareh. adv. Demosth. 9. Avolv yap BdrEpov t\pr]v avrovg era dirrj\\dyf.iEOa tovtov tov Srjfjiayojyov. "In order that we might have got rid of and now be rid of this demagogue.'' The force of the past-perfect in such combinations is easily perceptible. It is however but little employed, the past-aorist being substituted for it. Indeed, even in direct narration, this substitution is by no means uncommon. The past-perfect, it is to be observed, conveys all which is conveyed by the past-aorist, and more; and whenever this "more" is of no great importance to the sense, the less adequate form may harmlessly be made use of. So in English; for example, " I went away when he arrived:" " had arrived " would manifestly be the more strictly i 2 116 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av. accurate expression. The aoristick form recommends itself by its greater lightness. Before proceeding farther, it will be convenient to draw out the whole usage of the particle #m*c. "07T(og stands to vug in the same relation with that borne by oariQ to riQi OTtoiog to ttoIoq, odsv to iroQev, and the like, the latter member of each pair being used in direct, the former in dependent interrogations. Every reader of Aristophanes is familiar with such passages as Equitt. 126. AH. evravd* eveariv avrog ojq dTroXKvrai. NI. Kal 7rd>c ; AH. ottioq ; NI. " And how?" DE. " Do you ask how?" So, " how am I able ?" would be 7ra>c o\6q tI elfii, but " I wonder how I am able." Equitt. 211. rd fxev \6yi ahdWei fxe, davfj,d£C, Iva, 07TWC, ETC. 117 That sometimes from the savage den, And sometimes from the darksome shade, And sometimes starting up at once In green and sunny glade ; There came and looked him in the face An angel beautiful and bright ; And how he knew it was a fiend, This miserable knight ! And how, unknowing what he did, He leapt amid a lawless band, And saved from outrage worse than death The ladye of the land ! And how she wept, and clasped his knees; And how she tended him in vain, And meekly strove to expiate The scorn that crazed his brain j And how she nursed hiin in a cave ; And how his madness went away, When on the yellow forest leaves A dying man he lay."* Dr. Johnson gives in his explanation of the word hoiv — "8. In an affirmative sense not easily explained ; that so it is; that— M Thick clouds put us in some hope of land, knowing how that part of the south-sea was utterly unknown, and might have islands or con- tinents — Bacon." Plat. Charmid 163. E. &pa n)v ruiv dyaduiv irpa^iv rj iroir)} tekvcjv hrjr o\pig i\v E^ifjEpog fiXdaTOva o^iog e(3Xo:gt£ ttpogXevggeiv ifxoi, ov Srjra rolg y e/xoigiv 6(f>daXfio~ig •kote. Trach. 328. ffi ovv idadu), kcli rropEVEffdit) orkyaq OVTIOQ 07TWQ rj^tffTa f K, T. X. Hence is easily understood the use of o7rwe (and of wc which is more common) to strengthen superlatives. From the use of ottojq in the passage last quoted, the transition is very slight to that which occurs Soph. Philoctet. 622. ovk olh' iyio tclvt. dXX' eyw jiev elfi eVe vavv' Grj aov rd iraiducd icai on tog ay £, r}, ftov\r)oQt, edv trip ye Xa/3ijre fXE KCll jUl) EKtyvyiO VfJLUQ. The learner should bear in mind that av always intro- duces the notion of chance, possibility, " as may or may not happen," into the sentence. Hence it will easily be appa- rent that in " I know not how I am to disbelieve you," vol he \iyovri. ovk ex w ottvq aVtg t6v(? iyto fj.ETrjXdov iv^Utog fiopov tov firjrpog. " Ostendite velamen, ut videat Sol, is ut miki, si forte, testis adsit in judicio. Nam expansum velamen Sol non potest non videre, judicium autem nondum ita certo imminet, ut tam con- fidenter de edendo testimonio loqui possit. Itaque tag tcfy dicit, quia hoc ipsum certo consequuturum intelligit ut videat Sol ; sed tog av fjidprvg waprj, quia id sic tantum vult, si opus aut necessarium sit. Ita tog sine av dictum invenitur apud eundem poetam S. ad Theb. 633. XO. nXvovrsg deoi Sucaiiog Xirdg ijxag ev teXoW tog 7roXig tvTvyr\, k. t. X. " Choeph. 733. A'Lyiardov f) Kparovaa rovg Isvovg kuXeIv oirtog Tartar dvioyEV, (og aa(p£ffr£pov dvijp aV dvfipug ttjv VEayysXTOv (party iXdiov TrvQr)Tai njvds* Pers. 694, Agam. 1302, Choeph. 765, 769, Eum. 616, 632, 641, 774, Suppl. 328, 492. Cum particula av autem, " Prom. 8. roiaa^E rot dfiapriag ag, 'iva. ottojq, ETC. 123 Choeph. 18. UvXdcrj (TTadtjjfiev EKwohiov, tog av aa(f)u)Q /jLciduJ yvvaiKdv rjriq rj()E irpoffrpoin]. 11 554. Suppl. 502. 527. Omnibus his in locis, qui attendere voluerit, facile intelliget, cur vel addita vel omissa sit particula. Juvabit duo exempla ejusdem fonuae considerare. In Choeph. 437. ifiaa^aXiadri £e y\ tog rocT tiSrJQ. " Debuit hie omitti av, quia sensus est, hoc te scire volo. Sed in Suppl. 937. 'AAA' (t)Q TO$ tlSjJQ EVVETTli) (TatyEffTEpOV, patet hunc sensura esse, scias licet. Sic in Prometheo 823, CUm OTTbJC, oVwc o av eihrj fjiy fjtdrrjv xXvovad fiov. " Aristoph. Plut. 1 12. av o' u>q av EtcfJQ vera, nap' rjulv fjv fiiyjKt yEiii0V ovk av arpacpeirjv, wg av r/g oiog rcep el. " so long as you be." Philoct. 1313. Kal Travkav 'LaQi rrjgSe ^yittot ivrv^eiv votrov j3upelaQf (og av ovrog rjXiog ravrrj fiev a'tpy rrjSe & av dvvr) ttoXlv. Professor Hermann renders wg av " utcunque" in both passages. If the learner has carefully gone through the preceding observations, he will be the better for the following sum- mary of them ; if not, I warn him that he will most pro- bably be very much misled by it. f'lva where — whereby — in order that. -J oVwc bow — as — that — in order that. \wg as — how — so that. ("Ira av wheresoever. 07rwg av howsoever, as-so-ever ; — in order that perchance, in order that if so be. (og av as-so-ever — (in the poets) so that perchance, so that if so be — so long as. f am doing ^ • have done ' I { ,. , )■ it in order that this may take place. ^was doing J rtva 7re7roirjKa J 07r it in order that this might take ph 'lya yevoiro ravra {yevoiro ravra oirwg-^ ykvryrai ravra {.yeyrjaerai ravra ETTUIOVV ETToir)iag TuvT>]irt ri noirjaei. I believe this construction is to be explained by considering the dV to refer to the whole following sentence ; e< 2' fa/i- vt)ixr)v .... tovtiov being the protasis, and ovk av Eiravo^v ri TToirjaet the corresponding apodosis. This will appear more clearly by removing the condition and the par- ticle. We then have the simple assertion, ovk e-rravo^jv SuZtu)v w'c opBioq avToig to. oiofxara rctTtU, ewe dirtTretptidrjv, k.t.X. "it was not until I made trial that I was for ceasing from going through, etc." The proposition is changed from a categorical to a conditional, by the prefix of the particle dv, which is understood as applying to the whole of it. How this is, will be the more intelligible by consider- ing that the literal translation of ei c' lyLt^vi'i^r]v ovic ay eVavd/iijv SieZiwv big ttoe d-e7reipddr}v t %» r. X. is " if I remembered on this supposition I icas not for ceasing to until I made trial, etc." And there is really not the smallest grammatical reason for making any alteration in dirnrtipddT]v t when by the prefix of a* to enavofiTjy the categorical is converted into a conditional.* In an exactly similar way is to be 1 explained Plat. Gor?. .506. A. 'AXXci per o), u) Topyiu, teal avroq rjceue /ueV av KaXXuXel Tovry en CteXeyo'/if/r, eu>£ avrtp rr\v rov 'A^0/ovoc aVtcwK-a pfjOtV dl'Tl, r. t. X. except that in this la*t sentence no particular condition is expressed or implied, and therefore citXtyo^v aw will best be rendered " I could with pleasure have gone on con- versing." The similarity between these and such passages as the following, has been already remarked in a little pamphlet, • See note (A) at the end of this treatise. 130 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av idoloclastick of a certain very unsubstantial reputation for sound scholarship. Plat. Men. 86. D. 'AW' el fxev eyio f]px o,/ > <*> Mskov, fxrj fxovov ijiavrov dXkd teal aov, ovk av icrKeypd/jieda npoTepov, eire dtdaKTOv sire 01 didctKrcv r) dperrj, irplv 6 ri earl Trp&rov e ^Ttjcrafiev avro. To which may be added as another example, lb. 84. C. Otei ovv av avrov irporepov ewi^eiprjffat (r]Teiv tf fiavdqveiv tovto o a)£TO eldevat ovk et^w'c, irplv elg dnopiav Karen eg ev ^yriadfievoQ fjirj eldivai, ko.1 eiroBriae to elMvat. But I must venture, though with great diffidence, alto- gether to differ from the learned author of the pamphlet above alluded to, when he gives as a similar example, Demosth, in Leptin, 486. 'Xpijv Toivvv AeTTTivrjv /Jirj Trporepov ridevat tov eavrov vofj.ov, 7T p l v tovtov eXvare ypa^dfxevog. The absence of the conditional particle in this last sentence seems to me to make an entire difference between it and those above quoted from Plato. My own opinion is, that the substitution of eXvire for \vaai is a mere inaccuracy. The corresponding impropriety in English, " before he an- nulled," instead of " before annulling," is so common as to be almost the regular mode of expression. With the above passages may be compared also such as Plat. Charmid. 171. D. el yap y§ei 6 outypojv a re ydei Kal a jxt} y$ei dva- fidpTrjTOi av tov fiiov ^ie^wjuev avTol te Kal ot aWoi TrdvreQ, oooi v(f y/iuiv ijp-^ovTO. For the use of these particles, with or without dv. fol- lowed by the subjunctive, as I have nothing to add to, or remark upon Professor Hermann's observations, I shall give them in his own words :— IN CONJUNCTION WITH npiv AND Eug. 131 " Sophocles Aj. 741. tov dvdp' U7rr]vca Tevxpog EV^odtv (Treyrjg /irj "Id) TraprjKEiv, np\v irapuiv avrog rv-^i]. " Significabat enim Teucer, se certo venturum esse. Simil- limus locus est in Trachiniis v. 604. didovg v£ rovhe, typd? onojr furjcelg (3pOTiHv keivov 7rapoidev d/j.(pihv(TETai \poi, fill?? uxpETal viv \Lr\Tt av, quod esset, priusquam forte amiserit, sed omisit oV, ut diceret, turn demum, quum amisit. Comparari potest cum his illud Autiphontis p. 619. (11. §. 29.) ol 5' etti(jOvXev6}ievoi ovcev 'iaaai T?p\v eV avru> tooi t<3 koxA y rj^rj, Kal yiyvwv EGTCEi, ofjoitp OfAOtov, rj cpdaaaa ^"X^ no 7/' KfXl Traaqg rfjg t,vyyeveiag tov Ovfiov dyiXaaaptvri Koifiiay. At caussa non in gravitate et dig- nitate orationis qmerenda, sed in iis verbis, unde haec pendent : 6 yap cr\ fjivOog 17 \6yog /; 6 tl ypi) Trpogayoptveiv avrov, ex 7ra- Xuilov Upewv e'iptiTai aag Odvio, non item eioq dv ddvoj, quod potius ei conveniret, qui non ita propinquam sibi putaret mortem esse. Quare vereor ne, quod legitur in Rheso v. 613. 6'doQ. Sed afFeramus ex- empla. Sophocles Ajace v. 55k. iv rw (ppovslv yap prjhev rjdiffrog fiiog, e(oq to ya'ipsiv fccu to \vrrE~iaQai pddyg* " Omisit particulam, quia haac inevitabilis est hominum sors, ut discant quid gaudere sit et dolere. In eadem fabula v. 1 182. vpslg te pr} yvvalKEg dvr dvhpwv rcsXag TTpogkaTaT , aXX' dprfysT, sgr iyio /.joXw rd^ov psXrjdEig r; r ev vvktX (ppovricivv pepog, tjtol irpog dvZpog rj tLkwv (j)OJJov/jLevrj. " Multo magis autem apta est haec ratio, ubi de re praesente, ideoque certa, sermo est. Homerus Iliad. \p. 4-6. eVft ov /u* en cevrepov wde 1i,er aypg KpaBirjv, 6ot ravra 7tpiv ae KeXevcrau 7r0ll)(T(i) ) ov 7roir)ffU) ravra npiv q.v KeXevffrjg. , ~ s \ KeXevaeiQ. priusquam iubebis. 7 7roinau) ravra irpiv I * . , r • • i_ L • r ' r [av KeXevaeiag. priusquam jubere potens. J (seldom found). irplv av is not used unless a negative, or something equi- valent, precedes. Of irplv with the optative, Ellendt writes (Lex. Sophocl.) " cum optativo non aliter nisi in obliqua oratione legitur, et vel ita, ut dicta sensave alicujus ipsa memorentur aut ex mente alicujus pendeat optativus ille ex- plendae sentential principali adhibita secundaria constitutus." This rule indeed is quite in agreement with the nature of the mood. I have spoken already of the strangely misleading system IN CONJUNCTION WITH 7Tph> AND e(OQ. 137 of tense-nomenclature adopted in the common grammars. Nowhere, perhaps, is its absurdity more manifest than in its application to the dependent moods. The optative can never refer to time present, nor the subjunctive to time past, and yet the grammar talks gravely of a present optative, and an aorist (by which it means — or at least allows very many of its readers to mean — a past) subjunctive. The nomenclature of the moods, if less absurd and mischievous than that of the tenses, is yet not greatly to be commended. The indicative, I. e. mood of declaration, is continually used where no de- claration is made — in interrogations, for example, and in conditionals. The optative has very many uses with which the expression of a wish has no concern, and has, moreover, quite as good a claim to the name of subjunctive as belongs to the form by which that title has been exclusively assumed. Every state, whether of action, suffering, or being, is con- ceived of with or without reference to some subject thereof, determinate or the contrary : if without such reference, the word expressive of it is an infinitive, — if with the reference, it is a finite verb. The conception conveyed by a finite verb may be entertained by the mind, either objectively or sub- jectively — either as of an actual existence, or merely an existence thought of. To conceive of a thing as an actual existence, it is not at all necessary, be it observed, to believe or declare that it actually exists ; it is enough that the mind chooses to assume such existence in determining the form in which it will present to itself the object of its own contem- plation. To make my meaning clearer by examples, el ytv-q- aiTaL is " if it shall actually come to be — assuming that it will really and objectively take place;" idv yivriTui is, "if peradventure it should come to be," in which there is no assumption at all that ever actually it will be. In like manner, 138 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE CLV Soph. (Ed. R. 1074. jirj 'k rfjg ffLionrjg r^scT dvapprj E,et KaKci is to be translated, " I fear that she will, — that there will be an actual giving vent to, etc." Eurip. Bacch. 367. TLevdsvg cT oTTiog fir} ttevQoq eiffoiffei Sofiotg role erolffi, KaS/jie, k. r. X. " Sic est dictum," writes Professor Hermann, " ut cogi- tetur, illatum iri luctum a Pentheo, ac proinde videndum esse, quomodo id irritum reddendum sit." Perhaps in English, the difference between elffoiffei and elffcpepy may be preserved, by rendering the former " that he shall not," the latter 11 that he may not." I have already * given a table of the objective verbal forms, marking those possessed by the Greek language. The subjective mood, under which name I would include what are commonly termed the optative and subjunctive, is very fully supplied, except in so far as one set of forms serves for reference to present and future time, — an arrangement how- ever which will not, I think, on consideration, appear in- convenient. The infinitive possesses perfect, imperfect, and aoristick forms not referring in particular to time past, pre- sent, or future, and moreover an aorist referring exclusively to time future, with respect to that of the conception de- noted by the principal verb The annexed table will give this whole classification at one view, marking at the same time what forms are deficient in the Greek language. Before quitting the subject, it may be proper briefly to explain some uses of the optative, in accordance with what has been above said of its nature. And first, of the expres- sion of a wish by means of it. * Above, p. 7. (p. 13 Si Finite Verbal Fermsi Definite Objective Present ZuirVfo. Impe rfect < Past &€lttvovv. Future deficient. Present fafcim'nKa. Perfect Past (dedartvtjK)/. Future, deficient. ! Present -deficient. Past (?((7Tif/(ra. Future rti'Kvyjaut. Present <>r\ Imperfect Future Past Ylt Or i bfim Definitk Suh'ectun ( (fKVotnv. ?. Perfect (Future Past tacvfJKWfu. Infinitive Definite Aoristick (Present or I ., HKvrjcn* tutun Past foannjtratfu. Imperfect deasvtw. Pe i -fct -I bebernvr/Kivai. Indeterminate bcncvmrmt. Future ccnzvtjanv. N<>! having formal reference to ;< subject. IN CONJUNCTION WITH TTplv AND tug. 139 Than a mere wish, nothing can be further removed from a conception of the thing wished for as in actual objective existence. A subjective form is accordingly employed for its conveyance. That the optative is preferred to the sub- junctive may be probably explained by considering that the former does not, and the latter, setting forth from the present as a ground, does contain an implication of the possible objective realization of the subjective conception. This may perhaps appear the more probable from noting that in the corresponding English forms " may I but effect it," implies the hope, and therefore the possibility, that it will actually be effected; while "might I but effect it" has in it, formally at least, only the pure wish. Another use of the optative, which it may be well to men- tion, is in what is called the oratio obliqua. The subject- matter of all our conceptions must be the phenomena either of matter or of mind. Sometimes, however, a part of these is conceived of not directly, but, like a picture within a picture, as a portion of the conceptions of another. We assert that in the conception or belief of another * such a thing takes or took place, or is conceived of, thus and thus. In this case, if the conception so formed has reference to time past, the verb conveying the predication of it may be of the optative form, when otherwise the indicative or dramatick subjunctive must have been employed. Lys. in A go rat. 180. fierd ce ruvra QrjpcifjiErrig eirifiovXevwv rw rrXrjQei t<5 vfxerepa) chaardg Xeyei, on idi> avroi' tXjjade ire.pl ri]c eipijirjQ 7rpe ~6\iv iXa-TuJaai /ji]cey' o'ioiro ce (and he thought, he said) teal oXXo rt dya&ov irupd Xaxthatfiovluv Trj iroXei evpriaeaBai. * Or of ourselves considered a? our own objects. 14-0 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av Aristoph. Nub. 144. 'Avrjper apri Xaipetyuivra JjOJKpdrrjg \pvXXav, oiToaovQ dXXoiTO Tovg avTrjg ttoSciq. Soph. Trach. 681. Kai /jlol ratT r}v npoppriTa, /cat rotavr elptx)v% TO (JHXpfXClKOV TOVT CLTTVpOV ev ixvydiQ (riofetv ifxe, eiog dv dpTi^piaTOv dpfioaai/xi nov. Philoctet. 547. e<)o'£e fxoi jjirj alya, irplv (ppdaaifii cot, tov ttXovv iroieiodai, k. t. X. lb. 610. Kai rav0' oKiog riKOva 6 AaipTov tokoq tov fxdvTiv elirovT, evOlwg vTviayero Toy dvZp 'A^atoig Tovhs SrjXojcreiv dyiov' o'iolto [lev jua'XtcQ' ekovo'mjjq Xa/3u)v' el fit] dtXot ft, dtcovTa' k t.\. Lys. Agorat. 25. icJeovTO dvTov ttclvtI Tpoirto direXQeiv 'AdijyrjBev, Kai avTOt etyaaav ovvEKTrXEWEioQai, eiog ra irpdyfiaTa fcaraorutrj. Plat. Charmid. 164, A. a'XXa Xiye el Soke! ri col larpog vyid Tivd 7roiuiv oJ^iXifxa Kai iavTui ttoieiv Kai ekeivo) ov Iu)t o. lb. 156, A. OpTl aXrjg vXX6v n, E7ro)^rj hi Tig ettI t<5 (papfiaKf e'irf, jjiV eI fiev Tig eirySot a/ja Kai XP&TO avToj TcavTairaoiv vyid ttoioI to g av to the optative in the sense of 'iva, we suspect that the passage in question is borrowed from Simonides, or one of the other lyric poets. Admitting, however, wg av 7roradeir)v to be a genuine Atticism, and to signify ut volar em, it will not justify oirug Tzpoad-woi^i av in the passage before us, although it might justify oVwe av TrpoGeiTroifii. When the particles ojg av or oiriog dv signify in order that, they must not be separated by the verb which they govern. See Eurip. Iph. A. 171. with the remark of the Quarterly Reviewer, vol. VII. p. 455. If all the copies read TTpoffeiTroifjL av, we would propose TrpoaeiTroijitv without hesi- tation," A literal translation would make the use of the optative in most of these passages appear very simple. We say in English either " may it but happen to me to satiate my wrath, that so Mycenae may know, etc." in which some degree of hope is involved, or " might it but happen .... so that Mycenae might know, etc." which conveys a pure wish. The Athenians always make use of the latter mode of expression in the former part of the sentence, and there- fore, most naturally, frequently also in the latter. Thus the passage from Alexis is literally rendered, " might become an eel that Callimedon might buy me." In Aristoph. Av. 1337, perhaps «Jg might be translatedybr or since, and the particle be taken with the verb "might I become an eagle, for I would fly, etc" It is surely a loose way of IN CONJUNCTION WITH wptv AND cwc 143 talking to say with Dobree, on " JSsch. Suppl. 902, K\$oig av el xpavaeiag, i.e. k\civoTovv % this latter expression also serving to convoy " I should not at some past time have been in a state of illness." Hitherto, there- fore, we have nowhere found any need for the introduction of the past-aorist into the apodosis. when reference is had to pro sent time. I proceed next, to point out in what case this net «I doet arise. And first let me draw the reader's attention to the difference between the three following expressions : (1.) If Cleonymus were to come I should not do thus. ei eXOoi 6 KXtuJwjjioe ovx tti ravra 7roiTJaatfjii. ( c 2.) If Cleonymus had come I should not have done thus ft TTpoarjXdtr 6 KXewi'VfAoi: ovk av itroirjaa. (3.) If Cleonymus had come I should not now be doing thus. ft TrpoaijXdev 6 KXewvv/Jog ov\ «r ltoiovv. Entirely different from all of which is 1.) If Cleonymus had come I should not do thus, — wherein en-oiow would be improper, because there is no reference to the time during which the doing is in progress : what more natural then, than to employ the tense which stands in the same relation * See above, Chap. i. It must be observed that such sentences, though in power conditionals, are in form categoricals. 146 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE lir. to iiroiow as does *' I should do " to " I should be doing "— and this tense is eVotrjca. It is true that el 7rpov V7roCr]fiarii)v Crjfjuovpyoc, tin e k p i v a r u uv cijrrov aot, on (TKVTOTOfuog. rj ov fjuvbuveig o>c Xeyio ; " Just as he would if he were an artificer of shoes, — he would reply to you, I suppose, etc." lb. 453. C. (TK07ret yap, el aot ooku> Ci^uiwc uvtpwruv at. uJanep uv ti ervy-^avov ae epioruiv rig ian tujv £u)ypu(f)U)v Zev&g, el fioi etneg, on 6 rd £v vvv drj, olov 7ro~iov jJiepog earlv dptd/xov to apTtov ko\ e'nrov dv oti, k.t.X. " If you were asking me (which you are not) I should sat/, etc." If this be not a correct translation, I ask how the English which I have given could be rendered into Greek. Soph. Antig. 755. el fir) TraTrjo rjad' e'nrov av a ovk evtypovelv. " I should say." For other examples, see Matthiae, Gr. (Jr. 508* It is true that elrrov dv may also be rendered " I should have said," and so in all the other passages referred to. But this is manifestly no proof that the translation here given is incorrect, from the simple consideration that in every such occurrence of " should" or " would," " should have" and "would have" may be substituted for them. Since, then, analogy would lead us to expect that e\oir\aa dv would sometimes be rendered " I should do," and there are actually passages found, in which this ren- dering agrees best with the sense to be conveyed, I conceive the correctness of it to be sufficiently made out, especially as the paucity of examples wherein it takes place, is perfectly intelli- gible from the known character of the language in which they occur. THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE at. 14-9 NOTE (B). In the third chapter of the foregoing paper, I have laid it down that >' .pounded to be " I shall never be in the case in which 1 shall praise, be placed in the condition to approve of" (" Ich nie in den Fall Kommen, Die veranlasst and in den Stand gesetz wer- den, eine Vermablung mit zwei Frauen gut iu heissen)." But such explanations can establish nothing. If they are correct, one cannot but be surprised that so few instances are found to which they can apply, especially among a people " qui amant omnia dubitantius loqui." With this paucity of examples, the tion can be decided only by some one possessed of a very nice and subtle perception of what an Athenian could or could not have said. In the absence of such a decision* I should prefer to suppose that the passages in which ay is found with Hermann and Porson, as referred to in Mr. T. K. Arnold's excellent Greek Exercise Book, are both against the union of a» with the future. And who can be more competent to gave an authoritative opinion in luch a case ? 150 THE ATTICK USE OF THE PARTICLE av. a future, where not corrupt, are inaccurate. What seems to strengthen this view, is the non-occurrence, noticed by Dawes, of the particle in combination with the future optative.* As, however, I foresee that many will object to this method of getting over a difficulty, by calling the construction in which it is found an inaccuracy, I shall endeavour to lessen the apparent improbability of an Attick writer's having been guilty of solcecism, by citing a few cases of like transgression from classick authors of our own country. "Nor is it easy to conceive that, in substituting the manners of Persia to those of Rome, he was actuated by vanity." — Gibbon. " The landlord was quite unfurnished of every kind of provision." — Sheridan's life of Swift. " Nor is mankind so much to blame, in his choice determining him."— Swift. " By this institution, each legion, to whom a certain portion of auxiliaries was allotted, contained within itself every species of lighter troops and of missile weapons." — Gibbon. " The Bishop of Clogher intends to call on you this morning, as well as your humble servant, in my return from Chapel Izzard." — Addison tp Swift. ' ; The sun upon the calmest sea, Appears not half so bright as thee." — Prior. " Tell the cardinal that I understand poetry better than him," [meaning better than he does]. — Smollet. " I have set down the names of several gentlemen, who have been * So far as J have observed, the sole use of this form is in the oratio obli- qua, where in the oratio recta the future indicative must have been employed. If this remark be well founded it may be substituted for Dawes' "temporibus praeteritis significatione futura semper subjici," which is at all events but an awkward way of explaining such passages as — Equitt. 771. \prjjULaTa ttXeIct' (iTrtSei^a ov (ppowrl^wv twv idicoTvov ouoVvos, si v ^ fJ/ Of.il/ .... 7.1 OF TTOTf 0iKcless for all purposes 'except that of distin- guishing between words which differ in meaning, but agree in orthography. In every word there can be but one predominant tone to which all the others are subordinate This is acute accent, and is indicated by a stroke drawn downwards towards the left {'), e.g. KOf.ifuu. In comparison with the one thus marked, the other syllables have a depressed tone, grave accent, marked by a stroke drawn towards the right ( v ) : this latter, however, except in one case, is not indicated in writing, e.g. drji>aL, rt- rvj Xopwj , \a/3ov, \r}deig, etXri^uic, XrjcpOdJ-rjg-fj-uifjiev, etc. vpoayei'ov, ettiXciOov, iardg, dt^ovg, hiiKivg. * To distinguish it from o\koi In t And active in the words tltri, i\Bt, evpi, Hi, \nftt, being uncompounded. 156 OF GREEK ACCENTUATION. (3) All Attick futures, and those of the form termed the 2nd future, are penspomena, e. g. reXdH, j3a\w, copw. (4) In verbs compounded with prepositions the temporal augment retains its accent after composition, e. g. avr\TtTov, izpoatiyov. (5) Monosyllables, being oxyton, are, after composition, paroxyton, e.g. enrobe, eWcr^e; but if perispomenon, they preserve their accent, e.g. a.7roSdi, except 7rapciax<*>> /caraVxw, etc., from i<* v * napujv, etc., which may be learned by observation. III. Of the Accentuation of Novns. ( 1 ) The termination of the genitive and dative, when long and accented, is always circumflexed. Except The genitive sing, in words of the Attick 2nd., eg. vew. (2) In the 1st declension the genit. plur. is always peris- pomenon, e. g\ fxovadjv, veaviutv. Except (°0 XP^ ffTU}}/ > ETrjaritov, dtyvuV) yXovvuv. (b) the fem, plur. of adjectives and participles when the same with the masculine, e. g. rdv dXXior yvvaiKuv. (3) Monosyllabick nouns of the 3d accent the ult. of the genitive and dative, e g. &C, kopul, KopciKog K-opaich but, from the necessity of the case, kopdkior. (5) Pures * of the 3d in evc>t w e> w, and many in vc, are oxyton, e.g. fiaaiXevg, 'AxiWevq, aldoic, rj-^w, \ir\vQ. (6) Mutes in p and k sounds are always, if possible, accented on the penult, e.g. avXa'i, tepaii, k-rjpv^ vwv r\\iE~ig r\\x(i>v rffjuv rj/Jtdg. (tv aov (TOi at \ (T • See Ellendt, Lex. Soph. s. v. lyu>. t Enclitick. See below, p. 160. OF GREEK ACCENTUATION. 1.39 V. Accentuation of Adverbs and Prepositions. (1) Adverbs derived, by changing v into c, from the genitive plural of nouns in oe, nearly always retain the accent of their primitive, e.g. [JlOVOQ, H<)VU)V, flOVUtC, KttXoQj KClKuiv, KaXdJQ. (2) Adverbs in lov and an are always ox y ton, e.g. irapa- aradoy, 'EWrjviari ; Except evIov. (3) Dissyllabick prepositions when placed before the case they govern, are always oxyton; when placed after it, always paroxyton. Except (a) clyd and cid, which arc always oxyton. (b) airo in the sense of " away from." (c) when used for verbs, e.g. -rrdpa for irdpean, tin for 'Lireon. VI. Atari icks. The following have no accent : o, jj, of, at (of the article). etc, e& ek iv (but ZvL), tl (if), w'c, (as), ov, owe, ov-% (but o^t). But a»c for ourwf, or, when placed after the principal word, for " as," e.g. deds uq. So ov or ovk when the de- nial is direct, like the English " no," or when placed after the verb negatived. VII. Encliticks. (l) Sometimes a word occurs in such close connection with a little word following it, that both are pronounced as one : ttciti)p fxov, pronounced 7rarj]pfxov, tralpog t\q, pronounced 1(50 OF GREEK ACCENTUATION eralpotrrig. By this circumstance various changes in accentua- tion are occasioned. (2) In order better to comprehend these changes, let us de- nominate the acute and circumflex over the foremost syllables on which they can rest, the fore-accent, — over the final syllable, the hind-accent. The acute over the penult may, therefore, be named the middle-accent. Fore-accent, Middle-accent, Hind-accent. arvXXoyog, avXXoyov, kaXog, KTJlTOe, KTJ7TOV, Ka\ov. (3) The little words alluded to, are the following pronouns: fxov, jJLoi, fxe, aov, vol, iag ; the indefinite pronoun rig. ri, some one (always written with the grave accent to distinguish it from rig, ri, who?), the present indie of el/nt and \xd //oi/ vuXXiaroY toi Zai/uovoc rivog fieydXov enrh- oiKijfia. Additional Rules. Oxyton are (1) Verbals in roc, e.g. dnparur. (2) Compounds of izouiVy dyew, ovpuc t tpyor,* ybttv and the root irny. e.y. davfxaroiroiog, \o\uyog, wuXovpog, xaXtcovpyog, rpayucog, dpfxaroirqyog. (3) Adjectives in rjg, tcpog, oroc, i)\og> rjpog, u>\og, vog, itcog, (denoting capability,) e. g. vetcpog, eIcootoCi irortjpdg, aiyrjXog, a/zaorwXdc, docpaXrjg, dvarpEirTiKog. (4) Nouns, derived from verbs, in r), a, or rqg (of the * " It is to be remarked, that words compounded with *pyo are oxytone when they signify a bodily action, thus we have Xidovpyo's, ytcopyos, etc. : but proparoxytone, or, by contraction, properispome, when they denote merely an operation or habit of the mind ; and thus we have iravovpyos, iravrovpyos, etc. Exceptions to this rule are found in padiovpyos, Xi-rovpyo?, Xiwpyo's, which last is a synonym of Xirovpyos, and derived from Xsok, not from Xlws, as Hermann suggests (ud Soph. Aniig. 1261.)" — New Cralylus, p. 393. 162 OF GREEK ACCENTUATION. 1st); aoc; and eog of the 2nd); and ag-afiog, e.g. Trpoatyopdy vKOftovr}, 7roi.T)Tris, Xaog, icovXeog, 6eog. (5) eVra, oktio, itcarov. Paroxyton are (1) Diminutives in imcoc and, being trisyllabick and dac- tylick, in toy, e.g. a^r\KiaKog, irailiov. (2) Adverbs in cucig and tKa,e.g. oXiydiag. (3) Verbals in eog (4) Adjectives in rieig, w^c> and vXog. (5) ivvea, and [ivpiot, (for " numberless/') But to most of these rules for oxytons and paroxytons there are exceptions. Especially compound adjectives in r)g (not so frequently those derived from compounds) often retract the ac- cent to the penult. Adjectives in mog, derived from substantives, are prope- rispom., e.g. yf.vvoubg, 'Adrjvaiog, but iraXawg, from ndXai. Except Skaiog, and fiiatog. Compounds of yeXwg are always proparoxyton, e.g.fiXo- yeXu>g. This accent must be explained, like that of ttoXcwc, noXeojv, by supposing the last two syllables to have been pronounced as one. Observe : vofxog, law. vonog, pasture ground. Xovrpov, bath water. Xovrpov, a bath. fiiog, life. fiiog, a bow. dfjfxog, people. fyfiog, fat. ftporog, gore. flporog, a mortal. Ov/Aog, thyme. dvfxog, the soul. fit] AND jir) OV WITH THE INFINITIVE. 163 fit] AND jxr) ov WITH THK INFINITIVE. * (From Professor Hermann on Viger.) Ae^ot/v-a d-n-odayely, metuo mori, indicates dread of death. Ae'dot/oi p) d7rodav£~iv, metuo non mori, indicates fear of being prevented from dying. But since the Greeks, after words and expressions which have a negative object,* very often repeat the negation, we find also such expressions as UIolko. ^rj dirodaveiv equivalent to SiZoim fir) diroddvio, i.e. metuo non mori. On examina- tion, however, the exact meanings of these forms of expres- sion seem to differ in the following manner : (a) de^oiKa dnoQavtiv conveys simply the general sentiment^ I fear death, metuo mori. (b) Z&oiKCL fjLTj aTroOaveiv expresses the same sentiment as directed towards a particular object ; indicates fear of death as now impending, just as Ithouca fir) aTroddvu), metuo ne moriar. Similarly, (a) deBouca fxr] dwodaveli', metuo non mori. (/3) SeSoiko. /ut) ovk d-KoQaveiv, metuo ne non mortar. It is probable that a Grecian speaker would have marked the difference between (6) and (a) by a stronger emphasis on the negative particle in the latter case. From those the object of which is negative, must be carefully distinguished such expressions as have an affirma- tive object, but are negatived by the adjunction of a negative particle, or otherwise, e. g. dlvvaroQ elfxi, ov\ oioq re el/j.i 9 and the like. Here the seemingly redundant prj of (b) is inadmissible ; but when the part of the sentence containing * Those words are said to have a negative object which point to the negation, omission, or non-fulfilment of some action ; such words e. g. as SldoiKa, EvXafiovfiai, dpvovfxai, &C. M 2 164 firj AND flij ov WITH THE INFINITIVE. the affirmative object of the principal verb, itself contains a negative, e.g. ov\ ol6 Q r ' elfxl fir] Xiynv, if the negation is absolute and decided, fir] alone is used, as in the example just given, which can be translated only, non possum yon dicere. So, jEsch. P. V. 106. aXX ovre ffiyaiv ovte fir] aiyq.v Tvyaq olov re fjioi ravd' eariv. "nee tacere nee non tacere hanc sortem possum." If the negation is dubitative, or less decisive, w ov is used, e.g. Xeil. Cyneg. V. 31. eariv ovv dBvvarov fir] ovk eivai, eV toiovtojv '£,vvr)pfioafievov, "urxypov, vypov, vTcepe\a£ Oavdv would contain indeed the same sentiment, but more strongly expressed, " nihil mihi tale accidet ut turpiter moriar." The death of dis- honour, nothing that can happen to me will ever bring me to that. FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. REMARKS UPON CERTAIN PASSAGES OF THE NEW CRATYLUS. " The results of all that writers on the philosophy of mind have collected, with regard to our thoughts and the constitution of our intellectual powers, may easily be summed up so far as they accord with our own convictions. Every man has one primary belief, — that he exists, and that there is something without him full of realities animate and in- animate " The knowledge of his own existence, and the simul- taneous belief in an external world, this is the first act of " Man is, and the world is; there is a here and a there, a me and a not-me : the knowledge of this fact is conscious- ness "Now if language be, as we say it is, the genuine pro- duct of the reason, we should expect to find traces of all these conformations of the mind in the structure of our speech. And so it is. " Our analysis of the Greek and cognate language has taught us that there are two primary elements of speech : A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. 167 the first an organizing element which enters into all words, and which we call a pronoun ; the second, a material element which constitutes the basis of all significant terms which are not pronouns. The pronoun expresses in the first instance the relation of the thinking being to the ex- ternal world, of the subject to the object, of the me to the not-me ; and this is formally put as an opposition of here to there. The first general and vague idea of there is soon split up into a number of modifications, of which the first is a distinction of objects in the there or outward world, ac- cording as they are nearer to or farther from the subject, and subsequently a designation of all the different directions in which they stand with regard to the subject. The pro- noun therefore in its different forms is an expression of the first great fact of consciousness, that we are, and that there is a something without us." * " It is reasonable to suppose that the primitive pronouns would be designations of here and there, of the subject and object as contrasted and opposed one to another. As soon as language became a medium of communication between two speaking persons (and it is not important to consider it before it arrives at this point), a threefold distinction would at once arise between the here or subject, the there or object, and the person spoken to or considered as a subject in himself, though an object in regard to the speaker. We find traces in the Indo-Germanic languages of an application of the three first consonant sounds belonging to this family of lan- guages, namely the three tenues, to denote these three positions of here, near to the here, and there, or first, second, and third pronouns, as they are generally called. These tenues, articulated with the usual short vowel, are the three * " The New Crntylus," pp. 57—59. 168 A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. pronominal elements pa (found in ita-pd, etc.), ka (found in ice, etc.), and ta (to, etc.)" * In here inserting this paper, my object has been not so much to notice what seemed to me a mischievous confu- sion of distinct notions in Mr. Donaldson's statements, as, in doing so, to give, in accordance with my title-line, a first lesson in psychology to learners hitherto altogether unac- quainted therewith. It was necessary therefore to give the foregoing extracts at length, if I hoped to be intelligible to those for whom I was writing. For the sake of the same readers I must add, before proceeding further, that Fa is the usual representation of the original guttural ka, which Mr. Donaldson, as quoted above, gives as the second pro- nominal element ; and that ta-va is the form to which philological researches have been conducted as the earliest vocal expression of the second person thou or thee, the va being a variation of the original tenuis pa, by a difference similar to that between vater, father, and pater, between baron and the Spanish varon, and the like. So that ta-va is literally there-here, or it-me. The confusion of notions with which I seem to find in Mr. Donaldson is involved in the last of the foregoing quotations from his work. It recurs frequently, and is stated in so many words in the " New Cratylus," p. 305, "from the second [pronominal stem] in its two forms Fa and ta-va, we have," &c. Here, as often else- where, we find Mr. Donaldson identifying the general notion of objective nearness, with the peculiar connection between the subject speaking and the subject spoken to. In other words, he identifies the second personal pronoun with the second (it would, surely, have been far better to call it the * New Cratylus, p. 153. A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. 169 third) pronominal or positional element — an element with which it has no connexion whatever, either psychological or etymological, as I hope, in a few lines' consideration, to make abundantly manifest. When it was first suggested, as above quoted, by Mr. Donaldson, I was inclined to smile at the notion of con- sidering language at a point earlier than that at which it " became a medium of communication between two speak- ing persons." Now, however, it seems to me that the learned author's error (if indeed I am right in considering it as such) has been in a great degree owing to, or rather is a natural consequence of, his having neglected this ul- terior investigation. Certainly, as there are in each of the " two speaking persons" certain intuitions antecedent to their meeting, it seems but natural to expect that an ex- amination into the vocal elements also by which these are expressed, should have to ascend above the era of inter- communication. This I shall now attempt to do, and so to set forth for the learner as clearly as I can the successive origin, or rather drawing forth into the light of conscious- ness, of these primary intuitions. First, then, come forth the notions of here and there, arising out of the primary intuition of space, and immedi- ately suggested for distinct consciousness by the occurrence of an object here and objects there, that is, of the me and the its. Immediately after, and rather coordinate with than arising out of the two former notions, occurs that of the near* that is, of course, objective nearness (for the idea of subjectivity has never yet been awakened), and from * I think every one will, on reflection, recognise the near as distinct from, and not a mere modification of the there, however it may, in the commence- ment of thought, have been confused therewith under a common name. 170 A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. the vocal element (ka, ga, Fa), indicative of this objective nearness, come naturally enough, at a later period, recipro- cals, relatives, interrogatives, aud indefinites. The subject cannot indeed avoid a feeling of difference between itself and the objects or its around ; but finding itself here while they are all there, it has hitherto been content to accept this as the sole distinction, to call itself the here, and them the there, and seek no farther. How then does the subject first become distinctly conscious of its own subjectivity ? the case is, I believe, the same with this as with other ideas. They lie hidden within the recesses of the soul until the occurrence of an object, in what way soever, corresponding to them, and are then seen themselves by, as it were, the reflection therefrom of their own light, just as we might suppose a lamp to be for ever pouring its rays into the dark unconscious of their brightness, until from some fitting object they should be back reflected to their source. The subject then becomes possessed of the idea of subjectivity, and thereafter distinctly conscious of his own subjectivity by meeting with another subject, by having, that is, sub- jectivity presented to him as an object. In most cases, probably, the awakening of the idea commences with the first interchange of glances with another's eye. The man finds, to his perplexity, somewhat among the there presenting a strange approach to identity with the here. Heretofore he had been content to find in the con- trast of there and here the entire of that vast difference which he could not but be conscious of between himself and the its around him. Now, however, he has met with somewhat which, as he feels, differs from these its even as he himself differs ; and yet it is not here* but there. His first feeling of embarrasment is indicated bv the name which he attaches to A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. 171 it— the there-here, the it-me {ta-va). But the mental pro- cess cannot stop here. Having been now made to perceive that there is in the me something besides and other than the here, he is led to question himself as to what this additional something may be. Thus, at length, does the idea of the /come into distinct consciousness; the subject has become aware of his own subjectivity by meeting with the, for him, objectised subjectivity of another. Upon the attainment of the I, the thou follows of course. That this, or something much like this, is really the order in which these ideas successively take their places as parts of man's consciousness, may perhaps be thought to derive some confirmation from the known fact that young children, even after they have begun to speak, have not yet acquired the idea of the I, but speak of themselves in the third per- son, e.g. not " I will go," but " Kate will go," not " give it me," but " give it Kate."* The little girl who uses this language, has not yet fully learned to regard herself as a subject, but as an object only, as in fact we all frequently view ourselves, or rather as we always view ourselves when- ever the word me is made use of by us. f A comparison of the Indo-Gennanick languages with one another, places it beyond doubt that the vocal signs for the second personal pronoun thou, and the second numeral two, are but varied forms ol the same word. And, I think, no one can attentively consider the matter without remarking See " Philosophy of Consciousness," Blackwood's Ed. Mag. vol. xliik p. 788. t That me refers to the subject viewed objectively— viewed, I mean, as its own object— may be familiarly illustrated by the recollection that nobody ever, in answer to the question "Who is there?" replied with "It's I," until the rules of mere formal grammar had compelled him to do violence to his nature. On the contrary, one feels " here is me" to be as unpleasant as '< it's me" is natural and easy. The reason is that in the latter expression the here is objectized, and so made into a there. 172 A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. that the one, two arise altogether from the connection be- tween the person speaking and the person spoken to, a connection perfectly unique. Anybody will feel this, who, while addressing himself to another, will begin to count the people in the room. He will at once feel, I mean, the naturalness of commencing with himself, and proceeding next to the person with whom he is in direct communication, one, two, while all others present will collectively constitute the there or three. Then, out of this connection with the person with whom we are speaking, this feeling of " toward- liness," as, for want of a fitter word, I have termed it in the annexed chart, arise the notions of nextness, duality, and others variously therewith connected. In all which it will be observed, that neither in thought, nor, when we examine them, in the vocal elements, is there any introduction of the guttural or the notions thereto belonging. The guttural we first meet with in the he. Now it appears, on consideration, that although in the he the notions of objectivity and sub- jectivity are combined, the former is greatly predominant, so that it is no wonder that on the one hand an objective vocal element should be employed for the expression of this relation, while, on the other, the element selected is that of the near rather than of the there. Perhaps there may be a seeming inconsistency in saying that the element indicative of objective nearness has been selected, to denote the proxi- mity of the he to the i, a proximity the entire ground of which lies in the subjectivity attributed to an object by the thinker's imagination. But this is merely an early use of the metaphorical language inevitable in all speech relating to other than sensible things. 'Eyu) (or rather o-e, ta-va) is the first metaphor. I shall now, I hope, at least after reference to the annexed table, be thought to have fully made it out that ta-va and ( P 472). A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. 173 Fa are utterly distinct, and belong to notions having no immediate connection with one another. Here, there, and near are all objective. / is, of course, purely subjective, and thou, in its strongest form, that of speaking to another person, and at the same time looking him in the face, or rather in the eyes, almost equally so ; while he, though not at present subjective, is subjective in posse, and precisely by the attribution of this potential subjectivity is distinguished from the other external objects, viz. the its, around us. Mr. Donaldson has confused the objective pronominal or posi- tional near, with the subjective personal pronoun thou. This he would hardly have done, had he noted that while in psychological order thou is clearly prior to he, and is ac- cordingly fitly termed the second personal pronoun; it is equally manifest, both from psychological considerations and from the succession of the organs with which they are severally uttered, that ta is prior to ka, the there to the near. So that the proper arrangement of the positionals is, (I) pa, &c, (2) ta, &c, (3) ka, &c. And the etymological con- nexion of the second personal pronoun with all its derivatives is entirely with the first and second of these positionals, while with the third it has nothing whatever to do. The occasion of Mr. Donaldson's oversight is probably to be found in his use of the term pronouns instead of pronominals (which he employs very rarely), or positionals, for the vocal represen- tatives of the primary notions of locality. It is most difficult to avoid confusion when old words are employed in new senses, especially in senses akin to those wherein we have long been familiar with them. T have only to add, that for these remarks, I hope I may be held sufficiently excused by the consideration that the greater the value of any work, the more is the need that its errors or oversights should be dis- covered and corrected. Whereupon, not without a hope 174 A FIRST LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. that this little book, duly perused, may have been of use — I would gladly write, of some considerable use, to them, I now bid my readers very heartily farewell. THE END. METCALFE AND PALMER, PRINTERS, CAMBRIDGE. ;«£ km >>!* TV! LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 003 036 315 2 s*.'» ■ «&1 > > LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 003 036 315 2 •