HANDWORK IN WOOD Sy WILLIAM NOYES, M.A. Assistant Professor. Department of Industrial Arts Teachers College, Columbia University NEW YORK CITY The Manual Arts Press Peoria, Illinois i"^' aO COPYRIGHT WILLIAM NOYES 1910 g^CI,A•i?3:^i4 Oo ntY students past present an6 future a token of gratitude for belp anb inspiration FOREWORD This book is intt'iided jJriniarily for teacliers of woodworlc, but tlie aiitlior hopes that there will also be other workers in wood, profes- sional and amateur, who will {ind in it matter of interest and profit. The successful completion of the book is due chiefly to the un- tiring assistance of uiy wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, avIio has made almost all of the drawings, corrected the text, read the proof, and attended to numberless details. Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and suggestions in the text made l)y the following persons : Mr. Chas. W. Weick of Teachers College, and Mr. W. F. Vroom of Public School Xo. .5, of Xew York City, for revision of Chapters IV and \ on tools and fastenings. Mr. Clinton S. VanDeusen of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, for revision of Chapter X on wood finishing. The Forest Service, Washingtou, D. C. for the originals of Figs. 1. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 1), 1(1, n, 13, 17. 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, and 54. The Xew York State Forest Fish and Game Commission for the originals of Figs. 12, 14, 15, and 47. T. H. McAllister of New York for the originals of Figs. 1(3 and 20. The Detroit Publishing Company for the original of Fig. 6. The B. F. Sturtevant Company, Hyde Park. ^lass., for the orig- inal of Fig. 57. Doubleday, Page & Co. for the original of Fig. 3(». Mr. Louis A. Bacon, Indianapolis, Ind., for the claui])ing device shown in Fig 255. Sargent & Company, Xew Haven, Conn., W. C. Toles & Com- pany, Chicago, ill., The Berlin Machine Works, Beloit, Wis., A. A. Loetscher, Dubuque, Iowa, and the Stanley Eule and Level Co., Xew Britain, Conn., for electrotypes. Allis Chalmers Company, Milwaukee, Wis., Clark Brothers, Bel- mont, X. Y., The M. Garland Company. Bay City, Mich., The Pres- cott ComiiaiiT, Menominee, Mich., for illustrations of sawmilling machinery. And most of all, I wish to acknowledge my obligation to the nu- merous writers of whose books and articles I have made free use, to which references are made in the appropriate places. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE General Bibliography 4 I Logging ? 11 Sawmilling 30' III The Seasoning and Measnring of Wood .... 45. IV Wood Hand Tools 51 V Wood Fastenings 123 VI Eqnipment and Care of the Shop 136 VII Tlie Common Joints 151 A^III Types of Wooden Strnctnres 183 IX Principles of Joinery 203 X Wood Finishing 209 Index 224 GENERAL BIBLIOGRArHY Adams. Heiuv. Joints in \Vn<>(I-^Vurh■. London: GO Queen Victoria St. 1894. Alexander. Jerome. 77/r (Inidiiifi and I'sv of Glue. Wood Craft, 5: 1G8, Sep. '06. Bailey. Charles H.. .1 »s7»(/v of Manual Training Equipments. Manual Train- in;/ Magazine. ():82. dan. "05. Barnard. Charles, Tools and Maehincs. N. V.: Silver, Burdett and Co. 1003. Barter. S. M.. Woodn:ork. London: Whittaker and Co. 18!t2. Benson. \\'. A. S., Elements of Handicraft and Design. London: Macmillan and Co. 18'J3. lirannt. W. T.. i'ai)iler, (lilder and Varnisher. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird & Co. 18!t3. JSrunekeii. Ernest Xorth Ameriean Forests and Forestry X. Y. : G. P. Put- nam's Sons. ISiMl. Clark. R. L. Varnish and Fossil h', mains. London: ('has. Letts & Co. No date. Compton, A. G.. First Lessons in W ood n'orki ng. X. Y.: Ivison, Blakeman. Taylor and Co. IHSS. Crawshaw. Fred D.. I'rotilenis in Furniture Making. Peoria. 111.: The ;\lan- ual Arts Press. l!l()(i. Disston. Henry, and Sons. Handbook for Lumbermen. Philadelphia, Pa. Dunlaj). Frederick. Kiln-drying Hardwood Lumber. Wood Craft. 0: 133, Fel.. "07. Ellis. George. Modon Fred T. The Carpenter's Slat S(iuare and Its I'.^es. X. Y. : In- dustrial Pnhlishin-- Co. 1880. Hovey-King, .Mvin, The Lumber Industry of the I'acifie Coast. Review of Iferieus. 27: 317. .Mr,. "((3. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 5 Hulbert, W. H., The Lumber Jack and His Job. OiUlook, 76: 801, Ap. 2, '04. International Correspondence School, The Bnildiiui Trades Pocketbook. Scranton, Pa. International Textbook Co. -ind edition. 1905. International Eneyelopedia. Lac-I nscct, VaDiisli. X. Y. : Dodd, Mead and Co. 1902-1904. Jones, J. E., Lumberhui in tJic XorfJiii-c.si . ('osmoiioJitan, 15: 03, May 1893. Larsson. Gustaf, FAemenhuji S/ui/d mi, I WliUtUiKj. N. Y. : Silver, Burdett & Co. 1906. Maire, F., The Modern Wood Finisher. Chicago: Press of the Western Painter. Munn, M. J.. Great Industries of the I . S. — Lumber. ('osmopoUtan, 37: 441, Aug. '04. Murray, M. \V.. Froblems in \VooS01. April 2, H)4. LOGGING. ers and clerks. Here the books and accounts are kept, and here is the "van/" stocked with such goods as will supply the immediate needs of the lumber jacks. Fig-- 3. Winter 'Loirgimr Camp. Itasco County, Minnesota Before Avinter sets in the main road is built, Fig. 15, p. 1^, very carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway siding, or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be floated. This road has to he as wide as a city street, 25 feet. The route is carefully chosen, and the grade is made as easy as possible. Much labor is spent upon it, clearing away stumps and rocks, leveling up with corduroy, building bridges strong enough to carry enormous loads, and otherwise making it as passable as can be; for when needed later, its good condition is of first importance. This main road is quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road. At inteivals alongside the main road, small squares called sJiid- loays are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks, "skids," are laid at right angles to the road. On these the logs, when cut later, are to be piled. Back from the skidways into the woods the swampers cut rough, narrow roads called dray roads or travoy roads,- — mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of horses to pull a log thru. All these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. The tools commonly used in logging are shown in Fig. 4. When every- thing is ready for felling, the "fitter' goes ahead marling each tree to be felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a notch on that side. Then come the sawyers in pairs. Fig. 5. First 10 HAXDWOKK IX A\ OOD. Q w BILL HOOr\ QAPHT MOOh, WCOQE CROSb-COT SAW fl CROWBAR. Fijr. -•• Tools used in hogifing. tlicy clioi) a (Ico)) n'Msli on tlic side of tlie tii-e toward wliicli it is to J'all. and tlicn from the o]i|)o>itc :^id(' Ix'.u'iii cuttino' wiili a long, 'riittlc-tootli. crosscnt-saw. Tln' saw is a long, Hcxihlf i-il)l)oii of steel, witli handles so allixcd to cacli end that they can lie icnioxcd easil\'. The cut is made on the pnlling stioke. and hence the keid' can he \rv\ nai'iow. As soon as the saw is well within the ti'Uid<. the sawyers drive iron wedges into the kei'f hehind it, ])artly to keep tlie weigid of tlie trunk' fi'om hinding the saw, and partly t(t direct its fall. 'I'heii the saw is judleil hack and forth, and the wedges LOGGING. 11 driven in farther and farther, until every stroke of the maul that drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree. Just as the tree is ready to go over, the saw han- dle at one end is unhooked and the saw pulled out at the other side. "Timber I,"" the men cry out as a warning to any working near by, for the tree has begun to lean slightly. Then with a hastening rush the top whistles thru the air, and tears thru the branches of other trees, and the trunk with a tremendous crash strikes the ground. Even hard- ened loggers can hardly keep from shouting, so impressive is the sight of a falling giant tree. All this seems simple enough in outline, but the actual execu- tion requires considerable skill. Trees seldom stand quite vertical, there is danger of lodging in some other tiee in thick woods, and it is therefore necessaiT to throw trees quite exactly. Some men become so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the Fig-. 5. Felling Red Spruce with a Saw. Adirondack Mountains, New York. Fig-. 6. Sawing Logs into Lengths. 12 llAXDWOKK IX WOOD. ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul. On the other hand, serious accidents often happen in falling trees. ]\Iost of them come fjom "side winders," i. e., the falling of smaller trees struck by (he felled trees. After "falling" a tree, the sawyers mark olT and saw the trunk into log lengths. Fig. 6. paying due attention to the necessity of ;i\iii(ling knots, forks, and rotten places, so that some of the logs are eighteen feet, some sixteen feet, some four- teen feet, and some only twelve feet in lengi:h. Meanwhile the swam]>ei's trim otf the liranches, Fig. 7, a job requiring no little skill, in ordei' that the trunk may l)e sliaved close ])ut not gashed. Fig. 7. Trimming' off Branches of Spruce Adirondack Mountains, New Yoriv. I'Mtr- ^- llaulinfT Spruce Logrs to llu- Ski '•on the di'ive" men often work fourteen hours a day, a good part of the time up to their waists in ice water. Their boots are shod with "caulks." or Fiy. "4. ri.TiiKintr Grounds. LOGGING. 17 Fi?.l5. I'he Sleigh Haul. Fig-. 16. Sacking the Rear. - 18 UAXDWORK IX AVOOD. spikes, to keep them fiom slipping on the logs, and they carry either pike poles or peaveys, Fig. 17. The latter are similar to cant-hooks, except that ,1 the y have sharp pikes at their ends. So armed, they have to "ride any kind of a log in any water, to pro- pel a log hy jumping on it. hy rolling it s{|iiiricl fash- ion with the feet, l)y punt- Fig-. 17. hog Driving on the Ausable River. ing it as one would a ca- noe; to he skilful in pushing, pryiiig, and poling other logs from the quarter deck of the same cranky craft."' Altho the logs are carried by the river, they have to be "driven'' with amazing skill and bravery. The climax of hardship and courage is reached when a "jam'' is formed. Fig. 18. Sometimes one or two logs are caught in such a wav as to he locked or jammed ami then soon other logs begin to accumulate behind them, till the wliole river is full of a seemingly inextricable mass. Sometimes these jams can be loosened by being- pulled apart, one log at a time. A hundred men can pull out an amazing nmnher of logs in a day. The problem always is to set free or eut out certain "key'' logs, which lock the whole mass. Following is a description l)y Stewart Edward White of the breaking of such a jam : The Clew were workinu (Icspcrately. Down on tlic heap sonu-wiiero. two- lo<4'S were crossed in such a manner as to locl< the wliole. They son^ht those logs. Thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys into the soft pine: jerking, pulling, lifting, sliding the great logs from their ])laces. Thirty feet below, under the threatening face, six other men coolly ])ickcd out and set adrift one by one. the timbers not inextricably indiedded. From time 1o time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even LOGGING. 19 moved a foot or two ; but always the practised rivermen, after a glance, bent more eagerly to their work. " " * Suddenly the six men below the jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys across their bodies, they jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to shore. * * * Fig-. 18. Log- Jam. Adirondack Mountain*, New York. In the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself from one particle to another thru the center of the jam. ■" "" "" The crew redoubled its exertion, clamping its peaveys here and there, apparently at random, but in reality with the most definite of purposes. A sharp crack exploded immediately underneath. There could no longer exist any doubt as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. Then in silence a log shifted — in silence and slowly — but with irresistible force * * * other logs in all directions up-ended. •» * * Then all at once down by the face something crashed, the entire stream became alive. It hissed and roared, it shrieked, groaned, and grumbled. At first slowly, then more rapidly, the very fore-front of the center melted in- ward and forward and downward; until it caught the fierce rush of the freshet and shot out from under the jam. Far up-stream, bristling and formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together, swept forward. * * * Then in a manner wonderful to behold, thru the smother of foam and spray, thrvi the crash and yell of timbers, protesting the flood's hurrying, thru the leap of destructioii, the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the shore. Sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm, and spe- cial rigging devised to let the men do"\ra to their dangerous task and more especially to save them from danger when the crash comes. 20 HANDWORK IX WOOD. Fi- Lolt- eaeh, and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one hundred fifty tons. The logging of such trees requires special appliances. Until recently all the improved methods were in forms of transpor- tation, the felling still being done by hand with very long saws, Fig. 25, l)ut now even the felling and sawing of logs in the forest is partly done l)v machinerv. Fig. 2i). Hauling Big^ hogs by Donkey Enyme. 24 HAXDWOUK IX WOOD. To work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine mounted upon a truck whicli can be talcen readily from place to place. As the maximum power recjuired is not over ten-horse-power, the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. The saw can he adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence is used for sawing into lengths as well as tor felling. FiiUiiKj Iirds. Since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is such that if the impact of its fall he not gradually checked the force with wliicli it strikes the ground may split the trunk, a bed for its fall is preparcy winding the direct cable on its drum, the "turn"' is hauled iri. The retui'U cable is used to haul back the end LOGGING. 25 of the direct cable, and also, in case of a jam, to pull back and straighten out the turn. Instead of a return cable a horse is often used to haul out the direct cable. Signaling from the upjjer end of the skidway to the engineer is done by a wire connected to the don- key's whistle, by an electric bell, or by telephone. Sometimes these donkey engines are in relays, one engine hauling a turn of logs to within reacli of tlie next one, which passes it on to the next until the sidino- is reached. Fig-. 11 SkidiUi at Work. Grant Count}-, Arkansas. Wheic there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley may be stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it. In the South a complicated machine called a steam skidder, Fig. 27, equipped with drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding in ' the logs and then for loading them on the cars. It is itself mounted on a flat car. An improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is widely used both on the Pacific coast and of late in the Lake Su- perior region. It is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. Its most unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow flat cars to run underneath it. This feat is accomplished thus : A device, which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. Then steel legs, which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which 26 IIAXDWOTiK IX WOOD. are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties. The tniclv of the locomotive is then folded np under it out of the way and cars can run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of clearance. The derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs l"'iy letting the steam into the cvlinder which contiols it, one log is voIUmI over on the cai'iiage and the next one held. The log on the carriage is at once "dogged. "" that is, clamped tight hy iion dogs, the carriage is set for tlu' proper cut. and moves forward to the saw which cuts otf the first slab. The carriage is then •\uigged" or reversed. This operation off- sets the carriage one-eighth of an inch so that tlie log returns entirely dear of the saw. In the same wav two ov three 1" Ixiai'ds are taken otf. the dogs are then knocked (Uit, and the log canted o\(M- half a revolu- tion. This is done by means ol' the "steam nigger." Fig. 4tl, a long, pel pcndiculai' toothed bar which comes up thru tlie lloor, engages the log. and lui'ns it over till the sawn side comes up auainst the knees of the cai'- Im','-. 3'i. Logr-Stop nnd Loader. By IftiiiiK- sleain into the cyliiiiler, the projectiiiy arm revolves, rolliiiir one loi,' over onto the car- riatre and liol(linf,>- the iie.xl one till wanted. SAW^IILLING. 35 riage. The log is dogged again and a second slab and several boards are taken off. The log or "stock" as it is now called, is 10", 13", l-i", or 16" thick; the "nigger" then gives it a qnarter-turn, leav- ing it lying on a sawn side. It is dogged again, and all sawn up except enough to make a few boards. 'This last piece is given a half- turn, bringing the sawn side against the knees, and it is sawn up. Each board as it is sawn off is thrown by the board-flip- per or cant-flip- per," Fig. 41, on to the "live rollers," which take it to the next process. Another 1 o g conies on the carriage a n d the process is repeated. The saw-car- riage, Fig. 43. i s propelled forward and back by a pis- ton running in a long cylinder, into either end of which steam can be turned by the operator. As the sawn boards fall off' the log, they land on "live," that is, revolving rol'ers, which carry them along at the rate of 800 to 350 feet a minute. Stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever Avanted. as at the edger, Fig. 43, or the slasher. From the live rollers the Fiff. 40. 'i he Steam Nig-g-er. The toothed bar turns the log over into the desired position. A "cant" is a squared or partly squared log. 36 HANDWOUK IX AVOOD. Fig-. 41. Steam Caiil-Flipper. Tliis machine is used to move cants, timber or lumber trom live rollers to g^angs, band resaw mills, or else- where. The timber is dis- charged upon skid rollers, as shown, or upon transfer chains boards are trans- ferred automatically, Fig. 44, by chains running at right an- gles to the rollers and brought within reach of the edger man. About one- third of the boards of a log have rough edges, and are called "waney." These must go thru the edger to make their edges parallel. The edger man works with great speed. He sees at once what can be made out of a board, places it in position and runs it thru. From the edger the boards are carried to the trim- mer, which cuts the length. The lumber- man's rule is to "cut so that you can cut again." The so-called 16' logs are really Id' 6". Tbe trimmer. Fig. 45. now trims these boards to Ti' 1". so that if desired they can still be cut again. The trimmer may be set to cut at any desired length according to tlie specifications. The l)oards are now graded as to quality into No. 1, No. 2, etc.. Fig. 46. and run out of the mill, to be stacked up in piles. Fig. 47. Big timbers go directly from the saw nil the rolls to tlie back end of ihc mill, where the first end is trimmed liy a butting-saw or cut- ofF-saw which swings. Fig. 48. The tiinhcr is then slioved along Fig. 42. Log--Carriag-e, holdinir ,|uarler<-d ,)t\ (lend rolls illld tllC last did lofT in position to saw. SAWMILLING. 37 Fig. 43. Double Gatigr Ed^er. This machine trims olJ the rough edg-e^ of the "waiiey" boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine. r ft: ^''-'^^-^X ■■- n Ji^'*% Fig-. 44. Automatic Steam Transfer for Timber, Lumber aud Slabs. The boards are carried along- by tlie cylinders, C C C, until they hit the bumper, B. This movement admits steam to the cylinder, CY, which raises the revolving- chains or skids, which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required. 38 HAXDAVORK JN WOOD. •a>, ^»^,^A^^^f^•■ Fiy. 45. Automatic Gang Luinber-Tiimmer. It may be set to cut autoiiiatically to any desired length. Fig. 4(1. Lumber Sorting Slied, Virginia, Minnesota Fig. 47. Logs and I.unitir. SAAVMILLIXG. 39 Fig-. 48. Cut-off-Saw. This saw trims the ends of timbers. trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as sjieeified, and shoved ont. One of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its speed. From the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes racing out of the mill, hardly I more than a minute may havo ela]:sed. A large part of the problem of sawmilling is the disposal of the waste. The first of these is the sawdust. In all first class mills, this together with shavings (if a planing-mill is coml)ined) is burned for fuel. It is sucked up from the ma- chines and carried in large tubes to the boiler-room and there is mechanically supplied to the fires. The slabs, once considered as waste, contain much material that is now utilized. From the live rolls, on which all the material falls from the main band-saw, the slabs are carried off by transfer chains, and by another set of five rollers to the "slasher," Fig. 50, which consists of a line of circular-saws placed 4' 1" apart. This slasher cuts u]) the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets. Fig. 49. Or they can be resawn into IG" lengths for shingles or fire-wood. From the "slasher" the 4' 1" lengths are carried on by travel- ing platforms, chains, etc., to the lath-machines, Fig. 51, where they are sawn up, counted as Fig-. 4<'. Ten saw (.anfr Lath Bolter. This ^ ^ niachuie cuts up material leng-thwise sawn, bound in bundles of 100, imoiaths. trimmed to exactly 4' in length and sent off to be stored. The shingle bolts are picked off the mov- ing platforms by men or boys, and sent to the shingle-machine. Fig. 52. where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to 40 HANDWORK IX WOOD. Fig. 50. Slab-Slasher. This machine cuts up the slabs into leiijjfths suitable for lath or fence-pickets. SAWMILLING. 41 be packed. Shingle-bolts are also made from crooked or otherwise imperfect logs. Of what is left, a good part goes into the grinder or "'liog,'' Fig. 53, which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for Figr. 51. Combination Lath-Binder and Trimmer. With this macliine tlie op- erator can trim the bnndles of lath, sinipU' bj' tilting' the pacKingr frame over from him causing the bundles to pass between the saws, thereb3- trimming both ends at one movement. Fig. 52. Hand Shinsrle-Machine This machine is used in Sawmills in which it is desired to utilize slabs and trimming's by sawing shingles therefrom, or to saw shingles from prepared bolts. fuel to suiDplement the sawdust if necessary. Band-saws make so little dust and such fine dust that this is often necessary. If there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the scrap-pile, Fig. 54, or to the "consumer," the tall stack shown in Fig. 37, see p. 33. Boards ordinarily sawn from logs are "slash-sawn," i. e., they are tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. By this process, only the central boards would be radial or "rift" boards. But, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. They warp less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly. Yel- low pine flooring that is rift- sawn is more valuable than slash-sawn, because the edge of the annual rings makes a more even grain. Fig. 55. Where slash-grained flooring is used, the boards should be laid so that the outside of each board will be up in order that the in- ^'^,:^l Edging Grinder or Hog Itcutsany ^ kind of wood into coarse or fine chips ner rings mav not "shell out."' suitable to be handled by <^ - chain conveyor or blower. 42 HANDWORK IX WOOD. In sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first ^'quartered" and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is desired. There are various methods of cutting quarteied logs, as illustrated in Fig. 5G. In making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they be cut radially in the log. in order that the staves be as non-perme- able to water as |)0ssi'ble. Fig-. 54. S. lan-l'ili-. OsciUa, Georgia. Fiff. 55. Slash Grain and Conib-(iraiii Flooring SAWMILLING. 43 7- /a Fig-. 50. Methods of S .wing Quartered Losrs. SAWMILLING. Eeferences : * Trout, Gassier 11: 83, 184. Woodcraft 5: 5(3. May '06. ■For giiioral l)il)liogiapli_v see ]\ 4. 44 HANDWORK IN WOOD. Chapter III. SEASONING. The seasoning of wood is important for several reasons. It re- duces weight, it increases strength, it prevents changes in volume after it is worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay. Decay can also he prevented hy suhmergence and hiirying, if hy so doing logs are kept from fungal attacks. The piles of the Swiss Lake dwellings, which are in a state of good preservation, are of jn'ehistoric age. Wood under water lasts longer than steel or iron under water. Rut for almost all purposes wDod has to l)e dried in order to he preserved. The wood is cut up, when green, to as thin pieces as will be convenient for its use later, for the rate of drying- depends largely upon the shape and size of the piece, an inch hoard drying more than four times as fast as a four inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast as a ten inch timber. There are various methods of seasoning: (T) Natural or air-seasoning is the most c(unmon, and in some respects the best. In this method, the wood is carefully and reg- ularly piled in the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as pos- sible from sun and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides of the boards, Fig. 47, see p. 38. To accomplish this, "sticking" is employed, i. e., strips of wood are' placed crosswise close to the ends and at intervals between the boards. In this way the weight of the superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warpirrg. The pile is skidded a foot or two off the grourrd and is protected above by a roof made of boards so laid that the raiir wi'l drain off. Fire-Avood is best dried rapidly so that it will check, making air spaces which facilitate ignition, but luml)er needs to be slowly dried in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the change of form and the wood check as little as possible. Good air- drying consumes from two to six years, the longer the better. 45 46 IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD. I (•?) Kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid pro- cess than air-seasoning and is now in common use, Fig. 57. Tlie drying is also more complete, for while air-dried wood retains from 10^/c to 20^, of moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than S^f as it comes from the kiln. It will, however, reabsorb some iiioistuie from the air. wiien exposed to it. The wood of conifers, with its very regular structure, dries and shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of broad- leaved trees, and hence is often put into the kiln without previous air-drying, and dried in a week or even less time. Oak is the most diihcult wood to dry properly. When it and other hardwoods are ra])idly dried witlioiit sutficient surrounding moisture, the wood "■case-hardens,"" tliat is. the outer part diies and shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this forms a sliell or case of shrunken, and often checked wood around tlie interior which also checks later, ^"liis interior checking is called lioneycomhing. Hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two to six months. l)ef(U'e being kiln-dried. For the sake of economy in time. t1ie tendency is to eliminate yard-drying, and substitute kiln- drying. Kiln-diying of one inch oak. takes one or two weeks, quarter- sawn boards taking ov.v and a half times as long as plain-sawn. The best method of drying is that which gradually raises the tem- perature of both the wood and of tlu' water which it contains to the |)oint at which the di'ying is to take ])lace. (lare is therefore taken not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture is lieated. This is done by retaining the moisture first vaporized about tlu' wood, by means of wet steam. When the surface is made peinieah'e to moistuii'. drying may take ])lace rapidly. Curtains of canvas aic hung all aiound the lumbei' (Ui the same ])rinci|)1e that windows in newly plastei'ed hiiildings are hung with luuslin. The irioisture is al)sorbe(l on the iniu-r surface of the curtain and evap- orates from the outer >uiface. Improvements in kiln-drying are along the line of moist air o])eration. In common practice, howt'ver, the luoist ail- |)i'inci|)]e is often lU'glei'ted. Tlieic ai'e two methods in opei'ation. tlu' progressive method and the chai'ge method. In the piogressive, the process is continuous, the loads going in at one end ol' the kiln, and out at the other, the temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that in passing fiom the green to the dry end, a load of lumber is first SEASOXIKG. 47 moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. In the cliarge system, the process is intermittent, one charge being removed before a new one is admitted. This gives the best results with high grade lumber for special uses. A modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the combustion of fuel. (o) Small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being boiled in water and then diied. Tlie process seems to consist of dis- solving out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evapora- tion. Its effect is probably weakening. (4) Soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation for air-seasoning. Previous soaking hastens seasoning. Eiver men insist that tindjer is improved by rafting. It is a common practice to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several months before they are '"mined out."" They are eargerly sought after by joiners and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened. Ebony is water-soaked in the island of Mauritius as soon as cut. Salt water renders wood harder, h.eavier, and more durable and is sometimes applied to sliip timbers, but cannot be used with timbers intended for ordinary ])nrposes, as the presence of salt tends to absorl) atmospheric moisture. ( 5 ) Boiling in oil is re sorted to for special purposes, both for preservation and to give strength. For example, the best handserews are so treated. The oil also prevents glue from sticking, the most frecpient cause of injury to handserews. (6) There are a number of "impregnation"' methods of preserv- ing timber, and their piactice is spreading rapidly. Of the various preservative processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chlorid have proved most efficient. The purpose is to force the preservative into the pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting un- der pressure. Such impregnation methods double or treble the life of railway ties. It is now being used with great success to preserve electric wire poles, mine-props, piling, fence-posts, etc. Wood preservation has three great advantages, it prolongs the life of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of species that once were considered worthless. For example, the cheap and abundant loblolly pine can be made, by preservative methods, to take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes. 48 HAXDWOIJK IX WOOD. PKACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOl! STOKIXG LU:\IBE1!. rnder the hasty metliods piovalent in the mill, very little wood conies to the shop well seasoned, and it should therefore he carefulh' stei;idai' sizes are; SEASOlSriXG %" dressed to V2 M" dressed to Vs 1 " dressed to Vs' 1^" dressed to IVs' 11/," dressed to Ws' 2 " dressed to iH' 49 Any of these inay be dressed down to thinner boards, or resawn on a sj^ecial band-saw. In ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted, in the order of thickness, widtli, and length, becanse tliat is the order in which dimensions are gotten out. E. g. : (i pes. quar. oak, ^"x6"x3' 0" 2 pes. qiiar. oak. ^"x7i4"xl5" If a jAece wanted is sliort tlie way tlie grain goes, tlie order wonld be the same, thus: ^"xll" (wide) x 6" (long). That is, "long" means the way the grain runs. It is always safe to specify in such a case. It is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter to the cost for waste. In large lots lumber is ordered thus: 800' (B. M.) whitewood, dressed 2 sides to J4'\ 10" and up. This means that the width of any piece must not be less than 10 ". Prices are usually given per ''M," i. e., per 1000 ft. : e. g. : basswood may be quoted at $40.0(1 per ]M. When thin Ijoards are desired it is often economical to Iniy inch stuff and have it resawn. Some luml)er is also ordered by the "running'" or lineal foot, es- pecially moldings, etc., or by the piece, if there is a standard size as in fence-posts, studs, etc. Laths and shingles are ordered by the bundle to cover a certain area. 1000 4" shingles (=-4 bundles) cover 110 sq. ft. with 4" weather exposure. 100 laths (1 bundle) each }i"xiy2"x4:' 0" cover about 150 sq. ft. There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the widtli and thickness in inches and divide by 12. thus: I"x6"xl5'^12=7>4 feet. The use of the Essex board-measure and the Lumljerman's board-measure are de- scribed in Chapter 4. pp. 109 and 111. 5U HAXDWOKK IX WOOD. THE SEASOXIXG AND MEASURING OF AVOOD. EeFEREXCES : * SEASOXIXG. Fur. Mull.. Xo. 41. pp. .5-12. von Boiilgev. pp. 66-70. 80-88. Scliieiik. Duiilap. Wodii Cntft, 6: 133, Wood Cniff. 0: 31. Nov. '06. Feb. "07. For. Circ. Xo. 40. pp. 10-16, For. Circ. Xo. 13!). Herty. Baiter, pp. 3!)-.53. Afjric. Yr. Bk., 1905, pp. 455-464. JIEASURIXG. Siekels, pp. 22. 29. Building Trades Pocketbook, pp. 335, 340. 357. C4oss. p. 12. Tate, p. 21. 'For general bibliiii>raph3' see p. 4. Chapter IV. WOOD HAND TOOLS. The hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may, for convenience, he divided into the following classes: 1, Cutting; 2, Boring; 3, Chopping; 4, Scraping; 5, Pounding; G, Holding; 7, Measuring and Marking; 8, Sharpening; 9, Cleaning. 1. CUTTING TOOLS. The most j^rimitive as well as the simplest of a 1 tools for the dividing of wood into parts, is the Avedge. The wedge does not even cut the wood, but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow its main body to split the wood apart. As soon as the split has be- gun, the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides bear against the split surfaces of the wood. The split runs ahead of the wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided. It was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained slabs of wood, and the great change from- primitive to civilized meth- ods in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. The wedge follows the grain of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the worker. The edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge and enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural grain of the wood. In general, it nuiy be said that the function of all cutting tools is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite path. All such tools act, first, by the keen edge dividing the material into two parts ; second, by the wedge or the l)lade forcing these two portions apart. If a true continuous cut is to be made, both of these actions must occur together. The edge must be sharp enough to enter between the small particles of material, cutting without bruising them, and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart the two portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may continue. The action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut, for only 51 52 lIANDWOIiK IX WOOD. Wedye Action. Fiyr. t)0 Edtre Action. the second process is taking place, Fig. 59. The split which opens in front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the^ surfaces of the opening are longh and torn. When a knife or chisel is pressed into a i)iece of wood at right angles to the grain, and at some distance from the end of the wood, as in Fig. GO, a (•(nitiiuioiis cutting action is ])revented, because soon the hhide cannot force apart the sides of the cut made by the advancing edge, and the knife is brought to rest. In this case, it is practically only the first action which has taken place. Both the actions, the cutting and the splitting, must take place together to produce a true continuous cut. The edge must always be in contact with the solid material, and the blade must always be pushing aside the portions which ha-\e been cut. This can ha[)i)en oidy Avhen the material on one side of the blade is thin enough and weak enough to Ije readily bent out of the way without opening a, sjdit in fi'ont of the cutting edge. This cutting action may take |)lace either fllong the grain. Fig. (il, or across it. Fig. iVi. The liending aside of the shaving will require less force the smaller the taper of the wedge. On the other hand, the wedge must be strong enough to sustain the Ijending resistance and also to sup- ])oit the cutting edge. In other woi'ds, the more acute the cut- ting edge, the easier the work, and hence the wedge is made as thin as is consistent with sti'cngtli. This vai'ies all the wav finin hollow ground I'az- ors to cold-chisels. For soft wood, the cutting angle (or bevel, oi' l)ezel ) of chisels. gouges and plane-irons, is small, even as low as 20°; foi' hard wood, it must be .greatei-. For metals, it varies from 5-t° for wrought ii<)u to (50° for trun metal. Fig-. 61 Fig-. 62 Edge and W^edge Ac- Edge and Wedge Ac- tion With the Grain, tion Across the Grain WOOD HAND TOOLS. 53 Ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face near- est the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the actual edge. There are two methods of using edge tools : one, the chisel oi- straight cut, l^y direct pressure; the other, the knife or sliding cut. The straight cut. Fig. 63, takes place when the tool is moved into the mate- rial at right angles to the cutting edge. Examples are : the action of metal- working tools and planing machines, rip-sawing, turning, planing (when the plane is held parallel to the edge of the board being planed), and chiseling, when the chisel is pushed directly in line with its length. The knife or sliding cut. Fig. 64, takes place Avhen the tool is moved for- ward oblicjuely to its cutting edge, either along or across the grain. It is well illustrated in cutting soft mate- rials, such as l)read. meat, rubber, cork, etc. If is an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging. That tliis sliding action is easier than the straight pressure can easily be proved with a penknife on thin Avood, or by planing with the plane held at an angle to, rather than in line with, the direction of the planing motion. The edge of the cutter then sHdes into the material. The reason Avhy the sliding cut is easier, is partly because the angle of the bevel with tlie wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely, and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with 'very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut it acts like a saw. In an auger-lht. both methods of cutting take place at once. The scoring nib cuts with a sliding cut, while the cutting lip is thrust directly into the Avood. The chisel and the knife, one Avith the edge on the end, and the other Avith the edge on the side, are the original forms of all modern cutting tools. The chisel Avas at first only a chi])ped stone, then it came to be a around stone, later it was made of bronze, and still later of iron, and 54 IJAXDWORK IN WOOD. Fiii-. 05. Firmer-Chisel. now it is made of steel. In its early foini it is known by paleon- tologists as a celt, and at first had no handle, but later developed into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing, and the chisel for cuts made by driving and paring. It is quite likely that the celt itself was simply a development of the wedge. In the modern chisel, all the grinding is done on one side. This constitutes the essential feature of tbe chisel, namely, that the back of tlie blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel. Blades vary in width fi'om 1 / IG inch to 2 inches. Xext to the blade on the end of which is the cutting edge, is the shank. Fig. 65. Xext, as in socketed chisels, there is the socket to i-eceive the handle, or, in tanged chisels, a shoulder and four - sided tang which is driven into the handle, which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule. The handle is usually nuide of ai)])le wood. The most familiar I'orm is the pniier-clnscl . Fig. (iT), Avhich is said to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the paring-chisel. (See below.) The firmer- chisel is a general utility tool, being suited for hand pressure or mallet pounding, foi' paring or for light mor- tising. Different varieties of chisels are named: (1) according to their uses; as paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortise- chisels, carving-chisels, turning-chisels, etc. The jjtiriiifj-rliisc]. Fig. GG, lias a lumdle speciallv slia])ed to give control over iis movements, and a long tbin l)lade, wbich in the best I'orm is bev;'led on tbe two edges to facilitate gi'oovin». Itr-r Fi«-. <>(' Fifi-. I)" Fifr. 08 Paring'- Framing-- Mortise- Chisel. Chisel. Chisel. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 55 ■ ■ m 3 ■ ^M W-^ iml I % ^ P ■"^ ■ i HHIk* ^^ 1 It is intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use with a mallet. The framing-chisel. Fig. 67, is thick and heavy and was formerly much used in house framing. It is usually made with the handle fitting into a socket on the shank, in order to withstand the shock of heavy blows from the mallet. The mortise-chisel. Fig. 68, is made abnormally thick to give the stiffness necessary for levering the waste out of mortises. (2) Chisels are also named according to their shapes : as, skew-chisels, corner-chisels, round-nosed chisels, etc. The angle of the bevel of a chisel is determined Ijy the kind of wood for which it is most used, hard wood requiring a wider angle than soft wood, in order to support the edge. For ordinary work, the bevel is correctly ground to an angle of about 30". The chisel is a necessary tool in making almost every kind of joint. It may almost be said that one mark of a good workman is his pref- erence for the chisel. Indeed an excellent motto for the woodworker is : "When in doubt, use a chisel". In general, there are two uses for the chisel (1), when it is driven by a push with the hand, as in paring, and (2), when it is driven by blows of a nuillet, as in digging mortises. In relation to the grain of the wood, it is used in three directions : (1) longitudinally, that is with the grain, called paring; (2) laterally, across the surface, called cutting sidewise ; (3) transversely, that is across the end, called cutting end-wood. 1. Paring. To remove shavings rapid'y, the chisel is held flat side up, the handle grasped by the right hand, with the thumb pointing toward the shank, and the blade held in the left hand, as in Fig. 69. Held in this way great control can be exerted and much force applied. For paring the surface as fiat and smooth as possible, the chisel should be reversed, that is, held so that the fiat side will Fig- 69. Paring- With a Chisel. 56 IIAXDWOBK IX WOOD. act as a guide. Held in tins way the rliisel has no equal for paring except the plane. Paring with the chisel is the method used in cutting sto]) chaiufers. (See p. 185, Chapter VIII.) By holding the cutting edge ob'iquely to the direction of the grain and of the cut, the etfective "sliding cut" is ol)tained. Fiff- <>-!:. Fiff. 70 ChiseliiifT Out a Oadi (First Step"). Fi-r. 71. Chiseling' Out a Dado (Second Step). 2. In siaring. A tvpical foiui of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out a dado, Fig. TO. The work may l)e ])laced im the bench-hook or In-Ill ill the \ise. with the side up fi'oui which the gi()(j\'e is to be cut. 'I'lii' chisi'l is pushed dii'ectly across the gi'aiu, the blade being somewhat inclined to the upjjcr surface so as to cut off a corner next the saw keif. After a few cuts thus made with the chisel incline(l alternately both ways, the ii. In clilscliiif/ ciid-irood, it is well, if |)ossil»'e, to rest the piece to he triiMiiied Hat on the cutting board or on a ])iece of waste wood. Work done in this way is often calle(l ])er- liendicular chiseling. Fig. "]'!. The handle is grasped in the right hand. Fit;-. 72. Perpendicular Chisclint WOOD IIAXD TOOLS. 57 thumb up, while the blade of the chisel passes between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, the back of which rests on the work and holds it in place. As the right hand pushes the chisel downwards the thumb and first finger of the left hand control its motion. When chis- eling it is well to stand so as to look along the line being cut. Incline the chisel to- ward you, and use the near part of the cutting edge for a guide and the farther corner for cutting, pushing the handle both down and forward at the same time, Fig. T3. Or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with the thumb of the left hand at the same time that the right hand ])ushos it down- ward, the effective sliding cut is obtained. End chiseling requires considerable force and therefore onlv thin shavings Fig-. 73. chiseUng- End wood. Fig-. 74. Pariiijtr a Corner Round the work down tight with a handscrew to a perfectly smooth cutting board. It is often advisable however, to set the piece upright in the vise and pare off thin shavings horizontally. Fig. 74. In rounding a corner, both this and per- pendicular chiseling are common meth- ods. In both cases care should be taken to cut from the side toward the end and not into the grain, lest the piece S]ilit. Fiar. 75. In horizontal end par- should be cut off at a time. Or the mallet may be used with caution. In order to leave a smooth surface the chisel must be very sharp. Even then the lower arris (corner) is likely to be splin- tered oft'. This can be prevented l)y clamping Fig-. 75. Rig-ht and Wrong- Ways of Perpendicular ChiseUng-. 58 IIAXDUORK IX WOOD. ing. Fig. 74, in order to prevent splint- tering, it is well to trim down the arrises diagonally to the line and then to re- duce the rest of the end surface. In all hand chiseling, it is a wise ])recaution not to try to cut out much material at each stroke hut to work back gradually to the line. A typical foim of mallet chiseling is the digging of a mortise. Fig. 76. (Sec alsii ]). .'iii.) The chisel is held perpen- dicular ill the left hand, while the right hand drives hlows with the inal'et. The haiumer should never he used. (See mallet. ]>. iMi. ) By rocking the chisel and at the same time giving it a twisting motion while the edge is kept on the wood, the edge can he stejiped to the exact ])]ace desired. Care sliould he taken to work hack to the lines gradu- ally, to cut only ])art way thru from each sidi' (in the case of a thru mor- tise-and-tenon ) . and to keep the cut faces perpendicular to the surfaces. In sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the hack be kept peifectly flat. The l)evel is first giound on the grindstone to an angle of about 20°. and great care should he taken to keep the edge straight and at right angles to the sides of the blade. After grinding it is nec- essary to whet the chisel and other edged tools. (See jilso under oilstones, p. 121.) First see that there is ]»leiity of oil on the stone. If an iron box be used, Fig. 7T. the oil is obtained sim- iih l)v liirning tlie stone ^. .. ,, , „, „., ■^ ^'-' ^^ '■' ting- a Plane-Bit. Fig. 76. Mallet Chiselin^r. The Piece is Clamped Down on die Bench With the Bench Hoi>U. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 59 Fig. 78. GrindiniLr Aiig-le, 20"; Whetting- Angle, 25". over, for it rests on a pad of felt which is kept wet with kerosene. Place the beveled edge flat on the stone, feeling to see if it does lie flat, then tip np the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more ■obtuse than that which it was ground, Fig. 78. The more nearly the chisel can be whetted at the an- gle at which it was ground the better. In rubbing, use as much of the stone as possible, so as to wear it down evenly. The motion may be back and forth or spiral, but in either case it should be steady and not rocking. This whetting tuins a light wire edge over on the flat side. In order to remove this wire edge, the back of the chisel, that is, the straight, unbeveled side, is held perfectly flat on the whetstone and rubbed, then it is turned over and the l)evel rubbed again on the stone. It is necessary to leverse the chisel in this way a nund^er of times, in order to remove the wire e(]ge, but the chisel should never ))e tipped so as to put any bevel at all on its flat side. Finally, the edge is touched up (stropped) by being drawn over a piece of leather a few times, first on one side, then on the other, still continuing to hold the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect. To test the sharpness of a whetted edge, draw the tip of the finger or thumb lightly along it, Fig. 79. If the edge be dull, it will feel smooth; if it be sharp, and if care be taken, it will score the skin a little, not enough to cut thru, but just enough to be felt. The gouge is a form of chisel, the blade of which is concave, and hence the edge curved. When the bevel is on the outside, the common form, it is called an outside bevel gouge or simply a "gouge," Fig. 80 ; if the bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside bevel, or inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge. Fig. 81.' Pig. 79. Testing the Sliarpness of a Chisel. ^Another confusing nomenclatui'e (Goss) gives the name "inside gouges'" to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and "outside gouges" to those with the cutting edye on the outside. Fin. m FiiLT. « FirniiM- Inside (iougeOut- Bevel side Bevel. Goiifre. hO IIAXDWOBK IN WOOD. ('ar\in,L;- tools me, properly speaking, all cliiscls. and are of different shapes for facility in r;iv\ing. Vov oi'diiiai'v gouging. Fig. 8'3, the blade is ,L;ri|i|)iMl lii'inly by the left hand with the knuck- les II]). so tbat a strong c-oiiti-ol can be exerted ovci' it. The garallel to the vise screw, and the board inclined away from the worker who stands upright. The start is easy, the sawdust does not cover the line, and the board is not in danger of splitting. The board, however, has to be reversed after it is sawn part way thru, in order to finish the saw cut. The hacJc-saw or tenon-saw, Fig. 90, is a fine crosscut-saw, with a rib of steel along the back, which gives to it its name. Since it is intended for small accurate work, the teeth have little or no set. In sawing, the wood may he he'd either in the vise or on the bench-hook. To liel]) start the saw and at the same time to keep the edges of the cut shai]). it is well to make a little groove Fig-. 89. Rip-sawiiijr with Wood Held in Bench-Vise. 66 HAXDWOEK IN WOOD. with the knife, on the waste side of the line to he f(Ulowe(l, cutting the side of tlie groove next to the line at right angles to the surface. The saw dro})S directly into tliis groove. Fig. 91. In starting the saw cut, the saw slioiild l)e guided hy holding till' tliund) of the left hand auaiust the side of the saw just ahove the teeth. Cntil the keif is should Fig-. 90. Usintr the Back-Saw with Bench-Hook. i^ — i well St a 1 ted. the saw held so that the teeth just touch the wood. It is hetter not to attempt to start the saw level, i. e., with the teeth resting clear across the wood, hilt the handle should be J'aised so that the start is made only at the farther edge of the wood. Then as the saw is gradually lowered, the kerf will extend (|uite across the wood. Fig. 92. When the l)ack-saw is used for ripping, the wood is held in tlie vise, end up. I'x'gin sawing as in crosscutting. that is, at the farther corner with the handle end of the saw uj). and gradually drop the liandle. Watch the lines on both the front and hack 2. Direction of the Back-Saw Fig-. "^'4. Compass-Saw. WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 67 Fig-. 95. Usino- a Turning-Saw. buckling, and Avith a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the curves. The teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth. It is used in sawing curves. The tuniiiKj-sair, Fig. !).5, is a narrow saw, set in a frame, which stretches the saw tight, so that it works as a tension saw (cf. p. 62. The best frames are made so that the handles which hold the blade can revolve in the frame. The turning-saw is used chiefly for cutting curves. A 14 inch blade, 3/16 of an inch wide is a good size for ordinary use. The teeth are like those of a rip-saw, so that they are quite likely to tear the wood in cutting across the grain. Al- lowance should 1)6 made for this and the surplus removed with a spokeshave. The turning-saw may l^e.used to cut on eithei' the pulling or the pushing stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward or away from the worker. The ])ulling cut is generaUy better, as it puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut. Both hands should gras]) tlie frame as near the end of the blade as possible, Fig. 95. Till us au' made hy revolving the frame on the blade as an axis, w h i c h should ahvays be kept at right angles to the surface of the board. Care should be taken not to twist the blade. To file and set a saw, the saw is first fastened i n „. „, „ ^r- Fig-. 96. Saw-Vise. 68 HANDWORK IN WOOD. Vig.'n. A Saw-Joint ir. the saw-vise, Fig. 90, with the tei'th up. It is then top-jointed by running a tiat file or a saw-jointer. Fig. !»;, back and forth length- wise along the tops of the teeth to ))ring them to a level. After jointing the saw should be set. For this purpose a saw- set. Fig. 98. is necessar}^ Ev- ery alternate tooth is bent in tlie direction of its set by the phniger in the instrument piisliing against the anvil, winch is an adjustable eccentric disc. After the saw is set. it is filed. This is done with a triangular file. Fig. 144. p. 90. which is iield in the right hand and its point in the thund) and fingers of the left. Piessure is a])plied only on the forwai'd stmke. which should b;.' long and even, the fde being raised above the tooth on the letuin stidke. The lih' shouhl cut in the direction of the set. that is. the teeth having the set away from tlie workei- are nk'tl first. iMery alternate tooth, 1st. od. otli. etc.. is tikMh ami then tlie saw is reveised and the other set, the '.M, 4th. (Ith. etc.. is liled. in filing a rip-saw the tile should move exactly pei})endicularly to the plane of the saw blade, that is, directly across the teeth. The filing is done on the hack of the teeth, the file just touching the face of the next one. The filing is coutinued. with one. two. or three strokes, tor each tooth, as the case may re(piire. or just until each tootli is shai']). J 11 filing a crosscut-saw. the file is held ])ointing upward and to- v.ard the ))oiiit of the saw. The tile should cut in the direction of the set. The angle of the cutting elo. 'i. Working edge. Plane one narrow side stiaigbt and square with the working face. Test with try-s(|uare. jtressing the block of the ti'y-S(piare against the working face. Mai'k the working edge with two distinct pencil marks. I). Fig. lo.S. 3. Fnd. First mark the width on the working face with the marking-gage. ('. 1-::^, Fig. 103. Chisel off the c'orner. - way. The tiy-s(piare or any stiaigiif eliouhl hear down eipially on both Fisf. 10.^. TesUTi(r from Edg-e to Kdire. ^VOOD HAND TOOLS. 75 Fig-. lOt). Planing- an Edge. knob and handle, and as the plane begins to pass off the board he should put all the pressure on the handle end. Fig. 106. By taking pains thus, a convex surface will be avoided, the making of which is a common error of be- ginners. On the return stroke, the plane should be lifted or tilted so that the cutting edge will not be dulled by rubbing on the Avood. This is especially important on rough and dirty boards, as it saves the cutting edge, and in fine work, as it saves the work. If the plane tear the wood instead of cutting it smooth, as it should, it is because the planing is "against the grain". This can often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before begin- ning to plane. But even if it l)e not noted beforehand, a stroke or two will show the roughness. In such a case, it is necessary simply to turn the wood around. The accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be tested, and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more and more be depended upon to detect inaccuracy, Fig. 107. As each surface is trued, it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set to cut fine shavings. In planing a very cross-gTained piece of wood, there are several methods to use for securing a smootli surface. The frog of the plane should be moved forward so that the throat in the front of the cutter is a mere slit. In the ordinary plane it is necessary to remove the cutter in order to reset the frog, but in the Sargent plane and the Stanley "bed rock"" plane, it can be set by a set-screw at the rear of the frog. Xext, the cap should l)e set so that the cutter projects ):)ut very little l)eyond it, or, in technical language, the cutter should be set "fine." A sliding cut, see p. 53. should be taken with the plane, and sometimes it may be nec- essary to move the plane neaidy at right angles to the general direction 76 1IAXD\V01!K IX WOOD. of the grain. By tliese means even refractory pieces of wood can be well smootlied. See also scrai:)ers, p. 91. The chokino- of a plane is tlie st()i)i)age of the throat by shavings. It may be due sim]dy to the fact that the cutter is dull or that it ])rojects too far l)elow the sole of the plane. In a wooden plane chok- ing is sometimes due to tlie crowding of sliavings under some part of the wedge. When the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly )jlaced choking may result. The frog should be far enough forward so tliat tlie cutter rests squarely upon it. Choking may. and )uost commonly does, take place because the cap does not fit down tight on the cutter. This happens if the cap l)c nicked or uneven. In conse<[uence. minute sbavings are driven between tbese two irons and choking soon results. 'I'be remedy is to sharpen tlie cap. so tbat its edge nuikes a close lit with the cutter. The fit may be nuide still tighter by rul:)bing with a screwdriver the (■<]^^v of tile cap down on tbe cutter after it is screwed in place. In no tool is it more important to keep tbe cutter sharp than in the ])lane. To remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen tbe clamp lever and remove tlie clani]). Carefully remove tbe cap and cutter taking jiains not to let tbe edge bit any part of tbe plane, tlien using tbe c'ani]) as a screwdi'iver. loosen the cap-screw and slide the ca]i back along tbe slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast liy a turn of tbe ca]i-screw. The edge is now free and can readily be whetted. Wlien tbe ca)) needs to l)e entirely removed, for instance, for grinding, after it lias l)een slid along tbe cutter slot, as before, it is turned at ligbt angles to tbe cutter, and then slid down the slot until tbe cap-screw unbuttons from tbe cutter. Tbe object in sliding tbe caj) up tbe slot liefore turning it, is to prevent tbe danger of in- juring tbe edge. Some cajis are now made with tlu:' liuttoidiole at tbe u])])er end of the slot. After sbarpening, (see under sbai'])ening. ]>. IIT.) the order is re- versed for replacing tbe cutter. Tbe cap is set at right angles to the cutter, tbe cap-screw dropped into tbe slot, tbe cap is slid up the slot, and turned into line witii tbe cutter, an;). In end p'aning in the vise, in order to avoid s})lintering the precautitui should be taken to trim oft' a corner on the undressed edge, as directed on page To. or else the planing iiiiist be done from l)oth edges towai'd the center. The sliding cut is much easier than the straight cut. and hence there is a constant temptation to turn the ])lanc at an angle pcihai>s at an ex]>cnse of the flat surface desired. In using the l)ench-hook the ]>iece to be block-planed is placed with tbe working edge against the block, with the end to be planed to tlu' right and Hush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which ])osi- lion it is held with tbe left hand. The block-plane, held in the right hand, is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the W(U'k. In planing, the left band bolds llie woi'k iirndy against the block of the beiicb-hook, pressing it somewhat to tbe I'iglit against tlu' plane. The riglit hand holds the side of the plane llal on the bench and presses it lo tbe left against the beiicb-liook and work. Held in this position tbe plane is |tushe(| forwaid and back' until the end is smoothed. ( 'onsidei able pi'aclict' is necessai'y to baiidle llie block-plane well. 'I'be x( I iih-jildiw is a slioit obuie in wliicli the ciown of tbe cutter. Fig. 11(1, is (|uile cui\('d. It is used jo icduce surfaces rapidly. Fig-. 100. UsiiifjT tin- Block-Plane and Beiich-Hook. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 79 The scHitch-pJanc, Fig. Ill, has a toothed c-utter whicli scratches fine lines along its course. It is used to roughen surfaces of hard wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would not adhere well. Some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces Fig-. 110. Cutter of Scrub-Plane. Fig, 111. Scratch-Plane and Scraper-Plane. can be i educed only hy a scratch-plane. It is also useful in {preparing the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be planed without chip])ing. By first scratching it carefully in all di- rections, it can then be scraped smooth. It is a^so called a semper- plane, because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be in- serted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. This plane-stock ])revents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions of the sniface. See also veneer-scraper, p. 1)1. The rttbbetin;/- or rebating-plane. Fig. 112, is designed for use in cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the Ijack of Fig. 112. Rabbet-Plane Fig-. 113. Molding-Plane. the picture-frames. In line with Ihe right hand corner of the cutter is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which fol- BO ITAXDWORK TX WOOD. Fijsr. 114. Result of Careless use of Rabbet-Plane. lows mav be cut out clean and not torn out. With the a(l. Bit-Point Drill. Fig. 130. Auger-Bit. 'H m 14, I 131 132 133 134 135 13(i Fig. 131. Plug-Cutter. Fig. 132. Ceuter-Bit. Fig. 133. Foerstner Auger-Bit. Fig. 134. E-fpausive-Bit. Fig. 135. Reamer. Fig. 130. Rose Countersink. WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 85 GimJefs and drills are alike in that they cnt away material, but unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while the cutting edge of the drill is on the end. Tirist-d rills. Fig. 12(5, are very hard and may be used in drilling metal. They are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting nails, as in repair work. Their sizes are indicated by a special drill gage, Fig. 220, p. 117. Twist-hits, Fig. 137, are like twist-drills except that they are not hard enough to use for metal. Their sizes are indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. Both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advan- tage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood. Twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance. German gimlet-hits, Fig. 128, have the advantage of centering well. The size is indicated on the tang in 33nds of an inch. They are useful in ])oring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes. They cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced. Bit-point drills. Fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are expensive. Auger-hits, Fig. 130, have several important features. The spur centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a pointed screw draws the auger into the wood. Two sharp nil)S on either side score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. The size of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in Kiths of an inch. Thus 9 means a diameter of 9/lfi". There are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits. (1) One is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. A good way to do this is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and sight first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see that the bit is perpendicular l)oth ways. The test may also be made with the try-square. Fig. 137, or with a plumb-line, either by the worker, or in difficult pieces, l)y a fellow Avorker. The sense of per- pendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated. (3) Another precaution is that, in thru l)oring. the lioles should not be bored quite thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the back. When the spur pricks thru, the bit should l)e removed, the piece turned over, and tlie l)oring finished. i)iitting the spur in the hole which is pricked 86 HAXDWORK IX WOOD. tliru 111 l)Oi'iiig from tlie iii'st side. It is seldom necessary to press against the knolj of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur will ])nll the bit thru, especially in soft wood. Indeed, as the bit reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is gently pulled back, then when the spur pricks thru the bit will be ])u]led out of its hole. This avoids the necessity of constantly watching the back of the board to see if the spur is tbni. (o) In stop boring, as in boring for dowels or in making a blind mortise, caic should be taken not to bore thru tlic piece. For this purpose an auger- bit-gage, Fig. 219, p. 11(5, may be used, or a block of wood of the proper length tliru whieli a hole has been boi'cd, may be slijiped over the bit, or the length of bit may l)e noted before boring, and then the length of the i)rojecting por- tion deducted, or tlie number of turns needed to reach the re(pured depth may be counted on a trial piece. Tying a stiiiig around a l)it, or making a chalk mark on it is folly. Auger-bits aie sliai|»riUMl with an auger-lht hie. Fig. 1-12, p. 90, a small tlat hie witb two na.ri'ow safe edges at one end and two wide safe edges at the otiiur. The "nibs"* should be filed on the inside so that the diameter of the cut may lemain as large as that of the body of the iiit. The cutting li]) slundd be sharpened from the side toward tbc spur, care Ijcing taken to ])reserve the original angle so as to give clcaraJice. If shaipened fi'om the u])])er side, that is, the side toward tbc sbaid\', the nibs will ti'ud to becom(> shorter. 'J'lie ji/iii/-ciill('r. Fig. 131, is useful for cutting }dugs with which to cover tbc beads of screws that are deeply ct)untersunk. Ccii/rr-hils. l-'ig. i;!2. woi'k' on the samt' ])rinci])le as auger-bits, except tliat tbc spurs ha\'c no screw, and hence have to l)e ])uslied foi'cibly into the wood. Sizes are given in l()ths of an incli. They arc useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in tliin material whicli is likely to si)lit. Tliey ai-c sharpened in the same way as auiicr-bils. Fii,'- \^l. I'-iiil;- a Try-Square as a Guidi- ill rjoriii^. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 87 Foerstner hits. Fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but are centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. The size is indi- cated on the tang, in 16ths of an inch. They are useful in boring into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur would pierce thru. They can be sharpened only with special appli- ances. Expansive-ljUs, Fig. 134, are so made as to bore holes of different sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. There are two sizes, the small one with two cutters, boring from Y^" to 1^" and the large one with tliree cutters boring from %" to 4". They are very useful on particular occasions, but have to be used with care. E earners, Fig. 135, are used for enlarging holes already made. They are made square, half-round and six cornered in shape. CoiUltersinls, Fig. 130, arc Fig 138. Washer-Cutter. reamers in the shape of a flat cone, and are used to make holes for the heads of screws. The rose countersink is the most satisfactory form. The ivasher-cutter. Fig. 138, is useful not only for cutting out washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. The size is ad- justable. 3. CIIOPPIXG TOOLS. The primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been dift'erentiated into three modern hand tools, the chisel, see above, p. 53, the ax, Fig. 139, and the adze, Fig. 141. The ax has also been differentiated into the hatchet, with a short handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use with two hands. Its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. It is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the blade. The curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the left hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it from slipping thru the hand. In both ax and hatchet there is a two- beveled edge. This is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood at anv ane'le. 88 HANDWORK IX WOOD. There are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted ax, the hitter used chiefi_Y in lumbering. There is also a wedge- shaped ax for splitting wood. As among all tools, there is among axes a great variety for s])ecial uses. Fiy. 13'i. Ax. Fig. 140. Shiiitrliny Hatchet. Fig-. 141. Car- penter's Adze. Tlic hatchet has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails, and a notch f(n- drawing them, thus comlnning three tools in one. The shingling liatchet. Fig. 140, is a type of this. The ailze, the carpenter's honse adze. Fig. 141. is flat on the lower side, since its use is for straiti'htenino- snrfaces. WOOD IIAXD TOOLS. 89 WOOD References : * (1) Cutting. Goss, p. 22. Chisel. Barnaid, pp. .i!)-73. Seidell, pp. 44-50. 14.1-147. Barter, pp. 93-9(). Griffith, pp. .5.3-04. Knife. Barnard, pp. 48-58. Saw. Griffith, pp. 20-27. Barnard, pp. 114-124. Selden, pp. 41-43. 179-182. Wheeler, pp. 400-473. Hammacher, p]). 300-300. Plane. Barnard. i)p. 74-80. Selden. pp. 11-20. 105-175. Sickels pp. 72-75, IK!. Wheeler, pp. 445-458. Hammacher, pp. 377-400. (2) Boring Tools. Barnard, pp. 125-135. Goss, pp. 53-59. Griffith, pp. 47-52. (3) Chopping Tools. Barnard, pp. 80-88. HAND TOOLS. Smith. R. H., pp. 1-8. Goss, pp. 20-26. Sickels, pp. 64-67. Wheeler, 357, 421, 442. Selden. pp. 26-28, 158. Goss, pp. 26-41. Sickels, pp. 76-79, 84. Smith, R. H.. 43-55. Disston, pp. 129-138. Smith. R. H.. pp. 10-31. Larsson, p. 19. Goss, pp. 41-52. Barter, pp. 96-109. (Griffith, pp. 28-45. Selden. pp. 38-40. 141-144. Wheeler, pp. 353-356. ^For general liibliography see p. 4. Chapter IV, Continued. WOOD HAXD TOOLS. -t. SCRAPING TOOLS. Scraping tools are of such nature that they can only al)ra(]e or smooth surfaces. Files. Figs. l-tS-l-tG, are formed with a series of cutting edges or teeth. These teeth are cut when tlie metal is soft and cold and then tlie ^ Fifr. 142. FifT. 144. Fig. 146. Auger-Bit-Filf. Three-Square Siiis-Je-Cut File. Double-Cut File. Fig. 143. Single-Cut Blunt, Flat. Bastard Fih Fig. 145. Open Cut. Taper. Half-Round FiKv Fig. 147. Cabinet Wood-Rasp. Fig. 148. File-Card. tool is hardened. There are in use at least three thousand varities ot' tiles, each of whicli is adajjfed to its ])articular purpot^e. Lengths are measiii'ed from point to heel exeliisive of the tang. They are classified: (1) according to tiieii' outlines into Miiiit. (i. c., Iiaxing a uniform <-ross-sectioii tliiaiout ) . and taju'i-: ( "i ) accoiding to ihe .-^hapc of theii' 90 WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 91 ■I rig. u'K Diagram of a Rasp Tooth. Cross-Section of a Siiig-le-Cut File. cross-section, into flat, square, three-sqnare or triangular, knife, round or rat-tail, half-round, etc.; (3) according to the manner of their serrations, into single cut or "float" (having single, unbroken, paral- lel, chisel cuts across the surface), double-cut, (having two sets of chisel cuts crossing each other ol)liquelY,) oj^en cut, (having series of parallel cuts, slightly staggered,) and safe edge, (or side,) having one or more uncut surfaces; and (4) according to tlie fineness of the cut, as rough, bas- tard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. The '^"'mill file." a very com- mon form, is a flat, tapered, single- cut fllf. Rasps, Fig. 147, differ from files in that instead of having cutting teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making indenta- tions with a triangular point when the iron is soft. The difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in Fig. 14!). It is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. Great care must be taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. It is better to file only on the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to cut, and a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained. Both files and rasps can be cleaned with a file-card. Fig. 148. Tliey are sometimes sharp- ened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull are discarded. Scrapers are thin, flat pieces of steel. They may be rectangular, or some of the edges may l)e curved. For scraping hollow surfaces curved scrapers of various shapes are necessary. Con- venient shapes are shown in Fig. 150. The cut- ting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along their edges. When properly sharjiened they take off not dust but fine shavings. Scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc. There are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or han- dles, such as the scraper-plane. Fig. 111. p. 79, the veneer-scraper, and box-scrapers. The veneer-scraper. Fig. 151, has the advantage that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in Fig-. 150. Molding-Scrapers. 92 IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD. Fig-. 151. Usinpr a Veneer- Scraper. the middle of tlu' l)Mek. just ;is an ordinary scraper is wlieii lield in the hands. Jn u^e, FliS- l-">v. tlic seraper may he eithei' pushed oi- ])id cd. Wlicii ])iis1i(m1. ilic sciaper is lield (h-ndy in hotli liands, the lingers nil the I'niward and the thnndjs IM ^■■■MHj^H^MHHVi on the hack side. It is tilted I '■tim^^lffm '%^m\ '^"^ chatter and is howt'd hack -■•*^-^^*'* ^^- iMr sh'ghtiy, hy pics^urc of the thiiinhs. so that theic is no lisle of the co;ncis digu-inu' in. When |ndlci| llic position is 1 CVi'lStMh < )nc method of sliai peiiim;" the scraper is as follows: the scraper is Hist hrought to the desired shape, sti'aight or eiiived. This mav he done either hv giiiKhng on the grindstone or hy liliiig with a smooth. Hat tie. tlie scraper, while held in a vise. The vi\^j:v is then carefully diaw-filed. i. e.. the Hie. a smooth one. is held (one hand at each end) directly at light angh's to the edge of the scia|'ei'. i'dg. l^;!. and moved sidewise from end to end (d' the sciaper. until the edge is (|uite S(piare with the sides. Tlien the sciaper is laid Hat on the oilstone and ruhhed. Hrst on one side and then on the other, till the sides ;iri' hiight and smooth along the i'i]i:r. l-dg. i:)4. Then it is set oil ('i\^j:i' oil the stone and rilhhed till theie ale two slcirp Sipiare coiners all along the edge. l-dg. 1.-).-). 'jdiell it is put ill the \isc jigaiii ami hy mean- of a hiirnishrr. or sciaper steel, hoth of these corners aic (••irel'iilh' t ill lied or h 'iit over so as to hiiin a Hue liinr. This is done h\" tipping the scrajier steel at a slight angle with the edge and rulihing it lirinly along the sharp corner, j-'ig. 1 •")(;. To I'esharpen the scia]ier it is not necessaiy to Hie it afresh e\cry time, hut onlv to flatten out the e7rr/ ivi>()l is made liy tui'u- ing off line sluivings from the edges of a number of thin discs of steel, held together in a lathe. There are vai'ious grades of coarseness, from No. 0(» to Xo. 3. Its uses ai'c manifold : as a substitute for sand])apei", especially on cui'ved sui faces, tti clean up )iaiiit. and to rub down shellac to an "egg-shell" finish. Like sandpa])er it sliould not be used till all the work with cutting tools is done. It can be manipulated until utteidy worn out. 5. POUXDIXd TOOLS. The litiiiniicr consists of two distinct ])arts, the head and the handle. The head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be in- dented l)y hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, ])unches, etc., which ai'c com])aratively soft. It can easily be injured tho, by l)eing driven against steel harder than itself. The handle is of hick- 0Y\ and of an oval shape to |u-e\('nt its twisting in the hand. Ilaiiiinei's may be classified as follows : ( 1 ) hauimei s fof si I'iking blows oidy ; as. f he l)lacksuiitirs hauimei' and the '.;tone-niasoM"s hauilliel', ami CI) Fig. 157. Kesharpening a Cabiaet-Scrapen ^ Flattening the Edge. AVOOD HAXD TOOLS. 95 compound liaiuiueis, which consist of two tools combined, tlie face foi' striking, and the "peen" which may be a chiw, pick, wedge, shovel, cliisel, awl or loimd head for other uses. There are altogether about iifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to a blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty pounds or niore. They are named mostly according to their uses; as, the riveting-hammer, Fig. 159, the upholsterer's hammer, Fig. 160, the veneering-hammer. Fig. K)'^. etc. Magnetized hamuiers, Fig. 1()1, are used in many trades for diiving brads and tacks, where it is hard to ho'd them in place with the [ingers. Fig-. 158. Claw-Hammer, Fig-. IbO. Upholster's Hanitner. F\g. 162 Veneeriiii,'--Haninier. Fig-. i;^ ft. to 8 ft. The separate parts are the steel bar A, the cast-iron frame B, the tip C A mippl£ Si'inoLC cm Lff W".ZZ-.2 \ emu ZW 5PiriOLE Fiff. 173. Handscrew. 102 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 174. Adjusting- Handscrew. into which fits the screw D, on the other end of wliicli is the crank E, and the slide F with its dog G, which engac- - r^ t!'p notches on the bar. Any part, if broken, can 1)e rophieed separately. I •on Uitudscrcirs, also called (' clamps and carriage- makers' clamps, Fig. 177, are useful in certain kinds of work, as in gluing in special ])laces and in wood-carving. All iron clamps need blocks of soft wood to be placed between them and the finished work. Pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, are a convenient device for drawing together two pieces of wood, when injury to the surfaces in which they are driven does not matter. They vary in size from ^4" to 2j4"- I'oi' ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. For especially fine work. double-] lointed tacks, properly filed, are con- venient. The hench-liDol-. Fig. 17!'. is a sinijilc device for holding firndy small ])ieces of work when they arc being sawn, chiseled. etc. It also saves the bench from b e i n g mai'i'ed. The angles should I)e ke])t exactly siral ScrewdriTer. B ffln J Fiy. 1''2. Sled lieiicli-Kule. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 107 Fig-. 103. Back of Steel Square, Brace Measure. work. The one in most com- mon nse in school shops, is a two-foot, two-fold rule. Some instructors prefer to have pu- pils use a four-fold rule, be- cause that is the form com- monly used in the woodwork- ing trades. Steel bench-rules. Fig. 193, are satisfactory in school work because unbreakable and because thev do not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules. They need to be burnished occasionally. The steel square, Figs. 193, 191, 196, 197, is useful, not only as a straight-edge and try-square, but also for a number of graduations and tables which are stamped on it. There are various forms, but tlu' one in most common use consists of a b ade or "body" 24"x2" and a "tongue," l()"xl^", at right angles to each other. Sargent's trade number for this form is 100. Tt includes graduations in hundredths, thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths of an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square measure, and the Essex board-measure. Another style, instead of an Essex board-measure, and the hun- dredths graduation has a rafter-table. The side upon which the name of the maker is stamped, is called the "face,"' and the reverse side the "back."' The brace-measure is to be found along the center of the ))ack of the tongue. Fig. 193. It is used thus: the two equal numbers set one above the other rep- resent the sides of a square, and the single number to their right, represents in inches and decimals, the diagonal of that square. E. g., |^ 76.37 means that a square the sides of w^hich are 54" would have a diagonal of 70. 3T". For determining the length of the long side (hy- pothenuse) of a right angle triangle, when the other two given sides are not equal, the foot rule, or an- other steel square mav be laid diagonally across the 108 HANDWORK IX WOOD. blade and arm, and applied directly to tlie proper grad- uations thereon, and the dis- tance between them meas- ured on the rule. If the dis- tance to be measured is in feet, use the 1/12" gradua- tions on the back of the Fig-. 194. Face of Steel Square, Octag-on, "Eig-ht- Square," Scale. square. To use the octagonal (or 8-square) scale, Fig. 194, which is along the c 'liter of tlie face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the nuiulier of spaces in the scale to correspond with the number of inches the piece of wood is square, and lay this distance off from the center point, on each edge of the board. Connect the points thus obtained, diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact oc- tagon will he had. E. g., on a lioard 12" square. Fig. 1 !>.-). find A.F).('.r).. the centers of each edge. Xow with the dividers take 12 spaces from the S-square scale. Lay otf this dis- tance on each side as A' A" from A, B' B" from B, etc. Xow connect A" with B', B" with (". (•" with D', D" with A', and the octagon is obtained. In making a S(]uare ])iece of timber octagonal, the same method is used on the butt, sawed true. When the distance from one cen- ter is laid olT. the marking-gage may be set to the Fig. 1"5. Method of Using the Eight- Square Scale on the Steel-Square. — - ---to — 110 IIANDWOKK IN WOOD. If the board to bu meas- ured is longer than any fig- ure given, divide the length into two parts and add the result of the two ^larts ob- taiiKMJ se})arately. For ex- aiHi)le. for a l)oard 'i-\' long and lo" wide. — take I'^'xlo" Fig-. 197. Steel Square with Rafter Table. to it. ]l'xi:r' = n' 11' total. =13: add 24' 11". A good general rule is to think fii'st whether or not the problem can be done in one's head without the assistance of the square. The table is made, as its name, Board-Meas- ure (B.M.) implies, for measuring boards, which are coin moldy 1" thick. For material more than 1" thick. iiiiilti})ly the B.^F of one surface by tlic miiiibcr of inches thick the piece measures. The rafter-table is found on the back of the body of the square. Fig. 1!»7. Auxiliary to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the outside edges, which may represent either feet or inches. By the "■'run" of the rafter is meant the hor- izontal distance Avhen it is set in place from the Fig. Ifi8. The "Run" and "Rise" of a Rafter. end of its foot to a i)lumb line from the ridge end, i. e., one half the width of the building, Fio;. 198. Bv the ''rise'' of the rafter is meant the porpendicidar distance from the ridge end WOOD HAND TOOLS. Ill to the level of the foot of the rafter. By the jiitch is meant the ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total width of the building. In a ^ pitch, the rise equals the run, or ^ the width of the building: in a 1/3 pitch the rise is 1/3 the width of the ,1:0. l,]?l,r.l.i?l,i,l,ii'l.i.l.ia.i.l.iPl 4-4 -18 " 3-9 ■16 .1-4 14 2-9 ■IZ . Fig-. 199. Lumberman's Board Rule. building; in a ^ pitch the rise is ^ the width of the building. To find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find the required pitch, at the left end of the table. Opposite this and under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will be found the length of the rafter; e. g., a rafter having a run of 13' with a J4 pitch, is 13' 5" long, one with a run of 11' and a 1/3 pitch, is 13' 3x^3-", one with a run of 7' and a f pitch, is 11' 2^^" long, etc. When the run is in inches, the readings are for 1/13 of the run in feet; e. g., a rafter with a run of 13" and a ^ intch is ISy^g-", one with a run of 11" and a 1/3 pitch, is 13x^2-". "Where the run Fig-. 200. Try-Square. Fig. 201. Miter-Square. Fig-. 202. Sliding T Bevel. is in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately; and add together; e. g.. a rafter Avith a run of 11' 6", and a ^ pitch, is 15' 6yV" + 8y'^"=l(r 3yv". The lumhcrman's 'board-rule. Fig. 199. To measure wood by it, note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. The 112 HANDWORK IX WOOD. ^ \ ^M^L^ Fig-. 203. Using- the Try-Square. lot nearest the widtli (measined in inches) gives the B.M. for lum- )er 1" thick. The fn/-s(ju(irc. V\u:. •?()(). whicli is most commonly used for nieas- uiing the accuracy of right angles, is al^o convenient for » testing the width of a Ijoard at various places along its length, tor making short meas- urements, and as a guide in laying out lines with a pencil or knife at right angles to a sill fat-e or etlge. The sizes are \ai'ious and are indicated l)y tlie length of the hlade. A ■oii\ fiiicnt size for the indi- - idiial hench and lov ordinary use has a hlade (>" long. It is also well to have in the shop one large one with a 12" hlade. In testing the sipiareness of woi'k with the try-square, care must be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the suiface fiom which the test is made, and llini slijjjM'd down till tlie hlade touches the edge being tested. Fig. 203. The edge shiudd be teste(l at a liuiidtei' of ])|aees in the same way: that is, it should not be slid along the piece. The try-square is also of great use in scril)ing lines across hoards. Fig. 204. A good method is to put the point of the knife at the beginning of the de- sired line. slide the square along until it touches the knife-blade: then, holding the head of the square firmly against tli«' vi\:j:i\ draw the knife along, pressing it lightly againsr ^^"■..^(14. ScriliinLT with Kiiifc by Try-Scjuare. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 113 the blade, holding it ijerpendicularly. To prevent the knife from 1 iinning aAvay from the bhide of the try-square, turn its edge slightly towards the blade. The miter-square. Fig. ^01, is a try-square fixed at an angle of 45". The sliding T level. Fig. 203, has a blade adjustable to any angle. It may be set either from a sample line, drawn on the wood, from a given line on a protractor, from drawing triangles, from the graduations on a framing square, or in other ways. It is used similarlv to the T- Fig-. 205. Windiiig--Sticks, 12 inches Long-. square. Winding-sticl-s, Fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of exactly the same width thruout. They are used to find out whether there is any twist or "wind" in a Ijoard. This is done by placing them parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other at the other end. By sighting across them, one can readily see whether the board be twisted or not. Fig. 206. The blades of two framing-squares may be used in the same manner. Compasses or diviilcrs. Fig. 20;, consist of two legs turning on a joint, and having sharpened points. A convenient f(n'm is the wing divider which can be accurate'y adjusted by set-screws. A pencil can be substi- tuted for the re- movable point. They are used for describing circles and arcs, for spacing, for measuring, for subdividing dis- tances, and for scribing. In scribing a line parallel with a given outline, one leg follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, marks the desired line. Used in this way they are very convenient for mark- ing out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point. Fig. 201). Method of Usintr the Windiiifr-Sticks. 114 HANDWOKK IN WOOD. The beam-compass. Fig. 308, consists of two trammel-points run- ning on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. It is used for describing large circles. A pencil may be attached to one point. Calipers, outside and inside, Figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the accurate gaging of diameters, as in Avood-turning. iat=^ Fig-. 207. Winytd Dividers. Fig-. 208. Beani-Compass or Trammel Points. Fi«-.209. Outside Calipers. Fi--Gage. WOOD HAND TOOLS. 115 the depth of the gage line can be regulated. Ordinarily, the finer the line the better. The head must ahvays be kept firmly pressed against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump Fig-. 213. Settino- a MaiKiiii;-! away from its desired course. Care should also be taken, except in rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the sake of the appearance of the finished work. To secure accuracy, all gaging on the surface of wood, shouVl be done from the "working face" or "workins; eda-e."' It is sometimes advisable, as their edges with a marking- gage, because the marks will show after the chamfer is planed off. A pencil mark should be made instead. For this purpose a pencil-gage may be made by removing the spur of a marking-gage, and boring in its place a hole to receive a pencil stub with a blunt point, or a small notch may be cut in the back end of the beam, in Avhich a pencil point is held while the gage is worked as usual except that its position is reversed. For work requir- ing less care, the pencil may in hiving out chamfers, not to mark Fig-. 214. Using the Marking-Gage. U(. HANDWORK IX AVOOD. Fiy. 215. Marking'-Gag'e fur Curve;^ be held in the manner usual in writing, the middle finger serv- ing as a guide, or a pair of pencil compasses may be used, one leg serving as a guide. A special gage is made for gag- ing curved lines. Fig. 215. The cutting-gage, Fig. "216, is similar to a marking-gage, except that it has a knife-point insi-rted instead of a spur. It is very useful in cutting up soft, thin wood even as tliick as '4". The s/itfiiig-gagc is used in a sim- ilar way, but is hirger and has a handle. The iiiortisc-gfigi'. Fig. 217, is a iiiarkiiig-gage with two s|nirs. with wliich two pai'allel lines can lie drawn at once, as in laying out moitises. One form is made entirely of steel having, instead of spurs, discs with sharp- ened edges. The xrnitch-iiirl . Fig. 218. lias a long, slender point wliieli is useful not . is a convenient tool tor measuring the depth of holes boied. but foi' oi'diuary ]uir- poses a block of wood sawn to the i»ro])er length thru which a bole is bored, is a satisfactoiy substitute. Scrcir- find ii-irc-gagcs, Fig. 220. are usefid in measuring the lengths and sizes of screws and wire wlien lifting or ordering. The spirit-level, and the /iliinih-liin' which it has largely replaced, are in constant use in carpeiiti'iing. but are rarely needed in shopwork. Cuttiii;ick end of (' or by ad- just iiig the tool L'oiward or backward in tlie chunp. As much pres- suu' mav be |)ut on the tool as the driving belt will stand without sli})i)ing off. A still simjtler bolder for the })liUic-l)it only, is a stiip of wood 1^" tliick and "2" wide, cut in the sliape (i shown in Fig. '^'^o. The l)lanc-bit fits into the saw-kerf K. and in gi'inding is easily held firndy in })lace l)y the hand. By inserting the rear end of the stick (t into a higher or lower hole in the hoaid A. any desired angle may be obtained. G is shown in ])osition in Kig. "i'M. All such devices necessitate a ))eifeetly true stone. The essential features are. to have a rigid support against wbieh the tool may be pushed hv tlie revohing stone, to liold the tool at a tixt'd ang'e which mav be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stoiu' with etui- siderable pressure. The wheel should levolve toward the edge which is heiiig ground, for two rea- sons. It is easier to bold the tool steadily thus, and the danger of |)roducing a wire edge is lessened. The edge as it becomes thin, tends to ^|)ring away from the stone and this tendeney is aggra- \iite(l if the stone revolves awa\' from the t'dge. If the stone does not run true and there is a e(»nse(|uent danger of digging into the stone with the tool wbieh is lieing sharpened, the stone would h-tter levolve awav from the alj^r. The grinding should eontiniie until the ground suiface reaches the cutting edge and there is no briglit line left along the edge. If the gi'inding is continued beyond this ]>oint. nothing is gained, and a hea\v wire edge will be lormed. Fig-. 224. Atracite (■.rintler. WOOD HAXD TOOLS. 121 A very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, Fig. 224, sold as the "AgacUe grinder,' ' has a number of different shaped g-rinding stones made chiefly of carborundum. The oilstone. After grinding, edge tools need whetting. This is done on the whetstone, or oilstone. The best natural stones are found near Hot Springs, Arkansas. Tlie fine white ones are called Arkan- sas stones, and the coarser ones Washita stones. Tlie latter are better for ordinary woodworking tools. The India oilstone, an artificial stone, Fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even more quickly than the natural stones. It is made in several grades of coarseness. The medium grade is reconunended for ordinary shop use. Oil is used on oilstones for the same pur- pose as water on a grindstone. When an oil- stone becomes hollow or uneven by iise, it may ^'^- ^■^^- siipstone. be trued by rubbing it on a Hat board covered with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a l)\x'k of wood. Slipstones, Fig. 225, are small oi'stones, made into various shapes in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc Files are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. See above, p. 00. 9. CLEANINC4 TOOLS. The hcncJi duster. One may be noted hanging on the bench shown in Fig. 1()6, p. 98. Bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are essential if the shop is to be kept tidy. Buffer. Wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very valuable for ^Dolishing tools. The addition of a little tripoli greatly facilitates the cleanina;. ■'Made by the Empire Implement Co., Albany, N. Y 122 HANDWORK IN WOOD. AVOOD HAND TOOLS. — Continued. References:* (4) Scraping Tools. Barnard, pp. 136-142. Wheeler, pp. 465, 473. Griftitli, pp. 71-75. Selden, pp. 149, 177, 182. Hodgson, I, pp. 61-74. (5) Pounding Tools. Barnard, pp. 24-47. Sickels, p. 70. Wheeler, ]ip. 414, 428-432. Selden. pp. 31, 111, 156. C^oss, p. 60. Barter, p. 128. (6) Punching Tools. Barnard, p. 29. Wheeler, p. 433. Selden. p. 161. (7) Gripping Tools. For holding work: Goss. p. 63. Wlieeler, pp. 65-75, 475. For holding other tools: Goss. pp. 56-59. Sehh'U. pp. 140, 147, 186, 194. Ihiiiiniaclier, ]ip. 286-291. Selden. p. 143. BiiihUiiri Troflcs Pocketbook. pp. 234- (8) Measuring and Marking Tools. Goss, pp. 9-20. Griffith, jip. 9-19. Hodgson, The Steel 8(iyare. Selden, pp. 149. 150-152, 175. Wheeler, p. 465. Sargent's Steel Squares. Tate, pp. 21-25. [9) Sharpening Tools. Barnard, pp. 136-142. Sickels, pp. 80-85. Wheeh'r, pp. 480-488. Selden, pp. 153, 162, 172. 180. Goss, pp. 39. 64-69. ^■'For general hihliograpliy see p. 4. Chapter V. WOOD FASTEXIJvTGS. 9 The following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are fastened together: nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges, and locks. NAILS Nails, Fig. 226, may be classified according to the material of which they are made; as, steel, iron, copper, and brass. Iron nails may be galvanized to protect them from rust. Copper and brass nails are used where they are sul)ject to much danger of corrosion, as in boats. Nails may also be classified according to the process of manufacture ; as, cut nails, wrought nails, and wire nails. Cut nails are cut from a plate of metal in such a way that the width of the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate, and the length of the nail to the width of the plate. In the third dimension, the nail is wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at the head. Unless properly driven, such nails ai'e likely to split the wood, but if properly driven they are very firm. In driving, the wedge should spread with and not across the giain. Wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel, and have little or no temper, so that they can be bent over without breaking, as when clinched. Horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this sort. They are of the same shape as cut nails. Wire nails are made from drawn steel wire, and are pointed, headed, and roughened by machinery. They are comparatively cheap, hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely displaced, can be bent without breaking, and can be clinched. Fig-. 220. a. Cut nail, cominon. b. Flat-head wire nail, No. 1, com- mon, c. Finishing-nail, or brad. 123 124 JlAXUWOIiK IX WOOD. Nails ajo also classitic'd aci-ordiiio- to thr sliajic of their heads; as, common oi' ilat-lieads, and hrads or finishing nails. Flat-heads are used in ordinary work, wheie the lieads are not to he siud\ in the wood or "set." Koine nails get their names fiom their s])i'eial uses; as, shingle- nails, trunk-nails. l:)oat-nails. lath-nails. ]»i(tnic-nails. harrel-nails, etc. The size of nails is indicated hy the length in inches, and l)y the size of the wire for wire nails, 'i'he old iioiuencdatuie for cut nails also survives, in which certain numhi'is arc picfixed to "penny."' For example, a thiee])enny nail is 1'4" long, a fourpenny nail is 1^" long, a tivejienny nail is l-)4" long, a sixpenny nai is 2" long. In othei' words, from thiecpennv to t<'n])('iniy '4" is ailded f(U- each penny, Init a twelveiH'nny nail is -5 '4" long, a sixteenpcnny nail i;- 'i/'i" long, a t\venty|)enny nail is 4" long. This is explained as mean- ing that "tenjienny" nails, for example, i-ost ten})ence a hundred. Anothei' explanation is that (U'igina ly looo of such nails weighed a pound. 'File size of cut nails is usually still so indicated. Xails are sold l)y the pound. The advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily ap- plied, they are strong and chea]). and the work can he separated, the with difficulty. The disadvantages are the a])pearancc and, in some cases, the insecurity. The holding power of nails nuiy he inci'cased hy driving them into the wood at other than a right angle. es])ecially where several nails unite two i)ieces of wood. By driving some at oiH' inclination and sonu' at another, they hind the ])ieccs of wood together with much gi eater f(U'ce than *pp when dri\cn in straiglit. ' The term hrads was once confined to small fin- ishing nails, l)ut is now used for all finishing nails, in di-tiiu-tion from comnion or llat-headed nails. The lieads aie made round iiisl(ad of flat so that they may he si't easily with a nailset and the ho'e filled with a plug, or, where the wood is to he painted, with l)utty. They aic used for intei'ior finishing and othei' nice work. Tdcl's, j-'ig. •.'•??, vary in size and shaiie at-cording to their use; as. flat-hea(le(|. gimp. iouiid-hea(le(l. and douhle-jiointcMl ov nuitting tacks, a soi'l of small staple. Their size is imlicaied hy the word "ouiu-e." Foi' example, a t\vo-(miiee tack is '4" long, a three-ounce Yig. 227. Tack. AVOOD FASTENINGS. 125 Figr. 228. Corrugated Fastener. tack is ^" long, a four-ounce tack is 7/16" long, a six-ounce tack is Yz" long, etc. This term once meant the numher of ounces of iron required to make 1000 tacks. Tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material, such as veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc. Tinner's tacks, which are used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. Wire tacks, altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks because they lack a sharp point, which is es- sential. Corrugated fasteners, Fig. 328, or fluted nails, are used to fasten together tAvo pieces of wood by driving the fastener so that one- half of it will be on each side of the joint. Their size is indicated by the length and the number of corrugations, as Yz" , four. They are often useful Avhere nails are impracticable. Glaziers' points are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten glass into sashes. SCREAVS (a) Wood-screws, Fig. 229, may be classified by the material of Avhich they are made; as, steel or brass. Steel screws may be either bright, — the common finish, — blued by heat or acid to hinder rust- ing, tinned, or bronzed. Brass scrcAvs are essential wherever rust Avould be detrimental, as in boats. (b) ScieAvs are also classified by shape; as, flat-headed, round- headed, fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed screAvs. Flat-heads are most commonly used. There are also special shapes for particular purposes. Eound-heads may be used either for decoration or where great clraAving power is desirable. In the latter case, Avashers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them from sinking into the Avood. Oval-heads are used decoratively, the head filling the countersunk hole, as Avith flat-heads, and projecting a trifle besides. They are much used in the interior finish of raiJAvay cars. They are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest. The thread of the scrcAV begins in a fine point so that it may penetrate the wood easily Avhere no hole has been bored as is often the case in soft wood. The thread extends about two-thirds the length of the screAv. Anv longer thread Avould onlv Aveaken the 126 IIANDAVORK IX WOOD. screw where it most needs strength, near the head, and it does not need friction with the piece thru which it passes. Tlie size of screws is indicated by their length in inches, and by the diameter of the wire lidin wliicli tliey are made, using the stand- ard screw-gage. Fig. '-^■-^. a. Flat-head Wood-screw, b. Round-head Wood-screw. c. FiUister- head Wood-screw. d. Oval-couiitersunk- head Wood-screw, e. Drive-screw, f. Square- head (lag-or coach-) Screw. WOOD FASTE^riXGS. 127 retighteiied. The disadvantages are, that they are expensive, that they take time to insert, that they show very phiinly. and that tliey do not hold well in end grain. Fig-. 230. a. Stove- bolt, b. Carriagre-bolt. c. Machine-bolt. BOLTS Bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired. There are three chief varieties, Fig. 230. Stove-holts are cheaply made (cast) bolts having either flat or round heads with a. slot for the screwdriver, like ordinary screws. Carriage-holts are distinguished by having the part of the shank which is near the head, square. Machine-holts have square, hexagonal, or button heads. Macliine-scrctts, Fig. 231, are similar to stove-bolts, but are accurately cut and are meas- ured with a screw-gage. The varieties are, a, flat-head, h. round-head, c, fillister-head, d, oval- countersunk-head, all with slots for screwdriver. Plates^ Fig. 332, include corner-irons, straight plates and panel-irons. These are made of either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor, in stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc. Doirel-rods. Dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from 3/16" to 1" in diameter, and 3(i", 4"3", and 48" long. They are commonly made of birch or maiflc, but ma])le is more satisfactory as it shrinks less and is stronger than biich. Dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge, and as a substitute for mortise-and- tenon joints. There is, to be sure, a prej- udice against dowels on the part of cabinet-makers due, jns^ibly, to the willingness to have it appear that doweling is a device of inferior me- chanics. But doweling is cheaper and quicker than ten- Fig-. 231. Machine-scre-ws. a. Flat-head. b. Round-head. c. Fillister-head. d. Oval- couutersunk-head. 128 HAXDWOKK IX WOOD. oning, and there arc many places in wood construction where it is jnst as satisfactory and, if properly done, just as strong. Certain parts of even the best furniture are so put together. Shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. They are dipped in glue and driven into brad-aAvl holes. Wedges a r e commonly used in door construction between the edges of tenons and the insides of mor- tises Avhich are slightly beveled, No. 34, Fig. 366, p. 179. Or the end of a tenon may be split to re- M36. The Mind wedge is used in the Straight plate, c. Panel-iron ceive the wedges, Xo. o."). Fig. fox-tail joint, Xo. ?,(l Fig. 266. GLUE nine is an infci'ior kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds, — animal glue and fisli glue. Animal glue is made of l)ones and trimmings, cuttings and licsliings from hides and skins of animals. Sinews, feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. Cattle, calves, goats, pigs, hoi>('s, and rabbits, all yield characteristic glues. The best glue is made from hides of oxen, which are soaked in lime water until fatty oi' ])a]-tly decayed matter is eaten out and only the glue is left. The i)i'odiict i< ch-aned, boiled down and dried. The best and clearest h(me glues are obtained liy leaching the hones with dilute acid which ilissolves out the lime salts and leaves the gelatinous matters. Such leached bone is sold as a glue stock, under the name of "'osseine.'" This material together with hides, sinews, etc., has the gelatin or g'ue extracted i)y i)oiling again and again, just as soup stock might be boiled si'veral times. Fach extrac- tion is called a "run." Sometimes as many as ten or tiftccn runs ai-e taken from llie same kettle of stock, and each may be finished alone or mixed with other runs from other stock, resulting in a a'rcat variety of commercial glues. WOOD FASTENINGS. 129 Manufacturers use many tests for giue^ such as the viscosity or running test, the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of set, the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength (tested be- tween the finger tips), water absorption (some glues absorb only once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or ad- hesive tests. This latter varies so much with different materials that what may be good glue for one inaterial is poor for another. Putting all these things together, glues are classified from grade 10 to 160, 10 being the poorest. The higher standards from 60 and upwards are neutral hide glues, clear, clean, free from odor, foam, and grease. The lower standards are chiefly Ijone glues, used for sizing straw hats, etc. They are rigid as compared with the flexibility of hide glues. For wood joints the grade should be TO or over. For leather, nothing less than loo should be used, and special cements are better still. The best glue is transparL'ut. hard in the cake, free from spots, of an amber color, and has little or no smell. A good practical test for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like. The more it swells without dissolving the better the quality. Poor glue dissolves. Glue is sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white in color, but it is somewhat weakened thereby. Fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of flsh. Isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of certain flsh, as cod and sturgeon. Liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue. The LePage liquid glue is made in Gloucester, Mass., one of the greatest fish markets in the country. Liquid glue is very convenient because alwavs ready, but is not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive odor. Liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non- ge'atinizing, which can be done by several means : as, for instance, by the addition of oxalic, nitric, or hydrochloric acid to the glue so- lution. To prepare hot glue, break it into small pieces, soak it in enough cold water to cover it well, until it is soft, say twelve hours, and heat in a glne-pot or double boiler. Fig. 243, p. 148. The fresher the glue is, the better, as too many heatings weaken it. When used it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream, so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip. Two sur- faces to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated 130 IIANUWOKK IN WOOD. by a mass of glue. It is esseutial that the glue be hot and the wood warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the surfaces are forced together. Glue holds best on side grain. End grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the pores. Pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary way. but such joints are seldom good. Surfaces of hard wood that are to be glued should iirst be scratched with a scratch-plane. Fig. Ill, p. :9. To make waterproof glue, add one part of potassium bichromate to fifty i3arts of glue. It will harden when exposed to the air and light and be an insoluble liquid.* General directions for gluing^ Before applying glue to the parts to be fastened together, it is a good plan to assemble them tempo- rarily without glue, to see that all the parts fit. When it is desirable that a certain part, as the panel, in panel construction, should not 1)0 glued in place, it is a wise precaution to apply wax, soap, or oil to its edges before insertion. Since hot glue sets quickly^ it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as soon as possible. One must learn to work fast but to keep cool. To expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the ])i'ocess is begun, clam^Ds, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet, try-square, and all other appliances likely to be required. Whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each step can be taken Avith more deliberation. For example, in assem- bling framed pieces that are doweled, it is well to glue the dowels into one set of holes beforehand, making tenons of them, as it were. Time is thus saved for the final assend)ling when haste is imperative. The superfluous glue around the dowe's should be carefully Aviped off. Likewise in gluing wj) framed pieces, sections may be put together separately: as, the ends of a tabh', and Avhen they are dry then the whole may be assembled. When the pieces are together the joints should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no tAvists. A good Avay to insure squareness, is to insert a diagonal brace on the inside, corner to corner, as in Fig. 294, p. 195. Such a brace ■For reci|i('s for tliis ;uul other yhies, s^ee Woodcraft, May "07, p. 49. "For s]iccial diicctiniis. for jKirticular joints, seo under the A'arious joints, ;Chap. \'ir.) WOOD FASTENINGS. 131 should be provided when tlie tiial assembly is made. Another good way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally op- posite posts, and then by twisting the rope, to draw these corners toward each other until the frame is square. The superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood. Or by waiting a few minutes until the glue thickens, much of it can readily be peeled olf with an edge tool. Either of these ways makes the cleaning easier than to let the superfluous glue harden. The work when glued should remain at least six hours in the clamps to harden. HINGES Hinges, Fig. 233, are made in several forms. The most common are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of wliich are long and strap-shaped ; the Tee-hinge, one leaf of whicli is a Initt, and the other strap-shaped; the chest-hinge, one leaf of which is bent at a right angle, used for chest covers; the table-hinge used for folding table tops with a rule joint; the piano-hinge, as long as the joint; the blank hinge or screen-hinge which oj^ens both ways ; the stop- hinge, which opens only 90° ; and the "hook-and-eye'' or "gate" hinge. Fig-. 233. a. Butt-hinge, b. Tee-hing-e. c Chest-liiiige. d. Table-hinge, e. Blank or Screen-hinge. The knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the two leaves. Fig. 234. The "acorn" is the head of the "pintle"' or pin that passes thru the knuckle. Sizes of butts are indicated in inches for length, and as "narrow;" "middle," "broad" and "desk" for width. The pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in box-hinges or removable as in door-butts. Sometimes, as in blind- 132 HANDWORK IN WOOD. hinges, the pintle is fastened into one knuekle, but turns freely in the other. A butt-hinge may be set in one of three iwsitions, Fig. 235: (1) Where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a door. Here the knuekle is set well out from the wood. (2) Where it is desired to have the hinged portion open flat and no more. Here the cen- ter of the |)in is in line with the out- side surface of the wood. This is less likely to rack the hinge than the other two positions. (3) Where it is desired to have the knuckle project as little as possible. HINGING / 1 }d / ® ® fc-3 @ -^ d © 'b — 1 Fig. 234. Partsof a butthinge. 1.1. Leaves. 2.2.2. Knuckle. 3. Pintle. 4. Acorn In setting the hinges of a l)Ox cover, first see that the cover fits the box ex- actly all the way around. Hi the case of a door, see that it fits its frame, evenly all the way around. To insure a tighter fit at the swino-ing edge but with a little })lay this edge should be slightly beveled inwards. In attaching a butt-hinge, the essential thing is to sink the hinge into the wood, exactly the thickness of the knuckle. The gains may be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together. With these matters determined pi'oceed as follows : In the case of a box cover, the hinges should be set about as far from the ends of the box as the hinge is long. In the case of an upright door, locate the hinges respectively above and below the lower and upper rails of the door. Mark with the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge, and square across a]ipr(iximat('ly the width of the gain to receive it. T)o this for both hinges. IJetwccn these lines gage the proper width of the gains. Set another gage to one-half the thickness of the knuckle and gage on the door face the depth of the gains. Chisel out the gains, set the hinges in place. Iiore the lioU's. and drive the screws. Place the door in position again to test the lit. If all is well, mark the ])Osition of the hinges on the fiaine, gage and cut the gains, and fasten in the hinu'es. Where the hinu'c is o-ained its full thickness into the door. WOOD FASTENINGS. 133 no gain, of course^ is cut in the frame. If the hinges are set too shallow, it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a little dee]3er. If they are set too deep the screws may be loosened and a piece of paper or a shav- ing inserted underneath along the outer arris of the gain. LOCKS The chief parts of a lock are: the IjoJi. its essential fea- ture, the selvage, the plate which appears at the edge of the door or drawer, the hox, which contains the mechanism- including the tumbler, tvard. spring, etc., the key-pin, into or around Avhich the key is in- serted, the strike, the plate at- tached opposite the selvage, (often left out as in drawer- locks, but essential in hoolv-bolt locks, and self-locking locks,) and the escutcheon, the plate around the keyhole. Locks may be classified: (1) According to their uses, of which there are two types, (a), Fig. 236, For drawers, cupboards, tills, wardrobes, and doors. In these the bolt simply projects at right angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of the lock, (b). Fig. 237, For desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes and sliding doors. In these, the bolt in- cludes a hook device of some kind to resist pressure perpendicular to the selvage. In some locks, the hook or hooks project sidewise from the bolt, in others the bolt engages in hooks or eyes attached to the strike. TT V, oi^ Tj- I 1 ^^ T^ (3) According to the method of ap- Fig. 236. Rim-lock. for Drawer. ^ ' o i r 1. Bolt. 2. seivagre. 3. Bo.x. plicatiou. as rim locks, which are fas- 4. Key-pin. ^ ' Pig. 235. Three Positions of Hing-es. 134 HAXDWORK IN WOOD. lened on the surface, and iiiurtise locks which are mortised into the edge of a door or drawer or ])ox. INSERTIXG LOCKS -To insert a riiu-Iocl'. measure the distance from the selvage to the kev-pin. locate this as the center of the keyhole, and l)ore the hole. If the lofk has a selvage, gain ont the edge of tlic door oi' drawer to I'eceive it. If the lock hox has to he gained in, do tliat next, taking care that the bolt has room to slide. Cut the keyhole to the |)ro|)ei' shape with a keyhole-saw or small ehisel. Fasten the lock in place, and if there is a strike or face-plate, mark its place and mortise it in. 'i'o insert a inortisc-lock, locate and bore tlie keyhole, mortise in the box and the selvage, iinish the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the es- cutcheon, locate and mortise in the strike, and screw it in place. Morlise-lock, for Box. WOOD FASTENINGS. 135 WOOD FASTENINGS References : Hammaeher & Schleniiiier. Catalog No. 151. Nails. Goss, p. 153. Griffith, pp. 75-78. Purfield. Wood Craft, 5: 181. Wood Craft, 5: 103. Park, pp. 129-135. Wheeler, pp 428-433. Tacks. Wheeler, pp. 429-433. Goss, p. 155. Sickels, p. 70. Barter, pp. 84-86. Screws. Goss, p. 155. Griffith, pp. 78-80. Wheeler, p. 476. Park, pp. 136-140. Barter, p. 86. Dowels. Goss, p. 153. Sickels. p. 104. Wheeler, p. 374. Griffith, p. 02. Wedges. Goss, p. 151. Glue. Goss, p. 156. Sickels. p. 106. Rivington, III, p. 432. Wheeler, pp. 391-396. Barter, p. 82. Alexander, Wood Craft, 5: 168. Standage, Wood Craft, 7: 48. Griffith, pp. 80-83. Park, jjp. 141-146. Hinges. Sickels, p. 118. Wheeler, p. 402. For general bibliography see p. 4. Chapter VI. EQUIPMENT AND CAEE OF THE SHOP. Tool equipment. The choice of tools in any particuhir shop best comes out of long experience. Some teachers prefer to emphasize certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. The following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty- four students. One bench and its tools may be added for the teacher. The prices given are quoted from Discount Sheet No. 1 for Cata- logue of Tools, No. 355 issued by Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., Fourth Avenue and 13th Street, New York City, dated 1908, and are correct at the present date (1910). Aggregate orders, however, are always subject to special concessions, and it is suggested that be- fore ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for whicli special figures will be quoted. There are good benches, vises, and tools of other makes on the market, but those specified below are typical good ones. Following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils, one severely economical to cost approximately $400, and the other more elaborate to cost approximately $750. $400 TOOL EQUIPMENT. INDIVIDUAL TOOLS. 24 Manual Training,' School Benches H. & 8. -L," fa $8.50 $204.00 24 Stanley Jack-rianes. No. 5. 14", @ $1.74 each 41.76 24 Disston's Back-Saws. No. 4, 10", @ 9.3e each 22.32 12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, %", handled and sharpened. 2.21 12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, 1/2", handled and sharpened. 2.68 24 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2. 1". handled and sharpened.. 7.31 24 Sloyd Knives, No. 7, 21/2" 6.50 12 Hammond's Adze-eye Claw-Hanuner. No. 3, 7 oz 4.90 24 Try-squares, No. 5%, <>" 5.32 24 Beech Marking-Gages. No. 04^2 4.86 136 EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 137 24 Boxwood Rules, No. 3, 12" long $ 1.80 12 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752 1.50 12 Bench-Hooks 2.00 12 Bench-Dusters, No. 10 2.70 Total for individual tools $309.86 GENERAL TOOLS 6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 7, 22", 10 points $ 6.75 6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No. 7, 22", 8 points 6.75 2 Turning-Saws in frames, 14", M. F. & Co 1.74 1 Dozen Turning-Saw Blades, 14", H. S. & Co 1.06 1 Hack-Saw Frame, ISIo. 50 45 1 Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6", iron back .48 1 Stanley Miter-Box, No. 240 8.20 2 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 651/2 1.56 1 Stanley Fore-Plane, No. 6 2.22 1 Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78 1.10 1 Stanley "Bed Rock" Plane, No. 603 1.58 6 Iron Spokeshaves, No. 54 1.42 1 Veneer-Scraper, No. 80 .70 6 Each Molding-Scrapers, No. 2 and No. 7 .90 1 Scraper Steel, Richardson's, .10 3 Flat Bastard Files, K. & F., 8", handled 45 3 Half-Round Files, K. & F., 8", handled 55 3 Rat-tail Files, K. & F., 8", handled 33 4 Files, K. & F., 6", slim taper .36 1 Auger-Bit-File 13 1 File-Card, No. 1 .14 1 Empire Tool-CTrinder 2.80 1 Grindstone, No. 11, with stone 15.00 1 India Oilstone, No. 0, in box .95 1 Soft Arkansas Oil Slipstone, No. 6 18 1 Copperized Steel Oiler, No. 14A, % pint 23 • 2 Disston's Sliding T Bevel, No. 3, 6" 46 1 Stanley Miter-Square, No. 16, 10" 60 1 Sargent Steel Square, No. 2 69 1 Pair Starrett's Winged Dividers, No. 92, 8" 75 1 Chisel, No. 2, %", handled 20 3 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Gouges, No. 8, 1" 1.29 1 Buck Brothers' Gouge, No. 10, inside bevel, regular sweep, %". . . .43 4 Barber's Braces, No. 14, 6" sweep 3.52 1 Barber's Ratchet-Brace, No. 31, 12" sweep 1.62 5 Gimlet-Bits, 1 each of 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32" 40 1 Set Auger-Bits, R. Jennings" 4.46 1 Clark's Expansive-Bit, small .57 138 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 2 Screwdriver-Bits, V/', round blade. No. 10. 4" $0.32 3 Rose Countersinks, No. 10. ^" .68 6 Brad- Awls, assorted l"-liL'" 30 1 Hand-Drill, No. 51/2 2.45 Extra Drills, 2 each of No. 107. size. 10, 1.-), 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, (iO 1.42 C New Century Screwdrivers, 4" .96 1 New Century Screwdriver, 12" .54 6 0. K. Nailsets, assorted .42 6 Carpenter's Steel Bar Clamps, 3 ft 9.60 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 16, 10" 4.79 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 171/2, 6" 3.42 4 Carriage-Maker's Clamps, 6" 1.32 1 Automatic Miter-Clamp 1-80 1 Pair Pliers, No. 200, 5" 21 1 Coe's Monkey- Wrench, 10" 60 1 Glue-Pot, No. 3 82 1 Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 276 8.07 1 Gas Stove, 99A 55 1 Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154, 5" .88 1 Glass-Cutter, No. 10 27 3 Flat Varnish Brushes. No. 54, \V2". hard-rul)l)or-l)nund ( fin- shellac) 96 6 Cheap Brushes. 1", tin-l)ound (for stains). "EE" ,90 6 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters ( No. 5 1 1.80 6 Enamel Cups, i{. pint -60 1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41 17 Total for general tools $114.97 Total for individual tools 309.86 $424.83 Discount for schools, 10 per cent 42.48 $382.35 Lockers for individual work $150.00 $750 TOOL EQUIPMENT TXCLUDIXG 1 BENCH AND SET OF TOOLS FOR INSTRUCTOR AND INDIVIDUAL TOOLS 25 Manual Training School Benches. Hamniacher, Schlemnier & Co.'s 'M" with Toles' (luick-aitiiig Vise im side, (a $20 $.i()0.00 25 Stanley Jack-Planes, No. 5, 14", @ $1.74 each 43.50 25 Disston's Back-Saws, No. 4, 10", (a 93c each 23.25 EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 139 25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, %,", liaiulled and sharpened, @ $•2.21 doz $ 4.61 25 Buciv Brothers" Firnier-t'hisels, i/^". handled and sharpened. @ $2.68 doz 5.58 25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, 1". handled and sharpened, @ $.3.65. 7.61 30 Sloyd Knives. No. 7, 21/2" blade (6 extra) @ $3.25 doz 8.12 25 Hammond's Adze-eye Hammers, No. 3, 7 oz., @ $4.90 doz 10.21 25 Round Hickory Mallets. No. 4, @ $1.40 doz 2.91 25 Hardened Blade Try-Squares, No. 51/2, 6", @ $2.66 doz 5.57 25 Beech Marking-Gages, No. 64i/o, 8", @ $2.43 doz 5.07 25 Steel Bench-Rules, No. 300D, @ $4.80 doz 10.00 36 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752 (12 extra) 4.50 25 Maple Bench-Hooks, @ $2.00 doz 4.18 25 Bench-Dusters. No. 10, @ $2.70 doz 5.63 Total for individual tools $640.74 GENERAL TOOLS 6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 7. 22", 10 points $ 6.75 6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No. 7, 22", 8 points 6.75 4 Turning-Saws in frames, 14" 3.48 1 Doz. Turning-Saw Blades, 14" 1.06 1 Compass-Saw, Disston's No. 2, 10" .27 1 Stanley Miter-Box, No. 240 8.20 1 Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6". iron back .48 2 Coping-Saws, No. 110 40 1 Gross Coping-Saw Blades, 0" 1.00 6 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 65% 4.68 1 Stanley Fore-Plane, No. 6 2.22 1 Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78 1.10 2 Stanley's "Bed Rock" Smooth-Planes, No. 603 or 3.16 , Sargent's i\djustable-Frog Smooth-Plane 12 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters (No. 5) , 2" 3.60 1 Stanley Beading Rabbet and Matching Plane, No. 45 5.85 1 Stanley Router-Plane, No. 71 ' 1.37 6 Iron Spokeshaves, No. 54 1.42 6 Pattern-Makers' Spokeshaves, applewood, small. li/4" 1.52 2 Drawing-Knives, ^^'hite's No. 31, 6" 1.60 1 Stanley Adjustable Scraper-Plane, No. 112, with toothing cutter.. 1.43 1 Veneer-Scraper, No. 80 .70 3 Each Molding-Scrapers. No. 2, No. 7 .45 2 Dowel-Pointers, No. 1 00 1 Dowel-Plate 30 1 Scraper Steel, Richardson's •!*' 1 Iron Screw-Box, French, ^" 1.80 1-40 HANDWOliK IX WOOD. 4 Flat Bastard Files. K. & F., 8", liaiidlcd $0.60 4 Half-Round Files. K. & F., 8". liaiidled 72 4 Rat-tail Files. K. & F., 8", handled 44 4 Files, G", slim tajier 36 2 Auger-Bit- Files 25 1 File-Card. No. 1 14 1 Empire Tool-CTrinder 2.80 1 ({rindstdiie, No. 11. (iron frame and stone) 15.00 2 India ()i'stones. No. 2!) (mediTim), in iron l;ox 1.34 1 Soft Arkansas ( )il Slipstone, No. 6 18 2 Copperized Steel Oilei's, 14A, Vi; pint .46 6 Disston's Sliding T Bevels. No. 3, (i" 1.38 1 Stanley Miter-Sqnare, No. 10. 10" 60 1 Sargent Steel Sqnare. No. 2 60 2 Pairs Dividers, Starrett's winged, No. !)2. 8" 1.50 3 Serateh-Awls. Collier's, 4" 33 1 Pair 'rraiiiiiiel-l'oints, No. 1 .74 1 Try-S.piare, \uek Bros." No. 2, handled and sharpened: 1/1(1". 1/8". 3/16". 3/8". 3/4". 1 1 /2" 4.42 3 Eaeh outside-Bevel Gouges. Bu( k P>ros." I'^irmer, No. 8 handled and sliar])ened: V^" , ^ -j" . %" . 1" 3.55 3 Addis' Carving-Tools, round maple handles. No. 11, 5/32" 06 3 Addis" Veiniug-Tools, round maple handles. No. II. 1/16" 06 3 Inside-Bevel Gouges, regular sweep. No. 10. %" 1.29 6 Barber's Nickel-Plated Bi-aces. No. 14, 6" sweep 5.25 1 Barber's Katehet-P.raee, No. 31. 12" sweep 1.62 3 Eaeh (Jerman (Jindet-Bits, 2 32". 3 32". 4/32", 5/32". 6/32" 1.00 3 Eaeh Pu^sell deiuiings" Auger-Bits, 3/16", 4/16", 5/16". 6/16". 7 K;", 8 Ki" .' 4.18 2 Eaeh Kussell .Teiniings" Auger-Bits, genuine, 10/16". 11/16", 12/16", 13/16". 14/16". 15/16", 16/16" 6.19 1 Eaeh Foerstner's Auger-Bits, %", ,><^", Vz" 1.79 1 Clark's Expansive-Bit, Vo" to IVs" 57 3 Buck Bros.' Rose Countersinks. No. 10, 5,^" 78 1 Washer-Cutter. No. 350 65 1 Plug-Cutter, y^" 32 2 Screwdriver-Bits. Vo". round blade, 4" long 32 4 Each Brad-Awls, liamlled, 1", \%". \^-j" 60 6 New Century Screwdrivers, 4" .96 1 New Century Sci-ewdrixcr. 12" .54 1 Xew Century Screwthixcr, 8" .36 1 New Century Screwdrixcr, '^Vo". s'im .16 1 Dowel-Plate, ca-t vleel 30 EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 141 G U. K. Nailsets, assoiU'd 1, IG", 3/32", 1/8" 42 6 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 3 ft 9. GO 2 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 5 ft 3. GO 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. IG, 10" 4.79 12 Aldrieh's Oiled Handscrews, No. 17 V-;, G" 3.42 4 Carriage -Makers" Clamps, (i" 1.32 1 Automatic Miter-Clamp 1-80 2 Doz. Acme Pinch-Dogs, %" 30 1 Glue-Pot, No. 3 82 1 Gas Stove, No. 99A , 55 1 Coe's Monkey-wrench, 10" CO 1 Glass-Cutter, No. 10 27 G F'at Varni h I'luslus Xo. .")4, IVo". havd-iul>lici-li()\nid (for shellac) 1-58 12 Cheap Brushes, tin-bound, (for stains), EE, 1" 1.80 G Enameled Cups, 14 pint .60 1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41 -17 1 Pair Blackboard Compasses or Dividers 1.50 1 Blackboard Triangle, 4.5° 50 1 Blackboard Triangle, 30°xG0° 50 Total for general tools $189.83 METAL WOHKING T00L8 1 Bench, No. L, without vises •$ 8.00 1 Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 27() 8.07 1 Hand- Vise, No. 1230%, 4" 54 1 Hay-Budden Anvil, 10 lbs 3.07 1 Riveting-Hammer, Atha, 4 oz .32 1 Rivet-Set, No. 4 27 1 Cold-Chisel, 3/g" cutting edge 11 1 Cold-Chisel, 5/^" cutting edge .15 1 Cape-Chisel, ^" cutting edge .13 1 Round-nosed Chisel, %" 13 1 Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154. 5" 88 1 Pair Compton's Metal Snips, No. 12, 2" .G3 2 Pair Flat-nose Pliers, No. 180()yo, rV 58 1 Die-Holder, No. 11 32 1 Die, 5^"xi4", 6/32" 27 1 Hand-Drill, No. 51/2 2.45 Extra Drills, Morse's No. 107, 2 each, Nos, 10, l.i. 20, 2.5, 30, 35. 40, 4.5, .50, 55, GO 1.42 1 ]\Ietal Countersink, No. 15, 5y^" _, .18 1 Hack-Saw Frame, No. 50 43 6 Hack-Saw Blades, 8", H. S. & Co 25 1 Melting Ladle. 3" 19 1 Soldering Copper, 1 lb .31 142 HANDWORK IX WOOD. 1 Mill Bastard Fik-. S", 1 safe edgi-, handled.. 1 Mill Smooth File, G", handled 1 Square Ba.stard File, 8". handled 1 Half-round Bastard File, 8", handled 1 Slim Taper Saw-File, G", handled 1 Hound Bastard File. 4", handled 1 Atha Mat'hinisfs llaiiiincr, Ball-peen. (1 oz. .8.3 .38 Total for metal working tools $29.95 Glue and Stain Bench $ 15.00 Lockers for individual work for 3()() pupils 360.00 Nail and Screw Cabinet 35.00 $410.00 Individual Tools $040.74 General Tools 189.83 $830.57 Discount for scliools. 10 per cent 83.06 $747.51 Cabinets, lockers, etc 410.00 $1,157.51 Till-: CAi;!-: of tiiJ' woodwoi.-kixc; shop 77/ r gciicfdl ai-rtnii/cii/rnt nf I he raoni. Tin- iiii])()i'tant factors are tlie sourcv or soui'fcs of liiilit, and the linrs of travel. The eom- inoii arraugenient of heiiehes wliere two sides of the room are lighted, is sliown in n. Fig. •v^'5y. By this arrangement, as eaeh worker faces liis hench, Jie also faces one set of windows and lias anotlier set of windows at his left. The advantage of tins arrangement is that it is easy to test one's work with the try-s(|nai'e hy lifting it up to the light. Another arrangement, shown in ]>. Fig. "^oS. lias this advan- tage, that there are no shadows on the woi'k wlien it is lying on the hench and tlie woi'kei' is holding liis ruU' or try-square on it with Iris left hand. When all the windows are on one side of the room the latter is the more advantageous ari'angeinent. In detei'iniidng the ])Osition of the heiiches, especially with refer- ence to their distance I'l-oni each other, thought should he given to the general lines of traxc!. ti-oui the indixidual henches to the general tool-rack. 1o the linishing-tahle. to the lockers, etc. Even if all llie aisles cannot he w idi- enough hoth loi' passage and for woi'k, one wider one thru the center of the room mav solve the difficulty. Where EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 143 rooms are c-rowded, space may be economized b}' placing tlie benches in pairs, back to back, c and d. Fig. 338. In any case, room should always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teach- er's bench, for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and to think. The Tools. Every shop soon has its own traditions as to the ar- rangement of tools, but there are two principles always worth observ- t==l u T~l '" \l 0—1 1 ■[; 1—] J 1 (j— 1 1 BBS C=l C3 C=l I en en C=i ll ~i Pl C=l I m m m m n rn Fig. 238. Four Different Arrang-ements of Benches in a Shop. ing. (1) It is an okl saying that there should l)e "a i)lace for every- thing and everything in its place." This is eminently true of a well- ordered woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as im- portant. (2) Things of the same sort should be arranged together, and arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools. In arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered. In the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down an- 144 ]lAND\V()j;lv IN WOOD. other. Where the lack must iieuds Ix' lii.uh, all the tools ean be brought within reacli. by phuing hmg tools, like files, screwdrivers, etc., at the top. Siicli an arrangement is shown in Fig. 239. As to the imlividiial benches, those withoiTt liigh backs are to be piefcrreH. not onlv because of theii' convenience when it is desired Fiff. 230. General Tool rack in a School Shop. to woi'k on large inect's, like tal)le tops, and because tlie backs do not interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to look ovei' the room to set' that everything is in order. If the e(|uip- mi'iit is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the benches and tlie genei-al rack to see that evei-ything is in ])lace. In general, there are two mctliods of keeping guard over tools, the open and the closed. ]n the open method, everything is kept in sight so that em])tv ]ilaces can be discovered readily. This method is a convenient one. and, besides, tlie tools are always easily accessible. In the closed method, the tools are kv\)\ in drawers and cases where thev can l)e locked up. '^I'his method is suitable where pu])ils are EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 145 equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. In such a ease, the common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and in- dividual pupils' tools in separate drawers. This method has the dis- advantage that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their loss may not be discovered immediatelv. ()n the other hand, where K'» 4j«A «aiiii^^H " * u- ^ ^ 4 4 K 't ^ ^^H ^ WP L. _ . jiiHil -^ M L 1£ Bi^iki^^B ^ S4 It-- -rtif IP 1 M-.J^3^Z m E±r= ^ . i '^'^^ Ti Fig-. 240. Nail and Screw Cabinet. the drawers and cases aie kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is reduced almost to a minimum. Sometimes a combination of both methods is tried, the tools being kept m unlocked drawers. This method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disap- pearing. Even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious diffi- culties in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. Pu- pils who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not where they belong. Labels at the 2:)laces of the different sets may 146 HANDWORK IX WOOD. help somewhat ; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. Pu- pils will see that, when they will not stop to read a lal)el. In spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. A plan to cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require Fig-. 241. All Inexpensive Locker for Unfinished Work. a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. Then at the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is returned pro I'ata. There is diversity of practice in the distrihution of tools on the general case and on the individual benches. Some tools, like the EQUirMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 147 plane and chisel, and try-sqnare, are so frequently in use that each worker must have one at hand. As to others, the demand must de- termine the supply. One other consideration may be expressed by the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged, should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be discouraged, should be kept remote. Some tools, like files, it may be well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for. ^r-V \\^6M\^6^]^6'^ Si' 4 Si." 4 CD -i 5'6 -/& Fiy. 242. A More Expensive Locker for Unfinished Work. A cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in Fig. 240, for holding nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a ma- terial aid in preserving the order of the shop. As for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness. The planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. To c^ean them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. The best method of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wbeel on wliich has been rubbed some tiipoli. They may then be polished on a clean buffer without tripoli. The Locl-ers. In order to maintain good order in the shop, an ahuost in(lis])ensab]e ]»art of the equipment is a set of lockers for hold- 148 HAXDWOUK rS' WOOD. ing the unfinished work of pupils. An inex})ensive outfit may consist simply of sets of shelves, say 5" apart, 12" deep, and 1 iii(' (])anclcd) may cost at the rate of $1.00 per compartment. There should, of course, be a separate coiupai'tiiient foi' each ]Mipi! using the sho|). Where possible, there should niso he a special table EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 149 Fitr. 244. Sliellac Utensils. for staining and gluing. Where strict econuni\- must be practiced, a good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. A better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that shown in Fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc. Where no staining- table is possible, temporary coverings of oil- cloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for the purpose. Care of hrmlics and materials used in finishing wood. Shellac should be kept in glass or pot- tery or aluminum receptacles but not in any metal like tin, which darkens it. A good plan is to have a bottle foi' fresh, untouched shellac, a wide-mouthed jar for that which has been diluted and used, and an enameled cup for use. There should also be a special brush, Fig. 244. At the time of using, first see that the brush is soft and jiliable. If it is stiff, it can be soaked quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. Tliis alcohol may then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. Then pour out a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with some fresh shellac. After using, pour back the residue into the jar, carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. What little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the brush may be left standing in the cu]) until required. The import- ant things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only, (indeed, it is a good plan to label them "SHELLAC ONLY,") and to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evapo- rate. In a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to lie fre- quently used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar. Varnish brushes need to he cleaned thoroly after each using. If they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great dif- ficultv. 150 llAXDWOKK IX WOOD. Brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing water and then haying them flat in a box. Cups in which the stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water. Brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good con- dition, by being hung in a l)nisb-keeper. Fig. 545, (sold l)y Devoe & Reynolds, 101 Fulton St., X. Y. C) partly filled witli turpentine. The same brushes may also be used for filkTS. Oil stains should 1)6 poured back into their respective bot- tles, and the cups wiped out witb cotton waste. When they get in bad condition, they can bi' tlean('(l readily after a pre- liminary soaking in a strong- solution of potash. The same treatnu'nt may be given to brushes, but if they are left soaking too long in the solu- tion, file lu'istles will be eaten off. ; witb water Fig. 245. Brusli-keeper. EQL'IPMEXT AND CARE OP THE SHOP References : * Murray. Year Rook 1900. p. 69. Bailey, ,1/. T. Ma > c i.ay-dul for Thru Doweling-. Till-: coM:\rox joints. 153 Fig-. 247. Thru Boring- for a Butt Joint. fflp IP ■mmmmmm. t 1 d ^' < FifiT. 248. Gluing Up a Four-leg-ged Stand. 154 IIAXDWORK IX WOOD. sides are glued at a time, i'ieees ol' [)n|)rr are laid inside the gluing blocks to prevent them from sticking to the 'egs. In case tlie ddwels are to be hidden the chief diflficnlty is to lo- cate the holes jiroperly. One method of procedure is as follows: To dowel the end of one member against thi' faee of the other as a stiinger into a rail or a rail into a table leg, first lay out the position of the dowels in the end of the first member, X. Fig. ^?41). Gage a center-line, A B, across this end length- wise, locate the centers of the dowel-holes, and s(piaie across with a knife point, as CD and KV. . On the face so gaged, lay the first member on its side so that one arris lies )tt' the [loints 1) and F, to get the 0=; A ^/^ ^ "/ 1 I P f /^ 1 ^^ R Fig'. 249. Layiiijr out a Dowel Joint. along this gaged 'iiu' and pi ie centers of the dowel-holes. If. as is usual, theif are a nuiidier ot similar joints to be made, a device like that •^howii in Fig. "i 4!i will expedite matters. 1 and :vi\ tiom the end of the leg. \Adien the ceiileis ai'e all niarl-;ed. hoie the holes. Insert the dowe's into the hole- aiul uud I. is made by driving nails diagonalh thru the corneis of one uu'udfM' into the other. It is used in faslening the studding 1o the sill in balloon fi'aming. A'o. !(). A i/nnr-hiill juiiil. Fig. •.'(•.!, is made hy inserting an iron bolt tbi'U a. hole in one meniher and into the other to meet a nut THE COMMON JOINTS. 155 inserted from the side of the second member. It is very strong and is used in bencli construction, wooden machinery, etc. No. 11. A plain butt-joint, Fig. 264, is one in which the mem- bers join endwise or edgewise without overlapping. It is used on returns as in ordinary boxes and cases. A^o. 12. A glued and hloclrd joint. Fig. 264, is made by gaiing and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which arc butted and glued together. It is used in stair-work and cabinei:- work, as in the corners of bureaus. No. 13. A hopper-joint.^ Fig. 264, is a butt-joint, but is peculiar in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on account of the pitch of the sides. It is used in hoppers, bins, chutes, etc. The difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper angle for the edges of the pieces. This may be done as follows : After the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by the pitch of the sides. Lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper on the outside of the end pieces. From the ends of these lines, on the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with the knife and try-square. Connect these lines on what will be the inside of the hopper. Saw off the surplus wood and plane to the lines thus scored. The side pieces may be finished in the same way, and the parts are then ready to be assembled. HALVING- JOINTS A halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the notch in the other, so that the up23er and under surfaces of the mem- bers are flush. No. IJ/.- A cross-lap joint, Fig. 264, is a halved joint in which both members project both ways from the joint. This is a very com- mon joint used in both carpentry and joinery, as where stringers cross each other in the same plane. The two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size, either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see Chap. IX. p. 204. Lay one member, called X, across tbe other in the position which they are to occupv when finished and mark plainly their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. Locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called Y. on one 156 HANDWORK IX WOOD. arris, and from tliis jxtiiit lay off on this arris half tlie width of the upper piece, X. From this point square across Y with the Ixuife and try-square. Lay X again in its pk^ce, exactly along the line just scored. Then nurrk with the knife on Y the width of X, which may then be removed and the second line squared across Y. From these two lines square across both edges of Y" to approximately one- half the thickness. Xow turn X face down, lay Y on it, and mark it in the same way as Y. Set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. Then even if one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit. Cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife- marks, Fig. 91, p. GG, saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel out the waste as in a dado, see Figs. 70 and Tl, p. oO. The bottom of the dado thus cut should be fiat so as to afi'ord surface for gluing. When well made, a cross-la}) joint does not need to be pounded together but will lit tight under pressure of the hands. Xo. 15. A middle-lap joint or hid red tee, Fig. 2Go, is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint, l)ut one member projects from the joint in only one direction. It is used to join stretchers to rails as in lloor timbers. Xo. Hi. All cml-tiiii joint. Fig. ■Jii.'). is nu\de in the same way as a cross-lap joint exce])t that the joint is at the end of both mend^ers. It is used at the cornei's of sills and plates, also sometimes in chair-seats. To make an end-lap joint, i)lace the members in their relative positions, faces up, and mark jilainly. Mark carefully on each mem- ber the inside corner, allowing the end of each member slightly ( 1/1 (>" ) to overlap the other. Square across at these points with a sharp knife point, on the under side of the upper member, and on the upper side of the lower member. Xow proceed as in the cross-lap joint, except that tlie gaged line runs around the end and the cut- ting must be done exactly to this line. Xo. 17. In an enddiip joint on mt)leted piecei^. Fig. 265, the joint must be adapted to the I'abbet. The rabbet should therefore l)e plowed before the joint is made. Tbe rablx't at the end of tlie ])iece X is cut not the entii'e width oC the piece Y, but only the width of the lap, — c-f=a-e. This joint is used occasionally in picture- frames. THE COMMON JOINTS. 157 No. IS. A dovetail hah-ing or lap-do retail, Fig. 265, is a mid- dle-lap joint with the pin made dovetail in shape, and is thus better able to resist tension. It is used for strong tee joints. No. 19. A herded hairing. Fig. 265, is made like a middle-lap joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. It is very strong when loaded above. It was formerly used in house framing. MODIFIED HALVING JOINTS No. 20. A nolelieil joint. Fig. 265, is made by cutting out a portion of one timber. It is used where it is desired to reduce the height occupied by tlie upper timber. Joists are notched on to wall plates. No. 21. A eliccl-ed joint or double notcli, Fig. 265, is made by cutting out notcbcs from both the timbers so as to engage each other. It is used where a single notch would weaken one member too much. No. 22. A cogged or corl-ed or caulked joint. Fig. 265, is made by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower })iece, leaving a '"cog" uncut. From the u[)i>er piece a notch is cut only wide enough to receive the cog. A cogged joint is stronger than a notched because tlie upper beam is not weakened at its point of support. It is used in heavy framing. No. 2S. A forked tenon joint. Fig. 265, is made by cutting a folk in the end of one member, and notching the other meml)er to lit into the fork, so that neither piece can slip. It is used in knock- down furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail, Avliere it is desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be continuous. No. 21/. A r8). at tbe (le|itb to wbicb tills uieniber is to be dadoeil in. Set the bevel-s(|U;i!'e at I be [iroper angle for a do\'etail. Fig. "i-lO. Score this angle on tlu' edij-es of the meinbei'. as at (' 1). Cut a groove with THE COMMON JOINTS. 159 a knife on the waste side of A B. Saw to the depth A C, and chisel ont the interior angle A C D. Then lay out the other menil;)er, X, thus : mark with the knife the proper place for the flat side of /f /A JK JK i MiThing focfj->^ Y, square this line across the face and on the edges as for a simple dado. Lay out the thickness of Y on the face of X by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges, not with a knife but with a sharp pencil point. Gage the required depth on the edges. Xow with the bevel-square as al- ready set, lay out the angle A C D on the edges of X, and across the face at C score a line with knife and try-S(|uare. Cut out grooves in the waste for the saw as in a simple dado, and saw to the proper depth and at the proper angle. Chisel or rout out the waste and when complete, fit the pieces together. No. 29. A f/ain joint. Fig. 266, is a dado whicli runs only partly across one member, X. In order to make the edges of both members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner of the other member, Y, is correspondingly notched out. In book shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado. A gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that the lines are not carried clear across the face of X, and only one edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. Knife grooves are made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. Before saw- ing, the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required depth. To avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and chiselino; out of waste mav be carried on alternatelv, a little at a Fig-. 250 Laying- Out a Dovetail Joint. 1(30 ]1AXD\V()KK IX WOOD. Fig. 251. Depth jrayp for Dado. time, till the r('(|uiiv(l depth is reaclu'(h It is easy to measure the depth of the cut hy means of a small nail ])rojeeting the proper amount from a trial stick. Fig. -^51. The use of the router. Fig. 122, p. 83, facilitates tlu' cutting, and insures an even depth. MOKTISE-AXD-TEXOX J OIXTS The tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on both sides of the pait left in the middle. The mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the tenon and is nuide slightly deeper than the tenon is long. The sides of the tenon and of the mortise are called "cheeks" and the "slioul- (k'rs" of the tenon are the parts abutting against the mortised piece. Xo. SO. A .^ti(h iHorflsc-mnl-fnitJii. Fig. 2(50. is made by cutting only two sides of the tenon beam. It was formerly used for lower ends of studding or other upright })ieces to pi-event lateral motion. Xo. SI. A llirii iiiiirfisr-iiin/-irn. In cutting the tenon, first rip-saw Just outside the gaged lines, then crosscut at the shoulder lines. Do all the rip-sawing before the crosscutting. If the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for all cuts. It is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of tbe tenon to insure its starting easily into the mortise. Locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife nuirks on the finished piece. Then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. As in the case of like tenons, if there are a nuudjer of mortises all alike, set the gage only twice for them all. In cuttliKj the tiiDrlise, fiist fasten the piece so that it will rest solid on the bench. Tliis may be done either in a tail vise or l)y a handscrew, or by c'amping the Ijendi-hook firm'y in the vise in such a way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. Then ta]) the l)ench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be beld tightly down on the bench. See Fig. 76, p. 58. It is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of ad- joining holes whose centers folow the center-'ine of the mortise and Avhose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. Take care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see Fig. 13T. ]). 8(i, ami no deeper than necessary. Dig out the portions of wood between the auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to the knife-lines, taking care all rhe time to keep the sides of the mor- tise perpendicular to the face. This may be tested l)y placing the chisel against the side of the mortise and standing a'ongside it a try-square with its head resting on tbe surface. Finally test the tenon in the uiortise noting carefully where it pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. The tighter it fits without danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint. Many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. For this purpose a uiortise-chisci. Fig. (is. ]>. T^A. is desiral)le. The method is 162 llAXDAVORK IN WOOD. to begin at the middle of the mortise, phicing the chisel — whicli should be as wide as the mortise — at right angles to the grain of the wood. Chisel ont a \^ shaped opening about as deep as the mortise, and then from this hoh' work back to eaeh end. occasionally prying out the chips. Work with the liat side of the chisel toward the mid- dle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise. Xo. SS. In a niortisc-aud-fnioii joint on rabbrted pieces, Fig. v^6G, the tenon is as much shorter ou one side than the other as the rabbet is wide. Jn Fig. 33, ab=cd. Xo. SJ/. A wedged niortise-aiid-tenon joinf. Fig. 26(i, is a thru joint in whicli after the tenon is driven lioiiic, wedges are driven in between the tenon and the sides of the mortise. The wedges are dipped in glue oi- wliite lead before l)eing inserted. The sides of the mortise nuiy be slightly dovetailed. It is used to keep a tenon tightly fixed as in wheel s})okes. Xo. So. .1 inuh/cd inoiiise-ond-tenon joint, Fig. 366, may also be made ))v driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in 34. It is used in ornamental joints as well as in carpentry. Xo. 36. A fo.r-titil tenon. Fig. •iiKi. is a blind inortise-and-tenon in which the mortise is made slightly wider at the bottom than the width of the tenon. Wedges a)e di'iven into saw kerfs in the tenon before inserting into the mortise; then when it is driven home the wedges spread out the tenou and make it fill out the mortise. It is used in strong doors and also where the moi'tised member is already in place so that a wedged niortise-r.nd-tenon is impossible. Xo. o7. A dorctail niortisc-inul-lcnon . Fig. 3(i6, is a thru inor- tise-and-ten(m beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail. The corresponding side of the mortise is also beveled and made wide enough so that when the tenon is ])ressed well up against its beveled side a wedge may be di'iven into the s])ace left on the straight side. It is used to tenon a beam into a post especially where the post is fixed against a wall. It is also used in machinery frames which are made of wood. Xo. -iS. A /linncd niortisc-dtid-tcnon. Fig. 267, is one in which a ]iin is diiven thru ho'es hored thiu the mortised beam and thru the tenon to keep them from di'awing a])art. it is used in heavy framing as in bridges, in wagon-making, in window-sash, etc. THE COMMON JOINTS. 163 No. 39. A keyed niortise-aiid-tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which the tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member. It is used in work-benches and in ornamental joints like knock-down bookcases and in other mission furniture. The keyed mortise-and-tenon is made as in a thru mortise-and- tenon, except that before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges should be laid out thus: measuring from the shoulder of the tenon, locate by superposition or measurement the outside of the mortised member. De- duct from this 1/16" and square a fine pencil -line across the face and opposite side. This line will be the inside of the hole for the wedge, and the 1/16" is deducted to make sure that the key wedges against the mortised member. On the upper surface of the tenon, lay off toward the end tlic width of the wedge at this point, A B, Fig. 253, and square across. On the under sur- face, lay off the width of the wedge at this point, C D, and square across. Gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower sur- faces of the tenon. After cutting the mortise and tenon, l)ore and chisel out the hole for the wedge, taking care to cut the side toward the end on a bevel to fit the wedge. No. Jf-0. A tml- tenon or shoulder tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which the tenon proper is quite thin but is reinforced by a thicker shoulder called a "tusk." The upper shoulder is beveled. The object of this form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at the same time to increase the strength of the tenon. It is used in joining tail beams to headers in floor framing. No. Jf.1. A double mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 267, consists of two tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mor- tises. It is used in joinery, as in door-frames, but not in carpentry. No. If2. A haunclied mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is made by cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of it will be much shorter than the rest. The haunch o-ives the tenon great lateral ,, f] 1 1 A 6 _ C • P 'J Fig-. 252. Keyed Mortise-and- Tenon Joint. 164 IIAXDWUUK iX WOOD. strene,'th and saves cutting so large a mortise hole. It is used in panel construction, as where the rails are Joined to the stiles of doors. First i)!ow the groove in all the ineinl)ers. This should be of the same width as the thickness of the tenons, which is ordinarily one- third of the thickness of the frame. The groove is approximately as deep as it is wide. Lay out antl cut the tenon the width of the entire piece, minus, of couise, the depth of the groove. The mortise should not come too near the end. or the ])ortion of wood outside it will shear out. Hence the tenon is narrowed on the outside enough to insure stiength in tlu' mortised piece. The rule is tluit the tenon should l)e one-halt the width of the I'ail. minus the groove. But enough of the tenon is left full width to iill up the groove at the outer end of the mortised piece. This is called the Jiaiuwh. The width of the mortise is equal to the width ot the groove, its length to the width ot the tenon. Before asscnd)ling the panel frame, put soap or tallow oii the corners of the paiu'l to ])i'cvcnt its l)eing glued to the frame. No. J/-i. Table or hi per ho imr/i i in/ . Fig. "illT. Sometimes, as in table construction, for the sake of stitfening the rail, or in ])laces Avliere it is desirable that the haunch does not show, the haunch is bev- eled from the tenon to the edge of the rail. Xo. Jj.!/. A liori'-foeed tenon. Fig. '^(iT, is one in which a cheek is cut from only one side. It is used where the rail is thinner than the stile and it is desiralde to keep the mortise near the niidd'e of the stile. Xii. 'i'l. .1 lionseil ninrflse-onil-teni)n . Fig. "iliT, is one in which the wlu)le of the end of one mend)er is let in foi- a short distance or "housed'" into the other. It is connuon in gi'ill work and in railings. Xo. Jpi. J s/iii-jdlnl or I'lnl or o/ieii nntrlise-iinil-tenon, Fig. 26T, is what w(udd remain if a moilised mend)er were sawn ofp along one side of the tenoned memher. W'inihnv screens and other light frames such as those for slates and foi' [trinting ])hotographs have this joint. This joint multiplied is used for small machine-made boxes, and is then cal'eil eoriier hirlrimj. |)(»\i;ta]l .loix'rs "Dovetail" refi'rs to the shape of the pi'ojeetions of one member, when looked at bi'oadside. These |)idjeeiions are called dovetails, or mei'eiv tails. THE COMMOJf JOINTS.. 165 The projection^? on the other member are called tenons or pins, and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or sockets. No. 47. A fliru siiKjlc dovetail, Fig. 2'6'^i, is similar to a slip-joint except that instead of a tenon there is a dovetail. It is used in win- dow-sashes. No. Jf-S. A thru iimttiple dovetail, Fig. 2GT, consists of a series of alternate tails and tenons which fit one another closely. It is used in tool-chests and in other strong as well as fine boxes. To make a thru multiple dovetail joint, first S(|uare lines with a sharp pencil around the ends of both members to locate the inner ends of the dovetail's and the pins, d e on X, Fig. 250, and 1 m on Y. The distance of this line from the ends of each member may, if de- sired, be slightly (1/32") greater than the thickness of the other member. Divide this line, d e, on the member to be dovetailed, X. into as many equal spaces as there are to be tails (dovetails). From the division points of these spaces, a b c, to the right and left lay off' one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out, and also the same distance from d and from e, as at f f f f and g g g g. The strongest arrangement of dovetai's is to nuike them equal in width to the spaces between them, as in Xo. 48, p. 267. For the sake of appearance they may be as much as four times as wide as the spaces, but ordinarily should not be wider than 1-34". Set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle A B C, Fig. 250, p. 159, in a right angle triangle, the long side of which is 3" and the short side ^". This is approximately an angle of 80° or a little more than one to five. From the points f f f f and g g g g lay off this angle to the end of the piece. Carry these lines across the end at right angles to the surface, h i. Fig. 250, and repeat the dovetail angles on the other surface. Mark plainly the parts to be cut out (the mortises), as on X in Fig. 250. Score with a knife point the in- ner ends of the mortises, d to f, g to f, etc., and across the edge at d and at e. With a dovetail-saw, Fig. 93, p. G6, cut on the mortise side of each line down to the cross line, d-e, and also along the cross line from d to f and e to g. Chisel out the mortises taking care to keep the line d-e straight and square. The ends (not the sides) of the mortises may be slightly undercut to insure a tight fit. Fasten the other member, Y, upright in the vise so that the end to be tenoned will bo flush with the top of the bench, and with the work- 166 HANDWORK IX WOOD. ing face toward the bencli. Place on it the working face of X, (the member already dovetailed,) taking care that the inner ends of the mortises are in line with the working face of Y, and that the edges of the two members are in the same plane, as X on Y in Fig. 350. Scribe witli a knife point along the sides of the tails on the end of Y' (f'-j' and g'-h'). Remove Y from the vise and square down these lines to the cross line 1-m (j-n and h'-o). Score with the knife point the inner ends of the mortises of Y (n-o). Saw with a dovetail-saw on the mortise sides of these lines, chisel out the mortises and fit the parts together. When glued together, the joints should be dressed off. Where there are several parts to be made alike, it is necessary to lay out the dovetails on only one X member. This may be used as a templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn sepa- rately. Or all the X members may be clamped carefully together, with one X already laid out, rights and lefts in pairs, and edges and ends flush, the depth nuirk gaged all around, and then all sawn at once. The dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the members having the pins, and tlien su])erposing this on the piece to be dovetailed, and scribing around the pins. Xo. J/9. A lap or lidlf l)Und dovetail. Fig. 267, is a dovetail joint in which the tails on one member do not extend entirely thru the thickness of the other member. It is used in joining the sides to the fronts of drawers and other fittings where only one side is seen. If the joint is to be used for a drawer front, the groove for the drawer bottom should be cut or at least laid out before laying out the joint. See also drawers, p. 190, and Fig. 287, p. 191. On the end of the drawer front, gage the depth of the joint. C4age the same distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides, marking from the front ends. Lay out and cut the dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint, taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely within the. lower tail. Take care also to make the sides, one right and one left, not both alike, so that the groove will come inside. Lay out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side. X, on the end of the front, Y, as in a thru dovetail. Saw and chisel out the mortises and fit together. No. 50. A stopped lap dovetail. Fig. 3()7, is one in which neither the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members. Hence the joint is concealed. The lap nuiy be rounded. It is used in fine boxes, trays, etc. THK CO:\niON JOINTS. le'; No. ol. TJie blind miter or -secret doveiail. Fig. 267, is a joint in which only part, say one-half, of both boards is dovetailed, the outer portion being initered. The edges of the boards are also mitered right thru for a short distance so that when finished the dovetails are invisible. It is used in highly finished boxes. BEVELED JOINTS A beveled joint is made by beveling the members so that the plane of the joint bisects the angle at which the members meet. This is called the "miter" and may be 45 degrees or any other angle. It is a neat but weak joint unless reinforced by a spline, nails, or in some other way. No. f)i2. A plain miter. Fig. 268, is a joint where the beveled edges or ends abut and are simply glued or nailed to- gether. It is commonly used in picture-frames, inside trim, columns, boxes, and taborets, four or more sided. For gluing mitered frames, the most convenient way is with the aid of the picture-frame-vise, Fig. 172, p. 101. Nails are driven oi splines inserted as soon as each joint is glued. Where this vise is not available, an ordinary metalworking vise may be used, as follows : Fasten one member, X, face side up, firmly in the vise. Bore holes Fig-. 253. Gluing- Tog-ether a Picture-Frame (See also Fig. 254. Fig-. 254. Picture-Frame-CIamp. 16H IIANDAVUI.'K IX WOOD. in tJie other iiiciiilici'. V. at the pioper places for the nails. Insert nails in the hoh-s. api»ly the glue to l)oth niitered surfaces, place the glued surfaces together, letting Y project ahout 1/8" beyond X. A conrenient way to hold V in ]dace is in the left hand, palm up, whik Fig. 255. Picture-Frame-Clamp. (See also Fig-. 254.) the left forearm rests upon X. Drive one of the nails home, and continue driving until the parts exactly fit. Then drive home the other nail. Now fasten together in the same way the other two mem hers of tlie picture-frame, and then, one at a time, the third and foiiith jnitit. This is the method used in ])icture-frame factories, and when oiicc IcariU'd is very sinijile. Foi- gluing togetiu'r at once all the nu'inhers of a mitered frame. the de\ ice shown in Fig. 253 is convenient and is easily made. Out of two pieces of wood somewhat longer than the two end THE COMMON JOINTS. 169 pieces of the frame, gains are cut of the exact length of tlie ends, as shown in the illustration. By applying two c'.anips lengthwise on the frame, all four Joints nuiy he glued together at once. If the frame does not come u]) square, it may l)e s(|uare(l hy means of a temporary brace, A, in Fig. 253. The device shown in Figs. 254 and 255, is also an easily nuide and efficient tool. At least the small jiieces, which receive the corners of the frame, should be made of hard wood such as maple. It is self- adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow frame by over pressure. It is well to soap or oil the corner pieces to prevent their being glued to the frame. In sfluino- together long mitered joints, in six or eight sided tab- orets or columns, in which the members meet edgewise, one method is to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in wedges under the wire to obtain pressure, Fig. 256. Another method is to wrap a stout rope, such as is used for window weights, around all the pieces, properly set up, then to tighten it by twisting it w^ith a stick thru a loop. Fig. 257. A still more effective way is by means of the Xoxall Column Clamp, a powerful device, used chiefly for gluing up such pieces as the pillar of a centrally supported table. Fig. 259. Care must be taken with all these devices to protect the corners, unless they are to be rounded off afterward. A good way to protect them is with })ieces fastened together in the shape shown in Fig. 258, h. and Fig. 257, the interior an- gle being equal to the exterior ang'e of the piece to be glued. In the case of a taboret with slender legs, care must he taken to insert blocks between the separate legs as well, to brace them apart and to keep them from l)ending un- Fig. 2S6. Gluiiifr up a Column Joint. (Pinch-Doys at Top of Joints.) 170 IIANDWUUK IX WOOD. der the pressure. These luethoils li;ne the a(l\anta,i;e that they are speedy, sinet' all the pieees go togethei' at oiu'e: hut uidess the pieces fit exactly the joints will not close. Another nietliod is to glue and elani|) the pieees of the tal)Oi'et to^ getliev two hy two, using Idoeks as shown in Fig. "258, a. Cai'e slionld he taken to put the pressnre of the handserews as far out as possihle so as to he sure that the outside of the joint closes. This method has the advantage that, as only one joint is glued at a time, the woi'k can he done nioie deliherately. Moi'i'over, if when three pairs of a six-sided tahoiet aie togethei', the othei- three joints do not fit exactly, th.ey can then he i'etitt(,'(l. x\nother method is to glue pieces ot soft wood on the exterioi- of each pieces as shown in Fig. 2.-)S. r. These hlorks should he of such shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel. When the glue is dry. they are used as comu'rs on wliit-h to clamp the hand- sel ews. This luethod has the (lisad\antage that the hlocks may hreak loose at a critical uioMient. in addition to any of these methods of tightening the joints, to luake sure that the vWiU of the joints close tight, |iiiu-li-dogs, h'ig. 178, p. 103, luay he driven into the end grain, and corrugated fasten- ers. Fig. 228, p. 125, also driven into the ends, make the joint (|uite Secure. No. 5-3. A doweled miter. I''ig. 2()8, is one in which (UU' or luoi'e dowels are inserted and glued into liole- l)(U"ed into the heveled edges. It uuiy he used instead of nails, as in large picture frauu's. X(i. ■').'/. A splnii' (ir loiKjiir niili'r. I'"ig. 2tiS. is (Uie which has a spline oi- tongue inserted at light angles to the joint. Since it fur- nishes more gluing surface, it is stronger than a plain miter. Xo. .')■'). .1 s/i p-friil In r or sli/i-lmi iiiilrr. i'"ig. 2(iS, is one which is strengthened hy a slip (d' hardwood glued into a saw keif cut across the miteied an^'le. It is used in nicl ure-frauies and in hoxcs. Fig. 257. Oiu- Method of (iluing' up a Six-Sided Taboret THE COMMON JOINTS. 171 iVo. 56. A slip-dovetail miter. Fig. 268, is one in which a trape- zoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight across the miter. When dressed otf, it gives the appearance of a dovetail on each face. It is used for the same purpose as a spline miter. No. 57. A double dovetail l-eyed miter. Fig. 268, is one . ' 1-1 T 11 1 J. -1 1 Fig-. 258. Devices for t^luiiiff Beveled Edges m Avhich a double dovetail key made of hard wood is inlaid across the Joint. This is a favorite joint with Oriental joiners. No. 5S. A ledge and miter or lipped miter joint, Fig. 268, is made hy rabbeting and raitering the boards to be joined so that the outer portion of the two boards meet in a uiiter. It is strong and good looking and may be glued or nailed. It is used for tine boxes. No. 59. A stopped miter, Fig. 268, is useful for joining pieces of different widths, when both sides can be seen. No. 00. A double-tongue miter, Fig. 268, is made by cutting on the adjoining edges tongues which engage in each other. It is nsed in high class joinery, on mem- bers that join lengthwise of the grain. No. 61. A stretcher joint, Fig. 268, is a slip joint in which one or both sides is mitered. It is nsed in frames for stretching canvass for paintings Ijy driving wedges from the inside. Two forms are shown in 61a and 61b. No. 62. A strut joint. Fig. 268, is a form of miter joint used in making trusses. No. 63 and 64- A thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint, Fig. 268, is one in which two l)eams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the thrust of the other. Tlie toe may be either square as in 63, or oblique as in 61. The pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron. It is used for the batter braces of bridges. No. 65. A plain brace joint. Fig. 269, is one in which the brace is simply mitered and naiU'd into place. It is nsed for bracket supports. Fig-. 254. Columii-Clanip. 172 HAXDWORK IX WOOD. Ko. 00. A lioitscd brave joiiil. Fig. ">?()!», is a joint in wiiieli the brace is honsed into the reetaniiular nienibers except that the outer end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diag- onally to receive the brace Mdiicli is cut to correspond. It is much stronger than 05. No. 07. All ohiiqur niortise-and-tcnoii or hevel-skoulder joint. Fig. 269, is one in Avhich the shoulders of the tenoned beam aie cut obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles. The cheeks of the mortise are correspondingly sunk. By these means the tenon pre- vents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against tlie abutment. Thus a much largei' hearing surface is ()l)taineil. The whole is bolted or strapped together. It is used in heavy truss work. No. OS. A hrii/lr joint. Fig. 'iC)\), is an oblique joint in wliicli a bridle or "tdnguc" is left in an ol)li(|ue notch cut out ol' one beam Over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut oldicpiely in the other beam. ]t is used in truss construction. No. 00. A hirtl's iiioiifli joint. Fig. "iC)!), is an angular notch cut in a tind)er to allow it to fit snugly over the mendier on which it I'ests. It is used in rafters where they lit over tln' ])'att'. j\o. 70. A jilnin or rnhhnj or s(iu('i".i'il or ;/hic joint. Fig. 3(>9, is one in which the edges of two l)oards are glued and rubl)ed together tight. It is used in table-tops, drawing-boards, etc. To make tbis joint, first the boards are all laid down flat, side by side, and arranged in the jirojier order. Three considerations deter- mine what this order is to be: (f ), if llie grain is of prime import- ance, as in quartered oak. then the boards are arranged so as to give the best appearance of the grain. ('J), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that of the adjac-ent oiu's. For this purpose the boards are so laid that the annual rings of one shall alternate in direetion with the annual rings of the next, Fig. *280, a, p. 188. (;;), if possible, tlie boards should be so arranged that after being glued together they can a'l be ])laned smootli in tlie same dii'ection. Wlu'U the aI)ove requirements have been met so I'ai- as jtossibU'. this oi'der should be mai'ked on ad- joining edges for later identilieation. The edges of the boards to be joined should he linislied with a jointei'. Thei'e ai'e two |iiMiiei|»al iiielliods ot gluing edge-to-edge joints, rubbing and s(juee/jng. in a ruMied joint, llii' surfaces to be joined slundd be |i'aned so as lo meet tlii'U(Uit exactly. After ])ro])erlv ))lan- THE COMMON" JOINTS. 178 Fijr. 260. Applying- Glue for an Edge-to-Edtre Joint. ing one edge of each board, keep one board iu the vise, jointed edge up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. Then use these four tests for an exact fit. (1) Sight down the end to see that the faces lie in the same plane. (3) Examine the crack froui both sides. Be sure that both ends touch. Test this by pu 1- ing down hard on one end of the upper board and noticing if the other end is still in con- tact. If the other end opens, swing the upper board hori- zontally on the lower board to see where the high place is and then correct it. (3) S.ee if the upper board stands firmly on the lower board l)y feeling gently to see if it rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board, (-i) Slide the top board slowly on the lower one to feel if it adheres or ''sucks."" After the pieces have been warmed, which should be done if pos- sible, the glue is spread on them, Fig. 260, and they are then rubbed slowly back and forth in the direction of the grain, pres- sure being applied by the hand and care being taken not to open the Joint in tbe least. As the glue sets, the rubbing becomes more difficult. It should be stopped when the boards are in their proper relative positions. In rub- bing together the edges of two boards, handscrews may be fastened to one in such a a way that their jaws serve as guides for the other board to slide between, Fig. 361. Care must be taken to make the jaws of the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board. Another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and project- ing above the lower board. This spare hoard acts as a guide against Fig-. 2bl. Rubbiiiff a Glued Joint. 174 HANDWORK IN WOOD. which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth. The rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards. In joining long boards, a squeezed joint is common. In this case, the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end. The object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the middle. The pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close up the middle, and, especially if dowels are inserted, as in No. 75, the joint will bo strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards. ^Ahen tbe fit is good, warm the wood if possible, prepare the clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be to- gether, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush, and set away to dry for at least six hours. Then another piece may be added in the same manner. If the boards are thin and wide, and therefore likely to buckle, they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to pre- vent their buckling. The cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of the clamps may come on the glued joint. No. 71. A rebated, rabbeted or filUstered joint, Fig. 269. Rebat- ing is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of wood. The re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate or rabl)et. A rel)atc(l joint, then, is one in which corresponding re- bates are taken off edges so that the joined boards may overlap. It is used in flooring and sid- ing. A lioard is rebated and fil- leted when two adjoining re- bates are filled with a fillet. No. 72. A matched or tougac-aiid-groove joint. Fig. '3(")ii. is made by making a pro- jection or "tongue" in the cen- ter of the edge of one board, and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they will match togetluM-. When used for flooring, the lower side of the grooved ttoai'd is sliglilly r('l)ated so that the upper edges will surely toiii'h. This s(H-t of lloorins- can he blind-nailed. -M^ ^ fL-<^ s^^^ y ^ /^ p^; ^ // ^^^ / — ' Fig. 2<)2. PM^re-to-Kdg-e Joint, Doweled. THE COMMON JOINTS. 175 No. 73. A headed joint. Fig. 269, is similar to a matched joint except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for decorative purposes. iYo. 74. A spline-joint. Fig. 269, is made by plowing correspond- ing grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip- feather. It is used in plank flooring. No. 7-5. A doweled joint. Fig. 269, is made by jointing the two edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel pins when the two edges are glued together. It is used in table tops, etc. Where the boards are thick enough to allow it, a squeezed joint is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels. The essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. The following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to edge, Fig. 262. Place the two boards back to back in the vise with the edges and ends flush. Determine approxi- mately where the dowels are to be in- serted. With the gage, mark short lines at the points of insertion in the center of each edge, gaging from the outside faces. Across these lines score accu- rately with a try-square and knife. Then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at the intersection of the lines. Fig. 263. If this is carefully done, the holes will be directly opposite one another, and equidistant from the faces of both boards. All the holes should be of equal depth, say 1", in order that the dowel-pins, which should also be cut of equal lengths, may be interchangeable. After boring, the holes may be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy slipping of the pins into place. The latter result may also be ob- tained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel -pointer, Fig. 123, p. 83. It is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the Fig. 263. Borine for Dowels in an Edge-to-Ed^e Joint. 17(i HANDWOKK IX WOOD. length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole. The dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is iip})]ied to the joint. THE COMMOX .JOINTS ReB'EREXCES : * Rivington, Vol. I. pp. 57-77, Barter, pp. 211-27.5. 135-137, 238-242: Vol. II, pp. 291-295. Scldfii. \>]>. 50-130. Adams, pp. 1-30. Biiiltliiic ma lenan Z8 P overall dado 36 , fox Tail tenon Dovetail moTri:>e and tenon Fig-. 266. 180 II A KD WORK IX WOOD. Bare faced knon tlouxci morTi ie and renon 46 5lip Thm iingle dovetail thru muttipic dovetail Lap dovetail blcppca lap dovetail J)/ Blind dovetail V\M. 2i)7. THE COMMON JOINTS. 181 J2 V ^iip feather mitcT ^lip aoveTail miler Double aovelail Keyed Ledge and md'er 63 5quarc Thruil 64 OMique ThruH 182 HAXDWORK I]sr WOOD. 7i beaded ~l nalched 74 5plme Fijr. 2()'». TJ Uowelcd Chapter VIII. TYPES OF WOODEX STRUCTUEES. The articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for convenience be divided into four general classes: (1) Unjoined pieces; (2) board structures; (3) panel structures; (4) framed structures. A few illustrations of each class are given below. (1) SIMPLE OR UNJOINED PIECES Of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learn- ing of tool processes; at the same time they give opportunity for expression in design, and wdien finished are of use. Examples are: key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve- boards, ironing-boards, coat- and skirt-hangers, and gouged trays. Some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but planing, directions for which are given above, p. 72. Where there is more than one process involved, the order of procedure is of importance. In gen- eral, a safe rule to follow in each case is to plane up the piece true and square, or, in technical language, to '"true" it up. At least as many of its surfaces should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." Where the piece is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; where some of the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time to square them first. For example, in making a gouged tray with curved outline. Fig. 270, the working face, the working edge, and the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out. Then, after the outline is drawn, the trough may be gouged, the outline cut with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with the gouge or chisel. If there is incised decoration it should be cut 183 Pen-Tray. 184 IIANDWOKK IX WOOD. Chamfe / ^ r Bci/c/ Fifr. 271. Difference Between Chamfer and Bevel. before ilie molding is cut, so tliat while being incised, the piece Avih lie flat without tipping. Those simple pieces, as well as others, are often embellished by cludiifcring. A chamfer is a surface produced by cutting away an ai'ris. It differs fi'om a tievel in that a bevel in- clines all the way to the next arris, while a chamfei' makes a new arris, Fig. 371. A thru chamfer extends tli<' whole length or width of a piece, while a stop chamfer extends only part way. Vov file laying out of a chamfer see p. 115. Til III chamfering is best done with a |>lane. Fig. 2T2. For this |nii|)()se ihe piece may l)e held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped hi the proper angle, or the piece may be held in a handscrew which in tiiin is hcM in the vise as in Fig. 175. p. 1()3. The chamfers with ihe grain should be ])hincd before tliose across the grain. In chamferiug a four-s(puire stick into an eighi-sipiare, ihe piece may be gripped in the vise diagonally. I^'ig. 373, or il nia\- be held in a trough made of iwo siri])s nl' wood from cadi of which an arris has lieen chamfered and then the two nailed together. Fig. 374. A dowel or nail may l)e in- serted in the trough for a stop. S.top chamfers are pared best with a chisel. Fig. 375. held accoiding to c(Uivenience eilber llat side or bevel side U|). See under chisel, p. 5.3. (3) lioAiji) s'ri;i'("nTRi>:s. Fipr. 272. Tliru Chamfering-. These include such pieces as wall brackeis, sets of shelves, book-racks, plate-racks, di'awing-boar]y lie screwed on the underside, tlie screw holes being large enough to ;\\\o\\' for shrink- age, or they may be dadoed in with a (lo\('tail dado. Fig. 280, h. or they may be grooved to a(hnit a tongue on the end of a hoard. Fig. 280, r. In this case screws passing thru large holes in the cleats hold them in ])lace. Tahorcls. The term taboret orig-inally meant a little tabor or drum, and was therefore used to designate a small stool, the seat of which consisted of n piece of stretched leather. The term now includes small, tablelike strictures for holding flower- pots, vases, etc. It might more properly be called a ''table-ette." Fiy. Wall Book-Case. TYPES OF AVOODEN" STRUCTURES. 187 When made up with boards having their long edges mitered, it has from four to eight sides. A six-sided one is shown in Fig. 281. In making, it is best to fit the joints exactly first, while the board is stiff, and then to cut out the pattern of the legs. Directions for glu- ing are given on p. 169. i^rrap-boxes, Fig. 282, and fower-pot hoxea may be made with the same construction. Rectangular Boxes. There are various meth- ods of joining their sides. The butt joint. Fig. 264, Xo. 11, p. 177, is plain, simple, and good for coarse work. This joint may be reinforced as in packing boxes, Fig. 283. Mitered joints. Fig. 268, No. 52, p. 181, are neat but weak, unless leinforced by a spline. Fig. 268, Ko. 54. The rabbet or ledge joint, Fig. 266, No. 24, p. 179, is both strong and neat. It can be glued and also nailed if desired. The rabbet and dado joint. Fig. 266, No. 26, can be glued with- out nails and is good for small boxes. The housed dado, Fig. 266, No. 25, is good for water-tight boxes. The mitered ledge, Fig. 268, No. 58, makes a very neat, strong joint which can be nailed or glued, but is more difficult to fit than a simpler joint. The dovetail joint, Fig. 267, No. 48, is very strong and honest, but the joint is prominent from the outside and it takes much time and labor to maki'. It is glued. The blind dovetail, Fig. 267, No. 51, is verv neat and strong, and the Fifj. 278. Construction of a Knock-Down Book-Shelf Seen From the Back. 188 ilANDWOKK IX WOOD. joint is entirely concealed when done, but is very ditRcult to make. Tlic Bottoms of Boxes. Tlie plain or L'uU bottom, Fig. 284, A, is likely to shrink (see dotted line), and it is held in ]»hu-c only by the friction of the nails. The extended bottom. Fig. i\S4, B, overcomes the objection to 1 1 -i— ==i'i - i^i'-i -^- ■^==^ 1 k I I li: { k y. u 1 ^ It ^1 i Ld ttm-- -^^ It ~ 'p. \ I'^iy- -SO. Diawiiig-Board Construction: II. With Cleats Screwed on Beneath; /'. With Cleats Dovetail-Dadoed in; , . Wiih Cleats Matched on Ends. shrinkage and adds a decorative featnre. 'Die bottom may be set in, Fig. '2S4, C. This is stronger tliaii the plain bottom, bnt the nail boles show. Th'^ bottom may be raljbeted in. Fig. -^84, I). This is better tlian the set-in bottom so far as the showing of the nail holes goes, foi' tlic nails may be driven in from below, and a little shrinkage is not conspicuous. It is practi- cahle, if a rabbet or mitered joint is used in the sides, but if the side pieces are butted or dadoed, the labbct for tlic bottom shows. This may be clcvci'ly concealed by an insert, but that is patch- work, and not first-rate con- stiaiction. I'einforced liottom. Fig. 284, E. A plain or full bottom is sometimes covered Ijy a base or cover stri]) to hide the joint and secure the bottom, as in tool chests. This strip }uay be mitered at the corners. The L/Wx of Boxes. The siiii|)h'st form is a full flat coxci'. t'ig. 2sr)^ A, which may be nailed or Screwed to the box. as ill packing cases. The (•o\f!' may slide into a groove. Fig. 285, P>, along the sides and into one end. the otlier end lieing lowered to admit it. The cover may bave cleats on its underside, l-'ig. 28."). E. which fit just inside tlie box and keep the tojt in ]»lacc. Tbe c'eats also ))revent th'^ Fig-. 281. Taboret. TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 189 Fig-. 282. Scrap-Box. top from warping. This is a common Japanese construction, even in fine boxes. The Japanese tie the top on with a tape or ribbon. The lid may be boxed, Fig. 285, D, that is, portions of the sides may be affixed to the top. These extra pieces are a help to stiffen the top and to keep it from warping. A boxed top may have the top board flush with the sides, Fig. 285, E. The disadvantage of this is that the top may shrink and part from the sides and give a bad appear- ance. The overlapping top. Fig. 285, F, obviates this trouble of shrinkage and adds a decorative element. In this case the top may be glued on or screwed from below thru the side strips. The top may be mitered into the sides, Fig. 285, G. The shrinkage trou- ble still obtains here. Otherwise the appearance is excellent. The top may be paneled into the sides, Fig. 285, H. This has a good appearance if the sides are mitered or ledged but not if the sides are butted or dadoed, because then the groove for the top shows. Any of these lids may be made removable or hinged, except the sliding top. For methods of hinging see p. 132. In gluing boxes together, it is a good plan to glue the ends and sides together first and to let these joints dry before gluing on the bottom and, in the case of a boxed top, Fig. 285, D, the top. Care must be taken to see that the sides do not bow under the pressure. To prevent this, one or more false, temporary partitions as A, B, in Fig. 286, of exactly the length to keep the sides straight, may be inserted. In gluing together boxes with rabbeted joints, Fig. 285, H, pressure should be applied in both directions. Fig-. 283. Reinforced Butt Joint in Box. 190 HANDWORK IX WOOD. In gluing on tlio bottom of a l)ox tliat is also to be nailed, the nai's shonlcl be driwn into the bottom iivst, so that the points just come thru. These points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom from slipping when pressure is a]>]iliod. Tt is often undesirable to ^^^^^^S >'i^s?$^'^;$>s$ ^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^m>:^\^\^ ^\^\K<\\\\\V^ Fit^. 284. Methods of Attacliins' Box Bottoms. have nail lieails sliow. as in a top. In such a case, and also to pre- vent the top from slipping under pressure, a couple of small brads may l)e driven part way into the upper edges of the sides, the heads bit- ten oH' with the nippers, and points filed on the projecting portion. Prinrcrs, In the best form, tlie sides are dovetailed to the front for strengtii. Fig. "iS?. for whenever the drawer is opened the front tends to |)iill away fioiii the sides. This dovetail is half blind, so that the joint will not appear when the drawer is shut. In order that the drawer may always run freely and yet tln^ fiont fit the opening as Fitr. 285. Forms of Box Consliuciiuii. close as possible, it is connnon practice to cut a shallow rabbet on tlic ends of tlie front, so that the body of the drawer is a little nar- lowtT tlian \hv front is lona', Fiii'. 'iST. Or the front mav be attached TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 191 to the sides with a dado tongue and rabbet joint. Fig. 2(36, No. 37, p. 179. The bottom is grooved into the sides with its grain parallel to the front and fastened only to the front so that it has plenty of play for shrinkage. The l)aek is dadoed into the sides, with either a straight dado, Fig. 2Q6, No. 35, p. 179, 01 dovetail dado, Fig. 266, No. 28, and rests on the bottom. The extension of the bottom beyond the 1)ack allows am- ple room for 1 . T Fitr. 28i>. Clueiiitr Tosrether a Box. shrinkage. The best niaehine-made drawers are now made with the bottom paneled or dadoed in all around so that papers cannot s!ip out. The back, as well as the front, is dovetailed. D ire ctio rift for Mal-iug a Table Drawer. Dress the front and sides to size. Fit the front of the drawer to its place in the table or cabinet, leaving a little play all around it. Plow the groove in the fiont and sides for the drawer bottom. For ordinary drawers, a groove ^" wide is proper. If the ends of the fiont arc to be rabbeted (see above), do this next. The sides are best joined to the front with the half-blind dovetail joint. (For directions see p. 166). After fitting these, lay out and cut the dadoes for the back of the drawer. Prepare the bottom of Fi?.28-. Dovetailed Drawer Construction. ^'^'^ drawer thllS : the 192 HAXDWOEK IN WOOD. Fig-. 288. Door, Illustrating- Panel Construction: S. Stile: T. R. Top Rail: L. R. Lock Rail: B.R. Bottom Rail: M. Muntin: P. Panel; A. Double Mortise- and-Tenon; F. Fillet; A. B.C. Forims of Panels. ,uraiii should run right and left, never front and back. If tlir drawer is so long as to re- (juire it. glue-joint the bot- tom, and fit it snugly to place. There need be no play right and left, and the bottom should extend as far back as the sides. If necessar}^ bevel the under side to fit the grooves. Assem- Ide all the parts to see that they fit, take them apart, glue the sides to the front and back, slip the bott(Mn into place, ap- ]ily tile (-lamps, and see to it that all joints are sipiare, using a diagdiial hrace if necessary, Fig. 294. Fasten the bottom to the front by means of a thin block glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom and tlie back side of the front. When dry, clean up the drawer and fit it to its ])hu'e. (3) PAN'EL STRl'CTURES These include doors and cal)inets of all sorts. The principle of panel or t'al)inet constructidu is that there shall lie a frame composed of narrow members whose grain fo'lows the principal dimensions. In the best construction this frame is mortised and tenoned together and within this frame there is set a thin board or panel wliit-li is t'i'cc to shrink or swell but is pre- vented from warping hy the stift'er frame. The object is to cover an extended surface in such a way that the geiu'i'al dimensions and good appearance will not be atfeete(l by whatever shrinkage there is. Since the frame itself is made up of narrow pieces, there is but little shi-inkage in them. That shrink- age is all that alTects the size of the whole structure, because wood does not shrink longitudinally to any appreciable extent. 'I'he shi-inking or swelling of the panel does not affect the geiKM-al size. The cross construction of the frame also pre- K— - t Fig. 28'i. The Way a Mit- ered Joint Opens on Account of Shrinkage. TYPES OF WOODEiY STRUCTURES. 193 Fig-. 2W. Chest Construction. vents warping, since, in the best construction every joint is mortised and tenoned. The l^anel may simply be fastened on the back of the frame, but a better construction is to insert it in a groove made in tbe in- side of the frame in which the panel is to lie and have free play. The panel may be made of one board or of matched boards, may be plain or have raised or carved surfaces, or be of glass ; and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished with moldings mitered in, but the principle is the same in all cases. The frame of a door, Fig. 288, il- lustrates the panel construction. The upright, outside pieces are called the "stiles," the horizontal pieces the "rails." There are also the "top-rail," the "bot- tom-rail," the "lock-rail" (where the door-knob and lock are inserted), and sometimes the "frieze-rail" between the lock rail and the top rail. The "mun- tin" is the upright between the two stiles. The joint commonly used is the haunched or relished mortise-and- tenon, Fig. 3G7, No. 42, p. 180; (See p. 163 for directions for making). The tenon is sometimes doubled. Fig. 288, and a fillet (f ) may be inserted to cover the ends of the tenons, or the joint may be a blind mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 266, No. 32, or in cheap construction, dowels may be used. The best doors are now made with cores of pine covered on the j,,^ jqi a cross-SecUon Thru visible sides with heavy veneer. Large ^ ^r'r^!. ^Lt'^t^ll surfaces are covered by increasing the ^^'^^.'^fn^'oT rIil'"'' shouider 194 IIANDWUIIK JN WUOD. Fig. 2''2. Table Construction: Upper Drawer Rail of Table Dovetailed into Left Front Leg. number of parts rather than tlieii- .size, as in wainscoting. I'icture-franics also belong in tliis class of structures, the glass taking the place of the panel. They are made with mortise-and-tenon joints, Fig. 26G, Xo. 33, slip joints, Fig. l^GT, No. 4G, dowelled butt joints. Fig. 264, No. 8, end lap joints. Fig. 265, No. 17, and, Tar more commonly, mitered joints. Fig. 268, No. 52. Mi- tered joints are the easiest to make, for the joints can be cut in a miter-box, Fig. 181, p. 104, and glued in a picture-frame-vise. Fig. 172, p. 101. This joint needs reinforcement by nails, Fig. 268, No. 52, by dowels. No. 53, or by splines. No. 55. If the sides are of diiferent widths, the fitting of the joint is more ditticult. filtered joints are the only kind suitable for molded frames. Tlie rabbets are cut out with a rabl)eting-plane before mitering and assembling. The jirinciple disadvantage of a mitered joint is that, if the wood shrinks at all, it opens at the inside corneis, as in Fig. 289, because wood shrinks sidu'wise but not lengthwise. In window sashes, the dove- t;iil joint, l''ig. 2i)7. No. 47. is the (•oiiinion one at the u])per end of the hiwer sash and the h)Wer end of the upper sash. and the niortise-and-tenoii joint modified is used at the lower end of the lower and upper end of the Tipper sash. 'I'lie glass takes the ])lace of the pane'. Tn 1)1 ind sashes, the pinned moi-tise-and-tenon joint. Fig. 267, No. 38, is comnionlv used. Fig. 2''3. The Fixing of a Drawer Rail, Seen From Below. TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 195 When panels are joined together to enclose a space, then we have what is properly called cabinet constrnction. Illustrations are cabi- nets, bureaus, desks, lockers, chests, etc. In all these cases, the constructed panels may be treated as sepa- rate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed together without any other framework, tho the corners are often re- inforced by cleats or blocks glued into them. Sometimes, however, as in chests, Fig. 290, posts are used instead of stiles, and rails are mortised or dow- eled into them and the panels set into grooves in both posts and rails. In this case the bottom is raised from tlie floor, and may be dadoed into the bottom Fig. 294. Brace to insure Right ., , Ti 1 ■ J 11 Angles in Assembling a rails, or doweiled into them or even Framed structure, supported by strips attached along their lower inside edges. The chest really is a union of both paneled and framed structures. (4) FRAMED STRUCTURES The principle of the framed structure is similar to that of the panel construction in that the object is to allow for shrinkage with- out harm to construction and also to economize materials. Common examples are tables, chairs, work-benches, and frame houses. The Mahing of a Table. The standard height of a table is 30". There should be 25" clearance under the rails. This leaves approxi- mately 4" for the width of the rails. xA.ssuming tliat the table is to be of a siuiple straight line type with one drawer, the following method of procedure is suggested : Cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick, '(see p. 47) and clamp them, so as to season them as well as j^os- sible before jointing. Dress to size the legs and rails. Stand the legs in their proper positions relative to each other, and mark them F E (front right), F L (front left), B E (back right), and B L (l)ack left). Plow out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the top. Fig. 297, D, if they are to be used. Lay out and cut the tenons and mortises for the end rails and back rail. The proper form of the tenon is one with a wide shoulder above it so that the top of the leg al)ovo tlie mortise will not sliear out. The 196 HANDWORK IN WOOD. K5,cJe l^o,l \£6u,cJe ■/fur --$-■- Fijr. 2'i5. Drawer Mechanism. I'ails should Ijl' SL't lU'ar the oulsitk' oi' llie leg so that the tenon may he as long as i)ossil)le and the portion of the leg inside it as strong as possihie. A hauiuluMl mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 267, No. 43 is sonu'tiines useih giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail. The ])ioper proportions are shown in Fig. ■.'IM. Wlien eut. these parts should be tenipoi'arily asseiuhled to see if thev fit. Inasnuieh as a drawer takes the ] hue of a front rail, the front legs must he tied together in some other way. For ihis ])uipose two stringers or drawer lai's may he used, their front edges be- ing as fai- from the face of the legs as ai'e tile rails fi'om the side and back. The uppi'i' drawer rail may be dove- taileil at Inith ends into the tops of the legs, as shown in Fig. 202. If this takes more room than can well be sipaied I'ldm the depth of the drawer, it mav be oiiiitted. but it adds greatly to the still'ness of the tab'e and is an excellent means of fastening on the top by the use of screws ]tassiiig thru it. The (li'awer rail, also called the f(U'e edge, is long enough to partly overlap the side rails, into the lower edges of which it is gained so as to be flush with them, and may be fastened to them with screws. Fig. 2!»."). The construction may be further strengthened by also doweling the end of this stretcher into the legs. If there are two drawers, the ])ai'tition between them may be doweled or gained into these uppei' and lower stretchers. If the legs ai'c to ])c ta])ered oi' otliei'wise shaped, that should be done next. '^Dien g'ue and assemble the end lails with their proper legs, tak'ing care to see not only that the joints conu' u]) square, but that the legs are in the same plane, b'inally assemble the whole, in- serting, if necessary, a temporary diagonal brace to insure square- ness. l*'ig. 2!» 1. When (h'y. clean up the joints. For the making of a table drawer, see above, p. I'.M. To lit the diawci' to its |)laci'. I'unneis and guides. Fig. 295, must first l)e fastened in. The runin'rs are in line with the drawer rail, and are glued and nailed or screwed to the side rails between the back of the 'owei' sti'inger and the ba(k posts. On top of them and TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 197 in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides running between the front and back posts. Or the runner and guide may be made of one piece properly rabbeted out. If there are two drawers, a double runner lies between, and is gained into the middles of the € 2'iij. Openiiii' (or Drawer Cut Out of Front Rail of Table. back rail and the stringer, and on it is a guide for ])otli draw- ers, equal in width to the par- tition between the drawers. The drawers should run easily in their proper places. In order to insure this, the drawer should be slightly narrower than the opening wliich receives it. A little French chalk, rubbed on the sides and runners, makes the run- ning smoother. .Sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of the front rail, as in Fig. 296. In this case the drawer runners are supported between the front and back rails, into which tliev mav be gained. For the making of the table top see edge-to-edge joint, p. 172. Dress up the top to size, taking special pains with the upper surface. If the grain is crossed, use the veneer-scraper. Fig. 151, p. 92, then sand, first with No. 1, then with Xo. 00 sandpaper, finish the edges carefully, and attach to the frame. For fastening the top to the table rails, several methods are used. The top may be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the rails themselves either straight up. Fig, 297, A, or diagonally from Fig-. 297. Methods of attaching- Table Top to Rails. the inside, B, or thru blocks or angle irons, C, which are screwed to the inside of the rails, or thru buttons, or panel irons, U, which are free to move in a groove cut near the top of the rail. The last 198 IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD. method is the best because it allows for the inevitable shrinkage and swelling of the top. Chairs may be so simplitied in form as to be possible for the ama- teur to construct. The two front legs and the rail and stretcher be- tween them offer little diflficulty because the angles are square. Fitf. 2'>S. Chair C^)ll^^ll•ucli()ll. The two back legs, may, foi- the jturpose of simplification, be kept; parallel to each other and at right angles to the seat rails between them, as in Fig. 298, A, and not at an angle as in B. The joining of the back will then offer little difficuHy. The principal difficulties lie ill the facts tliat t'oi' comfort and appearance the back of the chair shoiibl incline backwai'd lidtli altovc and below the seat, and that the liack of the scat should be narrower than the front. By keeping at right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which leceives the seat rail, the side seat I'ails will meet the back legs at a right angle in a side view. Fig. 298. The l)ack legs should be slightly shortei than Ibe fioiit legs, as shown in 1). 'I'lie second dilliculty in\(il\-es tlie making of inclined mortise-and- tcnon joiiils. A. whei'e the side ]'ails fit into the leas. The making TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 199 Fig-. 299. Bendicgr Boards into Shape after Boiling- Them. of these can be facilitated by laying out a plan of the full size and taking the desired an- gles directly from that. It is common to leinforce these joints with corner blocks glued and screwed in place as shown in A. If there are additional lails below the seat rails, the easiest way to fit them in ])lace is first to fit and clamp together the chair with the seat rails only, taking pains to have all angles perfectly true, and then to take the exact measurements for the lower rails directly from the chair. The same method may he used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails. If it is desired to bow the rails of the back, which are above the seat rail, this can be done by boiling them in water for 30 minutes and then clamping th.em over a form of the proper shape, with a piece of stiff sheet iron on the outside, as in Fig. 299. They should be thoroly dried in a warm place. Then the tenons may be laid out on the ends parallel to a straight-edge laid along the concave side. The chair bottom may be made of solid wood, either fiat or modeled into a "saddle seat;"" it may be covered with cane or I'lish, or it may be upholstered. To upholster a chair seat, a frame should first be made of the shape shown in Fig. 298, C. The stiips are about 2" wide and ^" thick witb their ends ha'f-lappetl. The seat rai's are rabbeted y^" deep and >4" wide to receive this frame, whic-h should be Ys" smaller all around than the 1)1 ace to receive it. The returns at the cor- ners fit around the legs at ^" distance from them. This %" pro- vides space for the coverings. After the frame is fitted, it is covered 1 - ■^ ■^-, ■^ ■^ \ 1 - > — :iL - > ^— ■> -~ ^ Gcl.nR 1 -1 r-^^^ r— ^:^ _^-r-: l^r^ -l^-J t" *Je. "-^'M''^. '^' J' Fig. 301. Siding, Ceiling, Flooring. 200 HANDWOlUv J^• WOOD. with o" webbing tacked firmly to the upper side. Tlie webbing whieli goes back and forth is interwoven with that wliicli goes from right to left. Over this is stretched and tacked (also to the upper side) a piece of unbleached muslin. A second piece of muslin is tacked to Fij/. 300. House Construction. the hack edge and part way along llic side edges, k-aving for the time the corners unfinished. In the pocket thus formed horsehair or other stuffing is pushed, care being taken to distribute it evenly and not too thick. When the pocket is filled, the muslin is tacked farther along the sides and more hair i)ut in, until the front is reached, when the muslin is tacked to the front edge. The corners are now drawn in tight, a careful snip with the scissors parting them diagonally so as to lie in well. The partings may be turned down and tacked on the under side of the frame. Finally the heather or other covering is stretched over the whole as evenly as ])ossible. The corners should he left to the last, then Ti'PES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. 201 clipped diagonally to the exact inside corner and the partings drawn down and tacked, as was the muslin. The superfluous leather may then be trimmed off, and the seat should fit in its place. Or the seat frame may be omitted, and the coverings tacked directly to the chair rails. The bal]oon-frame house is a typical form of framed construc- tion, Fig. 300. The essential parts of a balloon-frame are: 1. SILL, 4"x8", which rests on the foundation. 2. BEAMS, 4"x8", which rest on the cellar posts, 6"xC)". (Not shown in illustration. ) 3. FLOOR JOISTS, 2"x8", which rest on the sill and beams. 4. CORNER POSTS, 4"x6", with 2"x4" studs nailed to them. 5. STUDDING, 2"x4", which stand 16" between centers. 6. WALL RIBBON, or girt, I"x8". which supports the upper story joists. 7. PLATES, two 2"x4" nailed together, resting on studs. 8. RAFTERS. 2"x6", which support the roof. 9. TIE-BEAMS, 2"x(!", which prevent the roof from s]ircading tlie walls. (Not shown in illustration.) 10. RIDGE-POLE, 2"x8", against wliich the rafters l)utt. 11. BRIDGING, 2"x2", which stiffens the floor joists. 12. SHEATHING. (1" thick), put on diagonally to brace the building. The rest is covering. 13. FLOORING. (See also Fig. 301.) In flooring, Fig. 301, the boards are made narrow so as to reduce the size of openings at the joints when they shrink, and also to~ reduce the tendency to warp. They may be laid side by side as in the cheapest floors, or matched to close the joint. For difference between slash- and comb-grain flooring, see Fig 55, p. 43. 14. BUILDING PAPER. 15. SIDING OR CLAPBOARDS. (See Fig. 301.) may either overlap without a joint or be rabbeted to fit. The best siding is rabbeted. 16. WATER-TABLE. 17. CORNER-BOARD. 18. FURRING. 19. SHINGLES. 20. LATHING. 21. CEILING. Fig. 301, consists of matched boards liaving a "bead" to disguise the joint and give a decorative eft'ect. 202 liANDWOKK IX WOOD. TYPES OF WOODEN t^TRUCTURES Refekexces:* Simple Joined Structures. Benson, pp. 32-37. ^^•hee]er. pp. 86. •219-227. 376. Goss, pp. 91-1)6. Siekels. p. 120. Xoyes, tSchool Ails Bonk. 6: Griffith, pp. 84-104. 89, 179. Panel and Caldnet Construction. Goss. PI). 117-118. 148-l.il. Sicked, p. 134. Compton. pp. 146-151. Wheeler, pp. 366-372. Framed Structures. Crawshaw. Sickels. p. 124. Wheeler, pp. 203-206. 238-297. liiiildiiifi Trades Poclethonk. pp. 221 230. Coverings. Sickels. ],p. 128-131. Goss. p].. 141-144. ''For general bibliography sec p. 4. Chapter IX. PRINCIPLES OF JOINERY." 1. Avoid multiplication of errors hi/ making all measurcmenis (as far as possible) from a common starting point, and laying off all angles from the same line or surface. Illustrations of this principle are as follows : Before proceeding- with other processes, a working face and working edge and as many other surfaces as will finally ap- pear in the finished piece, should he trued up. At least the working face and working edge are essential to the proper "lay-out" of the piece, whenever measurements are made from an edge. In laying out a series of measurements, it is important, when pos- sible, that the rule be laid down once for all, and the additions be made on that, rather than that tlie rule should be moved along for each new member of the series. In scoring around a board with knife and try-square, the head of the try-square should be held against the working face in scoring both edges, and against the working edge in scoring both faces, and not passed from one surface to another in succession. In the laying out of a hah^ed joint. Fig. 265, Nos. 15-19, p. 178, the gaging is all done from what will be one of the flush surfaces of "Professor Eankine"s Five Principles: 1. To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the pieces of timber they connect as little as possible. 2. To place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible per- pendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit. 3. To proportion the area of each surface to the pressure which it has to bear so that the timber may be safe against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice, and to form and fit every jjair of such sur- faces accurately in order to distribute the stress uniformly. 4. To proportion the fastenings so that they may be of equal strength with the pieces which they connect. 5. To place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way thru the timber. 203 204 HANDWORK IX WOOD. Fig-. 302. Marking- by Superposition. the joined pieces. Then, if the gaged line should be slightly more or less than half the thickness of the pieces the closeness of the joint would not be aifected. 2. ]yhen possible, in hnjing out a joint, use the method of super- position, Fig. ;30-3. By this is meant the method by which the lay-out of one member is obtained di- rectly from the other by lay- ing (superposing) the latter on the former and marking or scribing the needed dimen- sions directly, instead of by measurement. It has the ad- vantages of simplicity, speed, and greater probability of fit. Familiar illustrations are in the making of halved joints, Fig. 2r).5, Xos. 15-19, p. 178. dovetail joints, Fig. 267, Xos. 42-45. p. 180, and scarfed or spliced joints. Fig. 2<)4, Xos. 4-T. p. ITT. 3. IForA; systematically. In case the same process is to be re- peated on a number of parts, complete this process in all before taking up another process. This is the principle of the division of labor applied to the individual workman. In laying out duplicate or multiple parts, the proper cross meas- urements should be carefully laid out on one piece and then transferred with a try-square to the other parts laid accurately be- side it. So when a number of like pieces are to be gaged, all the parts requiring the same setting should be gaged before the gage is reset for another gaging. This is a great saving of time and insures accuracy. In making a number of like parts, if they are not too large much of the work can often be done in one piece before it is cut up. For example, to make a number of slats from a given piece of wood, the piece may first be brought to such dimensions that the length will be correct for the finished pieces and tlie thickness of the piece be equal to the width of the slats, Fig. 3(»;i. The face may then be gaged with a series of lines so that every other space will be equal to the required thickness of each slat, and the alternate Sj^aces be just sufficient for PRINCIPLES OF JOIXERY. 205 I 11 II II ^ Fig-. 303. Making: a Number of Like Pieces from a Given Piece. the saw kerf and dressing. The slats may then l)e ripped apart and dressed to size. Or, a long strip may be planed to thickness and width and then be sawn np and finished to the proper lengths. For example, in a initered picture-frame it may be convenient to ])laiie np two pieces, each one long enough to make one long side and one short side. In fitting up framed structures each part when fitted should be distinctly marked, so that there may be no con- fusion in assembling. 4. V^liere pradwabh secure the same condHwns of grain in different elements of joined structures. Illustrations of this are as follows: The grain of the sides of a box should run continuously around the box, or, in the case of a tall, slim box, the grain of all the sides should run up and down. In either case, the grain in the dilferent sides is parallel. In a rubbed joint, Fig. 269, Xo. TO, p. 183, to be planed down afterward, in case the grain is not straight, much trouble in planing may be saved if the different pieces are laid so that they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. This may not be possible where the boards are joined so as to match the grain, as in quartered oak, or where the annual rings of slash boards are made to alternate in direction so as to lessen warping. Fig. 280, p. 188. 5. Where possible, alJoir for shrinhige irithout prejudice to con- struction. The most obvious illustration of this principle is panel construc- tion. In a panel, the frame, which is comparatively narrow, follows the principal dimensions, and hence does not seriously shrink or swell itself. But the panel, which is grooved into the frame can shrink or swell without harm to the general structure. In a gained joint, as in a case of shelves. Fig. 266, No. 29, p. 179, the gain in the uprights does not extend quite to the front of the shelves, and there is a corresponding slight shoulder at the front end of the shelf, so that if the shelf and support shrink unevenly, no gap will be appai'ent. A drawing-board. Fig. 280, p. 188, is so made that it can shrink or swell without losing its flatness. Shingles when properly laid, can shrink or swell without the roof leaking. 206 HANDWuKK Ii\ V\'00lJ, (). WJwre feasible, iindereuf joiiicil surf dees so as to gire clearance on the Inside and insure a tiglii a [qicantnce. But e/tued surface.^^ shoutd he made to meet flat. Illustrations of this principle are as follows: The inner end of the socket in a dovetail joint. Fig. 267, Xo. -tS, p. 180, may he under- cut slightly so as to insure the pin's falling close into place. The shoulder of any tenon may he undercut so as to al'ow the edges of the tenoned piece to close iip tight against the mortised piece. In an end-laji halved joint. Fig. 265, No. IT, p. 178, the edges should meet all around; if they are to he glued together, they should not be undercut or they will not glne well. In matched tlooring. the underside of the hoards is sliglitly nar- rower than the upper side so that the joint nuiy close on the upper side without fail. Fig. 301, p. 199. The ends of tlooring boards are also slightly l)eveled so as to make a tight fit on the upper side. 7. Select the sinijdest form of joint and use the smallest number of abut niciits [bearing surfaces) iiossible. because the more compli- cated the joint or the (/reater the number of hearing surfaces, the less lil'elihood there is of a sound and ine.r/ieusire construction. Illustrations of this juinciple are as fo'lows: I'sually a single mortise-and-tenon joint is better than a double one because of sim- plicity, strengtii and ease of making. Where mucli surface is re- (piired for gluing, a double one may be bettei'. In a dovetail dado. Fig. 266, Xo. 28. p. 179, it is usually sufficient to make the dovetail on one side only. ]\Iany very elaborately spliced joints have been devised, which have no practical advantage over the simple ones. Fig. 264, Xos. 4-7. p. 1 ( i . A butt joint, Fig. 264, Xo. 11, is stronger than a mitered joint. Fig. 268, Xo. 52, in a box, for the latter is almost sure to shrink apart. Where appearance is important, a ledge and miter joint has the advantage of both. Fig. 2()S, Xo. .")S. 8. Keep a due proportion of strength betireen the fastenings {joints) (Uid the pieces fastened: i. e.. the construction sliould neither be frail on the one hand. Iii'cause the pieces of irood are ireal'cned l)if too much cutting, nor clumsi/ on the other hand, because then the fastoiings irould tie i nordinatefi/ strong. In other irords. the differ- ent /larts should be eijualhi strong. PRINCIPLKS OF JOINERY. 1^07 Illustrations of this ])rineiple are as follows: In a iislied Joint, Fig. 264, No. 2, the plate should he attached so as to reinforce the splice at the weakest point. In a scarf joint, Fig. 2(5-1:, Xos. 5 and T, the angle should he oblique enough to give the greatest leverage. In a tusk tenon. Fig. 267, No. 40, the tenon is made but one- sixth the thickness of the timber, whereas the tusk is uuule mucli larger. Where a mortise is to l)e cut in a timber bearing weight, it should he cut in the neutral axis, where the cutting of fibres will weaken it least. In the mortise-and-tenon of a table-rail. Fig. 267, Xo. 43, there sliou'd be a wide shoulder above the tenon of the rail so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. The mortise should be as near tlie outside of the leg as possible so that the inner corner of the leg ma\- remain strong. The tenon should he strong enough to share the strain with the shoulders. A dado joint, Fig. 266, Xo. 25, sluuild not be so deep as to weaken the supporting board. A tenon should not be so large as to weaken the mortised ])iL'ce. Pins or other fastenings. Fig. 267, Xos. 38 and 39, nuiy weaken rather than strengthen a joint if they are so placed or are so large as to shear or crush tlieir way thru the timber. 9. Place each ahniiing surface in a joint as nearlij as posf^ihJe per- penclicukir to the pres.^iire which it has to transmit. Illustrations of this |)rinciple are as follows: the angle in a strut joint. Fig. 266, Xo. (52, should be eciual'y divided between the two beams. The thrust joint. Fig. 268, Xo. ()3. in a bridge truss, is exactly at right angles to the pressure. It is on account of this princijjle that a spliced joint for com- pression. Fig. 264, Xo. 4. is different from a spliced joint for ten- sion, Xo. 5 : and that a housed braced joint. Fig. 269, Xo. G(\, is better than a plain braced joint, Xo. 65. A joint to resist vertical cross strain is stronger when sea i fed ver- tical Iv than horizontallv. 208 HANDWORK IN WOOD. THE PRINCIPLES OF JOINERY Kkkerexces:* Goss. p. 132. Rivington, Vol. I. p. 57. Adams, p. 12. 'For general l)il)lioiirii])hy see p. 4. Chapter X. WOOD FIXISHING. STAINS. The function of stains is to change the color, and to enchance the grain and texture of the Avood. Stains may be divided into four general classes, which are not, however, entirely distinct. (1) Oil stains, (3) Water stains, (a) made from anilines, (b) made from dyes other than anilines, (3) Spirit stains, (4) Stains due to chemical changes. (1) Oil stains. Advantages: they are easily prepared, are easy to apply evenly, and they do not raise the grain. Disadvantages : they cover the grain somewhat, are apt to give a muddy effect, they do not penetrate very deeply into the wood, and it is impossible to stain hard wood dark with them and at the same time keep the grain and texture of the wood clear. A convenient form in which to handle these pigments is Devoe's "coach colors,"' ground in japan. To pre- vent evaporation from cans once opened, it is well to keep them partly filled with water and the water covered with a little oil. For use, the pigments are thinned with turpentine or benzine, in the proportion of one pound of color to one-half gallon of turpentine or benzine. Ben- zine is much cheaper than turpentine, but evaporates more quickly. The addition of a little boiled oil gives a body to the stain, so that when the wood is well rubl)ed down a soft lustre can be had without any further finish. The stain should be applied with a brush to the wood, which may then be rubbed clean with cotton waste. Oil stains penetrate hard woods better when the wood has first been fumed in ammonia. (See below, p. 31f). Or. the addition of a little ammonia to the stain just before applying aids it in penetrating the wood. The pigments most used for oil stains are: burnt and raw umber, burnt and raw sienna, Yandvke brown, dro]i l)lack. and medium chrome yellow. These colors may be varied by mixing. For ex- ample, for a green stain, take two parts of drop black and one part of medium chrome yellow, and dissolve in turpentine or benzine. 209 210 llANDWOL'K JN WOOD. The addition ul' a litlk' vciinilioii i;ives a giaycr iiiuen. The green may be made bluer liv tlie addition of I'mssian bhie. but the blue al- ready contained in the blaclv gives a soft, pleasant green. For antique oak, add a triiie of bui'nt undjer and black to raw sienna thinned to the right consistency. For a reddish brown, tliin buint \niil)er to the right consistency. This may lie grayed hy the addition of a little gieen. A walnid stain may l)e had by adding a little Venetian red to asplialtuni, thinned with turpentine or benzine. AniUiK: oil .s7^//'//.s. Advantages: the cidors are clear and easily obtainable. ])isadvantages : the colois aie likely to he crude and too bright, and unless gieat care is taken the tones are metallic and not .M)ri enough to suit wood. It is necessary to purchase colors soluble in oil. 'J'lu'se lan he had of William Zinnst'r and Company, 1!)7 William Street, New Yoik. Four colors are necessaiy to get the de- sired shades, Bismarck brown, dark yellow, dark lilue, and black. Bis- marck brown comes in powdered form at $"^.4(» per II)., dark yellow comes in powdeied form at $2.40 per II)., dark blue comes in lumps at $3. '20 ]n'V lb., black comes in lum])s at $2.-l() per lb. These may be dissolved in Ihiee ounces of turpentine to one ounce of boiled oil,, to one teaspooiiful of cojoi-, a |)rocess that will take place much faster if the mixtui'c is heateil. (ireat care must he taken, liowever, noi to set lli'e to the t III peiitine. Wlien cool, thin with tur])entine to the proper consistency, ap})ly to the wood with a brush and rul) clean with cotton waste. (2) Wilier ,'olish and varnish were introduced, especially for hard woods like oak. Its advarrtages are that it is chea]), easily prepared, easily applied, and easily !'e|taired. lis disadvantages are that it will not stand wetting, is easily marred, recpiiics constant care, is rrot so hard "Made hy tlic Bridgeport Wood Finisliiii^r (•„., 155 Fnlton St.. X. Y. WOOD FINISHING. 215 and dry as varnish, turns slightly sticky with warmth, and is likely to turn white in devices. To prepare it. To one part of melted beeswax add one part of tur- pentine. Mix and cool. It can be bought prepared, as, Bridgeport Wood Finishing Company's "Old Dutch Finish," Butcher's Wax, Johnson's Wax, and others. Process. Kub the wax evenly over the suiface with a stiff brush or the fingers. Let it dry for some hours, and then rub with a cloth; flannel or a piece of felt is best. Put on several coats, leaving the work over night between coats. Eub often with a warm cloth. (c) Varnishes. The function of varnishes is to covei- wood with a hard, transparent coating that is non-porous and im])ei'vious to moisture. There is a great range among them, from thin, easily worn, dull finishes to durable, strong, and highly polished coatings called "rubbing varnishes." The polished suiface can be secured on'y by much labor thru the application of successive thin coats of good var- nish, carefully rubbed down. Varnish nuiy be applied to wood, stained, painted, or in its natural condition as well as to meta', leather, i)aper, and various other sub- stances. A good varnish should ))e adhesive, that is, it should cling iirmly to the surface to which it is applied; it should be elastic, so as not to crack on account of the expansion and contraction of the material to which it is applied; it should dry in a reasonable time; it should be limpid so as to flow easily in a^jplication ; it should b(> transparent and brilliant when ])olished ; and it should be durable. The necessaiy conditions for all good varnishing are a perfectly smooth, even, filled suiface of dry wood, a tem]ierature of aliout 70"^ and no dust in- the air. In general, there are two classes of varnish, Ijased on the char- acter of the solvent, (1) Spirit varnishes and (2) Oil varnishes. ( 1 ) S])irit varnishes are sometimes made with copal resins dis- solved in some spirit, as one of the alcohols, benzine, acetone, etc. They dry with great rapidity owing to the volatilization of the sol- vent spirit, leaving a coat of pure resin of great hardness and brilli- ance, but one which is likely to crack and scale when exposed. They are not much used. Shellac is the most common and the most useful of the spirit varnishes. Its basis is resin lac, a compound resinous sub-tance exuded from an East India scale insect ( darterin lacca) found mostly in tlie province of Assam. The term "lac" is the same 216 HANDWORK IX WOOD. as *"laldi"" wliich means lUU.OOU and is indicative of the countless hosts of insects which are the source from wliii-h this gum is ob- tained. The larval insects insert their proboscides into the bark of young shoots of certain lac-bearing trees, varieties of Ficus, draw out the sap for nutriment, and at once exude a resinous secretion which entirely covers their bodies and the twigs, often to the thickness of one-half inch. The females never escape and after impregnation their ovaries become filled with a red fluid which forms a valuable dye known as hic dye. The encrusted twigs are gathered by the natives in the spring and again in the autumn. Iiefore the young are hatched, and in this condition the product is known as "stick lac." After being crushed and separated from the twigs and washed free from the coloring matter the product is known as "seed lac.'" It is then melted and strained and spread out in thin layers in a form called "shell lac."" This is what is known as orange shellac in the market. It may be bleached by boiling in caustic potash, and passing chlorine thru it until the resin is precipitated. It is further whitened by l.'cing pulled. This is what is known in the nuirket as "white shellac.*" It comes in lum]is. Orange shellac is the stronger and is less likely to deteriorate, but white is easier to a])ply because it sets less rapidly. Another advantage of the white is its colorlessness. Shellac is solu- able in both grain alcohol (ethyl alcohol) and wood alcohol (methyl alc-ohol). but grain alcohol is preferable. Great care must be taken not to mix even a droj) of water in it or it will curdle. To make ])erfect the process of ordinary filling, shellac may be used as a filler either by itself or preparatory to other processes. Since it dries (piickly it can l)e rubbed down in six or eiglit hi>urs either with Xo. <•() sand-paper oiled, or better, with Xo. ()() steel wool. This jirocess wlicii repeated several times gives a good "egg-shell"" finish. It may be ajiplied alone over stained wood or the shellac itself may be colored with aniline dyes cut in alcohol. This, for example, is an easy way to get a black finish. .\ good watei-pi'oof wood polish is niadi,' thus: 1 pint aU-ohol. 2 oz. gum benzoin, V4 oz. gum sandarac, ^4 oz. gum anime. Put in a bottle, and put the bottle in a hot water bath until all solids are dis- solved. Stiain and aild '4 gill clear poppy oil. Shake well and apply with cotton cloth. .\ soft, dull, glossy finish may l)e ohtaiiieil liv apjilving two coats of a mi\tiii-e of one part each of white shellac and banana oil (amyl acetate). \\'lien (h-y. sandpaper lightly and wax. WOOD FINISHING. 217 French poUsIiing. The finest of shellac finishes is French polish. It is a thin, clear, permanent finish, bnt the process takes time and patience. It is not nuich used in practical work, because of the time expense, bnt is often employed in school shops, because only a few materials are necessary, it dries quickly, and gives a beautiful finish. The polished surface is obtained by adding successive thin coats according to the following process: (1) Preparation. The surface of the wood must be perfect'y smooth and even, sandpapered in the direction of the grain, stained, if desired, filled, rubbed smooth and ipiitc dry. (2) Applv two or three thin coats of shellac. After each coat when dry, rub witli IsTo. 00 oiled sandpaper or No. 00 steel wool. Wipe thoro'y. (3) Make three pads, about the size of a walnut, of clean, white, cotton waste, enclosed in some fine old or washed cloth with no sizinsf or lint, — one pad for shellac, one for oil, and one for alcohol. Fill one pad with shellac of the consistency of milk, enough in the pad so that when squeezed hard it will ooze out. The common mistake is to put too much shellac into the pad. Hub with circular motion, as indi- cated in Fig. 304, never letting the pad stop on the surface. (4) Sprinkle a very little finely powdered pumicestone and put a little oil on the surface of the wood here and there with the ti]) of a finger. Huh with sec- ond pad until surface is dull. Wipe clean. Eepeat (3) and ( 4 ) several times. Some use law linse('- hoiax water. In the process just deserihed, shel'ac alone, dissolved in alcohol, is used. The shellac may be used with other ingredients : for example, 1 pint grain alco- hol, V4 oz. gmn coj)al. ^4 oz. gum arahic. 1 oz. shellac. Strain through muslin. Another reci])e for finishing. Tse 4 drains grain alcohol, 2 drams orange shellac, 5 di'ams tincture of henzoin, 1 teaspoonful of olive oil. Dissolve and strain. Apply with ])ad in direction of grain. Oil or Copal Varnish('><. The old Cremona varnish once used for violins is sup])ose(l to have had amljcr ( (Ireek, electron) as its base. It was a fossilized coniferous resin found on the shore of the Baltic Sea. The ait of making it is said to he lost, ])iobably because of the difHculty and danger of melting it. ior this can be done only in oil on account of the danger of ignition. Hence its use has been abandoned. Peihaps the most beautiful of all Nainislu's is !ac(pier. much used in China and Japan. It is made from the juii'e of the !ac(|uer tree, (Rlhiis ccniicifcrd ) which is tapp(Ml during the summer months. The juice is stiained and eva]»oia1('(l and then mixe(l with various sub- stances, such as oil, tine clay, body pigment, and metallic dust, accord- ing to the waie fur which it is inteiidiMl. The uianuractui ing secrets are carefully guarded. The a]iplicati(in of it is vcvv difficult, the sap of young trees being used for first coats, and of o'd trees for the finishing coats. It must be dried in a dam}), close atmosphere. For the best work ten or twelve coats are elaborately rul^bed down and ])olished. Even the presence of it is very ])oisonous to some people ;;nd all workers in it are more or less affecte(l. I'lie solvent or vihicle of tin- moilein copal \ainislics consists principal'y of linseed oil with some tuipentine. Their base is (Vipal. a fossil, resinous substance of \-egetable oiigin. Tbi' gums of which they are made have been t-bemicallv altere(| bv long exposure in the eartli. Other gums, as mastic, dammar, sandaiac. and even resin are sometimes mixed with copal to cheapen the pioduct oi' to cause more rapid drying. Coi al is a geiiei'ic name given oi'iginallv to a'l fossil resins. Co[)als, as they are called, come fi'om Xew Zealand, Mozam- hi(pie, Zanzibar. West Afi'ica. I)iazil. and the rhili))i)ine<. The best of tile Copals is said to he the Kauri gum. oiiginallv exuded from the Kaui'i pine ti'ee of New Zealand. 'I'he tree is still existent and AVOOD FINISHING. 219 produces a soft, spongy sap, but the resin used in varnish is dug up from, a few feet under ground in regions where there are now no trees. A commercially important copal and one noted for its hard- ness is the Zanzibar or East African Copal. It is found imbedded in the earth at a depth not greater than four feet over a wide belt of the mainland coast of Zanzibar, on tracts wheie not a single tree now grows. It occurs in lumps from the size of small pebbles to pieces weighing four or five p(ninds. The supply is said to be prac- tically inexhaustil)l('. As to the maniifactiiu' of the Copal varnishes: hrst of all, a high grade oil is boiled at a high temperature, with different materials to oxidize it ; for instance, red lead or oxide of manganese. The heat throws oif the oxygen from the red lead or manganese. The oxygen is absorbed by the linseed oil. which is then put away to settle and age. When a batch of vainish is nuule, the gums are melted in a large kettle and then the requisite amount of oil is added and these carefully boiled together. This is removed I'lnm the tire and cooled down to a point where turpentine can be added without volatilizing. These are thoroly urixed and then filtered under pressure and tanked and aged. The different grades of varnish depend upon the tieatment of the oil, the proportion of oil and turpentine, the qualities of the gums, the aging, etc. Some by rubbing give a very high polish, some give a dull waxy finish, some are for out-of-door use, as Spar varnish and carriage varnish, some are for floois, some for funiture. some are high priced, some are cheap. Process of A'arnishing. The preliminary processes are the same as those for applying shellac, i. e., the suiface of the wood must be perfectly even and smooth, and the staining, filling, and drying com- plete. Quick drying varnishes, like shellac, are applied, with but little on the brush. The heavy, high lustre varnishes, on the other hand, are applied with the brush full so that the varnish may even drip off the work. Then proceed as follows: Wipe off from the work the extia vainish with the brush and clean the hiush on the edge of the cup. Eepeat till the varnish is flowed over the work evenly. Be particularly careful, in that res])ect, of edges and corners. S,et to dry in a dustless place. When dry and hard repeat the process from three to six times. Each coat must dry thoroly before the next coat is applied. 220 llAXDWOKK IX WOOD. \'a]-]iish jxilisliing consists in rubbing off' the varnish, not in rnb- bing it on, as in Frwith polishing. To polish varnisli, I'ub with a felt pad, powdered pumice-stone and water. Enb till the surface is smooth, unpitted and even, being careful not to rub thru the edges. Wipe clean witli a wet sponge and chamois skin. This gives a dull or "egg- sliell"' linisli. For polishing varnish, a. simple method is to rub with a lotary motion, using a mixture of yj sweet oil or cottonseed oil, and ^ alcohol. .V more laborious process is as follows: After rnljbing to a dull tiiiisli, rub ground rotten stone and water with cliamois skin in a cir- cular motion. Let the rotten stone di'v on the surface. Then wipe oif with the naked hand. I'ubbing in a circular direction and wiping the hand every time after passing over the work. This looks simple, but is really a fine art. Tliese processes have practically replaced French ])olishing in the trade. PAINTING Paints are used for the same ])urpose as other finishes, with the i'dditional one of giving an o])aque colored covering. The materials used are : 1. A body whose function is to give covering ])ower. This is usmilly wliite lead, Imt it is often adultei'ated with zinc oxide; 2. Pigments; 3. Linseed oils, raw and boiled, which are used to give consistency, adhesiveness and also elasticity to the coat when dry. For outdoor work boiled oil is used and foi- indoor work, raw oil; 4. Turpentine, which is used to thin out the paint and to make it dry more quickly. The common method of painting is: L Set anv nails with nail- set: "3. Sandpapei': 3. Shellac the knots: 4. Prime with a thin coat of |iaint. mostly white lead, (that is, little color,) boiled oil. and lur])entine (the ])ro|)ortion of drying oil is greater than in ordinarv iiaint) : 5. Putty uj) cracks, nail holes, etc.: (i. Sandpaper if a small nice job: 7. Then ])aint two oi- three coats with paint thick enough so it will not run. with long. evt'U strokes with the grain. The order of painting a door is, panels, muntins, rails, and last, stiles. For inside work use half as much turpentine as oil. This gives a. (hdl finish. For outside woi'k. where lusti'e is wanted, little or no turftentine is used. WOOD FINISHING. 221 Tliis is the old way, and is still used for all common work. But for fine painting, as carriage work, a filler is now used first, because a priming to be durable should unite with the wood, gras-ping the fibers and filling the pores, so that after coats cannot sink in. The object is to cement the surface. Priming is often called "rough suifi'." The old way did not do this, with the result that the oil sep- srated from the lead and kept soaking into the wood. The principal makers of paints now recommend a filler before any white lead is added. TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR WOOD FINISHING Brushes. It is well to have several varieties to help keep them distinct. For varnish and shellac, the best are those with the bristles set in hard rubber. For ordinary purposes, brushes one inch wide are satisfactory. For stains, cheap, tin-bound brushes are good enough, and are easily replaced. Cups. Half-pint enameled steel cups are cheap, satisfactory, and easily kept clean. For the care of cups and brushes, see Chapter VI, The Equipment and Care of the Shop. Steel wool. This consists of shavings, turned from thin steel discs set together in a lathe. It comes in various grades, No. 00 to No. 3. The finest, No. 00, is coarse enough for ordinary purposes. Sandpaper. Use No. 00 smeared with boiled oil. Pulverized pumice stone and pulverized rotten stone, both very fine, are used to rub down inequalities and to give a dull finish to shellac or varnish. Use with oil on shellac and with oil or water on copal varnish. Horse- hair and soft wood shavings are often used to rub down varnish. French felt, medium hard, is used for rubbing down copal varnish with pumice stone. Cotton waste is the cheapest available material for wiping. Cheese cloth is better for some purposes, but more expensive. Soft cloth without lint is necessary for French polishing. '^Berke- ley muslin,'^ "Old Glory," and "Lilly White" are trade names. A fine quality is necessary. The starch should be washed out and the cloth dried before using, and then torn into little pieces, say 4" square. Fillers consist of silex or of ground earths mixed with oil, japan, and turpentine. Their object is to give a perfectly level and non- absorbent basis for varnish covering. Oils. Eaw linseed oil is very fat and dries slowly. It is used for interior work. 222 IIANUWOKK JX WOOD. Boiled oil is linseed oil boiled with lithai\ue (I'bO) and white vitriol, which removes nuieli of the fatty ingredient and gives it dry- ing quality. Turpentine is a volatile oil fioni the sap of long-leaf ])ine. Jt is mixed with oil in painting to give further drying qualities. Benzine is a cheap substitute for turpentine. It is a liighly in- fjammable product of coal tar and evaporates quickly. Drier. is an oil in which resin has been dissolved. It is mixed with varnishes and paint to make them dry quickly. It is also some- times used as a varnish itself. Japan is a varnish-like li(juid made of shellac or other resin, lin- seed oil, metallic oxides, and turpentine. It is used as a medium in V hich to giind colors and as a drier. WOOD FIN1SIII2^G. 223 WOOD FINISHING Referexces : * ( 1 ) Stains. Hodgson, II, pp. 2.J-59, Maire. pp. 4G-64. 1.55-164. Van Deusen, Man. Tr. Mag., G: 93. (2) Fillers. Hodgson, II, pp. 7-25. Maire, 65-72. (3) Oil Finisli. Hodgson, II, pp. 99-103. Maire. p. 117. (4) Wax. Hodgson. II, pp. 93-99. Maire. pp. 112-116. (5) Varnish. Shellac. Maire, pp. 73-80, 101-111. Hodgson, II. pp. 6G-93. Journal, 8oc. Arts, 49: 192. Inter. Encyc, Vol. X, "Lao." Ency. Brit., Vol. XIV, "Lac." Oil Varnish. Hodgson, II, pp. 5!)-r)6. Maire. pp. 81-100. Clark, pp. 1-09. Enci/. Brit., Vol. XXIV, "Varnish." (6) Paints. Brannt, p. 134-152. . Building Trades Fockefbook, pp. 357-360. For detailed directions for the treatment of different woods, see Hodg- son, II. pp. 112-153, Maire, pp. 124-141. *For general bibliography see p. 4. INDEX. Acorn of hinge, 131. Adjustment of plane, 70, 72. Adze, 88. Agacite grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137. Alcohol: Grain dOtliyl). 21 G. Wood (Metliyl). 216. Alligator, 28. Ammonia, 209, 211. Angle of bevel, 58, 59. Aniline stain.s: Alcohol, 211. Oil, 210. Water, 211. Antique oak, 210. Anvil, 141. Arrangement of .'^hop, 142-144. Arris, 57, 184. Asphaltum, 210. Auger-bit, 53, 84, 85. 137, 140. Auger-bit-gage, 1 1 6. Ax, 10, 51, 87. Back-saw, 65. 136. 138. Balloon frame. 201. Banana f>il. 213. 216. Band-saw, 31. Banking grounds. 16. Beam-compa=;s, 114. Beams, 201. Bench, 97-99, 136, 138, 141, 143. Glue and Stain, 142, 148. Bench-hook, 78, 102, 104, 137, 139. Bending wood, 199. Benzine, 209, 210, 214, 222. Bevel of cutting tools, 52, 55, 120. Bevel, Sliding T, 113, 137. 140. Bezel, See Bevel. Bill-hook, 10. Binding of saw, 6:!. 65. Bit. Plane. 70. 77. Bits, 84-87. i:!7. 140. Bit. Twist. S4. S5. Bit-point drill, S4, 85. Bit-stock, See Brace. Black, 209, 211. Blank-hinge, 131. Blazes on trees. 7. 8. Blinds, 194. Block, Corner, 155 No. 12, 177, 199. Block-plane, See Plane, Block. Blue, Prussian, 210. Board, 48. Board construction, 184-192. Board-Hipper, 35, 36. Board foot, 48, 109. Board measure, 48, 109, 110. Board structures, 184-192. Bolt of lock, 133. Bolts, 127. Book shelves, 185. Boom, Log, 20, 21. Boring, Directions for, 85. Boring tools, 83-87. Box, 187-191. Bottoms, 188. Lids, 188, 189. Of lock, 133. Brace. 103, 105, 137, 140. Brace, Ratchet, 103. 105. 137. Brace-measure, 107. Bracket, 185. Brad-awl, 83, 84, 138. 140. Brads, 124. Breaking out the roll-ways, 16. Bridging, 201. Brown, Bismarck, 210, 211. Dark, 212. Reddish, 210, 211. Vandyke, 209. Bru.«h, 138, 141, 149, 209, 210, 221. Brush, See also Duster. Brusli-Keeper. 150. Buckling of saw. 62, 65, 67. Buffer. 121, 147. Burn of shellac, 217. Butt-hinge, 131. Cabinet construction, 192-195. Cabinet for nails and screws, 142, 145, 147. Calipers, 114. Camp, logging, 8, 9. Cant, 35, foot-note. Cant-flipper, 35, 36. Cant-hook, 10, 13. Cape-chisel, 141. Care of the shop, 14 2-150. 224 Index. 225 Carriage-bolts, 127. Carteria lacca, 215. Carving tools, 60, 140. Case-hardening, 46. C-Clamps. See carriage-makers' clamps. Ceiling, 201. Center-bit, 84, 86. Chain, 10, 13, 15, 16. Chair, 198-201. Chalk, French, 197. Chamfer, 82, 115, 161, 184. Chatter, 71, 92. Cheek of joint, 160. Cheese-cloth, 221. Chest, 193, 195. Chest-hinge, 131. Chisel, 52-59, 136. 137. 139, 140, 183. See also Chiseling end-wooa. Paring, Sidewise chiseling. Chisel, Cape, 141. Carving, 54. Cold, 141. Corner, 55. Firmer, 54, 136, 139. Framing. 55. Mortise, 54, 55, 161. Paring, 54. Round-nosed 55, 141. Skew, 55. Turning, 54. Chisel-gage. 69. Chiseling, end-wood, 56, 57, 183. Sidewise, 56. Perpendicular, 56. Choking of Plane, 76. Chopping tools, 87, 88. Clamp, 101, 138, 141, 169. Carriage-makers, 102, 138, 141. Column, 169. Plane, 70, 77. Clapboards, 201. Claw hammer, 96. Cleaning tools, 121. Cleats, 186, 188. Comb-grain, 41, 4 2. Compass, 113, 114, 137. 139. Blackboard, 117, 141. Compass-saw, 66, 139. Consumer, 33, 41. Copal, 218. Coping-saw, 139. Copper, Soldering, 141. Corner-blocks, 155, No. 12, 177, 190. Corner-board, 201. Cornering tool, 83. Corner-iron, 127, 128. Corner locking, 164. Corrugated fasteners, 125, 170. Cost of Equipment, 136-142. Countersink, 84, 87, 126, 138, 140, 141. Cricket, 186. Crosscut-saw, 10, 64-66, 137, 139. Cross-grained wood. Planing, 75. Crowbar, 10. Crown of Plane-cutter, 71. Cruising, 8. Cup, 138, 141, 221. Curling-iron, 70. Cutter, Plane, 70, 76, 77, 138. Cutting-gage, 116, 140. Cutting tools, 51-83. Dado, 56, 80. See also Joint, Dado. Dado-plane, 80. Dam, Splash, 20, 21. Decay, 32, 45. Decking logs. 13. Demonstration seats, 143. Derrick, Locomotive boom, 25. Destructive lumbering, causes of, 7. Die, 141. Die-holder, 141. Dividers, 113, 114, 137, 140. Dogs, log, 34. Donkey engine, 24. Door, 192, 193. Dovetail-saw, 66. 137. 139. Doweling, 127, 130, 152, 154, 175. Dowel-plate, 139, 140. Dowel-pointer 83, 139, 175. Dowel-rods, 127, 175. Draw-bolt, lS4. Draw-knife, 61, 139. Drawer, 166, 190-192. Guide, 196. Rail, 196. Runner, 196. Drawing-board, 186, 188, 205. Dray-road, 9, 13. Drier, 222. Drill. See Hand Drill. Twist, 84. 85. 138, 141. Drive, The log, 16-18. Duplicate parts, 155, 204. Duster, Bench, 121. 137. 139. Dynamite, 21. Edge action, 52. Edged Tools, 5 Iff. Edger, 35, 36, 37. Eight-square scale, 108. Egg-shell finish, 94. 216. Equipment, Chap. YI, 136-150. 226 Index. Ksoutchi on of lock, U3. Expansive-bit, S4, 87, 137, 140. Falling beds, 24. Fastenings, Chap. V, 123-135. Felling trees, 10, 11, 23. Ferrule, 54. File, 90. 91, 137, 140, 142, 147. File-card, 91, 137, 140. Filing a saw, 67. Filletster, 80, 137, 139. Filler, 213, 221. Finishing, Wood, Chap. X, 209-223. Firmer-chisel, See under chisel, ]-^irmer-goiige, See under gouge. [<"ish glue, 129. Fitter, 9. Flooring, 30, 42, 174, 20], 206. Flume, 21, 22. Foerstner Auger-bit, 84, 87. Foot-stool, 186. Fore-edge. 196. Fore-plane, See under Plane. Framed structures, 195-201. Framing-chisel, See under Chisel. Frog, Plane, 70, 75. Fuming with animoniii, 212, 214. Furring, 201. Gages, 114-116. Chisel, 69. Cutting, 116, 140. Marking, 114-116. 136, 139, 203. Mortise, 116, 140. 161. Pencil. 115. Screw. 116, 117, 126. Slitting, 116. Twist-drill, 117. Wire, 116, 117. Oelatin, 12S. Gimlet-bit, 84, 85, 137, 140. Glass-cutter, 138, 141. Glaziers points, 125. Glue, 128-131. Fish, 129. Liquid, 129. Preparation of, 129. Tests of. 129. Glue-pot, 129, 138, 141, 148. Gluing, Directions for, 130, 153, 167- 170, 173, 189, 190. Golden Oak, 211. Gouge, 59, 60, 137, 140, 183. Grading of lumber, 36. Grain of wood, 60, 75, 172, 185, 186, 192, 205, 209, 210. Green, 209. Grinder or Hog, 41. Grinder, Empire Tool, 61. 120, 121, 137, 140. Grinding of tools. See sharpening. Grindstone, 117-120, 137, 140. Groove for drawer, 191. Groove for panel, 164. Groove, Triangular. 66. 156, 158, 159, 161. Hack-saw 13 7, 141. Hammer, 58, 94, 95, 96, 136, 139. Ball-peen, 142. Bell-faced, 95. Riveting, 141. Hand-drill. 104. 106, 138, 141. Handscrew, 101. 102, 138, 141, 170, 173. Handscrew, Iron, 102. See also Clamp, carriage-makers. Hatchet, 88. Hauling logs, 13. 15, 22, 23. Hinges. 131-133. Hinges, sizes of. 131. Hinging. Directions foi'. 132. Hog, 41. Holding tools. 97-105. Hone.vcombing. 46. Horse. 64, 65. 100. Horsehair. 200. House construction, 200, 201, Tee-road. 13. 14. Impregnation of timber, 47. Iron acetate, 211, 212, Iron, Soldering. See copper. ,Iack-ladder, 32. Jack-plane. See Plane, .lam, log, 18, 19, 21. .Tapan, 209, 222. .Japanese. 69, 97, 189. •Joinery, 151. .Joint, Beaded, 175, No. 73, 182. Bevel-shoulder, 172, No. 67, 182. Bird's mouth, 172, No. 69, 182. Boat-builders, 152, No, 7, 177, Brace, 171, No. 65, 182. Brace. Housed. 172. No. 66, 182. 207. Bridle, 172, No. 68, 182. Butt. 155. No. 11, 177, 187, 206, Butt, Doweled, 152, No. 8, 153, 177. 194. Caulked, 157. No. 22, 178. Checked, 157, No, 21, 178, Index. Joint, continued. Cogged, 157, No. 22, 178. Corked, 157, No. 22, 178. Column, 169, No. 52. 181. Cross-lap, 155, No. 14, 177. Dado, 157, No. 25, 179, 191. Dado and rabbet, 158, No. 26, 179, 187. Dado, Dovetail, 158, No. 28, 179, 191, 206. Dado, housed. 157, No. 25, 179, 187, 207. Dado, tongue, and rabbet, 158. No. 27, 179, 191. Dovetail, Blind miter, 167, No. 51, 180, 187. Half-blind, 166, No. 49, 180. Lap, 166, No. 49, ISO. Secret, 167, No. 51, 180, 187. Stopped lap, 166. No. 50, 180. Thru multiple, 165, No. 48, 180, 187, 206. Thru single, 165, No. 47, 180, 194. Doweled, 175, No. 75, 182. Draw-bolt, 154, No. 10, 177. Edge-to-edge, 172-174. End-lap, 156, No. 16, 178, 194, 206. Fillistered, 174, No. 71, 182. Fished, 151, No. 2, 177, 207. Forked tenon 157, No. 23, 178. Gain, 159, No. 29, 179, 205. Dovetail, 158, No. 28, 179. Glue, 172, No. 70, 182. Glued-and-blocked. 155, No. 12. 177. Grooved, 157, No. 25, 179. Halved Tee, 156, No. 15, 178. Halving, Dovetail 157, No. 18, 178. Halving, Beveled, 157, No. 19, 178. Halving, 155-157. See also Joint, Cross-lap, End- lap, Middle lap. Haunching, Table, 164, No. 43. 180. Taper, 164, No. 43. 180. Hopper, 155, No. 13, 177. Lap-dovetail, 157, No. 18, 178. Lapped and strapped 151, No. 1, 177. Ledge, 157, No. 24, 179, 187. Ledge and miter, 171, No. 58, 181, 187, 206. Matched, 174, No. 72, 182. Joint, continued. Middle-lap, 156, No. 15, 178. Miter, 167, No. 52, 181, 187, 194, 206. Double dovetail keyed, 171, No. 57, 181. Double tongue, 171, No. 60, 181. Doweled, 170, No. 53, 181. Lipped, 171, No. 58, 181. Slip dovetail, 171, No. 56, 181. Slip-feather, 170, No. 55, 181. Slip-key, 170, No. 55, 181. Spline, 170, No. 54, 181, 187. Stopped, 171, No. 59, 181. Tongue, 170, No. 54, 181. Mortise-and-tenon, 58, 127, 160- 164, 172, 194. Bare-faced, 164, No. 44, 180, 185. Blind, 160, No. 32, 179, 193. Double, 163, No. 41, ISO. Dovetail, 162, No. 37, 179. End, 164, No. 46, 180. Foxtail, 162, No. 36, 179. Haunched. 163. No. 42, 180, 193, 196, 207. Housed, 164, No. 45, ISO. Keyed, 163, No. 39, ISO, 185. Oblique, 172, No. 67, 182. Open, 164, No. 46, 180. Pinned, 162, No. 38. ISO, 194, 207. Shoulder, 163, No. 40, 180. Sttib, 160, No. 30, 17 9. Thru, 160, No. 31, 179. Tusk, 163, No. 40. ISO, 207. Wedged, 12S, 162. Xo.'^. 34 and 35, 179. Notched, 157, No. 20. 178. Notch, Double, 157. No. 21, 17S. Rabbet, 157, No. 24, 179, 174; No. 71, 182, 187. Rebated. See Joint, Rabbet. Rubbed, 172, No. 70, 173, 182, 205. Scarf, 151, Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7, 177, 204, 207. Slip, 164, No. 46, ISO, 194. Spliced, 151, Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 177, 204, 206, 207. Spline, 175, No. 74, 182. Squeezed, 172, No. 70, 174, 182. Stretcher. 171, No. 61, 181. Strut, 171, No. 62, 181, 207. Thrust, 171, Nos. 63 and 64, ISl, 207. Tie, 171, Nos. 63 and 64, 181. 228 Index. Joint, continued. Toe, 171, Nos. 63 and 64. 1!<1. Toe-nailed 154, No. 9. 177. Tongne-and-groove 174, No. 7l'. 182. Jointer-plane, 71'. Jointing a saw, 68. Joints, Chap. VII, 151-182. Beveled, 167-172. Butt, 152-155. Dovetail, 164-167, 204. Halving, 155-160, 203, 204. Heading, 151-152. Mortise-and-tenon, 58, 127, 160- 164, 172. Joi-sts, 201. Kerf, 10, 30, 62, 65. Key-pin of lock, 133. Kiln, lumber, 44, 46. Knife, 61, 136, 139. Knife, Sloyd, 61. Knob, Plane. 70. Knock-down furniture. 163. Knuckle of hinge. 131. Lac, insect, 2i5. Seed, 216. Shell, 216. Stick, 216, Lacquer, 218. Ladle, 141. Landlooking, 7. Latli-machines, 39, 41. Laths, 39, 49, 201. Lay-out, 152, 154, 155, 156. 158, 159. 160, 163, 165, 183, 191, 195, 203, 204. Leather, 59, 200. Leaves of hinge, 132. Level, Spirit, 116. Lever-cap, 70, 77. Lid of box, 188. Lighting of shop, 14 2. Live rollers, 35. Loading logs, 15. Lock, mortise, 134. Rim, 133, 134. Lockers, 13S, 142, 146, 147. Locks, 133, 134. Locomotive, Geared, 26. Snow, 28. Boom-derrick, 25. Log-boom, 20, 21. Log-carriage, 34, 35. 36. Log-flipper, 34. Logging, Chap. I, 7-29. Log-kicker, 34. Log-slip, 34. Log-stop, 34. Logwood, 211, 212. Loss of tools, 144-146. Lumber, 48. Lumber yard, 36, 38. Lumberman's board rule. 111. Lumber mill, 32, 33. M (1000 feet), 48, 49. Machine-screws, 127. Mahogany, 211. Mallet, 58, 96, 139. Marking-gage, 114-116, 136, 139, 203. .Marking tools, 113-117. Matcliing-plane, 80, 139. Maul, 10. Measurements, 203. Measuring-tools, 105-117. Measuring wood, 13, 48, 49, 105-116. Mill-pond, 21, 32. Miter-bo.K, 102, 137, 139, 194. Miter-clamp, 138, 141. Miter-square, 113, 137, 140. Molding-plane, SO. Monkey-wrench, 103, 138, 141. Mortise, 58, 160. i\Iortise-and- tenon. See Joint, Mortise-and-tenon. Mortise-chisel, 54, 55, 161. Mortise-gage, 116, 140, 161. :Multiple parts, 204. Muntin. 192. 193. :\luslin. 200, 221. Nails. 123. 124. Flat-liead, 124. Size of, 124. Wire, 123. Wrought, 123. Nailset, 97, 138, 141. Nig-ger, steam, 34, 35. Nippers, 103, 105, 138, 141. Octagonal scale, 108. Oil, 65, 130, 221. Banana, 213, 216. Boiled, 209, 210, 222. Oiler, 137, 140. Oilstone, 58, 121, 137, 140. Ordering of lumber, 4 9. Paint, 220-221. Panel construction, 164. 192-195, 205. Panel-iron, 127. 12S. Paper, Building, 201. Paring, 55, 57. Paring-chisel, 54. Peavey, is. Peen of hammer, 95, Index. 229 Picture-frame. 167-169, 194, 205. Clamp. 167. 168. Vise. 100. 101. 167, 194. Pigments, 209. Pillow, 77. Pincers, 103, 105. Pinch-dog, 102, 103, 141, 170. Pintle of hinge, 131. Plane, parts of, 70. Bed rock, 71, 75, 137, 139. Block, 77, 137, 139. Circular, 80. Fore, 72. 137, 139. Jack, 71, 136. 138. Jointer. 72. Matching, 80. 139. Molding, 80. Oriental, 69. Rabbet, 79, 137, 139, 194. Router, 83, 139, 160. Scraper, 79, 139. Scratch, 79, 130. Scrub, 78. Smooth, 72. 75, 137, 139. Tongue-and-groove. 80. Universal, 81, 82. Plane-iron, 70, 77. Planes, 69-82. Planing, Directions for, 74-76, 78. Order of, 72. Plate-rack, 185. Plates, metal, 127. Plate, wall, 201. Pliers, 103, 105, 138, 141. Plow, Snow, 13. Plug-cutter, 84, 86, 126, 140. Points in saw-teeth, 63. Polish, French, 217-218. Oil, 214. Varnish. 220. Wax, 214. Polishes, 214-220. Position of benches, 14-2. Posts, corner, 201. Potash, 150. Potassium bichromate, 130, 211, 212. Poun-ding tools, 94-97. Preservation of lumber, 47. See also seasoning. Principles of joinery, Chap. IX, 203- 208. Pumice stone, 217. Quarter-sawing. 42, 43. Rabbet-plane, 79, 137, 139, 194. Raft, Giant, 27, 29. Rafter-table, 110. Rafters, 201. Rail, 186, 193. Rail, Drawer, 196. Railways, logging, 22, 2G. Rasp, 91. Ratchet-brace, 103, 105, 137. Reamer, 84, 87. Rebate. See Rabbet. Red, Venetian, 210. Ribbon, Wall, 201. Ridge-pole, 201. Rift-sawing, 41. Rip-saw, 63, 137, 139. Rivet-set, 141. Road, Ice, 13, 14. Logging, 9, 13. 14. Monkeys 13, 15. Tote, 8. Rollers, Dead, 36. Rollers, Live, 35. Roll-ways, 16. Rossing of bark, 24. Router-plane, 83, 139, 160. Rule. 105, 106, 137, 139, 203. Running foot, 49. Rust, 125. On tools, 147. Sacking the rear, 16. Saddle seat, 60, 199. Sandpaper, 93, 221. Saw, 62-68. Selvage of lock, 133. Saw, Back, 65, 136, 138. Band, 30, 31, 32. Butting, 36. Circular, 30. Compass, 66, 139. Compression. 62. Coping, 139. Crosscut, 10, 64, 137, 139. Cut-off, 36, 39. Dovetail, 6-6, 137. 139. Gang, 30. Hack, 137, 141. Logging, 10, 23. Pulling, 10, 62, 67. Pushing, 62. Rip, 63, 137, 139. Tension, 62, 67. Turning, 67, 137, 139. Saw-carriage, 34, 35, 36. Sawdust, 39. Saw-filing and setting, 67. Saw-horse, 64, 65, 100. Sawing, Directions for, 64, 65. Saw-jointer, 68. Sawmill, 32, 33. Sawmilling. Chap. II, 30-44. 280 Index. S;nv-set, 6S. Saw-vise, 67, 68. Sawing into lengths. 11, 12, 24. Scaling logs, 13. Scrap-box, 187. Scraper, 76, 91, 1.37, 139. Scraper, Veneer, 91. 92, 137, 139. Scraper-plane, 79, 139. Scraper steel, 92, 137. 139. Scraping tools, 90-94. Scrap pile, 41, 42. Scratch-awl, 116, 140. Scratch-plane, 79, 130. Screen-hinge, 131. Screw-box, 139. Screwdriver. 104, 106. 138, 14o. Bit, 105, 106. 138 140. Screw-gage, 116, 117, 126. Screws, 125-127. Rule for using, 126. Sizes of, 126. Scribing, 112. Scrub-plane, 78. Seasoning. Chap. Ill, 4o-48. Air, 45. Hot-air. 46. Kiln, 46. Oil, 47. Water, 47. Set of saw, 63, 67. Shank, 54. Sharpening of tools, Tlie, 54, 58, 59, 60. 67, 76, 85, 86, 92-93, 117-121. Sharpening-tools. 11 7-121. Sheatliing. 201. Shellac, 149. 215-21S. Orange, 216. White, 216. Shelves, 185, 205. :Uiingles, 49, 201, 205. Shingle-machine, 39, 41. .Shoe-pegs. 128. Slioulder of joint, 160. Shlinkage, 186, 188, 1S9, 191, 192, 194, 205. Siding. 201. Sienna. 209. Sighting, 71, 75. Silex, 214. Sill, 201. Sizing, 130. Skidder, steam. 25. Skidway. 9, 13, 24. Slab, 34, 35. 39. Slab-slasher, 39, 4 0. .Slash -grain, 41, 4 2. Slash -sawing, 41. Sleigh haul, 13, 15. Sliding cut, 53, 56, 75, 78. Sliding T bevel, 113. Slipstone, 60, 121, 137, 140. Slip-tongue carts, 22. Smooth-plane, 72, 137, 139. Snips, 141. Snow-locomotive, 28. Soap, as a lubricant, 126. To prevent gluing, 130. Sole of Plane, 70. Sorting-jack, 21. Sorting-shed. 38. Spiriting off, 217. Splash-dam. 20. 21. Splitting tools, 51. Spokeshave, 82, 137, 139, 183. Stains, 209-213. Chemical. 211-213. Oil, 150. 209. 210. Spirit. 211. Water, 210. 211. Steel square. 107-111. 137, 140. Steel wool. 94. 211. 217, 221. Sticking, 45, 48. Stile, 193. Storing of lumber, 48. Stove, Gas, 138, 141, 148. Stove-bolts, 127. Straight cut, 53. Strength of joints, 206. Strike of lock. 133. Stringer, 196. Stropping, 59. Studding, 201. Superposition. Method of, 156, 158 159, 163, 166, 204. Survey of forest laml, 7. Svvainper, 12. Sweep of brace, 103. Table-hinge, 131. Table construction, 130, 164, 195. See also Table Top. Table top, 172, 175, 197. Taboret, 169, 170, 186. Tacks, 124. Tacks, double-pointed, 102, 124. Tang, 54. Tank, 14. Taper of cutting tools, 52. Tee-hinge, 131. Teeth of saw, 63. Tenon, 160, 206. See also Mortise and tetion. Joint, Mortise jnid tenon. Tenon-saw, 65, Toe of Plane, 70, 71. Index. 231 'I'hroat of Plane, 70. Tie-beams, 201. Timber, 48. Tonguing-and-gTooving-pIane, 80. Tool-grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137, 140. Tool-holder for grinding, 118-120. Tool-rack, 143, 144. Tools, Chap. IV, pp. 51-122. Tools, logging, 10. Traction engine, 28. Tools, Loss of, 144-14G. Tractor, 28. Trammel-points, 114, 140. Transfer, Lumber, 36, 37. Transportation of logs, 13, 15. 16ff, 23 Travoy. 9. Tray, 60, 183. Triangle, Blackboard, 141. Trimmer, 36, 38. Trimming logs, iz. Tripoli, 121, 147. Trolley for logs, 25. Try-square, 112, 136, 139, 140, 203. Tumbler of lock, 133. Turning-saw, 67, 137, 139, 183. Turpentine, 209, 210, 214, 222. Tusk. See Joint, mortise-and-tenon, tusk. Twist-bit, 84, 85. Twist-drill, 84, 85, 138. Twist-drill-gage, 117. Umber, 209. Undercut, 206. Universal plane, 81. Unjoined pieces, 183, 184. Upholstering, 199-201. Valuation survey, 7. Van. Logging camp. 9. Varnish, 149, 215-220. Copal, 218-220. Cremona, 218. Spirit, 215-218. Varnishing, Process of, 219. Vaseline, 147. Veining tools, 140. Veneer-scraper, 91, 92, 137, 139. Vermilion, 210. Vise, 99, 138. Iron, 138, 141. Walnut, 210. Waney boards, 36. Warping, 48. Washer-cutter, 87, 140. Waste, cotton, 209, 221. \vaste, sawmill, 39. Waterproof glue, 130. Water-stains, 210. Water-table, 201. Wax. 214. Webbing, 200. Wedge, Plane, 69, 70. Wedge, 10, 51, 52, 128, 162. Action 51, 52. Whetting tools, 58. Wind in board, 74. Winding sticks. 74, 113. Window-sash, 194. Wire edge, 59. Wire-gage, 116, 117. Wooden structures, types of. Chap. VIII, 183-202. Working edge, 72, 115. Working face, 72, 115. Wrench, 103. See also Monkey-wrench. Yarding logs, 24, 26, 27. Yard-stick, 138, 141. YelloAv, Chrome, 209. One copy del. to Cat. Div. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ;; '' '. ill ,!1 1 013 960 191 9