4 O " .11* '^^***''*' <-?>' L*?^, >. ^: '^- 4^ ^'^]fB^%'- ./^•^;:X ^'^:^B>%"- ./ *«>/'Tr; •\/ t^ -^^ A* ♦^fe'- \ ^ ' r , • • • y^_ : ^^"^^ '.^H^.- .5."'"^^ •. y.,-'^',-* ^*^;^ MEDIiEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY BY PHILIP VAN NESS MYERS Author of "A History of Greece," " Rome : Its Rise and Fall, "Ancient History," and "A General History" REVISED TO INCLUDE THE WORLD WAR, 1914-1918 GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO ^ "Entered at Stationers' Hall Copyright, 1S85, 1905, 1919, by PHILIP VAN NESS MYERS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. apg 2i i9f9 The real history of the human race is the history of tendencies which are perceived by the mind, and not of events which are dis- covered by the senses. — Buckle. Historical facts should not be a burden to the memory but an illumination of the soul, — Lord Acton. But history ought surely in some degree, if it is worth anything, to anticipate the lessons of time. We shall all no doubt be wise after the event ; we study history that we may be wise before the event. — Seeley. Ill PREFACE The revised text of my Medieval and Modei'n History has already appeared in a two-volume edition under the titles of The Middle Ages and The Modern Age. It is here presented, somewhat abridged, in a single illustrated book designed as a companion volume to my revised Ancient History. The lists of books for further reading and study appended to the different chapters are in the main a selection from the fuller bibhographies of the earlier revised edition. The series of maps includes all the more important ones of that impression, besides fifteen new colored maps, eleven of which have been engraved expressly for the present work. The two entitled respectively "The Danelaw" and "Angevin Dominions" are taken by kind permission from Professor Edward P. Cheyney's A Short History of England, while "Europe after 1815 " and "Europe at the Present Time " are through like courtesy drawn from Professor James Harvey Robinson's An Introduction to the History of Western Europe. Since this volume, as already indicated, is practically only a slightly compressed edition of my Middle Ages and The Modern Age, it is fitting that I should here renew my expressions of grati- tude to Professor George Lincoln Burr of Cornell University, Professor H. Morse Stephens of the University of California, and Professor George M. Dutcher of Wesleyan University, Middle- town, Connecticut, for their scholarly and valuable assistance in the revision of the proofs of those texts. V vi PREFACE I would further make grateful mention of my indebtedness to my friend, Mr. Dudley Emerson, for the kindly loan of photo- graphs from his choice collection, and to my former pupil and assistant, Miss Mary Louise De Luce, for aid generously given me in the press of proof reading. P. V. N. M. College Hill, Ohio February, 1905 CONTENTS Pagb List of Illustrations xii List of Plates xv List of Maps xv Chapter I. General Introduction : the Chief Factors in European Civili- zation I PART I — THE MIDDLE AGES FIRST PERIOD — THE DARK AGES (From the Fall of Rome to the Eleventh Century) JI. The Barbarian Kingdoms 7 jtll. The Church and its Institutions 14 I. The Conversion of the Barbarians 14 II. The Rise of Monasticism 22 III. The Rise of the Papacy . 27 ly. The Fusion of Latin and Teuton 34 y^ The Roman Empire in the East 42 VI. The Rise of Islam 46 VII. Charlemagne and the Restoration of the Empire in the West 61 VIII. The Northmen : the Coming of the Vikings 71 SECOND PERIOD — THE AGE OF REVIVAL (From the Opening of the Eleventh Century to the Discovery of America by Columbus in 1492) IX. Feudalism and Chivalry 77 I. Feudalism 77 II. Chivalry = . 93 vii viii CONTENTS Chapter Page' X. The Normans i.oi I. The Normans at Home and in Italy loi II. The Norman Conquest of England 103 XI. The Papacy and the Empire 1 11 XII. The Crusades (1096-1273) 121 I. Preparation of Europe for the Crusades .... 121 II. The First Crusade (1096-1099) ....... 131 III. The Second Crusade (11 47-1 149) - ^33 IV. The Third Crusade (II 89-1 192) 135 V. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) 136 VI. The Children's Crusades ; Minor Crusades . . . 138 VII. Crusades in Europe 141 VIII. Influence upon European Civilization of the Cru- sades « 143 XIII. Supremacy of the Papacy; Decline of its Temporal Power 148 XIV. The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks . 159 I. The Mongols 159 II. The Ottoman Turks 164 XV. The Growth of the Towns 169 XVI. The Universities and the Schoolmen 187 XVII. Growth of the Nations : Formation of National Govern- ments and Literatures 198 I. England 199 II. France . . ■ 220 III. Spain 229 IV. Germany 233 V. Russia 242 VI. Italy 244 VII. The Northern Countries ' . . 249 XVIII. The Renaissance 251 I. The Beginnings of the Renaissance 251 II. The Renaissance in Italy 255 III. General Effects of the Renaissance 269 CONTENTS IX PART II — THE MODERN AGE THIRD PERIOD — THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION (From the Discovery of America, in 1492, to the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648) Chapter Page XIX. Geographical Discoveries and the Beginnings of Modem Colonization 275 XX. The Beginnings of the Reformation 292 XXI. The Ascendancy of Spain ; her Relation to the Catholic Reaction 318 I. Reign of the Emperor Charles V (1519-1556) . . 318 II. Spain under Philip II (i 556-1598) ...... 326 XXII. The Tudors and the English Reformation (i 485-1 603) . . 334 I. Introductory 334 II. The Reign of Henry VII (148 5-1 509) 335 III. England severed from the Papacy by Henry VIII (1509-1547) 337 IV. Changes in Creed and Ritual under Edward VI (1547-1553) •. 347 y. Reaction under Mary (i 553-1 558) 349 VI. Final Establishment of Protestantism under Eliza- beth (1558-1603) 351 XXIII. The Revolt of the Netherlands : Rise of the Dutch Republic (1572-1609) • 363 XXIV. The Huguenot Wars in France (i 562-1629) 376 XXV. The Thirty Years' War (1 61 8-1 648) 387 FOURTH PERIOD — THE ERA OF THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (From the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, to the Twentieth Century) L THE AGE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY : THE PRELUDE TO THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (1648-1789) XXVI. Introductory : the Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the Maxims of the Enlightened Despots .... 396 XXVII. The Ascendancy of France under Louis XIV (1643-1715) 403 X CONTENTS Chapter Pagb XXVIII. The Stuarts and the English Revolution (1603-1689) . 420 I. The First Two Stuarts 420 II. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate (1649- 1660) 434 III. The Restored Stuarts 443 IV. Reign of William and Mary (i 689-1 702) . . . 450 XXIX. The Rise of Russia. Peter the Great (1682-1725) . . 454 XXX. The Rise of Prussia: Frederick the Great (i 740-1 786) . 469 XXXI. England in the Eighteenth Century 480 I. The Reign of Queen Anne (1702-17 14) . . . 480 II. England under the Earlier Hanoverians . . . 484 XXXII. Austria under the Benevolent Despot, Emperor Joseph II (1780-1790) 497 11. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC ERA (1789-1815) XXXIII. The French Revolution (i 789-1 799) ....... 500 I. Causes of the Revolution ; the States-General of 1789 500 II. The National or Constituent Assembly (June 17, 1789-Sept. 30, 1791) 513 III. The Legislative Assembly (Oct. i, 1791-Sept. 19. 1792) 519 IV. The National Convention (Sept. 20, 1792-Oct. 26, 1795) 523 V. The Directory (Oct. 27^ 1795-Nov. 9, 1799) . . 536 XXXIV. The Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire (1799-18 15) 543 I. The Consulate (i 799-1 804) 543 II. The Napoleonic Empire (1804-18 15) ; the War of Liberation 551 IIL THE RESTORATION OF 181 5 AND THE DEMOCRATIC REACTION : THE SEQUEL TO THE REVOLUTION (181 5-1904) XXXV. The Congress of Vienna and Mettemich 580 XXXVI. France since the Second Restoration (1815-1905^ . . . 589 CONTENTS xi Chapter Page XXXVII. England since the Battle of Waterloo (i8i 5-1905) . . 599 I. Progress towards Democracy 600 II. Extension of the Principle of Religious Equality 605 III. England's Relations with Ireland 609 XXXVIII. Spain and the Revolt of her American Colonies . . . 614 XXXIX. The Liberation and Unification of Italy 619 XL. The Making of the New German Empire 634 XLL Austria-Hungary after 1866 . 650 XLII. Russia since the French Revolution 654 XLIII. European Expansion in the Nineteenth Century . . . 664 I. Causes and General Phases of the Expansion Movement 664 II. The Expansion of England 669 III. The Expansion of France 678 IV. The Expansion of Germany 680 V. The Expansion of Russia 682 VI. The Expansion of the United States .... 685 VII. Situations and Problems created by the European Race Expansion .......... 687 XLIV. The World State : .... 697 Conclusion — The New Age: Industrial Democracy . . . 705 General Bibliography 709 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 725 Supplementary Chapter— The World War (1914-1918) . . . i LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. Page 1. Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna 8 2. St. Martin's Church, Canterbury 1 6 3. The Ruins of lona 17 4. The Ruins of Whitby 18 5. The Ruins of the Church of St. Simeon Stylites, near Antioch, Syria 24 6. The Simopetra Monastery of Mount Athos 25 7. A Monk Copyist 26 8. Trial by Combat 38 9. Wager of Battle between a Man and Woman 39 10. The Kaaba at Mecca 47 11. The Mosque of Cordova 58 12. A Viking Ship .' 72 13. The Ceremony of Homage 82 14. Typical Mediaeval Castle 88 15. Group in the Manor House 92 16. Arming a Knight 95 17. A Tilting Match between Two Knights 96 18. Degradation of a Knight 97 19. Landing in England of William of Normandy loi 20. Battle of Hastings 104 21. Domesday Book 107 22. The Spiritual and the Temporal Power 112 23. Investiture of a Bishop by a King 116 24. Reception of Crusaders by the King of Hungary 128 25. The Horses of St. Mark's 137 26. A Mediaeval Windmill 144 27. Hut- Wagon of the Mediaeval Tartars 160 28. The Taj Mahal at Agra 163 29. Ruins of the Great Mosque at Samarkand . 168 30. The Amphitheater at Aries in Mediaeval Times 170 31. A Count and his Wife granting a Charter to a City 171 32. State Barge of Venice used in the Ceremony of " Wedding the Adriatic " 180 23. A Canal in Venice 181 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii Fig. Page 34. The Cologne Cathedral 184 35. Town Hall of Louvain 185 36. University Audience in the Fifteenth Century 190 37. The Murder of Thomas Becket 201 38.. Carnarvon Castle 205 39. Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey 207 40. Charge of French Knights and Flight of English Arrows . . 213 41. Joan of Arc 214 42. Plowing Scene 218 43. In the Land of the Troubadours — the Castle of Foix .... 228 44. Recumbent Effigy of Queen Isabella 232 45. The Electors' Seat 236 46. Savonarola 248 47. Dante 253 48. Petrarch 257 49. A Block-Printed Page from the " Biblia Pauperum " . . . . . 263 50. The Printing of Books 264 51. Case of Chained Books 265 52. Tomb at Tours of the Children of Charles VIII 267 53. A Chinese Magnet Figure 277 54. Christopher Columbus , • • 279 55. "The Antipodes in Derision " 284 56. Erasmus 296 57. Martin Luther 3^2 58. John Calvin 3^9 59. Ignatius of Loyola 3^2 60. Emperor Charles V . 3^8 61. Philip II 326 62. Henry VIII • •- • • 339 63. Sir Thomas More 346 64. Queen Elizabeth 352 65. Mary Queen of Scots 355 66. Mary Stuart as Queen of France 355 67. Spanish and English War Vessels of the Sixteenth Century . . 358 68. Melrose Abbey 362 69. Typical Dutch Scene 3^3 70. William of Orange (The Silent) . 3^7 71. Coat of Arms of William, Prince of Orange ....... 375 72. Henry IV, King of France 381 73. Cardinal Richelieu 384 74. Gustavus Adolphus . . . ' « 389 75. Louis XIV 405 76. Duke of Marlborough 4^2 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. Page 77. View of Versailles 416 78. Charles I 426 79. Execution of the Earl of Strafford 429 80. Westminster Hall 433 81. Oliver Cromwell 438 82. Charles II 445 83. Peter the Great . 456 84. Catherine II of Russia 466 85. Frederick the Great of Prussia 475 86. John Wesley 488 87. William Pitt, Earl of Chatham 489 88. Voltaire 506 89. Mirabeau 513 90. The Lion of Lucerne 521 91. The Guillotine 528 92. Robespierre 532 93. Napoleon Bonaparte 543 94. William Pitt, Son of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham .... 555 95. Baron vom Stein 572 96. The Kremlin of Moscow 574 97. Prince Metternich 585 98. Napoleon III 593 99. Queen Victoria as a Young Woman 599 100. Lord Beaconsfield (Disraeli) 608 loi. William Ew'art Gladstone 611 102. Victor Emmanuel II 624 103. Count Cavour 625 104. Garibaldi 628 105. Pope Pius X 631 106. An Incident of the Franco-Prussian War: General Lapasset burning his Flags 645 107. The Parliament Building at Budapest 651 108. Henry M. Stanley 667 109. The Imperial Regalia of Japan 688 no. Field Marshal Oyama 694 III. The Christ of the Andes 702 LIST OF PLATES Facing Plate Page 1. The Field of the Cloth of Gold. (From the painting in the Royal Collection at Hampton Court Palace) Frontispiece II. St. Mark's Square, Venice. (From a photograph) .... 148 III. View of Florence, Italy, about the Year 1490. (From a con- temporary woodcut) 182 IV. Milan Cathedral. (From a photograph) 186 V. Canterbury Cathedral. (From a photograph) 200 VI. Ruins of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, England. (From a photograph) 3Af4 VII. Section of Old London Bridge. (From a contemporary drawing) 444 LIST OF MAPS COLORED MAPS Based in the main on Kiepert, Schrader, Droysen, Spruner-Sieglin, Poole, and Freeman. Many of the maps have been so modified by additions and omissions that as they here appear they are practically new charts. Facing Page 1. Europe in the Reign of Theodoric, about a.d. 500 8 2. Greatest Extent of the Saracen Dominions, about a.d. 750 . . 52 3. Europe in the time of Charles the Great, a.d. 814 . « . . . 64 4. The Western Empire as divided at Verdun, a.d. 843 .... 68 5. The Danelaw 74 6. Hitchin Manor, England, about 1 816 . « , 84 XV xvi LIST OF MAPS Facing Page 7. Europe and the Orient in 1096 132 8. Lands of the Holy Roman Empire under the Franconian Emperors, 1024-1125 152 9. Angevin Dominions 202 10. France about 1180 220 11. Spanish Kingdoms in 1360 230 12. Globe de Martin Behaim, 1492, and Globe Dore vers 1528 . , 280 13. Explorations and Colonies of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Sev- enteenth Centuries 286 14. Europe at the Accession of the Emperor Charles V, 151 9 . . 320 15. Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 392 16. Central Europe in 1660 406 17. The Baltic Lands, about 1701 . . . .' 458 18. The Partition of Poland 466 19. Prussia under Frederick the Great, 1740-1786 472 20. Central Europe in 1780 ^ . . . 498 21. Central Europe in 1801 546 22. Central Europe in 1810 568 23. Europe after 1S15 582 24. Italy in 1859 626 25. Europe at the Present Time 646 26. Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary 652 27. Southeastern Europe in 1914 . 658 28. The Partition of Africa 668 29. European Expansion 678 30. The Far East 688 SKETCH MAPS Page 1. Italy under the Lombards 11 2. The Roman Empire under Justinian 43 3. Discoveries of the Northmen jt, 4. The Mongol Empire under Jenghis Khan and his Immediate Successors (thirteenth century) 161 5. The Empire of the Ottoman Turks about 1464 167 6. The Hansa Towns and their Chief Foreign Settlements . . . 174 7. Russia and the Scandinavian Countries at the Close of the Middle Ages 243 8. Italy about the Middle of the Fifteenth Century 246 9. The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 -,73 MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER I GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE CHIEF FACTORS IN EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION 1. Preliminary Survey. — In an earlier volume we sketched briefly the affairs of men from the time that they first emerged from the obscurity of the past to the break-up of the Roman Empire in the West.-^ In the present work we propose to con- tinue the narrative there begun, and bring the story down to our own day. The fourteen centuries of history embraced in our survey are usually conceived as forming two periods, — the Middle Ages, or the period lying between the fall of Rome and the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, and the Modern Age, which extends from the latter event to the present time. The Middle Ages again naturally subdivide into two periods, — the Dark Ages and the Age of Revival ; while the Modern Age, as we shall view it, also falls into two divisions, — the ^^^ of the Protestant Reformation and the Era of the Political Revolution. 2. Chief Characteristics of the Four Periods. — The Dark Ages, which embrace the years between the fall of Rome and the opening of the eleventh century, are so called for the reason that the inrush of the barbarians and the almost total eclipse of the 1 Our Ancient History practically ends with this great revolution of the fifth century of the Christian era, although in order to meet the requirements of some schools there is given in concluding chapters a brief resume of events down to the Restoration of the Empire by Charlemagne, a.d. 800. I 2 GENERAL INTRODUCTION light of classical culture caused them to contrast unfavorably, in enlightenment and social order, as well with the age which pre- ceded as with that which followed them. The period was one of origins, — of the beginnings of peoples, and languages, and insti- tutions. During this time the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy, institutions embodying two of the great ideals of the mediaeval ages, grew into shape and form. The Age of Revival begins with the opening of the eleventh century and ends with the discovery of the New World. During all this time civilization was making slow but sure advances; social order was gradually triumphing over feudal anarchy, and governments w^ere becoming more regular. The last part of the period especially was marked by a great intellectual revival, — a movement known as the Renaissance, or "New Birth," — by improvements, inventions, and discoveries which greatly stirred men's minds and awakened them as from a sleep. The Crusades, or Holy Wars, were the most remarkable undertakings of the age. The Era of the Reforniation embraces the sixteenth century and the first half of the seventeenth. The period is characterized by the great religious movement known as the Reformation, and the tremendous struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism. Almost all the wars of the period were religious wars. The last great combat was the Thirty Years' War in Germany, which was closed by the celebrated Peace of Westphalia, in 1648. After this date the disputes and wars between parties and nations were dynastic or political rather than religious in character. The Era of the Political Revolution extends from the Peace of Westphalia to the present time. The age is especially character- ized by the great conflict between despotic and liberal principles of government, resulting in the triumph of democratic ideas. During this period, in all the countries of Europe save Turkey and Russia, government by the people has taken the place of govern- ment by one or the few. This is one of the most important revo- lutions that history records. The central event of the epoch was the terrible upheaval of the French Revolution. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FALL OF ROME 3 Having now made a general survey of the region we are to traverse, and having marked the three successive stages of the progressive course of European civilization, the intellectual, the religious, and the political revolution, we must turn back to our starting point, the fall of Rome. 3. Relation to World History of the Fall of Rome The calam- ity which in the fifth century befell the Roman Empire in the West is sometimes spoken of as an event marking the extinction of ancient civilization. The treasures of the Old World are represented as having been destroyed, and mankind as obhged to take a fresh start, — to lay the foundations of civihzation anew. It was not so. All or almost all that was really valuable in the accumulations of antiquity escaped harm, and became sooner or later the possession of the succeeding ages. The catastrophe simply prepared the way for the shifting in the West of the scene of civilization from the south to the north of Europe, simply transferred at once political power, and gradually social and intellectual preeminence, from one race to another, — from the Roman to the Teuton. The event was not an unrelieved calamity, because fortunately the floods that seemed to be sweeping so much away were not the mountain torrent, which covers fruitful fields with worthless drift, but the overflowing Nile with its rich deposits. Over all the regions covered by the barbarian inundation a new stratum of population was thrown down, a new soil formed that was capable of nourish- ing a better civilization than any the world had yet seen. Or, to use the figure of Draper, we may liken the precipitation of the northern barbarians upon the expiring Roman Empire to the heap- ing of fresh fuel upon a dying fire ; for a time it burns lower, and seems almost extinguished, but soon it bursts through the added fuel, and flames up with redoubled energy and ardor. 4. The Three Chief Elements of European Civilization. — We must now notice what survived the catastrophe of the fifth century, what it was that Rome transmitted to the new Teu- tonic race. This renders necessary an analysis of the elements of civilization. 4 GENERAL INTRODUCTION European civilization is mainly the result of the blending of three historic elements, — the Classical^ the Hebrew^ and the Teutonic. By the classical element in civilization is meant that whole body of arts, sciences, literatures, laws, manners, ideas, social arrangements, and models of imperial and municipal government — everything, in a word, save Christianity — that Greece and Rome gave to mediaeval and modem Europe. Taken together, these things constituted a valuable gift to the new northern race that was henceforth to represent civilization. It is true that the barbarian invaders of the Empire seemed at first utterly indifferent to these things ; that the masterpieces of antique art were buried beneath the rubbish of sacked villas and cities ; and that the precious manuscripts of the old sages and poets, because they were pagan productions and hence regarded as dangerous to Christian faith, were often suffered to lie neglected in the libraries of cathedrals and convents. Nevertheless, classical antiquity, as we shall learn, was the instructor of the Middle Ages. By the Hebrew element in history is meant Christianity. This has been a most potent factor in modem civilization. It has so colored the life and so molded the institutions of the European peoples that their history is very largely a story of this religion, which, first going forth from Judea, was given to the younger world by the missionaries of Rome. Among the doctrines taught by the new religion were the unity of God, the brotherhood of man, and immortality, -^ doctrines which have greatly helped to make the modern so different from the ancient world. By the Teutonic element in history is meant the barbarian peoples of Indo-European speech, the Goths, Franks, Danes, Angles, Saxons, and kindred tribes, who at the time of the break- up of the Roman Empire dwelt in central and northwestern Europe or had pushed into the Roman provinces and taken part in the overthrow of the Imperial Roman government. These folk had no arts or sciences or philosophies or literatures, but they and their later kin were destined to play a great part in the history of mediaeval arid modern times, CELTS, SLAVS, AND OTHER PEOPLES 5 5. The Relative Importance in European History of the Clas- sical, the Christian, and the Teutonic Element. — The question as to the influence which each of these great historical factors has exercised upon the development of European civilization is a very important one for the historical student, for the reason that his whole conception of history will be colored by the answer he gives to it. Gibbon, for instance, exalted the classical element and depreciated Christianity, representing this religion rather as a retarding than as a helpful force in the hfe of the European peo- ples. This misconception of the real place in history that Chris- tianity actually holds is a chief fault of Gibbon's great work. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, some Church historians so represent his- tory as to give Christianity credit for almost all the progress made by the European peoples since the advent of Christ. This is to undervalue the other historical factors. Still others, again, represent the Teutonic race element as the chief force in modern civilization, and rest their hopes for the future of the world largely upon the Anglo-Saxon spirit of enter- prise, freedom, and progress. It is certain that we should allow the exclusive claims of none of these schools of interpreters of history. Modern civilization, as we have already intimated, is a very composite product. It has resulted from the mixing and mutual action and reaction upon one another of all the historical elements and agencies that we have mentioned — and many minor • ones besides. Civiliza- tion cannot spare the treasures of Greek and Roman antiquity; it cannot spare the religious doctrines and moral precepts of the great Hebrew teachers ; it cannot spare the earnest and master- ful spirit of the Teutonic race. If any one of these elements were taken from modern civilization, it would be something wholly different from what it is. 6. Celts, Slavs, and Other Peoples. — Having noticed the Romans and the Teutons, the two most important of the peoples that present themselves to us at the time of the fall of Rome, if we now name the Celts, the Slavs, the Persians, the Arabians, and 6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION the Mongols and Turks, we shall have under view the chief actors in the drama of mediaeval and of a large part of modern history. At the commencement of the mediaeval era the Celts were in front of the Teutons, chnging to the western edge of the Euro- pean continent, and engaged in a bitter contest with these latter peoples, which, in the antagonism of England and Ireland, was destined to extend itself to our own day. The Slavs were in the rear of the Teutonic tribes, pressing them on even as the Celts in front were struggling to resist their advance. These peoples, backward in civilization, will play only an obscure part in the transactions of the mediaeval era, but in the course of the modern period will assume a most commanding position among the European nations. The Persians were in their old seats beyond the Euphrates, maintaining there what is called the New Persian Empire, the kings ^f which, until the rise of the Saracens in the seventh century, were the most formidable rivals of the emperors of Constantinople. The Arabians were hidden in their deserts ; but in the seventh century we shall see them, animated by a wonderful religious enthusiasm, issue from their peninsula and begin a contest with the Christian nations which, in its varying phases, was destined to fill a large part of the mediaeval period. The Mongols and Turks were buried in Central Asia. They will appear late in the eleventh century, proselytes for the most part of Mohammedanism; and, as the religious ardor of the Semitic Arabians grows cool, we shall see the Islam standard car- ried forward by these zealous converts of another race, and finally, in the fifteenth century, we shall see the Crescent, the adopted emblem of the new religion, placed by the Ottoman Turks upon the dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople. As the Middle Ages draw to a close, the remote nations of Eastern Asia will gradually come within our circle of vision; and, as the Modern Age dawns, we shall catch a glimpse of new continents and strange races of men beyond the Atlantic. Part I— The Middle Ages FIRST PERIOD — THE DARK AGES (From the Fall of Rome to the Eleventh Century) CHAPTER II THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 7. Introductory. — In one of the concluding chapters of our Ancient History, as a part of the story of the break-up of the Roman Empire in the West, we gave some account of the migra- tions and settlements of the Teutonic tribes. In the present chapter we shall indicate briefly the political fortunes, for the two centuries and more following the fall of Rome, of the prin- cipal kingdoms set up by the Teutonic chieftains in the different parts of the old Empire. 8. Kingdom of the Ostrogoths (a.d. 493-553). — Odoacer will be recalled as the barbarian chief who dethroned the last of the Western Roman emperors.^ His feeble government in Italy lasted only seventeen years, when it was brought to an end by the invasion of the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) under Theodoric, the greatest of their chiefs, who set up in Italy a new dominion known as the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths. The reign of Theodoric covered thirty-three years (a.d. 493- 526), — years of such quiet and prosperity as Italy had not known since the happy era of the Antonines. The king made good his promise that his reign should be such that " the only regret 1 See Ancient History, sec. 560. 7 8 THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS of the people should be that the Goths had not come at an earlier period." ^ Notwithstanding his generally humane and tolerant disposition, Theodoric stained the last years of his reign by various acts of cruelty and persecution. Among the victims of his injustice was the-renowfied Boethius, one of the most distinguished scholars of that time, who was put to death on what seems to have been an unfounded charge of disloyalty. During the months of imprison- ment which preceded his execution, Boethius wrote his Philoso- phice. Consolatio, or " Consolation of Philosophy," a work that ^ possessed a most remarkable attrac- tion for a certain class of minds throughout the Middle Ages. The kingdom established by the rare abilities of Theodoric lasted only twenty-seven years after his death. It was de- ^•c Fig. I. Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna (From a photograph) stroyed by the generals of Justinian, Emperor of the East (sec. 50); and Italy, freed from the barbarians, was for a time reunited to the Empire (a.d. 553). 9. Kingdom of the Visigoths (a.d. 415-7 it). — The Visigoths (W'^estern Goths) were already in possession of Southern Gaul and the greater part of Spain when the line of Western Roman emperors was brought to an end by the act of Odoacer and his companions. Driven south of the Pyrenees by the kings of the Franks, they held their possessions in Spain until the beginning of the eighth century, when their rule was brought to an end by 2 Theodoric's chief minister and adviser was Cassiodorus, a statesman and writer of Roman birth, whose constant but unfortunately vain effort was to effect a union of the conquerors and the conquered, and thus to estabUsh in Italy a strong and perma- nent Romano-Gothic state under the rule of the royal house of the Ostrogoths. 25 20 15 10 5 / "^ \/ / / .^ ^ y / / ^^""^ 7 / '*^ / t^ / / /^^ / *'/ /■- / / ~r--->-~---5l ^\,^^ / / / ^7 r^ S ^-\ EUROPE IN THE KEIGN OF THEODORIC About A. D. 500 Roman Empire [ | Celts [ | Teutonic Settlements U Ti 30 35 40 45 50 55 Cherson MACEDONIA V^CO^ ^lesa «d^4 KINGDOM OF THE BURGUNDIANS 9 the Saracens (sec. 65). The Visigothic kingdom when thus over- turned had lasted nearly three hundred years. During this time the conquerors had mingled with the old Romanized inhabitants of Spain, so that in the veins of the Spaniard of to-day is blended the blood of Iberian, Celt, Roman, and Teuton, together with that of the last intruder, the African Moor. 10. Kingdom of the Burgundians (a.d. 443-534). — Towards the middle of the fifth century the Burgundians acquired a per- manent settlement in Southeastern Gaul. A portion of their ancient dominion still retains from them the name of "Bur- gundy." The Burgundians had barely secured a foothold in Gaul before they came in collision with the Franks on the north, and were reduced by them to a state of dependence. 11. Kingdom of the Vandals (a.d. 439-533). — About half a century before the fall of Rome the Vandals set up a kingdom in North Africa. These barbarians were animated by a more destructive energy than any other of the Germanic tribes that took part in the subversion of the Roman Empire. Their very name has passed into all languages as the synonym of wanton destruction and violence. Being Arian^ Christians, the Vandals persecuted with furious zeal the orthodox party, the followers of Athanasius. Moved by the entreaties of the African Catholics, the Eastern Emperor Justinian sent his general Belisarius to drive the barbarians from Africa. The expedition was successful, and Carthage and the fruitful fields of Africa were restored to the Empire after having suffered the insolence of the barbarian conquerors for the space of above a hundred years. The Vandals remaining in the coun- try were gradually absorbed by the old Roman population, and after a few generations no certain trace of the barbarian invaders could be detected in the physical appearance, the language, or the customs of the inhabitants of the African coast. The Vandal nation had disappeared ; the name alone remained. 12. The Franks under the Merovingians (a.d. 486-752). — The Franks, who were destined to give a new name to Gaul S See Ancient History, sec. 537. lO THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS and form the nucleus of the French nation, made their first set- tlements west of the Rhine about two hundred years before the fall of Rome. Among their several chieftains at the time of this event was Clovis. Upon the break-up of the Roman Empire in the West, Clovis conceived the ambition of erecting a king- dom upon the ruins of the Roman power. He attacked Syagrius, the Roman governor of Gaul, and at Soissons gained a decisive victory over his forces (a.d. 486). Thus was destroyed forever in Gaul that Roman authority estabhshed among its tribes more than five centuries before by the conquests of Julius Caesar. Clovis in a short time extended his authority over the greater part of Gaul, reducing to the condition of tributaries the various Teutonic tribes that had taken possession of different portions of the country. Upon his death (a.d. 511) his extensive domin- ions, in accordance with the ancient Teutonic law of inheritance, were divided among his four sons. About a century and a half of discord followed, by the end of which time the Merovingians ^ had become so feeble and inefficient that they were contemp- tuously called rois faineants, or "do-nothing kings," and an ambitious officer of the crown known as Mayor of the Palace, in a way that will be explained a litde later (sec. 72), pushed aside the weak Merovingian king and gave to the Frankish mon- archy a new royal line, — the Carolingian. 13. Kingdom of the Lombards (a.d. 568-774). — Barely a decade had passed after the recovery of Italy from the Ostro- goths by the Eastern Emperor Justinian (sec. 8), before a large part of the peninsula was again lost to the Empire through its conquest by another barbarian tribe known as the Lombards.^ When they entered Italy the Lombards were Christians of the 4 So called from Merowig, an early chieftain of the race. 5 The Lombards were, after the Vandals, the most untamed of all the tribes that fell upon the Roman provinces, and their conquests were attended with the most appalling slaughters and cruelties. The story of Alboin and Rosamund is a typical one. Alboin had slain in battle a rival chieftain, the king of the Gepidae, whose beautiful daughter, Rosamund, he had just taken as a bride. At a banquet in cele- bration of his victories he forced his young queen to drink wine from her father's skull, which he had had made into a drinking cup. In revenge for the insult, Rosamund plotted the death of her husband and then married the murderer. THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY II Arian sect ; but in time they became converts to the orthodox faith, and Pope Gregory I bestowed upon their king a diadem which came to be known as the " Iron Crown," for the reason that there was wrought into it what was beheved to be one of the nails of the cross upon which Christ had suffered. The Kingdom of the Lombards was destroyed by Charlemagne, the most noted of the Frankish rulers, in the year 774 ; but the blood of the invaders had by this time become intermingled with that of the former subjects of the Empire, so that throughout all that part of the penin- sula which is still called Lombardy after them, one will to-day occasionally see the fair hair and light complexion which reveal the strain of German blood in the veins of the present in- habitants. One important result of the Lom- bard conquest of Italy was the de- struction of the po- litical unity estab- lished by the Romans and the breaking up of the country into a multitude of petty states. This resulted from the incomplete nature of the conquest and from the loose feudal constitution of the Lombard monarchy, which was rather a group of practically independent duchies than a real kingdom. Not until our own day did there emerge from this political chaos a united Italy. Map of Italy under the Lombards Showing how the political unity of the peninsula was shattered by the Lombard conquest. The unshaded portions represent the regions taken possession of by the barbarians; the shaded areas indicate the lands which remained in the hands of the Eastern Emperor 12 THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 14. The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain. — In the fifth cen- tury of our era, being then engaged in her death struggle with the barbarians, Rome withdrew her legions from Britain in order to protect Italy. Thus that province was left exposed to the depredations of the Anglo-Saxon corsairs from the Continent. No other province of the Roman Empire made such determined and heroic resistance against the barbarians. It is to this period of desperate struggle that the famous King Arthur belongs. The legends that have gathered about the name of this national hero are mostly mythical ; yet it is possible that he had a real exist- ence and that the name represents one or more of the most valiant of the Celtic chiefs who battled so long and heroically against the pagan invaders.® The conquerors of Britain belonged to three Teutonic tribes, — the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, — but among the Celts they all passed under the name of Saxons, and among themselves, after they began to draw together into a single nation, under that of Angles, whence the name England (Angle-land). By the close of the sixth, century the invading bands had set up in the conquered parts of the island eight or nine, or perhaps more, kingdoms, — frequently designated, though somewhat inac- curately, as the Heptarchy. For the space of two hundred years there was an almost perpetual strife for supremacy among the leading states. Finally, Egbert, king of Wessex (a.d. 802-839), brought all the other kingdoms to a subject or tributary condi- tion, and became in reality, though he seems never, save on one occasion, to have actually assumed the title, the first king of England. 15. Teutonic Tribes outside the Empire. — We have now spoken of the most important of the Teutonic tribes which forced them- selves within the limits of the Roman Empire in the West, and that there, upon the ruins of the civilization they had overthrown, laid or helped to lay the foundations of the modern nations of Italy, Spain, France, and England. Beyond the boundaries of the old 6 Many of the hard-pressed Britons fled across the English Channel to the adja- cent shores of France, and gave name to the French province of Brittany. TEUTONIC TRIBES OUTSIDE THE EMPIRE 13 Empire were still other tribes and clans of this same mighty family of nations, — tribes and clans that were destined to play great parts in European history. On the east, beyond the Rhine, were the ancestors of the modern Germans. Notwithstanding the immense hosts that the forests and morasses of Germany had poured into the Roman provinces, the fatherland, in the sixth century of our era, seemed still as crowded as before the great migration began. These tribes were yet barbarians in manners, and, for the most part, pagans in religion. In the northwest of Europe were the Scandinavians, the ancestors of the modern Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. They were as yet untouched either by the civilization or the religion of Rome. Selections from the Sources."^ — The Letters of Cassiodorus (trans, by Thomas Hodgkin). Read bk. i, letters 24 and 35 ; bk. ii, letters 32 and 34; bk. iii, letters 17, 19, 29, 31, and 43; bk. xi, letters 12 and 13; bk. xii, letter 20. These letters are invaluable in showing what was the general condition of things in the transition period between ancient and mediaeval times. BoETHius, Consolation of Philosophy (Bohn). "Whoso would understand," says Hodgkin, "the thoughts that were working in the noblest minds of the mediaeval Europe would do well to give a few hours' study to the once world-renowned ' Consolation of Philosophy.' " Colby, Selections^ Extract 5, " The Coming of the English to Britain." Secondary Works. — Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders and Theodoric the Goth. Hodgkin is recognized as the best authority on the period of the migration. Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy. Gummere, Ger- manic Origins ; an authoritative and interesting work on the early culture of the Germans. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall, chaps, xxxviii and xxxix. Emerton, An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages, chaps, vi and vii. B]EMONT and Monod, Mediceval Europe, chaps, iv-vii. MuNRO and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 44-59. This book consists of selec- tions from modern authors, translated and adapted to school use by the editors. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Boethius and his Consolation of Phi- losophy. 2. Manners and customs of the early Germans. 3. Cassiodorus. 4. The character of Clovis. 5. " The groans of the Britons." 7 For full names of authors and for further information concerning works cited, see General Bibliography at end of book. CHAPTER III THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS I. The Conversion of the Barbarians i6. Introductory. — The most important event in the history of the tribes that took possession of the Roman Empire in the West was their conversion to Christianity. Many of the barbarians were converted before or soon after their entrance into the Empire ; to this circumstance the Roman provinces owed their immunity from the excessive cruelties which pagan barbarians seldom fail to inflict upon a subjected enemy. Alaric left untouched the treasures of the churches of the Roman Christians because his own faith was also Christian. For like reason the Vandal king Geiseric yielded to the prayers of Pope Leo the Great and prom- ised to leave to the inhabitants of the imperial city their lives.^ The more tolerable fate of Italy, Spain, and Gaul, as compared with the hard fate of Britain, is owing, in part at least, to the fact that the tribes which overran those countries had become in the main converts to Christianity before they crossed the boundaries of the Empire, while the Saxons when they entered Britain were still untamed pagans. 17. Conversion of the Goths, Vandals, and Other Tribes. — The first converts to Christianity among the barbarians beyond the limits of the Empire were won from among the Goths. Foremost of the apostles that arose among them was Ulfilas, who translated the Scriptures into the Gothic language, omitting from his version, however, the Books of the Kings, as he feared that the stirring recital of wars and battles in that portion of the Word might kindle into too fierce a flame the martial ardor of his new converts. 1 See Ancient History, sees. 553 and 559, 14 CONVERSION OF. THE FRANKS 1 5 What happened in the case of the Goths happened also in the case of most of the barbarian tribes that participated in the over- throw of the Roman Empire in the West. By the time of the fall of Rome the Goths, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the Burgundians had become proselytes to Christianity. They, however, professed the Arian creed, which had been condemned by the great council of the Church held at Nicsea during the reign of Constantine the Great. Hence they were regarded as heretics by the Catholic Church, and all had to be reconverted to the orthodox creed, which good work was gradually accomplished. The remaining Teutonic tribes of whose conversion we shall speak — the Franks, the Anglo-Saxons, and the chief tribes of Germany — embraced at the outset the Catholic faith. 18. Conversion of the Franks; Importance of this Event. — The Franks when they entered the Empire, like the Angles and Saxons when they landed in Britain, were still pagans. Christianity gained way very slowly among them until a supposed interposition by the Christian God in their behalf led the king and nation to adopt the new religion in place of their old faith. The circumstances, as reported by tradition, were these. In a terrible battle between the Alemanni and the Franks under their king Clovis, the situation of the Franks had become desperate. Then Clovis, falling upon his knees, called upon the God of the Christians, and vowed that if he would give him the. victory he would become his follower. The battle turned in favor of the Franks, and Clovis, faithful to his vow, was baptized, and with him three thousand of his warriors. This story of the conversion of Clovis and his Franks illustrates how the belief of the barbarians in omens and divine interpositions, and particularly their feeling that if their gods did not do for them all they wanted done they had a right to set them aside and choose others in their stead, contributed to their conversion, and how the reception of the new faith was often a tribal or national affair rather than a matter of personal conviction. "The conversion of the Franks," says the historian Milman, "was the most important event in its remote as well as its immediate consequences in European history." It was of such i6 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS moment for the reason that the Franks embraced the orthodox Catholic faith, while almost all the other German invaders of the Empire had embraced the heretical Arian creed. This secured them the loyalty of their Roman subjects and also gained for them the official favor of the Church of Rome. Thus was laid the basis of the ascendancy in the West of the Frankish kings. 19. Augustine's Mission to England. — In the year a.d. 596 Pope Gregory I sent the monk Augustine with a band of forty companions to teach the Christian faith in Britain, in whose peo- ple he had become interested through see- ing in the slave market at Rome some fair- faced captives from that remote region. The monks were favorably received by the English, who listened attentively to the story the strangers had come to tell them; and being persuaded that the tidings were true, they burned the temples of Woden and Thor, and were in large numbers baptized in the Christian faith. One of the most important consequences of the conversion of Britain was the reestablishment of that connection of the island with Roman civilization which had been severed by the calamities of the fifth century. As Green says, • — he is speaking of the embassy of St. Augustine, — " The march of the monks as they chanted their solemn litany was in one sense a return of the Roman legions who withdrew at the trurhpet call of Alaric. . . . Practically Augustine's landing renewed that union with the west- ern world which the landing of Hengist had destroyed. The new England was admitted into the older commonwealth of nations. Fig. 2. — St. Martin's Church, Canterbury (From a photograph) This church occupies the site of a chapel built in the Roman period and standing at the time of the landing of the monk Augustine, in the year 597. Its walls show some of the Roman bricks of the original church THE CONVERSION OF IRELAND 17 The civilization, art, letters, which had fled before the sword of the English conquerors, returned with the Christian faith." 20. The Conversion of Ireland ; lona The spiritual conquest of Ireland was effected largely by a zealous priest named Patricius (d. about A.D. 469), better known as St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. With such success were his labors attended that by the time of his death a great part of the island had embraced the Christian faith. Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm. The Irish or Celtic Church sent out its devoted missionaries into the Pictish highlands, into the forests of Ger- many, and among the wilds of Alps and Apennines.^ Among the numer- ous religious houses founded by the Celtic missionaries was the famous monastery estab- lished A.D. 563 by the Irish monk St. Columba, on the little isle of lona, just off the Pictish coast. lona became a most renowned center of Christian learning and missionary zeal, and for almost two centuries was the point from which radiated light through the darkness of the surrounding heathenism. Fitly has it been called the Nursery of Saints and the Oracle of the West.^ 2 These Irish missionaries were not merely the representatives of Christianity ; their time and strength were devoted to many purely secular duties. " They were instructors in every known branch of science and learning of the time, possessors and bearers of a higher culture than was at that period to be found anywhere on the Continent, and can surely claim to have been the pioneers, — to have laid the corner stone of western culture on the Continent." — Zimmer, The Irish Element in Mediceval Culture, p. 130. 3 In Southern Germany (now Switzerland) the Irish monk Gallus established (A.D. 613) the celebrated monastery of St. Gall, which at a later time became one of the chief seats of learning in Central Europe. Fig. 3. — The Ruins of Iona. (After an old drawing) That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of lona.-' — Dr. Johnson, A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland i8 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS 21. Rivalry between the Roman and the Celtic Church; The Council of Whitby (a.d. 664). — From the very moment that Augustine touched the shores of Britain and summoned the Welsh clergy to acknowledge the discipline of the Roman Church, there had been a growing jealousy between the Latin and Celtic churches, which had now risen into the bitterest rivalry and strife. So long had the Celtic Church been cut off from all rela- tions with Rome, that it had come to differ somewhat from it in the matter of certain ceremonies and observances, such as the time of keeping Easter and the form of the tonsure.* With a view to settling the quarrel, Oswy, king of Northumbria, who thought that " as they all expected the same kingdom of Fig. 4. — The Ruins of Whitby. (From a photograph by the author) heaven, so they ought not to differ in the celebration of the divine mysteries," called a synod composed of representatives of both parties, at the monastery of Whitby. The chief question of debate, which was argued before the king by the ablest advo- cates of both churches, was the proper time for the observance of Easter. The debate was warm, and hot words were exchanged. Finally, Wilfrid, the speaker for the Roman party, happening to quote the words of Christ to Peter, " To thee will I give the keys of the kingdom of heaven," the king asked the Celtic monks if these words were really spoken by Christ to that apostle, and upon their admitting that they were, Oswy said : " He being the 4 In the Roman tonsure the top of the head was shaven, in the Celtic the front part only. LITERATURE OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 19 doorkeeper, ... I will in all things obey his decrees, lest when I come to the gates of the kingdom of heaven, there should be none to open them," The decision of the prudent Oswy gave the British Isles to Rome; for not only was all England soon won to the Roman side, but the churches and monasteries of Wales and Ireland and Scotland came in time to conform to the Roman standard and custom. "By the assistance of our Lord," says the pious Latin chronicler, " the monks were brought to the canonical observa- tion of Easter and the right mode of the tonsure." One important result of the Roman victory was the hastening of the political unity of England through its ecclesiastical unity. The Celtic Church, in marked contrast with the Latin, was utterly devoid of capacity for organization. It could have done nothing in the way of developing among the several Anglo-Saxon states the sentiment of nationality. On the other hand, the Roman Church, through the exercise of a central authority, through national synods and general legislation, overcame the isolation of the different kingdoms and helped powerfully to draw them together into a common political life. 22. Pagan and Christian Literature of the Anglo-Saxons. — A strong side light is cast upon our ancestors' change of religion by two famous poems which date from the Anglo-Saxon period, of our literature. One of these, called Beowidf, was composed while our forefathers were yet pagans, and probably before they left the Continent ; the other, known as the Paraphrase of the Scriptures, was written soon after their conversion to Christianity. Beowulf is an epic poem which tells of the exploits of an heroic Viking, Beowulf by name, who delivers the people from a terrible monster that feasted upon sleeping men. It is alive with the instincts of paganism, and is a faithful reflection of the rough heathen times in which it had birth. Every passage dis- plays the love of the savage for coarse horrors and brutal slaugh- ters. Thus it runs : " The wretched wight seized quickly a sleeping warrior, slit him unawares, bit his bone-locker, drank his blood, in morsels swallowed him; soon had he all eaten, feet 20 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS and fingers." Before another can be made a victim Beowulf closes with the monster. " The hall thundered, the ale of all the Danes and earls was spilt. Angry, fierce were the strong fighters, the hall was full of din. It was great wonder that the wine-hall stood above the warlike beasts, that the fair earth-house fell not to the ground." Such was the gleeman's song which dehghted our Saxon forefathers as they drank and caroused in their great mead halls. In striking contrast with the pagan hero poem stands the PharaphrasCy the first fruits in English literature of the mission of Augustine. This consists of Bible stories retold in verse. These metrical paraphrases, it is now believed, were composed, in the main, between the seventh and the tenth century by different poets, who seem to have been disciples or imitators of a certain monk of Whitby, named Caedmon, upon whom, according to a beautiful legend transmitted .to us by the Venerable Bede,^ the gift of song had been miraculously bestowed, and who, though he could neither read nor write, turned into sweet verses, as they were recited to him, many of the graphic tales of Holy Writ. In these compositions is reflected in a wonderful manner the revolu- tion in thought and feeling and in aim and purpose of life which the reception of Christian teachings and doctrines, in place of their earlier beliefs and ideas, wrought in the pagan conquerors of Britain. 23. The Conversion of Germany. — The conversion of the tribes of Germany was effected by Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Frankish missionaries, and the sword of Charlemagne (sec. 74). The great apostle of Germany was the Saxon Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface. During a long and intensely active hfe he founded schools and monasteries, organized churches, preached and bap- tized, and at last died a martyr's death (a.d. 753). Through 5 Bede the Venerable (about a.d. 673-735) \vas a pious and learned Northum- brian monk, who wrote, among other works, an invaluable one entitled Historia Bcclesiastica Geniis Anglorum,^^ The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation." The work recites, as its central theme, the story of how our forefathers were won to the Christian faith. We are indebted to Bede for a large part of our knowledge of early England. THE CONVERSION OF RUSSIA 21 him, as says Milman, the Saxon invasion of England flowed back upon the Continent. The Christianizing of the tribes of Germany reUeved the Teu- tonic folk of Western Europe from the constant peril of massacre by their heathen kinsmen, and erected a strong barrier in Central Europe against the advance of the waves of Turanian paganism and Mohammedanism which for centuries beat so threateningly against the eastern frontiers of Germany. 24. The Conversion of Russia. — Vladimir the Great (d. 1015) was the Clovis of Russia. This ruler, according to the account of the matter that has come down to us, having had urged upon his attention the claims of different rehgions, sent out envoys to make investigation respecting the relative merits of Mohamme- danism, the Jewish rehgion, and Latin and Greek Christianity. The commissioners reported in favor of the religion of Constan- tinople, having been brought to this mind by what seemed to them the supernatural splendors of the ceremonials that they had witnessed in the great Church of St. Sophia. Vladimir caused the great wooden idol of the chief god of his people to be hurled into the Dnieper, and his subjects to be bap- tized in its waters by the Christian priests. This act of Vladimir marks the real beginning of the evangelization of Russia (988). That the Slavic tribes should have come under the religious influence of Constantinople instead of under that of Rome had far-reaching consequences for Russian history. This circum- stance cut off Russia from sympathy with the Catholic West and shut her out from all the civilizing influences that accompanied Latin Christianity. 25. Christianity in the North. — The. progress of Christianity in the North was slow ; but gradually, during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, the missionaries of the Church won over all the Scandinavian peoples. One important effect of their con- version was the checking of those piratical expeditions which during all the centuries of their pagan history had been constantly putting out from the fiords of the Northern peninsulas and vexing every shore to the south. 22 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS By about the year looo all Europe was claimed by Christianity, save the regions of the Northwest about the Baltic, which were inhabited chiefly by the still pagan Finns and Lapps, parts of what is now Russia, and the larger portion of the Iberian peninsula, which was in the hands of the Mohammedan Moors. 26. Reaction of Paganism on Christianity. — Thus were the conquerors of the Empire met and conquered by Christianity. The victory, it must be confessed, was in a great degree a victory rather in name than in fact. The Church could not all at once leaven the great mass of heathenism which had so suddenly been brought within its pale. For a long time after they were called Christians, the barbarians, coarse and cruel and self-willed and superstitious as they were, understood very little of the doctrines and exhibited still less of the true spirit of the religion they pro- fessed. To this depressing reaction of Teutonic barbarism upon the Church is without doubt to be attributed in large measure the deplorable moral state of Europe during so large a part of the mediaeval ages. II. The Rise of Monasticism 27. Monasticism defined; the System fostered by Scripture Teachings. — It was during the period between the third and the sixth century that there grew up in the Church the institution known as Monasticism. This was so remarkable a system, and one that exerted so profound an influence upon mediaeval and even later history, that we must here acquaint ourselves with at least its spirit and aims. The term Monasticism, in its widest application, denotes a life of austere self-denial and of seclusion from the world, with the object of promoting the interests of the soul. As thus defined, the system embraced two prominent classes of ascetics : (i) her- mits, or anchorites, — persons who, retiring from the world, lived solitary lives in desolate places; (2) cenobites, or monks, who formed communities and lived usually under a common roof. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM 23 Christian asceticism® was fostered by teachings drawn from various texts of the Bible. Thus the apostle- St. Paul had said, " He that is unmarried careth for the things that belong to the Lord ; ... but he that is married careth for the things that are of the world." ^ And Christ himself had declared, "If any man come to me, and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple";^ and, again, he had said to the rich young man, " If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor." ® These passages, and others like them, taken literally, tended greatly to confirm the belief of the ascetic that his life of isolation and poverty and abstinence was the most perfect life and the surest way to win salvation. 28. St. Antony, "the Father of the Hermits." — St. Antony, an Egyptian ascetic (b. about a.d. 251), who by his example and influence gave a tremendous impulse to the movement, is called the " Father of the Hermits." The romance of his life, written by the celebrated Athanasius, stirred the whole Christian world and led thousands to renounce society and in imitation of the saint to flee to the desert. It is estimated that before the close of the fourth century the population of the desert in many dis- tricts in Egypt was equal to that of the cities. Most renowned of all the anchorites' of the East was St. Simeon Stylites, the Saint of the Pillar (d.A.D. 459), who spent thirty-six years on a column only three feet in diameter at the top, which he had gradually raised to a height of over fifty feet.^*^ 29. Monasticism in the West. — During the fourth century the anchorite type of asceticism, which was favored by the mild climate of the Eastern lands and especially by that of Egypt, assumed in some degree the monastic form; that is to say, the fame of this or that anchorite or hermit drew about him a number 6 The ascetic idea of life was by no means original with Christianity. Brahman- ism has always had its ascetics and hermits. All Buddhistic lands are to-day filled with monasteries and monks. About the time of Christ there were to be found in Syria among the Jews the Essenes_, a sect of religious enthusiasts whose members led a solitary and ascetic life. 7 i Cor. vii, 32, 33. 8 Luke xiv. 26. 9 Matt.xix. 21. 10 Read Tennyson's poem, " St. Simeon Stylites." 24 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS of disciples, whose rude huts or cells formed what was known as a laura, the nucleus of a monastery. Soon after the cenobite sys.tem had been established in the East it was introduced into Europe, and in an astonishingly short space of time spread throughout all the Western countries where Chris- tianity had gained a foothold. Here it prevailed to the almost total exclusion of the hermit mode of life. Monasteries arose on Fig. 5. — Ruins of the Church of St. Simeon Stylites, near Antioch, Syria. (From Part II of the Publications of the Amer- ican Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900) This church was erected, a few years after Simeon's death, around the pillar (the base of which is to be seen in the cut) upon which the saint had passed so many years. It became one of the most popular of the mediaeval pilgrim shrines every side. The number that fled to these retreats was vastly augmented by the disorder and terror attending the invasion of the barbarians and the overthrow of the Empire in the West. 30. The Rule of St. Benedict. — With the view to introducing some sort of regularity into the practices and austerities of the monks, rules were early prescribed for their observance. The three essential requirements or vows of the monk were poverty, chastity, and obedience. The greatest legislator of the monks was St. Benedict of Nursia Ca-d. 480-543), the founder of the celebrated monastery of Monte MONASTIC REFORMS 25 K, .^.. ■■V.;S&^ Cassino, situated midway between Rome and Naples in Italy. His code was to the religious world what the Corpus Juris~Civilis of Justinian (sec. 50) was to the lay society of Europe. Many of his rules were most wise and practical, as, for instance, one that made manual work a pious duty, and another that required the monk to spend an allotted time each day in sacred reading. The monks who subjected themselves to the rule of St. Bene- dict were known as Benedictines. The order became immensely popular. Atone ... time it embraced about forty thou- sand abbeys. 31. Monastic Re- forms; Cluny. — Monasticism as an active and potent force in the history of the West has a long and wonderful history of more than a thousand years. This history presents one domi- nant fact, — ever- renewed reform movements in the monasteries. Scarcely was a monastery or a monastic order established before the acquisition of wealth brought in self-indulgence and laxity of discipline. But there was always among the backsliding dwellers in the cloisters a "saving rem- nant," and upon these choice souls the spirit of reform was sure to descend, and thus it happens that with the reform movements marking the history of the monks are associated the names of many of the purest and most exalted characters of the mediaeval ages. Fig. 6. — The Simopetra Monastery of Mount Athos. (From a photograph) ' The convents of Mt. Athos in their present state give us a very accurate notion of the great monasteries of Europe, at the close of the twelfth century." — S aba- tier, Life of St. Francis of Assist 26 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS Among the earliest and most noteworthy of these reform move- ments was that which resulted in the founding in the year 910 of the celebrated monastery of Cluny in Burgundy. The influences which radiated from the cloisters of Cluny left a deep impression upon more than two centuries of history (sees. 123 and 133). 32 . Services of the Monks to Civilization. — The early estab- lishment of the monastic system in the Church resulted in great advantages to the new world that was shaping itself out of the ruins of the old. The monks, especially the Benedictines, became agriculturists, and by patient labor converted the wild and marshy lands which they received as gifts from princes and others into fruitful fields, thus redeeming from barrenness some of the most desolate districts of Europe. The monks also became missionaries, and it was largely to their zeal and devotion that the Church owed her speedy and signal victory over the barbarians. It is about the names of such de- voted monks as Saints Columba, Gallus, and Boniface that gathers much of the romance of the mis- sions of the mediaeval Church. The quiet air of the monas- teries nourished learning ^s well as piety. The monks became teachers, and under the shelter of the monasteries estabhshed schools which were the nurseries of learning during the earlier Middle Ages and the homes for centuries of the best intellectual life of Europe. The monks also became copy- ists, and with great painstaking and industry gathered and multipHed ancient manuscripts, and thus preserved and transmitted to the modern world much classical learning and literature that would otherwise have been lost. Almost all the remains of the Greek and Latin classics that we possess have come to us through the agency of the monks. Fig. 7. — A Monk Copyist (From a manuscript of the fifteenth century) THE RISE OF THE PAPACY 2/ The monks also became the chroniclers of the events of their own times, so it is to them that we are indebted for a great part of our knowledge of the early mediaeval centuries. Thus the scriptorium, or writing room of the monastery, held the place in mediaeval society that the great pubHshing house holds in the modern world. . The monks became further the almoners of the pious and the wealthy, and distributed alms to the poor and needy. Everywhere the monasteries opened their hospitable doors to the weary, the sick, and the discouraged. In a word, these retreats were the inns, the asylums, and the hospitals of the mediaeval ages. This spirit of helpfulness and charity found its embodiment in the women who became nuns. To a woman is to be attributed the estabhshment of the first Christian hospital.^ III. The Rise of the Papacy 33. The Empire within the Empire. — Long before the fall of Rome there had begun to grow up within the Roman Empire an ecclesiastical state, which in its constitution and its administrative system was shaping itself upon the imperial model. This spiritual empire, like the secular empire, possessed a hierarchy of officers, of which deacons, priests or presbyters, and bishops were the most important. The bishops collectively formed what is known as the episcopate. There were four grades of bishops, namely, country bishops, city bishops, metropoHtans or archbishops, and patriarchs. At the end of the fourth century there were five patriarchates, that is, regions ruled by patriarchs. These centered in the great cities of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Among the patriarchs, the patriarchs of Rome were accorded almost universally a precedence in honor and dignity. They 11 " A Roman lady, named Fabiola, in the fourth century founded at Rome, as an act of penance, the first public hospital, and the charity planted by that woman's hand overspread the world, and will alleviate, to the end of time, the darkest anguish of humanity." — Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. ii, p. 80; quoted by Wishart, Monks and Monasteries, p. 105. 28 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS claimed further a precedence in authority and jurisdiction, and this was already very widely recognized. Before the close of the eighth century there was firmly established over a great part of Christendom what we may call an ecclesiastical monarchy. Besides the influence of great men, such as Leo the Great, Gregory the Great, and Nicholas I, who held the seat of St. Peter, there were various historical circumstances that contributed to the realization by the Roman bishops of their claim to suprem- acy and aided them vastly in establishing the almost universal authority of the see of Rome. In the following paragraphs we shall enumerate several of these favoring circumstances. These matters constitute the great landmarks in the rise and early growth of the Papacy. 34. The Belief in the Primacy of St. Peter and in the Founding by him of the Church at Rome. — The Catholic Church teaches that the apostle Peter was given by the Master primacy among his fellow apostles and, furthermore, that Christ intrusted that disciple with the keys of the kingdom of heaven and invested him with superlative authority as teacher and interpreter of the Word by the commission "Feed my sheep"; . . . "feed my lambs," thus giving into his charge the entire flock of the Church. It also teaches that the apostle Peter himself founded the church at Rome. Without doubt he preached at Rome and suffered martyrdom there under the Emperor Nero. These beliefs and interpretations of history, which make the Roman bishops the successors of the first of the apostles and the holders of his seat, contributed greatly, of course, to enhance their reputation and to justify their claim to a primacy of authority over all the dignitaries of the Church. 35. Advantages of their Position at the Political Center of the World. — The claims of the Roman bishops were in the early cen- turies greatly favored by the spell in which the world was held by the name and prestige of imperial Rome. Thence it had been accustomed to receive commands in all temporal matters ; how very natural, then, that thither it should turn for command and THE RISE OF THE PAPACY 29 guidance in spiritual affairs. The Roman bishops in thus occupy- ing the geographical and political center of the world enjoyed a position of preeminence over all other bishops and patriarchs. The halo that during many centuries of wonderful history had gathered about the Eternal City came naturally to invest with a kind of aureole the head of the Christian bishop. 36. Effect of the Removal of the Imperial Government to Con- stantinople. — Nor was this advantage that was given the Roman bishops by their position at Rome lost when the old capital ceased to be an imperial city. The removal, by the acts of Dio- cletian and Constantine, of the chief seat of the government to the East, instead of diminishing the power and dignity of the Roman bishops, tended greatly to promote their claims and authority. It left the pontiff the foremost personage in Rome. 37. The Pastor as Protector of Rome. — With the advent of the barbarians there came another occasion for the Roman bishops to widen their influence and enhance their authority. Rome's extremity was their opportunity. Thus it will be recalled how mainly through the intercession of the pious Pope Leo the Great the fierce Attila was persuaded to turn back and spare the imperial city;^ and how the same bishop, in the year a.d. 455, also ap- peased in a measure the wrath of the Vandal Geiseric and shielded the inhabitants from the worst passions of a barbarian soldiery .^^ Thus when the emperors, the natural defenders of the capital, were unable to protect it, the unarmed Pastor was able, through the awe and reverence inspired by his holy office, to render serv- ices that could not but result in bringing increased honor and dignity to the Roman see. 38. Effects upon the Papacy of the Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West. — But if the misfortunes of the Empire in the 12 Legend tells how Attila, after his retreat from Italy, being taunted for having allowed himself to be turned back by an unarmed bishop, replied, " It was not the bishop of whom I was afraid but the man who stood behind him." The legend explains that it was St. Peter whom Attila had seen standing with menacing gesture behind the pope. The legend, read aright, is true. Behind every venerated bishop and holy abbot the barbarians saw a heavenly figure, whose restraining gesture they dared not disregard. >> 18 See Ancient History^ sees. 558 and 559. 30 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS West tended to the enhancement of the reputation and influence of the Roman bishops, much more did its final downfall tend to the same end. Upon the surrender of the sovereignty of the West into the hands of the Emperor of the East, the bishops of Rome became the most important personages in Western Europe, and being so far removed from the court at Constantinople grad- ually assumed almost imperial powers.^* They became the arbiters between the barbarian chiefs and the Italians, and to them were referred for decision the disputes arising between cities, states, and kings. Especially did the bishops and archbishops through- out the West in their contests with the Arian barbarian rulers look to Rome for advice and help. It is easy to see how greatly these things tended to strengthen the authority and increase the influ- ence of the Roman bishops. 39. The Missions of Rome. — Again, the early missionary zeal of the church at Rome made her the mother of many churches, all of whom looked up to her with affectionate and grateful loy- alty. Thus the Angles and Saxons, won to the faith by the mis- sionaries of Rome, conceived a deep veneration for the holy see and became its most devoted children. To Rome it was that the Christian Britons made their most frequent pilgrimages, and thither they sent their offering of St. Peter's pence. And when the Saxons became missionaries to their pagan kinsmen of the Continent they transplanted into the heart of Germany these same feelings of filial attachment and love. The monk St. Boniface, "the Apostle of Germany," with whose labors we are already familiar (sec. 23), while winning the heathen of the German forests to a love for the Cross, inspired them also with a pro- found reverence for the Roman see. Boniface himself took a solemn oath of fealty to the Roman pontiff, and the bishops of the German churches that arose through the efforts of this zealous apostle were required to promise a like obedience to Rome. 14 During this time Gregory the Great (590-604), who was the most eminent of the early popes, ruled as though he were a temporal prince, and administered affairs almost like an independent sovereign. " THE RISE OF THE PAPACY 31 40. Result of the Fall of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria before the Saracens. — In the seventh century all the great cities of the East fell into the hands of the Mohammedans. This was a matter of tremendous consequence for the church at Rome, since in every one of these great capitals there was, or might have been, a rival of the Roman bishop. The virtual erasure of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria from the map of Christendom left only one city, Constantinople, that could possibly nourish a rival of the Roman church. Thus did the very misfortunes of Christendom give an added security to the ever-increasing authority of the Roman prelate. 41. The Iconoclastic Controversy; the Popes become Temporal Sovereigns. — A dispute about the use of images in worship, known in Church history as the "War of the Iconoclasts," which broke out in the eighth century between the Greek churches of the East and the Latin churches of the West, drew after it far- reaching consequences as respects the growing power of the Roman pontiffs. Even long before the seventh century the churches both in the East and in the West had become crowded with images or pictures of the apostles, saints, and martyrs, which to the ignorant classes at least were objects of superstitious veneration. But the great disaster which just at this period befell the Church in the East the irruption and conquests of the Arab Mohammedans — con- tributed to create among the Christians there a strong sentiment against the use of images as aids in worship. A party arose, who, like the party of reform among the ancient Hebrews, declared that God had given the Church over into the hands of the infidels because the Christians had departed from his true worship and fallen into idolatry. These opposers of the use of images in worship were given the name of Iconoclasts (image-breakers). Leo the Isaurian, who came to the throne of Constantinople in 717, was a most zealous Iconoclast. The Greek churches of the East having been cleared of images, the Emperor resolved to clear also the Latin churches of the West of these symbols. To this end he issued a decree that they should not be used. 32 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS The bishop of Rome not only opposed the execution of the edict but by the ban of excommunication cut off the Emperor and all the iconoclastic churches of the East from communion with the true Catholic Church. Though images — paintings and mosaics only — were permanently restored in the Eastern churches in 842, still by this time other causes of alienation had arisen, and the breach between the two sections of Christendom could not now be closed. The final outcome was the permanent separation, in the last half of the eleventh century, of the Church of the East from that of the West. The former became known as the Greek, Byzantine, or Eastern Church j the latter, as the Latin, Roman, or Catholic Church. The East was thus eventually lost to the Roman see, but the loss was more than made good by fresh accessions of power in the West. In this quarrel with the Eastern emperors the Roman bishops formed an alliance with the Frankish princes of the Carolingian house (sec. 72). We shall a little later tell briefly the story of this alliance. Never did allies render themselves more serviceable to each other. The popes consecrated the Frankish chieftains as kings and emperors; the grateful Frankish kings defended the popes against all their enemies, imperial and barbarian, and dowering them with cities and provinces, laid the basis of their temporal power.^^ 15 The cause of the Roman pontiffs, from about the eighth or ninth century for- ward, was greatly furthered by two of the most surprising and successful forgeries in all history. These famous documents are known as the Donation of Constantine and the False Decretals. The probable object of the former was to justify the donation of Pippin (sec. 73) by providing evidence of a similar and earlier donation by the first imperial patron of the Church. It " tells how Constantine the Great, cured of his leprosy by the prayers of Sylvester, resolved ... to forsake the ancient seat for a new capital on the Bosporus, lest the continuance of the secular govern- ment should cramp the freedom of the spiritual, and how he bestowed therewith upon the Pope and his successors the sovereignty over Italy and the countries of the West." — Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire,^. 100. The so-called Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, which appeared about the middle of the ninth century, tended to a similar end as did the Donation of Constantine, although they were originally put out in the interest of the bishops and not of the Pope. They formed part of a collection of Church documents, and included many alleged letters and edicts of the early popes. Granting their genuineness, they went to prove that the bishops of Rome in the second and third centuries exercised all that BIBLIOGRAPHY 33 Such in broad outline was the way in which grew up the Papacy, an institution which, far beyond all others, was destined to mold the fortunes and direct the activities of Western Christendom throughout the mediaeval time. Selections from the Sources. — Bede, Ecclesiastical History. Read bk. i, chaps, xxiii-xxv ; bk. ii, chaps, i and xiii ; bk. iii, chaps, iii and xxv. Trans- lations and Reprints, vol. ii, No. 7, " Life of St. Columban " (ed. by Dana Carleton Munro) ; an instructive biography of an Irish monk. Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp. 274-314, " Tne Rule of Saint Benedict." European History Studies (Univ. of Nebraska), vol. ii, No. 6, " Monasti- cism." Athanasius, Life of St. Antony ; to be found in literal translation in KiNGSLEY, The Hermits. See also Robinson, Readings in European History, vol. i, chap. v. Secondary Works. — Zimmer, The Irish Element in Mediceval Culture; an interesting account of the services rendered mediaeval civilization by the Irish monks. Kingsley, The Hermits. Montalembert, The Monks of the West; an ardent eulogy of monasticism. Wishart, A Short History of Monks and Monasteries ; the best short account in English. Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, vol. i ; for the labors of the monks as copyists and illuminators. Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars, chap, iii, "Daily Life in a Mediaeval Monastery." Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Church; the best work on the subject from the Protestant side. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, the earlier chapters ; concise, fair, and scholarly. Emerton, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages, chap, ix, "The Rise of the Christian Church," and chap, xi, " The Monks of the West." Barry, The Papal Monarchy, chaps, i-v. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap, vi, " The Formation of the Papacy." Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers, chap, ix, "The Primacy of Peter," and chap, x, "The Supremacy of the Popes "; an authoritative statement of the Catholic view of these matters. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 60-86 and 114-158. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Conversion of the Angles and Saxons. 2. The Life of St. Antony. 3. St. Columba and lona. 4. Whitby. 5. St. Benedict and Monte Cassino. 6. The scriptorium of the monastery. authority and extensive jurisdiction which were now being claimed by the popes of the ninth centuiy. In that uncritical age the documents were received by everybody as authentic. The papal party quoted them in part proof of their claims for the Roman see. They are now acknowledged by all scholars, Catholic as well as Protestant, to have been forged. Laurentius Valla (1406-145 7), one of the greatest of the humanists (sec. 300), was the first to demonstrate the real character of the Donation of Constantine. CHAPTER IV THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON 42. Introductory. — The conversion of the barbarians and the development in Western Christendom of the central authority of the Papacy prepared the way for the introduction among the northern races of the arts and the culture of Rome, and contrib- uted greatly to hasten in Italy, Spain, and Gaul the fusion into a single people of the Latins and the Teutons, of which important matter we shall treat in the present chapter. We shall tell how these two races, upon the soil of the old Empire in the West, intermingled their blood, their languages, their laws, their usages and customs, to form new peoples, new tongues, and new institu- tions. We shall speak of only a few things and say only just enough to show how composite is the character of the structure that was reared on the site of the ancient Empire, out of the ruins of the broken-down civilization of Rome and the new contributions of the northern peoples. 43. The Romance Nations In some districts the barbarian invaders and the Roman provincials were kept apart for a long time by the bitter antagonism of race, and by a sense of injury on the one hand and a feeling of disdainful superiority on the other. But for the most part the Teutonic intruders and the Latin-speaking inhabitants of Italy, Spain, and France very soon began freely to mingle their blood by family alliances. It is quite impossible to say what proportion the Teutons bore to the Romans. Of course the proportion varied in the different countries. In none of the countries named, however, was it large enough to absorb the Latinized population ; on the contrary, the barbarians were themselves absorbed, yet not without changing very essentially the body into which they were incorporated. 34 FORMATION OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES 35 Thus about the end of the fourth century everything in Italy, Spain, and France — dwellings, cities, dress, customs, language, laws, soldiers — reminds us of Rome. A little later and a great change has taken place. The barbarians have come in. For a time we see everywhere, jostling each other in the streets and markets, crowding each other in the theaters and courts, kneel- ing together in the churches, the former Romanized subjects of the Empire and their uncouth Teutonic conquerors. But by the close of the ninth century, to speak in very general terms, the two elements have become quite intimately blended, and a cen- tury or two later Roman and Teuton have alike disappeared, and we are introduced to Italians, Spaniards, and Frenchmen. These we call Romance nations, because at base they are Roman. 44. The Formation of the Romance Languages. — During the five centuries of their subjection to Rome, the natives of Spain and Gaul forgot their barbarous dialects and came to speak a cor- rupt Latin. Now, in exactly the same way that the dialects of the Celtic tribes of Gaul and of the Celtiberians of Spain had given way to the more refined speech of the Romans did the rude languages of the Teutons yield to the more cultured speech of the Roman provincials. In the course of two or three centu- ries after their entrance into the Empire, Goths, Lombards, Burgundians, and Franks had, in a large measure, dropped their own tongue and were speaking that of the people they had subjected. But of course this provincial Latin underwent a great change upon the hps of the mixed descendants of the Romans and Teutons. Owing to the absence of a common popular literature, the changes that took place in one country did not exactly corre- spond to those going on in another. Hence, in the course of time, we find different dialects springing up, and by about the ninth century the Latin has virtually disappeared as a spoken language, and its place has been usurped by what will be known as the Italian, Spanish, and French languages, all more or less resembling the ancient Latin, and all called Romance tongues, because children of the old Roman speech. 36 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON 45. Consequences of the Coniusion of Languages. — We are now in a position to discern one of the causes that helped to render denser that dark pall of ignorance which, settling over Western Europe in the fifth century, continued almost unrelieved until the eleventh. As the provincial Latin began to change, the language in which the books were written and the everyday speech began to diverge. Thus the manuscript rolls which held the wisdom of the Greeks and Romans soon became sealed to all save the learned. In this way the confusion of tongues conspired with the general confusion and anarchy of the times to extinguish the last rays of science and philosophy, and to deepen the gloom of the night that had settled upon all the lands once illumined by ancient learning and culture. Several centuries had necessarily to pass before the new languages forming could develop each a literature of its own (sec. 275). Meanwhile all learning was shut up within the walls of the monasteries. "For many centuries," says Hallam, " to sum up the account of ignorance in a word, it was rare for a layman, of whatever rank, to know how to sign his name." Charlemagne, king of the Franks, the most renowned personage of the five centuries immediately following the fall of Rome, was unable to write (sec. 76). 46. The Personal Character of the Teutonic Laws. — The laws of the barbarians were generally personal instead of territorial, as with us ; that is, instead of all the inhabitants of a given country being subject to the same laws, there were different ones for the different classes of society. The Latins, for instance, were sub- ject in private law only to the old Roman code, while the Teutons lived under the tribal rules and regulations which they had brought with them from beyond the Rhine and the Danube. The curious state of things resulting from this personality of law, as it is called, is vividly pictured by the following observation of a chronicler: "For it would often happen," he says, "that five men would be sitting or walking together, not one of whom would have the same law with any other." Even among themselves the Teutons knew nothing of the modern legal maxim that all should stand equal before the law. ORDEALS 37 The penalty inflicted upon the evil doer depended not upon the nature of his crime but upon his rank or that of the party injured. Thus slaves and serfs were beaten and put to death for minor offenses, while a freeman might atone for any crime, even for murder, by the payment of a fine, the amount of the penalty being determined by the rank of the victim. 47. Ordeals. — The agencies r'elied upon by the Germans to ascertain the guilt or innocence of accused persons show in how rude a state the administration of justice among them was. One very common method of proof was by what were called ordeals, in which the question was submitted to the judgment of God. Of these the chief were the ordeal by fire, the ordeal by water ^ and the wager of battle} The ordeal by fire consisted in taking in the hand a piece of red-hot iron, or in walking blindfolded with bare feet over a row of hot plowshares laid lengthwise at irregular distances. If the per- son escaped unharmed, his innocence was held to be established. Another way of performing the fire ordeal was by running through the flames of two fires built close together, or by walking over live brands ; hence the phrase " to haul over the coals." The ordeal by water was of two kinds, by hot water and by cold. In the hot-water ordeal the accused person thrust his arm into boiling water, and if no- hurt was visible upon the arm three days after the operation, the party was considered guiltless. When we speak of one's being ''in hot water," we use an expression which had its origin in this ordeal. In the cold-water trial the suspected person was thrown into a stream or pond : if he floated, he was held guilty ; if he sank, innocent. The water, it was believed, would reject the guilty, but receive the innocent into its bosom. The practice common in Europe until a very recent date of trying supposed witches by throwing them into a pond of water to see whether they would sink or float, grew out of this superstition. 1 The wager of battle is by some writers treated as a distinct form of trial ; but being an appeal to the decision of Heaven, it rested on the same principle as the trials by fire and water, and consequently is properly given a place among the ordeals. 38 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON The trial by combat, or wager of battle, was a solemn judicial duel. It was resorted to in the belief that God would give vic- tory to the right. One circumstance that caused this form oF the ordeal to be often invoked was the misuse of the kind of trial known as compurgation, or the wager of law.^ This allowed a person accused of a crime to clear himself by simply swearing that he was innocent, provided he could get a sufficient number of his relatives or neighbors to swear that he was telling the truth.^ The num- ber of concurring wit- nesses was depend- ent upon the serious- ness of the charge or the rank of the per- son making the oath. Now, this privilege was liable to abuse, and the only resort left to the injured person in such case was to challenge the perjurer to submit to the judgment of God as it should be pro- nounced in a solemn judicial combat. This form of trial grew into great favor. Naturally it was a favorite mode of trial among a people who found their chief delight in fighting. Even the judge in some cases resorted to it to maintain the authority and dignity of his court. To a person who had disregarded a summons the judge 2 The wager of law is not to be reckoned among the ordeals, as it lacked the essential element of an ordeal, namely, the appeal to the judgment of Heaven. 3 In course of time this form of the oath was changed, so that the compurgators, as the witnesses were called, simply swore that they believed the oath of the accused to be true and clean. Fig. 8. — Trial by Combat. (From a manuscript of the fifteenth century ; after Lacroix) ORDEALS 39 would send a challenge in this form : " I sent for thee, and thou didst not think it worth thy while to come ; I demand therefore satisfaction for this thy contempt." Religious disputes also were sometimes settled by this sort of " martial logic." In Spain as late as the eleventh century a contention as to which of two liturgies should be adopted was decided by a combat between two knights. The ordeal was frequently performed by deputy, that is, one person for hire or for the sake of friendship would undertake it for another; hence the ex- pression "to go through fire and water to serve one." Especially was such substitution com- mon in the judicial duel, as women and ecclesias- tics were generally forbid- den to appear personally in the lists. There are instances mentioned, however, where even women performed the wager of battle; in which case, to equalize the con- ditions, the man was placed in a pit waist-deep, with his left hand tied behind his back. The champions, as the deputies were called, became in time a regular class in society, like the gladiators in ancient Rome. Religious houses and chartered towns hired champions at a regular salary to defend all the cases to which they might become a party. In order that the champion might be stimulated to do his best for the party he represented, he was hanged or suffered the loss of a hand or a foot if he allowed himself to be worsted in a combat.* 4 There were many other forms of the ordeal, besides those we have given, in use among the different Teutonic tribes, some of which were plainly native customs, while others seem to have been introduced by the Christian priests. Thus, there was the ordeal by consecrated bread ; if the morsel strangled the person, he was ' adjudged guilty. From this form of trial arose the expression, " May this morsel Fig. 9. — Wager of Battle between a Man and Woman. (From a manuscript of the fifteenth century ; after Lea, Super- stition and Force) 40 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON 48. The Revival of the Roman Law. — Now, the barbarian law system, if such it can be called, the character of which we have merely suggested by the preceding illustrations, gradually dis- placed the Roman law in all those countries where the two sys- tems at first existed alongside each other, save in Italy and Southern France, where the provincials greatly outnumbered the invaders. But the admirable jurisprudence of Rome was bound to assert its superiority. About the close of the eleventh century there was a great revival in 'the study of the Roman law as embodied in the Justinian code, and in the course of a century or two this became either the groundwork or a strong modifying element in the law systems of almost all the peoples of Europe. What took place may be illustrated by reference to the fate of the Teutonic languages in Gaul, Italy, and Spain. As the barbarian tongues, after maintaining a place in those countries for two or three centuries, at length gave place to the superior Latin, which became the basis of the new Romance languages, so now in the domain of law the barbarian maxims and customs, though holding their place more persistently, likewise finally give way, almost everywhere and in a greater or less degree, to the more excellent law system of the Empire. Rome must fulfill her destiny and give laws to the nations. Though longer delayed in their adoption, the law maxims and principles of the Empire at length became more widely spread and influential than the Latin speech ; for Germany, which never gave up her Teutonic tongue, finally adopted the Roman law system, to the degree of making its principles the basis of her jurisprudence. And even England, though she clung tenaciously to her Teutonic customs and maxims, just as she held on to her own Teutonic speech, could not escape the influence of the be my last." In what was called the ordeal of the bier the person charged with murder was made to touch the body of the dead man ; if the body stirred or blood flowed afresh from the wound, the man was held guilty of the murder. Such ordeals are found among all primitive peoples. For proof by ordeal among the Hebrews, see Numbers v. 11-31 and Joshua vii. 16-18. The combat between David and Goliath, being an appeal to the judgment of Heaven, possesses the essential element of the judicial dueL We also find an ordeal in the test proposed by Elijah to the prophets of Baal, — i Kings xviii. 17-40. REVIVAL OF THE ROMAN LAW 41 Roman jurisprudence, which penetrated there, and, to a certain extent, chiefly through the courts of the Church, modified English law, just as the Latin in an indirect way finally modified and enriched the English speech, while leaving it the same in ground- work and structure. " Our laws," says Lord Bacon, " are mixed as our language ; and as our language is so much the richer, the laws are the more complete." Under the influence of the classical revival, the various ordeals, which were already disappearing before the growing enlightenment of the age and the steady opposition of the papal authority, rap- idly gave way to modes of trial more consonant with reason and the spirit of the civil law. Selections from the Sources. — Henderson, Select Historical Docu- ments, pp. 176-189, "The SaHc Law," and pp. 314-319, ^^ Formulcs Litur- gicce in Use at Ordeals." Lee, Source-Book, chap, v, " Anglo-Saxon Laws." Translations and Reprints, vol. iv, No, 4, " Ordeals," etc. (ed. by Arthur C. Howland). Secondary Works. — Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, chap, viii, "Germanic Ideas of Law." Lea, Superstition and Force : Essays on the Wager of Law, the Wager of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture. Invaluable to the student of primitive culture. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civ- ilization, pp. 310-325. Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law, Lect. ii, " The Roman Law since Justinian." Topics for Class Reports. — i. The formation of the Romance lan- guages. 2. Weregild, 3. Ordeals. 4. The influence of the Roman law upon the law systems of Europe. CHAPTER V THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST 49. The Era of Justinian (a.d. 527-565). — During the fifty years immediately following the fall of Rome, the Eastern em- perors struggled hard and sometimes doubtfully to withstand the waves of the barbarian inundation which constantly threatened to overwhelm Constantinople with the same awful calamities that had befallen the imperial city of the West. Had the New Rome — the destined refuge for a thousand years of Graeco-Roman learning and culture — also gone down at this time before the storm, the loss to the cause of civilization would have been incalculable. Fortunately, in the year 527, there ascended the Eastern throne a prince of unusual ability, to whom fortune gave a general of such rare genius that his name has been allotted a place in the short list of the great commanders of the world. Justinian was the name of the prince, and Belisarius that of the soldier. The sovereign has given name to the period, which is called after him the " Era of Justinian." 50. Justinian as the Restorer of the Empire and " The Lawgiver of Civilization " ; Calamities of his Reign. — One of the most important matters in the reign of Justinian is what is termed the *' Imperial Restoration," by which is meant the recovery from the barbarians of several of the provinces of the West upon which they had seized. Africa, as we have seen (sec. 11), was first wrested from the Vandals. Italy was next recovered from the Goths and again made a part of the Roman Empire (a.d. 553). It was governed from Ravenna by an imperial officer who bore the title of Exarch. Besides recovering Africa and Italy from the barbarians, Justinian also reconquered from the Visigoths the southeastern part of Spain. 42 REIGN OF JUSTINIAN 43 But that which gives Justinian's reign a greater distinction than any conferred upon it by the achievements of his generals was the collection and publication by him of the Corpus Juris Civilis, the '' Body of the Roman Law." This work embodied all the law knowledge of the ancient Romans, and was the most precious legacy of Rome to the world.^ In causing its publication Justinian earned the title of "The Lawgiver of Civilization." Although the reign of Justinian was in many respects auspicious and brilliant, still it was for the Empire a time of almost unpar- alleled woes and sufferings. Among the calamitous events of the . Imperial Possessions at Opening of Reign Lands reconquered from the Barbarians The Roman Empire under Justinian period a prominent place must be given the seditions at Constan- tinople and the attendant destruction of property and loss of life. The parties or factions indulging in these disorders rose out of the chariot races of the circus. These games possessed a strange and fatal fascination for the populace of the capital, such as the glad- iatorial spectacles had had for the debased multitudes of Old Rome. The people became divided into two leading factions, known as the Blues and the Greens. These factions carried their rivalries into all the relations of life, political and religious. Often they indulged in unseemly disturbances in the circus, even in the presence of the Emperor himself. In the year 532 there broke out what is known as the " Nika " riot, during which a large part 1 See Ancient History, sec. 577. 44 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST of the city was reduced to ashes. The mob was finally enticed within the Hippodrome, where it was set upon by the soldiers of BeHsarius and thirty- five thousand of the rioters were slain. In the year 542, an aw^ul pestilence, bred probably in Egypt, fell upon the Empire and did not wholly cease its ravages until about fifty years later. This plague was the most terrible scourge of which history has any knowledge, save perhaps the so-called Black Death, which afilicted Europe in the fourteenth century (sec. 217). It is beheved to have carried off one third of the population of the Empire. 51. The Reign of Heraclius (a.d. 610-641). — For half a cen- tury after the death of Justinian the annals of the Eastern Roman Empire are unimportant. Then we reach the reign of Heraclius, a prince about whose worthy name gather matters of significance in world history. About this time Chosroes II, king of Persia, wrested from the hands of the Eastern emperors the fortified cities that guarded the Euphratean frontier and overran all Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor. For many years Heraclius battled heroically for the integrity of the Empire. The struggle between the two rivals was at last decided by a terrible combat known as the battle of Nineveh (a.d. 627). The Persian army was almost annihilated. Grief or violence ended the life of Chosroes. With his successor, Heraclius negotiated a treaty which restored the earlier boundaries of the Roman dominions. A few years after this the Arabs, of whom we shall tell in the following chapter, entered upon their surprising career of conquest, which in a short time completely changed the face of the entire East. Heraclius himself lived to see — so cruel are the vicissi- tudes of fortune — the very provinces which he had recovered from the fire worshipers in the possession of the followers of the Arabian Prophet. The conquests of the Arabs cut off from the Empire those prov- inces that had the smallest Greek element, and thus rendered the population subject to the Emperor more homogeneous, more thoroughly Greek. The Roman element disappeared, and though ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO CIVILIZATION 45 the government still retained the imperial character impressed upon it by the conquerors of the world, the court of Constantinople became Greek in tone, spirit, and manners. Hence, instead of longer applying to the Empire the designation Roman, many historians from this on call it the Greek or Byzantine Empire. 52 . Services rendered European Civilization by the Roman Em- pire in the East.^ — The later Roman Empire rendered such emi- nent services to the European world that it justly deserves an* important place in universal history. First, as a military outpost it held the Eastern frontier of European civiHzation for a thousand years against Asiatic barbarism. Second, it was the keeper for centuries of the treasures of ancient civilization and the instructress of the new Western nations in law, in government and administration, in hterature, in painting, in architecture, and in the industrial arts. Third, it kept alive the imperial idea and principle, and gave this fruitful idea and this molding principle back to the West in the time of Charlemagne. Without the later Roman Empire of the East there would never have been a Romano-German Empire of the West (sec. 75). Fourth, it was the teacher of religion and civilization to the Slavic races of Eastern Europe. Russia forms part of the civilized world to-day largely by virtue of what she received from New Rome. Secondary Works. —Gibbon, chaps, xl-xliv; on the reign of Justinian. Chap, xliv deals with Roman jurisprudence. Oman, The Story of the Byzantine Empire, chaps, iv-xi. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vol. iv, " The Imperial Restoration." Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chap. xxiv. Encyc. Brit., article on Justinian by James Bryce. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire ; a work of superior scholarship. Bemont and Monod, Mediceval Europe, chap. viii. Harrison, Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages; a brilliant lecture, which summarizes the results of the latest studies in the field indicated. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 87-113 and 212-223. Topics for Class Reports.— i. The recovery of Italy. 2. Belisarius. 3. Introduction into Europe of the silk industry. 4. Justinian as a builder. 5. The Code of Justinian. 6, The closing by Justinian of the schools of Athens. 2 Bury's History of the Later Roman Empire, vol. ii, chap, xiv- CHAPTER VI THE RISE OF ISLAM 53. The Attack from the South upon Ancient Civilization. — We have seen the German barbarians of the North descend upon and wrest from the Roman Empire all its provinces in the West. We are now to watch a similar attack made upon the Empire by the Arabs of the South, and to see wrested from the emperors of the East a large part of the lands still remaining under their rule.^ 54. Origin and Character of the Arabs. — The Arabs, who are now about to play their surprising part in history, are, after the Hebrews and the Phoenicians, the most important people of the Semitic race. The name Saracen, applied to them, is of doubt- ful origin, but seems to come from two Arabic words meaning "children of the desert." They are divided into two distinct classes, — dwellers in towns and dwellers in tents. It is to the latter class alone that the term Bedouins is properly applied. The virtues which these nomad Arabs most highly prize are hospitality, generosity, and fidelity to the ties of kinship. Secure in their inaccessible deserts, the Arabs have never as a nation bowed their necks to a foreign conqueror, although por- tions of the Arabian peninsula have been repeatedly subjugated by different invaders. 55. The Religious Condition of Arabia before Mohammed. — Religion, which had had nothing to do with the fateful move- ment among the German barbarians, was the inciting cause of the great Arabian revolution. Before the reforms of Mohammed the Arabs were idolaters. Their holy city was Mecca. Here was the ancient and most revered shrine of the Kaaba,^ where was preserved a sacred black 1 The student should make a careful study of the maps after pp. 8 and 52. 2 So named from its having the shape of a cube. 46 THE RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF ARABIA 47 stone that was believed to have been given by an angel to Abraham. To this Meccan shrine pilgrimages were made from the most remote parts of Arabia. But though polytheism was the prevailing religion of Arabia, still there were in the land many followers of other faiths. The Jews especially were to be found in some parts of the peninsula m great numbers, having been driven from Palestine by the Roman persecutions. From them the Arab teachers had been made acquainted with the doctrine of one sole God. From the ^k^^MM^ hc\mM^\^mm Fig. 10. — The Kaaba at Mecca numerous Christian converts dwelling among them they had learned something of the doctrines of Christianity. In view of these antecedents of the religion which Mohammed gave his people, his creed appears to some scholars to be essentially "Judaism as adapted to Arabia," while to others it presents itself as an heretical or modified form of Christianity. About the time to which we have now come there was much religious unrest in Arabia. As it was in Judea at the time of the appearance of Christ, so was it now in this southern land. There were here many seekers after God, — men who, dissatisfied with the old idolatry, were ready to embrace a higher faith. 48 THE RISE OF ISLAM Such was the rehgious condition of the tribes of Arabia about the beginning of the seventh century of our era when there appeared among them a Prophet under whose teachings the fol- lowers of all the idolatrous worships were led to give assent to a single and simple creed, and were animated by a fanatical enthu- siasm that drove them forth from their deserts upon a career of conquest which could not be stayed until they had overrun the fairest portions of the Roman and Persian empires, and given a new religion to a large part of the human race. 56. Mohammed. — Mohammed, the great Prophet of the Arabs, was born in the holy city of Mecca, probably in the year A.D. 570. He sprang from the distinguished tribe of the Koreish, the custodians of the sacred shrine of the Kaaba. In his early years he was a shepherd and a watcher of flocks by night, as the great religious teachers Moses and David had been before him. Later he became a merchant and a camel driver. Mohammed possessed a soul that was early and deeply stirred by the contemplation of those themes that ever attract the reli- gious mind. He declared that he had visions in which the angel Gabriel appeared to him and made to him revelations which he was commanded to make known to his fellow-men. The starting point of the new faith which he was to teach was this : There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet. For a long time Mohammed endeavored to gain adherents merely by persuasion ; but such was the incredulity which he everywhere met that at the end of three years his disciples numbered only forty persons. 57. The Hegira (a.d. 622). — The teachings of Mohammed at last aroused the anger of a powerful party among the Koreish, who feared that they as the guardians of the national idols of the Kaaba would be compromised in the eyes of the other tribes by allowing such heresy to be openly taught by one of their number, and accord- ingly they began to persecute Mohammed and his follo\i^ers. To escape these persecutions Mohammed fled to the neighbor- ing city of Medina. This Hegira^ or Flight, as the word signifies, occurred a.d. 622, and was considered by the Moslems as such MOHAMMED AT MEDINA 40 an important event in the history of their religion that they adopted it as the beginning of a new era, and from it still con- tinue to reckon historical dates. 58. Mohammed at Medina. — At this time Medina was merely a cluster of clan villages on an oasis of the desert. Bitter feuds divided the clans, and the community was in a state of genuine Arab anarchy. Mohammed at once assumed the functions of an arbiter and lawgiver. He framed for the community a remark- able charter or constitution, which united the warring clans into a little commonwealth, — the nucleus of the great Arabian Empire. His government was a theocracy, like that of ancient Israel. Mohammed was not now, as while at Mecca, simply a prophet, but a legislator, judge, and king. It is only by bearing in mind his changed position that we shall understand his work and acts at Medina and be enabled to judge them justly. As prophet, Mohammed continued to make known the reve- lations that came to him. A large part of the Koran, but not the part of loftiest religious feeling, was given at Medina. In the Httle rude mosque which he had caused to be built as a place of devotion and assemblage, the apostle preached to the people and led them in the service of prayer. In this service he made an innovation of the greatest significance. At first he had enjoined upon his followers in praying to turn, as did the Jews, towards Jerusalem, but failing in his efforts to win over this people, of whom there was a large number settled in the suburbs of Medina, and to persuade them to recognize him as a true prophet, he broke with them, and commanded his disciples in praying to turn towards Mecca. This meant that the attempt to eifect a fusion of Judaism and Islam had failed, and that Islam was to run its course as a distinct rehgion. As lawgiver and judge, Mohammed decided the various cases, civil and rehgious, brought to him. The decisions rendered by him and the precedents he set form the chief basis of the law system of the Moslem world to-day. As chief or king, Mohammed, like his prototype David, planned and led border raids and military campaigns. The year after the so THE RISE OF ISLAM Hegira he sent out an expedition to intercept a caravan of the Koreish and to make it a prize. This was in strict accord with Arab rule and custom, for the Koreish in expelling Mohammed from Mecca and in attempting to kill him had established a state of war between him and themselves. This marauding soon led to a pitched battle (the so-called battle of Bedr, a.d. 624) between the Meccans and the followers of Mohammed, which resulted in a signal victory for the Moslems. This was the beginning of the holy wars of Islam.^ 59. Capture of Mecca; Arabia acknowledges Mohammed as a true Prophet. — In the tenth year of the Hegira, the Meccans having violated a truce which they had entered into with the new state at Medina, Mohammed at the head of an army of ten thousand Bedouins marched against Mecca and captured the city almost without a blow. The Prophet dealt most magnanimously with his former persecutors. Only a very few were proscribed. It was the idols alone in the place that were given over to destruc- tion. Entering the Kaaba, Mohammed exclaimed, "Truth has come and error has fled away." He then ordered that all the idols there should be hewn down. The capture of Mecca constitutes a great landmark in the career of Islam. The Arabian tribes now almost unanimously turned to Mohammed as a true Prophet. During the year fol- lowing the fall of Mecca so many embassies of submission came to him that this is called the " Year of Deputations." The once rejected Prophet had become the spiritual and military head of the innumerable Arab clans, whom the intense ardor of religious enthusiasm had welded into a mighty brotherhood and nation. There is nothing outside the realm of miracles more wonderful than this quick triumph of Islam over the Arab race and the change wrought in them by the force of a great conviction.* 3 Mohammed about this time gave his followers the following revelation, which had great influence in securing for early Islam its remarkable military successes: " And those who are slain in God's cause, their works shall not go wrong ; He . . . will make them enter into Paradise which He has told them of." — The Koran, sura xlvii, 5 (Palmer's trans.). 4 Without doubt, as is maintained by many, the Arab's love of warfare and hope of plunder had much to do in bringing about this amazing revolution ; but, as in the THE ORIGIN OF THE KORAN 51 In the founding of the Moslem state, Mohammed without doubt was guilty of many cruel and unjust acts; but it is also equally certain that the establishrnent of his empire was attended by less injustice and cruelty than marks the establishment of any other Asiatic state known to history, — from the Kingdom of Israel in Palestine to the British Empire in India. In the tenth year of the Hegira Mohammed made a farewell pilgrimage to Mecca. He there spoke to a vast throng of forty thousand pilgrims, closing what he felt to be his last pubHc address with these words : " O Lord, I have delivered my mes- sage and fulfilled my mission." A few months later he died, and was buried at Medina, and his tomb there is to-day a most sacred place of pilgrimage for the Moslem world. 60. The Origin of the Koran. — Before going on to trace the conquests of the successors of Mohammed, we must try to form some idea of the religion of the great Prophet. The doctrines of Mohammedanism, or Islam, which means "submission to God," are contained in the Koran, which is believed by the orthodox to have been written from all eternity on tablets in heaven. From time to time the apostle recited^ to his disciples portions of the "heavenly book" as its contents were revealed to him in his dreams and visions. These com- munications were held in the "breasts of men," or were written down upon bones, pieces of pottery, and the ribs of palm leaves. Soon after the death of the Prophet these scraps of writing were religiously collected, supplemented by tradition, and then arranged chiefly according to length. Thus came into existence the sacred book of Islam. 61. The Teachings of the Koran The fundamental doctrine of the creed embodied in the Koran is the unity of God : " There is no God save Allah" echoes through the book. To this is added the equally binding declaration that " Mohammed is the Prophet of Allah." case of the later crusading movement in Christendom, we shall not be wrong in making religious feeling its chief moving principle. 5 Palmer in the introduction to his translation of the Koran says that it is "probable Mohammed could neither read nor write." 52 ' THE RISE OF ISLAM The Koran inculcates four cardinal virtues. The first of these is prayer : five times every day must the believer turn his face towards Mecca and engage in devotion. The second requirement is almsgiving. The third is keeping the fast of Ramadan, which lasts a whole month. The fourth duty is making a pilgrimage to Mecca. Every person who can possibly do so is required to make this journey. To the faithful the Koran promises a heaven filled with every sensual delight, with flowers and fruits and bright-eyed maidens (houris) of ravishing beauty, and threatens unbelievers and the doers of evil with the torments of a hell filled with every horror of flame and demon. 62. The Sunna. — Islam is not based upon the Koran alone. It rests in part upon what is known as the Simna^ that is, a great body of traditions of the Prophet's sayings, — those not forming a part of the sacred book, — his actions, practices, and decisions handed down from his immediate companions. The first col- lection of these was made in the second century after Moham- med's death. These traditions are regarded by the orthodox Moslem as being almost as sacred and authoritative as the words of the Koran itself. In regard to its significance for the develop- ment of Islam, we may compare the Sunna to the body of tra- ditions handed down alongside the Bible in the Christian Church, and which has so greatly influenced the development particularly .of Catholic Christianity. 63. The Conquest of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. — For exactly one century after the death of Mohammed the cahphs or successors of the Prophet ^ were engaged in an almost unbroken series of conquests. Persia was subjugated and the authority of the Koran was established throughout the land of the Zend-Avesta. Syria was wrested from the Eastern Roman Empire and Asia Minor was overrun. Egypt and North Africa, the latter just 6 Abu Bekr (a.d. 632-634), Mohammed's father-in-law, was the first caliph. He was followed by Omar (a.d." 634-644), Othman (a.d. 644-655), and Ali (a.d. 655- 661), all of whom fell by the hands of assassins, for from the very first dissensions were rife among the followers of the Prophet, Ali was the last of the four so-called orthodox caliphs. TLJ ^1 A, N ^m ^W ' " Wo b: , A -Pisa M.( '-■■^ Cecily} 4> t.;i. ^'e*a GREATEST EXTENT OF THE SARACEJN^ DOMINIONS C. A. D. 750 20 Longitude 25 East ATTACKS UPON CONSTANTINOPLE 53 recently delivered from the Vandals, were also snatched from the hands of the Byzantine emperors. By the conquest of Persia Zoroastrianism, a religion with a great- past, was, as a force in history, destroyed.'^ By the con- quest of Syria the birthplace of Christianity was lost to the Chris- tian world. By the conquest of North Africa lands whose history for a thousand years had been intertwined with that of the oppo- site shores of Europe, and which at one time seemed destined to share in the career of freedom and progress opening to the peoples of that continent, were drawn back into the fatalism and the stag- nation of the East. From being an extension of Europe they became once more an extension of Asia. 64. Attacks upon Constantinople. — Thus in only a little more than fifty years from the death of Mohammed his standard had been carried by the lieutenants of his successors through Asia to the Hellespont on the one side and across Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar on the other. We may expect to see the Saracens at one or both of these points attempt the invasion of Europe. The first attempt was made in the East (a.d. 673-677), where the Arabs endeavored to gain control of the Bosporus by wrest- ing Constantinople from the hands of the Eastern emperors. After repeated unsuccessful assaults they abandoned the under- taking. Forty years later (a.d. 717—718) the city was again invested by a powerful Saracen fleet and army; but the skill and personal heroism of the Emperor Leo the Isaurian, the use by the besieged of a recently invented combustible compound known as mari7ie fire (''Greek fire"), and timely aid from the Bulgarians saved the capital for several centuries longer to the Christian world. This check that the Saracens received before Constantinople was doubtless next in importance for European civilization to the "^ The number of Guebers or fire worshipers in Persia at the present time is about 100,000, found for the most part at Yezd and in the province of Kerman. A larger number may be counted in Western India, — the descendants of the Guebers who fled from Persia at the time of the Arabian invasion. They are there called Parsees, from the land whence they came. After the English, they are the most enterprising, intelligent, and influential class in India to-day. 54 THE RISE OF ISLAM check given their conquering hordes a little later in France at the great battle of Tours. 65. The Conquest of Spain (a.d. 711). — While the Moslems were thus being repulsed from Europe at its eastern extremity, the gates of the continent were opened to them — legend says by treachery — at the western, and they gained a foothold in Spain. At the great battle of Xeres (a.d. 711) the last of the Visigothic kings was hopelessly defeated, and all the peninsula save some mountainous regions in the northwest quickly submitted to the invaders. By this conquest some of the fairest provinces of Spain were lost to Christendom for a period of eight hundred years. No sooner had the subjugation of the country been effected than multitudes of colonists from Arabia, Syria, and North Africa crowded into the peninsula, until in a short time the provinces of Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and Granada became predominantly Arabic in dress, manners, language, and religion. 66. Invasion of France; Battle of Tours (a.d. 732). — Four or five years after the conquest of Spain the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees and established themselves upon the plains of Gaul. This advance of the Moslem host beyond the northern wallof Spain was viewed with the greatest alarm by all Christendom. It looked as though the followers of Mohammed would soon possess all the continent. As Draper pictures it, the Crescent, lying in a vast semicircle upon the northern shore of Africa and the curving coast of Asia, with one horn touching the Bosporus and the other the Straits of Gibraltar, seemed about to round to the full and overspread all Europe. In the year 732, just one hundred years after the death of the Prophet, the Franks, under their leader Charles Martel, and their allies met the Moslems upon the plains of Tours in the center of Gaul and committed to the issue of a single battle the fate of Christendom and the future course of history. The Arabs suffered an overwhelming defeat and soon withdrew behind the Pyrenees. The young Christian civilization of Western Europe was thus deHvered from an appalling danger such as had not threatened it since the fearful days of Attila and the Huns. CHANGES IN THE CALIPHATE 55 67. Changes in the Caliphate ; its Golden Age at Bagdad Only eighteen years after the battle of Tours an important event marked the internal history of the caliphate. After the assassi- nation of Ali,^ a usurper, Moawiyah by name, was recognized as caliph. He succeeded in making the office hereditary instead of elective or appointive, as it had been hitherto, and thus estab- Hshed what is known as the dynasty of the Ommeiades,^ the rulers of which family for nearly a century (a.d. 661-750) issued their commands from the city of Damascus. The house of the Ommeiades was overthrown by the adherents of the house of Ali, who established a new dynasty (a.d. 750), known as that of the Abbassides, so called from Abbas, an uncle of Mohammed. The new family, soon after coming to power, established the seat of the royal residence on the lower Tigris, and upon the banks of that river founded the renowned city of Bagdad, which was destined to remain the abode of the Abbasside caliphs for a period of five hundred years. The golden age of the caliphate of Bagdad covered the latter part of the eighth and the ninth century of our era, and was illus- trated by the reigns of such princes as Al-Mansur (a.d. 754—775) and the renowned Harun-al-Raschid (a.d. 786-809). During this period science and philosophy and literature were most assiduously cultivated by the Arabian scholars, and the court of the caliphs presented in culture and luxury a striking contrast to the rude and barbarous courts of the kings and princes of Western Christendom. 68. The Dismemberment of the Caliphate. — "At the close of the first century of the Hegira," writes Gibbon, " the caliphs 8 See sec. 63, n. 6. 9 So called from Omeyyah, an ancestor of Moawiyah. In securing their power the Ommeiades had caused the murder of the two sons of Ali, Hassan and Hosain. These youths were ever regarded as martyrs by the friends of the house of Ali, and the schism caused by their cruel death has never been healed. The Mohammedans of Persia, who are known as Shiahs, are the leaders of the party of Ali, while the Turks and Arabs, known as Sunnitcs, are the chief adherents of the opposite party. These latter take their name from the fact that they hold the Sunna (sec. 62) as sacred and authoritative. The Shiahs, on the other hand, reject all these traditions of the Prophet save such as can be traced back to Ali or to his immediate posterity. 56 THE RISE OF ISLAM were the most potent and absolute monarchs of the globe. The word that went forth from the palace at Damascus was obeyed on the Indus, on the Jaxartes, and on. the Tagus." Scarcely less potent was the word that at first went forth from Bagdad. But in a short time the extended empire, through the quarrels of sectaries and the ambitions of rival aspirants for the honors of the caliphate, was broken in fragments, and from three capitals — from Bagdad upon the Tigris, from Cairo upon the Nile, and from Cordova upon the Guadalquivir — were issued the commands of three rival caliphs, each of whom was regarded by his adher- ents as the sole rightful spiritual and civil successor of Mohammed. All, however, held the great Prophet in the same reverence, all maintained with equal zeal the sacred character of the Koran, and all prayed with their faces turned toward the holy city of Mecca. 69. The Civilization of Arabian Islam. ^° — The Saracens were coheirs of antiquity with the Germans. They made especially their own the scientific -^^ accumulations of the ancient civiliza- tions and bequeathed them to Christian Europe. These elements of civilization they added to and enriched, and in several of the countries of which they took possession, especially in Babylonia and in Spain, there developed a civilization which in some respects far surpassed any that the world had yet seen. In the arrangements of their court, the organization of their army, and the administration of their government the Arabs imitated the Persians or the Byzantine Greeks. Their govern- ment was an absolute monarchy, such as has always been the favorite form among Oriental peoples. The Moslem law system, the basis of which is found in the Koran, was the most original creation of the Arab mind. After the Roman law, it is probably the most influential and widely obeyed system of laws and regulations that any race or civilization has developed. Since the system embraces rehgious as well as civil matters, it is in some respects like the Mosaic code, from 10 Kremer's Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen, chaps, vii and ix. 11 Gibbon affirms that no Greek poet, orator, or historian was ever translated into Arabic. See Decline and Fall, chap, lii. THE CIVILIZATION OF ARABIAN ISLAM 57 which it freely borrowed. It deals with all kinds of subjects, ran- ging from prayer and pilgrimages to contracts and inheritances. Commerce and trade, in all the countries of which the Arabs made themselves masters, assumed a fresh activity and a new importance. The Arabs in Babylonia and Syria became the heirs and succes- sors of the ancient Chaldaeans and Phoenicians, and re-created that commercial activity of the earlier time that nourished the great cities of Babylon, Tyre, and Sidon. As in the Odyssey of Homer we have a mirror of the commercial activity and the adventurous trade voyages of the early maritime Greeks, so in the marvelous stories of Sindbad the Sailor we have a like mirror of the voyages and adventures of the Arabian sailors. In the lighter forms of literature — romance and poetry — the Arabs produced much that possesses a high degree of excellence. In the field of romance they followed the Persian story-tellers. The inimitable tales of the Arabian Nights, besides being a valu- able commentary on Arabian life and manners at the time of the culmination of Oriental culture at the court of Bagdad, forms also an addition to the imperishable portion of the literature of the world. The poetry of the Arabs was wholly original. It was the natural and beautiful expression of the Arabian genius. The physical sciences were also pursued by the Arabian schol- ars with great eagerness and with considerable success. Geography was forced upon their attention by their wide conquests and their extended trade relations. From the Greeks and the Hindus they received the germs of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, alge- bra, medicine, botany, and other sciences. Almost all of the sciences that thus came into their hands were improved and enriched by them, and then transmitted to European scholars.^^ They made medicine for the first time a true science. They devised 12 What Europe received in science from Arabian sources is kept in remembrance by such words as alchemy, alcohol, aletnbic, algebra, alkali, almanac, azimuth, chemistry, elixir, zenith, and nadir. To how great an extent the chief Arabian cities became the manufacturing centers of the mediasval world is indicated by the names which these places have given to various textile fabrics and other articles. Thus muslin comes from Mosul, on the Tigris, damask from Damascus, and gauze from Gaza. Damascus and Toledo blades tell of the proficiency of the Arab workmen in metallurgy. 58 THE RISE OF ISLAM what is known from them as the Arabic or decimal system of notation,^^ and gave to Europe this indispensable instrument of all scientific investigations dependent upon mathematical calculations. All this literary and scientific activity naturally found expression in the estabUshment of schools, universities, and libraries. In all the great cities of the Arabian Empire, as at Bagdad, Cairo, and Fig. II. — The Mosque of Cordova. (From a photograph) Cordova, centuries before Europe could boast anything beyond cathedral or monastic schools, great universities were drawing to- gether vast crowds of eager young Moslems and creating an atmos- phere of learning and refinement. The famous university at Cairo, which has at the present day an attendance of several thousand students, is a survival from the great days of Arabian Islam. In the erection of mosques and other public edifices the Arab architects developed a new and striking style of architecture, — some cf the most beautiful specimens of which are preserved to 13 The figures or numerals, with the exception of the zero symbol, employed in their system they seem to have borrowed from India. THE EVIL AND THE GOOD IN ISLAM 59 us at Cordova and Granada in Spain, — a style which has given to modern builders some of their finest models. 70. The Evil and the Good in Islam. — The first-fruits of Islam might well lead one to regard it as a faith conducive to culture ; but it must be borne in mind that the splendid civilization of Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova was, in great measure at least, a reflected glory. The relation of this brilliant culture to that of the declining Byzantine and Persian empires has been aptly illus- trated by likening it to the clouds which gather about the setting sun and are lighted up by it with a splendor not their own. In many of its teachings and institutions Islam, in truth, is a system unfavorable to social progress. In opposition to Christian- ity, it tolerates polygamy ^* and places no restraint upon divorce, thus destroying the sacredness of family life. In authorizing the faithful to make slaves of their captives in holy wars, it legalizes slavery; Mohammedan countries are the main strongholds of slavery at the present time. It also fosters religious intolerance ; the Moslem is forbidden by his religion to grant equality to unbe- lievers. Again, it unites in the same hands both religious and civil authority and thereby creates despotism. Still another most serious defect of Islam is found in the immu- table character of its system of laws. All the enactments and judicial decisions of Mohammed and of the first four caliphs are regarded as binding, at least in spirit, for all time. Since the system covers the civil as well as the religious sphere, Mohammedan law has been prevented from adapting itself to the changing needs of society. This is doubtless one cause of the unprogressive character of Mohammedan society as contrasted with the progressive civiliza- tion of the Western races, who were the fortunate inheritors of the admirable secular, and therefore flexible, system of the Roman law. Islam, however, inculcates some inspiring truths and recom- mends some great virtues. Like Christianity it teaches the unity of God, immortality, and retributive rewards and punishments 14 The Koran (sura iv, 3) allows the believer to take " two, or three, or four wives, and not more." By a special dispensation (sura xxxiii, 49) Mohammed was allowed to take a larger number. At one time the Prophet had ten wives. 6o THE RISE OF ISLAM after death. These doctrines render it immeasurably superior to fetichism or to polytheism, and have made it a great force for the uplift of multitudes of idolatrous tribes in Asia and Africa. Among the leading virtues inculcated by Islam is that of tem- perance. The Koran forbids positively to the believer the use of wine and inferentially of all strong drinks. To this prohibition is attributable the fact that drunkenness is less common and open in Mohammedan than in Christian lands. Finally, in forming our estimate of Islam we should carefully bear in mind that the religion as held and practiced by the dif- ferent Mohammedan races to-day, particularly by the Ottoman Turks, is a very degenerate form of the Islamic faith when com- pared with that held and practiced by the Arabs, the people among whom it first arose. Mohammedanism, like Christianity, was at its best in what we may call its Apostolic Age. Selections from the Sources. — The Koran, like the Bible for Chris- tianity, is our chief source for a knowledge of Islam as a religion. The translation by Palmer, in Sacred Books of the East, is the best. The Speeches a7id Table- Talk of the Prophet Mohami7ied (trans, by Stanley Lane- Poole). European History Studies (Univ. of Nebraska), vol. ii. No. 3, " Selections from the Koran." Secondary Works. — Muir, The Cordn, The Life of Mohammed, Annals of the Early Caliphate, and The Rise and Declijie of Islam. All these, works are based on the original sources ; they are, however, written in an unsympathetic spirit. Smith, Mohammed and Mohamniedanism ; has a short bibliography. Irving, Mahomet and his Successors. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall, chaps. 1-lii. C arlyle, Heroes and Hero- Worship, Lect. ii, " The Hero as Prophet." Freeman, History and Conquests of the Sara- cens ; a rapid sketch by a master. Oilman, The Saracens from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Bagdad ; contains a list of over two hundred books bearing on the subject, Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam : or the Life and Teachings of Mohammed ; by a Mohammedan barrister at law. Also the same author's Short History of the Saracens. PooLE, Studies in a Mosque. Smith, The Bible in Islam, chap, x, " Church and State " ; for Mohammed's position at Medina. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civiliza- tion, pp. 224-239. The articles by Wellhausen, Noldeke, and Guyard, under the word Mohammedanism in the Encyc. Brit., have a very special value. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Mohammed at Medina. 2. The con- quest of Egypt by the Arabs. 3. The caliph Harun-al-Raschid. 4. The Arabiafi Nights. 5. The Moors in Spain. CHAPTER VII CHARLEMAGNE AND THE RESXaRATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 71. Introductory. — We return now to the West. The Franks, who with the aid of their confederates withstood the advance of the Saracens upon the field of Tours and saved Europe from sub- jection to the Koran, are the people that first attract our attention. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, their king, is the imposing figure that moves amidst all the events of the times, — indeed, is the one who makes the events and renders the period an epoch in universal history. The story of this era aifords the key to very much of the sub- sequent history of Western Europe. The mere enumeration of the events which are to claim our attention will illustrate the important and germinal character of the period. We shall tell how the mayors of the palace of the Merovingian princes became the actual kings of the Franks ; how, through the Hberality of the Frankish kings, the popes laid the foundations of their temporal sovereignty; and how Charlemagne restored the Roman Empire in the West, and throughout its extended limits, in the fusion of things Roman and of things Germanic, laid the basis of modern civilization. 72. How Duke Pippin became King of the Franks (a.d. 751). Charles Martel, who saved the Christian civihzation of Western Europe on the field of Tours, although the real head of the Frank- ish nation, was nominally only an officer of the Merovingian court (sec. 12). He died without ever having borne the title of king, notwithstanding he had exercised all the authority of that office. But Charles' son. Pippin III, aspired to the regal title and honors. He resolved to depose his titular master and to make 61 62 CHARLEMAGNE himself king. Not deeming it wise, however, to do this without the sanction of the Pope, he sent an embassy to represent to him the state of affairs and to sohcit his advice. Mindful of recent favors that he had received at the hands of Pippin, the Pope gave his approval to the proposed scheme by replying that it seemed altogether reasonable that the one who was king in reality should be king also in name. This was sufficient. Childeric — such was the name of the Merovingian king — was straightway deposed, and Pippin, whose own deeds together with those of his illustri- ous father had done so much for the Frankish nation and for Christendom, was crowned king of the Franks (a.d. 751), and thus became the first of the Carolingian line, the name of his illustrious son Charles (Charlemagne) giving name to the house. 73. Pippin helps to establish the Temporal Power of the Popes (a.d. 756). — In the year a.d. 754 Pope Stephen II, troubled by the king of the Lombards, besought Pippin's aid against the bar- barian. Pippin, quick to return the favor which the head of the Church had rendered him in the securing of his crown, straight- way interposed in behalf of the Pope. He descended into Italy with an army, expelled the Lombards from their recent con- quests, and made a donation to the Pope of the regained lands ^ (a.d. 756). As a symbol of the gift he laid the keys of Ravenna, Rimini, and of many other cities on the tomb of St. Peter. This endowment may be regarded as having practically laid the basis of the temporal sovereignty of the popes ; for although Pope Stephen, as it seems, had already resolved to cast off alle- giance to the Eastern Emperor and set up an independent Church state, still it is not probable that he could have carried out such an enterprise successfully had he not been aided in his project by the Frar\kish king. 74. Accession of Charlemagne ; his Wars. — Pippin died in the year 768, and his kingdom passed into the hands of his two sons, Carloman and Charles, the latter being better known by the name he achieved of Charlemagne, or " Charles the Great." Three years 1 The sovereignty of all these lands belonged nominally to the Emperor at Con: stantinople. His claims were ignored by Pippin. ACCESSION OF CHARLEMAGNE 63 after the accession of the brothers, Carloman died, and Charles took possession of his dominions. Charlemagne's long reign of nearly half a century — he ruled forty-six years — was filled with mihtary expeditions and con- quests, by which he so extended the boundaries of his dominions that they came to embrace the larger part of Western Europe. He made over fifty military campaigns, the chief of which were against the Lombards, the Saracens, the Saxons, and the Avars. Among the first undertakings of Charlemagne was a campaign against the Lombards, whose king, Desiderius, was troubling the Pope. Charlemagne wrested from Desiderius all his possessions, shut up the unfortunate king in a monastery, and placed on his own head the famous " Iron Crown " of the Lombards (sec. 13). In the year 778 Charlemagne gathered his warriors for a cru- sade against the Mohammedan Moors in Spain. He crossed the Pyrenees and succeeded in winning from the Moslems all the northeastern corner of the peninsula. These lands thus regained for Christendom he made a part of his dominions, under the tide of the Spanish March.^ But by far the greater number of the campaigns of Charlemagne were directed against the still pagan Saxons. These people were finally reduced to permanent submission and forced to accept Charlemagne as their sovereign and Christianity as their religion. To the east and the southeast, behind the German tribes that Charlemagne had reduced to obedience, were the Avars, a race terrible as the Huns of Attila, and an offshoot seemingly of the same stock. In a series of campaigns Charlemagne broke their power and reduced the race to a tributary condition. This sub- jugation of the Avars was one of the greatest services that he rendered the young Christian civilization of Europe. For three centuries they had been the scourge of all their neighbors. 2 As Charles was leading his victorious bands back across the Pyrenees, the rear of his army, while hemmed in by the walls of the Pass of Roncesvalles, was set upon by the wild mountaineers (the Gascons) and cut to pieces before he could give rehef. Of the details of this event no authentic account has been preserved ; but long after- wards, associated with the fabulous deeds of the hero Roland, it formed a favorite theme of the tales and songs of the Trouveurs of Northern France (sec. 243). 64 CHARLEMAGNE 75. Restoration of the Empire in the West (a.d. 800). — An event of seemingly little real moment, yet in its influence upon succeeding affairs of the very greatest importance, now claims our attention. Pope Leo III having called upon Charlemagne for aid against a hostile faction at Rome, the king soon appeared in person at the capital and punished summarily the disturbers of the peace of the Church. The gratitude of Leo led him at this time to make a most signal return for the many services of the Frankish king. To understand his act a word of explanation is needed. For a considerable time a variety of circumstances had been fostering a growing feeling of enmity between the Italians and the emperors at Constantinople. Just at this time, by the crime of the Empress Irene, who had deposed her son, Constantine VI, and put out his eyes that she might have his place, the Byzantine throne was vacant, in the estimation of the Italians, who con- tended that the crown of the Caesars could not be worn by a woman. In view of these circumstances Pope Leo and those about him conceived the purpose of taking away from the hereti- cal and effeminate Greeks the imperial crown and bestowing it upon some strong and orthodox and worthy prince in the West. Now, among all the Teutonic chiefs of Western Christendom there was none who could dispute in claims to the honor with the king of the Franks, the representative of a most illustrious house and the strongest champion of the young Christianity of the West against her pagan foes. Accordingly, as Charlemagne was parti- cipating in the solemnities of Christmas Day in the basilica of St. Peter at Rome, the Pope approached the kneeling king, and placing a crown of gold upon his head proclairhed him Emperor and Augustus (a.d. 800). The intention of Pope Leo was, by a sort of reversal of the act of Constantine the Great, to bring back from the East the seat of the imperial court ; but what he really accomplished was a resto- ration of the line of emperors in the West, which three hundred and twenty-four years before had been ended by Odoacer, when he dethroned Romulus Augustulus and sent the royal vestments iV> fovgoroA ^ Hadd^nopleo j::^£-4^oiiiedia GlA IcoawDO \^ i-^'-.iiAC ■v. iSS* ^io^^ ^o^o .e?po '<^'\ . Rhodes \ ^ — \^^ety^^^ ^«rH-aret^. Ctt^a. '^--^.J l_ ] I Tf^sfern Caliphate. \__\ I I .Eastern Caliphate -jjled^^* ' Mecca CHARLES THE GREAT AS A RULER 65 to Constantinople. We say this was what he actually effected ; for the Greeks of the East, disregarding wholly what the Roman people and the Pope had done, maintained their line of emperors just as though nothing had occurred in Italy. So now from this time on for centuries there were, most of the time, two emperors, one in the East and another in the West, each claiming to be the rightful successor of Caesar Augustus.^ This revival of the Empire in the West was one of the most important matters in European history. It gave to the following centuries "a great poHtical ideal," which was the counterpart of the religious ideal of a Universal Church embodied in the Papacy, and which was to shape large sections of mediaeval history. 76. Charles the Great as a Ruler. — Charlemagne must not be regarded as a warrior merely. His most noteworthy work was that which he effected as a legislator and administrator. In this field, too, were exhibited the finer qualities of his masterful per- sonality. In building up his great empire Charlemagne practiced much cruelty and unrighteousness, but over this empire, once established, he ruled with the constant solicitude of a father. Among the characteristic institutions of the Empire was the Diet, or General Assembly, a survival manifestly of the old Teutonic folkmote, an assembly of freemen. This body held a meeting every year in the spring.* At these gatherings there took place merely an interchange of views between Charlemagne and the assembled freemen of the realm ; for the Diet was not a legislative body. Its functions were confined to giving the 8 From this time on it will be proper for us to use the terms Western Empire and Eastern Empire, These names should not, however, be employed before this time, for the two parts of the old Roman Empire were simply administrative divisions of a single empire ; but we may properly enough speak of the Roman Empire in the West, and the Roman Empire in tbe East, or of the Western and Eastern emperors. What it is very essential to note is, that the restoration of the line of the Western emperors actually destroyed the unity of the old Empire, so that from this time on until the destruction of the Eastern Empire in 1453, t^^^s viere, as we have said in the text, two rival emperors, each in theory having rightful suzerainty of the whole world, whereas the two emperors in Roman times were the co-rulers of a single and indivisible World Empire. See Bryce's The Holy Roman Empire. 4 In the autumn there gathered a second smaller assembly, or council, which was composed solely of the magnates of the Empire and the chief royal advisers. 66 CHARLEMAGNE Emperor advice and information. Its relation to Charlemagne is well shown by the words with which he is represented as having once addressed one of its meetings : " Counsel me," he said, " that I may know what to do." In connection with the General Assembly we should notice the celebrated Capitularies of Charlemagne. These were not laws proper, but collections of decrees, decisions, and instructions covering matters of every kind, civil and religious, public and domestic. Some of them were drawn up with the concurrence of the Diet; a greater number embodied simply Charlemagne's own ideas of what his chiefs or his subjects needed in the way of advice, suggestion, or command. Another noteworthy feature of the government of Charlemagne was the itinerant commissioners (mt'ssz dominici) whose duty it was to visit at stated intervals all parts of a given circuit, observe how the local magistrates were discharging their several duties, correct what was wrong, and report to the Emperor all matters of which he should be informed. This was an admirable device for putting the head of the vast Empire in close and almost personal touch with all its parts near and remote. Charlemagne, particularly after his coronation as Emperor, exer- cised as careful a superintendence over religious as over civil affairs. He called synods or councils of the clergy of his domin- ions, presided at these meetings, revised the canons of the Church, and addressed to abbots and bishops fatherly words of admoni- tion, reproof, and exhortation. Education was also a matter to which Charlemagne gave zealous attention. He was himself from first to last as diligent a student as his busy life permitted. His biographer, Einhard, says that he could repeat his prayers as well in Latin as in German, and that he understood Greek, although he had difficulty in its pronuncia- tion. He never ceased to be a learner. In his old age he tried to learn to write, but found that it was too late. Distressed by the dense ignorance all about him, Charlemagne labored to instruct his subjects, lay and clerical, by the establish- ment of schools and the multiplication and dissemination of books THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE ^'j through the agency of the copyists of the monasteries. He invited from England the celebrated Alcuin, one of the finest scholars of the age, and with his help organized what became known as the Palace School, in which his children and courtiers and he himself were pupils. A spirit of rare comradeship seems to have pervaded this happy school. The different members of it were in pleasantry given Hebrew or classical names. Charlemagne was known as King David ; Alcuin, as Flaccus ; while still others bore the names of Homer, Pindar, Samuel, Columba, and Jeremiah. A great number of other schools were estabhshed by Charle- magne in connection with the cathedrals and monasteries through- out his dominions. Many of these were organized by Alcuin, whose influence was unbounded. In causing the establishment of these schools Charlemagne set at work influences that left a deep and permanent impression upon European civilization. They mark the beginning of a new intellectual life for Western Christendom. 77. The Death of Charlemagne (814) ; his Place in History. — Charlemagne enjoyed the imperial dignity only fourteen years, dying in 814. Einhard in speaking of the event simply says that he was buried on the day of his death within the basilica at Aachen, which he himself had built. A later tradition affirms that the dead monarch was placed upon a throne, with his royal robes about him, his good sword by his side, and a book of the Gospels open on his lap.^ It seemed as though men could not beHeve that his reign was over. And it was not. By the almost universal verdict of students of the mediseval period, Charles the Great has been pronounced the most imposing personage that appears between the fall of Rome and the fifteenth century. " He stands alone," says Hallam, " like a beacon uppn a waste, or a rock in the broad ocean." He is the King Arthur of the French, — the favorite hero of mediaeval minstrelsy. His 5 This account differs so widely from that of contemporaries of Charlemagne that it cannot be received as historical. Consult Lindner, Die Fabel von der Bestattung Karls des Grossen ; Mombert, Charles the Great ^ pp. 484-486; and Hodgkin, Charles the Great, p. 250. 6S CHARLEMAGNE greatness has erected an enduring monument for itself in his name, the one by which he is best known, — Charlemagne. 78. The Results of his Reign Among the many results of the reign of Charlemagne we should take notice of the three fol- lowing. First, he did for Germany what Caesar did for Gaul, — brought this barbarian land within the pale of civilization and made it a part of the new-forming Romano-German world. Second, through the part he played in the revival of the Empire, he helped to give to the following generations " a great political ideal," and to set up an authority among the European princes which was destined to lend character to large sections of mediaeval history. Third, Charlemagne kneaded into something like a homogene- ous mass the various racial elements composing the mixed society of the wide regions over which he ruled. Throughout his long and vigorous reign that fusion of Roman and Teuton of which we spoke in a previous chapter went on apace. He failed indeed to unite the various races of his extended dominions in a permanent political union, but he did much to create among them those reli- gious, intellectual, and social bonds which were never afterwards severed. From his time on, as it has been concisely expressed, there was a Western Christendom. 79. Division of the Empire; the Treaty of Verdun (843). — Like the kingdom of Alexander and that of many another great conqueror, the mighty empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces soon after his death. " His scepter was the bow of Ulysses which could not be drawn by any weaker hand." Charlemagne was followed by his son Lewis, sumamed the Pious (814-840). Upon his death fierce contention broke out afresh among his surviving sons, Lewis, Charles, and Lothair, and myriads of lives were sacrificed in the unnatural strife. Finally, by the famous Treaty of Verdun (843), the Empire was divided as follows : to Lewis was given the part east of the Rhine, the nucleus of the later Germany ; to Charles, the part west of the Rhone and the Meuse, one day to become France ; and to Lothair, the narrow central strip between these, stretching across RENEWAL OF THE EMPIRE BY OTTO I 69 Europe from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, and including the rich lands of the lower Rhine, the valley of the Rhone, and Italy. To Ldthair also was given the imperial title. This treaty is celebrated, not only because it was the first great treaty among the European states, but also on account of its marking the divergence from one another, and in some sense the origin, of two of the great nations of modern Europe, — Teutonic Germany and Romanic France. As shown by the celebrated bilingual oath of Strassburg,® there had by this time grown up in Gaul, through the mixture of the provincial Latin with Ger- man elements, a new speech, which was to grow into the French tongue, — the firstborn of the Romance languages.^ After this dismemberment of the dominions of Charlemagne the annals of the different branches of the Carolingian family become intricate, wearisome, and uninstructive. A fate as dark and woeful as that which, according to Grecian story, overhung the royal house of Thebes seemed to brood over the house of Charlemagne. In all its different lines a strange and adverse destiny awaited the lineage of the great king. The tenth cen- tury witnessed the extinction of the family. 80. Renewal of the Empire by Otto the Great (962).^ — In the division of the dominions of Charlemagne, the imperial title, as we have just seen, went to Lothair. The title, however, meant scarcely anything, carrying with it litde or no real authority. Matters ran on thus for more than a century, the empty honor of the title sometimes being enjoyed by the kings of Italy, and again by those of the Eastern Franks. But with the accession of Otto I to the throne of Germany in the year 936, there appeared among the princes of Europe a second Charlemagne. Besides being king of Germany, he became, through interference on request in the affairs of Italy, king of that country also. Furthermore, he wrested large tracts 6 This was an oath of friendship and mutual fidelity taken by Lewis and Charles just before the Treaty of Verdun (in 842). The text of the oath has been preserved both in the old German speech and in the new-forming Romance language. It is interesting as affording the oldest existing specimens of these languages. "^ Compare sees. 44 and 241. 70 CHARLEMAGNE of land from the Slavs, and forced the Danes, Poles, and Hunga- rians to acknowledge his suzerainty. Thus favored by fortune, he conceived the idea of reviving once more the imperial authority, just as it had been revived in the time of the great Charles. So in 962, just a little more than a century and a half after the coronation at Rome of Charlemagne, Otto, at the same place and by the same papal authority, was crowned Emperor of the Romans. For a generation no one had borne the title. From this time on it was the rule that the prince whom the German Electors chose as their king had a right to the crown of Italy and also to the imperial crown. After this the Empire came to be called the Holy Roman Empire, although, as Voltaire very truthfully observed concerning It later, it was " neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire." Re- specting the great part that the idea of the Empire played in sub- sequent history we shall speak in a later chapter (Chapter XI). Selections from the Sources. — Eginhard (Einhard), Life of the E?nperor Karl the Great. Einhard was Charles' confidential friend and secretary. " Almost all our real, vivifying knowledge of Charles the Great," says Hodgkin, "is derived from Einhard, and . . . the Vita Caroli is one of the most precious bequests of the early Middle Ages." Henderson, Select Historical Documents^ pp. 1 89-201, "Capitulary of Charlemagne, issued in the year 802." Translations and Reprints^ vol. vi, No. 5, " Selec- tions from the Laws of Charles the Great " (ed. by Dana Carleton Munro). Secondary Works. — Hodgkin, Charles the Great, and Mombert, A JIisto7'y of Charles the Great ; the first is the best short biography in English. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chaps, iv, v, and xxi ; gives a clear view of the import of the restoration of the Empire. Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, chaps, xii-xiv. Sergeant, The Franks, chaps, xvi- xxii; an admirable sketch, with a calm and moderate appraisement of Charles' work. West, Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, and Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great ; for the influence upon the intellectual life of the Middle Ages of the schools founded by Charlemagne. Freeman, The Chief Periods of European History, Lects. iii and iv. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. vii. Davis, Charlemagne. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Charlemagne and the Saxons. 2. Ro- mances connected with Charlemagne's expedition against the Moors in Spain. 3. Alcuin and the Palace School. 4. Tradition of the burial of Charlemagne. CHAPTER VIII THE NORTHMEN: THE COMING OF THE VIKINGS 8i. The Northern Folk Northmen, Norsemen, Scandina- vians, are different names applied in a general way to the early inhabitants of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. For the reason that those making settlements in England came for the most part from Denmark, the term Danes is often used with the same wide application by the English writers. These people were very near kin to those tribes — Goths, Vandals, Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and the rest — that seized upon the western provinces of the Roman Empire. They were Teutons in language, religion, habits, and spirit. 82. The Northmen as Pirates and as Colonizers. — For the first eight centuries of our era the Norsemen are practically hidden from our view in their remote northern home ; but towards the end of the eighth century their black piratical crafts are to be seen creeping along the coasts of Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, and even venturing far up the inlets and creeks. Every summer these dreaded sea rovers made swift descents upon the exposed shores of these countries, plundered, burned, murdered; and then upon the approach of the stormy season they returned to winter in the sheltered fiords of the Northern peninsulas. After a time the bold corsairs began to winter in the lands they had harried during the summer; and soon all the shores of the countries visited were dotted with their stations and settlements. With a foothold once secured, fresh bands came from the crowded lands of the North; the winter stations grew into permanent colonies ; the surrounding country was gradually wrested from the natives ; and in course of time the settlements coalesced into a real kingdom. 7? 72 THE NORTHMEN Thus Northern Gaul fell at last so completely into the hands of the Northmen as to take from them the name of Normandy ; while Northeastern England, crowded with settlers from Den- mark and surrendered to Danish rule, became known as the Danelagh (Dane-law). From Normandy, as a new base of opera- tions, fresh colonies went out and made conquests and settle- ments in South Italy and Sicily, and in England. While these things were going on in Europe, other bands of Northmen were pushing out into the western seas and colonizing Iceland .and Greenland, and visiting the shores of the American continent. Commencing in the latter part of the eighth century, these marauding expeditions and colonizing enterprises Fig. 12. — A Viking Ship It was the custom of the Northmen to bury their dead sea king near the sea in his ship and over the spot to raise a great mound of earth. The boat shown in the cut was found in 1880 in a burial mound at Gokstadt, South Norway. Its length is 78 feet. From the mode of sepulture it is inferred that the mound was raised between a.d. 700 and 1000 did not cease until the eleventh century was far advanced. The consequences of this wonderful outpouring of the Scandinavian peoples were so important and lasting that the movement may well be compared, as it has been, to the great migration of their German kinsmen in the fifth and sixth centuries. Europe is a second time inundated by the Teutonic barbarians. The most noteworthy characteristic of these Northmen is the readiness with which they laid aside their own manners, habits,, ideas, and institutions, and adopted those of the country in which they established themselves. " In Russia they became Russians ; in. France, Frenchmen ; in Italy, Italians ; in England, Englishmen." DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN 73 83. Colonization of Iceland and Greenland ; the Discovery of America. — Iceland was settled by the Northmen in the ninth century,^ and about a century later ^Greenland was discovered and colonized. In 1874 the Icelanders celebrated the thou- sandth anniversary of the settlement of their island, an event very like our Centennial of 1876. America was reached by the Northmen as early as the open- ing of the eleventh century ; the " Vinland " of their traditions was probably some part of the New England coast. Whether these first visitors to the continent ever made any set- tlements in the new land is a disputed ques- tion. 84. The Norsemen in Russia. — While the Nor- wegians were sailing boldly out into the Atlantic and taking possession of the isles and coasts of the west- ern seas, the Swedes were pushing their crafts across the Baltic and troubling the Finns and Slavs on the eastern shore of that sea. Either by right of conquest or through the invitation of the contentious Slavonic clans, the renowned Scandinavian chieftain 1 Iceland became the literary center of the Scandinavian world. There grew up here a class of scalds, or bards, who, before the introduction of writing, preserved and transmitted orally the sagas, or legends, of the Northern races. About the middle of the thirteenth century these poems and legends were gathered into col- lections known as the Elder or Poetic Edda and the Younger or Prose Edda. These are among the most interesting and important of the literary memorials that we possess of the early Teutonic peoples. They reflect faithfully the beliefs, man- ners, and customs of the Norsemen, and the wild, adventurous spirit of their sea kings. Discoveries of the Northmen 74 THE NORTHMEN Ruric acquired, about the middle of the ninth century, kingly dignity, and became the founder of the first royal line of Russia. The state established by him and his descendants was the beginning, or rather the prototype, of the great empire of the modern Tsars. 85. The Danish Conquest of England. — The Northmen — Danes, as called by the English writers — began to make descents upon the English coast toward the close of the eighth century. These sea rovers spread the greatest terror throughout the island; for they were not content with plunder, but, being pagans, took special delight in burning the churches and monasteries of the now Christian Anglo-Saxons, or English, as we shall hereafter call them. In a short time fully one half of England was in their hands. The wretched English were subjected to exactly the same treatment that they had inflicted upon the Celts. Just when it began to look as though they would be wholly enslaved or driven from the island by the heathen intruders, Alfred (871-901), later to be known as Alfred the Great,^ came to the throne of Wessex. For six years the youthful king fought heroically at the head of his brave thanes ; but each year the possessions of the English grew smaller, and finally Alfred and his few remaining followers were forced to take refuge in the woods and morasses. After a time, however, the affairs of .Alfred began to mend. He gained some advantage over the Danes, but he could not expel them from the island, and by the celebrated Treaty of Wedmore (878) gave up to them all the northeastern part of England. 2 Alfred is the only sovereign of England on whom the title of Great has been con- ferred. Perhaps his best claims to this distinction spring from his work as a lawgiver and a patron of learning. He collected and revised the ancient laws of the Anglo- Saxons, tempering and altering them in accordance with Christian morals and prin- ciples. The code that he thus made formed the basis of early English jurisprudence. Alfred also fostered learning by himself becoming a translator. With the exception of the Bible, some short poems, and the well-known Paraphrase of the Scriptures (see sec. 22), the translations by Alfred were the first books written in their own tongue that the English had placed in their hands. Here we have the beginnings of the prose literature of England. " The mighty roll of the prose books that fill her libraries," writes Green, " begins with the translations of Alfred, and above all with the Chronicle of his reign," The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle here alluded to was a minute and chronological record of events, probably begun in systematic form in Alfred's reign and continued down to the year 1154. It was kept by the monks of different monasteries, and forms one of our most valuable soixrces for early English history. II SETTLEMENT OF THE NORTHMEN IN GAUL 75 For a full century following the death of Alfred his successors were engaged in a constant struggle to hold in restraint the Danes already settled in the land, or to protect their domains from the plundering inroads of fresh bands of pirates from the Northern peninsulas. In the end the Danes got the victory, and Canute, king of Denmark, became king of England (10 16). For eighteen years he reigned in a wise and parental way. Altogether the Danes ruled in England about a quarter of a century, and then the old English line was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor (1042). 86. Settlement of the Northmen in Gaul. — The Northmen began to make piratical descents upon the coasts of Gaul before the end of the reign of Charlemagne. The great king had been dead only thirty years when these sea rovers ascended the Seine and sacked Paris (845). We need not stop to give in detail the story of their subsequent plundering expeditions in Gaul and of their final settlement in the northwest of the country, for this is simply a repetition of the tale of the Danish forays and settlement in England. At last, the Carolingian king, Charles the Simple, did something very like what Alfred the Great had done across the Channel only a short time before. He granted to Rollo, the leader of the Northmen who had settled at Rouen, a considerable section of country in the north of Gaul, upon condition of homage and conversion (912). In a short time the newcomers had adopted the language, the manners, and the religion of the Trench, and had caught much of their vivacity and impulsiveness of spirit, without, however, any loss of their own native virtues. This transformation in their manners and life we may conceive as being recorded in their trans- formed name, — Northmen becoming softened into Norman. 87. Normandy in French History. — The establishment of a Scandinavian settlement in Gaul proved a most momentous matter, not only for the history of the French people, but for the history of European civilization as well. This Norse factor was destined to be one of the most important of all those various racial elements which on the soil of the old Gaul blended to 76 THE NORTHMEN create the richly dowered French nation. For many of the most romantic passages of her history France is indebted to the adven- turous spirit of the descendants of these wild rovers of the sea. The knights of Normandy lent an added splendor to French knighthood, and helped greatly to make France the hearth of chiv- alry and the center of the crusading movement of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Nor was the influence of the incoming of this Scandinavian race felt upon French history alone. Normandy became the point of departure of enterprises that had deep and lasting con- sequences for Europe at large. These undertakings had for their arena England and the Mediterranean lands. Their results were so important and far-reaching that we shall devote to the nar- ration of them a subsequent chapter (Chapter X). Selections from the Sources. — The Heimskringla, or Chronicle of the Ki7tgs of Norway (trans, by Samuel Laing). These sagas are of surpassing value to us for the reason that, in the words of Keary, they are " the last articulate voice of Teutonic heathenism." The Story of Burjit Njal (trans, by George W. Dasent). An Icelandic saga ; a picture of times and manners. Mabie, Norse Stories, retold from the Eddas. Colby, Selec- tions, Nos. 8, 9, and jo. Kendall, Source-Book, chap, ii, " England and the Danes." Secondary Works. — Keary, The Vikings in Western Christendom. The author depicts the various Viking undertakings as " one phase ... of the long struggle between Christianity and the heathenism of the North." Pauli, The Life of Alfred the Great ; the best life of the great king. Green, The Conquest of England ; all excepting chaps, x and xi. Du Chaillu, The Viking Age ; reflects the life and ideals, customs and manners of the Norsemen, chiefly as depicted in the sagas. Hughes, Alfred the Great. The millenary celebration of Alfred's death has called into existence an " Alfred Library." Among these recent books the fol- lowing should be noticed: Macfadyen, Alfred, the West Saxon, and BowKER, Alfred the Great. Boyesen, The Story of Norway ; the open- ing chapters. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The physical characteristics of Scandi- navia. 2. Manners and customs of the Northmen. 3. The Eddas. 4. The Icelanders' millennial anniversary, 1874. 5. Discovery of America by the Northmen. 6. Tales and legends of Alfred the Great. SECOND PERIOD — THE AGE OF REVIVAL (From the Opening of the Eleventh Century to the Discovery of America by Columbus in 1492) CHAPTER IX FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY I. Feudalism 88. Feudalism defined. — Feudalism is the name given to a special form of society and government, based upon a peculiar tenure of land, which prevailed in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, attaining, however, its most perfect develop- ment in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. The three most essential features of the system were : (i) the holding of land from a lord or superior; (2) the existence of a close personal bond between the grantor of an estate and the receiver of it ; (3) the full or partial rights of sovereignty which the holder of an estate had over those living upon it. An estate of this. nature — it might embrace a few acres or an entire kingdom — was called a fief or feud, whence the term Feudalism. The person granting a fief was called the suzerain^ liege,. or lord ; the one receiving it, his vassal, liegeman, or retainer. A person receiving a large fief might parcel it out in tracts to others on terms similar to those on which he himself had received it. This regranting of feudal lands was known as subin- feudation; in principle it was not unlike what we know as the subletting of lands. The process of subinfeudation might be carried to almost any degree. Practically it was seldom carried beyond the fourth stage. 77 yS FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY 89. The Ideal System. — The few definitions given above will render intelligible the following explanation of the theory of the feudal system. We take the theory of the system first for the reason that it is infinitely simpler than the thing itself. In fact, feudalism, as we find it in actual practice, was one of the most complex institutions that the mediaeval ages produced. In theory all the kings of the earth were vassals of the Emperor, who according to good imperialists was God's vassal, and according to good churchmen, the Pope's. The kings received their domin- ions as fiefs to be held on conditions of loyalty to their suzerain and of fealty to right and justice. Should a king become disloyal or rule unjustly and wickedly, through such misconduct he for- feited his fief, and it might be taken from him by his suzerain and given to another worthier liegeman. In the same way as the king received his fief from the Emperor, so might he grant it out in parcels to his chief men, they, in return for it, promising, in general, to be faithful to him as their lord, and to serve and aid him. Should these men, now vassals, be in any way untrue to their engagement, they forfeited their fiefs, and these might be resumed by their suzerain and bestowed upon others. In like manner these immediate vassals of the king, or suzerain, might parcel out their domains in smaller tracts to others, on con- ditions similar to those upon which they had themselves received theirs ; and so on down through any number of stages. We have thus far dealt only with the soil of a country. We must next notice what disposition was made of the people under this system. The king in receiving his fief was intrusted with sovereignty over all persons living upon it; he became their commander, their lawmaker, and their judge, — practically, their absolute and irresponsible ruler. Then, when he parceled out his fief among his great men, he invested them, within the limits of the fiefs granted, with all his own sovereign rights. Each vassal became a virtual sovereign in his own domain. And when these great vassals subdivided their fiefs and granted portions of them to THE ORIGIN OF FIEFS 79 others, they in turn invested their vassals with more or less of those powers of sovereignty with which they themselves had been clothed.^ To illustrate the workings of the system, we will suppose the king, or suzerain, to be in, need of an army. He calls upon his own immediate vassals for aid ; these in turn call upon their vassals ; and so the order runs down through the various stages of the hierarchy. Each lord commands only his own vassals. The retainers in the lowest rank rally around their respective lords, who, with their bands, gather about their lords, and so on up through the rising tiers of the hierarchy, until the immediate vassals of the suzerain, or lord paramount, present themselves before him with their graduated trains of followers. The array constitutes a feudal army, — a splendidly organized body in theory, but in fact an extremely poor instrument for warfare. Such was the ideal feudal state. It is needless to say that the ideal was never perfectly realized. The system simply made more or less distant approaches to it in the several European countries. But this general idea which we have tried to give of the theory of the system will help to an understanding of it as we find it in actual existence. We will now in three distinct paragraphs say a word about the probable origin -of the three prominent elements of the system, — namely, the fief, the patronage, and the sovereignty. 90. The Originr of Fiefs. — In the sixth century probably the greater portion of the soil of the countries which had once formed a part of the Roman Empire in the West was held by what was called an allodial or freehold tenure. The landed, proprietor owned his domain absolutely, held it just as a man among us holds his estate. He enjoyed it free from any rent or service due to a superior, save of course public taxes and duties. But by the end of the eleventh century probably the larger part of the land 1 The holders of small fiefs were not allowed to exercise the more important functions of sovereignty. Thus, of the estimated number of 70,000 fief holders in France in the tenth ceatury, only between 100 and 200 possessed the right "to coio -money, levy taxes, maice laws, and administer their own justice." 8o FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY in these same countries, as well as in other regions into which the feudal system had been carried, was held by a beneficiary or feudal tenure. We must now see how this great change came about. The fief grew out of the beneficimn, a form of estate well known among the Romans. When the barbarians overran the soil of the Empire, they appropriated, as we have seen, a good part of it to their own use. The king or leader of the invading tribe naturally had allotted to him a large share. Following his custom of bestow- ing gifts of arms and other articles upon his companions, he granted to his followers and friends parcels of his domains, upon the simple condition of faithfulness. At first these estates were bestowed only for life, and were called by the Latin name of bene- fices; but in the course of time they became hereditary, and then they began to be called fiefs or feuds. They took this latter name about the ninth century. As the royal lands were very extensive and were being constantly added to by inheritance and successful wars, these were a very important source of feudal estates. Another and still more important source of fiefs was usurpation. Under the later Carolingians the counts, dukes, marquises, and other royal officers, who were at first simply appointed magistrates, succeeded, by taking advantage of the weakness of their sovereigns, in making their offices hereditary, and then in having their duchies, counties, and provinces regarded as fiefs granted .to them by the king. By the year 877 this process had proceeded so far that in that year Charles the Bald of France recognized the hereditary character of the offices of his counts. In this way the countries originally embraced within the limits of the empire of Charlemagne became broken up into a considerable number of enormous fiefs, the heads of which, bearing the names of count, duke, marquis, and so on, became the great vassals of the crown. Another way in which fiefs arose was through the owners of allodial estates voluntarily surrendering them into the hands of some powerful lord, and then receiving them back as benefices or fiefs. We shall see, a little further on, how the confusion and anarchy of the ninth and tenth centuries caused multitudes of allodial proprietors thus to turn their freeholds into fiefs, that ORIGIN OF THE FEUDAL PATRONAGE 8 1 they might thereby come within the feudal system and enjoy its advantages and protection. 91. Origin of the Feudal Patronage. — We named the close personal tie uniting the lord and his vassal as the second of the essential features of the feudal system. Some have traced this to the Teutons, and think it the same tie as that which bound the companion to his chief and created the ancient German institu- tion known as the comitatus. Others have pronounced it iden- tical with the tie that at Rome bound the client to his patron. Still others have traced it to the Celtic or Gallic custom of com- mendation, whereby a person subjected himself to a more power- ful lord for the sake of his patronage and protection. All these things indeed are very much alike, and any one might have served as the germ out of which feudal patronage, the special relation of lord and vassal, was developed. The important thing to bear in mind, however, is that in the Frankish kingdom, which was the cradle of feudalism, we find all the officers of the court and the great men of the nation holding to the king relations of sworn fidelity and trust which were in various respects analogous to the relations that subsisted in earlier times between the German war leader and his companions. Now, in time this peculiar personal relation, characterized on the part of the vassal by pledges of fealty, service, and aid, and on the part of the lord by promise of counsel and protection, came to be united with the benefice, with which at first it had nothing to do. The union of these two ties completed the feudal tenure. 92. Origin of the Feudal Sovereignty. — It still remains to speak of the feudal sovereignty. How did the possessor of a fief acquire the rights of a sovereign over the persons living upon it, — the right to administer justice, to coin money, and to wage war ? How did these privileges and authorities which at first resided in the king come to be distributed among the fief holders ? In two ways largely, — by the king's voluntary surrender of his rights and powers, and by usurpation. Thus the Merovingian and Carolingian rulers very frequently conferred upon churches, monasteries, and important personages a 82 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY portion of the royal power. This was done by what were known as grants of immunity? Thus a monastery, for instance, would, by such a grant, be freed from certain public charges and duties, and be given administrative and judicial authority over all classes of persons living upon its lands. In this way the royal authority was much scattered and weakened. A still more important source of feudal sovereignty was the usurpation of the kingly power by the royal officers. Under the later Carolingians these magistrates, as we have already seen, suc- ceeded in making their offices hereditary, and thus transformed themselves into petty sovereigns, only nominally dependent upon their king. They became powerful vassals, while their sovereign became a suzerain, a shadow king. By such usurpations the king- doms into which the empire of Charlemagne was at first broken became still further subdivided into numerous petty feudal principalities, and the royal power was distributed down through the ranks of a more or less perfectly graded civil hierarchy. 93. The Ceremony of Homage. — A fief was conferred by a very solemn and peculiar ceremony called hom- age. The person about to become a vassal, kneeling with uncovered head, placed his hands in those of his future lord and solemnly vowed to be henceforth his man^ and to serve him faithfully even with his life. This part of the ceremony, sealed with a kiss, was what properly constituted the ceremony of homage. It was accom- panied by an oath of fealty, and the whole was concluded by the 2 A grant of immunity may for purposes of illustration be compared to the charter granted by the modern state to the board of directors of a college or other corporation, whereby are conferred upon this body limited rights of legislation and jurisdiction ; or a better illustration perhaps would be the Constitution that the United States Government by its ratification gives to a territory and thereby makes it a State with many sovereign powers. Federalism indeed presents various instructive analogies to feudalism. 8 Latin homo^ whence " homage." Fig. 13. — The Ceremony of Homage. (From a seal of the twelfth century) THE RELATIONS OF LORD AND VASSAL 83 act of investiture, whereby the lord put his vassal in actual pos- session of the land or, by placing in his hand a clod of earth or a twig, symbolized the delivery to him of the estate for which he had just now done homage and sworn fealty. 94. The Relations of Lord and VassaL — In general terms the duty of the vassal was service ; that of the lord, protection. The most honorable service required of the vassal, and the one most willingly rendered in a martial age, was military aid. The liegeman must always be ready to follow his lord upon his military expedi- tions ; but the time of service for one year was usually not more than forty days. He must defend his lord in battle ; if he should be unhorsed, must give him his own animal ; and, if he should be made a prisoner, must offer himself as a hostage for his release. He must also give entertainment to his lord and his retinue on their journeys. He was, moreover, under obligation, upon sum- mons, to serve as juror or judge in the lord's court, and thus aid him in the settlement of disputes between his vassals. There were other incidents mainly of a financial nature attach- ing to a fief, which grew up gradually and did not become a part of the system much before the eleventh century. These were known as Reliefs, Fines upon Alienation, Escheats, and Aids. A Relief was the name given to the sum of money which an heir upon coming into possession of a fief must pay to the lord of the domain. This was often a large amount, being usually the entire revenue of the estate for one year. A Fine upon AHenation was a sum of money paid to the lord by a vassal for permission to ahenate his fief, that is, to substitute another vassal in his place. By Escheat was meant the falling back of the fief into the hands of the lord through failure of heirs. If the fief lapsed through dis- loyalty or other misdemeanor on the part of the vassal, this was known as Forfeiture. Aids were sums of money which the lord had a right to demand to enable him to meet unusual expenditures, especially for defray- ing the expense of knighting his eldest son, for providing a mar- riage dower for his eldest daughter, and for ransoming his own S4 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY person from captivity in case he were made a prisoner of war.* The chief return that the lord was bound to make to the vassal as a compensation for these various services and rights was justice and protection, — by no means a small return in an age of turmoil and insecurity. 95. Serfs ^ and Serfdom. — The vassals, or fief holders of vari- ous grades, constituted only a very small portion, perhaps five per cent or less, of the population of the countries where feudaHsm came to prevail. The great bulk of the folk were agricultural serfs.® These were the men who actually tilled the soil. Just how this servile class arose is not positively known. Some think that the ancestors of the mediaeval serfs were bondsmen, others that they were, speaking generally, freemen. In some countries at least they seem to have been the lineal descendants of the slaves of Roman times, whose condition had been gradually ameliorated. Their status varied greatly from country to country and- from period to period ; that is to say, there came to be many grades of serfs filling the space between the actual slave and the full freeman. Consequently it is impossible to give any general account of the class which can be regarded as a true picture of their actual condition as a body at any given time. The following description must therefore be taken as reflecting their duties and disabilities only in the most general way. The first and most characteristic feature of the condition of the serfs was that they were affixed to the soil. They could not 4 The right of wardship was the right of the lord, when a successor to a fief was a minor, to assume the guardianship of the heir and to enjoy the revenues of the fief until his ward became of age. The right of marriage was the right of the lord to select a husband for his female ward, " lest he should get an enemy for a vassal." 5 The terms serf and villain, although in some countries they denoted different classes, are used interchangeably by many writers. Thus English writers usually employ the terms villains and villanage in speaking of the servile English peasantry after the Norman Conquest. We shall, however, throughout our work use the words serf and serfdom only in the sense defined in the present paragraph. 6 There were some free peasants and a larger number of free artisans and traders, inhabitants of the towns. The number of actual slaves was small. They had almost all disappeared before the end of the tenth century, either having been emancipated or been lifted into the lowest order of serfs, which was an advance toward freedom. At the time of the great Domesday survey (sec. 117) there were, according to this record, only about 25,000 slaves in Englani ^ MAP OF HITCHIN MANOR,! ENGI.AND (About 1816) mi ''/r^ij ^^^lU M Scale of a Mile ( each division being an Acre ) Photograph of an Open Field in Hitchin Manor Showing the grassy balks, or unplowed furrows, which take the place of hedges and divide the acre and half-acre strips of the great open field ! This map is based on charts in Seebohm's T/te English J 'illage Coinmunity, and illustrates the open-field system of cultivation of the mediseval manor. The thirty scattered strips colored red represent tlie normal holding of a villain {villninti) ; the strips colored blue, comprising about one third of the land of the manor, show the way in which the demesne of the lord was often made up of numerous tracts scattered about the open fields instead of forming a continuous tract around the manor house ; the areas colored green represent the meadows and common pasture lands. SERFS AND SERFDOM 8$ of their own will leave the estate or manor to which they belonged ; nor, on the other hand, could their lord deprive them of their holdings and set them adrift. When the land changed masters they passed with it, just like a " rooted tree or stone earth-bound." It was this that constituted the peasants serfs in the sense in which we shall use the term. Each serf had allotted him by his lord a cottage and a number of acres of land, — thirty acres formed a normal holding, — con- sisting of numerous narrow strips scattered about the great open fields of the manor. For these he paid a rent, usually during the earlier feudal times in kind and in personal services. The personal services included a certain number of days' work, usually two or three days each week, on the demesne, that is, the land which the lord had kept in his own hands as a sort of home farm. The nature of the work consisted in plowing the lord's land, tilling and weeding his crops, ditching, building walls, repairing roads and bridges, cutting and hauling wood to the manor house, wash- ing and shearing sheep, feeding the hounds, and picking nuts and wild berries for the folk in the castle. Often the poor serf could find time to till his own little plot only on moonlit nights or on rainy days. He 'must furthermore grind his grain at his lord's mill, press his grapes at his wine press, bake his bread at his oven, often paying for these services an unreasonable toll. After the serf had rendered to the lord all the rent in kind he owed for his cottage and bit of ground, the remainder of the produce from his fields was, in accordance with custom if not always with law, his own. Generally the share was only just sufficient to keep the wolf of hunger from his door. Some serfs, however, were able to accumulate considerable personal property, enough w^herewith to purchase their freedom. In some countries upon the death of the serf all that he had became in the eye of the law the property of his lord ; in other lands, again, the lord could take only the best animal or the best implement of the deceased serf. This was called the heriot. Besides all these payments, services, gifts, and dues, there were often others of a whimsical and teasing rather than an oppressive 86 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY nature. But of these we need not now speak. What we have already said will convey some idea of the nature of the relations that existed between the lord and his serf, and will indicate how servile and burdensome were the incidents of the tenure by which the serf held his cottage and bit of ground. How the serf gradu- ally freed himself from the heavy yoke of his servitude and became a freeman will appear as we advance in our narrative. 96. Development of the Feudal System. — Although the germs of feudalism may be found in the society of the fifth or sixth cen- tury, still the system did not develop so as to exhibit its charac- teristic features before the eighth or ninth. What greatly contributed to the development of feudalism, par- ticularly on its military side, was the means adopted by Charles Martel, after the battle of Tours, to repel the continued raids of the Arab horsemen into Southern Gaul. Foot soldiers being useless in the pursuit of the mounted marauders, Charles created a cav- alry force, appropriating for this purpose Church lands which he granted in fief to meet the cost of service on horseback. This was the opening of the day of feudal chivalry (sec. 102). Grad- ually the old general levies of foot soldiers were almost wholly superseded by arrays of feudal knights. This development of feudalism as a defensive military system and in the typical form which it had now assumed in the Gallic border land between Saracen and Christian was hastened by the disturbed state of society everywhere during the greater part of the ninth and the tenth century; for after the death of Charle- magne and the partition of his empire among his feeble successors, it appeared as though the world were again falling back into chaos. The bonds of society seemed entirely broken. Every man did that which was right in his own eyes. To internal disorders were added the invasions of the outside barbarians ; for, no longer held in restraint by the strong arm of the great Charles, they had now begun their raids anew. From the north came the Scandinavian pirates to harry the shores of Germany, Gaul, and Britain. The terror which these pagan sea rovers inspired is commemorated by the supplication of the litany DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 8/ of those days : " From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, dehver us." From the east came the terrible Hungarians. These pagan marauders not only devastated Germany but troubled Southern France and, passing the Alps, spread before them a terror like that which had run before the Huns nearly five hundred years earlier. By the way of the sea on the south came an equally dreaded foe. The Saracens, now intrenched in Spain and Sicily, made piratical descents upon all the Christian shores of the Western and Middle Mediterranean, sacking and burning, and creating here such panic and dismay as the Northmen and Hungarians were creating by their irruptions in the north and east. It was this anarchical state of things that, as we have said, caused the rapid development of feudalism. All classes hastened to enter the system in order to secure the protection which it alone could afford. Kings, princes, and wealthy persons who had large landed possessions which they had never parceled out as fiefs, were now led to do so, that their estates might be held by tenants bound to protect them by all the sacred obligations of homage and fealty. Thus sovereigns and princes became suze- rains and feudal lords. Again, the smaller proprietors who held their estates by allodial tenure voluntarily surrendered them into the hands of some neighboring lord, and then received them back again from him as fiefs, that they might claim protection as vassals. They deemed this better than being robbed of their property altogether. Moreover, for like reasons and in hke manner, churches, monasteries, and cities became members of the feudal system. They granted out their vast possessions as fiefs, and thus became suzerains and lords. Bishops and abbots became the heads of great bands of retainers, and often themselves led military expe- ditions like temporal chiefs. On the other hand, these same monasteries and towns frequently placed themselves under the protection of some powerful lord, and thus came in vassalage to him. Sometimes the bishops and the heads of religious houses, instead of paying military service, bound themselves to say a certain number of Masses for the lord or his family. Lewis the 88 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY Pious, son and successor of Charles the Great, decreed that with some exceptions all the monasteries of his domains should hold their estates on the sole condition " that they should pray for the welfare of the Emperor and his children and the Empire." In this way were Church and State, all classes of society from the wealthiest suzerain to the humblest vassal, bound together by feudal ties. Everything was impressed with the stamp of feudalism. 97. Castles of the Nobles. — The lawless and violent character of the times during which feudalism prevailed is well shown by the nature of the residences which the great nobles built for Fig. 14. — Typical Medieval Castle. (From an engraving) themselves. These were strong stone fortresses, often perched upon some rocky eminence, and defended by moats and towers. France, Germany, Italy, Northern Spain, England, and Scot- land, in which countries the feudal system became most thoroughly developed, fairly bristled with these fortified residences of the nobility. Strong walls were the only protection against the univer- sal violence of the age. Not only had each lord to protect himself against the attacks of neighboring chiefs, but also against those of foreign foes, such as the Hungarians and the Northmen ; for there was no strong central authority to make law respected and to give protection to all. CAUSES OF THE DECAY OF FEUDALISM 89 One of the most striking and picturesque features of the land- scape of many regions in Europe to-day is the ivy-mantled towers and walls of these feudal castles, now falling into ruins. They are impressive memorials of an age that has passed away. 98. Sports of the Nobles ; Hunting and Hawking. — When not engaged in mihtary enterprises, the nobles occupied much of their time in hunting and hawking. " With the northern barba- rians," writes Hallam, " it [hunting] was rather a predominant appetite than an amusement; it was their pride and their orna- ment, the theme of their songs, the object of their laws, and the business of their lives." It was the forest laws of the Norman conquerors of England, designed for the protection of the game in the royal preserves, which, perhaps more than anything else, caused these foreign rulers to be so hated by the English (sec. 118). Abbots and bishops entered upon the chase with as great zest as the lay nobles. Even the prohibitions of Church councils against the clergy's indulging in such worldly amusements were wholly ineffectual. Hawking grew into a very passion among all classes, even ladies participating in the sport. In the celebrated tapestries and upon all the monuments of the feudal age, the greyhound and the falcon, the dog lying at the feet of his master and the bird perched upon his wrist, are, after the knightly sword and armor, the most common emblems of nobility. 99. Causes of the Decay of Feudalism. — Chief among the various causes which undermined and at length overthrew feudal- ism were the hostility of the kings and the common people to the system, the Crusades, the growth of the cities, and the introduc- tion of firearms in the art of war. The feudal system was hated and opposed by both the royal power and the people. In fact it was never regarded with much favor by any class save the nobles, who enjoyed its advantages at the expense of all the other orders of society. Kings opposed it and sought to break it down, because it left them only the semblance of power. We shall see later how the kings came again to their own (Chapter XVII). 90 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY The common people always hated it for the reason that under it they were regarded as of less value than the game in the lord's hunting park. The record of their struggles for recognition in society and a participation in the privileges of the haughty feudal aristocracy forms the most interesting and instructive portions of mediaeval and even of later history. The Crusades, or Holy Wars, that agitated all Europe during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries did much to weaken the power of the nobles ; for in order to raise money for their expe- ditions they frequently sold or mortgaged their estates, and in this way power and influence passed into the hands of the kings or the wealthy merchants of the cities. Many of the great nobles also perished in battle with the infidels, and their lands escheated to their suzerain, whose domains were thus augmented. The growth of the towns also tended to the same end. As they increased in wealth and influence, they became able to resist the exactions and tyranny of the lord in whose fief they happened to be, and eventually were able to secede, as it were, from his authority, and to make of themselves little republics. Again, improvements and changes in the mode of warfare, especially those resulting from the use of gunpowder, hastened the downfall of feudalism by rendering the yeoman foot soldier equal to the armor-clad knight. " It made all men of the same height," as Carlyle puts it. The people with muskets in their hands could assert and make good their rights. And the castle, the body of feudalism, that in which it lived and moved and had its being, now became a useless thing. Its walls might bid defiance to the mounted, steel-clad baron and his retainers, but they could offer little protection against well-trained artillery. But it is to be carefully noted that, though feudalism as a system of government disappeared, speaking broadly, with the Middle Ages,"^ it still continued to exist as a social organization. ?■ Different events and circumstances marked the decline and extinction of feu- dalism in the various countries of Europe (Chapter XVII). In England it was the contention for the crown, known as the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485), in which many of the nobility were killed or ruined in estate, that gave the deathblow to the institution there. The ruin of the system in France may be dated from the DEFECTS OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 91 The nobles lost their power and authority as petty sovereigns, but retained their titles, their privileges, their social distinction, and, in many cases, their vast landed estates. 100. Defects of the Feudal System. — Feudalism was perhaps the best form of social organization that it was possible to main- tain in Europe during the mediaeval period; yet it had many and serious defects. Among its chief faults may be pointed out the two following. First, it rendered impossible the formation of strong national governments. Every country was divided and subdivided into a vast number of practically independent principalities. Thus in the tenth century France was partitioned among about a hundred and fifty overlords, all exercising equal and coordinate powers of sovereignty. The enormous estates of these great lords were again subdivided into about seventy thousand smaller fiefs. In theory, as we have seen, the holders of these petty estates were bound to serve and obey their overlords, and these great nobles were in turn the sworn vassals of the French king. But many of these lords were richer and stronger than the king himseK, and if they chose to cast off their allegiance to him, he found it impos- sible to reduce them to obedience. The king's time was chiefly occupied in ineffectual efforts to reduce his haughty and refractory nobles to proper submission, and in intervening feebly to compose their endless quarrels with one another. It is easy to conceive the disorder and wretchedness produced by this state of things. A second evil of the institution was its exclusiveness. Under the workings of the system society became divided into classes separated by lines which, though not impassable, were yet very rigid, with a proud hereditary aristocracy at its head. It was only as the lower classes in the different countries gradually wrested from the feudal nobility their special and unfair privileges that a better, because more democratic, form of society arose, and civili- zation began to make more rapid progress. establishment of a regular standing army by Charles VII (in 1448), The rubbish of the institution, however, was not cleared away in that country until the great Revolution of 1789. In Spain the feudal aristocracy received its deathblow at the hands of Ferdinand and Isabella, in the latter part of the fifteenth century. 92 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY 1 01. The Good Results of Feudalism. — The most conspicuous service that feudalism rendered European civilization was the protection which it gave to society after the break-up of the empire of Charles the Great. " It was the mailed feudal horse- man and the impregnable walls of the feudal castle that foiled the attacks of the Danes, the Saracens, and the Hungarians " (Oman). Feudalism rendered another noteworthy service to society in fostering among its privileged members self-reliance and love of personal independence. Turbulent, violent, and refractory as was the feudal aristocracy of Europe, it performed the grand service of keeping alive during the later mediaeval period the spirit of liberty. The feudal lords would not allow themselves to be dealt with arro- gantly by their king; they stood on their rights as freemen. Hence royalty was pre- vented from be- coming as despotic as would otherwise have been the case. Thus in England, for instance, the feudal lords held Fig. 15. — Group IN THE Manor House. (Froma g^ch tyrannical tapestry of the fourteenth century ; after Green) -^ ^ ^ rulers as King John in check (sec. 210), until such time as the yeoman and the burgher were bold enough and strong enough alone to resist their despotically inclined sovereigns. In France, where, unfor- tunately, the power of the feudal nobles was broken too soon, — before the burghers, the Third Estate, were prepared to take up the struggle for liberty, — the result was the growth of that CHIVAtRY DEFINED 93 autocratic, despotic royalty which led the French people to the Revolution and the Reign of Terror. Another of the good effects of feudahsm was the impulse it gave to certain forms of polite literature. Just as learning and philosophy were fostered by the seclusion of the cloister, so were poetry and romance fostered by the open and joyous hospitalities of the baronial hall. The castle door was always open to the wandering singer and story-teller, and it was amidst the scenes of festivity within that the ballads and romances of mediaeval min- strelsy and literature had their birth. « It is to the feudal times," says Guizot, " that we trace back the earliest literary monuments of England, France, and Germany, the earliest intellectual enjoy- ments of modern Europe." Still another service which feudalism rendered to civilization was the development within the baronial castle of those ideas and sentiments — among others a nice sense of honor and an exalted consideration for woman — which found their noblest expression in chivalry, of which institution and its good effects upon the social life of Europe we shall now proceed to speak. 11. Chivalry • 102. Chivalry defined; Origin of the Institution. — Chivalry has been aptly defined as the " Flower of Feudalism." It was a mili- tary institution or order, the members of which, called knights, were pledged to the protection of the Church and to the defense of the weak and the oppressed. The germ out of which chivalry developed seems to have been the body of vassal horsemen which Charles Martel created to repel the raids of the Saracens into Aquitaine^ (sec. 96). It was in these border wars that the Franks learned from the Arab Moors '' to put their trust in horses." From South France this new military system, in which mounted armor-clad warriors largely 8 See Brunner, " Der Reiterdienst und die Anfange des Lehnwesens " in his For- schungen zur Geschichte des deutschen tmd franzosischen Rechtes (Stuttgart, 1894). This important study is of the nature of a discovery respecting the beginnings, or rather the development, of the fief system and of chivalry. 94 FEUDALISM AND' CHIVALRY superseded the earlier foot soldiers, spread over Europe. The development was closely connected with that of feudalism ; in- deed, it was the military side of that development. It became the rule that all fief holders must render military service on horseback. Fighting on horseback gradually became the normal mode and for centuries remained so. Gradually this feudal warrior caste underwent a transforma- tion. It became in part independent of the feudal system, in so far as that had to do with the land, so that any person, if quaHfied by birth and properly initiated, might be a member of the order without being the holder of a fief. A great part of the later knights were portionless sons of the nobility. At the same time the religious spirit of the period entered into the order, and it became a Christian brotherhood, some- what like the order of the priesthood. Thus, Kke all other mediaeval institutions, chivalry resulted from a union of various elements. Its military forms, spirit, and virtues came from the side of feudalism; its religious forms, spirit, and virtues, from the side of the Church. What actually took place is best illus- trated by those military orders of monks, the Knights Templars and Knights Hospitalers (sec. 143), which came into existence during the Crusades. But notwithstanding their monastic vows of celibacy and poverty, we probably shall not be wrong if we regard these monk-knights as the virtual descendants of those warriors to whom Charles Martel gave fiefs and whom he put on horses to repel the plundering incursions of the " swift Moors." 103. Its Universality; the Church and Chivalry. — As France was the cradle, so was it the true home, of chivalry. Yet its influence was felt everywhere and in everything. It colored all the events and enterprises of the latter half of the Middle Ages. The literature of the period is instinct with its spirit. The Cru- sades, the greatest undertakings of the mediaeval ages, were primarily enterprises of the Christian chivalry of Europe; for chivalry had then come under the tutelage of the Church. In the year 1095 the Council of Clermont, which assembly formally inaugurated the First Crusade, decreed that every person of noble TRAINING OF THE KNIGHT 95 birth, on attaining the age of twelve, should take a solemn oath before a bishop " that he would defend to the uttermost the oppressed, the widow, and the orphan ; and that women of noble birth should enjoy his special care." 104. Training of the Knight. — When chivalry had once become established, all the sons of the nobility, save such as were to enter the holy orders of the Church, were set apart and disciplined for its service. The sons of the poorer nobles were usually placed in the family of some lord of renown and wealth, whose castle became a sort of school, where they were trained in the duties and exercises of knighthood. This education began at the early age of seven, the youth bear- ing the name of page or varlet until he attained the age of four- teen, when he acquired the title of squire, or esquire. The lord and his knights trained the boys in manly and martial duties, while the ladies of the castle instructed them in the duties of religion and in all knightly etiquette. The duties of the page were usu- ally confined to the castle, though sometimes he accompanied his lord to the field. The esquire always attended in battle the knight to whom he was attached, carrying his arms and, if need be, engaging in the fight. 105. The Cere- mony of Knight- ing. — At the age of twenty-one the squire became a knight, being then introduced to the order of knighthood by a pecuhar and impressive service. After a long fast and vigil the candidate listened to a lengthy sermon on his duties as a knight. Then kneeling, as in the feudal ceremony of homage, before the lord conducting the services, he vowed to defend religion and the ladies, to Fig. 16. — Arming a Knight. (From a manu- script of the thirteenth century ; after Lacroix) 96 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY succor the distressed, and ever to be faithful to his compan- ion knights. His arms were now given to him, and his sword was girded on, when the lord, striking him with the flat of his sword on the shoulders, said, " In the name of God, of St. Michael, and of St. George, I dub thee knight ; be brave, bold, and loyal." 1 06. The Tournament. — The tournament was the favorite amusement of the age of chivalry. It was a mimic battle between two companies of noble knights, armed usually with pointless swords or blunted lances. In the universal esteem in which the participants were held, it reminds us of the sacred games of the Fig. 17. — A Tilting Match between Two Knights. (From an engraving) Greeks; while in the fierce and sanguinary character it some- times assumed, it recalls the gladiatorial combats of the Roman amphitheater. The prince or baron giving the festival made wide proclama- tion of the event, brave and distinguished knights being invited even from distant lands to grace the occasion with their pres- ence and an exhibition of their skill and prowess. The lists — a level space marked off by a rope or railing, and surrounded with CHARACTER OF THE KNIGHT 97 galleries for spectators — were made gay with banners and tapes- tries and heraldic emblems. When the moment arrived for the opening of the ceremony, heralds proclaimed the rules of the contest, whereupon the combat- ants advanced into the Hsts, each knight displaying upon his helmet or breast the device of the mistress of his affections. At the given signal the opposing parties of knights, with couched lances, rode fiercely at each other. Victory was accorded to him who unhorsed his antagonist or broke in a proper manner the greatest number of lances. The guerdon of the victor was a wreath of flowers, armor, greyhounds, or steeds decked with knightly trappings, and, more esteemed than all else, the praises and favor of his lady- love. The joust dif- fered from the tour- nament in being an encounter between two knights only, and in being at- tended with less ceremony. 107. Character of the Knight. — Chivalric loyalty to the mistress of his supreme affection was the first article in the creed of the true knight. "He who was faithful and true to his lady," says Hallam, "was held sure of salvation in the theology of castles, though not of Christians." He must also be gentle, brave, courteous, truthful, pure, generous, hospi- table, faithful to his engagements, and ever ready to risk life Fig. 18. — Degradation of a Knight. (Frag- ment of a woodcut dated 1 565 ; after Lacroix) 98 FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY and limb in the cause of religion and in defense of his com- panions in arms. But these were the virtues and quahfications of the ideal knight. It is needless to say that, though there were many who illustrated all these virtues in their blameless lives and romantic enterprises, there were too many who were knights only in profes- sion. " An errant knight," as an old writer puns, with too much truth, " was an arrant knave." Another writer says, " Deeds that would disgrace a thief, and acts of cruelty that would have dis- gusted a Hellenic tyrant or a Roman emperor, were common things with knights of the highest lineage." But cruelty, treachery, untruthfulness, cowardice, baseness, and crime of every sort were opposed to the true spirit of chiv- alry ; and the knight who was convicted of such faults could be punished by expulsion from the order of knighthood, by what was known as the Ceremony of Degradation. In this ceremony the spurs of the offending knight were struck off from his heels with a heavy cleaver, his sword was broken, and his horse's tail cut off. Then the disgraced knight was dressed in a burial robe, and the usual funeral ceremonies were performed over him, signifying that he was "dead to the honots of knighthood." 1 08. Decline of Chivalry. — The fifteenth century was the evening of chivalry. The decline of the system resulted from the operation of the same causes that effected the overthrow of feudalism. The changes in the mode of warfare which helped to do away with the feudal baron and his mail-clad retainers likewise tended to destroy knight-errantry. And then as civilization advanced, new feelings and sentiments began to claim the atten- tion and to work upon the imagination of men. Persons ambitious of distinction began to seek it in other ways than by adventures of chivahy. Governments, too, became more regular, and the in- creased order and security of society rendered less needful the serv- ices of the gallant knight in behaff of the weak and the oppressed. In a word, the extravagant performances of the knight-errant carried into a practical and commercial age -^ an age very differ- ent from that which gave birth to chivalry — became fantastic and THE EVIL AND THE GOOD IN CHIVALRY 99 ridiculous ; and when, finally, early in the seventeenth century, the genial Spanish satirist Cervantes wrote his famous Don Quixote, in which work he leads his hero knight into all sorts of absurd adventures, such as running a tilt against a windmill, which his excited imagination had pictured to be a monstrous giant flour- ishing his arms with some wicked intent, everybody, struck with the infinite absurdity of the thing, fell a-laughing ; and amidst the fitting accompaniment of smiles and broad pleasantries the knight-errant took his departure from the world.® 109. The Evil and the Good in Chivalry. — The system of chivalry had many vices, chief among which were its aristocratic, exclusive tendencies. Dr. Arnold, indignant among other things at the knights' forgetfulness or disregard of the brotherhood of man, exclaims bitterly, " If I were called upon to name what spirit of evil predominantly deserved the name of Antichrist, I should name the Spirit of Chivalry." And another indignant writer declares that " it is not probable that the knights supposed they could be guilty of injustice to the lower classes." These were regarded with indifference or contempt, and considered as destitute of any claims upon those of noble birth as were beasts of burden or the game of the chase. It is always the young and beautiful woman of gentle birth whose wrongs the valiant knight is risking- his life to avenge, always the smiles of the queen of love and beauty for which he is spHntering his lance in the fierce tournament. The fostering of this aristocratic spirit was one of the most serious faults of chivalry. Yet we must bear in mind that this fault should be charged to the age rather than to the knight. But to speak of the beneficial, refining influences of chivalry, we should say that it undoubtedly contributed powerfully to lift that sentiment of respect for the gentler sex which characterized all the iiorthern nations, into that tender veneration of woman which forms the distinguishing characteristic of the present age, and makes it differ from all preceding phases of civiHzation. 9 That is, from the world of romantic literature ; for the satire of Cervantes was aimed at the extravagances of the romancers of his times. (Recall Spenser's The Faery Queene.) There were not many real knights-errant when Cervantes wrote. lOO FEUDALISM AND CHIVALRY Again, chivalry did much to create that ideal of character — an ideal distinguished by the virtues of courtesy, gentleness, humanity, loyalty, magnanimity, and fidelity to the plighted word — which we rightly think to surpass any ever formed under the influences of antiquity. Just as Christianity gave to the world an ideal manhood which it was to strive to realize, so did chivalry hold up an ideal to which men were to conform their lives. Men, indeed, have never perfectly realized either the ideal of Christianity or that of chivalry; but the influence which these two ideals have had in shaping and giving character to the lives of men cannot be overestimated. Together, through the enthusiasm and effort awakened for their realization, they have produced a new type of manhood, which we indicate by the phrase " a knightly and Christian character." Selections from the Sources. — Translations and Reprints, vol. iii, No. 5, " English Manorial Documents," and vol. iv, No. 3, " Documents Illustra- tive of Feudalism" (both ed. by Edward P. Cheyney). Robinson, Readings in European History, vol. i, chap. ix. Secondary Works. — Emerton, Introductiojt to the Middle Ages, chap, xv ; and MedicBval Europe, chap, xiv and the first part of chap. xv. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. ix. Seignobos, The Feudal Regime. Bemont and Monod, Mediceval Europe, chap. xvi. Seebohm, The English Village Community. This is the most noteworthy work in our language on the subject with which it deals. The author seeks the origin of the English manor in the Roman villa with its servile population, thus making EngHsh history begin with servitude and not with freedom. Cheyney, An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of Eng- land, chap, ii, "Rural Life and Organization." Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 1 59-2 11 and 240-247. CUTTS, Scenes and Char- acters of the Middle Ages, pp. 311-460, "Knights of the Middle Ages." Lacroix, Military and Religious Life. Consult Table of Contents. James, History of Chivalry. CORNISH, Chivalry. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Life of the serfs on a mediaeval manor. 2. The open-field system of cultivation. See Seebohm. 3. Description of a feudal castle. 4. Life in the castle. 5. A tournament. 6. Legend of the Holy Grail. ^mm:m^^^siz^^. Fig, 19. — Landing in England of William of Normandy (From the Bayeux tapestry) CHAPTER X THE NORMANS I. The Normans at Home and in Italy no. Introductory. — The history of the Normans — the name, it will be recalled, of the transformed Scandinavians who settled in Northern Gaul (sec. S6) — is simply a continuation of the story of the Northmen; and nothing could better illustrate the difference between the period we have left behind and the one upon which we have entered, nothing could more strikingly exhibit the gradual transformation that has crept over the face and spirit of European society, than the transformation which time and favoring associations have wrought in these men. When first we met them in the ninth century they were pagans ; now they are Christians. Then they were rough, wild, merciless corsairs ; now they are become the most cultured, pohshed, and chivalrous people in Europe. But the restless, daring spirit that drove the Norse sea kings forth upon the waves in quest of adventure and booty still stirs in the breasts of their descend- ants. As has been said, they were simply changed from heathen Vikings, delighting in the wild life of sea rover and pirate, into Christian knights, eager for pilgrimages and crusades. It is these men, uniting in their character the strength, inde- pendence, and daring of the Scandinavian with the vivacity, imagination, and culture of the Romano-Gaul, that we are now I02 THE NORMANS to follow, as from their seats in France they go forth to make fresh conquests, — to build up a kingdom in the Mediterranean lands, and to set a line of Norman kings upon the EngHsh throne. Later, in following the fortunes of the crusaders, we shall meet them on the battlefields of Palestine, there winning renown as the most valiant knights of Christendom. 111. The Dukes of Normandy. — Under Rollo (sec. 86) and his immediate successors — William Longsword (927-943), Richard the Fearless (943-996), and Richard the Good (996-1027) — the power of the Normans in France became gradually consoli- dated. The country of Normandy grew more populous, both through the natural increase of the population at home and the arrival of fresh bands of Scandinavians from the Northern coun- tries. Finally, after more than one hundred years had passed, years for the most part of uneventful yet steady growth and de- velopment, the old Norse spirit of adventure revived, and Southern Europe and England became the scene of the daring and brilliant exploits of the Norman warriors. 112. The Normans in Italy and Sicily. — The Normans secured a foothold in Southern Italy in the early part of the eleventh century, some Httle time before the conquest of England. Their superior fighting quahties had led to their services being sought after by the Christian rulers of that region in their constant feuds with each other, and particularly in their warfare against the Mos- lems, who at that time were in possession of the island of Sicily, and were constantly troubhng the neighboring shores of Italy. From the position of guests and mercenaries the Norman knights soon rose to that of masters and rulers. They got pos- session finally of all Southern Italy and of Sicily, and built up in these southern lands a prosperous state,, which came to be known as the Kingdom of Naples or the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and which lasted, although with many changes of dynasties, until the political unification of Italy in our own day. The most celebrated of the Norman leaders during this period of conquest and organization was Robert Guiscard (d. 1085), a character only less celebrated than the renowned WiUiam the THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND 103 Conqueror, of whom we shall come to speak presently. His entire career was one series of daring and adventurous exploits, which spread the renown of the Norman name throughout the Mediterranean lands. One of the most important consequences of the creation of this new Norman state in the south was its effect upon the Crusades, to the eve of which we have now come. These Nor- man rulers built up a strong maritime power, which had the great port of Amalfi as its center, and, with the help of the fleets of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, cleared the Middle Mediterranean of Saracen corsairs, thus opening up for the coming crusaders a water route to the Holy Land. II. The Norman Conquest of England 113. Events leading up to the Conquest. — The conquest of Eng- land by the Normans was the most important of their enterprises, and one followed by consequences of the greatest magnitude, not only to the conquered people, but indirectly to the world. In the year 1035 the duke of the Normans, known as Robert the Magnificent (102 7-1035), died in Asia Minor, while on his way home from a romantic pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and his son William, the destined conqueror of England, became Duke of Normandy. William was at this time only seven years of age. The cruelty with which he, while yet a mere boy, punished those of his enemies that had especially awakened his resentment indi- cated the stern and unrelenting character of the man whom destiny had selected to play a most important part in the history of the eleventh century. The situation of affairs in England at this time was this. In the year 1066 Edward the Confessor, in whose person, it will be recalled, the old English line was restored after the Danish usurpa- tion (sec. 85), died, and immediately the Witan,^ in accordance 1 The Witan, or Witenagemot, which means the " Meeting of the Wise Men," was the common council of the realm. The House of Lords of the present Parliar ment is a survival of this early national assembly. 104 '^HE NORMANS with the dying wish of the king, chose Harold, Earl of Wessex, the best and strongest man in all England, to be his successor. When the news of the action of the Witan and of Harold's acceptance of the English crown was carried across the Channel to William, he was really or feignedly transported with rage. He declared that Edward, who was his cousin, had during his life- time promised the throne to him, and that Harold had assented to this, and by solemn oath engaged to sustain him. He now demanded of Harold that he surrender to him the usurped throne, threatening the immediate invasion of the island in case he refused. King Harold answered the demand by expelling from the country the Normans who had followed Edward into the kingdom, and by collecting an army for the defense of his dominions. Duke William now made ready for a descent upon the English coast. 114. The Battle of Hastings (1066). — The Norman army of invasion landed in the south of England, at the port of Hastings, which place gave name to the battle that almost immediately followed, — the battle that was to determine the fate of England. It was begun by a horseman riding out from the Norman lines Fig. 20. — Battle of Hastings. (From the Bayeux tapestry) and advancing alone toward the English army, tossing up his sword and skillfully catching it as it fell, and singing all the while the stirring battle song of Charlemagne and Roland. The English watched with astonishment this exhibition of " careless dexterity," and if they did not contrast the vivacity and nimbleness of the Norman foe with their own heavy and clumsy manners, others at least have not failed to do so for them. ^THE COMPLETION OF THE CONQUEST 105 The battle once joined, the conflict was long and terrific. The day finally went against the Enghsh. Harold fell, pierced through the eye by an arrow ; and William was master of the field (1066). 115. The Completion of the Conquest (1067-1070). — William now marched upon London, and at Westminster, on Christmas Day, 1066, was crowned and anointed king of England; but he was yet far from being such in fact. The most formidable resist- ance made to the Conqueror was in the nortli, where the popu- lation was composed chiefly of Danes, who were aided by their kinsmen from Denmark. To protect himself on this side, William finally ravaged all the country between the Humber and the Tees, converting it into an uninhabitable desert. More than a quarter of a century afterwards the desolated district was marked by untilled fields and the charred ruins of hamlets and towns. One hundred thousand people, deprived of food and shelter, perished miserably during the unusually severe winter following the cruel act. 116. The Distribution of the Land and the Gemot of Salisbury. — Almost the first act of William after he had established his power in England was to fiilfill his promise to the nobles who had aided him in his enterprise, by distributing among them the unre- deemed 2 estates of the Enghsh who had fought at Hastings in defense of their king and country. Profiting by the lesson taught by the wretched condition of France, which country was kept in a state of constant turmoil by a host of feudal chiefs and lords, many of whom were almost or quite as powerful as the king himself (sec. 100), William took care that in the distribution no feudatory should receive an entire shire, save in two or three exceptional cases. To the great lord to whom he must needs give a large fief, he granted not a continuous tract of land, but several estates or manors scattered in different parts 2 « When the lands of all those who had fought for Harold were confiscated, those who were willing to acknowledge William were allowed to redeem theirs, either paying money at once or giving hostages for the payment " (Stubbs, Const, Hist., vol. i, p. 258). As many as 20,000 Saxon proprietors in all are said to have been dispossessed by as many Norman followers of William. I06 THE NORMANS of the country, in order that there might be no dangerous con- centration of property or power in the hands of the vassal. Another equally important limitation of the power of the vassal was effected by William through his requiring all fief holders, great and small, to take an oath of fealty directly to him as overlord. This was a great innovation upon feudal custom, for the rule was that the vassal should swear fealty to his own immediate lord only, and in war follow his banner even against his own king. The oath that William exacted from every fief holder made the alle- giance which he owed to his king superior to that which he owed to his own immediate lord. At the great gemot or military assembly of Salisbury in the year 1086 "all the landholders of substance in England" swore to William this solemn oath of superior fealty and allegiance. William also denied to his feudatories the right of coining money and making laws; and by other wise restrictions upon their power, subordinating, for instance, all the baronial courts to the jurisdiction of the royal judges, he saved England from those endless contentions and petty wars that were distracting almost every other country of Europe. To overawe the dispossessed people, William now built and garrisoned fortresses or towers in all the principal cities of the realm. The celebrated Tower of London and the great black, massive tower still standing in the city of Newcastle were built by him, and are impressive memorials of the days of the Con- quest. His nobles also erected strong castles upon their lands, so that the whole country fairly bristled with these fortified private residences. With the towns dominated by the great fortresses, and the open country watched over by the barons secure in their thick- walled castles, the Normans, though vastly inferior in numbers to the conquered Saxons, were able to hold them in perfect subjection. 117. Domesday Book. — One of the most celebrated acts of the Conqueror was the making of Domesday Book. This famous book contained a description and valuation of all the lands of England, — excepting those of some counties, mostly in the north, that were either unconquered or unsettled; an enumeration of THE CURFEW AND THE FOREST LAWS 107 the cattle and sheep; and statements of the income of every man. It was intended, in a word, to be a perfect survey and census of the entire kingdom. The commissioners who went through the land to collect the needed information for the work were often threatened by the people, who resented this " prying into their affairs," and looked upon the whole thing as simply another move preparatory to fresh taxation. But notwithstanding the bitter feelings with which the English viewed the preparation of the work, it was certainly a wise and necessary measure, and one prom pted by statesmanlike motives. 118. The Cur- few and the Forest Laws. — Among the regulations introduced into England by the Conqueror was the peculiar one known as the Cur- few bell. This law required that, upon the ringing of the church bell at nightfall, every person should be at home, and that the fires should be buried ^ and the lights extinguished. Two reasons have been assigned for this ordinance : the one supposes that its object was to prevent the people's assembling by night to plan or execute treasonable undertakings ; the other represents it simply as a safeguard against fire. The law was cer- tainly in force in Normandy before the Conquest ; indeed, accord- ing to Palgrave, it was a universal custom of police throughout the whole of mediaeval Europe. 8 Hence the term Curfew, from couvrir, to cover, and_;^«, fire. Fig. 21. — Domesday Book. (From a facsimile edition published by royal command in 1862) There are two large volumes of the survey, one being a folio of 760 pages and the other a large octavo of 900 pages. The strong box shown in the cut is the chest in which the volumes were formerly kept I08 THE NORMANS Less justifiable and infinitely more odious to the people were the Forest Laws of the Normans. The Normans were excessively fond of the chase. WiUiam had for the sport a perfect passion. An old chronicler declares that " he loved the tall deer as if he were their father." Extensive tracts of country were turned into forests by the destruction of the farmhouses and villages. More than fifty hamlets, and numerous churches, are said to have been destroyed in the creation of what was known as the New Forest.* The game in these forests was protected by severe laws. To kill a deer was a greater crime than to kill a man. Several mem- bers of the Conqueror's family were killed while hunting in these royal preserves, and the people declared that these misfortunes were the judgment of Heaven upon the cruelty of their founder. 119. The Norman Successors of the Conqueror (i 087-11 54), — For nearly three quarters of a century after the death of William the Conqueror, England was ruled by Norman kings. Three names span this long period, — William II, known as Rufus, or the Red (1087—1100); Henry I, surnamed Beauclerc, or the "good scholar" (1100— 1135); and Stephen of Blois (1135— IT 54), a grandson of the Conqueror. Notwithstanding the many oppressive laws and cruel acts that marked the reigns of the sons of the great duke, — ■ William and Henry, — England flourished under their rule; commerce and the various industries were steadily progressing, and the Normans and the English, forgetting their mutual enmities, were gradually blending into a single people. But upon the death of Henry a dispute as to the succession arose between his daughter Matilda and Stephen of Blois. For several years the realm was wasted by civil war. Eventually a cov- enant was made between the contending parties whereby it was agreed that Stephen should hold the crown undisturbed during his life, but that at his death it should go to the son of Matilda. The year following this arrangement Stephen died, and the crown •* The term forest as applied to these hunting parks does not necessarily mean & continuous wooded tract, but simply untilled ground left to grow up to weeds and shrubs as a covert for game. RESULTS OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST 109 was placed, according to the treaty, upon the head of Henry of Anjou, who thus became the founder of the dynasty of the Angevins, or Plantagenets "(11 54). 120. Results of the Norman Conquest. — The most important and noteworthy result of the Conquest was the establishment in England of a strong centralized government. This came about not only through the monarchical views of government brought in by the Norman kings and the modification of feudal rules and practices effected by the Conqueror, but also through the wholesome lessons impressed upon the minds of the people by the intolerable anarchy of Stephen's reign. England now became a real kingdom, — what it had hardly been in more than semblance before. A second result of the Conquest was the founding of a new feudal aristocracy. The Saxon thane was displaced by the Nor- man baron. This not only introduced a new and more refined element into the social life of England, but it also changed the membership, the temper, and the name of the national assembly, the old English Witan now becoming the Parliament of later times. ,A third result of the Conquest was the drawing of England into closer relations with the countries of continental Europe. The Norman Conquest was in this respect like the Roman con- quest of the island. Through the many continental relations — political, social, commercial, and ecclesiastical — now established or made more intimate, England's advance in trade, in architec- ture, in her religious and intellectual life, was greatly promoted. And in this connection must be borne in mind particularly the close political and feudal relations into which England was brought with France, for out of these grew the jealousies and rivalries which led to the long Hundred Years' War between the two countries.^ Selections from the Sources. — The Bayeux Tapestry. (Reproduced in autotype plates with historic notes by Frank Rede Fowke, London, 1875.) This is a strip of linen canvas over two hundred feet long and nineteen inches wide, upon whicli are embroidered in colors seventy-two pictures, 5 For the effects of the Conquest upon the English language and literature, see sees. 226 and 227. no THE NORMANS representing episodes in the Norman conquest of England. The work was executed not long after the events it depicts, and is named from the cathedral in France where it is kept. Its importance consists in the infor- mation it conveys respecting the life and manners, and the costumes, arms, and armor of the times. Lee, Source-Book, pp. 111-129. Kendall, Sottrce-Book, chap, iii, " Norman England." Secondary Works. — Freeman, The Norman Conquest. This is a little book which contains " the same tale told afresh," that fills the six volumes of the author's earlier great work on the Norman Conquest, Also by the same author, William the Conqueror. Johnson, The Nor- mans in Europe. Creasy, Decisive Battles of the World., chap, vii, " The Battle of Hastings, a.d. 1066." Green, The Conquest of England, chap. x. Jewett, The Story of the Normans, chap, vii, " The Normans in Italy." For life, culture, and manners : Traill, Social England, vol. i, chap, iii ; and Bateson, Mediceval England. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Robert Guiscard. 2. The Bayeux tap- estry. 3. Domesday Book. 4. The Curfew. 5. The " forests " and forest laws of the Norman kings. CHAPTER XI THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE 121. The Two World Powers. — "The two great ideas," says James Bryce, " which expiring antiquity bequeathed to the ages that followed were those of a world monarchy and a world reli- gion." We have seen how out of one of these ideas, under the favoring circumstances of the earher mediaeval centuries, was developed the Empire, and out of the other the Papacy. The history of these two powers, of their relations to the rulers and the peoples of Europe, and of their struggle with each other for supremacy, makes up a large part of the history of the mediaeval centuries. It is of these important matters that we must now try to get some sort of understanding. What we have learned about the ideas and principles of feu- dalism will aid us greatly in our study, for, as we shall see, the whole long struggle between these two world powers was deeply marked by feudal conceptions and practices. 122. The Three Theories respecting the Relations of Pope and Emperor. — After the revival of the Empire in the West and the rise of the Papacy, there gradually grew up three different theories in regard to the divinely constituted relation of the "world king " and the "world priest." The first was that Pope and Emperor were each independently commissioned by God, the first to rule the spirits of men, the second to rule their bodies. Each reign- ing thus by original divine right, neither is set above the other, but both are to cooperate and to help each other. The special duty of the temporal power is to maintain order in the world and to be the protector of the Church. The Emperor bears the sword for the purpose of executing the decrees of the Church against all heretics and disturbers of its peace and unity. Thus 112 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE this theory looked to a perfect and beautiful alliance between Church and State, a double sovereignty emblemized in the dual nature of Christ. The second theory, the one held by the imperial party, was that the Emperor was superior to the Pope in secular affairs. Arguments from Scripture and from the transactions of history were not wanting to support this view of the relation of the two world powers. Thus Christ's payment of tribute money was cited as proof that he regarded the temporal power as superior to the spiritual. And then, did he not say, " Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's"? Further, the gifts of Pippin and Charles the Great to the Roman see made the popes, it was main- tained, the vassals of the em- perors. The third theory, the one held by the papal party, maintained that the ordained relation of the two powers" was the subordina- tion of the temporal to the spirit- ual authority, even in civil affairs. This view was maintained by such texts of Scripture as these: " But he that is spiritual judgeth all things, yet he himself is judged of no man";^ "See, I have this day set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant." ^ The con- ception was further illustrated by such comparisons as the follow- ing, — for in mediaeval times parable and metaphor often took the place of argument: As God has set in the heavens two lights, 1 I Corinthians ii. 15. 2 Jeremiah i. 10. Fig. 22. — The Spiritual and THE Temporal Power. (From a ninth-century mosaic in the Lateran at Rome ; after Jaeger, Weltgesch ich te) St. Peter gives to Pope Leo III the stola and to Charlemagne the banner of Rome as symbols of the spiritual and temporal power. The portrait of Charlemagne here shown is with little doubt the oldest in existence THE RESTORATION OF THE PAPACY 113 the sun and the moon, so has he established on earth two powers, the spiritual and the temporal ; but as the moon is inferior to the sun and receives its light from it, so is the Emperor inferior to the Pope and receives all power from him.^ Again, the two authorities were likened to the soul and the body ; as the former rules over the latter, so is it ordered that the spiritual power shall rule over and subject the temporal. The first theory was the impracticable dream of lofty souls who ■ forgot that men are human. Christendom was virtually divided into two hostile camps the members of which were respectively supporters of the imperial and the papal theory. The most inter- esting and instructive chapters of mediaeval history after the tenth century are those that record the struggles between Pope and Emperor, springing from their efforts to reduce to practice and fact these irreconcilable theories. 123. The Restoration of the Papacy. — The great struggle between the emperors and the popes began in the eleventh cen- tury. The contest was preluded by the revival and strengthening of both the Empire and the Papacy. It will be recalled how the Empire, after the very idea of it had almost faded from the minds of many, was restored by Otto the Great (sec. 80). A little more than a century later the Papacy was also revived and strengthened. This needs a word of explanation. Throughout the greater part of the tenth and almost all the first half of the eleventh century, the Papacy had been sunk in the deepest moral degradation. This deplorable state of things had been created largely by the interference in the papal elections — which were nominally in the hands of the Roman clergy and people — by rival feudal factions at Rome which set up and pulled down popes at will. Through such influences it often happened that persons of scandalous life were, through violence and bribery, elevated to the papal chair.* 3 Dante, maintaining the rights of the Emperor, ruined the force of this com- parison by pointing out that while the moon often eclipses the sun, the sun never ecUpses the moon. 4 Out of efforts to improve this state of things arose the Sacred College of Cardi- nals. 1 his body was definitely created by a decree of the Lateran Synod of 1059, 114 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE The Papacy owed very largely its rescue from this deep deg- radation, and its liberation from this humiliating bondage, to the intervention of the imperial power. Among the emperors who did most to effect the moral regeneration of the Roman see was the Emperor Henry III (1039-105 6). Exercising his author- ity as the guardian and protector of the Church, he nominated for the holy office a series of religious-minded and strong men, who were filled with that spirit of reform which just now was issuing from the cloisters of the celebrated monastery of Cluny (sec. 31). 124. Pope Gregory VII (107 3-1 085) and his Conception of the Papacy. — The most eminent of the reform popes was Pope Gregory VII, better known by his earlier name of Hildebrand, the most noteworthy character, after Charlemagne, that the Middle Ages produced. In the year 1049 he was brought from the cloisters of Cluny to Rome, where he became the maker and adviser of popes, and finally was himself elevated to the pontifical throne, which he held from 1073 to 1085. Gregory vehemently rejected the idea that the imperial power was superior to the papal, or even that the two were equal and coordinate. "The spiritual power was to stand related to the temporal as the sun to the moon, imparting light and strength, without, however, destroying it, or depriving princes of their sovereignty." In a word, Gregory's idea was that all the Chris- tian states should form a world empire, with the Pope at its head as God's representative on earth. In order to realize his grand ideal, Gregory, as soon as he became Pope, set about two important reforms, — the enforce- ment of celibacy among the secular clergy and the suppression of simony. Respecting each of these matters we must speak with some detail. •which acted under the inspiration of Pope Nicholas II. It was at first made up of the leading bishops, priests, and deacons connected with churches in and around Rome; later the members were chosen from a wider field. In 1585 the number of members of the college was fixed at seventy. Vacancies in the body are filled by the Pope. The college now possesses the exclusive right of electing a pope, although at first the inferior Roman clergy enjoyed the privilege of confirmation. This electoral board constitutes one of the most important institutions of the Catholic Church. GREGORY VII II5 125. Gregory VII and the Celibacy of the Clergy. — When Gregory came to the papal throne one grave danger threatening the Church was the marriage of the clergy. From the very first there had prevailed two opposing views respecting the celibacy of the priesthood, some upholding the custom of clerical marriage, and others maintaining the superior sanctity of the unmarried state. In the eleventh century a great part of the minor clergy were married. One great injury to the Church which resulted from this was that it was introducing the feudal principle of heredity. The priests were coming to look upon their offices and the Church lands under their care as fiefs, which they had a right to transmit to their children. With the offices of the Church thus rendered hereditary, it is easy to see how the authority of the Pope over the clergy was being fatally impaired, Gregory resolved to bring all the clergy to the strict observ- ance of celibate vows. By thus separating the priests from the attachments of home, and lifting from them all family burdens and cares, he aimed to render their consecration to the duties of their offices more whole-souled and their dependence upon the Church more complete. We will here simply stop to observe that the reform, though most obstinately opposed by a large section of the clergy, was finally effected, — but not in Gregory's lifetime ; so that celibacy became as binding upon the priest as upon the monk. It can hardly be doubted that in many ways the reform increased the efficiency of the Catholic priesthood, and certainly greatly enhanced the influence and authority of the popes. 126. Gregory VII and Simony. — -Gregory's second reform, the correction of simony, had for one of its ultimate objects the freeing of the lands and offices of the Church from the control of lay lords and princes, and the bringing of them more completely into the hands of the Roman bishop. The evil of simony^ had grown up in the Church chiefly in the following way. As the feudal system took possession of 5 By simony is meant the purchase of an office in the Church, the name of the offense coming from Simon Magus, who offered Peter money for the power to confer the Holy Spirit. See Acts viii. 9-24. ii6 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE European society, the Church, like individuals and cities, assumed feudal relations. Thus, as we have already seen, abbots and bishops, as the heads of monasteries and churches, for the sake of protection, became the vassals of powerful barons or princes. When once a prelate had promised fealty for his estates or tem- poralities, as they were called, these became henceforth a perma- nent fief of the overlord and subject to all the incidents of the feudal tenure. When a vacancy occurred the lord assumed the right to fill it, just as in case of the escheat of a lay fief.^ In this way the temporal rulers throughout Europe had come to exercise the right of nominating or confirming the election of almost all the great prelates of the Church. Now, these lay princes who had the patronage of these Church offices and lands handled them just as they did their lay fiefs. They required the person nomi- nated to an abbacy or to a bish- opric to pay for the appointment and investiture a sum propor- tioned to the income from the office. This was in strict accord with the feudal rule which allowed the lord to demand from the vas- sal, upon his investiture with a fief, a sum of money called a relief (sec. 94). This rule, thus applied to Church lands and offices, was, it is easy to see, the cause of great evil and corruption. The ecclesiastical vacancies were vir- tually sold to the highest bidder. And then, furthermore, the most unsuitable persons became bishops and abbots. The offices were given to favorites, to mere children, to persons often of the most notoriously evil life. 6 The clergy and monks still retained the nominal right of election, but too fre- quently an election by them was a mere matter of form. For a typical case see sec. 164. Fig. 23. — Investiture of a Bishop by a King through THE Giving of the Crosier, OR Pastoral Staff. (From a manuscript of the tenth century) EXCOMMUNICATIONS AND INTERDICTS 117 Such was the deplorable state into which the Church had been brought by the application of feudal principles to ecclesiastical lands and offices. The maintenance of the unity of the Church and the preservation of religion itself demanded that the control of these ecclesiastical positions and estates should be taken away from the lay rulers. To remedy the evil Gregory issued decrees forbidding any one of the clergy to receive the investiture of a bishopric or abbey or church from the hands of a temporal prince or lord. Any one who should dare to disobey these decrees was threatened with the penalties of the Church. 127. Excommunications and Interdicts. — The principal instru- ments relied upon by Gregory for the carrying out of his decrees were the spiritual weapons of the Church, — Excommunication and Interdict. The first was directed against individuals. The person excom- municated was cut off from all relations with his fellow-men. If a king, his subjects were released from their oath of allegiance. Any one providing the excommunicate with food or shelter incurred the penalties of the Church. Living, the excommunicated person was to be shunned and abhorred as though tainted with an infec- tious disease ; and dead, he was to be refused the ordinary rites of burial. The interdict was directed against a city, province, or kingdom. Throughout the region under this ban the churches were closed ; no bell could be rung, no marriage celebrated, no burial ceremony performed. The sacraments of baptism and extreme unction alone could be administered. It is difficult for us in these modern skeptical times to realize the effect of these bans during the "Age of Faith." They rarely failed in bringing the most contumacious offender to a speedy and abject confession, or in effecting his undoing. This will appear in the following paragraph. 128. The Investiture Contest; Emperor Henry IV' s Humiliation at Canossa (1077.) — It was in Germany that Gregory experienced the most formidable opposition to his reform measures. The Il8 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE Emperor elect, King Henry IV (1056-1106), — who had been threatened by the Pope with excommunication and deposition, — gathering in council such of the prelates of the Empire as would answer his call (1076), even dared to bid him descend from the papal throne. Gregory in turn gathered a council at Rome and deposed and excommunicated the Emperor. " In the name of Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost," thus ran the solemn papal decree, " I withdraw through thy [St. Peter's] power and authority, from Henry the King, son of Henry the Emperor, who has arisen against thy Church with unheard-of insolence, the rule over the whole kingdom of the Germans and over Italy. And I absolve all Christians from the bond of the oatK which they have made or shall make to him; and I forbid any one to serve him as king." '^ Henry's deposition encouraged a revolt on the part of some of his discontented subjects. He was shunned as a man accursed by Heaven. His authority seemed to have slipped entirely out of his hands, and his kingdom was on the point of going to pieces. In this wretched state of his affairs there was but one thing for him to do, — to go to Gregory and humbly sue for pardon and rein- statement in the favor of the Church. Henry sought Gregory among the Apennines, at Canossa, a stronghold of the celebrated Countess Matilda of Tuscany. But Gregory refused to admit him to his presence. It was winter, and on three successive days the king, clothed in sackcloth, stood with bare feet in the snow of the courtyard of the castle, waiting for permission to kneel at the feet of the pontiff and to receive forgiveness. This was one of the most noteworthy transactions, in its moral significance, that the world had ever witnessed, — the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the successor of the Caesars and of Charlemagne, a rejected penitent at the door of the Roman pontiff. On the fourth day the king was admitted to the presence of Gregory, and the sentence of excommunication was removed (1077). Henry had "stooped to conquer," for the victory was 7 Henderson, Select Historical Documents, p. 377. CONCORDAT OF WORMS 119 really his. He had forced absolution from an unwilling Pope, and this release from the Church's censure meant much then to Henry and his cause. Henry was now able to avenge his humiliation. He raised an army and descended upon Rome. The Normans, under Robert Guiscard (sec. 112), came to the Pope's defense. In the fighting and confusion which followed, Rome was reduced almost to ruins. Gregory was constrained to seek an asylum at Salerno, where he died in 1085. His last words were, " I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." But the quarrel did not end here. It was taken up by the suc- cessors of Gregory, and Henry was again excommunicated. After maintaining a long struggle with the power of the Church, and with his own sons, who were incited to rebel against him, he finally died broken-hearted (tio6). For five years his body was denied burial in consecrated ground ; but at last the ban of the Church was removed, and it was laid to rest with fitting honors. 129. Concordat of Worms (i 1 2 2) . — Henry's humiliation, though it purchased him a personal victory, gave a severe blow to the prestige of the imperial power. Nevertheless his successors main- tained the quarrel with the popes. The outcome of the matter, after many years of bitter contention, was the celebrated Con- cordat of Worms (1122). It was agreed that all bishops and abbots of the Empire, after free canonical election, should receive the ring and staff, the symbols of their spiritual jurisdiction, from the Pope, but that the Emperor should exercise the right of invest- iture by the touch of a scepter, the emblem of temporal rights and authority. This was a recognition by both parties that all spiritual authority emanates from the Church and all temporal authority from the State. It was a compromise, — "a rendering unto Caesar of the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's." But however equal the compromise may at first blush appear, it was after all a moral victory for the Papacy. The Concordat rescued the Church from the grave danger of complete secular- ization ; for the triumph of the lay power in its contention would I20 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE have made the Church a part of the constitution of the feudal empire and monarchy, just as the temple in ancient Greece and Rome was a part of the constitution of the city-state. We must here drop the story of the contentions of Pope and Emperor in order to watch the peoples of Europe as at the time we have now reached they undertake with surprising unanimity and enthusiasm the most remarkable enterprises in which they were ever engaged, — the Crusades, or Holy Wars. It was the prestige and strength which the Papacy had gained in its contest with the Empire which enabled the popes to exert such an influence in setting the Crusades in motion and in direct- ing them ; while at the same time it was these great enterprises which, reacting upon the Papacy, greatly aided the popes in realizing Gregory's ideal of making the papal authority supreme throughout Western Christendom. Selections from the Sources. — Dante, De Monarchia (trans, by Au- relia Henry). Dante's argument is this : first, he shows the need of a supreme temporal ruler ; second, he proves from history that the Roman Empire " was willed of God " ; and third, he argues that the authority of the Emperor comes direct from God and not from the Pope. The work is a most instructive illustration of mediaeval ideals and mediaeval reason- ing. Henderson, Select Historical Documents^ pp. 351— 409, "Decrees concerning Papal Elections and Documents relating to the Controversy over Investiture." Secondary Works. — Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. This little work has become a classic. Bowden, Life and Pontificate of Gregory the Seventh. Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church. Chapter xiv is devoted to Gregory's reforms. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. x. Emerton, Mediceval Europe, chaps, vii and viii. Alzog, Universal Church History, vol. ii, pp. 253-336 and 481-510. Tout, The Empire and the Papacy. Stephens, Hildebrand and his Tii7ies. Vin- cent, The Age of Hildebrand ; earlier chapters. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Hildebrand and the monastery of Cluny. 2. The Sacred College of Cardinals. 3. The Interdict. 4. The Emperor Henry IV at Canossa. 5. The Countess Matilda. CHAPTER XII THE CRUSADES (1096-1273) I. Preparation of Europe for the Crusades 130. The Crusades defined ; their Place in Universal History. — The Crusades were great military expeditions carried on inter- mittently for two centuries by the Christian peoples of Europe for the purpose of rescuing from the hands of the Mohammedans the holy places of Palestine and maintaining in the East a Latin kingdom. Historians usually enumerate eight of these expedi- tions as worthy of special narration. Of these eight the first four are often designated the Principal Crusades and the remaining four the Minor Crusades. But besides these there were a chil- dren's crusade and several other expeditions, which, being insig- nificant in numbers or results, are not usually enumerated, as well as several enterprises in Europe itseK which partook of the nature of crusades. Viewed from the broadest standpoint the Crusades against the Moslems were simply an episode in that age-long drama of the struggle between the East and the West, between Asia and Europe, of which the contest between the ancient Greeks and Persians was the opening act. Looked at in connection with a narrower cycle of events, they mark the culmination of the long contest between the two great world religions, Islam and Christianity, the beginnings of which we have already seen, and which expresses itself to-day in the antagonism between the Ottoman Turks and the Christian races of Europe. We shall tell first of the causes which gave birth to these remarkable enterprises ; then narrate with some degree of par- ticularity the most important events which characterized the First 122 THE CRUSADES Crusade, passing more lightly over the incidents of the succeed- ing ones, as these in all essential features were simply repetitions of the first movement ; and follow this with a very short account of the crusades within the limits of Europe. Then we shall close our brief survey of the crusading movements with a summary of their results for civilization. 131. The Religious Motive ; Pilgrimages. — The chief moving force of the Holy Wars was the religious ideas and feelings of the times, particularly the sentiment respecting holy places and pilgrimages. In all ages men have been led by curiosity, senti- ment, or religion to make pilgrimages to spots which retain the memory of remarkable occurrences, or have been consecrated by human suffering or heroism. Especially has the religious senti- ment of every people made the birthplaces or the tombs of their prophets, saints, and martyrs places of veneration and pilgrimage. Benares, Mecca, and Jerusalem attest the universality and strength of the sentiment among Hindus, Mohammedans, and Christians alike. Among the early Christians it was thought a pious and meri- torious act to undertake a journey to some sacred place. Espe- cially was it thought that a pilgrimage to the land whose soil had been pressed by the feet of the Saviour of the world^ to the Holy City that had witnessed his martyrdom, was a peculiarly pious undertaking, and one which secured for the pilgrim the special favor and blessing of Heaven. Pilgrims began to make visits to the Holy Land from the countries of Western Europe as soon as Christianity had taken possession of this part of the Roman Empire. At first the jour- ney was so difficult and dangerous that it was undertaken by comparatively few. Before the conversion of the Hungarians, who held the land route bet^veen Germany and the Bosporus, the pilgrim usually made his way to some Mediterranean port, and sought a chance passage on board some vessel engaged in the Eastern trade. The Cluniac revival of the eleventh century (sec. 31), kmdling as it did a holy fervor in multitudes of souls, gave a great impulse THE CHURCH AND CHIVALRY 123 to this pilgrimaging zeal, and caused the number of pilgrims to the Holy Land greatly to increase. Instead of solitary travelers, companies numbering hundreds and even thousands ^ might now be seen crowding the roads leading to Jerusalem; for the con- version of the Hungarians had recently reopened the overland route down the Danube. But just at this time a great revolution took place in the polit- ical affairs of the East. The Seljuk Turks, a prominent Tartar tribe, zealous proselytes of Islam, wrested Syria from the tolerant Saracen caliphs. The Christians were not long in realizing that power had fallen into new hands. Pilgrims were insulted and persecuted in every way. The churches in Jerusalem were, in some cases, destroyed or turned into stables. Now, if it were a meritorious thing to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher, much more would it be a pious act to rescue the sacred spot from the profanation of infidels. This was the conviction that changed the pilgrim into a warrior, — this the sentiment that for two centuries and more stirred the Christian world to its profoundest depths and cast the population of Europe in wave after wave upon Asia. 132. The Growth of a Martial Spirit in the Church ; the Church and Chivalry. — This transformation of pilgrimages into crusades would not have been possible had not the Church itself in the course of the centuries undergone an amazing transformation. In the earliest Christian times a Quaker spirit ruled the Church; by the eleventh century a martial spirit had taken complete pos- session of it. Christ had commanded his disciples to put up the sword ; now the head of the Church commanded all to gird on the sword and fight for the faith. Various causes and circumstances had concurred to effect in the Church this astonishing transformation. First, Christianity, while transforming the barbarians, had been itself transformed by them. The new converts had carried their martial spirit into the Church. Fighters they had been and fighters they remained. 1 The largest company of which there is record numbered 7000 persons. This was led by an archbishop and set out in the year 1064. 124 THE CRUSADES Transformed by this alien spirit the Church modified its early Quaker teachings, and came at last to approve the military life, which the first Christians had very generally condemned as incompatible with the teachings of the Master. A second cause of the transformation is to be sought in the mediaeval way of thinking about ordeals, especially the ordeal of battle. As we have seen, the idea underlying the wager of battle was that God would miraculously intervene and give victory to the right. How natural then the belief that in the greater matter of a battle between armies God might be trusted to give righteous judgment. This conviction was reenforced by the chronicles of the Old Testament. In the wars waged by the Jews at the com- mand of Jehovah against their heathen enemies the mediaeval Christians found ample warrant for their crusades against the pagan and infidel enemies of the Church. Still a third influence that helped to introduce the military' spirit into the Church was the reaction upon it of the martial creed of Islam. For three centuries and more before the First Crusade the Moslems had been in contact, and during much of this time in actual combat, with the Christians of Europe. Under such circumstances the Church, as was natural, caught the military spirit of Mohammedanism and became quite as ready as its rival to call upon its followers to fight in defense or for the spread of the faith. This military spirit in Christendom found characteristic expres- sion in chivalry. We have already spoken of the relation of the Church to the institution of knighthood (sec. 103). Chivalry passed under its tuition and patronage. When at the close of the eleventh century there went forth the papal call for volun- teers for the Holy Wars, it fell upon the willing ears of myriads of knights eager to make good their oaths of knighthood and to win renown in combat with the Moslem infidel. Once the old pagan Roman had made use of these same war-loving men of the North to fight the battles of the Empire ; now the new Christian Rome enlists them beneath her standard to fight the battles of the Cross. THE PEACE AND TRUCE OF GOD 125 133. The Peace and the Truce of God. — Closely connected with the subject of the preceding paragraph, and also related in a very significant way to the Crusades, was the institution established by the Church in the eleventh century and known as the " Truce of God." We have already become acquainted in some measure with the anarchical condition of society under feudahsm. The central authority of the state was everywhere relaxed, and neither the emperors nor the kings were able to put a stop to the marauding and fighting of the great feudal lords. This right of waging pri- vate war was one of the most dearly prized privileges of these semicivihzed barons. They were quite as unwilling to give up this right as the nations of to-day are to surrender their right of public war. So Europe had reverted to that condition of per- petual warfare between tribes and clans that the continent was in before Rome arose, and after centuries of titanic effort estab- lished throughout her wide Empire what was called the " Roman Peace" {Pax Romano). Every land was filled with fightings and violence. As one writer pictures it: "Every hill was a stronghold, every plain a battlefield. The trader was robbed on the highway, the peasant was killed at his plow,, the priest was slain at the altar. Neighbor fought against neighbor, baron against baron, city against city." In the midst of this intolerable anarchy the Church lifted up a protesting voice. In the early part of the eleventh century there was a movement in France which aimed at the complete abolition of war between Christians. The Church proposed to do what had been effected for a time by the Caesars. It pro- claimed what was called the "Peace of God." In the name of the God of peace it commanded all men to refrain from war and robbery and violence of every kind as contrary to the spirit and the teachings of Christianity. But it was found utterly impos- sible to make men desist from waging private wars, even though they were threatened with the everlasting tortures of hell. Then the clergy in Southern France, seeing they could not suppress the evil entirely, concluded it were wiser to try to 126 THE CRUSADES regulate it. This led to the promulgation of what was called the "Truce of God." We find the first trace of this in the year 1041.^ The movement connects itself, as do almost all great moral reforms at this time, with the Cluniac revival. In the year named the abbot of Cluny and several bishops united in issuing an edict in which all men were commanded to maintain a holy and unbroken peace during four days of the week, from Thursday evening to Monday morning, that is, during the days which were supposed to be rendered peculiarly sacred by the Saviour's death, burial, and resurrection. Whosoever should dare disobey the decree was threatened with the severest penalties of the Church. This movement to redeem at least a part of the days from fighting and violence embraced in time all the countries of Western Europe. The details of the various edicts issued by Church councils and by the popes varied widely, but all embraced the principle of the edict of 1041. This Truce of God was not, as we may easily believe, very well observed ; yet it did at least something during the eleventh and twelfth centuries to better the general condition of things, to mitigate the evils of private warfare, and to render life more tolerable and property more secure. We shall see a little later how the Church used the restraining authority it had acquired in this field to make it possible and safe for the feudal barons and knights, leaving their fiefs and other possessions under the protecting aegis of the Church, to go with their retainers on the distant expeditions of the Crusades. 134. Norman Restlessness and Crusading Zeal. — To the vari- ous causes and antecedents of the Crusades already noticed must be added, as a near inciting cause, that spirit of adventure and unrest with which almost all the lands of Western Europe were at just this time being filled by the enterprises of the Normans. The conquest of England by William the Conqueror and that of Southern Italy and Sicily by other Norman leaders were simply two of the most important of their undertakings. Throughout 2 Kluckhohn, GesckichU 4^? QotUsfrkdens, p. 38, VARIOUS MINOR CAUSES 127 the eleventh century the Norman knights, true to the old Viking spirit of their ancestors, were constantly raiding in Spain, in Africa, and in other Moslem lands. Everywhere they engaged in battle with the infidels. Everywhere they stirred up the embers of the old fierce hate between Christian and Moslem. Everywhere throughout Western Christendom they awakened, by their restless zeal, the crusading spirit, and thus did much to prepare the way for the Holy Wars. 135. Various Minor Causes. — We have now detailed the chief causes, remote and immediate, of the Crusades. But there were other concurring causes which must not be overlooked. Many took part in the expeditions from mere love of change, excite- ment, and adventure. Some of the Italian cities engaged in the undertakings from commercial or political motives. Many knights, princes, and even kings headed expeditions with a view of secur- ing fiefs in the East from lands wrested from the infidel. Multi- tudes of serfs joined them to escape from a life of misery that had become unbearable. And vast numbers of the baser sort joined them in order to secure immunity from the penalty of debt and crime ; for, as we shall see, the person and property of the crusader were taken under the special protection of the Church. Yet notwithstanding that so many unworthy motives animated vast numbers of those engaging in the Crusades, we shall not be wrong in thinking that it was the religious feeling of the times, the conviction that the enterprise of rescuing the sacred places was a holy one, which was the main motive power, in the absence of which all the other causes and motives enumerated would have proved wholly inadequate either to set in motion or to keep in motion these remarkable and long-continued expeditions. Because it was a generous religious sentiment that organized them, because it was the moving force of a grand religious ideal that maintained them so long, they are rightly called Holy Wars. 136. Circumstances favoring the Crusading Enterprises. — Not- withstanding the number and strength of the forces that concurred to transform the population of the West into zealous crusaders, 128 THE CRUSADES the Holy Wars would not have been possible, or would have failed to meet with even the partial and temporary success that attended them, had it not been for several favoring circumstances. First,- just before this time the Hungarians had been converted, and thus the overland route to the East, which for centuries had been barred by heathen hordes, was reopened. Thus was the pathway for the earlier Crusades prepared. Second, the growth during the tenth and eleventh centuries of the sea power of the republics of Ven- ice, Genoa, and Pisa, together with that of the Nor- mans, and the con- quest by the latter of Sicily from the Saracens (sec. 112), enabled the Christians to clear the Middle Medi- terranean of the Moslem pirate ships that had vexed its waters and shores ever since the rise of the Mohammedan power. Because of the crusaders' dread of the sea, the water route to Palestine was not followed by the earlier expedi- tions ; but the advantages of the water passage gradually came to be realized and all the later expeditions reached their destination by ship. From the beginning of the movements it was alone the command of the sea by the Italian cities that rendered possible that transport service which was indispensable to the maintenance of the colonies established in Palestine as a result of the First Crusade. Fig. 24. — Reception of Crusaders by the King OF Hungary. (From a fifteenth-century manu- script ; after Lacroix) THE LEGEND OF PETER THE HERMIT 129 Third, just four years before the First Crusade the vast empire which had been estabUshed in Asia by the Seljuk Turks fell to pieces and was replaced by a number of mutually jealous Turkish principalities. This was a most fortunate circumstance for the first crusaders, for had they been compelled to encounter the undivided forces of the original empire, it is not probable that any of them would ever have reached the Holy Land. Fourth, the cause of the Christians was greatly furthered by the antagonism of the Arabs and the Turks. This antagonism — which has been prolonged to our own day — almost fatally divided the strength of the Mohammedan world. Finally, the development within the Church of the papal power was a circumstance in the absence of which the Crusades could never have found a place in the history of Western Christendom. The popes used their preeminent authority to persuade the people to engage in the wars as pious undertakings. It was they who incited, organized, and directed with greater or less success the expeditions, and to them belongs whatever measure of praise or of censure attaches to the enterprises as a whole. 137. The Legend of Peter the Hermit. —There is a tradition which makes one immediate inciting cause of the First Crusade to have been the preaching of a monk named Peter the Hermit, a native of France. This legend tells how the monk, moved by devout longing, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land ; how his sympathy and indignation were stirred by the sight of the indig- nities and cruelties to which the native and the pilgrim Christians were subjected by the infidels ; and how, armed with letters from the patriarch of Jerusalem to the Christians of Europe, he hastened to Rome, and there, at the feet of Pope Urban II, begged to be commissioned to preach a crusade for the deliverance of the Holy City. The Pope is represented as commending warmly the zeal of the hermit, and, with promises of aid, sending him forth to stir up the people to engage in the holy undertaking. The legend now exhibits the monk as going everywhere, and addressing in the streets and in the open fields the crowds that press about him. The people look upon the monk, clothed in I30 THE CRUSADES the coarse raiment of an anchorite, as a messenger from Heaven, and even venerate the ass upon which he rides. His wild and fervid eloquence alternately melts his auditors to tears, or lifts them into transports of enthusiasm. Such, in essential features, is the tradition of Peter the Hermit. The first part of this account is now discredited, and it seems quite certain that the monk's alleged pilgrimage to Jerusalem is a pure embelHshment of the tale by later romancers. That the preaching of the monk, however, was of a most extraordinary character and produced a deep impression upon the popular mind is beyond doubt. But the real originator of the First Crusade was Pope Urban, and not the hermit, as the legend represents. 138. The Council of Clermont (1095). — While the religious feelings of the Christians of the West were growing tenser day by day, the Turks in the East were making constant advances, until at last they were threatening Constantinople itself. The Emperor Alexis Comnenus sent urgent letters to the Pope, asking for aid against the infidels, representing that, unless help were extended immediately, the capital with all its holy relics must soon fall into the hands of the barbarians. Pope Urban called a great council of the Church at Piacenza in Italy to consider the appeal, but nothing was effected at this meeting. Later in the same year a new council was convened at Clermont in France, Urban purposely fixing the place of meet- ing among the warm- tempered and martial Franks. Fourteen archbishops, two hundred and twenty-five bishops, four hundred abbots, and of others a multitude that no man could number, crowded to the council. After the meeting had considered some minor matters the question which was agitating all hearts was brought before it. The Pope himself was one of the chief speakers. He possessed the gift of eloquence, so that the man, the cause, and the occasion all contributed to the achievement of one of the greatest triumphs of human oratory. Urban pictured the humiliation and misery of the provinces of Asia; the profanation of the places made sacred by the presence and footsteps of the Son of God j and then he MUSTERING OF THE CRUSADERS 131 detailed the conquests of the Turks, until now, with almost all "Asia Minor in their possession, they were threatening Europe from the shores of the Hellespont. ''When Jesus Christ sum- mons you to his defense," exclaimed the eloquent pontiff, " let no base affection detain you in your homes ; whoever will aban- don his house, or his father, or his mother, or his wife, or his children, or his inheritance, for the sake of his name, shall be recompensed a hundredfold and possess life eternal." Here the enthusiasm of the vast assembly burst through every restraint. With one voice they cried, ^^ Dieu le volt ! Dieit le volt! " " It is the will of God ! It is the will of God ! " , Thou- sands immediately affixed the cross ^ to their garments as a pledge of their engagement to go forth to the rescue of the Holy Sepul- cher. The following summer was set for the expedition. XL The First Crusade (i 096-1 099) 139. Mustering of the Crusaders. — It was the countries of France and Southern Italy that were most deeply stirred by the papal call. In these lands the contagion of the enthusiasm seized upon almost all classes alike ; for it was the common religious feeling of the age to which the appeal had been especially made. The Council of Clermont had proclaimed anew the Truce of God, with a very great extension of its prohibitions, and had pronounced anathemas against any one who should invade the possessions of a prince engaged in the Holy War. By edict the Pope had granted to all who should enlist from right motives "remission of all canonical penalties," and promised to the truly penitent, in case they should die on the expedition, " the joy of life eternal." Under such inducements princes and nobles, bishops and priests, monks and anchorites, saints and sinners, rich and poor, hastened to enroll themselves beneath the standard of the Cross. " Europe," says Michaud, " appeared to be a land of exile, which every one was eager to quit." 8 Hence the name " Crusades " given to the Holy Wars, from Old French crois, 132 THE CRUSADES 140. The Vanguard. — Before the regular armies of the cru- saders were ready to move, those who had gathered about Peter the Hermit, becoming impatient of delay, urged him to place himself at their head and lead them at once to the Holy Land. Dividing command of the mixed multitudes with a poor knight called Walter the Penniless, and followed by a throng, it is said, of eighty thousand persons,* among whom were many women and children, the hermit set out for Constantinople by the overland route through Germany and Hungary. Thousands of the crusaders perished miserably of hunger and exposure on the march. Those who crossed the Bosporus were surprised by the Turks, and almost all were slaughtered. Thus perished the forlorn hope of the First Crusade. 141. March of the Main Body; the Capture of Jerusalem (1099). — Meanwhile a real army was gathering in the West. Raymond, Count of Toulouse ; Robert, Duke of Normandy ; Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine ; Bohemund, Prince of OtrantOj and his nephew, Tancred, the "mirror of knighthood," were among the most noted of the leaders of the different divisions of the army. The expedition is said to have numbered about three hundred thousand men. The crusaders traversed Europe by different routes and re- assembled at Constantinople. Crossing the Bosporus, they first captured Nicaea, the Turkish capital in Bithynia, and then set out across Asia Minor for Syria. The line of their dreary march between Nicaea and Antioch was whitened with the bones of nearly one half their number. Arriving at Antioch, the survivors captured that place, and then, after considerable delay, pushed on towards Jerusalem. When at length the Holy City burst upon their view, a perfect delirium of joy seized the crusaders. They embraced one another with tears of joy, and even embraced and kissed the ground on which they stood. As they moved on, they took off their shoes, 4 As Kugler observes, the enormous figures of the chroniclers can only be taken to mean " a great many people." They represent, of course, simply vague guesses or estimates. EUROPE ANI> THE IN 1096 1^ On tlie eve of the Crusades J dl] Christian Landsilatin ChurA") I I Mohammedan Lands I I rhrJHtlftn Lands (.Greek Church) L—H Regions Still Pagan 100 200 300 400 500 Scale of Miles TME"»I.-N. WORKS, BUFFALO, THE LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM 133 and marched with uncovered head and bare feet, singing the words of the prophet : " Jerusalem, lift up thine eyes, and behold the liberator who comes to break thy chains." The city was taken by storm. A terrible slaughter of the infidels followed. "And if you desire to know what was done with the enemy who were found there," thus runs a home letter of one of the crusaders, " know that in Solomon's Porch and in his temple our men rode in the blood of the Saracens up to the knees of their horses." 142. Founding of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. — The gov- ernment which the crusaders established for the city and country they had conquered was a model feudal state, called the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The code known as the Assizes of Jeru- salem, which was a late compilation of the rules and customs presumably followed by the judges of the little state, forms one of the most interesting collections of feudal customs in existence. At the head of the kingdom was placed Godfrey of Bouillon, the most devoted of the crusader knights. The prince refused the title and vestments of royalty, declaring that he would never wear a crown of gold in the city where his Lord and Master had worn a crown of thorns. The only title he would accept was that of " Baron of the Holy Sepulcher." Many of the crusaders, considering their vows to deliver the Holy City as now fulfilled, soon set out on their return to their homes, some making their way back by sea and some by land. III. The Second Crusade (1147-1149) 143. Origin of the Religious Orders of Knighthood. — In the interval between the First and the Second Crusade, the two famed rehgious military orders known as the Hospitalers and the Tem- plars ^ were formed. A Httle later, during the Third Crusade, still 5 The Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John, took their name from the fact that the organization was first formed among the monks of the Hospital of St. John at Jerusalem; while the Templars, or Knights of the Temple, were so called on account of one of the buildings of the brotherhood occupying the site of Solomon's 134 THE CRUSADES another fraternity known as the Teutonic Knights was established. The objects of all the orders were the care of the sick and wounded crusaders, the entertainment of Christian pilgrims, the guarding of the holy places, and ceaseless battling for the Cross. These fraternities soon acquired a military fame that was spread throughout the Christian world. They were joined by many of the most illustrious knights of the West, and through the gifts of the pious acquired great wealth, and became possessed of numerous estates and castles in Europe as well as in Asia. 144. The Fall of Edessa (11 44); Preaching of St. Bernard; Failure of the Crusade. — In the year 1146, the city of Edessa, the outlying bulwark on the side towards Mesopotamia of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, was taken by the Turks and the entire population slaughtered or sold into slavery. This disaster threw Europe into a state of the greatest alarm lest the little Christian state should be overwhelmed and all the holy places should again fall into the hands of the infidels. The scenes that marked the opening of the First Crusade were now repeated, in many of the countries of the West. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, an eloquent monk, was the second Peter the Hermit who went everywhere arousing the warriors of .the Cross to the defense of the birthplace of their religion. The contagion of the enthusiasm seized upon not merely barons, knights, and the com- mon people, which classes alone participated in the First Crusade, but the greatest sovereigns were now infected by it. Louis VII, king of France, was led to undertake the crusade through remorse for an act of great cruelty of which he had been guilty against some of his revolted subjects.® The Emperor Conrad III of Ger- many was persuaded to leave the affairs of his distracted realms in the hands of God and consecrate himself to the defense of the sepulcher of Christ. Temple. In the case of the Hospitalers it was monks who added to their ordinary monastic vows those of knighthood; in the case of the Templars it was knights who added to their military vows those of religion. Thus were united the seemingly incongruous ideals of the monk and the knight. 6 The act which troubled the king's conscience was the burning of 1300 people in a church, whither they had fled for refuge. THE THIRD CRUSADE 135 The best part of the strength of both the German and the French division of the expedition was wasted in Asia Minor. Mere remnants of the armies joined in Palestine. The siege of Damascus, which was now undertaken, proved unsuccessful, and the crusaders returned home, " having accomplished all that God willed and the people of the country permitted." IV. The Third Crusade (1189-1192) 145. Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin ; Leaders of the Crusade. — The Third Crusade was caused by the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the renowned sultan of Egypt. This event occurred in the year 11 87. The intelligence of the disaster caused the greatest consternation and grief throughout Christendom. Three of the great sovereigns of Europe, Frederick Barbarossa of Ger- many, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I of England, assumed the cross, and set out, each at the head of a large army, for the recovery of the Holy City. The English king, Richard, afterwards given the title of Cceur de Lion, the " Lion-hearted," in memory of his heroic exploits in Palestine, was the central figure among the Christian knights of this crusade. 146. Death of Frederick Barbarossa ; the Siege of Acre. — The German army, attempting the overland route, after meeting with the usual troubles in Eastern Europe from the unfriendliness of the natives, was decimated in Asia Minor by the hardships of the march and the swords of the Turks. The Emperor Frederick was drowned while crossing a swollen stream, and most of the survivors of his army, disheartened by the loss of their leader, soon returned to Germany. The English and French kings — the first sovereigns of these two countries who had ever joined their arms in a common cause — took the sea route, and finally mustered their forces beneath the walls of Acre, which city the Christians were then besieging. After one of the longest and most costly sieges they ever carried 136 THE CRUSADES on in Asia, the crusaders at last forced the place to capitulate, in spite of all the efforts of Saladin to render the garrison relief. 147. Richard's Captivity and Ransom. — For two years Richard contended in vain with Saladin, a knightly and generous antag- onist according to the chroniclers, for possession of the tomb of Christ. He then concluded with him a truce of three years and eight months, which provided that the Christians during that period should have free access to the holy places and remain in undisturbed possession of the coast from Acre to Ascalon. Richard now set out for home. But while traversing Germany in disguise he was discovered and was arrested and imprisoned by order of the Emperor Henry VI, who was his political enemy. Henry cast his prisoner into a dungeon, and, notwithstanding the outcry of all Europe that the champion of Christianity should suffer such treatment at the hands of a brother prince, refused to release him without an enormous ransom. The English people, so great was their admiration for the hero whose prowess had reflected such luster upon English knighthood, set themselves to raise the sum demanded, even stripping the churches of their plate to make up the amount; and the lion- hearted crusader was at last set free, and finally reached England, where he was received with wild acclamation. V. The Fourth Crusade (i 202-1 204) 148. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204). — The city of Venice was the rendezvous of this expedition. It was made up largely of unscrupulous adventurers and the marine forces of Venice. It was originally aimed at Egypt but struck Constan- tinople. A great share of the responsibiHty for the diversion of the crusade from its first designation Hes, it seems, at the door of the Venetians, who, when it was proposed that the crusaders should undertake to right certain alleged wrongs of the imperial family at the Byzantine capital, seeing in the proposed adventure an opportunity to further their trade interests in the Black Sea THE FOURTH CRUSADE 137 regions, took pains to insure that the expedition should be launched in that direction. The outcome of the crusade was the capture and sack of Con- stantinople and the setting up of a Latin prince, Baldwin of Flanders, as Emperor of the East (1204). The Empire was now remodeled into a feudal state like the Kingdom of Jerusalem established by the knights of the First Crusade (sec. 142). Most of the Greek islands and certain of the shore lands of the Fig. 25. — The Horses of St. Mark's. (From a photograph) These celebrated bronze horses were among the trophies which the Venetians received as their share of the plunder when Constantinople was sacked by the crusaders. They were placed over the portico of St. Mark's in Venice. They were carried off to Paris by Napoleon during his ascendancy, but upon his downfall were restored to the Venetians old Empire were given to Venice as her share of the spoils. A great part of the remaining lands was allotted as fiefs to Frankish knights. One of the most interesting of the feudal principalities that arose on the ground conquered from the Greeks was the dukedom of Athens. Hundreds of Western knights assembled at this capital of ancient culture and created there a brilliant feudal court which completely captivated the imagination of Europe.' '' Recall the " Duke Theseus " in Chaucer's Knight's Tale of Palamon and Arcite and in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Nighfs Dream. 138 THE CRUSADES The Latin Empire of Constantinople, as it was called, lasted only a little over half a century (i 204-1 261). The Greeks, at the end of this period, succeeded in regaining the throne, which they then held until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453- 149. Lamentable Results of the Sack of Constantinople. — A most regrettable result of the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders was the destruction of the numerous masterpieces of art with which the city was crowcied ; for Constantinople had been for nine centuries the chief place of safe deposit for the priceless art treasures of the ancient world. The extent of the loss suffered by art in the ruthless sack of the city will never be known. It would seem as though almost all the bronze and silver statues and all the ornamental metal work of the churches and other edifices of the city went into the melting pot. Still another lamentable consequence of the crusaders' act was the weakening of the military strength of the capital. For a thousand years Constantinople had been the great bulwark of Western civilization against Asiatic barbarism. Its power of resist- ance was now broken, with momentous consequences for Western Christendom, as we shall learn later (Chapter XIV). VI. The Children's Crusades; Minor Crusades 150. The Children's Crusade (12 12). — During the interval between the Fourth and the Fifth Crusade the religious enthu- siasm that had so long agitated the men of Europe came to fill with unrest the children, resulting in what is known as the Children's Crusade. The chief preacher of this crusade was a child about tvv^elve years of age, a French peasant lad, named Stephen, who became persuaded that Jesus Christ had commanded him to lead a cru- sade of children to the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher. The children became wild with excitement and flocked in vast crowds to the places appointed for rendezvous. Nothing could restrain them or thwart their purpose. " Even bolts and bars," says an THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE 139 old chronicler, " could not hold them." The great majority of those who collected at the rallying places were boys under twelve years of age, but there were also many girls. The movement excited the most diverse views. Some declared that it was inspired by the Holy Spirit, and quoted such scriptural texts as these to justify the enthusiasm : " A child shall lead* them " ; " Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings thou hast ordained praise." Others, however, were quite as confident that the whole thing was the work'of the devil. The German children, whose number is variously estimated at from twenty to forty thousand, crossed the Alps and marched down the Italian shores looking for a miraculous pathway through the sea to Palestine. Beneath the toil and hardships of the jour- ney a great part of the little crusaders died or fell out by the way. Those reaching Rome were kindly received by the Pope, who persuaded them to give up their enterprise and return to their homes, impressing upon their minds, however, that they could not be released from the vows they had made, which they must fulfill when they became men. The French children, numbering thirty thousand, according to the chroniclers, set out from the place of rendezvous for Mar- seilles. Their leader, Stephen, rode in great state in a chariot surrounded by an escort of infantile nobles, who paid him the obedience and homage due a superior and sacred being. The little pilgrims had no conception of the distance to the Holy Land, and whenever a city came in sight eagerly asked if it were not Jerusalem. Arriving at Marseilles, the children were bitterly disappointed that the sea did not open and give them passage to Palestine. The greater part, discouraged and disillusioned, now returned home ; five or six thousand, however, accepting gladly the seem- ingly generous offer of two merchants of the city, who proposed to take them to the Holy Land free of charge, crowded into seven small ships and sailed out of the port of Marseilles. But they were betrayed and sold as slaves in Alexandria and other Mohammedan slave markets. A part of them, however, escaped I40 THE CRUSADES this fate, having perished in the shipwreck of two of the vessels that bore them from Marseilles.® This children's expedition marked at once the culmination and the decline of the crusading movement. The fervid zeal that inspired the first crusaders was already dying out. " These children," said the Pope, referring to the young crusaders, " reproach us with having fallen asleep, whilst they were flying to the assistance of the Holy Land." 151. The Minor Crusades; End of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. — The last four expeditions — the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth ^ — undertaken by the Christians of Europe against the infidels of the East may be conveniently grouped as the Minor Crusades. They were marked by a less genuine enthusiasm than that which characterized particularly the First Crusade, and exhibited among those taking part in them the greatest variety of objects and ambitions. The flame of the Crusades had burned itself out, and the fate of the little Christian kingdom in Asia, isolated from Europe and surrounded on all sides by bitter ene- mies, became each day more and more apparent. Finally, the last of the places (Acre) held by the Christians fell into the hands of the Moslems, and with this event the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end (1291). The second great com- bat between Mohammedanism and Christianity was over, and " silence reigned along the shore that had so long resounded with the world's debate " (Gibbon). 8 The credibility of that part of the account which deals vdth the fate of the French children has been questioned, but there is really no ground for rejecting it. See Kugler, Geschichie der Kreuzziige, p. 307 and note. 9 The Fifth Crusade (1216-1220) was led by the kings of Hungary and Cj'prus. Its strength was wasted in Egypt, and it resulted in nothing. The Sixth Crusade (1227-1229), headed by Frederick II of Germany, succeeded in securing from the Saracens the restoration of Jerusalem and that of several other cities of Palestine. The Seventh Crusade (1249-1254) was under the lead of Louis IX of France, sur- named the Saint. It met with disaster in Egj^pt. The Eighth Crusade (1270-1272) had for leaders St. Louis and Prince Edward of England, afterwards Edward I. Louis directed his forces against the Moors about Tunis, in North Africa. Here the king died of the plague. Nothing was effected by this division of the expedition. The division led by the English prince was, however, more fortunate. Edward suc- ceeded in capturing Nazareth and in compelHng the sultan of Egypt to agree to a treaty favorable to the Christians (1272). CRUSADES IN EUROPE I4I VII. Crusades in Europe 152. General Statement. — Notwithstanding the strenuous and united efforts which the Christians of Europe put forth against the Mohammedans, they did not succeed in extending perma- nently the frontiers of Western civiHzation in the Orient. But in the southwest and the northeast of Europe it was dif- ferent. Here the crusading spirit rescued from Moslem and pagan large territories, and upon these regained or newly acquired lands established a number of little Christian principalities, which later grew into states, or came to form a portion of states, which were to play great parts in the history of the following centuries. The states whose beginnings are thus connected with the cru- sading age are Portugal, Spain, and Prussia. We will say just a single word respecting each of them. 153. Crusades against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula. — ■ Just before the actual beginning of the Crusades against the Moslems of the East a band of northern knights went to the help of the Christians against the Moslems in the west of the Iberian peninsula. The issue of this chivalric enterprise was the forma- tion of a little feudal principality, the nucleus of the later king- dom of Portugal. At the time of the Second Crusade some German and English crusaders, on their way to Palestine by sea, stopped here and aided the native Christians in the siege and capture from the Mohammedans of the important city of Lisbon (1147). This gave the little growing state its future capital. Thus Portugal was, in a very strict sense, a creation of the crusading spirit. Then during all the time that the Crusades proper were going on in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Spanish Christian knights were engaged in almost one uninterrupted crusade against the Moslem intruders. By the middle of the thirteenth century the Christians had crowded the Moors into a small region in the southern part of the peninsula. Upon the ground thus regained there arose a number of small Christian states which finally coalesced to form the modern kingdom of Spain. The 142 THE CRUSADES circumstances of the origin of this kingdom left a deep impress upon all its subsequent history (sec. 248). 154. Crusades by the Teutonic Knights against the Pagan Slavs (122 6-1 283). — At the time of the Crusades all the Baltic shore lands lying eastward of the Vistula and which to-day form a part of Prussia were held by pagan Slavs. These people, like the pagan Saxons of an earlier time, resisted strenuously the introduction of Christianity among them. Devoted priests who carried the gos- pel to them, together with the converts they made, were often massacred. Finally, a crusade was preached against them. Early in the thirteenth century (1226) some knights of the Teutonic order transferred their crusading efforts to these northern heathen lands. For the greater part of the century the knights carried on what was a desperate and almost continuous war of extermination against the pagans. Upon the land wrested from them were founded the important fortress-cities of Konigsberg and Marienburg. The surrounding Slav population was either destroyed or subjected, and the whole land was gradually Ger- manized. Thus what was originally Slav territory was converted into a German land, and the basis laid of a principality which later came to form an important part of modern Prussia.^" Thus the crusading zeal of the knight monks contributed to the creation of one of the strongest of modern European states. 155. Crusades against the Albigenses (1209-12 29). — During the crusading age holy wars were preached and waged against heretics as well as against infidels and pagans. In the south of France was a sect of Christians called Albi- genses,^^ who had departed so far from the orthodox faith that Pope Innocent III declared them to be " more wicked than Sara- cens." He therefore, after a vain endeavor to turn them from their errors, called upon the French king, Philip II, and his nobles to lead a crusade against the heretics and their rich and powerful patron, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse. 10 See on map of modem Europe how the German territory on the northeast is thrust out into the Slavonic mass. 11 From Albi, the name of a city and district in which their tenets prevailed. EFFECT UPON THE EASTERN EMPIRE 143 The king held aloof from the enterprise, being fully occupied watching his own enemies; but a great number of his nobles responded eagerly to the call of the Church. The leader of the First Crusade (1209-12 13) was Simon de Montfort, a man cruel, callous, and relentless beyond belief. A great part of Languedoc, the beautiful country of the Albigenses, was made a desert, the inhabitants being slaughtered and the cities burned. In 1229 the fury of a fresh crusade burst upon the Albigenses, which resulted in their prince (Raymond VII) ceding the greater part of his beautiful but ravaged provinces to Louis IX, king of France, and submitting himself to the Church. The Albigensian heresy was soon wholly extirpated by the tribunal of the Inquisition which was set up in the country. VIII. Influence upon European Civilization of THE Crusades 156. Their Effect upon the Eastern Empire. — Among the most noteworthy results of the Crusades we may place the preservation for a time of Constantinople.-^^ The shock of the First Crusade rolled back the tide of Turkish conquest, and thus postponed the fall of the Eastern Empire, or at least of its capital, for three cen- turies and more, thereby gaining for the young Christian civiliza- tion of Central Europe time sufficient to consolidate its strength into an impregnable bulwark before the returning tide of Moham- medan invasion swept in again upon Christendom. It is altogether probable that, had the Seljuk Turks been allowed to cross the Bosporus in the twelfth century, they would have carried their conquests much farther towards the West than their kinsmen, the Osmanli, were able to do in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (Chapter XIV). Furthermore, the fall of Constantinople in the twelfth century would have meant probably the permanent loss of all the literary 12 But for the crime of the men of the Fourth Crusade (sec, 148) the Eastern emperors might possibly have been able to hold the Bosporus indefinitely against the Ottoman Turks. 144 THE CRUSADES treasures the city was holding in safe-keeping for civilization ; foi the West was not yet ready, as is shown by the vandalism of the men of the Fourth Crusade, to become the appreciative and reverent guardian of this precious bequest. 157. Their Effects upon the Towns and upon Commerce and Society. — The towns gained many political advantages at the expense of the crusading barons and princes. Ready money in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was largely in the hands of the burgher class, and in return for the contributions and loans they made to their overlords or suzerains they received charters conferring special and valuable privi- leges. Thus, while power and wealth were slipping out of the hands of the nobility, the cities and towns were growing in political importance and making great gains in the matter of municipal freedom. The Holy Wars further promoted the prosperity of the towns by giving a great impulse to commercial enterprise. Dur- ing this period Venice, Pisa, and Genoa acquired great wealth and reputation through the fostering of their trade by the needs of the crusaders and the opening up of the East. The Mediter- ranean was whitened with the sails of their transport ships, which were constantly plying between the various ports of Europe and the towns of the Syrian coast. Also, various arts, manufactures, and inventions (among these the wind- mill ^^ and probably the mariner's compass) before unknown in Europe were introduced from Asia. This enrichment of the civili- zation of the West with the "spoils of the East" we may allow to be emblemized by the famous bronze horses that the crusaders Fig. 26. — A Medieval Windmill. (From an engraving of an abbey and its precincts, dating from about the middle of the fourteenth century) 13 Windmills were chiefly utilized in the Netherlands, where they were used J:o pump the water from the oversoaked lands, and thus became the means of creating the most important part of what is now the kingdom of Holland. THEIR POLITICAL EFFECTS 145 carried off from Constantinople and set up before St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice (Fig. 25). The effects of the Crusades upon the social life of the Western nations were marked and important. Giving opportunity for romantic adventure, they aided powerfully in the development of that institution of knighthood which, as we have seen, nourished many of the noblest virtues and most exalted sentiments of modern society (sec. 109). And under this head must be placed the general refining influence that contact with the more cultured nations of the East had upon the semibarbarous folk of the West. These influences, which we designate the social, were felt of course in the country as well as in the town, but their more per- manent impress was probably left upon the life of the urban communities. 158. Their Political Effects. — The Crusades, as we have noticed in another connection (sec. 99), helped to break down the power of the feudal aristocracy and give prominence to" the kings and the people. Many of the nobles who set out on the expeditions never returned, and their estates, through failure of heirs, escheated to the crown; while many more wasted their fortunes in meeting the expenses of their undertaking. Thus the nobility were greatly weakened in numbers and influence, and the power and patronage of the kings correspondingly increased. This process of the disintegration of feudalism and the growth of monarchy is to be traced most distinctly in France, the cradle and center of the crusading movement. The laying of the foundations of the later states of Portugal, Spain, and Prussia should also be noticed here as showing how the Crusades helped to create the map of modern Europe. 159. Their Effects upon the Native Literatures and the Intellec- tual Life of Europe. — In no realm were the effects of the Crusades more positive than in the field of Hterature. From the East was brought in a vast amount of fresh literary material consisting of the traditions of great events like the siege of Troy, and of great heroes, such as Solomon and Alexander the Great. These legends, exaggerated and distorted and curiously mingled with the folk- 146 THE CRUSADES lore of the Western peoples, came now to form the basis of a vast literature consisting of romances, epic poems, and pious tales, infinite in variety and form. In this way the native literatures of Europe were enriched and their growth greatly stimulated. Furthermore, the knowledge of geography and of the science and learning of the East gained by the crusaders through their expeditions greatly stimulated the Latin intellect and helped to awaken in Western Europe that mental activity which resulted finally in the great intellectual outburst known as the Renaissance (Chapter XVIII). 160. Their Influence on Geographical Discovery. — Lastly, the incentive given to geographical exploration led various travelers, such as the celebrated Venetian Marco Polo, to range over the most remote countries of Asia. Nor did the matter end here. Even that spirit of maritime enterprise and adventure which rendered illustrious the close of the Middle Ages, inspiring the voyages of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Magellan, may be traced back to that lively interest in geographical matters, that curiosity respecting the remote regions of the earth, awakened by the expeditions of the crusaders.-^* These various growths and movements, commercial, social, polit- ical, intellectual, and geographical, in European society, which, though not originated by the Crusades, were nevertheless given a fresh impulse by them, we shall trace out in following chapters. Selections from the Sources. — Chronicles of the Crusades (Bohn). Read the chronicle by Geoffrey, who writes as an eye-witness of scenes of the Third Crusade. Archer, Crusade of Richard I. (English History by Contemporary Writers). Translations and Reprints, vol. i, No. 4, "Letters of the Crusaders"; also vol. iii, No. i, "The Fourth Crusade" (both ed. by Dana Carleton Munro). Henderson, Select Historical Documents, p. 208, " Decree of the Emperor Henry IV concerning a Truce 14 Colonel Henry Yule, speaking of the influence of the travels and writings of Marco Polo, says : " The spur which his book eventually gave to geographical studies, and the beacon which it hung out at the eastern extremities of the earth, helped to guide the aims ... of the greater son of the rival republic. His work was at least a link in the providential chain which at last dragged the New World to Hght" — Introduction to The Book of Ser Marco Polo (London, 1875). BIBLIOGRAPHY I47 of God (1085).'* Robinson, Readings in Europea7i History, vol. i, chap. xv. MuNRO and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 257-268. Secondary Works. — Sybel, The History and Literature of the Cru- sades. For the mature reader. Burr, The Year 1000 and the Antece- dents of the Crusades (in Am. Hist. Rev. for April, 1901, vol. vi. No. 3). Shows the unhistorical character of the tradition of the " millennial terror." Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades. Cox, The Crusades. Bemont and Monod, Mediceval Europe, chap. xxii. Emerton, Mediceval Europe, chap. xi. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, c)i2cp.yii. MiCHAUD, History of the Crusades. Very interesting, but in part discredited through a new appraisement of the trustworthiness of the sources for the Crusades. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople. The best account of the Fourth Cru- sade. Gray, The Children's Crusade. Oman, Byzatttine Empire, chaps, xxi and xxii. Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. ii, pp. 248-254; for the development of the military spirit in the Church. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall, chaps. Iviii— Ixi. CuTTS, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, pp. 157-194, "The Pilgrims of the Middle Ages." Lane- Poole, Saladin, and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. MuNRO and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 248-256 and 269-276. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The Palmer. 2. The Truce of God. 3. Letters of the crusaders. 4. St. Bernard and the Second Crusade. 5. Incidents of the Fourth Crusade. 6. The Children's Crusade. 7. St Louis, king of France, as a crusader. CHAPTER XIII SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY; DECLINE OF ITS TEMPORAL POWER i6i. Preliminary Survey: the Papacy at its Height. — In an earlier chapter on the Empire and the Papacy we related the begin- nings of the contention for supremacy between Pope and Emperor. In the present chapter we shall first speak of the Papacy at the height of its power, and then tell how, as the popes, with the Em- pire ruined, seemed about to realize their ideal of a universal eccle- siastical and secular monarchy, its temporal power was shattered by a new opposing force, — the rising nations. The temporary success of the papal party, and the virtual establishment for a time of a theocracy over Western Christen- dom, was due more than to aught else to the fortunate succession in the papal chair of great men all animated by the steady pur- pose of making supreme the authority of the Roman see. We have already noticed the work of some of these makers of the Papacy, notably that of Pope Gregory VII. Gregory had many worthy successors. The most eminent of these were Alexander III (1159-1181) and Innocent III (1198-1216), under whom the power of the Papacy was at its height. In the paragraphs immediately following we shall glance at some of the events which signaUzed the pontificates of these represen- tatives of the papal supremacy. The events we shall touch upon are those which record the triumph of the Papacy first over the Empire and then over the kings of France and England. 162. Pope Alexander III and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. — A little after the settlement known as the Concordat of Worms (sec. 129) the first of the House of Hohenstaufen came to the German throne, and then began a sharp contention, lasting, with 148 THE PEACE OF VENICE 149 intervals of strained peace, for more than a century, between the emperors of this proud family and the successive occupants of the papal chair. This contest was practically the continuation, although under changed conditions of course, of the struggle begun long before to decide which should be supreme, the *' world priest" or the "world king." The contention filled Germany and Italy, all the lands over which the emperors claimed supremacy, with turmoil and vio- lence. The story of the struggle, given with any detail, would fill many volumes. In the present connection we can do lio more than simply note the issue of the quarrel in so far as it concerned Pope Alexander III and one of the most noted of the Hohenstaufen, Frederick Barbarossa. In his struggle with the Emperor, the Pope had as allies the Eastern Emperor, the king of Sicily, and, above all others in importance to him, the Lombard cities, who were rebelHous towards Frederick because of his assertion and harsh exercise of imperial rights over them. After maintaining the contest for many years Frederick, vanquished and humiliated, was constrained to seek reconciliation with the Pope. Then followed the Peace of Venice (117 7) with its dramatic incidents. In front of St. Mark's Cathedral, in the presence of a vast throng, Frederick, overwhelmed by a sudden emotion of awe and reverence, cast off his mantle and flung himself at the feet of the venerable pontiff, who raised him from the ground and gave him the kiss of peace. That was for the imperial power its second Canossa. Precisely one hundred years had passed since the humiliation of the Emperor Henry IV.^ 163. Pope Innocent III and Philip Augustus of France. — When one of the most powerful and self-reHant of all the emperors after Charlemagne was forced thus to bow before the papal throne, we are not surprised to find the kings of the different countries of Europe subjecting themselves obediently to the same all- pervading authority. French and English history, of the period 1 See sec. 128. For further notice of Frederick Barbarossa's reign, see sees. 188 and 255. I50 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY covered by the pontificate of Innocent III, both afford a striking illustration of the subject relation which the sovereigns of Europe had come to sustain to the papal see. The French throne was at this time held by Philip Augustus (i 180-1223). On some pretext Philip had put away his wife and entered into another marriage alliance. Pope Innocent III, as the censor of the morals of kings as well as of the morals of their subjects, commanded him to take back his discarded queen, and upon his refusal to do so, laid France under an interdict. Philip was finally constrained to yield obedience to the Pope. This triumph of the papal see over so strong and imperious a sovereign has been pronounced " the proudest trophy in the scutcheon of Rome." 164. Pope Innocent III and King John of England. — The story of Innocent's triumph over King John (i 199-12 16) of England is famihar. The see of Canterbury falling vacant, John ordered the monks who had the right of election to give the place to a favorite of his. They obeyed ; but the Pope immediately declared the election void, and caused the vacancy to be filled with one of his own friends, Stephen Langton. John declared that the Pope's archbishop should never enter England as primate, and proceeded to confiscate the estates of the see. Innocent now laid all England under an interdict, excommunicated John, and incited the French king, Philip Augustus, to undertake a crusade against the contumacious rebel. The outcome of the matter was that John was compelled to yield to the power of the Church. He gave back the lands he had confiscated, acknowledged Langton to be the rightful primate of England, and even went so far as to give England and Ireland to the Pope, receiving them back as a perpetual fief (12 13). In token of his vassalage he agreed to pay to the papal see the annual sum of one thousand marks sterling. This tribute money was actually paid, though irregularly, until the reign of Edward III (sec. 169). 165. The Mendicant Orders, or Begging Friars.^ — The imme- diate successors of Innocent III found a strong support for their 2 ¥tom/r aires, frires, " brethren." THE MENDICANT ORDERS 151 authority in two new monastic orders known as the Dominican and the Franciscan. They were so named after their respec- tive founders, St. Dominic (11 70-1221) of Old Castile and St. Francis (about 1 182-1226) of Assisi, in Italy. The principles on which these fraternities were established were very different from those which had shaped all previous monastic orders. Speaking in general terms, until now the monk had sought cloistral solitude primarily in order to escape from the world, and through penance and prayer and contemplation to work out his own salvation. In the new orders the members instead of withdrawing from the world were to remain in it and give themselves wholly to the work of securing the salvation of others. Again, the orders were also as orders to renounce all earthly possessions, and, "espousing Poverty as a bride," to rely entirely for support upon the daily and voluntary alms of the pious.^ Hitherto, while the individual members of a monastic order must espouse extreme poverty, the house or fraternity might possess any amount of communal wealth. This had led to indolence and laxity of discipline, and the espousal of poverty by the new brotherhood was a protest against the luxurious habits of the old orders. There was at first a wide difference between the two fraternities. St. Francis and the disciples whom his boundless self-sacrificing charity drew about him devoted themselves, in imitation of Christ and the apostles, to preaching the gospel to the poor and outcast, and to visiting those who were sick and in prison. St. Dominic made his appeal to the higher and cultured class. He conceived his mission to be the combating of heresy, with which the intel- lectual ferment of the times had begun to fill Christendom. These different tendencies of the two great founders are tersely expressed in the respective titles given them : St. Francis was called the "Father of the poor"; St. Dominic, the "Hammer 8 The Mendicant Friars soon came to interpret their vow of poverty more liberally, and believed that they met its obligations when they put the title of the property they acquired in the hands of the Pope, while they themselves simply enjoyed the use of it. The new fraternities grew in time to be among the richest of the monastic orders. 152 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY of the heretics." But notwithstanding that the differing genius of the two saints left at first a distinct impress upon their respec- tive orders, still each fraternity in time borrowed much from the other and the two finally became very much alike. The new fraternities grew and spread with marvelous rapidity, and in less than a generation they had quite overshadowed all the old monastic orders of the Church. The popes conferred upon them many and special privileges, and gradually freed them from all episcopal control. They in turn became the stanchest friends and supporters of the Roman see. They formed a regular, well-drilled, obedient papal soldiery, occupy- ing every point of vantage in Western Christendom. They were to the Papacy of the thirteenth century what the Benedictines had been to Pope Gregory VII, or what the later order of the Jesuits was to be to the papal Church of the period of the Reformation. . 1 66. The Papacy brings the Empire to Virtual Ruin. — We have just seen how the imperial power in the person of one of the greatest of the House of Hohenstaufen was humbled by the papal authority. We have now to witness the utter ruin of this proud house and the downfall of the Empire as a real international force in European affairs. The Empire fell at the very moment of the culmination of its glory, if not of its power, under the Hohenstaufen Frederick II (i 2 1 2-1 250), whom the historian Freeman ventures to pronounce " the most gifted of the sons of men." No Emperor before him had conceived a loftier ideal of the world empire, nor had any of his predecessors, after the great Charles, by virtue of personal qualities imparted to the imperial office such glamour and brilliancy. But there were many elements of weakness in the Empire, — selfish ambitions among the German princes, rival aspirants for the imperial crown, national and municipal sentiment in Italy, and the jealousy of outside rulers. All these elements of discon- tent and opposition were utiUzed by the popes to effect the undoing of the Emperor. Throughout his long reign, laboring liands of the ^ HOLY ROMAX EMPIRE under the Franeonian Emperors 10S4.11S5 ^ THE REVOLT OF THE NATIONS 153 much of the time under all the disabilities of an excommuni- cate and with his authority in every part of his extended domin- ions undermined by the hostile activity of the papal agents, the Mendicant Friars, Frederick fought for the maintenance of the dignity and supremacy of the imperial power. He died in 1250 with the heavy consciousness of failure. Pursued by the hostility of the popes, his posterity was extirpated root and branch. After Frederick II the Empire was never again a real world power. But the emperors in maintaining so long the struggle with the Papacy had given time for a new power to arise, which was destined to avenge them in the overthrow of the Papacy as an international lay authority. This new power was the awakening nations. 167. The Revolt of the Nations. — The fourteenth century marks the turning point in the history of the temporal power of the Papacy. In the course of that century the lay rulers in several of the leading countries of Europe, supported by their subjects, succeeded in regaining their lost independence. France, Germany, and England successively revolted against the Roman see — the expression is not too strong — and formally denied the right of the Pope to interfere in their political or governmental affairs. But it should be carefully noted that the leaders of this revolt against the secular domination of the Papacy did not think of challenging the spiritual authority of the Pope as the supreme head of the Church. Their attitude was wholly like that of the Italians of our own day, who, while dispossessing the Pope of the last remnant of his temporal sovereignty, abate nothing of their veneration for him as the Vicar of God in all things moral and spiritual. 168. Pope Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair of France. — It was during the pontificate of Boniface VIII (i 294-1 303) that the secular authority of the popes received a severe blow and began rapidly to decline. Boniface held Gregory VII's exalted views of the prerogatives of the papal office. Taking as his warrant these words of Scripture, " Behold I have set thee over kingdoms and 154 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY empires," * he assumed an attitude towards the lay rulers which was certain to bring the ecclesiastical and civil authorities into angry and violent collision. In the year 1296 he issued a bull in which, under pain of excommunication, he forbade all ecclesias- tical persons, without papal permission, to pay taxes in any form levied by lay rulers. All civil rulers of whatsoever name, — baron, duke, prince, king, or emperor, — who should presume to impose upon ecclesiastics taxes of any kind, were also to incur the same sentence.^ Philip of France regarded the papal claims as an encroachment upon the civil authority. The contention between him and the Pope speedily grew into a bitter and undignified quarrel. In one of his letters to Boniface, Philip addressed the pontiff in words of unseemly and studied rudeness. Philip was bold because he knew that his people were with him. The popular feehng was given .expression in a famous States-General which the king summoned in 1302, and in another called together the next year. The three estates of the realm, — the nobiHty, the clergy, and the commons, — declared that the Pope had no authority in France in poHtical matters; that the French king had no superior save God. For the maintenance of the ancient liberties of the French nation they pledged to Philip their fortunes and their lives. The end was soon reached. At Anagni, in Italy, a band of soldiers in the French pay, with every indignity, accompanied by blows, made Boniface a prisoner. After three days he was set free by friends and returned to Rome, only, however, to be there made the victim of fresh insults. In a few days he died, broken- hearted, it is said, at the age of eighty-seven (1303). By all historians of the rise and decline of the temporal power of the popes, the scene at Anagni is placed for historical instruc- tion alongside that enacted more than two centuries eariier at Canossa (sec. 128). The contrasted scenes cannot fail to im- press one deeply with the vast vicissitudes in the fortunes of the mediaeval Papacy. 4 Jer. i. 10. 5 This is the celebrated bull known as Clericis Laicos. See Henderson's Select Historical Documents^ p. 432. THE POPES AT AVIGNON 155 169. Removal of the Papal Seat to Avignon (1309-13 7 6) ; Revolt of Germany and England. — In 1309, through the concur- rence of various influences, the papal seat was removed from Rome to Avignon, in Provence, adjoining the frontier of France. Here it remained for a space of nearly seventy years, an era known in Church history as the " Babylonian Captivity." While it was established here all the popes were Frenchmen and their policies were largely dictated by the French kings. Thus the Papacy lost that character of universality which had been the basis of its influence and strength. Under these circumstances it was but natural that outside of France there should be stirred up a more and more angry protest against the interference of the popes in civil matters. The measures taken at this time by the national assemblies of Germany and England, in both of which countries a national sentiment was springing up, show how com- pletely the Papacy had lost prestige as an international power. In 1338 the German princes with whom rested the right of electing the German king, in opposing the papal claims, declared that the German Emperor derived all his powers from God through them and not from the Pope. The German Diet indorsed this declaration, and the principle that the German Emperor, as to his election and the exercise of his functions, is independent of the papal see became from that time forward a part of the German constitution. A little later (in 1366), during the reign of Edward III, the EngUsh Parliament, acting in a like spirit and temper, put an end to English vassalage to Rome by formally refusing to pay the tribute pledged by King John,^ and by repudiating wholly the claims of the popes upon England as a fief of the holy see. 170. The Great Schism (1378-1417). — The stirring of the national sentiment in several of the countries of Europe was not the only disastrous result to the Papacy of the Babylonian exile. The removal of the papal court from Rome awakened great dis- content in Italy. Rome without the Pope was a widowed city. It was torn by rival factions, its buildings were falling into ruins, 6 See sec. 164. The payment of this tribute had fallen into arrears. 156 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY and cattle " were grazing even to the foot of the altar " in the churches of St. Peter and the Lateran. The return of the popes to Rome was imperatively necessary if they were to retain any authority in Italy. Finally, Pope Greg- ory XI was persuaded to break away from the influence of the French king and transfer the papal seat once more to the Eternal City. This was in 1377. The following year Gregory died, and the college of cardinals elected as his successor an Italian prelate, who took the name of Urban VI. The new Pope unfortunately was of a harsh and imperious disposition. His discourteous treat- ment of the French cardinals angered them, and they, denying the validity of his election, set up an antipope, who under the name of Clement VII established his court at Avignon. Such was the beginning of the Great Schism (1378). The spectacle of two rival popes, each claiming to be the right- ful successor of St. Peter and each denouncing the other, nat- urally gave the reverence which the world had so generally held for the Roman see a rude shock, and one from which it never fully recovered. 171. The Church Councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414- 14 1 8). — For the lifetime of a generation all Western Christen- dom was deeply agitated by the bitter and unseemly quarrel. No peaceful solution of the difficulty seemed possible. Some even favored a resort to force. The faculties of the University of Paris invited suggestions as to the best means of ending the schism, They received ten thousand written opinions. The drift of these was in favor of an ecumenical council. Finally, in 1409, a council of the Church assembled at Pisa for the purpose of composing the unfortunate feud. This council deposed both popes and elected Alexander V as the supreme head of the Church. But matters instead of being mended hereby were only made worse ; for neithei of the deposed pontiffs would lay down his authority in obedience to the demands of the council, and consequently there were now three popes instead of two. In 14 1 4 another council was called at Constance for the settle- ment of the growing dispute. One of the claimants resigned and A SPIRITUAL THEOCRACY 157 the other two were deposed. A new pope was then elected, the choice of the assembly falling upon an Italian cardinal, who became Pope Martin V (i 4 1 7). In his person the Catholic world was again united under a single spiritual head. The schism was outwardly healed, but the wound had been too deep not to leave permanent scars upon the Church. The Roman pontiffs, although the battles of the lost cause were fought over again and again in different countries, were never able, after the events of the fourteenth century, to exer- cise such authority over the kings of Europe, or exact from them such obedience in civil affairs, as had been possible for the popes of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The splendid ideal of Hildebrand, though so nearly realized, had at last, as to one half of what he purposed, proved an utter failure. 172. The Papacy remains a Spiritual Theocracy. — We say that .the Roman pontiffs failed as to one half of their purpose ; for while they failed to make good their supremacy in temporal affairs, they did succeed in establishing and perpetuating an absolute spiritual dominion, their plenary authority in all mat- ters of faith being to-day acknowledged by more than one half of all those who bear the narrie of Christian. The Council of Constance, indeed, decreed that the Pope is subject to an ecumenical council, and that a decision of the Roman see may be appealed from to the judgment of the Church gathered in one of these great assemblies, which were to be convened at least every ten years. But Martin V, the Pope elected by this same council, in opposition to its edicts, issued a bull declaring " it unlawful for any one either to appeal from the judgment of the apostolic see or to reject its decisions in matters of faith." On the other hand, the Council of Basel, — the third and last of the great reforming councils of the fifteenth century, — which assembled in 143 1, setting itself against the principle of papal autocracy, declared any one appealing from a general council of the Church to the Pope to be guilty of heresy. The papal party, the party of absolutism, carried the day. Only one ecumenical council has been held since the Council of Trent, 158 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY which was called in 1545 to pronounce upon the doctrines of Luther; and this assembly (the Vatican Council, 186 9- 18 70) pro- mulgated the decisive edict of papal infallibility. And thus the Papacy, though its temporal power has been entirely taken from it, and its spiritual authority rejected in gen- eral by the northern nations, still remains, as Macaulay says, " not in decay, not a mere antique, but full of life and youthful vigor." The Pope is to-day, in the view of more than half of Christendom, the infallible head of a Church that, in the famous words of the brilliant writer just quoted, "was great and respected before the Saxon had set foot on Britain, before the Frank had passed the Rhine, when Grecian eloquence still flourished in Antioch, when idols were still worshiped in the temple of Mecca. And she may still exist in undiminished vigour when some traveler from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's." Selections from the Sources. — Henderson, Select Historical Docu- ments^ p. 430, " John's Concession of England to the Pope " ; p. 432, " The Bull ♦ Clericis Laicos ' " ; p. 435, « The Bull ' Unam Sanctam.' " Robin- son, Readings ijt European History, vol. i, chap. xxi. For the Mendi- cant Friars : The Mirror of Perfection (ed. by Paul Sabatier and trans, from the Latin by Sebastian Evans). This is the life of St. Francis written by a companion and disciple. It is a wonderful story simply and lovingly told. Secondary Works. — Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chap, x' , "The Emperors in Italy: Frederick Barbarossa," and chap, xiii, "Fall of the Hohenstaufen." Pastor, The History of the Popes, vol. i (Catholic). Emerton, MedicBval Europe, sections of chaps, ix and x. Thatcher and ScHWiLL, Ezirope in the Middle Ages, chap. xxi. Barry, The Papal ■ Monarchy, chaps, xviii-xxv. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. X (last part) and chap. xvi. Alzog, Universal Church History, vol. ii, pp. 573-586, for Innocent III and his relations to the princes of Europe ; and pp. 614-630, for Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair. Bal- ZANI, The Popes and the Hohenstaufen. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, pp. 240-264. Tout, The Empire and the Papacy, chaps, xi, xiv, xvi, and xxi. Freeman, Historical Essays (First Series), "Frederick II." Sabatier, Life of St. Francis of Assisi ; a book of genius and spiritual insight. Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. i, "The Great Schism; The Council of Constance." Topics for Class Reports. — i. Incidents of the Peace of Venice (1177)- 2. St. Francis of Assisi. 3. St. Dominic. 4. The popes at Avignon. CHAPTER XIV THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS I. The Mongols 173. The Three Invasions. — We have witnessed two inva- sions of civilized Europe, one by the Germanic tribes from the north and another by the Saracens from the south, and have noted the effects of each upon the course of general history. Our attention is now drawn to a third invasion, this time from the east, by nomadic races of Asia, — the Mongols and the Ottoman Turks.^ The ultimate results for European civilization of the Teutonic invasion were, as we have seen, salutary and beneficial, because of the fresh mental vigor and the political capacity of the in- vaders. The consequences, direct and indirect, of the Arabian invasion were mixed, and it would be difficult to make an appraise- ment of its net effects. The results of the Turanian irruption, on the other hand, were almost wholly disastrous, as we shall learn, to European civilization. The growth of the promising Russian nation was checked, while all the countries and races of South- eastern Europe were subjected for centuries to the degrading domination of a race alien in blood, in social institutions, in moral ideals, and in religious belief. Indeed, some of the European lands thus inundated have remained submerged beneath Asiatic barbarism up to the present day. This comparatively late invasion of Europe by Asiatic nomads is noteworthy especially for the reason that it was the most successful 1 The Mongols and Turks belong to that great family of predominantly nomadic or pastoral tribes and nations variously designated as the Scythic, the Turanian, or the Ural-Altaic, and having the steppes of Central and Northern Asia as their chief original seat. l6o THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS of all the attacks of Asia upon Europe during historic times, and the last conquest of European territory by an Asiatic race. 174. The Conquests of the Mongols. — It was about the time of the opening of the Crusades when the Mongols, cruel and untamed nomads bred on the steppes of Central and Eastern Fig. 27. — Hut-Wagon of the Medieval Tartars. (From Yule's Book of Ser Marco Polo) " The wandering Scyths who dwell In, latticed huts high-poised on easy wheels." ^SCHYLUS, Prom'. Vinct., 709-10; quoted by Yule Asia, that nursery of conquering races, began to set up a new dominion among the various tribes of Mongolia. Their first great chieftain was Jenghiz Khan (i 206-1 227), the most terrible scourge that ever afflicted the human race. At the head of innu- merable hordes composed largely of Turkish tribes, callous and pitiless in their slaughterings as though their victims belonged to another species than themselves, Jenghiz traversed with sword and torch a great part of Asia. He conquered all the northern part of China, and then turning westward overran Turkestan and Persia. Cities disappeared as he advanced; populous plains were transformed into silent deserts. Before death overtook him he had extended his authority to the Dnieper in Russia and to the valley of the Indus. Even in death he claimed his victims : THE CONQUESTS OF THE MONGOLS l6l at his tomb forty maidens were slain that their spirits might go to serve him in the other world. The vast domains of Jenghiz passed into the hands of his son Oktai (d. 1 241), a worthy successor of the great conqueror. He pushed outwards still further the boundaries of the empire in the east as well as in the west of Asia, and made a threatening inva- sion into Europe. This western expedition was led by the cele- brated Batu. A large part of Russia, Poland, and Hungary were overrun and devastated. The cities of Moscow, Kiev, Pesth, and The Mongol Empire under Jenghis Khan and his Immediate Successors (thirteenth century) The shaded area shows the countries either under the direct rule of the Mongols or tributary to them many others were burned and their inhabitants slain. In the space of two or three terrible years (i 238-1 241) almost half of Europe was pitilessly ravaged. The inhabitants of the other half seemed to be stunned. They made no concerted efforts to check the progress of the invaders. They apparently regarded the l62 THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS visitation as though it were some destructive convulsion of nature for which there was no help or remedy. Fortunately, just at this critical moment Oktai died. Batu was recalled to Asia, and the civilization of Western Europe escaped the threatened destruction. One of the most noted of the successors of Oktai was Kublai Khan (1259— 1294), who made Cambalu, the modern Peking, his royal seat, and there received ambassadors and visitors from all parts of the world. It was at the court of this prince that the celebrated Italian traveler Marco Polo resided many years and gained that valuable and quickening knowledge of the Far East which he communicated to Europe in his remarkable work of travels and observations. Upon the death of Kublai Khan the immoderately extended and loosely knit empire fell into disorder and separated into many petty states. It was restored by Timur or Tamerlane (= Timurlenk, "Timur the lame," 1369-1405), a remote rela- tive of Jenghiz Khan. He made Samarkand in Central Asia his capital and seems to have deliberately set about reducing the whole earth to obedience, He is said to have declared that " since God is one and hath no partner, therefore the vicegerent over the lands of the Lord must be one." His dominions came to embrace a great part of Asia. Timur's immense empire crumbled to pieces after his death. His descendant Baber invaded India (1525) and estabhshed there what became known as the Kingdom of the Great Moguls. This Mongol state lasted over two hundred years, — until destroyed by the English in the eighteenth century. The magnificence of the court of the Great Moguls at Delhi and Agra is one of the most splendid traditions of the East. These foreign rulers gave India some of her finest architectural monuments. The mauso- leum at Agra, known as the Taj Mahal, is one of the most beau- tiful structures in the world. ^ 2 Wherever we find an upspringing of art and architecture under the Mongols we shall not be wrong in attributing it to the influence upon them of the civilizations with which they came in contact in China, Persia, India, and Western Asia. Their architects and artisans were generally furnished by the conquered races or by the cities of Western Europe. RESULTS OF THE MONGOL OUTBREAK 163 175. Historical Results of the Mongol Outbreak. — Asia has never recovered from the terrible devastation wrought by the Mongol conquerors. Many districts swarming with life were swept clean of their population by these destroyers of the race and have remained to this day desolate as the tomb. But it is the relation of the Mongol eruption to the history of the West that chiefly concerns us at present. This revolution had signifi- cance for European history, as we have already intimated, almost Fig. 28. — The Taj Mahal at Agra. (From a photograph) This magnificent monument was erected by the Mogul emperor Shah Jehan (1628-1658), for a favorite wife who died in 1631 solely on account of the Mongols having laid the yoke of their power for a long time — for about three centuries — upon the Eastern Slavs. This was some such calamity for Russia as the later conquests of the Ottoman Turks were for the lands of South- eastern Europe. This Tartar domination, as we shall learn, left deep and permanent traces upon the Russian character and upon Russian history (sec. 265). But there was some good issuing out of so much evil. As a consequence of the establishment of the extended empire of the Mongols there was better communication on the land side between l64 THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS Europe and Eastern Asia than had ever existed before or was destined to exist again until the construction in our own day of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. The way was long and wearisome but comparatively safe, and consequently it was traversed back and forth by embassies between the European courts and the Mongol potentates, and by missionary-monks, artisans, merchants, and explorers. Marco Polo is the type and symbol of it all. Through this means there were brought into Europe from the Far East various arts, ideas, and inventions which undoubtedly contributed to the revival of culture in the West and to the inauguration of a new age for the European peoples. II. The Ottoman Turks 176. The Beginnings of the Ottoman Empire. — The latest, most permanent, and most important historically of all the Tura- nian sovereignties was that established by the Ottoman Turks. The first appearance of this folk upon the arena of history was dramatic, and prophetic of their conquering career. About the middle of the thirteenth century a chieftain, accompanied by a band of several hundred horsemen, was riding over the hills of Anatolia (Asia Minor) in the neighborhood of Angora. Unex- pectedly the wanderers came upon a battle in full progress, — battles were to be found almost anywhere in those days in those parts. The cavaliers, through sheer love of a fight, for they were totally ignorant alike of who the combatants were and why they thus fought together, dashed into the thickest of the battle, chivalrously taking the part of the weaker and yielding side and quickly turning the fight in its favor. It developed that the "beneficiaries of their chivalrous act" were Seljuk Turks form- ing the army of the sultan of Iconium. The grateful sultan invited the strangers to abide among his people and offered them lands for their flocks. They accepted the invitation, and the settlement thus formed became the nucleus of the great Ottoman Empire.^ 3 Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, chap. L THE JANIZARIES 165 The name of the hero of this story was Ertoghrul. The empire, the germ of which he planted, bears however not his name but that of his son Othman,'* for the reason that the son was the first to assume in the new land the rank of an independent ruler. Gradually the Ottoman princes subjected to their rule the various surrounding tribes which the Mongolian conquests had crowded westward into. Asia Minor, and at the same time seized upon province after province of the Asiatic possessions of the Byzantine emperors. During the reign of Amurath I (136 0-13 89) a large part of the regions that came to be known as Turkey in Europe fell into their hands. 177. The Janizaries. — The conquests of the Turks were greatly aided by a remarkably efficient body of soldiers knoWn as the Janizaries, which was organized early in the fourteenth century. This select corps was composed at first of the fairest children of Christian captives. When war ceased to furnish recruits, the sultans levied a tribute of children on their Chris- tian subjects. At one time this tribute amounted to two thousand boys yearly. This method of recruiting the corps was maintained for about three hundred years. The boys, who were generally received at the age of about eight, were brought up in the Moham- medan faith and carefully trained in military service. These " infant proselytes of war " formed a military body that was one of the chief instruments in the creation of the Ottoman Empire. 178 . The Ottoman Advance checked by the Mongols. — Amurath I was followed by Bajazet I (i 347-1403), the rapid advance of whose conquests spread the greatest alarm throughout Central and Western Europe. The warriors of Hungary, Poland, and France gathered to arrest the menacing progress of the bar- barians; but the allied army, numbering a hundred thousand men, was cut to pieces by the sabers of the Turks on the fatal field of NicopoHs, in Bulgaria (1396). Thousands of the knights and common soldiers who were made prisoners were barbarously and deliberately massacred by their captors. * Othman I (1288-1326), or Osman, whence not only " Ottoman," but " Osmanlis," the favorite name which the Turks apply to themselves. l66 THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS The unfortunate issue of this terrible battle threw all the West into a perfect panic of terror. Bajazet vowed that his horse " should eat oats on the high altar of St. Peter's in Rome," and there seemed no power in Christendom to prevent the sacrilege. Before proceeding to fulfill this threat, Bajazet turned back to capture Constantinople, which he believed in the present despondent state of its inhabitants would make little or no resistance. Now just at this time Tamerlane was leading his hordes on their career of conquest. He directed them against the Turks in Asia Minor, and Bajazet was forced to raise the siege of Constantinople and hasten across the Bosporus to check the advance of these new enemies. The Turks and Mongols met upon the plains of Angora, where the former suffered a disastrous defeat (1402). This checked for a time the conquests of the Ottomans and saved Constantinople to Christendom for another period of fifty years. 179. The Fall of Constantinople (1453). — The Ottomans, however, gradually recovered from the blow given them by the Mongols. By the year 142 1 they were strong enough to make another attempt upon Constantinople. The city was this time saved by the strength of its defenses. Another quarter of a cen- tury passed. Then finally, in the year 1453, Mohammed II the Great (1451-1480) laid siege to the capital with a vast army and fleet. The walls of the city were manned by a mere handful of men. After a short investment the place was taken by storm. The heroic Emperor, Constantine Palaeologus, refusing to live " an Emperor without an Empire," fell sword in hand. Of the hun- dred thousand inhabitants of the capital forty thousand are said to have been slain and fifty thousand made slaves. The Cross, which since the time of Constantine the Great had surmounted the dome of St. Sophia, was replaced by the Crescent. Thus fell New Rome into the hands of the barbarians of the East almost an exact millennium after Old Rome had passed into the possession of the barbarians of the West. Its fall was one of the most harrowing and fate- laden events in history. As Moham- med, like Scipio at Carthage, gazed upon the ruined city and the empty palace of Constantine, he is said, impressed by the THE OTTOMANS CHECKED 167 mutability of fortune, to have repeated musingly the lines of the Persian poet Firdusi : "The spider's web is the curtain in Caesar's palace ; the owl is the sentinel on the watchtower of Afrasiab." ^ 180. The Ottomans checked by the Hungarians and the Knights of Rhodes. — The consternation which the fall of New Rome created throughout Christendom was like the dismay which filled the world upon the downfall of Old Rome in the fifth century. The Empire of the Ottoman Turks about 1464 Europe now lay open to the invaders. The warriors of Hungary, however, made a valiant stand against them and succeeded in checking their advance upon the continent, while the Hospitalers (sec. 143), now established in the island of Rhodes, held them in restraint in the Mediterranean. Before the end of the sixteenth century the conquering energy of the Ottomans had about spent itself, and their empire had attained its greatest extent. The Turks have ever remained quite insensible to the influences of European civiHzation, and their rule has been a perfect blight and curse to the Christian races subjected to their authority. They 5 Afrasiab is the name of a personage who figures in the historical legends of Persia l68 THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS have always been looked upon as intruders in Europe, and their presence there has led to several of the most sanguinary wars of modern times. Gradually they are being pushed out from their European possessions, and the time is probably not remote when they will be driven back across the Bosporus, just as the Moslem Moors were expelled long ago from the opposite comer of the continent by the Christian chivalry of Spain. Fig. 29. — Ruins of the Great Mosque at Samarkand (From Shoemaker, The Heart of the Orient') This stupendous structure dates from the time of Tamerlane Selections from the Sources. — The Book of Ser Marco Polo, 2 vols, (trans, by Henry Yule). The best part of these volumes is condensed in Noah Brooks, The Story of Marco Polo. Marco Polo resided seventeen years at the court of Kublai Khan at Cambalu, the modem Peking. He saw the Mongol court at the time of its greatest brilliancy and gave Europe a vivid description of what he observed and heard in an account which our growing knowledge of the Farther East is giving a constantly higher reputation for accuracy and honesty. Secondary Works. — Howorth, History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. The best and most comprehensive work on the subject. Creasy, History of the Ottoman Ticrks, chaps, i-vi. Gib- bon, The Decline and Fall, chaps. Ixiv-lxviii. MijATOViCH, Constanti^ze, the Last Emperor of the Greeks ; or the Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks {A.D. I4S3)- The best account in English. Poole, The Story of Turkey, chaps, i-vii. Oman, The Story of the Byzantine Empire, chaps. XXV and xxvi. Freeman, The Ottoman Power in Europe, chaps, i-iv. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Marco Polo at the Mongol court. 2. Timur the Lame. 3. The Mongols in Russia, 4. The Janizaries. 5. The siege and capture of Constantinople by the Turks. CHAPTER XV THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS i8i. The Barbarians and the Roman Cities. — The old Roman towns, as points of attack and defense, suffered much durmg the period of the barbarian invasions. When the storm had passed, many of the once strong-walled towns lay "rings of ruins" on the wasted plains. Rome, during the Gothic wars, was for a time without a living soul within its walls. In Britain a consid- erable part of the Roman towns seem to have been virtually wiped out of existence by the Anglo-Saxon invaders. In South- ern France, in Italy, and in Spain the cities on the whole suf- fered less ; yet in none of the countries where they had sprung up and flourished under the shelter of the Roman rule did they wholly escape hurt and harm. But it was not alone the violence of the destroyers of the Empire that brought so many cities to ruin. What chiefly caused their depopulation and decay was the preference of the barba- rians for the open country to the city. As we have already learned, they had no liking for life within city walls. Hence it was inevitable that under the influence of the invasion, city life, speaking generally, should give place to country Hfe. Up to the eleventh century the population of Europe was essentially a rural population like that of Russia to-day. 182. Rapid Development of the Cities in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. — But just as soon as the invaders had settled down and civihzation had begun to revive, the old Roman towns began gradually to assume somewhat of their former importance, and new ones to spring up in those provinces where they had been swept away, and in the countries outside of the limits of the ancient Empire. 169 I/O THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS During the tenth century Western Europe, it will be recalled, was terribly troubled by the Northmen, the Hungarians, and the Saracens (sec. 96). There being no strong central government, the cities, thrown upon their own resources for defense, some- times with and sometimes without royal or imperial sanction, armed their militia, perfected their municipal organization, and above all else surrounded themselves with walls. Strong walls were the only sure protection in those evil times. Thus Europe became Fig. 30. — The Amphitheater at Arles in Medieval Times (From Smith, The Troubadours at Home) " The amphitheater was made a fortress, packed with houses, in the eighth century, on account of Saracen incursions " thickset with strong-walled cities, the counterpart of the castles of the feudal lords, which were the defense of the country-side. 183. The Towns enter the Feudal System; their Revolt. — When feudalism took possession of Europe the cities became a part of the system. They became vassals and suzerains. As vassals, they were of course subjected to all the incidents of feudal ownership.-^ They owed allegiance to their suzerain, were 1 At first each householder in a town was a tenant of the lord of the fief, and was individually liable to him for rents or military service ; but later many of the towns as towns, that is, as corporate bodies, became responsible for the rents and services due the lord. It was not until the towns came to act in their corporate capacity that they became an important factor in the political system. TOWNS ENTER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 171 he baron, prince, prelate, king, or emperor, and must pay him feudal tribute and aid him in his war enterprises. As the cities, through their manufactures and trade, were the most wealthy members of the feudal system, the lords naturally looked to them for money when in need. Their demands and exactions at last became unendurable, and a long struggle broke out between them and the burghers, which resulted in what is known as the enfranchisement of the towns. It was in the eleventh century that this revolt of the cities against the feudal lords became general. The burghers by this time had made their walls strong and had learned to fight, — if indeed they had ever forgotten that art. They became bold enough to defy their lord, — to shut their gates in the face of his tax- gatherer, and even in the face of the lord himself, even though he were king or emperor, when he came to parley with them. The contest lasted two centuries and more. The advantage in the end rested with the burghers. In process of time the greater number of the towns of the countries of Western Europe either bought with money, which was the usual mode of enfranchisement of English and German cities, or wrested by force of arms charters from their lords or suzerains. Many lords, how- ever, of their own free will gave charters to the towns within their fiefs, granting them various exemptions and privileges, for the Fig. 31. — A Count and his Wife granting a Charter to a City. (From a fifteenth-century manuscript ; after Lacroix) 1/2 THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS reason that this fostered their growth and prosperity and made them more profitable vassals and tenants. In many cases the charters simply defined the ancient customs and privileges of the favored towns and guaranteed them against unreasonable and arbitrary demands on the part of their lord. Even this, however, was a great gain ; and as, under the protec- tion of their charters, the cities grew in wealth and population, many of them in some countries became at last strong enough to cast off all actual dependence upon lord or king, became in effect independent states, — little commonwealths. Especially was this true in the case of the Italian cities, and in a less marked degree in the case of some of the German towns. Respecting the fortunes of the cities in these two countries we shall speak with some detail in later paragraphs. 184. The Industrial Life of the Towns; the Gilds The towns were the workshops of the later Middle Ages. The most noteworthy characteristics of their industrial life are connected with certain corporations or fraternities known as gilds. There were two chief classes of these, the gild merchant and the craft gilds. The gild merchant appears in the towns as soon as their commercial life becomes in any way active, that is to say, about the eleventh century. The members of the fraternity, speaking generally, were the chief landowners and traders of the place, and in many towns the city government was more or less completely in their hands. Later, as trade developed, the craftsmen began to form sepa- rate fellowships on the model of the earlier society. We hear of unions of the shoemakers, the bakers, the weavers, the spin- ners, the dyers, the millers, and so on to the end. In some cities there were upwards of fifty of these associations. No sooner had these plebeian societies grown strong than, in many of the Continental cities, they entered into a bitter struggle with the patrician gild merchant for a share in the municipal government or for participation in its trade monopoly. This conflict, in some of its features, reminds us of that between patrician and plebeian in ancient Rome. It lasted for two THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE 173 centuries and more, — the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries mark the height of the struggle on the Continent, — and during all this time filled the towns with strenuous confusion. The outcome, speaking in general terms, was the triumph of the craftsmen. The internal history of the towns during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is very largely the story of the gilds in their manifold actiyities. This story, however, it is impossible to give even in outline in our short space. We must content ourselves with having merely indicated the place of these interesting fraternities in the life of the mediaeval towns. 185. The Hanseatic League. — When, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the towns of Northern Europe began to extend their commercial connections, the greatest drawback to their trade was the insecurity and disorder that everywhere prevailed. The trader who intrusted his goods to the overland routes was in danger of losing them at the hands of the robber nobles, who watched all the lines of travel and either robbed the merchant outright or levied an iniquitous toll upon his goods. Nor was the way by sea beset with less peril. Piratical crafts scoured the waters and made booty of any luckless merchantman they might overpower or lure to wreck upon the dangerous shores. Finally, about the middle of the thirteenth century, some of the German cities, among which Liibeck and Hamburg were prominent, began to form temporary alliances for protecting their merchants against pirates and robbers. These transient leagues finally led to the formation of the celebrated Hanseatic ^ League, whose firm organization as a political power dates from near the middle of the fourteenth century. The confederation came to embrace eighty or more — ■ the number is uncertain — of the principal towns of North Germany. The league organized armies, equipped navies, and exercised all the powers of sover- eignty. It was "mediaeval Germany on the sea." In order to facilitate the trading operations of its members, the league maintained in different foreign cities factories, magazines, inns, and chapels. These stations were somewhat like the 2 From the old German hansa. a " confederation " or " union." 174 THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS sel'.lements established to-day by Europeans in the countries of the Far East. The most noted centers of the foreign trade of the confederation were the cities of Bruges, London, Bergen, Wisby, and Novgorod. The league thus became a vast monopoly, which endeavored to control in the interests of its own members the entire commerce of Northern Europe. 1 86. Causes of the Dissolution of the League Numerous causes concurred to undermine the prosperity of the Hansa towns Bergen The Hansa Towns and their Chief Foreign Settlements and to bring about the dissolution of the league. Most promi- nent among these was the development of the manufactures and trade of the peoples whom the German merchants had for a time commercially subjected. The native traders now naturally became jealous of these foreigners, and the sovereigns of the land in which they had been allowed to establish settlements found it to their interest to annul the privileges formerly granted them and to encourage home industry and trade. Another agency of disruption was the great maritime dis- coveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which ,trans- ferred the centers of commercial activity as well from the Baltic EARLY GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN CITIES 175 as from the Mediterranean ports to the harbors on the Atlantic seaboard. Finally, the Reformation and the accompanying reli- gious wars in Germany, which brought many of the Hansa towns to utter ruin, completed the dissolution of the league. 187. Causes of the Early Growth of the Italian Cities. — But it was in Italy that the mediaeval municipalities had their most remarkable development and acquired the greatest power and influence. A variety of circumstances and causes concurred in promoting their early and rapid growth. First, these cities were the heirs of the great Roman past in a truer sense than were any of the towns outside of Italy. If in most of them no part of the actual machinery of the ancient municipal government was any longer in existence, still the inspiring memories and traditions of old-time liberties had not yet been forgotten. Second, their political development was favored by the destruc- tion of the unity of the peninsula by the Lombards (sec. 13). There being no strong central authority, the cities came naturally to assume large governmental responsibihties and to stand to one another in the relation of independent states. Third, the weak development of feudalism in the peninsula fav- ored the growth of the municipalities. The cities, instead of being brought in vassalage to the barons as happened almost everywhere else, brought the barons themselves into subjection. The lords, either through choice or by compulsion, became citizens of the towns. This absorption of the feudal nobility into the citizenship of the towns greatly strengthened them and contributed largely to the development of that diversity of life and that extraordinary energy of character which distinguished the inhabitants of these city-republics. Fourth, the long struggle between the Papacy and the Empire tended greatly to enhance the Hberties of the Italian cities. The Pope and Emperor were constantly bidding against each other for the help of the cities, — a situation which they took advantage of to make themselves practically independent of all superior control. .176 THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS But the main direct cause of the material prosperity and indirectly of the pohtical power of the most important of the Italian coast cities was their trade with the East, and the enor- mous impulse it received from the Crusades. Particularly did the merchants of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa become immensely rich through the vast transport business thrown into their hands by the crusading movement. The political history of these ItaHan cities is very intricate and uninteresting; but their social, artistic, and commercial records form the most brilliant pages of the annals of the Middle Ages. There are, however, three important matters which may be con- sidered as belonging to their general political history : (i) the formation of the Lombard League; (2) the dissensions of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; and (3) the rise of despots in the cities. We shall speak of each of these matters under a sepa- rate head, and then shall proceed to notice some of the more interesting and instructive circumstances in the separate com- mercial or intellectual life of the representative states of Venice, Genoa, and Florence. 188. The Lombard League. — As we have previously noticed, a great crisis in the history of the Italian cities was reached when Frederick Barbarossa became Emperor (sec. 162). Frederick held very lofty views of the Empire and its providential place in the government of the world, so that not merely a very natural ambition but conceptions of duty caused him to maintain unyield- ingly the imperial rights. He was influenced doubtless by the civil lawyers who just now were engaging with great enthusiasm in the study of the old Roman law. Now this law had made the authority of the Emperor over the cities of the Empire virtually absolute. It was very natural then that Frederick, under the in- fluence of the jurists, should have persuaded himself that the Italian cities had been making encroachments upon the imperial authority, and that it would be right for him to resume the power which his immediate predecessors had allowed to slip out of their hands. He would rule as had Justinian, Charlemagne, and Otto I. With Frederick entertaining such conceptions of the imperial THE LOMBARD LEAGUE 177 prerogatives, a struggle between him and the ItaHan cities was in- evitable. To them his claims meant tyranny ; to him theirs meant license and anarchy. Consequently, when Frederick attempted to place his own judges in the towns, to take away from them the right of waging private war, and to place other restrictions upon them, there came an armed conflict which lasted for thirty years. We may say of this war between the Emperor and his city vassals, as has been said of our late Civil War, that it was fought to get a definition of a constitution, — the unwritten constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick repeatedly descended into Italy with an army to enforce his authority, and captured and burned several of the cities of Lombardy. At last the powerful city of Milan, which had heroically withstood his arms, fell into his hands. He scat- tered its inhabitants in villages, after the old Greek fashion of destroying a city, and razed to the ground its walls and buildings (1162). A confederation known as the Lombard League was now formed by the exiled Milanese and a large number of the cities of North- ern Italy for the purpose of avenging the wrongs of Milan and resisting the Emperor's pretensions. The banded cities stood firm for their cherished liberties. Finally, on the field of Legnano, in 1 176, the Milanese and their allies, rallying around the sacred carroccio,^ inflicted upon the imperial army an overwhelming defeat. A truce of six years was the prelude to the Peace of Con- stance (11 83). By this agreement the Emperor's authority over the cities was reduced virtually to a titular and idle suzerainty,* while their right to manage their own internal affairs and to wage private war was acknowledged. 3 In the eleventh century Heribert, Archbishop of Milan, invented for that city an ensign consisting of a pole bearing the crucifix and raised on a chariot, — hence called the carroccio. The car was drawn by four yokes of oxen and was, like the ancient Ark of the Israelites, of which it was a sort of imitation, the rallying point of the army on the battlefield. Many of the other cities followed the example of Milan, and under these curious standards, "the sign and symbol of all they held dear," the Italian cities marched in their short but brilliant career of freedom. 4 The Emperor retained the right to place representatives in the cities and to receive food, forage, and lodging for his army when he might chance to visit Italy. 178 THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS 189. Dissensions among the Italian Cities ; the Age of Liberty. — The cities had preserved or rather recovered their liberties. They had secured at Constance confirmation particularly of the cherished right of private war. This was a fatal privilege. They misused it and brought upon themselves no end of trouble and suffering. For a century and more they waged ever-renewed, bitter, and sanguinary wars upon one another. The causes of dissension were many and near at hand. "The cities fought," says Symonds, "for command of seaports, passes, rivers, roads, and all the avenues of wealth and plenty." But besides the numerous causes of strife between the different re- publics, there were elements of discord within the walls of each individual city. The struggle between the Papacy and the Empire, in which the Italians perforce took part, divided the population of each town into two parties, — the Ghibellines, who adhered to the Emperor, and the Guelphs,^ who espoused the cause of his enemy, the Pope. The history of civil dissensions might be searched in vain for a parallel to the bitterness and vindictiveness with which the struggle between these parties was carried on for centuries. Still another very fruitful source of disorder and violence in the cities was the presence there of the feudal lords (sec. 187). In other lands these quarrelsome folk fought out their feuds in the open country ; in Italy, in the streets of the cities. Nevertheless, though fraught with so many evils, " Liberty," as declares Herodotus in speaking of democratic Athens, "Liberty is a brave thing." The strenuous freedom of the Italian cities fos- tered great talents and great virtues in their citizens. The eminent Florentine historian Guicciardini attributes the prosperity and brilliant culture of the Italian cities during the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries to the local independence they then enjoyed. 190. The Rise of Despots. — The constant wars of the Italian cities with each other and the incessant strife of parties within 5 These names, which were of German origin, became at last mere party shib- boleths. Speaking in a very general way, it may be said that the Ghibellines repre- sented the intrusive Teutonic element and favored a feudal, aristocratic organization of society, while the Guelphs represented the old Roman population and were supporters of liberal democratic institutions. THE RISE OF DESPOTS 179 each community led to the same issue as that to which tended the endless contentions and divisions of the Greek cities in ancient times. Their democratic institutions were overthrown, internecine war and strife having resulted in anarchy, and anarchy having led, as always, to tyranny. By the end of the thirteenth century almost all the republics of Northern and Central Italy down to the papal states, save Venice, Genoa, and the cities of Tuscany, had fallen into the hands of domestic tyrants, many of whom by their crimes and their intol- erable tyranny rendered themselves as odious as the worst of the tyrants who usurped supreme power in the free cities of ancient Hellas. They possessed, many of them, a remarkable " energy for crime." Their strenuous wickedness filled the land with violence and terror. One thing which enabled these usurpers to seize the supreme power in the cities was the decay of the military spirit in their inhabitants. The burghers became immersed in business and dele- gated the defense of their cities to mercenaries. The captains of these hirelings were known as condottieri. Some of them were foreign adventurers ; all were soldiers of fortune. They found it easy to overthrow the liberties of the cities which they had been hired to defend. We shall now relate some circumstances, for the most part of a commercial or social character, which concern some of the most renowned of the Italian city-states. 191. Venice Venice, the most famous of the Italian cities, had its beginnings in the fifth century in the rude huts of some refugees who fled out into the marshes of the Adriatic to escape the fury of the Huns of Attila. Here, secure from the pursuit of the barbarians, who were unprovided with boats, they gradually built up, on some low islets, a number of httle villages, which finally, towards the close of the seventh century, coalesced to form a single city, at whose head was placed a ruler bearing the title of Duke, or Doge, a name destined to acquire a wide renown. Conquests and negotiations gradually extended century after century the possessions of the island republic, until she finally i8o THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS came to control the coast and waters of the Eastern Mediter- ranean in much the same way that Carthage had mastery of the Western Mediterranean at the time of the First Punic War. Even before the Crusades her trade with the East was very extensive, and by those expeditions was expanded into enormous dimensions. The sea between Italy and the ports of Egypt and Syria was whitened with the sails of her transports and war galleys. It will be recalled that she took part in the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the capture of Constantinople by the Latin Christians (sec. 148). As her share of the divided lands of the Eastern ^ Empire she received r^ the Peloponnesus, most of the Greek islands, and the shore lands of the Hellespont, — a goodly empire of the sea. Venice was at the height of her power dur- ing the thirteenth, four- teenth, and fifteenth centuries. Her suprem- acy on the Mediterra- nean Sea, which was as complete as is England's on the ocean to-day, was celebrated each year by the unique ceremony of "Wedding the Adriatic " by the dropping of a ring into the sea. The origin of this custom was as fol- lows. In the year 1 1 7 7 Pope Alexander III, out of gratitude to the Venetians for services rendered him in his quarrel with the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, gave a ring to the Doge with these words : "Take this as a token of dominion over the sea, and wed her every year, you and your successors forever, in order that all may know that the sea belongs to Venice and is subject to her as a bride is subject to her husband." This annual celebration of the cere- mony was one of the most brilliant spectacles of the Middle Ages. The maritime power and ascendancy of Venice was embodied in her famous Arsenal. This consisted of a series of wharves, Fig. 32. — State Barge of Venice used IN THE Ceremony of "Wedding the Adriatic." (From a model preserved in the Venetian Arsenal ; after Lacroix) VENICE AND GENOA l8l dockyards, and vast magazines filled with marine war-engines and military stores of every kind. In the city's palmiest day sixteen thousand shipbuilders, workmen, and guards were employed here. The Arsenal was one of the sights of Europe and is still an object of interest to the curious traveler. Dante introduced in his Inferno^ a celebrated description of the place, doubtless from personal knowledge of it. The decline of Venice dates from the fifteenth century. The conquests of the Ottoman Turks r^ . . . . O o 1-1 Ph THEIR SERVICES TO CIVILIZATION 183 About the beginning of the fifteenth century Florence fell into the hands of the celebrated Medici,^ a Florentine family that had grown rich and powerful through mercantile enterprises. These usurpers of liberty were fortunately, enlightened despots and made their rule generally acceptable to the Florentines through a mu- nificent patronage extended to artists and scholars, an unstinted liberality in the prosecution of magnificent public works, and the glory they shed upon Florence by the maintenance of a brilHant court. 194. Services to Civilization of the Mediaeval Towns. — Modern civiHzation inherited much from each of the three great centers of mediaeval life, — the monastery, the castle, and the town. We have noticed what came out of cloister and of baronial hall, \vhat the monk and what the baron contributed to civilization.^ We must now see what came out of the town, what contribution the burgher made to European life and culture. In the first place, the mediaeval cities bequeathed to modem times certain valuable economic ideals and principles. It was in the heart of these communities, as within the early Benedictine monasteries, that labor, almost for the first time in history, if we except the teachings and practices of the Hebrews, was emanci- pated and the stigma put upon it by slavery and serfdom removed.^^ In the cities of ancient Greece and Italy, speaking generally, trading, save in a large way, and all manual employ- ments were given over into servile hands; a citizen engaging in business was in some cases punished by being deprived of his citizenship, since he was regarded as having dishonored himself, or, in the words of Plato, as having " thrown dirt on his father's house." ^^ In the mediaeval towns, on the contrary, it was a very 8 The two most distinguished names of the house are those of Cosimo de' Medici (i 389-1464), who was called the "Friend of the People and the Father of his Coun- try," and Lorenzo, his grandson (1448-1492), who had bestowed upon him the title of " The Magnificent." 9 See sees. 32 and loi. 10 Serfdom was early extinguished in the towns, which became one of the most powerful agencies, both through direct action and indirect influence, in the abolition of rural serfdom. 11 " He who in any way shares in the ilUberality of retail trades may be indicted by any one who likes for dishonoring his race, before those who are judged to be first in i84 THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS general rule that only the members of the merchant and craft gilds could have lot and part in the municipal government. This meant that here labor had ceased to be servile and was coming to be looked upon, at least by the laborers themselves, as honorable. This new feeling regarding labor the towns Fig. 34. — The Cologne Cathedral. (From a photograph) This edifice was begun in the eleventh century, but was not finished until our own day (1880). It is one of the most imposing monuments of Gothic archi- tecture in the world transmitted to the Modem Age. This was one of the most precious elements of their great bequest. In the second place, the towns were the cradle of modern com- merce, that is of trade on a large scale between widely separated cities and lands. It was through the activity and enterprise of virtue ; and if he appear to throw dirt upon his father's house by an unworthy occu- pation, let him be imprisoned for a year and abstain from that sort of thing." — Laws J xi. 919 (Jowett's trans.). So also Aristotle. Speaking of the state which is best governed, he says : " The citizens . . . must not lead the life of mechanics or trades- men, for such life is ignoble and inimical to virtue." — Politics, vii. 9 (Jowett's trans.). THEIR SERVICES TO CIVILIZATION 185 the mediaeval merchant and trader that was laid the basis of that vast system of international exchange and traffic which forms so characteristic a feature of modern European civilization. In the third place, the mediaeval cities, along with the monas- teries, were the foster home of architecture, sculpture, and paint- ing. These things, as has been well said, are " the beautiful flowers of free city life." The old picturesque high-gabled houses, the sculptured gild halls, the artistic gateways, the superb palaces, and the imposing cathedrals found in so many of the cities of Eu- rope to-day bear wit- ness to the important place which the mediaeval towns hold in the history of architecture and art.-^^ In the fourth place, the towns were the birthplace of modem political liberty. They became such through giving so- ciety a new order at a time when political society was made up of orders. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were only two classes, or orders, in the state which had participation in the government, — the nobility and the clergy. The inhabitants of the towns 12 The enthusiasm for church building was most marked in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. The style of architecture first employed was the Romanesque, characterized by the rounded arch and the dome; but towards the close of the twelfth century this was superseded by the Gothic, distinguished by the pointed arch, the slender spire, and rich ornamentation. Fig. 35. — Town Hall of Louvain (After Lubke) This magnificent Gothic edifice dates from the fifteenth century l86 THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS grew into a new order destined to a great political future, the so-called Third Estate, or Commons}^ During the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the representatives of the towns came to sit along with the nobles and the clergy in the national diets or parliaments of the different countries.^* What this meant for the development of modern parliamentary govern- ment we shall learn later. In the fifth place, it was the most typical of the free cities, those of Italy, which gave to the world the Renaissance, that great essentially intellectual movement which marked the latter part of the Middle Ages. The relation of the Italian cities to this mental awakening will be made the subject of a section further on (sec. 279). Selections from the Sources. — Lee, Source-Book, § 56, " Charter of the City of London (from Henry I)." Colby, Selections, p. 70, " A Town Charter." Translations and Reprints, vol. ii, No. i, "English Towns and Gilds " (ed. by Edward P. Cheyney). European History Studies (Univ. of Nebraska), vol. ii, Nos. 8 and 9, " The Rise of Cities " and " The Trades of Paris." Robinson, Readings in European History, vol. i, chap, xviii (in part). Secondary "Works. — Guizot, Histoiy of Civilization in Europe, Lect. vii, *' Rise of the Free Cities." Green, Town Life in the Fifteenth Ceji- tury. Gross, The Gild Merchant. The best authority on the subject it covers. Zimmern, The Hansa Towns. Symonds, Age of the Despots, chaps, iii and iv. Hazlitt, The Venetian Reptiblic. . The standard authority in English, Weil, Venice, chaps, i-xii. Duffy, The Tuscari Repicblics {Florence, Siena, Pisa, and Lucca) with Genoa. Emerton, MedicEval Europe, chap, xv (last part). Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap, xii, "The Growth of Commerce and its Results." Cheyney, An Lntroduction to the Industrial and Social History of Eng- land, chaps, iii and iv. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 358-365. Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Venice. In the " Mediaeval Towns" series there are separate volumes on Florence, Nuremberg, Bruges, etc., which contain chapters of interest. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The Gilds. 2. Frederick Barbarossa and Milan. 3. ^\i& carroccio. 4. A typical Italian despot. See Symond's Age of the Despots. 5. The Wedding of the Adriatic. 6. The Venetian Arsenal. 7. St. Mark's at Venice. 8. Cathedral building. 13 In England the men of the rural districts, that is of the counties, formed from the first, or almost from the first, a part of this order. In other countries, however, it was not until a later time that the rural class came to reenforce the new estate. 1^ See sees. 211 and 236. CHAPTER XVI THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN 1.95. Introductory. — "History's true object of study," says Fustel de Coulanges, "is the human mind; it should aspire to know what this mind has beUeved, thought, and felt in the dif- ferent ages of the life of the human race." What we have narrated in preceding chapters respecting medi- aeval institutions and enterprises will have revealed to the thoughtful reader something at least of both the mind and the heart of the men of the Middle Ages. Nothing, however, mirrors more perfectly the purely intellectual life of those centuries than the universities which the age-spirit called into existence. For this reason we propose in the present chapter to say something of these institutions and of what was taught in them. 196. The Rise and Early Growth of the Universities. — It will be recalled that a significant feature of the work of Charlemagne was the establishment of schools in connection with the cathe- drals and monasteries of his realm (sec. 76). From the opening of the ninth till well on into the eleventh century the lamp of learning was fed in these episcopal and monastic schools, although throughout the tenth century the flame burned very low. Closely associated with these Church seminaries we find the names of many of the most influential men of the earUer mediaeval centuries. But towards the close of the eleventh and the opening of the twelfth century a new intellectual movement, which was destined to affect profoundly these schools, began to stir Western Christen- dom. This mental revival was caused by many agencies, particu- larly by the quickening influence of the Graeco-Arabian culture in Spain and the Orient, with which the Christian West was just now being brought into closer contact through the Crusades. 187 l88 THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN As a consequence of this newly awakened intellectual life there arose a demand for more advanced and specialized instruction than that given in the cloister schools, and especially for a freer and more secular system of education, one that should prepare a person for entering upon a professional career as a physician, lawyer, or statesman.^ It was in response to these new demands that the universities came into existence. Their early history is very obscure for the reason that the most ancient ones, as Laurie says," grew and were not founded." Some of these were mere expansions of cathedral or monastery schools ; others developed out of lay schools which had grown up in commercial towns, especially in the Italian cities, and in which the instruction given was almost wholly secular in character and practical in aim. The popes patronized the rising schools, " believing that all learning tended to the glory of God and the good of the Church"; emperors and kings granted them charters confirm- ing their already acquired privileges, or granting them fresh immunities, in the expectation that they would prove a bulwark of the imperial or royal authority ; cities fostered their growth for the sake of the distinction they conferred and the residents and trade they attracted. It was about the end of the twelfth and the opening of the thirteenth century when the earliest universities were formally recognized by royal and papal charters. Three of the most ancient universities were the University of Salerno, noted for its teachers in medicine ; the University of Bologna, frequented for its instruc- tion in law ; and the University of Paris, revered for the authority of its doctors in theology. Bologna and Paris served as models in organization and government for the most of the later univer- sities. The University of Paris gave constitution and rules to so 1 The number of faculties in the mediaeval university was not fixed. A usual number was four, — the Faculty of Theology, the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Law, and the Faculty of Arts (or Philosophy). The course in arts embraced what is to-day covered by the courses in letters and science, and served as a preparation for entrance upon one of the three specialized professional courses, though most of the students never went beyond it. UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION 189 many as to earn the designation of " the Mother of Universities and the Sinai of the Middle Ages." 197. University Organization : the " Nations," or Gilds. — Many features of the mediaeval university can be understood only in the light of the fact that in the mediaeval town the alien was almost as wholly without rights, both political and civil, as was the aUen in a city of ancient Greece, and that in case of most of the universities, not only the students, but the masters as well, were almost all noncitizens of the towns in which they gathered. Consequently, for the sake of comradeship, for mutual assistance and " the avenging of injuries," the students, either alone or in connection with their teachers, organized themselves, according to the countries whence they came, into associations or gilds, which came to be known as " Nations." At Paris there were four of these groups, at Bologna thirty-six. It was these gilds which exercised or enjoyed the special rights and privileges to which we referred in the preceding paragraph. These privileges very generally included exemption from taxation, from mihtary service, and freedom from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. The early universities thus became in a large measure self-governed and self-judged communities, in a word, "literary republics," holding some such relation to the civil authorities of the cities in which they were situated as many of these cities themselves, in the age of independent city life, held to the state. 198. Students and Student Life. — The number of students in attendance at the mediaeval universities was large. Contempo- raries tell of crowds of fifteen, twenty, and even thirty thousand at the most popular institutions. These numbers have been called in question, and it will be safe to consider them, like other med- iaeval figures, merely as "metaphors for immensity." But that the attendance was numerous is certain, for in those times all who were eager to acquire knowledge — and the intellectual ferment was general — must needs seek some seat of learning, since the scarcity and great cost of manuscript books put home study out of the question. Then, again, many of the pupils I90 THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN attending the nonprofessional courses were mere boys of twelve or thereabouts, — the high-school pupils of to-day ; while, on the other hand, the student body embraced many mature men, among whom were to be counted canons, deans, archdeacons, and other dignitaries. Student life in the earlier university period, before the dormi- tory and college system was introduced, was unregulated and shamefully disorderly. The age was rough and lawless, and the Fig. ^6. — University Audience in the Fifteenth Century (From Geiger's Renaissance and Humanismus) student class were no better than their age; indeed, in some respects they seem to have been worse. For the student body included many rich young profligates, who found the universities the most agreeable places for idling away their time, as well as many wild and reckless characters who were constantly engaging in tavern brawls, terrorizing the townsmen at night, even waylay- ing travelers on the public roads, and committing " many other enormities hateful to God." METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 191 Between the students composing the different " Nations " there existed much race prejudice and animosity, which sometimes broke out in unseemly riots in the lecture room. The most serious feuds, however, arose between the students and the towns- men. " Town and gown " disagreements and fights were common and not unfrequently resulted in the migration to another city of the whole, or practically the whole, body of students and masters. 199. Branches of Study and Methods of Instruction. — The ad- vanced studies given greatest prominence in the universities were the three professional branches of theology, medicine, and law. The natural sciences can hardly be said to have existed, although in alchemy lay hidden the germ of chemistry and in astrology that of astronomy. The Ptolemaic theory, which made the earth the stationary center of the revolving celestial spheres, gave color and form to all conceptions of the structure of the universe. The method of instruction in all the university departments was the same. It was a servile study of texts, which were regarded with a veneration bordering on superstition and were minutely analyzed and commented upon. Thus in theology it was a study of the Bible and particularly of the writings of the Church Fathers and doctors ; in medicine, an explanation of the works of Hippoc- rates and Galen with their Arabian commentators; in natural science, a study of the physics of Aristotle ; in civil law, a com- mentary on the works of the Corpus Juris of Justinian, and in canon law, on the decisions and edicts of popes and councils. Not even in the physical sciences was there any serious appeal to experience, to observation, to experiment. In anatomy, discus- sions took the place of dissections.^ Books were considered better authority than nature herself. "Aristotle," says Ueberweg, "was regarded as the founders of religions are wont to be considered." One venturing to criticise this " Master of those who know " was looked upon as presumptuous and irreverent. This mode of study resulted in part from an imitation of the method followed in theology, which was perforce a study of 2 At Bologna, where anatomical study was most advanced, each student witnessed only one dissection during the year. 192 THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN texts held as authoritative or infallible ; and in part from the lack of books, which made dictation by the teacher and note taking and memorizing by the student the only practicable mode of c^-rrying on the work of the lecture room. The ordinary classes met in private rooms or hired apartments. Mass meetings of the *' Nations " and other large assemblages were held in some convenient cathedral or convent church bor- rowed for the occasion. The university itseK had at first neither dormitories nor halls.^ 200. Scholasticism ; the Province of the Schoolmen. — Springmg up within the early ecclesiastical schools and developed within the later universities, there came into existence a method of philoso- phizing which, from the place of its origin, was called Scho- lasticism, while its representatives were called Schoolmen, or Scholastics. The chief task of the Schoolmen was the reducing of Christian doctrines to scientific form, the harmonizing of revelation and reason, of faith and science. They thought it possible to build up a science of theology which, like the science of geometry, should consist of indisputable theorems and corollaries resting upon a foundation of axioms and exact definitions. Their aim was to give every Christian doctrine a demonstration so complete and absolute as to compel the behef of everybody, — skeptics, pagans, and Saracens. We should note that the typical Schoolmen did not question the truth or soundness of the doctrines and teachings of the Church. They did not ask. Are these things so? but simply. How and why 2s& they so? Surely there must be a reason for everything, they insisted, and God has given us our reasoning faculty that we might search out reasons and causes. 201. The Earlier Schoolmen ; Abelard. — John Scotus Erigena, an Irish teacher and philosopher, is sometimes called the first of 3 It was this poverty of the university which rendered so easy those migrations or secessions of dissatisfied students and masters of which we hear so frequently. Nothing prevented them, if they felt themselves wronged by the local authorities, from fleeing from one city to another. Several of the younger universities originated in such movements. THE EARLIER SCHOOLMEN 193 the Schoolmen; but more generally this place is given to St. Anselm (i 033-1 109), abbot of the monastery of Bee in Normandy and later Archbishop of Canterbury in England.* The maxim of this typical Schoolman was : " I beUeve in order that I may understand." But by far the most eminent of the early Schoolmen was Peter Abelard (1079-1142). Such a teacher the world had probably not produced since Socrates enchained the youth of Athens. At Paris over five thousand pupils are said to have thronged his lecture room. Driven by the shame of a public scandal and by persecution to seek retirement, he hid himself first in a monas- tery and later in a solitude near the city of Troyes. But his admirers followed him into the wilds in such multitudes that a veritable university sprang up around him in his desert retreat. Abelard carried to an extreme the tendency of the Schoolmen to rationaHze everything. " A doctrine is believed," he taught, " not because God has said it, but because we are convinced by reason that it is so." He declared doubt to be the starting point in the quest of knowledge, and, apparently with the object of producing this desirable state of mind in his disciples, wrote a . book entitled Sic et Non ('' So and Not So "), which was a col- lection of mutually contradictory opinions of the Church Fathers on every conceivable theological question. The Church conservatives became frightened. Bernard of Clairvaux, preacher of the Second Crusade, entered the lists against the presumptuous champion of the human reason. Ber- nard's principle was that man acquires a knowledge of divine things _ by way of the heart and not by way of the intellect. " God is known," he finely said, "in proportion as he is loved." He charged Abelard with pride of intellect : " There is nothing in heaven or on earth," he said, " that he does not claim to know." He complained that no place was left for faith; the human reason usurped everything. 4 With St. Anselm begins practically the great Scholastic controversy of the Nominalists and Realists which never wholly ceased in the mediaeval schools. For an account of this prolonged discussion the student must have recourse to works on philosophy. 194 THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN The temper of the times was against Abelard. Certain of his opinions were condemned by two Church councils, and he was forced to burn part of his writings. This was one of the most noteworthy colHsions between ecclesiastical authority and freedom of thought during the Middle Ages. Abelard 's brilliant reputation as a philosopher was tarnished by grave faults of character. Intrusted with the education of a fascinating and mentally gifted maiden, Heloise by name, Abelard betrayed the confidence reposed in him. A secret marriage bound in a tragic fate the lives of teacher and pupil. The "tale of Abelard and Heloise" forms one of the most romantic yet saddest traditions of the twelfth century. 202. Scholasticism in the Thirteenth Century ; Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. — The thirteenth century witnessed a fresh development of Scholasticism. The impulse to this renewed intellectual activity came to the Christian West, like many simi- lar incitements, from ancient Greece. It came at this time through various channels, but mainly through the Arabian schools in Spain. •Before the end of the first quarter of the thirteenth century all the works of Aristotle were for the first time brought to the knowledge of the Schoolmen. Before this it was chiefly his logic which was known to them; but now all his other works were translated into Latin, at first from Arabic or Hebrew versions, and then later directly from the Greek text. It would be difficult to exaggerate the stimulating influence of these fresh philosophical and scientific acquisitions upon the Christian thinkers of the West. The great age of Scholasticism now opened. The universities of Paris and Oxford were the chief centers of the new movement ; the Mendicant Orders furnished its most illustrious representatives. From the Dominican Order came Albertus Magnus, or " Albert the Great" (i 193-1280), who was called " the second Aristotle," and Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1227-1274), known as "the Angelic Doctor." As philosophers these Schoolmen stand to each other in some such relation as did Plato and Aristotle, nor SCIENTIFIC SIDE OF SCHOLASTICISM 195 are their names unworthy of being linked with the names of those great thinkers of ancient Greece. The reputation of Aquinas as the greatest Scholastic and theologian of the Middle Ages rests largely upon his prodigious work . entitled Summa Theologies, or " Sum of Theology." ^ The work is regarded as the standard of orthodoxy in the Catholic Church. From the Franciscan Order came Duns Scotus (d. 1308), a British monk, whose keen analytical intellect caused him to be called " the Subtle Doctor." '' The mind of Duns Scotus," says Dean Milman, "might seem a wonderful reasoning machine; whatever was thrown into it came out in syllogisms." 203. The Scientific Side of Scholasticism ; Roger Bacon. — The typical Schoolman was a logician, and speculative subjects con- nected with theology were his supreme interest; yet there were some Schoolmen who devoted themselves largely to physical science, and sought to gain a knowledge of nature, not alone through books, but by direct personal observation and study of nature herself. The impulse to this study of the natural sciences was communicated to Christian scholars mainly through their contact with Greek and Arabian learning. The most noteworthy representative of the scientific activity of the Scholastic age was the English Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon (d. 1294), called "the Wonderful Doctor," on account of his marvelous knowledge of mechanics, optics, chemistry, and other sciences. He understood the composition of gunpowder, or a similar explosive, and seemingly the nature of steam ; for in one of his works he says that " wagons and ships could be built which would propel themselves with the swiftness of an arrow, without horses and without sails." His contemporaries believed him to be in league with the devil. He suffered persecution and was imprisoned for fourteen years. 5 This was not the first attempt of the kind. In the twelfth century Peter of Lombard (d. 1 164) wrote his famous Four Books of Sentences, which earned for him the title of " the Master of Sentences." This work, which served in some sort as a basis for the Summa by Aquinas, consisted mainly of a collection of short quota- tions from the writings of the Church Fathers and doctors. It was one of the most popular text-books ever written. It held its place in the schools as a manual of theology for more than three hundred years. 196 THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN Roger Bacon's greatest bequest to posterity was a book called Opus Majus, in which is anticipated in a wonderful way those principles of modern inductive science laid down by Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century. "The advance of sound his- torical judgment," says Andrew D. White, *' seems likely to bring the fame of the two who bear the name of Bacon nearly to equality." 204. The Last of the Schoolmen. — The fourteenth and fif- teenth centuries witnessed the decline of Scholasticism. Scholas- tic debate in the hands of unworthy successors of the great philosophers of the thirteenth century fell away for the most part into barren disputations over idle and impossible questions. The representatives of this degenerate Scholasticism became the objects of the unmeasured scorn and ridicule of the men of the New Learning brought in by that revival of classical culture which marked the later mediaeval age. The low estimation in which the Schoolmen of this period came to be held is disclosed in the history of our word dunce. Originally applied as an appellation of honor to a disciple of the great Duns or to any learned person, the term at this time, being ironically applied to the stupid Scholastic opposed to classical studies, came to acquire its present meaning of a preposterous dolt. 205. The Services of the Schoolmen to Intellectual Progress. — The Schoolmen fill a large place in the history of the intellectual development, of the race. They rendered in this relation two distinct and important services. In the first place, by their ceaseless debates and argumenta- tion they stimulated to activity the mediaeval intellect and dis- ciplined it in the processes of exact reasoning. They made the universities of the time real inental gymnasia in which the European mind was trained and prepared for its later and, happily, more fruitful work. In the second place, the Schoolmen rendered a great serv- ice to the cause of intellectual freedom. This assertion at first blush may appear paradoxical, when one recalls that the submis- sion of reason to Church authority was one of the fundamental BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 maxims of the orthodox Schoolmen. But the place they gave the human reason and the constant appeal they made to it was preparing the way for the full and plain assertion of the principle of the freedom of thought. " Scholasticism as a whole," says Professor Seth, "may be justly regarded as the history of the growth and gradual emancipation of reason which was completed in the movements of the Renaissance and the Reformation." Selections from the Sources. — Translations and Reprints, vol. ii, No. 3, « The Mediaeval Student " (ed. by Dana Carleton Munro). Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp. 262-266, " The Foundation of the Uni- versity of Heidelberg, a.d. 1386." Dante, Divina Commedia (trans, by Longfellow). There is much of the spirit, the form, and the substance of Scholasticism in this great mediaeval poem, for, after Aristotle, the School- men Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas were Dante's masters in philosophy and science. An admirable bit of Scholastic reasoning and exposition will be found in canto vii of the Faradiso, where Beatrice dis- courses on " the Incarnation, the Immortality of the soul, and the Resur- rection of the body." Secondary Works. — Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Laurie, The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities. CoMPAYRE, A be lard, and the Origin and Early History of Universities. Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars, chap, vi, " The Building up of a Uni- versity." Church, Saint Anselm. Alzog, Universal Church History, vol. ii, pp. 728-784. Fisher, History of the Christian Church, pp. 208- 226. Stille, Studies in Mediceval History, chap. xiii. Emerton, Mediaval Europe, chap. xiii. Morison, The Life and Times of Saint Bernard, and Storrs, Bernard of Clairvaux. In each of these works will be found an interesting account of Bernard's controversy with Abelard. Gallienne, Old Love Stories Retold, " Abelard and Heloise." Mullinger, A History of the University of Cambridge, chaps, i-iii. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 348-357. Consult also articles on " Universities " and " Scholasticism" in the Encyc. Brit. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The "Nations" at the universities. 2. Student life. 3. " Town and gown." 4. Abelard and St. Bernard. 5. Albertus Magnus. 6. Thomas Aquinas. 7. Roger Bacon. CHAPTER XVII GROWTH OF THE NATIONS : FORMATION OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS AND LITERATURES 206. Introductory. — The most important political movement, that marked the latter part of the Middle Ages was the fusion, in several of the countries of Europe, of the petty feudal prin- cipaHties and half-independent cities and communes into great nations with strong centrahzed governments. This movement was accompanied by, or rather consisted in, the decline of feudalism as a governmental system, the loss by the cities of their freedom, and the growth of the power of the kings. Many things contributed to this consolidation of peoples and governments, different circumstances favoring the movement in the different countries. In some countries, however, condi- tions were opposed to the centraHzing tendency, and in these the Modern Age was reached without nationality having been found. But in England, in France, and in Spain circumstances all seemed to tend towards unity, and by the close of the fif- teenth century there were established in these countries strong despotic monarchies. Yet even among those peoples where national governments did not appear, some progress was made towards unity through the formation of national languages and literatures, and the development of common feehngs and aspira- tions, so that these races or peoples were manifestly only await- ing the opportunities of a happier period for the maturing of their national life. This rise of monarchy and decline of feudalism, this substitu- tion of strong centralized governments in place of the feeble, irregular, and conflicting rule of the feudal nobles or of other local authorities was a very great gain to the cause of law and good order. It paved the way for modern progress and civilization. 198 ENGLAND jgg In these changes the political liberties of all classes, of the cities as well as of the nobility, were, it is true, subverted. But though Liberty was lost, Nationahty was found. And the people may be trusted to win back freedom, as we shall see. Those sturdy burghers — the merchants, artisans, lawyers of the cities — who, in the eleventh century, showed themselves stronger than lords, will in time, with the help of the yeomanry, prove themselves stronger than h'ngs. Europe shall be not only orderly, but free. Out of despotic monarchy will rise constitutional, representative government. I. England 207. General Statement. — In earlier chapters we told of the origin of the English people and traced their growth under Saxon, Danish, and ^^ Norman rulers. In the present section we shall tell very briefly the story of their fortunes under the Plan- tagenet^ house and its branches, thus carrying on our narrative to the accession of the Tudors in 1485, from which event dates the beginning of the modern history of England. The chief events of the period which we shall notice were the martyrdom of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, the loss of the English possessions in France, the wresting of Magna Carta from King John, the formation of the House of Commons, the conquest of Wales, the wars with Scotland, the Hundred Years' War with France, and the Wars of the Roses. 1 The name Plantagenet Ccime from ' the peculiar badge, a sprig of broom plant {flante de gen^t), adopted by one of the early members of the house. Following is a table of the sovereigns of the family. HOUSE OF LANCASTER Henry 11 1154-1189 Richard I 1189-1199 Henry IV 1399-1413 John ♦. 1199-1216 Henry V 1413-1422 Henry HI 1216-1272 Henry VI 1422-1461 Edward I 1272-1307 house of york Edward II 1307-1327 Edward IV 1461-1483 Edward III .... . 1327-1377 Edward V 1483 Richard II i377-i399 Richard III 1483-1485 200 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS 208. The Martyrdom of Thomas Becket (11 7 2). — The most impressive event in the reign of the first Plantagenet was a tragedy, — the murder of Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This event possesses great historical interest for the reason that it grew out of those contentions between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities which, as we have seen, make up a large part of mediaeval history. The circumstances leading up to the tragedy were these. In the early years of Henry's reign Thomas had been a favorite courtier, and chancellor of the realm. Thinking that he would serve him well as primate, Henry made hini Archbishop of Can- terbury. As archbishop, Thomas came into conflict with the king on several matters involving the relations of the clergy to the civil power, the most important of which was a question regarding the trial of clerks by the secular courts. At this time in England the clergy were exempt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts of justice.^ Since the Church courts could inflict no severer penalty than imprisonment, it often happened that clerks guilty of the most heinous crimes, even of murder, were punished inadequately, or even not at all. Moreover, the judges of these courts were said to be over-lenient in deahng with accused members of their own order. Henry resolved that the clergy, like laymen, should be subject to the civil courts. To this end he caused to be drawn up the so-called Constitutions of Clarendon (i 164), a collection of " sl cer- tain part of the customs, liberties, and dignities of his ancestors," which among other things provided that persons in orders accused of crime should be tried by the king's judges, if these judges deemed the cases to be such as should come before them, and that no case should be appealed from the courts of the archbishops to the Pope without the king's consent. 2 Charlemagne had recognized the principle, held from early times by the Church, that ecclesiastics should be amenable only to the ecclesiastical tribunals, by freeing the whole body of the clergy from the jurisdiction of the temporal courts, in criminal as well as in civil cases. Gradually the bishops acquired the right to try all cases relating to marriage, trusts, perjury, simony, or concerning widows, orphans, or crusaders, on the ground that such cases had to do with religion. o c d S o MARTYRDOM OF THOMAS BECKET 20I Thomas, after some hesitation, swore to observe the Consti- tutions, but soon he repented having done so, and sought and obtained from the Pope release from his oath. He maintained that the ordinances took away from the Church undoubted rights and privileges. His course led to a long and violent quarrel with the king. Finally, Henry dropped an impatient expression, which four of his courtier knights interpreted as a wish that Thomas should be put out of the way. These men sought out the archbishop in the cathedral at Canterbury and murdered him on the steps of the altar. The people ever regarded Thomas as a martyr and his tomb in the cathe- dral became a place of pilgrimage. Three hundred years later the poet Chaucer made the journey thither of a goodly company of pilgrims the groundwork of his celebrated Can- terbury Tales (sec. 228). The attitude of the people after the murder of Thomas compelled Henry to give up the idea of enforcing the provisions of the Constitutions of Clar- endon. Moreover, he was constrained to do penance for his participation in the crime by submitting to a flogging by the monks of Canterbury at the martyr's tomb. 209. Loss of the English Possessions in France (i 202-1 204). — The issue of the battle of Hastings, in 1066, made William of Normandy king of England. But we must bear in mind that he still held his possessions in France as a fief from the French king, whose vassal he was. These Continental lands, save for some short intervals, remained under the rule of Wilham's Norman successors in England. Then, when Henry, Count of Anjou, came to the English throne as the first of the Plantagenets, these territories were greatly increased by the French possessions of that prince. The larger part of Henry's dominions, indeed, was in France, the Fig. 37. — The Murder of Thomas Becket. (From a Canterbury seal of 'the fourteenth century) 202 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS whole of the western half of the country being in his hands ; but for all of this he of course paid homage to the French king. As was inevitable, a feeling of intense jealousy sprang up between the two sovereigns. The French king was ever watching for some pretext upon which he might deprive his rival of his possessions in France. The opportunity came when John, in 1 199, succeeded Richard the Lion-hearted as king of England. Twice that odious tyrant was summoned by Philip Augustus of France to appear before his French peers and clear himself of certain charges, one of which was the murder of his nephew Arthur. John refused to obey the summons. Philip was finally able, so strong was the feeling against John, to dispossess him of all his lands in France, save a part of Aquitaine in the south. The loss of these lands was a great gain to England. The Angevin kings had been pursuing a policy which, had it been successful, would have made England a subordinate part of a great continental state. That danger was now averted. In the words of Freeman, " England had been a dependency of Anjou ; Aquitaine was now a dependency of England." 210. Magna Carta (12 15). — Magna Carta ^ the " Great Char- ter," held sacred as the safeguard of EngHsh liberties, was an instrument which the English barons and clergy wrested from King John, and in which the ancient rights and privileges of the people were clearly defined and guaranteed. The circumstances which led up to this memorable transaction, narrated in the briefest way possible, were as follows. Among the kings of foreign race whom the Norman Conquest brought into England there were those who disregarded the customs and insti- tutions of the realm and ruled in a very arbitrary and despotic manner. King John, as will easily be believed from the revelation of his character already made, surpassed the worst of his prede- cessors in tyranny and wickedness. His course led to an open revolt of the barons of the realm. The tyrant was forced to bow to the storm he had raised. He met his barons at Runnymede, a flat meadow on the Thames, near Windsor, and there affixed his seal to the instrument that had been prepared to receive it. SAY ^-i-A Le Man4o 'pi^. OF B ISbA Y R Lou e Angers o\ \ ( ^ 's/' Blois, ntes^-'*>-*-. Tours, "^ Fontevraultf:^ O '' V THE MfN. WORKS. g_ THE GREAT CHARTER 203 Among the important articles of the Great Charter were the following, which we give as showing at once the nature of the venerable document and the kind of grievances of which the peo- ple had occasion to complain. Art. 12. " No scutage^ or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom except by the common council of our kingdom, except for the ran- soming of our body, for the making of our oldest son a knight, and for once marrying our oldest daughter, and for these purposes it shall be only a reasonable aid ; ^ . . . Art. 39. " No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispos- sessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor send upon him, except by the legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. Art. 40. " To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny, or delay right or justice." The Great Charter did not create new rights and privileges, but in its main points simply reasserted and confirmed old usages and laws. It was immediately violated by John and afterwards was disregarded by many of his successors ; but the people always clung to it as the warrant and safeguard of their hberties, and again and again forced tyrannical kings to renew and confirm its provisions, and swear solemnly to observe all its articles. Considering the far-reaching consequences that resulted from the granting of Magna Carta, — the securing of constitutional liberty as an inheritance for the English-speaking race in all parts of the world, — it must always be considered the most important concession that a freedom- loving people ever wrung from a tyran- nical sovereign. 211. Beginnings of the House of Commons (1265). — The reign of Henry III (1216-1272), John's son and successor, witnessed the second important step taken in English constitutional free- dom. This was the formation of the House of Commons, the 8 Scutage was a money payment made in commutation of personal military service. 4 This article respecting taxation was suffered to fall into abeyance in the reign of John's successor, Henry III, and it was not until about one hundred years after the granting of Magna Carta that the great principle that the people should be taxed only through their representatives in Parliament became fully established. 204 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS Great Council having up to this time been made up of nobles and bishops. It was again the royal misbehavior — so frequently is it, as Lieber says, that Liberty is indebted to bad kings, though to them she owes no thanks — that led to this great change in the form of the English national assembly. Henry had violated his oath to observe the provisions of the Great Charter and had become even more tyrannical than his father. In the words of a contemporary, the Enghsh were oppressed "hke as the people of Israel under Pharaoh." The final outcome was an uprising of the barons and the people sim- ilar to that in the reign of King John. The leader of the revolt was Earl Simon, a son of the Simon de Montfort who led the first crusade against the Albigenses. It was open war between the king and his people. In a great engagement known as the battle of Lewes (1264), the royal forces were defeated and Henry was taken prisoner. In order to rally all classes to the support of the cause he represented, Earl Simon now issued, in the king's name, writs of summons to the barons (save the king's adherents), the bishops, and the abbots to meet in Parliament; and at the same time sent similar writs to the sheriffs of the different shires, directing them " to return two knights for the body of their county, with two citizens or burghers for every city and borough contained in it." Although the knights of the different shires had in several instances before this been represented by delegates, so that the principle of representation was not now for the first time intro- duced into the English constitution, still this was the first time when plain untitled citizens, or burghers, had been called to take their place with the barons, bishops, and knights, in the great council of the nation, to join in deliberations on the affairs of the realm.^ 5 At first the burghers could take part only in questions relating to taxation, but gradually they acquired the right to share in all matters that might come before Parliament. Just thirty years later (in 1295), in the reign of Edward I, there was gathered through regular constitutional summons what came to be called the Model Parliament, since in its composition it served as a pattern for later Parliaments. CONQUEST OF WALES 205 From this gathering, then, may be dated the birth of the House of Commons (1265). Formed as it was of knights and burghers, representatives of the common people, it was at first a weak and timorous body, quite overawed by the great lords, but was destined finally to grow into the controlling branch of the British Parliament. 212. Conquest of Wales (12 72-1 282). — For more than seven hundred years after the withdrawal of the Romans from Britain, the Celtic tribes of Wales maintained among their mountain fastnesses an ever-renewed struggle with the successive invaders of the island, — with Saxon, Dane, and Norman. They were Fig. 38. — Carnarvon Castle. (From a photograph) This fortress was founded by Edward I in 1283. It is one of the most impressive of the decayed mediaeval strongholds of the British Isles forced to acknowledge the overlordship of some of the Saxon and Norman kings ; but they were restless vassals, and were constantly withholding tribute and refusing homage. When Edward I (i 272-1307) came to the English throne, Llewellyn III, who held the overlordship of the Welsh chiefs, refused to render homage to the new king. Edward led a strong army into the fastnesses of the country and quickly reduced his rebel vassal to submission. A few years later, and the Welsh patriots were again in arms ; but the uprising was soon crushed, and Llewellyn was slain (1282). His head, after the barbarous manner of the times, was exposed over the gateway of the Tower of London. The last remnant of Welsh independence was now extinguished. Edward made his little son, born during the 206 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS campaign, feudal lord of the Welsh, with the title of Prince of Wales ; and from that time the title has usually been borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. The strong- walled and picturesque castle-fortresses — those at Conway and Carnarvon are particularly celebrated — which Edward built or strengthened to guard the conquered land are, like the old watch-towers of the Norman kings in England (sec. ii6), historical monuments of the greatest interest to the modern traveler in Wales. For two centuries after the death of Llewellyn the Welsh were the unwilling and at times rebellious subjects of England. Then occurred a happy circumstance, — the accession to the English throne of a prince of Welsh descent ; for Henry Tudor, the first of the Tudor dynasty, was the grandson of a Welsh knight, named Owen Tudor. With princes of the ancient British race reigning in London, the Welsh, from sullen subjects, were suddenly transformed into enthusiastic and loyal supporters of the English throne. 213. Wars with Scotland (12 9 6-1 3 2 8). — From the time of King Alfred's son Edward, the kings of England had intermit- tently laid claim to the suzerainty of the Scottish realm. The Norman and Plantagenet kings down to the time of Edward I were constantly quarreling with the Scots about this matter of English overlordship and Scotch vassalage. During Edward I's reign an opportunity presented itself for a seemingly final settle- ment of the question. In 1285 the ancient Celtic line of Scot- tish chiefs became extinct. A great number of claimants for the vacant throne immediately arose. Chief among these were Robert Bruce and John Balliol, distinguished noblemen of Norman descent, attached to the Scottish court. Edward was asked to act as arbi- trator and decide to whom the crown should be given. He con- sented to do so, but only on condition that the Scottish nobles should do homage to him as their overlord. This they were constrained to do. Edward's commissioners then decided the question of the succession in favor of Balliol, who now took the crown of Scotland as the fully acknowledged vassal of the English sovereign (1292"), WAkS WITH SCOTLAND 207 Balliol soon broke the feudal ties which bound him to Edward and sought an alliance with the French king. In the war that followed the Scots were defeated and Scotland fell back as a for- feited fief into the hands of Edward (1296). As a sign that the Scottish kingdom had come to an end, Edward carried off to London the royal regalia, and with this a large stone, known as the Stone of Scone, upon which the Scottish kings, from time out of memory, had been accustomed to be crowned. The block was taken to Westminster Abbey, and there put beneath the seat of a stately throne-chair, which to this day is used in the coronation ceremonies of the English sovereigns. The two countries were not long united. The Scotch people loved too well their ancient liberties to submit quietly to this extinguish- ment of their national independence. Under the inspiration and lead of the famous Sir William Wallace, an outlaw knight, all the Lowlands were soon in determined revolt. Wallace gained some successes,^ but at length was betrayed into Edward's hands. He was condemned to death as a traitor, and his head, garlanded with a crown of laurel, was fixed on London Bridge (1305). The romantic life of Wallace, his patriotic services, his heroic exploits, and his tragic death at once lifted him to the place that he has ever since held as the national hero of Scotland. The struggle in which Wallace had fallen was soon renewed by the almost equally renowned hero Robert Bruce (grandson of the Robert Bruce mentioned above), who was the representative 6 Notably a great victory at what is known as the battle of Stirling (1297), Fig. 39. — Coronation Chair IN Westminster Abbey Beneath the seat is the celebrated Scottish Stone of Scone, which was carried away from Scotland by Edward I 2o8 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS of the nobles, as Wallace had been of the common people. With Edward 11 ' Bruce fought the great battle of Bannockburn, near Stirling. Edward's army was almost annihilated (13 14). It was the most appalling disaster that had befallen the arms of the Eng- lish people since the memorable defeat of Harold at Hastings. The independence of Scotland really dates from the great victory of Bannockburn, but the English were too proud to acknowledge it until after fourteen years more of war. Finally, in the year 1328, the young king Edward III gave up all claim to the Scottish crown, and Scotland, with the hero Bruce as its king, took its place as an independent power among the nations of Europe. Respecting the results to both the EngHsh and the Scotch of the failure of the Edwards to subject Scotland to their rule, the historian Gardiner finely comments as follows : " Morally, both nations were in the end the gainers. The hardihood and self- reliance of the Scottish character is distinctly to be traced to those years of struggle against a powerful neighbor. England, too, was the better for being balked of its prey. No nation can suppress the liberty of another without endangering its own." The independence gained by the Scotch at Bannockburn was maintained for nearly three centuries, — until 1603, — when the crowns of England and Scotland were peacefully united in the person of James VI of Scotland, who became Jarnes I of Eng- land, the founder of the Stuart dynasty of EngHsh kings. During the greater part of these three hundred years the two countries were very quarrelsome neighbors. The Hundred Years' War {1338-1453) 214. Causes of the War. — The long and wasteful war between England and France known in history as the Hundred Years' War was a most eventful one, and its effect upon both England 7 Edward I died while on a campaign against the Scots (1307). He was one of the ablest and best beloved of English kings. He so improved the laws of the realm, and made such great and beneficent changes in the administration of justice as to earn the title of the " English Justinian." THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 209 and France so important and lasting as to entitle it to a promi- nent place in the records of the closing events of the Middle Ages. Freeman likens the contest to the Peloponnesian War in ancient Greece; and Hallam says that since the fall of Rome there had been no war among European nations " so memorable as that of Edward III and his successors against France, whether we consider its duration, its objects, or the magnitude and variety of its events." The war with Scotland was one of the things that led up to this war. All through that struggle France, as the old and jealous rival of England, was ever giving aid and encouragement to the Scots. Then the EngUsh possessions in France, for which the English king owed homage to the French sovereign as over- lord, were a source of constant dispute between the two countries. Trade jealousies also contributed to the causes of mutual hostility. Furthermore, upon the death of Charles IV of France, the last of the direct Capetian line, Edward III laid claim to the French crown in much the same way that William of Normandy centuries before had laid claim to the crown of England. 215. The Battle of Crecy (1346). — The first great combat of the long war was the famous battle of Cr^cy. Edward had invaded France with a strong force, made up largely of EngHsh bowmen, and had penetrated far into the country, ravaging the land as he went, when he finally halted and faced the pursuing French army near the village of Cr^cy, where he inflicted upon it a most terrible defeat. Twelve hundred knights, the flower of French chivalry, and thousands of foot soldiers lay dead upon the field. The great battle of Cr^cy is memorable for several reasons; but chiefly because feudalism and chivalry there received their deathblow. "The whole social and pohtical fabric of the Mid- dle Ages," writes Green, "rested on a mihtary base, and its base was suddenly withdrawn. The churl had struck down the noble ; the bowman proved more than a match, in sheer hard fighting, for the knight. From the day of Cr^cy feudahsm tot- tered slowly but surely to its grave." The battles of the world 2IO GROWTH OF THE NATIONS were thereafter to be fought and won, not by mail-clad knights with battle-ax and lance, but by common foot soldiers with bow and gun. 216. The Siege and Capture of Calais (1346-1347). — From the field of Crecy Edward led his army to Calais, which fell into his hands at the end of a year's siege. This was a very important event for the English, as it gave them control of the commerce of the Channel and aiforded a convenient landing place for their expeditions of invasion. 217. The Black Death (1347-1349). — At just this time there fell upon Europe the awful pestilence known as the Black Death. The plague was introduced from the East by way of the trade routes of the Mediterranean, and from the southern countries spread in the course of a few years over the entire continent, its virulence without doubt being greatly increased by the unsanitary condition of the crowded towns and the wretched mode of living of the poorer classes. In many places almost all the people fell victims to the scourge. Some villages were left without an inhabitant. Many monasteries were almost emptied. In the Mediterranean and the Baltic ships were seen drifting about without a soul on board. Crops rotted unharvested in the fields; herds and flocks wandered about unattended. It is estimated that from one third to one half of the population of Europe perished. Hecker, an historian of the pestilence, estimates the total number of victims at twenty-five millions. It was the most awful calamity that ever befell the human race.^ 218. The Battle of Poitiers (1356). — The terrible scourge caused the contending nations for a time to forget their quarrel. But no sooner had a purer atmosphere breathed upon the conti- nent than their minds were again turned to war, and the old struggle was renewed with fresh eagerness. 8 Under the terror and excitement of the dreadful visitation, religious penitents, thinking to turn away the wrath of Heaven by unusual penances, went about in pro- cession, lacerating themselves with whips (hence they were called flagellants). This religious frenzy had its most remarkable manifestation in Germany. THE PEASANTS' REVOLT 21 1 Edward planned a double invasion of France. He himself led an army through the already wasted provinces of the north, while his eldest son, known from the color of the armor he wore as the Black Prince, ravaged with another the rich lands of the south. As the prince's army, numbering about eight thousand men, loaded with booty, was making its way back to the coast, it found its path, near Poitiers, blocked by a French army of fifty thousand, led by King John, the successor of Philip. A battle ensued which proved for the French a second Crecy. The arrows of the Enghsh bowmen drove them in fatal panic from the field, which was strewn with thousands of their dead. King John and his son Philip were taken prisoners. 219. The Peasants' Revolt (1381). — During most of the half century succeeding the treaty that soon followed the battle of Poitiers,^ the war between the two countries was practically sus- pended. The most important event in English history during this interval was what is known as the Peasants' Revolt. One of the grievances of the peasants grew out of their rela- tions to the landlords. Many of the former serfs had commuted into money payments the personal services they owed their lords (sec. 95) and had thus got rid of this badge of serfdom. They were now free laborers working for hire. The rise in wages occa- sioned by the Black Death caused the landlords to regret the bargain they had made with their former serfs, since the commu- tation money would not now pay for as many days' labor as the serfs were originally bound to render. The landlords endeavored to escape from their bad bargain by means of legislation. They secured the enactment by Parliament of a law known as the Statute of Laborers (135 1), which made it a misdemeanor for any unem- ployed laborer to refuse to work for the wages paid before the plague. Attempts to enforce this statute caused much discontent and trouble. 9 The Treaty of Bretigny (1360). By the terms of this treaty Edward was to keep possession of the duchy of Aquitaine and some other provinces, not, however, as fiefs from the French king, in which way he had hitherto held his lands in France, but in full sovereignty. 212 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS The hard conditions under which those still held in serfdom led their lives constituted another grievance of a large class. In these words of one of the leaders of the uprising we hear the burden of their complaint : *' For what reason do they hold us in bondage ? Are we not all descended from the same parents Adam and Eve? And what can they show, or what reasons give, why they should be more the masters than ourselves?" A third grievance of the peasants, and seemingly the immediate cause of the revolt, was the imposition of a heavy poll tax, which struck the poor as well as the rich, to meet the expenses of the French war. The storm burst in 1381. The peasants rose in almost every part of England and marched in crowds upon London. Their most noted leaders were Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and John Ball. The essence of their demands was the abolition of villanage (serfdom) in England. There was tumult and violence everywhere. Abbeys and manor houses were sacked, and the charters which were the evidence of the peasants' servitude were burned. The revolt had the usual issue. The bands of insurgents were finally scattered and their leaders were pitilessly put to death. Yet the insurrection was a success after all. The fear of another uprising and the inefficient character of sullen labor caused the landlords to hasten the process that had long been going on of commuting into money payments or rents the grudgingly rendered personal services of the serfs. At the end of a hundred years after the revolt there were very few serfs to be found in England. The abolition of serfdom was an important step in" the nation- alization of the English people. Sweeping away artificial barriers between classes, it hastened the unification of English society and the creation of a true English nation. 220. Battle of Agincourt (1415). — During the reign in England of Henry V, the second sovereign of the House of Lancaster, France was unfortunate in having an insane king, Charles VI ; and Henry, taking advantage of the disorder into which the French kingdom naturally fell under these circumstances, invaded the JOAN OF ARC 213 country with a powerful army. After losing a great part of his followers through sickness, Henry finally, with a force of only about ten thousand men, chiefly archers, met a French feudal army fifty thousand strong on the field of Agincourt. The French suffered a most humiliating defeat, their terrible losses falling, as at Crecy, chiefly upon the knighthood. Five years later was con- cluded the Treaty of Troyes, according to the terms of which the French crown, upon the death of Charles, was to go to the English king. 221. Joan of Arc; the Relief of Orleans (1429). — But patriotism was not yet wholly extinct among the French people. There were many who regarded the concessions of the Treaty of Troyes as not only weak and shame- ful but as unjust to the Dauphin Charles, who was thereby disin- herited, and they accordingly refused to be bound by its provisions. Consequently, when the poor insane king died, the terms of the treaty could not be carried out in full, and the war dragged on. The party that stood by their native prince, afterwards crowned as Charles VII, were at last reduced to most desperate straits. The greater part of the country was in the hands of the English, who were holding in close siege the important city of Orleans (1428). But the darkness was the deep gloom that precedes the dawn. A better day was about to rise over the distressed country. A strange deliverer now appears, — the famous Joan of Arc. This young peasant girl, with soul sensitive to impressions from brood- ing over her country's wrongs and sufferings, saw visions and heard voices which bade her undertake the work of delivering France. She was obedient unto the heavenly voices. Fig. 40. — Charge of French Knights AND Flight of English Arrows 214 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS The warm, impulsive French nation, ever quick in responding to appeals to the imagination, was aroused exactly as it was stirred by the voice of the preachers of the Crusades. Religious enthusiasm now accomplished what patriotism alone could not do. Rejected by some, yet received by most of her countrymen as a messenger from Heaven, the maiden kindled throughout the land a flame of enthusiasm that nothing could resist. Inspiring the dispirited French soldiers with new courage, she forced the English to raise the siege of Orleans (from which exploit she' be- came known as the Maid of Orleans), and speedily brought about the corona- tion of Prince Charles at Rheims (1429). Shortly afterward she fell into the hands of the English, was tried by ecclesiastical judges for witchcraft and heresy, and was con- demned to be burned as a heretic and a witch. Her martyrdom took place at Rouen in the year 1431. But the spirit of the Maid had already taken possession of the French nation. From this on, the war, though long con- tinued, went steadily against the English. Little by little they were pushed off from the soil they had conquered, and driven out of their own Gascon lands of the south as well, until finally they held nothing in the land save Calais. Thus ended, in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, the Hundred Years' War. 222. Effects upon England of the War. — The most important effects of the war as concerns England were the enhancement of Fig. 41. — Joan of Arc. (From a photo- graph of a beautiful painting in the His- torical Gallery at Versailles) We have no authentic likeness of Joan of Arc. The above must be regarded as an ideaUzed portrait THE WARS OF THE ROSES 215 the power of the Lower House of ParHament and the awakening of a national spirit. The maintaining of the long and costly quarrel called for such heavy expenditures of men and money that the English kings were made more dependent than hitherto upon the representatives of the people, who were careful to make their grants of supplies conditional upon the correction of abuses or the confirming of their privileges. Thus the war served to make the Commons a power in the English government. Again, as the war was participated in by all classes alike, the great victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt aroused a national pride, which led to a closer union between the different elements of society. Normans and English, enlisted in a common enterprise, were fused by the ardor of a common patriotic enthusiasm into a single people. The real national life of England dates from this time. The Wars of the Roses {14^^-1485) 223. Introductory. — The Wars of the Roses is the name given to a long contest between the adherents of the houses of York and Lancaster, rival branches of the royal family of England. The strife was so named because the Yorkists adopted as their badge a white rose and the Lancastrians a red one. 224. Chief Battles of the War. — The three battles which may be made to serve as landmarks of the struggle were the first battle of St. Albans (1455), the battle of Towton Field (1461), and the battle of Bosworth Field (1485). The first marks the commence- ment of the struggle. The second was the most terrible battle fought in England after that of Hastings. The third battle marks the close of the war. In this fight King Richard III,^'^ the last of the House of York, was overthrown and slain by Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who was crowned on the field with the diadem which had fallen from the head of Richard, and saluted as King Henry VII. With him began the dynasty of the Tudors. 10 This is the Richard who, in order to make secure his title to the crown, is believed to have caused the murder of the two little princes, his nephews, in the Tower of London (1483). 2l6 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS 225. The Effects of the Wars. — The first important result of the Wars of the Roses was the ruin of the baronage of England. One half of the nobility were slain. Those that survived were ruined, their estates having been wasted or confiscated during the progress of the struggle. Not a single great house retained its old-time wealth and influence. The war marks the final downfall of feudalism in England. The second result of the struggle sprang from the first. This was the great peril into which English liberty was cast by the ruin of the nobility. It was primarily the barons who had forced the Great Charter from King John, and who had kept him and his successors from reigning like absolute monarchs. Now the once proud and powerful barons were ruined, and their confis- cated estates had gone to increase the influence and patronage of the sovereign, who when strong and willful, like Henry VIII, did pretty much as he pleased and became unjust and tyrannical. In short, upon the ruins of the baronage was erected something like a royal despotism. Not until the revolution of the seven- teenth century did the people, by overturning the throne of the Stuarts, curb the undue power of the crown and recover their lost liberties. Growth of the English Language and Literature 226. The Language. — From the Norman Conquest to the middle of the fourteenth century there were in use in England three languages : Norman French was the speech of the con- querors and the medium of polite hterature; Saxon, or Old Enghsh, was the tongue of the conquered people; while Latin was the language of the laws and records, of the Church services, and of the works of the learned. Modern EngUsh is the old Saxon tongue worn and improved by use, and enriched by a large infusion of Norman-French words, with less important additions from the Latin and other languages. It took the place of the Norman-French in the courts of law about the middle of the fourteenth century. At tlais time ENGLISH LITERATURE 217 the language was broken up into many dialects, and the expression " King's English " is supposed to have referred to the standard form employed in state documents and in use at court. 227. Effect of the Norman Conquest on English Literature. — The blow that struck down King Harold and his brave thanes on the field of Hastings silenced for the space of above a century the voice of EngHsh hterature. The tongue of the conquerors became the speech of the court, the nobility, and the clergy ; while the language of the despised English was, like themselves, crowded out of every place of honor. But when, after a few generations, the downtrodden race began to reassert itself, Enghsh literature emerged from its obscurity, and, with an utterance somewhat changed, — yet unmistakably it is the same voice, — resumed its interrupted lesson and its broken song. 228. Chaucer (i34o?-i4oo). — Holding a position high above all other writers of early Enghsh is Geoffrey Chaucer. He is the first in time, and, after Shakespeare, perhaps the first in genius, among the great poets of the English-speaking race. He is reverently called the " Father of EngHsh poetry." Chaucer stands between two ages, the mediaeval and the mod- ern. He felt not only the influences of the age of feudalism which was passing away, but. also those of the new age of learn- ing and freedom which was dawning. It is because he was so sensitive to these various influences, and reflects his surround- ings so faithfully in his writings, that these are so valuable as interpreters of the period in which he lived. Chaucer's greatest and most important work is his Canterbury Tales. The poet represents himself as one of a company of story- telling pilgrims who have set out on a journey to the tomb of .Thomas Becket at Canterbury (sec. 208). The persons, thirty- two in number, making up the party, xepresent almost every calling and position in the middle class of English society. The prologue, containing characterizations of the different members of the company, is the most valuable part of the production. Here as in a gallery we have shown to us faithful portraits of pur ancestors of the fourteenth century. 2l8 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS 229. William Langland. — The genial Chaucer shows us the pleasant, attractive side of English society and life ; William Langland, another writer of the same period, in a poem called the Vision of Piers the Plowman (1362), lights up for us the world of the poor and the oppressed. This poem quivers with sympathy for the hungry, labor-worn peasant, doomed to a life of weary routine and hopelessness, despised by haughty lords and robbed by shameless ecclesiastics. The long wars with France had demoralized the nation ; the Black Death had just reaped its awful harvest among the ill-clad, ill-fed, and ill-housed poor. Occasional outbursts of wrath against the favored classes are the mutterings of the storm soon to burst upon Fig. 42. — Plowing Scene. (From a manuscript of the fourteenth century) the social world in the fury of the Peasants' Revolt, and later upon the religious world in the upheavals of the Reformation. 230. John Wycliffe (13 24-1 384) and the Lollards. — Foremost among the reformers and religious writers of the period under review was John Wycliffe, called " the Morning Star of the Ref- ormation." This bold reformer attacked first many of the prac- tices and then certain of the doctrines of the Church. He gave the English people the first translation of the entire Bible in the English language. There was no press at this time to multiply editions of the book, but by means of manuscript copies it was widely circu- lated and read. Its influence was very great, and from its appear- ance may be dated the beginnings of the Reformation in England. Wycliffe did not wholly escape persecution in life, and his bones were not permitted to rest in peace. His enemies attrib- uted to his teachings the unrest and the revolt of the peasants, CAXTON AND THE PRINTING PRESS 219 and this caused him to be looked upon by many as a dangerous agitator. In 141 5 the Council of Constance (sec. 259) pro- nounced his doctrines heretical, and ordered that his body be taken from its tomb and burned. This was done, and the ashes were thrown into a neighboring stream called the Swift. "This brook," in the words of the old ecclesiastical writer, Thomas Fuller, " hath conveyed his ashes into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into the Narrow Seas, they into the ocean ; and thus the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblem of his doctrine, which now is dispersed all the world over." The followers of Wycliffe became known as Lollards (babblers), a term applied to them in derision. Their religious opinions were regarded as erroneous or as heretical; and heresy at that tirne was hated and feared, at least by those in authority. Parliament passed a law (1401) known as the Statute for the Burning of Heretics, which made it the duty of the proper civil officers, in cases of persons convicted of heresy by the ecclesiastical courts, to receive the same and " before the people, in a high place, cause them to be burnt, that such punishment may strike fear to the hearts of others." Heretics had been burned in England before the passage of this law, but now for the first time did Parliament by special enactment make this form of punishment the penalty for reli-' gious dissent. It was the opening of a sad chapter in English history. Under the statute many persons whose only fault was the teaching or the holding of rehgious opinions different from those of the Church perished at the stake. 231. Caxton (1412-1491) and the Printing Press. — The great religious movement referred to in the preceding paragraph, which during the sixteenth century transformed the face of England, was hastened by the introduction of printing into the island by William Caxton towards the close of the fifteenth century. The first work which appeared from his press was entitled the Game of Chess (1474). He also printed Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ^ and almost everything else worth reproducing then existing in English, besides various works from the Latin and the French. 220 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS The eagerness with which the books which fell from Caxton's press were seized and read by all classes indicates the increasing activity and thoughtfulness of the public mind. Manifestly a new day — one to be filled with intellectual and moral revolu- tions — was breaking over the land of Alfred and of Wycliffe. II. Feance 232 . Beginnings of the French Kingdom. — The separate history of France may be regarded as beginning with the partition of Verdun in 843. At that time the Carolingians, of whom we have already learned (Chapter VII), exercised the royal power. Just at the close of the tenth century, in 987, the 'Capetian dynasty acceded to the throne. The direct Capetian line ruled until 1328, when the Valois branch of the house came into power and ruled until the accession, in 1589, of Henry IV, the first of the Bourbons. We shall now direct attention to the important transactions of the period covered by the mediaeval Capetian kings. Our special aim will be to give prominence to those matters which concern the gradual consolidation of the French monarchy and the develop- ment among the French people of the sentiment of nationality. France under the Direct Line of the Capetians {g8y-ij28) 233. General Statement. — The Capetian dynasty takes its name from Hugh Capet, Duke of Francia; the first of the house. The direct line embraced fourteen kings, whose united reigns spanned a space of three hundred and forty-one years.^^ 11 Table of the Capetian Kings (direct line) Hugh Capet 987-996 Louis VIII (the Lion) Robert II (the Pious) . 996-1031 Louis IX (the Saint) . Henry I 1031-1060 Phihp III (the Bold) . Phihp I 1060-1108 Philip IV (the Fair) . Louis VI (the Fat) . . 1108-1137 'Lonis X (le ffutin) . Louis VII (the Young) . 1137-1180 Philip V (the Tall) . Philip II (Augustus) . . 1180-1223 Charles IV (the Fair) . 1223-1226 1226-1270 1270-1285 1285-1314 1314-1316 1316-1322 1322-1328 •, BR'ABANT ^ E-ennes MAINE ••ffi 1 .,>^* Le Mau^J /" /I ) Tfoyes\ <' ^ All ire MARCHE f VV 4 -Bordfeatix moges /-s^ i^K^VJs |g i 'T^fM.-N. WORKS, EUF "3 Th'T? a IVf^T' 50 100 Scale ofMiles. Hoyal Domain ^ Fiefs held by the English King I 1 Fiefs lield by other Vassals FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS 221 The first Capetian king differed from his vassal counts and dukes simply in having a more dignified title ; his power was scarcely greater than that of many of the lords who paid him homage as their suzerain. But through forfeiture, conquest, and marriage alliances, one after another of the feudal fiefs was added to the royal domains, until finally the greater part of the kingdom was ruled directly by the crown. Before the close of the Middle Ages France had come to be one of the most compact and power- ful kingdoms in Europe. How various circumstances conspired to build up the power of the kings at the expense of that of the great feudal lords and of the Church will appear as we go on. , In this place, however, it should be noted that nothing con- tributed more to the strength and influence of the monarchy during the period of which we are speaking than the fortunate circumstance that for eleven generations, from the accession of Hugh Capet in 987 to the death of Philip the Fair in 13 14, no French king lacked a son to whom to transmit his authority. For over three centuries the title was transmitted directly from father to son. With no disputed successions the monarchy grew steadily in power and prestige. The most noteworthy events of the earlier Capetian period, regarded from the point of view of the growth of the French kingdom, were the acquisition by the French crown of the greater part of the English possessions in France, the Crusades, the admission of the Third Estate to the National Assembly, and the abolition of the order of the Templars. Of these several matters we will now speak in order. 234. The Acquisition of the English Possessions in France In our sketch of the growth of England we spoke of the extensive possessions of the first Angevin kings in France, and told how the larger part of these feudal lands were lost through King John's misconduct and resumed as forfeited fiefs by his suzerain Philip Augustus, king of France (sec. 209). The annexation of these large and flourishing provinces to the crown of France brought a vast accession of power and patronage to the king, who was now easily the superior of any of his great vassals. 222 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS 235. The French and the Crusades. — The age of the Capetians was the age of the Crusades. These romantic expeditions, while stirring all Christendom, appealed especially to the ardent, imagi- native genius of the Gallic race. Three Capetian kings, Louis VII, Philip Augustus, and Louis IX, were themselves leaders of crusades. It was the great predominance of French-speaking persons among the first crusaders which led the Eastern peoples to call them all Franks, the term still used throughout the East to designate Europeans, irrespective of their nationality. But it is only the influence of the Crusades on the French mon- archy that we need to notice in this place. They tended very materially to weaken the power and influence of the feudal nobiHty, and in a corresponding degree to strengthen the authority of the crown and add to its dignity. The way in which they brought about this transfer of power from the aristocracy to the king has been already explained in the chapter on the Crusades (sec. 158). In that same chapter we also saw how the crusade against the Albigenses resulted in the almost total extirpation of that hereti- cal sect and in the final acquisition by the French crown of large and rich territories formerly held by the counts of Toulouse, the patrons of the heretics. 236. Admission of the Third Estate to the National Assembly (1302). — The event of the greatest political significance in the Capetian age was the admission, in the reign of Philip the Fair, of the representatives of the towns to the National Assembly. This transaction is in French history what the creation of the House of Commons is in Enghsh history (sec. 211). The popular branches of the two councils were, however, called to take part in the administration of public affairs under very different circum- stances. In England it was the nobiHty that sought the people's aid in their struggle with a despotic king. In France it was the king who summoned the burghers to assist him in his quarrel with the papal see. But the fact that the aid of the commons was courted, whether by nobles or by king, indicates that in both countries the middle class was rising into political importance, and was holding in its hands the balance of power. THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLARS 223 The dispute between Philip and the Pope to which we have just referred, arose, it will be recalled, respecting the control of the offices and revenues of the Church in France (sec. 168). In order to rally to his support all classes throughout his kingdom, Phiiip called a meeting of the National Assembly, to which he invited representatives .of the burghers, or inhabitants of the towns (1302). This council had hitherto been made up of two estates only, — the nobles and the clergy ; now is added what comes to be known as the Tiers Etat, or Third Estate, while the assembly henceforth is called the Estates- or States-General. Before the growing power of this Third Estate — a power devel- oped however outside and not within the National Assembly itself — we shall see the Church, the nobility, and the monarchy all go down, just as in England we shall see clergy, nobles, and king yield to the rising power of the English Commons. 237. The Abolition of the Order of the Templars (1307). — The abolition of the order of the Knights of the Temple by Philip the Fair affords in some measure a parallel to the suppression of the Enghsh monasteries by Henry VIII in the sixteenth century. We have already, in connection with the history of the Crusades, learned about the origin of the Templars (sec. 143). In recogni- tion of their services, they had had bestowed upon them, through the gifts of the pious and the grants of princes, enormous riches and the most unusual privileges. The number of manors and castles that they held in the different countries of Europe, but chiefly in France, is estimated at from nine to ten thousand. But gain in wealth and power had been accompanied apparently by a loss in virtue and piety. At all events the most incredible rumors of the immoral and blasphemous character of the secret rites and ceremonies of the society were spread abroad. Its crimes were declared " sufficient to move the earth and disturb the elements." Taking advantage of the feeling against the order, Philip re- solved upon its destruction. He was moved doubtless by various motives, but beyond all question it was the riches of the society,— which Philip coveted, — and not its sins, that were the real cause of its undoing. 224 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS The blow fell suddenly. Upon a preconcerted day (Oct. 13, 1307) the chiefs of the order throughout the kingdom were arrested, and many of them afterwards put to death on various charges.^^ The great crime brought to Philip enormous wealth, which greatly enhanced the growing power and patronage of the crown, just as the strength and influence of Henry VIH of Eng- land were vastly increased by the confiscated wealth of the reli- gious houses he suppressed. France under the Medicevdl Valois'^^ {ij28-i4g8) 238. Effects upon France of the Hundred Years' War. — The main interest of the period of French history upon which we here enter attaches to that long struggle between England and France known as the Hundred Years' War. Having already, in connec- tion with English affairs, touched upon the causes and incidents of this war, we shall here speak only of the effects of the strug- gle on the French people and kingdom. Among these must be noticed the almost complete prostration, by the successive shocks of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, of the French feudal aristocracy, which was already tottering to its fall through various undermining influences ; the growth of the power of the king, a consequence, largely, of the ruin of the nobility ; and, lastly, the awakening of a feeling of nationality and the drawing together of the hitherto isolated sections of the country by the attraction of a common and patriotic enthusiasm. Speaking broadly, we may say that by the close of the war feudalism in France was over, and that France had become, partly in spite of the war but more largely by reason of it, not only a great monarchy but a great nation. 12 The order was formally abolished in 1312 by Pope Clement V, the first of the Avignon popes, who was wholly under the influence of Philip. 13 The House of Valois, as already pointed out, was a branch of the Capetian family. The following table exhibits the names of the mediaeval Valois kings. Philip VI 1328-1350 Charles VII (the Vic- John (the Good) . . . 1350-1364 torious) 1422-1461 Charles V (the Wise) . . 1364-1380 Louis XI 1461-1483 Charles VI (the Well- Charles VIII (the Beloved) ..... 1380-1422 Affable) ,.,... 1483-1498 LOUIS XI AND CHARLES THE BOLD 225 239. Louis XI and Charles the Bold of Burgundy. — The founda- tions of the French monarchy, laid and cemented in the way we have seen, were greatly enlarged and strengthened by the unscru- pulous measures of Louis XI (1/^61-1483), who was a perfect Ulysses in cunning and deceit. His maxim was, " He who does not know how to dissimulate does not know how to reign." The great feudal lords that still retained power and influence he brought to destruction one after another, and united their fiefs to the royal domains. Of all the vassal nobles ruined by the craft of Louis, the most renowned and powerful was Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Charles was endeavoring, out of a great patchwork of petty feudal states and semi-independent cantons and cities, to build up a ^kingdom between Germany and France. His success in this effort would have meant practically a restoration of the old Lotharingian kingdom (see map, p. 68), which, it will be recalled, stretched across Europe from the Mediterranean to the North Sea. It seems one of the misfortunes of history that Charles did not succeed in his ambition. Such a kingdom as he planned might have proved a serviceable "buffer state" between France and Germany. For some of his lands Charles paid homage, or at least owed homage, to the king of France ; others he held as fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire. It is easy to understand how these rela- tions of Charles and his known ambitions should have set him apart as one whom his wily neighbor Louis would watch closely. Louis was frequently warring with the duke and forever intriguing against him. Upon the death of the duke — he was killed in 147 7 in a battle with the Swiss — Louis, without clear right, seized a considerable part of his dominions. By cession and by inheritance Louis also added to France im- portant lands in the south (Provence, Roussillon, and Cerdagne), which gave the French kingdom a wider frontage upon the Medi- terranean, and made the Pyrenees its southern defense. 240. Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. — Charles VIII (1483- 1498), son and successor of Louis XI, was the last of the mediae- val Valois. Through his marriage to Anne of Brittany he brought 226 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS that great fief, which had hitherto constituted an almost inde- pendent, state, under the direct rule of the crown. Thus through the favor of a long series of circumstances, the persistent poUcy of his predecessors, and his own politic marriage Charles found himseK at the head of a kingdom which, gradually transformed from a feudal league into a true monarchy, had, by slow expansion, touched upon almost every side those Hmits which were to constitute substantially the boundaries of modem France. Charles was a romantic youth. His extravagant fancy led him to dream of some brilliant enterprise which should draw the gaze of the world, and which might contribute to the realization of his great project of making France instead of Germany the head of the world-empire. With a standing army, created by Charles VII during the latter years of the war with England,-^^ at his command, he invaded Italy, intent on the conquest of Naples, — to which he laid claim on the strength of an old bequest, — proposing, with that state subdued, to lead a crusade to the East against the Turks. Charles' march through Italy was a mere "promenade." In the early spring of the year 1495 he entered Naples in triumph. Here, in the midst of splendid ceremonies, he caused himself to be crowned " King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem." Meanwhile the king of Aragon, the Venetians, and other powers were uniting their armies to punish the insolence and check the vaulting ambition of the would-be emperor and crusader. Only at the cost of a large part of his army did Charles succeed in making good his retreat into France. The forces he had left at Naples were quickly driven out of the place, and thus ended the youth's dream of a French world-empire. This enterprise of Charles is noteworthy not only because it marks the commencement of a long series of brilliant yet disas- trous campaigns carried on by the French in Italy, but further on account of Charles' army having been made up largely of 14 The paid force of infantry and cavalry created by Charles VII in 1448 was the first standing army in Europe, and the beginning of that vast military system which now burdens the great nations of that continent with the support of several millions of soldiers constantly under arms. FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE 22/ paid troops instead of feudal retainers, which fact assures us that the feudal system, as a military organization, had practically come to an end. Formation of the French Language and the Beginnings of French Literature 241. The Language. — The contact of the old Latin speech in Gaul with that of the Teutonic invaders gave rise there to two very distinct dialects. These were the Langue d' Oc, or Proven- gal, the tongue of the South of France and of the adjoining regions of Spain and Italy; and the Langue d' Oil, or French proper, the language of the North.^^ The soft, musical tongue of the South, predestined though it was to an early decay, was the first, as we shall learn in a moment, to develop a literature ; but when the North precipi- tated itself upon the South in the furious crusades against the Albigenses, the language, literature, and heretical religion of these southern provinces were all swept away together. As the persecuted faith was driven into obscurity, so in like manner the old speech was driven out of palace and court, and found a place only among the rude peasantry. The position of this once widely used Provencal speech among living languages may be illustrated by comparing its fortunes with those of the Celtic tongue in its conflict with the Anglo-Saxon in the British Isles. 242. The Troubadours. — About the beginning of the twelfth century, by which time the Provengal tongue had become settled and somewhat polished, literature in France first began to find a voice in the songs of the Troubadours, the poets of the South. It is instructive to note that it was the home of the Albigensian heresy, the land that had felt the influence of every Mediter- ranean civiHzation, that was also the home of the Troubadour literature. The counts of Toulouse, the protectors of the heretics, 15 The terms Langue d^Oc and Langue d'O'z/ zrose from the use of different words for " yes," which in the tongue of the South was oc, and in that of the North oi/. 228 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS were also the patrons of the poets. It was, as we have intimated, the same fierce persecution which uprooted the heretical faith that stilled the song of the Troubadours. The compositions of the Troubadours were, for the most part, love songs and satires. Among the countless minstrels of the South were some who acquired a fame which was spread through- out Christendom. The verses of the Troubadours were sung in every land, and to their stimu- lating influence the early poetry of al- most every people of Europe is largely in- debted. 243. The Trou- veurs. — These were the poets of North- ern France, who com- FiG, 43. — In the Land of the Troubadours posed in the Langue -THE Castle of Foix. (From Smith, The ^, ^..^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ Troubadours at Home) tongue. They flour- ished during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. As the poetical literature of the South found worthy patrons in the counts of Toulouse, so did that of the North find admiring encouragers in the dukes of Normandy. There was, however, a wide difference between the literature of Southern and that of Northern France. The compositions of the Troubadours were almost exclusively lyric songs, while those of the Trouveurs were chiefly epic or narrative poems, called rojnances. These latter celebrated the chivalrous exploits and loves of great princes and knights, and displayed at times almost Homeric animation and grandeur. Many of them gather about three famihar names, — Charlemagne, King Arthur, and Alexan- der the Great, — thus forming what are designated as the cycle FROISSART'S CHRONICLES 229 of Charlemagne, the Arthurian or Armorican cycle, and the Alexandrian.^® The influence of these French romances upon the springing literatures of Europe was most inspiring and helpful. Nor has their influence yet ceased. Thus in English literature, not only did Chaucer and Spenser and all the early island poets draw inspiration from these fountains of Continental song, but the later Tennyson, in his Idylls of the King, has illustrated the power over the imagina- tion yet possessed by the Arthurian poems of the old Trouveurs. 244. Froissart's Chronicles. — The iirst really noted prose writer in French Hterature was Froissart (about 1 337-1410), whose picturesqueness of style and skill as a story-teller have won for him the title of the " French Herodotus." Born, as he was, only a little after the opening of the Hundred Years' War, and knowing personally many of the actors in that long struggle, it was fitting that he should have become, as he did, the annalist of those stirring times. Froissart' s inimitable Chronicles have an added value from the age in which they were written. It was, as we have learned, a transition period. Feudalism was fast passing away and chivalry was beginning to feel the dissolving breath of a new era. But as the forests never clothe themselves in more gorgeous colors than when already touched by decay, so chivalry never arrayed itself in more splendid magnificence than when about to die. In the age of Edward III and the Black Prince it displayed its most sumptuous and prodigal splendor. And this is the age which the rare genius of Froissart has painted for us. ■ HI. Spain 245. The Beginnings of Spain. — When, in the eighth century, the Saracens swept Hke a wave over Spain, the mountains of Asturias and Cantabria in the northwest corner of the peninsula 16 These epics, it will be noticed, represent the three elements in the civilization of Western Europe, — the German, the Celtic, and the Graeco-Roman. It was the Crusades that brought in a fresh relay of tales and legends from the lands of the East (sec. 159). 230 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS afforded a refuge for the most resolute of the Christian chiefs who refused to submit their necks to the Moslem yoke. These brave and hardy warriors not only successfully defended the hilly dis- tricts that formed their asylum, but gradually pushed back the invaders and regained control of a portion of the fields and cities that had been lost. By the opening of the eleventh century several little Christian states, among which we must notice especially the states of Castile and Aragon because of the prominent part they were to play in later history, had been established upon the ground thus recov- ered or always maintained. Castile was at first simply *' a line of castles " against the Moors, whence its name.. 246. Union of Castile and Aragon (1479). — ^^^ several cen- turies the princes of the little states to which we have referred kept up an incessant warfare with their Mohammedan neighbors ; but, owing to dissensions among themselves, they were unable to combine in any effective way for the complete reconquest of their ancient possessions. But the marriage, in 1469, of Ferdinand, prince of Aragon, to Isabella, princess of Castile, paved the way for the virtual union in 1479 of these two leading states, both greatly enlarged since the eleventh century, into a single kingdom. By this happy union the quarrels of these two rival principalities were composed, and they were now free to employ their united strength in effecting what the Christian princes amidst all their contentions had never lost sight of, — the expulsion of the Moors from the peninsula. 247. The Conquest of Granada (1492). — At the time when the basis of the Spanish monarchy was laid by the union of Castile and Aragon, the Mohammedan possessions had been reduced, by the constant pressure of the Christian chiefs through eight cen- turies, to a very limited dominion in the south of Spain. Here the Moors had established a strong, well-compacted state, known as the Kingdom of Granada. As soon as Ferdinand and Isabella had settled the affairs of their dominions, they began to make preparation for the reduction of this last stronghold of the Moorish power in the peninsula. The Alhambra : Palace of the Moorish Kings at Granada (From a photograph) THE CONQUEST OF GRANADA 23 1 The Moors made a desperate defense of their Httle state. The struggle lasted for ten years. City after city fell into the hands of the Christian knights, and finally Granada, pressed by an army of seventy thousand, was forced to surrender, and the Cross replaced the Crescent on its walls and towers (1492). The Moors, or Moriscos, as they were called, were allowed to remain in the country, though under many annoying restrictions. What is known as their expulsion occurred at a later date (sec. 357). The fall of Granada holds an important place among the many significant events that mark the latter half of the fifteenth cen- tury. It marked the end, after an existence of almost eight hun- dred years, of Mohammedan rule in the Spanish peninsula, and thus formed an offset to the progress of the Moslem power in Eastern Europe and the loss to the Christian world of Constanti- nople. It advanced Spain to a place among the foremost nations of Europe, and gave her arms a prestige that secured for her position, influence, and deference long after the decline of her power had commenced. 248. Influence upon the Spanish Character of the Moorish Domi- nation and the Moorish "Wars. — The long wars which the Spanish Christians waged against the Arab Moors left a deep impress upon the national character. In the first place, the opportunity which they afforded for knightly service and romantic adventure heightened that chivalrous spirit of which more than traces are noticeable in the feelings and the bearing of the Spaniard of to-day. In the second place, they made religion a thing of patriotism, and thus aroused religious zeal and fostered the growth of intol- erance. The unfortunate bias and temper thus imparted to the Spanish national character set Spain apart from the other Western nations, and affords the key to much of her later history both in Europe and in the New World. For illustration, it was, without doubt, the development in the Spanish people of this zealous, uncompromising religious spirit that helped to prepare the ground in Spain for the setting up there of the terrible tribunal of the Inquisition. 232 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS 249. The Inquisition. — The Inquisition, or Holy Office, was a tribunal the purpose of which was the detection and punish- ment of heresy* Its establishment in Spain casts a dark shadow upon the reign of the illustrious sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella. Being employed by the government for the securing of politi- cal as well as rehgious ends, the tribunal became an instrument of the most incredible tyranny. The Jews were in this earlier period the chief victims of the court. Accompanying the an- nouncement of the sentences of the Holy Office there were solemn public ceremonies known as the auto de fe ("act of faith"). The assembly was held in some church or in the public square, and the following day those condemned to death were burned out- side the city walls. It is particularly to this last act of the drama that the term auto de fe has come popularly to be applied. The Inquisition secured for Spain unity of religious belief, but only through suppressing freedom of thought, and thereby sapping the strength and virility of the Spanish people. Whatever was most promising and vigorous was withered and blasted, or was cast out. In the year 1492 the Jews were expelled from the country. It is estimated that between two and three hundred thousand of this race were forced to seek an asylum in other lands. Thus at the same time that Ferdinand and Isabella were doing so much to foster the national life, their unfortunate religious zeal was planting the upas tree which was destined completely to over- shadow and poison the springing energies of the nation. 250. Death of Ferdinand and Isabella. — Queen Isabella died in 1504, and Ferdinand followed her in the year 15 16, upon which latter event the crown of Spain descended to their grandson, Charles, of whom we shall hear much hereafter as the Emperor Charles V. With his reign the modern history of Spain begins. Fig. 44. — Recumbent Effigy of Queen Isabella. (From the magnificent sarcophagus in the Royal Chapel at Granada) SPANISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 233 Beginnings of the Spanish Language and Literature 251. The Language. — After the union of Castile and Aragon it was the language of the former that became the speech of the Spanish court. During the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella it gradually gained ascendancy over the numerous dialects of the country and became at last the national speech, just as in France the Langue d' Oil finally crowded out all other dialects. By the conquests and colonizations of the sixteenth century this Castilian speech was destined to become only less widely spread than is the English tongue. 252. The Poem of the Cid. — Castilian or Spanish literature begins in the twelfth century with the romance poem of the Cid, one of the best known literary productions of the mediaeval period. This grand national poem was the outgrowth of the sentiments inspired by the long struggle between the Spanish Christians and 'the Mohammedan Moors. The hero of the epic is Ruy Diaz, surnamed the Cid (meaning probably *'lord"), the champion of Christianity and Castilian royalty, during the latter part of the eleventh century, against the Saracens. He is made by the romancers to be the impersonation of every knightly virtue, — generosity, patriotism, courage, truthfulness, honor, and loyalty. The real Cid was quite a different character. The influence of the romance of the Cid in exciting the. senti- ment of Spanish patriotism and in stimulating the spirit of Spanish nationahty has been likened to the effects of the poems of Homer in creating fraternal bonds between the cities of ancient Hellas. IV. Germany 253- Beginnings of the Kingdom of Germany. — The history of Germany as a separate kingdom begins with the break-up of the empire of Charlemagne, about the middle of the ninth cen- tury (sec. 79). The part to the east of the Rhine, with which fragment alone we are now specially concerned, was called the Kingdom of the Eastern Franks, in distinction from that to the 234 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS west of the river, which was known as the Kingdom of the Western Franks. This Eastern Frankish kingdom was made up of several groups of tribes, — the Saxons, the Suabians, the Thuringians, the Bava- rians, and the East Franks, of which the latter were at this time chief, and gave name to the whole. Closely allied in race, speech, manners, and social arrangements, all these peoples seemed ready to be welded into a close and firm nation. That such was not the outcome of the historical development during mediaeval times was due largely to the adoption by the German emperors of an unfortunate policy respecting a world-empire. This matter will be explained in the following paragraphs. 254. Revival of the Empire by Otto the Great (962); Conse- quences to Germany of its Renewal. — We have in another place, while tracing the history of the Empire, told how Otto I of Ger- many, in imitation of Charlemagne, restored the imperial authority (sec. 80). Otto's scheme respecting the establishment of a world- empire was a grand one, but, as had been demonstrated by the failure of the attempt of the great Charles, was an utterly imprac- ticable ideal. Yet the pursuit of this phantom by the German kings resulted in the most woeful consequences to Germany. Trying to grasp too much, the German rulers seized nothing at all. Attempting to be emperors of the world, they failed to become even kings of Germany. While they were engaged in outside enterprises their home affairs were neglected and the vassal princes of Germany succeeded in increasing their power and making themselves practically independent. Thus while the kings of England, France, and Spain were gradually consolidating their dominions and building up strong centralized monarchies on the ruins of feudalism, the preoccupied sovereigns of Germany were allowing the country to become split up into a great number of semi-independent states, the ambitions and jealousies of whose rulers were to postpone the unification of Germany for several hundred years — until our own day. Had the emperors inflicted loss and disaster upon Germany alone through this misdirection of their energies, the case would THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS 235 not be so lamentable ; but the fair fields of Italy were for cen- turies made the camping field§, of the imperial armies, and the whole peninsula was kept embroiled with the quarrels of Guelphs and Ghibellines, and thus the nationahzation of the ItaHan people was also delayed for centuries. Germany received just one positive compensation for all this loss accruing from the ambition of her kings. This was the gift of Italian civilization, which came into Germany through the connections of the emperors with the peninsula. 255. Germany under the Hohenstaufen Emperors (113 8- 1254). — The matter of chief importance during the rule of the Hohen- staufen or Suabian house was, as we have learned, the long and bitter conflict waged between the emperors of this family and the popes. The name of the most noted of the Hohenstaufen emperors — Frederick Barbarossa — is familiar to us. Frederick gave Ger- many a good and strong government, and gained a sure place in the affections of the German people, who came to regard him as the representative of the sentiment of German nationality. Other emperors, when engaged in contentions with the Pope, always had a great many among their own German subjects ready to join the Roman see against their own sovereign; but all classes in Germ.any rallied about their beloved Frederick. When news of his death was brought back from the East (sec. 146) they refused to believe that their " knightly Emperor " was dead, and, as time passed, a legend arose which told how he slept in a cavern beneath one of his castles on a mountain top, and how, when the ravens should cease to circle about the hill, he would appear, to make the German people a nation united and strong. Frederick Barbarossa was followed by his son Henry VI (1190- 1197), who, by marriage, had acquired a claim to the kingdom of Sicily." Almost all his time and resources were spent in 17 See sec. 112. The Hohenstaufen held the kingdom until 1265, when the Pope gave it as a fief to Charles 1 of Anjou (brother of Louis IX of France). Charles' oppressive rule led to a revolt of his island subjects, and to the great massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers (1282), one of the great tragedies of history. All the hated race of Frenchmen were either killed or driven out of the island. 236 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS attempts to reduce that remote realm to a state of proper sub- jection to his authority. By leading the emperors to neglect their German subjects and interests, this southern kingdom proved a fatal dower to the Suabian house. By the close of the Hohenstauf en period Germany was divided into about three hundred virtually independent states, the princes and the cities having taken advantage of the prolonged absences of the emperors, or their troubles with the popes and the Italian cities, to free themselves almost completely from the control of the crown. There was really no longer either a German Kingdom or a Holy Roman Empire. The royal as well as the imperial title had become an empty name. 256. The Seven Electors; the Interregnum (125 4-1 2 7 3). — In order to make intelligible the transactions of that period in German history known as the Interregnum, which we have now reached, we must here say a word about the Electors of the Empire. . Fig. 45. — The Electors' Seat. (From a photograph) This structure stands on the banks of the Rhine near Coblenz. On the top are stone seats where the Electors met to elect the German king. The building . shown is an eighteenth-century restoration When, in the beginning of the tenth century, the German Carolingian line became extinct, the great nobles of the king- dom assumed the right of choosing the successor of the last of the house, and Germany thus became an elective feudal mon- archy. In the course of time a few of the leading nobles usurped THE INTERREGNUM 237 the right of choosing the king, and these princes became known as Electors. There were at the end of the Hohenstaufen period seven princes who enjoyed this important privilege, four of whom were secular princes and three spiritual. This electoral body really held the destinies of Germany in its hands.^^ We are now in a position to understand the shameful trans- action of the sale of the German crown. The Electors, like the pretorians of ancient Rome, put up the bauble for sale. There were two bidders, both foreigners, Richard of Cornwall, brother of the English king, Henry III, aaid Alphonso, king of Castile. Both candidates offered the Electors large bribes, and so both were elected, — one of the Electors voting for both can- didates. Although Alphonso had manifested so much anxiety to secure the honor, he never once set foot within the limits of Germany, and Richard contented himself with an occasional visit to the country. Of course neither of the emperors-elect possessed any real authority in Germany or in any of the countries claimed as parts of the Empire. The period is known in German history as the Interregnum. Anarchy prevailed throughout the country. Princes made themselves petty despots in their dominions, while the lesser nobles became robbers and preyed upon traders. 257. Towns and Free Imperial Cities. — The kingly power having fallen into such utter contempt that all general govern- ment was practically in abeyance, the towns found it necessary, in order to protect themselves against the violence and oppres- sion of the princes and barons, to form confederations and take their defense in their own hands. It was during this anarchical period that the Hanseatic League (sec. 185) grew rapidly in strength and influence. 18 The claims of the Electors were very naturally disputed by some of the other members of the Germanic body. In order to settle the matter forever, the Luxem- burg Emperor Charles IV (1347-1378), having first secured the action of a Diet, promulgated a decree called, from its golden seal, the Golden Bull, which confirmed the right of election in the princes who then exercised it, and defined clearly the powers and privileges of the electoral college. This bull remained the fundamental law of the German constitution so long as the Empire lasted, — until 1806. 238. GROWTH OF THE NATIONS During the course of the thirteenth century many of the towns, through the favor of their suzerain, were relieved of the presence of the imperial officers and became what are known as free imperial cities. They of course still acknowledged the suzerainty of the Emperor, but were allowed to manage their local affairs to suit themselves, and thus became practically little commonwealths, somewhat like the city-republics of Italy. A century or two after these cities had secured freedom from the imperial superintendence they acquired the right of repre- sentation in the Diet, or national legislative body. This was the natural consequence of their growing power, just as in England the increasing weight of the towns led, in the thirteenth century, to the admission of their representatives to Parliament. 258. Rise of the Swiss Republic. — The most noteworthy matters in German history during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are the struggle between the Swiss and the princes of the Hapsburg or Austrian family, the religious movement of the Hussites, and the growing power of the House of Hapsburg. Embraced within the limits of the medieval Empire was the country now known as Switzerland. Its liberty-loving people yielded to the Emperor a nominal obedience, like that of the free imperial cities ; but they were very impatient of the claims of various feudal lords to political rights and authority over them. Among the lords claiming or actually possessing rights over different cantons or communities were the counts of Hapsburg.^^ The efforts of the Hapsburgs to bring the mountaineers wholly under their direct power led the three so-called Forest Cantons, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, to form a defensive union, known as the Everlasting Compact (1291). This league laid the basis of the Swiss Confederation, one of the most typical and interest- ing of the federal states of to-day. 19 So called from the castle of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, the cradle of the house. In 1273 Count Rudolph of Hapsburg was chosen Emperor. A little later he acquired Austria as an appanage for his house. From this new possession the family took a new title, — that of the House of 'Austria. THE HUSSITES 239 The struggle between the brave hillsmen and the House of Haps- burg was long and memorable. ^"^ EmbelHshed by Swiss patriotism with thrilling tales of heroic daring and self-devotion, the history of this contest reads like an Iliad. But modern historical criticism has reduced much of the story to prose. Thus the tale of the hero-patriot William Tell and of the tyrant Gessler we now know to be a myth, with nothing but the revolt as the nucleus of fact. Just at the close of the Middle Ages (in 1499) the Hapsburg Emperor Maximilian I, having been defeated in a war with the league, concluded with it a treaty which practically estabhshed the independence of the Swiss Confederation, and gave it a place in the family of European states. One effect upon the Swiss of their long struggle for liberty was the fostering among them of such a love for the military life that when, at a later period, there was lack of warlike occupation for them at home, the Swiss soldiers hired themselves out to the different sovereigns of Europe ; and thus it happened that, though trained in the school of freedom, these sturdy mountaineers became the most noted mercenary supporters of despotism. 259. The Hussites. — About the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury, through the medium of the university connections between England and Germany, the doctrines of the English reformer Wycliffe began to spread in Bohemia. The chief of the new sect was John Huss, a professor of the University of Prague. The doctrines of the reformer were condemned by the great Council of Constance, and Huss himself, having been delivered over into the hand? of the civil authorities for punishment, was burned at the stake (141 5). The following year Jerome of Prague, another reformer, was likewise burned. , Shortly after the burning of Huss a crusade was proclaimed against his followers, who had risen in arms. Then began a cruel, 20 Noteworthy battles, all victories for the Swiss, were the battle of Morgarten (1315), the battle of Sempach (1386), and the battle of Nafels (1388). It was at Sempach, as a patriotic myth relates, that Arnold of Winkelried broke the ranks of the Austrians by collecting in his arms as many of their lances as he could, and, as they pierced his breast, bearing them with him to the ground, exclaiming, " Comrades, I will open a road for you." 240 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS desolating war of fifteen years, the outcome of which was the almost total extermination of the radical party among the Hussites. 260. The Imperial Crown becomes Hereditary in the House of Austria (1438). — In the year 1438 Albert, Duke of Austria, was raised by the Electors to the imperial throne. His accession marks an epoch in German history, for, from this time on until the dissolution of the Empire by Napoleon in 1806, the imperial crown was practically hereditary in the Hapsburg family, the Electors, although never faihng to go through the formality of an election, always choosing a person of Hapsburg descent.^^ 261. The Reign of Maximilian L — The greatest of the Haps- burg line during the mediaeval period was Maximilian I (1493— 15 19). The most noteworthy matter of his reign was the efforts made for constitutional reforms which should enable Germany to secure that internal peace and national unity which France, England, and Spain had each already in a fair degree attained. The condition of Germany at this time was somewhat similar to that of our Union under the Articles of Confederation. The need of a firmer union was recognized. One way of reach- ing this end was to invest the Emperor with greater authority; but the Electors and princes would not give up any part of their privileges and power. "To expect help from the princes," said despairingly a friend of the Emperor, " is Hke looking for grapes from thistles." Working under such untoward circumstances Maximihan, although he had large and ambitious plans for the Empire, accompHshed but httle. On -several sides the Empire was shorn of territory; within, brigandage was rife. The Emperor's pathetic words, " Earth possesses no joy for me ; alas, poor land of Germany ! " vividly reveal to us the hopeless condition of the " Fatherland " as the Middle Ages were closing. 21 There was one exception; Francis I (of Lorraine), 1747-1765, was chosen as the husband of the Hapsburg queen, Maria Theresa. THE NIBELUNGENLIED 241 Beginnings of German Literature 262 . The Nibelungenlied. — It was during the rule of the Hohenstaufen that Germany produced the first pieces of a national hterature. The Nibelungenlied, or the " Lay of the Nibelungs," is the great German mediaeval epic It was reduced to writing about 1200, being a recast, by some Homeric genius perhaps, of ancient German legends and lays dating from the sixth and seventh cen- turies. The hero of the story is Siegfried, the Achilles of Teutonic legend and song. The names and deeds of Attila, Theodoric, and other warriors of the age of the Wanderings of the Nations are mingled in its lines. This great national epic romance may be likened to the poem Beowulf oi our Saxon ancestors (sec. 22). It is gross and brutal, filled with fierce fightings and horrible slaughters, — a reflection of the rude times that gave birth to the original ballads out of which the epic was woven ; but there are also embodied in it the feudal virtues of loyalty and courage, while it further bears traces of the later softening influences of Christianity and of chivalry. 263. The Minnesingers. — Under the same emperors, during the tweKth and thirteenth centuries, the Minnesingers, the poets of love, as the word signifies, flourished. They were the " Trou- badours of Germany." The most eminent of the Minnesingers was Walther von der Vogelweide (11 70— 1227), to whom we are indebted for the epigram, "Woman is women's fairest name, and honors them more than Lady." Many of the love songs of these minstrels were refined and chivalrous and pure, and thus tended to soften the manners and hft the hearts of the German people. Closely connected with the lyric poetry of the Minnesingers is a species of chivalric romances known as court epics. The finest of these pieces have for their groundwork the mythic Celtic-French legends of the Holy Grail and of the Knights of King Arthur's Round Table. The best representative of these romances is the poem of Parsifal?'^ The moral and spiritual 22 By Wolfram of Eschenbach (d. about 1220). 242 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS teaching of the poem is that only through humility, purity, and human sympathy can the soul attain unto the highest perfection of which it is capable. Just at the close of the Middle Ages the humanistic studies (sec. 280) came to interest the scholars of Germany. The result was that for three hundred years thereafter much of the best literary work of the German scholars and writers was done in Latin, — the mother tongue being regarded by the younger or later humanists as plebeian and fit only for inferior composition, — and thus the development of the native literature was seriously checked. V. Russia 264. The Beginnings of Russia. — We have already seen how, about the middle of the ninth century, the Swedish adventurer Rurik became the chief of some Slavonic and Finnish tribes dwelling on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, in the neighbor- hood of Novgorod, and there laid the foundation of what was destined to grow into one of the leading powers of Europe (sec. 84). The state came to be known as Russia, from Ros^ the name of the Scandinavian settlers. The descendants of Rurik gradually extended their authority over adjoining tribes, until nearly all the northwestern Slavs were included in their growing dominions. 265. The Mongol Invasion. — Before the end of the eleventh century the unity of the Russian state had been almost com- pletely destroyed. The monarchy became a loose confederacy of petty, jealous, and warring principalities. This state of things prepared the way for the overwhelming calamity which befell Russia in the thirteenth century. The misfortune to which we refer was the overrunning and con- quest of the country by the Tartar hordes of Jenghiz Khan and his successors (sec. 174). The barbarian conquerors inflicted the most horrible atrocities upon the unfortunate land, and for two hundred and fifty years held the Russian princes in a degrading bondage, forcing them to pay homage and tribute. This period is almost a perfect blank in Russian history. The misfortune delayed THE RISE OF MUSCOVY 243 for centuries the nationalization of the Slavonian peoples. It was just such a misfortune as a little later befell the Greeks and the other races of Southeastern Europe. 266. The Rise of Muscovy ; Russia freed from the Mongols. — During this period of Tartar domination the state of Muscovy, so called from Moscow, its center and capital, gradually extended its dominions until it became easily the first among all the Sla- vonic states. In 1470 the prince of Moscow annexed Novgorod Russia and the Scandinavian Countries at the Close OF THE Middle Ages the Mighty to his dominions. This new Russian power now felt itself strong enough to throw oif the Tartar yoke. It was under Ivan the Great (1462-1505) that Russia, — now frequently called Muscovy from the fact that it had been reor- ganized with Moscow as a center, — after a terrible struggle, suc- ceeded in freeing itself from the hateful Tartar domination and began to assume the character of a well-consolidated monarchy. Thus by the end of the Middle Ages Russia had become a really 244 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS great power; but she was as yet too completely hemmed in by hostile states to be able to make her influence felt in the affairs of Europe. VI. Italy 267. No National Government. — In marked contrast to all those countries of which we have thus far spoken, unless we except Germany, Italy came to the close of the Middle Ages without a national or regular government. This is to be attribu- ted, as we have already learned, to a variety of causes, but in large part to that unfortunate rivalry between Pope and Emperor which resulted in dividing Italy into the two hostile camps of Guelph and Ghibelline. And yet the mediaeval period did not pass without attempts on the part of patriot spirits to effect some sort of political union among the different cities and states of the peninsula. The most noteworthy of these movements, and one which gave assurance, that the spark of patriotism which was in time to flame into an inextinguishable passion for national unity was kindling in the Italian heart, was that headed by the patriot-hero Rienzi in the fourteenth century. 268. Rienzi, Tribune of Rome (1347). — During the greater part of the fourteenth century the seat of the papal see was at Avignon, beyond the Alps (sec. 169). Throughout this period of the " Babylonian Captivity," Rome, deprived of her natural guardians, was in a state of the greatest confusion. The nobles terrorized the country about the capital and kept the streets of the city itself in constant turmoil with their bitter feuds. In the midst of these disorders there appeared from among the lowest ranks of the people a deliverer in the person of one Nicola di Rienzi. With imagination all aflame from long study of the records and monuments of the freedom and the glories of ancient Rome, he conceived the magnificent idea of not only delivering the capital from the wretchedness of the prevaiUng anarchy but also of restoring the city to its former proud position as head of Italy and mistress of the world. RmNZl, TRIBUNE OF ROME 245 Possessed of considerable talent and great eloquence, Rienzi easily incited the people to a revolt against the rule, or rather misrule, of the nobles, and succeeded in having himself, with the title of Tribune, placed at the head of a new government for Rome. In this position his power was virtually absolute. He forced the nobles into submission, and in a short time effected a most wonderful transformation in the city and surrounding coun- try. Order and security took the place of disorder and violence. The best days of repubhcan Rome seemed to have been sud- denly restored. The enthusiasm of the Roman populace knew no limits. The remarkable revolution drew the attention of all Italy, and of the world beyond the peninsula as well. Encouraged by the success that had thus far attended his schemes, Rienzi now began to concert measures for the union of all the principalities and commonwealths of Italy into a great republic, with Rome as its capital. He sent ambassadors throughout Italy to plead, at the courts of the princes and in the council chambers of the municipalities, the cause of Italian unity and freedom. The splendid dream of Rienzi was shared by other Italian patriots besides himself, among whom was the poet Petrarch, who was the friend and encourager of the plebeian tribune, and who "wished part in the glorious work and in the lofty fame." " Could passion have listened to reason," says Gibbon, *' could private welfare have yielded to the public weKare, the supreme tribunal and confederate unionof the Italian republic might have healed the intestine discord and closed the Alps against the barbarians of the North." But the moment for Italy's unification had not yet come. Not only were there hindrances to the national movement in the ambitions and passions of rival parties and classes, but there were still greater impediments in the character of the plebeian patriot himself. Rienzi proved to be an unworthy leader. His sudden elevation and surprising success completely turned his head, and he soon began to exhibit the most incredible vanity and weakness. The people withdrew from him their support; the Pope excommunicated him as a rebel and heretic ; and the 246 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS nobles rose against him. He was finally killed in a sudden uprising of the populace (1354). Thus vanished the dream of Rienzi and of Petrarch, of the hero and of the poet. Centuries of division, of shameful sub- jection to foreign princes, — French, Spanish, and Austrian, — of wars and suffering, were yet before the Italian people ere Rome should become the center of a free, orderly, and united Italy. 269. The Five Great States. — The unification of Italy was impossible ; yet the later mediaeval time witnessed a movement ~w ^^pS ^ TYROL, ,,_„.-.^_^^ 1 Duchy of Milan ^M 2 Bepublic of Venice f^^ 3 Kepublio of Florence ^^ 4 Slates of the Church ^^ 6 Kingdom of Aaples IMIill °L.^^"^^ / THE M-N.WOSrS. Italy about the Middle of the Fifteenth Century in the direction of the consolidation of the numerous petty states of the northern and central regions into larger ones. By the middle of the fifteenth century the greater part of the peninsula "THE PRINCE" OF MACHIAVELLI 247 was gathered into five so-called Great States, — the duchy of Milan ^^ and the two nominal republics of Venice and Florence in the north, the States of the Church in Central Italy, and the old Kingdom of Naples in the south. The formation of these states and the establishment of a sort of balance of power between them hushed the savage quarrels of the individual cities and gave Italy finally a few years of compara- tive peace (1447— 1492). But these great states, like the smaller ones, were jealous of one another. It was their inability to act in concert that enabled the French king, Charles VIII, to march in such an extraordinary way from one end of the peninsula to the other (sec. 240). Thus was Italy again opened to the "barbarians" of the North. It was the beginning, as we have seen, of the foreign enslave- ment of the peninsula. For three centuries and more Italy was destined to be merely " a geographical expression." 270. The Renaissance. — Though the Middle Ages closed in Italy without the rise there of a national government, still before the end of the period much had been done to create those com- mon ideals and sentiments upon which political unity can alone securely repose. Literature and art here performed the part that war did in other countries in arousing a national pride and spirit. The Renaissance, of which we shall tell in the following chapter, with its awakenings and achievements, did much towards creating among the Italians a common pride in race and country; and thus this splendid Kterary and artistic enthusiasm was the first step in a course of national development which was to lead the Italian people, in the fullness of time, to a common political life. Here, in connection with Italian Renaissance literature, a word will be in place respecting The Prince^ by the Florentine historian Machiavelli. In this remarkable book the writer, imbued with a deep patriotic sentiment, points out the way in which, in the midst 23 Milan was in the hands of the, powerful family of the Visconti. The last of the house died in 1447, and was succeeded in 1450 by Francesco Sforza, the founder of the celebrated family of Sforza. 248 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS of the existing chaos, material and spiritual, Italy might be con- solidated into a great state, Hke England or France or Spain. The redeemer of Italy and the maker of the new state must be a strong despotic prince, who in the work must have no moral scruples whatever, but be ready to use all means, however cruel and unjust and wicked, which promised to further the end in view. After the prince had created a united Italy, then he must rule in righteousness as the representative of the people. The way in which Machiavelli instructs the prince to build up a state out of the broken-down institutions of the Middle Ages was, in truth, the very way in which the despots of his time in Italy had actually created their principalities ; but that he should have seriously advised any one to adopt their immoral state- craft soon raised against him and his teachings, especially in the North, a storm of protest and denunciation which has not yet subsided. Machiavelli found disciples enough, however, so that his work had a vast though malign influence in molding the political morality of the six- teenth and seventeenth cen- FiG. 46. — Savonarola. (After an ^^j-jgg^ engraving by Leonardo da Vinci ] Savonarola (145 2-1498). in Vienna Museum) ' , , . • j — A word must here be said respecting the Florentine monk and reformer Girolamo Savon- arola, who stands as the most noteworthy personage in Italy during the closing years of the mediaeval period. Savonarola was at once Roman censor and Hebrew prophet. His powerful preaching alarmed the conscience of the Florentines. At his suggestion the women brought their finery and ornaments, and others their beautiful works of art, and, piling them in great heaps in the streets of Florence, burned them as vanities. Savon- arola even urged that the government of Florence be made a THE UNION OF CALMAR 249 theocracy and Christ be proclaimed king. But finally the activity of his enemies brought about the reformer's downfall, and he was condemned to death, strangled, his body burned, and his ashes thrown into the Arno. Savonarola may be regarded as the last great mediaeval fore- runner of the reformers of the sixteenth century. Yet he must not be thought of as a reformer in the same sense that Luther, for instance, was. He was not a precursor of Protestantism. He stood firmly on CathoHc ground. He believed the Papacy to be a divine institution. He wished, it is true, to reform the Church, but he had no quarrel with its doctrines or its form of government. VII. The Northern Countries 272. The Union of Calmar (1397). — -The great Scandinavian Exodus of the ninth and tenth centuries drained the Northern lands of some of the best elements of their population. For this reason these countries did not play. as prominent a part in mediaeval history as they probably would otherwise have done. The constant contentions between the nobihty and their sover- eigns were also another cause of internal weakness. In the year 1397, by what is known as the Union of Calmar, the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united under Margaret of Denmark, " the Semiramis of the North." The treaty provided that each country should retain its constitution and make its own laws. But the treaty was violated, and though the friends of the measure had hoped much from it, it brought only jealousies, feuds, and wars. Thus the history of these Northern countries during the later mediaeval time presents nothing of primary interest which calls for narration here ; but early in the Modern Age we shall see Sweden developing rapidly as an independent monarchy and for a period playing an important part in European affairs. Selections from the Sources. — Lanier, The Boy's Froissart, being Sir John Froissart's Chronicles edited for boys. Read chaps. Ixxviii- Ixxxiv, on the battle of Poitiers and after. Aucassin and Nicolette (trans. 250 . GROWTH OF THE NATIONS by Andrew Lang) ; this is the most exquisite love story, in prose and verse, preserved to us from the land and the age of the Troubadours. Henderson, Select Historical Documents, pp. 1-168. Old South Leaflets, No. 5, " Magna Charta." Kendall, Source-Book, chaps, v-vii. Colby, Selections, Extracts 22-52. Translations and Reprints, vol. ii, No. 5, "England in the Time of Wycliffe" (ed. by Edward P. Cheyney). Secondary Works. — (i) Works of a general character: Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, 2 vols. (vol. ii consists of maps). GuizoT, History of Civilization in Europe, Lects. ix and xi. Wilson, The State ; has valuable chapters on the development of the governmental institu- tions of the leading states. Lodge, The Close of the Middle Ages, 127^- I4g4. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap, xiii, "The Formation of France," and chap, xiv, " England and the Other States." (2) National histories : The Story of the Nations series contains con- venient volumes on each of the chief European states. Green, History of the English People, parts of vols, i and ii. Kitchin, History of France, vol. i. Henderson, History of Germany in the Middle Ages. Hassall, The French People. Hume, The Spanish People. Gardiner's, Coman and Kendall's, Montgomery's, Terry's, Andrew^s', and Cheyney's histo- ries of England and Duruy's History of France are excellent single-volume text-books. (3) Biographies and books on special topics : In the Epochs of Modern History and the Heroes of the Nations series are to be found sepa- rate volumes covering many of the matters, political and biographical, touched upon in the present chapter. Lowell, Joan of Arc. Trevel- YAN, England in the Age of Wycliffe ; furnishes the best account we possess of the Peasants' Revolt. Poole, Wycliffe and Movements for Reform. Gasquet, The Great Pestilence. Cheyney, An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England, chap, v, " The Black Death and the Peasants' Rebellion." For English constitutional matters the student should consult Stubbs', Taswell-Langmead's, Macy's, and Tay- lor's works. Smith, The Troubadours at Home ; the best work in our language on the subject with which it deals. Mrs. Oliphant, The Makers of Florence. Lea, A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages. KiRK, History of Charles the Bold ; a notable work. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. Irving, The Conquest of Granada. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts. Gasquet, The Old English Bible and Other Essays. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Thomas Becket. 2. William Wallace of Scotland, 3. The Black Death. 4. Joan of Arc. 5. Character of Louis XI of France. 6. Charles the Bold of Burgundy. 7. The fall of Granada. 8. The Sicilian Vespers. 9. Savonarola. CHAPTER XVIII THE RENAISSANCE I. The Beginnings of the Renaissance 273. The Renaissance defined. — By the term Renaissance ("New Birth"), used in its narrower sense, is meant that new enthusiasm for classical literature, learning, and art which sprang up in Italy towards the close of the Middle Ages, and which during the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries gave a new culture to Europe.-^ Using the word in a somewhat broader sense, we may define the Renaissance as the reentrance into the world of that secular, inquiring, self-reliant spirit which characterized the life and cul- ture of classical antiquity. This is simply to say that under the influence of the intellectual revival the men of Western Europe came to think and feel, to look upon life and the outer world, as did the men of ancient Greece and Rome; and this again is merely to say that they ceased to think and feel as mediaeval men and began to think and feel as modem men. 274. The Crusades in their Relation to the Renaissance. — Many agencies conspired to bring in the Renaissance. Among these were the Crusades. These long-sustained enterprises, as we pointed out in summarizing their effects (sec. 159), contrib- uted essentially to break the mental lethargy that had fallen upon the European mind, and to awaken in the nations of Western Europe the spirit of a new life. Before the Crusades closed, the 1 By many writers the term is employed in a still narrower sense than this, being used to designate merely the revival of classical art; but this is to depreciate the most important phase of a many-sided development. The Renaissance was essen- tially an intellectual movement. It is this intellectual quality which gives it so large a place in universal history. 251 252 THE RENAISSANCE way of the Renaissance was already prepared. In every territory of human activity the paths along which advances were to be made by the men of coming generations had been marked out, and in many directions trodden by the eager feet of the pioneers of the new life and culture. 275. The Development of Vernacular Literatures as an Expres- sion of the New Spirit. — The awakening of this new spirit in the Western nations is especially observable in the growth and devel- opment of their vernacular literatures. It was, speaking broadly, during and just after the crusading centuries that the native tongues of Europe found a voice, — began to form literatures of their own. We have in another place spoken of the formation and gradual growth of some of the most important of these languages (sec. 44). As soon as their forms became somewhat settled, then literature was possible, and all these speeches bud and blossom into song and romance. In Spain the epic poem of the Cid^ a reflection of Castihan chivalry, forms the beginning of Spanish literature ; in the south of France the Troubadours fill the land with the melody of their love songs ; in the north the Trouveurs recite the stirring romances of Charlemagne and his paladins, of King Arthur and the Holy Grail ; in Germany the harsh strains of the Nibelungenlied are followed by the softer notes of the Minnesingers; in Italy Dante sings his Divine Comedy in the pure mellifluous tongue of Tuscany, and creates a language for the Italian race; in England Chaucer writes his Canterbury Tales and completes the fusion of Saxon and Norman into the English tongue. This growth of native literatures foreshadowed the approach- ing Renaissance ; for there was in them a note of freedom, a note- of protest against mediaeval asceticism and ecclesiastical restraint. And at the same time that this Hterary development heralded the coming intellectual revival it hastened its advance ; for the light songs, tales, and romances of these vernacular literatures, unlike the learned productions of the Schoolmen, which were in Latin and addressed only to a limited class, appealed to the masses and thus stirred the universal mind and heart of Europe. DANTE AND THE RENAISSANCE 253 276. Town Life and Lay Culture. —The spirit of the new life was nourished especially by the air of the great cities. In speaking of mediseval town life we noticed how within the towns there was early developed a life like that of modern times. The atmosphere of these bustling, trafficking cities called into existence a practical com- mercial spirit, a many-sided, independent, secular life which in many respects was directly opposed to mediaeval teachings and ideals. This intellectual and social movement within the mediaeval towns, especially in the great city-republics of Italy, was related most intimately, as we shall see in a moment (sec. 279), to that great revival of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to which the term Renaissance is distinctively applied. 277. Dante as a Fore- runner of the Renaissance. — ^Wehave already spoken the name of Dante, but the great place he holds in the intellectual history of the race requires that we should speak with some detail of the relation which he sustained to the age which, just as he appeared, was passing away, and to the new age which was then approaching. Dante Alighieri, "the fame of the Tuscan peo- ple," was born at Flor- ence in 1265. He was exiled by the Florentines in 1302, and at the courts of friends learned how hard a thing it is " to climb the stairway of a patron." He died at Ravenna in 132 1, and his tomb there is a place of pilgrimage to-day. Fig. 47, — Dante. (From a portrait by S. Tofanelli) 254 THE RENAISSANCE It was during the years of his exile that Dante wrote his immor- . tal poem, the Commedia as named by himself, because of its happy ending; the Divina Commedia, or the " Divine Comedy," as called by his admirers. This poem has been called the " Epic of MedisevaHsm." It is an epitome of the hfe and thought of the Middle Ages. Dante's theology is the theology of the mediaeval Church ; his philosophy is the philosophy of the Schoolmen ; his science is the science of his time. But although Dante viewed the world from a standpoint which was essentially that of the mediaeval age which was passing away, still he was in a profound sense a prophet of the new age which was approaching, — a forerunner of the Renaissance. He was such in his feeling for classical antiquity. When he speaks lov- ingly of Vergil as his teacher and master, the one from whom he took the beautiful style that had done him honor, he reveals how he has come to look with other than mediaeval eyes upon the Augustan poet. His modern attitude towards Graeco-Roman cul- ture is further shown in his free use of the works of the classical writers ; the illustrative material of his great poem is drawn almost as largely from classical as from Hebrew and Christian sources. Again, in his self-reliant judgment, in his critical spirit, in his mental independence, Dante exhibits intellectual traits which we recog- nize as belonging rather to the modern than to the mediaeval man. 278. The Fresh Stimulus from the Side of Classical Antiquity. — We have now reached the opening of the fourteenth century. Just at this t^me the intellectual progress of Europe received a tremendous impulse from the more perfect recovery of the ines- timable treasures of the civilization of Graeco-Roman antiquity. So far-reaching and transforming was the influence of the old world of culture upon the nations of Western Europe that the Renaissance, viewed as the transition from the mediaeval to the modern age, may properly be regarded as beginning with its dis- covery, or rediscovery, and the appropriation of its riches by the Italian scholars. In the following sections we shall try to give some account of this Renaissance movement in its earlier stages 9.nd as it manifested itself in Italy. INCITING CAUSES OF THE MOVEMENT 255 II. The Renaissance in Italy 279. Inciting Causes of the Movement. — Just as the Refor- mation went forth from Germany and the PoUtical Revolution from France, so did the Renaissance go forth from Italy. And this was not an accident. The Renaissance had its real beginnings in Italy for the reason that all those agencies which were slowly transforming the mediaeval into the modern world were here more active and effective in their workings than elsewhere. Foremost among these agencies must be placed the influence of the Italian cities. We have already seen how city life was more perfectly developed in Italy than in the other countries of Western Europe. In the air of the great Italian city-republics there was nourished a strong, self-reliant, secular, myriad-sided life. It was a political, intellectual, and artistic life like that of the cities of ancient Greece. Florence, for example, became a second Athens, and in the eager air of that city individual talent and faculty were developed as of old in the atmosphere of the Attic capital. "In Florence," says Symonds, "had been pro- duced such glorious human beings as the world has rarely seen. . . . The whole population formed an aristocracy of genius." In a word, life in Italy earlier than elsewhere lost its mediaeval characteristics and assumed those of the modern type. We may truly say that the Renaissance was cradled in the cities of mediaeval Italy. The Italians, to use again the words of Symonds, were " the firstborn among the sons of modern Europe." A second circumstance that doubtless contributed to make Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance was the fact that in Italy the break between the old and the new civilization was not so complete as it was in the other countries of Western Europe. The Italians were closer in language and in blood to the old Romans than were the other new-forming nations. They regarded themselves as the direct descendants and heirs of the old con- querors of the world. This consciousness of kinship with the men of a great past exerted an immense influence upon the imagination of the Italians and tended not only to preserve the continuity of 256 THE RENAISSANCE the historical development in the peninsula but also to set as the first task of the Italian scholars the recovery and appropriation of the culture of antiquity. But more potent than all other agencies, not so much in awak- ening the Italian intellect as in determining the direction of its activities after they were once aroused by other inciting causes, was the existence in the peninsula of so many monuments of the civilization and the grandeur of ancient Rome. The cities them- selves were, in a very exact sense, fragments of the old Empire ; and everywhere in the peninsula the ground was covered with ruins of the old Roman builders. The influence which these reminders of a glorious past exerted upon sensitive souls is well illustrated by the biographies of such men as Rienzi and Petrarch. 280. The Two Phases of the Italian Renaissance. — It was, as we have already intimated, the nearness of the Italians to the classical past that caused the Renaissance in Italy to assume essentially the character of a classical revival, — a recovery and appropriation by the Italians of the long-neglected heritage of Graeco-Roman civilization. The movement here consisted of two distinct yet closely related phases, namely, the revival of classical literature and learning, and the revival of classical art. It is with the first only, the intel- lectual and literary phase of the movement, that we shall be chiefly concerned. This feature of the movement is called distinctively "Humanism," and the promoters of it are known as "Human- ists," because of their interest in the study of the classics, the liter ce. humaniores, or the "more human letters," in opposition to the diviner letters, that is, theology, which made up the old education. 281. Petrarch,^ the First of the Humanists. — "Not only in the history of Itahan literature but in that of the civilized world, and not only in this but in the history of the human mind . . . Petrarch's name shines as a star of the first magnitude." ^ 2 Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), Petrarch is best known to most as the writer of Italian sonnets, but his significance for general history is due almost wholly to his relation to the revival of classic learning in Italy, and consequently it is only of this phase of his activity that we shall speak. 8 Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums, 3d ed., vol. i, p. 22. PETRARCH, THE FIRST HUMANIST 257 It is in such words as these that one of the greatest historians of humanism speaks of Petrarch and his place in the history of the intellectual progress of the race. It will be worth our while to try- to understand what Petrarch was in himself and what he did which justifies such an appraisement of his significance for universal his- tory. To understand Petrarch is to understand the Renaissance. Petrarch was the first and greatest representative of the human- istic phase of the Italian Renaissance. He was the first scholar of the mediaeval time who fully realized and ap- preciated the supreme excellence and beauty of the classical literature and its value as a means of culture. His enthu- siasm for the ancient writers was a sort of wor- ship. At great cost of time and labor he made a collection of about two hundred manuscript volumes of the classics. Among his choicest Latin treasures were some of Cicero's letters, which he had himself discovered in an old library at Verona, and reverently copied with his own hand. He could not read Greek, yet he gathered Greek as well as Latin manuscripts. He had sixteen works of Plato and a revered copy of Homer sent him from Constantinople ; and thus, as he himself expressed it, the first of poets and the first of phi- losophers took up their abode with him. This last sentiment reveals Petrarch's feeling for his books. The spirits of their authors seemed to him to surround him in Fig. 48.- Petrarch. (From a portrait by S. Tofanelli) 258 THE RENAISSANCE his quiet library, and he was never so happy as when holding converse with these choice souls of the past. Often he wrote letters to the old worthies, — Homer, Cicero, Vergil, Seneca, and the rest, — for Petrarch loved thus to record his thoughts, and spent much of his time in the recreation of letter writing; for recreation, and life itself, letter writing was to him. Petrarch's enthusiasm for the classical authors became conta- gious. Fathers reproached him for enticing their sons from the study of the law to the reading of the classics and the writing of Latin verses. But the movement started by Petrarch could not be checked. The impulse he imparted to humanistic studies is still felt in the world of letters and learning. 282. Petrarch's Feeling for the Ruins of Rome. — Petrarch had for the material monuments of classical antiquity a feeling akin to that which he had for its literary memorials. The men of the real mediaeval time had no intelligent curiosity or feeling respecting the monuments and ruins of the ancient world. Their attitude towards all these things was exactly the same as that of the modern Arabs and Turks towards the remains of past civilizations in the lands of the Orient. To these degen- erate successors of masterful races the ruins of Nineveh and Baby- lon are convenient brick quarries, and nothing more. They are absolutely indifferent respecting all that great past to which these vast ruins bear silent and melancholy witness. How different is it with us, children of the Renaissance, as we dig in those same mounds, carefully and reverently gathering up every fragment of lettered stone or brick that may tell us something of the thoughts and feelings and deeds of those men of the early time ! All this illustrates perfectly the difference between the mediae- val man and the man of the Renaissance. During all the mediaeval centuries, until the dawn of the intellectual revival, the ruins of Rome were merely a quarry. The monuments of the Caesars were torn down for building material, the sculptured marbles were burned into lime for mortar. Now, Petrarch was one of the first men of mediaeval times who had for the ruins of Rome the modem feeling. " He tells us how BOCCACCIO, THE DISCIPLE OF PETRARCH 259 often with Giovanni Colonna he ascended the mighty vaults of the Baths of Diocletian, and there in the transparent air, amid the wide silence, with the broad panorama stretching far around them, they spoke, not of business, or political affairs, but of the history which the ruins beneath their feet suggested." * 283. Boccaccio, the Disciple of Petrarch. — Petrarch called into existence a school of ardent young humanists who looked up to him as their master, and who carried on with unbounded enthusi- asm the work of exploring the new spiritual hemisphere which he had discovered. Most distinguished among these disciples was Boccaccio (13 13-1375), whose wide fame rests chiefly on his Decameron, a collection of tales written in Italian, but whose work as a humanist alone has interest for us in the present connection. Boccaccio did much to spread and to deepen the enthusiasm for antiquity that Petrarch had awakened. He industriously col- lected and copied ancient manuscripts and thus greatly promoted classical scholarship in Italy. Imitating Petrarch, he tried to learn Greek, but, like Petrarch, made very Httle progress towards the mastery of the language because of the incompetence of his teacher and also because of the utter lack of text-books, gram- mars, and dictionaries. He persuaded his teacher, however, to make a Latin translation of the Iliad and the Odyssey^ and was thus instrumental in giving to the world the first modern trans- lation of Homer. It was a wretched version, yet it served to inspire in the Italian scholars an intense desire to know at first hand Greek literature, — that literature from which the old Roman authors had admittedly drawn their inspiration. 4 Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, p. 177. Petrarch represents still other phases and qualities of the modern spirit, upon which, however, it is impossiljje for us to dwell. Regarding his feeling for nature in her grand and romantic aspects, we must nevertheless say a single word. One of the most remark- able passages in his writings is his description of his ascent of Mount Ventoux, near Avignon, for the sake of the view from the top. This was the beginning of the mountain climbing of modern times, — a new thing in the world. There was very little of it in antiquity, and during the Middle Ages apparently none at all. Even Dante always speaks of the mountains with a shudder. Nothing distinguishes the modern from the mediaeval man more sharply than this new feeling for nature in hw wilder and grander moods. 260 THE RENAISSANCE 2 84 . The Italians are taught Greek by Chrysoloras. —This desire of the Itahan scholars was soon gratified. Just at the close of the fourteenth century the Eastern Emperor sent an embassy to Italy to beg aid against the Turks. The commission was headed by Manuel Chrysoloras, an eminent Greek scholar. No sooner had he landed at Venice than the Florentines sent him a pressing invitation to come to their city. He acceded to their request, was received by them with such honor as they might have shown a celestial being, and was given a professor's chair in the university (1396). Young and old thronged his class room. Men past sixty "felt the blood leap in their veins" at the thought of being able to learn Greek. The appearance of Chrysoloras as a teacher at Florence marks the revival, after seven centuries of neglect, of the study of the Greek language and literature in the schools of Western Europe. This meant much. It meant the revival of civilization, the opening of the modem age ; for of all the agencies concerned in trans- forming the mediaeval into the modern world one of the most potent certainly was Greek culture.^ 285. The Search for Old Manuscripts. — Having now spoken of the pioneers of Italian humanism in the fourteenth century, we can, in our remaining space, touch only in a very general way upon the most important phases of the humanistic movement in the following century. The first concern of the Italian scholars was to rescue from threatened oblivion what yet remained of the ancient classics. Just as the antiquarians of to-day dig over the mounds of Assyria for relics of the ancient civilization of the East, so did the humanists ransack the libraries of the monasteries and cathe- drals and search through all the out-of-the-way places of Europe for old manuscripts of the classic writers. The precious manuscripts were often discovered in a shameful state of neglect and in advanced stages of decay. Sometimes 5 " If it be true [as has been asserted] that except the blind forces of nature noth- ing moves in this world which is not Greek in its origin, we are justified in regarding the point of contact between the Greek teacher Chrysoloras and his Florentine pupils as one of the most momentous crises in the history of civilization." — Symonds PATRONS OF THE NEW LEARNING 26j they were found covered with mold in damp cells or loaded with dust in the attics of monasteries. Again they were discovered, as by Boccaccio in the manuscript room of the Benedictine mon- astery of Monte Cassino, mutilated in various ways, some, for instance, with the borders of the parchment pared away, and others with whole leaves lacking.® This late search of the humanists for the works of the ancient authors saved to the world many precious manuscripts which, a little longer neglected, would have been forever lost. 286. Patrons of the New Learning ; the Founding of Libraries. — This gathering and copying of the ancient manuscripts was costly in time and labor. But there was many a Maecenas to encourage and further the work. Merchant princes, despots, and popes became generous patrons of the humanists. Prominent among these promoters of the New Learning, as it was called, were Cosimo and Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence. It was largely due to their genuine and enlightened interest in the great under- taking of recovering for culture the ancient classical literatures that Florence became the foster home of the intellectual and literary revival. Among the papal promoters of the movement Pope Nicholas V (1447— 1455) was one of the most noted. He sent out explorers to all parts of the West to search for manuscripts, and kept busy at Rome a multitude of copyists and translators. A httle later Pope Julius II (1503— 15 13) and Pope Leo X (1513— 1521) made Rome a brilliant center of Renaissance art and learning. Libraries were founded where the new treasures might be safely stored and made accessible to scholars. In this movement some of the largest libraries of Italy had their beginnings. At Florence the Medici established the fine existing Medicean Library. At Rome Pope Nicholas V enriched the original papal collection of 6 This mutilation was due chiefly to the scarcity of writing material, which led the mediaeval copyists to erase the original text of old parchments that they might use them a second time. In this way many works of classical authors were destroyed. Sometimes, however, the earlier text was so imperfectly obliterated that by means of chemical reagents it can be wholly or partially restored. Such twice-written manu- scripts are called palimpsests. 262 THE RENAISSANCE books by the addition, it is said, of fully five thousand manu- scripts, and thus became the real founder of the celebrated Vatican Library of the present day. 287. How the Fall of Constantinople aided the Revival The humanistic movement, especially in so far as it concerned Greek letters and learning, was given a great impulse by the disasters which in the fifteenth century befell the Eastern Empire. Con- stantinople, it will be recalled, was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. But for a half century before that event the threatening advance of the barbarians had caused a great migra- tion of Greek scholars to the West. So many of the exiles sought an asylum in Italy that one could say : '' Greece has not fallen ; she has migrated to Italy, which in ancient times bore the name of Magna Graecia." These fugitives brought with them many valuable manuscripts of the ancient Greek classics still unknown to Western scholars. The enthusiasm of the Italians for everything Greek led to the appointment of many of the exiles as teachers and lecturers in their schools and universities. Thus there was now a repetition of what took place at Rome in the days of the later republic; Italy was conquered a second time by the genius of Greece. 288. Translation and Criticism of the Classics. — The recovery of the ancient classics, their multiphcation by copyists, and their preservation in libraries was only the first and Hghtest part of the task which the Italian humanists set themselves. The most diffi- cult and significant part of their work lay in the comparison and correction of texts, the translation into Latin of the Greek manu- scripts, and the interpretation and criticism of the ancient literatures now recovered. Among the ItaHan scholars who devoted themselves to this work a foremost place must be assigned to PoUtian (145 4-1 494), a man of remarkable genius and learning. Almost all the noted humanists in Europe of his own and the following generation seem to have caught their inspiration in his lecture room."^ 7 Another name of great renovm connected with these fifteenth-century labors of the Italian scholars is that of Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), a man of extraordinary THE INVENTION OF PRINTING 263 289. The Invention of Printing. — During the latter part of the fifteenth century the work of the ItaHan humanists was greatly furthered by the happy and timely invention of the art of print- ing from movable letters, the most important discovery, in the estimation of Hallam, recorded in the annals of mankind. The making of impressions by means of engraved seals or blocks seems to be a device as old as civilization. The Chinese have practiced this form of printing from an early time. The art appears to have sprung up independently in Europe during the later mediaeval period. First, devices on playing cards were formed by impressions from blocks; then manuscripts were stamped with portraits and pictures. The next step was to cut into the same block a few lines of explanatory text. In time the lines increased to pages, and during the first half of the fifteenth cen- tury many entire books were produced by the block-printing method. But printing from blocks was slow and costly. The art was revolutionized by Fig. 49. — A Block-Printed Page FROM THE "BiBLIA PaUPERUM " (From Lacroix) John Gutenberg (1400-14 6 8), a native of Mainz in Germany, through the invention of the movable letters which we call type.* The oldest book known to have been printed from movable gifts of mind. The special task which Pico set for himself was the harmonizing of Christianity and the New Learning, a task like that of those scholars of the present time who seek to reconcile the Bible and modern science. 8 Some Dutch writers claim for Coster of Haarlem the honor of the invention, but there is nothing aside from unreliable tradition on which such a claim can rest. 264 THE RENAISSANCE letters was a Latin copy of the Bible issued from the press of Gutenberg and Faust at Mainz between the years 1454 and 1456. The art spread rapidly and before the close of the fifteenth cen- tury presses were busy in every country of Europe — in the city of Venice alone there were two hundred — multiplying books with a rapidity undreamed of by the patient copyists of the cloister. 290. The Aldine Press at Venice. — But it is merely the intro- duction of the new art into Italy that especially concerns us now. Fig. 50. — The Printing of Books. (From Early Venetian Printing) The little that our brief space will permit us to say on this subject gathers about the name of Aldus Manutius (1450-15 15), who established at Venice a celebrated printing house, known as the Aldine Press, the story of which forms one of the earliest and most interesting chapters in the history of the new art in its relation to humanism. In the course of a few years Aldus had given to the apprecia- tive scholars of Europe an almost complete series of the Greek authors. Besides these Greek editions he issued both Latin and Hebrew texts. Altogether he printed over a hundred works. In HUMANISM CROSSES THE ALPS 265 quality of paper and in clearness and beauty of type his editions have never been surpassed. The work of the Aldine Press at Venice, in connection of course with what was done by presses of less note in other places, made complete the recovery of the classical literatures, and by scattering broadcast throughout Europe the works of the ancient authors rendered it impossible that any part of them should ever again be- come lost to the world. 291. Humanism crosses the Alps. — As early as the middle of the fifteenth century the German youths had be- gun to cross, the Alps in order to study Greek at the feet of the masters there. As the type and representative of these young German human- ists we may name Reuchlin, who in 1482 journeyed to Italy and presented himself there before a celebrated teacher of Greek. As a test of his knowledge of the language he was given to translate a passage from Thucydides. The young barbarian — for by this term the Italians of that time expressed their contempt for an inhabitant of the rude North — turned the lines so easily and masterfully that the examiner, who was a native-born Greek, cried out in astonishment, " Our exiled Greece has flown beyond the Alps." Fig. 5] — Case of Chained Books. (From Clarke, The Care of Books) The case shown is preserved in the Chapter Library, Hertford, England. In some Hbraries this practice of chaining the books was kept up even in the eighteenth century 266 THE RENAISSANCE In transalpine Europe the humanistic movement became blended with other tendencies. In Italy it had been an almost exclusive devotion to Greek and Latin letters and learning ; but in the North there was added to this enthusiasm for classical cul- ture an equal and indeed supreme interest in Hebrew and Chris- tian antiquity. Hence here the literary and intellectual revival became, in the profoundest sense, the moving cause of the great religious revolution known as the Reformation, and it is in con- nection with the beginnings of that movement that we shall find a place to speak of the humanists of Germany and the other northern lands. 292. The Artistic Revival. — As we have already seen, the new feeling for classical antiquity awakened among the Italians embraced not simply the literary and philosophical side of the Graeco-Roman culture, but the artistic side as well. Respecting this latter phase of the Italian Renaissance it will be impossible for us to speak in detail, nor is it necessary for us to do so, since the chief significance of the Renaissance for universal history, as already noted, is to be sought in the purely intellectual movement traced in the preceding pages of this chapter. The artistic revival was in its essence a return of art to nature ; for mediaeval art lacked freedom and naturalness. The artist was hampered by ecclesiastical tradition and restraint ; he was, more- over, under the influence of the religious asceticism of the time. His models as a rule were the stiff, angular, lifeless forms of Byzantine art, or the gaunt, pinched bodies of saints and anchorites. In the decoration of the walls, pulpits, and altars of the churches he was not at liberty, even if he had the impulse, to depart from the consecrated traditional types.^ Now, what the Renaissance did for art was to liberate it from these trammels and to breathe into its dead forms the spirit of that new life which was everywhere awakening. This emancipa- tion movement took place largely under impulses which came 9 In the Greek Church at the present time the artist in the portrayal of sacred subjects is not permitted to change the traditional expression or attitude of his figures. RENAISSANCE PAINTING 267 from a study of the masterpieces of ancient art. Thus did classical antiquity exercise the same influence in the emancipation and revival of art as in the emancipation and revival of letters.^*^ 293. Why Painting was the Supreme Art of the Italian Renais- sance.^^ — The characteristic art of the Italian Renaissance was painting, and for the reason that it best expresses the ideas and sentiments of Christianity. The art that would be the handmaid of the Church needed to be able to represent faith and hope, ecstasy and suffer- ing, — none of which things can well be expressed by sculp- ture, which is essentially the art of repose. Sculpture was the chief art of the Greeks, because among them the aim of the artist was to represent physical beauty or strength. But the problem of the Christian artist is to express spiritual emotion or feeling through the medium of the body. This cannot be represented in cold, colorless marble. Thus, as Symonds asks, "How could the Last Judgment be expressed in plastic form? " The chief events of Christ's life removed him beyond the reach of sculpture. Fig. 52. — Tomb at Tours of the Children OF Charles VIII. (From a photogi^aph) Showing the influence of ancient classical art upon the art of the Renaissance 10 In the list of Italian sculptors the following names are especially noteworthy : Ghiberti (1378-1455), whose genius is shown in his celebrated bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence, of which Michael Angelo said that they were worthy to be the gates of Paradise; Brunelleschi (1377-1444), Donatello (1386-1466), and Michael Angelo (1475-1564). 11 The views presented in this paragraph are those of Symonds in his work on The Fine Aris, which forms the third volume of his Renaissance in Italy. 268 THE RENAISSANCE Therefore, because sculpture has so little power to express emotion, painting, which runs so easily the entire gamut of feel- ing, became the chosen medium of expression of the Italian artist. This art alone enabled him to portray the raptures of the saint, the sweet charm of the Madonna, the intense passion of the Christ, the moving terrors of the Last Judgment. 294. The Four Masters ; Mingling of Christian and Classical Subjects. — The four supreme masters of Italian Renaissance painting were Leonardo da Vinci ^^ (1452-15 19), whose master- piece is his Last Supper, on the wall of a convent at Milan; Raphael (1483 -1520), the best beloved of artists, whose Madonnas are counted among the world's treasures; Michael Angelo^^ (1475-1564), whose best paintings are his wonderful frescoes, among them the Last Judgment, in the Sistine Chapel at Rome; and Titian ^^ (1477-1576), the Venetian master, cele- brated for his portraits, which have preserved for us in flesh and blood, so to speak, many of the most noteworthy personages of his time. The earUer Italian painters drew their subjects chiefly from Christian sources. They literally covered the walls of the churches, palaces, and civic buildings of Italy with pictorial rep- resentations of all the ideas and imaginings of the mediaeval ages respecting death, the judgment, heaven, and hell. As Symonds tersely expresses it, they did by means of pictures what Dante had done by means of poetry. The later artists, more under the influence of the classical revival, mingled freely pagan and Christian subjects and motives. 12 Leonardo da Vinci was, in his many-sidedness and versatility, a true child of the Italian Renaissance ; he was at once painter, sculptor, architect, poet, musician, and scientist. 13 Michael Angelo, as we have seen, was an architect and sculptor as well as a painter. He is the only modern sculptor who can be given a place alongside the greatest sculptors of ancient Greece. 14 A longer list of the most eminent Italian painters would include at least the following names : Cimabue (about 1240-1302) and Giotto (12 76-1 33 7), precursors of the revival; Fra Angelico (i 387-1455) ; Correggio (about 1494-1534) ; Tintoretto (1518-1594) and Veronese (about 1530-1588), representatives of the Renaissance proper. PAGANISM OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 269 and thus became truer representatives than their predecessors of the Renaissance movement, one important issue of which was to be the reconciUation and blending of pagan and Christian culture. 295. The Paganism of the Italian Renaissance. — There was a religious and moral, or, as usually expressed, an irrehgious and immoral, side to the classical revival in Italy which cannot be passed wholly unnoticed even in so brief an account of the move- ment as the present sketch. In the first place, the study of the pagan poets and philosophers produced the exact result predicted by a certain party in the Church. It proved hurtful to religious faith. Men became pagans in their feelings and in their way of thinking. Italian scholars and Italian society almost ceased to be Christian in any true sense of the word. With the New Learning came also those vices and immoralities that characterized the decline of classical civilization. Italy was corrupted by the new influences that flowed in upon her, just as Rome was corrupted by Grecian luxury and sensuality in the days of the failing republic. Much of the Hterature of the time is even more grossly immoral in tone than the literature of the age of classical decadence. III. General Effects of the Renaissance 296. The Renaissance- brought in New Conceptions of Life and the World. — The Renaissance effected in the Christian West an intellectual and moral revolution so profound and so far-reaching in its consequences that it may well be likened to that produced in the ancient world by the incoming of Christianity. The New Learning was indeed a New Gospel. Like Christianity, the Renaissance revealed to men another world, another state of existence; for such was the real significance, to the men of the revival, of the discovery of the civilization of classical antiquity. Through this discovery they learned that this earthly life is worth living for its own sake ; that this life and its pleasures need not be contemned and sacrificed in order to make sure of eternal life in 270 THE RENAISSANCE another world ; and that man may think and investigate and satisfy his thirst to know without endangering the welfare of his soul.^^ These discoveries made by the men of the Renaissance gave a vast impulse to the progress of the human race. They inspired humanity with a new spirit, a spirit destined in time to make things new in all realms, — in the realm of religion, of politics, of literature, of art, of science, of invention, of industry. Some of these changes and revolutions we shall briefly indicate in the remaining sections of this chapter. To follow them out more in detail in all the territories of human activity and achievement will be our aim in later chapters, where we propose to trace the course of the historical development through the centuries of the Modern Age, — the great age opened by the Renaissance. 297. It restored the Broken Unity of History. — When Chris- tianity entered the ancient Graeco-Roman world war declared itself at once between the new religion and classical culture, especially between it and Hellenism. The Church, soon trium- phant over paganism, rejected the bequest of antiquity. Some of the elements of that heritage were, it is true, appropriated by the men of the mediaeval time and thus came to enrich the new Christian culture ; but, as a whole, it was cast aside as pagan, and neglected. Thus was the unity of the historical development broken. Now, through the liberal tendencies and generous enthusiasms of the Renaissance there was effected a reconciliation between 15 The longings and the superstitious fears of men in the age of transition between mediaeval and modern times is well epitomized in the tradition of Dr. Faustus. " That legend," says Symonds, " tells us what the men upon the eve of the Reviyal longed for, and what they dreaded, when they turned their minds toward the past. The secret of enjoyment and the source of strength possessed by the ancients allured them ; but they believed that they could only recover this lost treasure by the suicide of the soul. So great was the temptation that Faustus paid the price. After imbib- ing all the knowledge of the age, he sold himself to the devil, in order that his thirst for experience might be quenched, his grasp upon the world be strengthened, and the ennui of his activity be soothed. His first use of his dearly-bought power was to make blind Homer sing to him. Amphion tunes his harp in concert with Mephis- topheles. Alexander rises from the dead at his behest, with all his legionaries ; and Helen is given to him for a bride. Faustus is therefore a parable of the impotent yearnings of the spirit in the Middle Ages, — its passionate aspiration, its conscience stricken desire, its fettered curiosity amid the cramping limits of impotent knowledge and irrational dogmatisms." — Revival of Learnings P- 53 (^d. 1888). IT REFORMED EDUCATION 271 Christianity and classical civilization. There took place a fusion of their qualities and elements. The broken unity of history was restored. The cleft between the ancient and the modern world was closed. The severed branch was reunited to the old trunk. The importance for universal history of this restoration of its broken unity, of this recovery by the Modern Age of the long- neglected culture of antiquity, can hardly be overestimated ; for that culture had in its keeping not only the best the human race had thought and felt in the period of the highest reach of its powers, but also the precious scientific stores accumulated by all the ancient peoples. What the recovery and appropriation of all this meant for the world is suggested by ex-President Woolsey in these words : " The old civilization contained treasures of perma- nent value which the world could not spare, which the world will never be able or willing to spare. These were taken up into the stream of hfe, and proved true aids to the progress of a culture which is gathering in one the beauty and truth of all the ages." 298. It reformed Education. — The humanistic revival revolu- tionized education. During the Middle Ages the Latin language had degenerated, for the most part, into a barbarous jargon, while the Greek had been forgotten and the Aristotelian philoso- phy perverted. As to Plato, he was practically unknown to the mediaeval thinkers. Now humanism restored to the world the pure classical Latin, rediscovered the Greek language, and recovered for civilization the once-rejected heritage of the ancient classics, including the Platonic philosophy, which was to be a quickening and uplifting force in modern thought. The schools and universities did not escape the influences of this humanistic revival. Chairs in both the Greek and Latin lan- guages and Hteratures were now established, not only in the new universities which arose under the inspiration of the New Learn- ing, but also in the old ones. The scholastic method of instruc- tion, of which we spoke in a preceding chapter, was gradually superseded by this so-called classical system of education, which dominated the schools and universities of the world down to the incoming of the scientific studies of the present day. 2/2 THE RENAISSANCE 299. It aided the Development of the Vernacular Literatures The classical revival gave to the world the treasures of .two great Hteratures. And in giving to the scholars of Europe the master- pieces of the ancient authors, it gave to them, besides much fresh material, the most faultless models of literary taste and judgment that the world has ever produced. The influence of these in correcting the extravagances of the mediaeval imagina- tion and in creating correct literary ideals can be distinctly traced in the native literatures of Italy, France, Spain, and England. It is sometimes maintained indeed that the attention given to the ancient classics, and the preferred use by so many authors during the later mediaeval and the earlier modern period of the Latin as a literary language,^® retarded the normal development of the vernacular literatures of the European peoples. As to Italy, it is true that the national literature which had started into life with such promise with Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio was for almost a century neglected ; but in transalpine Europe, apart from Germany, where for a period Latin did almost supplant the vernacular, the revived study of the classics did not produce the disastrous effects observed in Italy. On the contrary, as we have just said, the effect of humanism upon the great literatures of Europe, aside from the exceptions noticed, was to enrich, to chasten, and to refine them. 300. It called into Existence the Sciences of Archaeology and Historical Criticism. — Many sciences were in germ in the Renais- sance. As to the science of archaeology, which possesses such a special interest for the historical student, it may be truly said that it had its birth in the classical revival. We have already noticed the new feeling for the remains of antiquity that stirred in the souls of the men of the Renaissance (sec. 282). The ruins of Rome were naturally the first object of the reverent curiosity and archaeological zeal of the Italian scholars. From the fifteenth century down to the present day the interest in the monuments and relics of past ages and civilization has steadily 16 Some of the very best literary work of the period was done in Latin, as witness the Colloquies by Erasmus and the Utopia by More. THE SCIENCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY 273 widened and deepened and has led to remarkable discoveries, not only on classical ground, but also in Hebrew, Assyrian, and Egyptian territories, — discoveries which, by carrying the story of the human race back into a past immensely remote, have given an entirely new beginning to history. What is true of the science of archaeology is equally true of the science of historical criticism. We have seen that the spirit which awoke in the Renaissance was a questioning, critical spirit, one very different from the credulous mediaeval spirit, which was ready to accept any picturesque tradition or marvelous tale with- out inquiry as to its source or credibility. It was this spirit that stirred in Petrarch. We find him comparing and criticising the classical authors and following only those whom he has reason to beUeve to be trustworthy. But the true founder of the science of historical criticism was Laurentius Valla (1407-145 7). His greatest achievement as a critic was the demonstration, on philological and historical grounds, of the unauthentic character of the celebrated Dona- tion of Constantine.^^ He also called in question the authority of Livy and proved the spurious character of the alleged corre- spondence between Seneca and the Apostle Paul. The achievements of Valla ushered in the day of historical criticism. Here began that critical sifting and valuation of our historical sources which has resulted in the discrediting of a thou- sand myths and legends once regarded as unimpeachable histori- cal material, and in the consequent reconstruction of Oriental, classical, and mediaeval history. 301 . It gave an Impulse to Religious Reform. — The humanistic movement, as we have already noticed, when it crossed the Alps assumed among the northern peoples a new character. It was the Hebrew past rather than the Graeco-Roman past which stirred the interest of the scholars of the North. The Bible, which the printing presses were now multiplying in the original Hebrew and Greek as well as in the vernacular languages, became the subject of enthusiastic study and of fresh interpretation. Consequently 17 See sec. 41, n. 15. 274 BIBLIOGRAPHY what was in the South a restoration of classical literature and art became in the more serious and less sensuous North a revival of primitive Christianity, of the ethical and religious elements of the Hebrew-Christian past. The humanist became the reformer. Reuchlin, Erasmus, and the other humanists of the North were the true precursors of the great religious revolution of the six- teenth century. Selections from the Sources. — Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch. This volume contains a selection from Petrarch's "correspondence with Boc- caccio and other friends, designed to illustrate the beginnings of the Renaissance." The student should begin his readings on this subject with this delightful book. Whitcomb, Source-Book of the Renaissance^ Part I. An excellent little book, which forms a good supplement to the preceding work. The part cited contains short extracts judiciously chosen from the writings of fourteen Italian writers of the age of the Renaissance. The Book of The Courtier (The Tudor Translations). This book is one of the most important and characteristic products of the Italian Renais- sance. It was translated into all the chief European languages and exerted a vast influence upon life and manners everywhere, and especially in Eng- land. " There is not the slightest reason for doubting," says Professor Saintsbury, " that Sidney himself had the Courtier and its ideal constantly before him." Robinson, Readings in European History^ vol. i, chap. xxii. Secondary Works. — The literature on the Renaissance is very exten- sive ; we shall suggest only a few titles. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy; the best extended history in English. Burckhardt, The Civiliza- tion of the Renaissance in Italy ; the most philosophical and suggestive work on the subject. Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Florence and Makers of Venice. Field, An Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. xv. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 277-309. Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, vol. i. Part II, "The Earlier Printed Books." Grimm, The Life of Michael Angelo. Armstrong, Lorenzo de* Medici and Florence in the Fifteenth Century. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Dante's life and his Divine Comedy. 2. The ruins of Rome in mediaeval times. 3. Petrarch's ascent of Mount Ventoux. 4. Boccaccio as a collector of ancient manuscripts. 5. Chryso- loras, the Greek teacher. 6. The Aldine Press. Part II— The Modern Age THIRD PERIOD— THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION (From the Discovery of America, in 1492, to the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648) CHAPTER XIX GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES AND THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION 302. Transition from the Mediaeval to the Modern Age. — The discovery of America by Columbus, in 1492, is often used to mark the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times ; and this was an event of such transcendent importance, — the effect upon civilization of the opening up of fresh continents was so great, — that we may very properly accord to the achieve- ment of the Genoese the honor proposed. Yet we must bear in mind that no single circumstance or event actually marks the end of the old order of things and the beginning of the new. The finding of the New World did not make the new age ; the new age discovered the New World. The undertaking of Columbus was the natural outcome of that spirit of commercial enterprise and scientific curiosity which for centuries — ever since the Cru- sades — had been gradually expanding the scope of mercantile adventure and broadening the horizon of the European world. His fortunate expedition was only one of several brilHant nautical exploits which distinguished the close of the fifteenth and the opening of the sixteenth century. 275 2^6 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION This same period was also marked by significant intellectual, political, and religious movements, which indicated that civiliza- tion was about to enter — indeed, had already entered — upon a new phase of its development. In the intellectual world, as we have seen, was going on the wonderful Revival of Learning, producing everywhere unwonted thought, stir, and enterprise.^ This intellectual movement alone would suffice to mark the period of which we speak as the begin- ning of a new historical era ; for the opening and the closing of the great epochs of history, such as the Age of Christianity, the Age of the Protestant Reformation, and the Age of the Political Revolution, are determined not by events or happenings in the outer world but by movements within the soul of humanity. In the political world the tendency to centralization which had long been at work in different countries of Europe, gathering up the little feudal units into larger aggregates, was culminating in the formation of great independent nations with strong monar- chical governments. The Age of the Nations was opening. This movement was one of vast significance in European history and might in itself very well be regarded as forming a division line between two great epochs. In the religious world there were unrest, dissatisfaction, inquiry, complaint, — premonitory symptoms of the tremendous revolution that was destined to render the sixteenth century memorable in the rehgious records of mankind. This upheaval also constitutes a sort of continental divide in history. 1 The truest representative of the intellectual revival on its scientific side was Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), who, while Columbus and others were exploring the earth's unknown seas and opening up a new hemisphere for civilization, was exploring the heavens and discovering the true system of the universe. He had quite fully matured his theory by the year 1507, but fearing the charge of heresy he did not publish the great work embodying his views until thirty-six years later (in 1543)- It should be carefully noted, however, that the Copernican theory had little influence on the thought of the sixteenth century. It was denounced as contrary to Scripture by both CathoHcs and Protestants, and was almost universally rejected for more than a hundred years after its first publication. Even after the revelations made by the telescope of Galileo (i 564-1642) the acceptance of the truth was so hindered by theological opposition that the complete triumph of the doctrine was delayed imtil the eighteenth century. See Andrew D. White, The Warfare of Science -with Theology^ vol. i, chap. iii. MARITIME EXPLORATIONS 277 Closely connected with these movements were three great inventions which, like the inventions of our own time (sec. 760), were also signs of a new age, and which powerfully helped on the mental and social revolutions. Thus the intellectual revival and the religious reform were greatly promoted by the new art of printing (sec. 289) ; the kings in their struggle with the nobles were materially aided by the use of gunpowder, which rendered useless costly armor and fortified castle and helped to replace the feudal levy by a regular standing army, the prop and bulwark of the royal power ; while the great ocean voyages of the times were rendered pos- sible only by the improvement of the mariner's com- pass,'^ whose trusty guidance emboldened the navigator to quit the shore and push out upon hitherto untraversed seas. 303. Maritime Explorations ; the Terrors of the Ocean. — To appreciate the greatness of the achievements of the navigators and explorers of the age of geographical dis- covery, we need to bear in mind with what terrors the mediaeval imagination had in- vested the unknown regions of the earth. In the popular conception these parts were haunted by demons and dragons and mon- sters of every kind. The lands were shrouded in eternal mists and darkness. The seas were filled with awful whirlpools and treacherous currents, and shallowed into vast marshes. Out in the Atlantic, so a popular superstition taught, was the mouth of hell ; the red glow cast upon the sun at its setting was held to be positive evidence of this. Away to the south, under the Fig. 53. — A Chinese Magnet Figure (After Beazley) A rude form of the com- pass used by early Chinese sailors.2 The little wooden figure was set on a pivot, and in the outstretched arm was placed a bar of magnetized iron 2 It is a disputed question as to what people should be given the credit of the dis- covery of the properties of the magnetic needle. In a very primitive form the compass was certainly in use among the Chinese as early as the eighth century of our era. There is no reliable record of its use by European navigators before about the middle of the thirteenth century. It seems most probable that a knowledge of the instrument was gained in the East by the crusaders. 2/8 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION equator, there was believed to be an impassable belt of fire. This was a very persistent idea, and was not dispelled until men had actually sailed beyond the equatorial regions. 304. Portuguese Explorations; Prince Henry the Navigator. — Many incentives concurred to urge daring navigators in the later mediaeval time to undertake voyages of discovery, but a chief motive was a desire to find a water way that should serve as a new trade route between Europe and the Indies. The first attempts to reach these lands by an all sea route were made by sailors feeling their way down the western coast of the African continent. The favorable situation of Portugal upon the Atlantic seaboard caused her to become foremost in these enterprises. Throughout the fifteenth century Portuguese sailors were year after year penetrating a little farther into the myste- rious tropical seas and uncovering new reaches of the western coast of Africa. The soul and inspiration of all this maritime enterprise was Prince Henry the Navigator (i 394-1460). In the year 1442 the Portuguese mariners reached the Gulf of Guinea, and here discovered the home of the true negro. Some of the ebony-skinned natives were carried to Portugal as slaves. This was the beginning of the modern African slave trade, which was destined to shape such large sections of the history of the centuries with which we have to do. The traffic was at first approved by even the most philanthropic persons, on the ground that the certain conversion of the slaves under Christian masters would more than compensate them for their loss of freedom. Finally, in i486, Bartholomew Dias succeeded in reaching the most southern point of the continent, which, as the possi- bility of reaching India by sea now seemed assured, was later given the name of Cape of Good Hope. But at the same time it was a disappointment to the Portuguese to find that Africa extended so far to the south. Even should India be reached, the way, it was now known, would be long and dangerous. This knowledge stimulated efforts to reach the Indies and the " place of spices " by a different and shorter route. COLUMBUS FINDS THE NEW WORLD 279 305. Columbus in Search of a Westward Route to the Indies finds the New World (1492). — It was Christopher Columbus, a Genoese by birth, who now proposed the bold plan of reaching these eastern lands by sailing westward. The sphericity of the earth was a doctrine held by all the really learned men of this time. This notion was also familiar to many at least of the com- mon people ; but they, while vaguely accepting the view that the earth is round, thought that the habitable part was a comparatively flat, shieldlike plain on the top of it. All the rest they thought to be covered by the waters of a great ocean. While agreed as to the globular form of the earth and of the curvature of the land as well as of the water surface, scholars dif- fered as to the pro- portion of land and water. The common opinion among them was that the greater part of the earth's surface was water. Some, however, believed that three fourths or more of its surface was land, and that only a narrow ocean separated the western shores of Europe from the eastern shores of Asia. Columbus held this latter view, and also shared with others a misconception as to the size of the earth, supposing it to be much smaller than it really is. Conse- quently he felt sure that a westward sail of three or four thousand miles would bring him to the Indies. Thus his very misconceptions fed his hopes and drew him on to his great discovery. Fig. 54. — Christopher Columbus. (After the Capriolo portrait; from the Columbus Memorial Volume) 28o BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION Everybody knows how Columbus in his endeavors to secure a patron for his enterprise met at first with repeated repulse and disappointment; how at last he gained the ear of Queen Isabella of Castile ; how a fleet of three small vessels was fitted out for the explorer ; and how the New World was discovered, — or rather rediscovered (sec. 83). The return of Columbus to Spain with his vessels loaded with the strange animal and vegetable products of the new lands he had found, together with several specimens of the inhabitants, — a race of men new to Europeans, — produced the profoundest sensation among all classes. Curiosity was unbounded. The spirit of hazardous enterprise awakened by the surprising discovery led to those subsequent undertakings by Castilian adventurers which make up the most thrilling pages of Spanish history. Columbus made altogether four voyages to the new lands; still he died in ignorance of the fact that he had really discov- ered a new world. He supposed the land he had found to be some part of the Indies, whence the name "West Indies" which still clings to the islands between North and South America, and the term " Indians " applied to the aborigines. It was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that it became fully estab- lished that a great new double continent, separated from Asia by an ocean wider than the Atlantic, had been found. Columbus never received during his lifetime a fitting recog- nition of the unparalleled service he had rendered Spain and the world. Jealousy pursued him, and from his third voyage he was sent home loaded with chains. Even the continent he had dis- covered, instead of being called after him as a perpetual memo- rial, was named from a Florentine navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, whose chief claim to this distinction was his having written th« first widely published account of the new lands. 306. The Voyage of Vasco da Gama (149 7-1 498); the Portu- guese create a Colonial Empire in the East. — We have seen that by the year i486 the Portuguese navigators, in their search for an ocean route to the Indies, had reached the southern point of Africa. A little later, six years after the first voyage of Columbus, THE PAPAL LINE OF DEMARCATION 281 Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese admiral, doubled the Cape, crossed the Indian Ocean, and landed on the coast of Malabar. The discovery of an unbroken water path to India effected most important changes in the trade routes and traffic of the world. It made the port of Lisbon the depot of the Eastern trade. The merchants of Venice were ruined. The great ware- houses of Alexandria were left empty. The old route to the Indies by way of the Red Sea, which had been from time imme- morial a main line of communication between the Far East and the Mediterranean lands, now fell into disuse, not to be reopened until the construction of the Suez Canal in our own day. Portugal dotted the coasts of Africa and Asia, the Moluccas and other islands of the Pacific archipelago, with fortresses and factories, and built up in these parts a great commercial empire, and, through the extraordinary impulse thus given to the enter- prise and ambition of her citizens, now entered upon the most splendid era of her history.^ 307. The Papal Line of Demarcation. — Remarkable and bold as were the voyages of Columbus and Vasco da Gama, these were now to be eclipsed by the still more adventurous enterprise of the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand Magellan, a navigator of Portuguese birth. But to make intelligible the object of this expedition there is needed a word of explanation con- cerning what is known as the Papal Line of Demarcation. Upon the return of Columbus from his successful expedition. Pope Alexander VI, with a view to adjusting the conflicting claims of Spain and Portugal, issued a bull wherein he drew from pole to pole a line of demarcation through the Atlantic one hundred leagues west of the Azores* (the line was afterwards moved two hundred and seventy leagues westward ^), and awarded 3 Among the makers of the Portuguese colonial empire Albuquerque (i452?-i5i5) stands preeminent. The story of his career possesses many elements of romance. 4 As it was impossible for the surveyors and geometers to fix upon the right starting point, the indefiniteness of the language of the bull made no end of trouble. See Bourne's Essays in Historical Criticism, Essay vii. 6 One result of this change was to throw the eastward projecting part of South America to the east of the demarcation line, and thus to make it a Portuguese instead of a Spanish possession. 282 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION to the Spanish sovereigns all pagan lands, not already in posses- sion of Christian princes, that their subjects might find west of this line, and to the Portuguese kings all unclaimed pagan lands discovered by Portuguese navigators east of the designated merid- ian.® By treaty arrangements as well as by papal edicts, — which were based on the theory of that time that the ocean like the land might be appropriated by any power and absolute control over it asserted,^ — the Portuguese were prohibited from sailing any of the seas thus placed under the dominion of Spain or from visiting as traders any of her lands, and the Spaniards from tres- passing upon the waters or the lands granted to the Portuguese. Spain was thus shut out from the use of the Cape route to the Indies which had been opened up by Vasco da Gama, and con- sequently from participation in the coveted spice trade, unless perchance a way to the region of spices could be found through some opening in the new lands discovered by Columbus. 308. The Circumnavigation of the Globe by Magellan (15 19- 1522). — Such was the situation of things when Magellan laid before the young Emperof Charles V, grandson of the Isabella who had given Columbus his commission, his plan of reaching the Moluccas, or " Spice Islands," which he contended were in Spanish waters,^ by a westward voyage. The young king looked with favor upon the navigator's plans, and placed under his com- mand a fleet of five small vessels. Magellan directed his ships in a southwesterly course across the Atlantic, hoping to find tov/ards the south a break in the new- found lands. Near the most southern point of South America he 6 The claim of the popes to the right thus to dispose of pagan lands was believed to be supported by such Scripture texts as this : " Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy pos- session" (Psalms ii. 8). Spain and Portugal recognized this claim, but the Catholic sovereigns in general only in so far as it coincided with their interests to do so. After the Lutheran revolt the rulers of the Protestant states gave no heed to it. ' Hugo Grotius (i 583-1645), the eminent Dutch jurist, in a treatise entitled Mare Liberum, refuted this theory, and in opposition to it maintained that the ocean should be free to all, — a far-reaching doctrine which finally became a part of the common law of nations. 8 There was difficulty in determining just where among the islands Ijdng south- east of Asia the papal line of demarcation, when carried around the globe, should run. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE 283 found the narrow strait that now bears his name. Through this channel the bold sailor pushed his vessels and found himself upon a great sea with a blank horizon to the west. From the calm, unruffled face of the new ocean, so different from the stormy Atlantic, he gave to it the name Pacific. The voyage of these first intruders ® from the Old World upon the unknown sea, beneath the strange constellations of the southern skies, was one of almost incredible sufferings, endured with the bravest fortitude. Finally, on March 16, 1 5 2 1 , Magellan reached the group of islands now known as the Philippines, hav- ing been so named in honor of Philip II, Charles' son and his successor on the Spanish throne. On one of these islands Magellan was killed- in a fight with the natives. The year following the discovery of the -Philippines a single battered ship of the fleet, the Victoria, with eighteen men out ot the original crews of over two hundred sailors, entered the Spanish port of Seville. The globe had for the first time been circum- navigated. The most adventurous enterprise of which record has been preserved had been successfully accomplished. " In the whole history of human undertakings," says Draper, "there is nothing that exceeds, if, indeed, there is anything that equals, this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in comparison." Equally does the exploit seem to have impressed the imagi- nation of Magellan's own age. The old writer Richard Eden (b. about 152 1) refers to it as "a thing doubtless so strange and marvelous that, as the like was never done before, so is it perhaps never like to be done again; so far have the navigations of the Spaniards excelled the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to the region of Colchis, or all that ever were before " ; and a Spanish contemporary declares, " Nothing more notable in navigation has ever been heard of since the voyage of the patriarch Noah." The results of the achievement were greater in the intellectual realm than in the commercial or the political domain. It revo- lutionized whole systems of mediaeval theory and belief ; it pushed aside old narrow geographical ideas ; it settled forever and for all 8 The Pacific had several years before this been seen at the Isthmus of Darien. 284 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION men the question as to the shape and size of the earth. It brought to an end the scholastic controversy concerning the antipodes, -^that is, whether there were men living on the "under" side of the earth. The state of most men's minds in regard to this matter had till then been just about the same as is ours to-day on the question whether or not the planets are inhabited. 309. These Voyages and Geographical Discoveries ushered in a New Epoch. — By some geographers civili- zation is conceived as hav- ing passed through three stages, — the potamic or river stage, the thalassic or inland sea stage, and the oceanic stage. In the case of our own civilization, whose beginnings we seek in Egypt and Babylonia, these steps or stages seem fairly well defined and mark off historical times into three great periods, which may be named the River Epoch, the Sea Epoch, and the Ocean Epoch. The River Epoch was that during which civilization was' confined to river valleys, like those of the Nile, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. The chief cities of this period, as, for instance, Memphis and Thebes ift Egypt, Nineveh and Babylon in Meso- potamia, arose on the banks of great streams. Rivers were the pathways of commerce. Boats were small and the art of sea navigation was practically unknown. The Sea Epoch was that during which the Mediterranean was the theater of civilization. It was ushered in by the Phoenicians, Fig. 55. — "The Antipodes in Deri- sion." (From Cosmas, Christian Topography ; after Beazley, The Dawn of Modern Geography) Cosmas lived in the sixth Christian century. In the cut here reproduced from his Topography, he ridicules the idea of a round earth with people on the under side whose heads hang downwards. The views of Cosmas as to the existence of an antipodal people had de- fenders throughout the mediaeval centuries THE FIVE EARLY COLONIAL EMPIRES 285 the first skillful sea navigators, in the second millennium before our era. From the river banks the seats of -trade and population were transferred to the shores of the Mediterranean, and Tyre and Sidon and Carthage and Ephesus and Miletus and Byzan- tium and Corinth and Athens and Rome arose and played their parts in the transactions of the thalassic age. So entirely did the events of this age center in and about the Mediterranean that this sea has been aptly called the Forum of the ancient world. The Ocean Epoch was opened up by the voyages and geo- graphical discoveries of which we have just been speaking. In this period the great oceans have ceased to be barriers between the nations, and have become instead the natural highways of the world's intercourse and commerce.^*' 310. The Five Early Colonial Empires. — One of the most important phases of the earlier history of this Ocean Epoch was the expansion of the five states on the Atlantic seaboard of Europe — namely, Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and Eng- land — each into a great empire, embracing colonies and depend- encies in two hemispheres. This expansion of Europe into Greater Europe holds somewhat such a place in modern history as the expansion of Hellas into Greater Hellas and of Rome into Greater Rome holds in ancient history. In the mutual jealousies and the conflicting interests of these growing colonial empires is to be found the ground and cause of many of the great wars of modern times since the close of the reUgious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For this reason, although it is our special task to trace the lines of the historic development in Europe, we shall from time to time call the reader's attention to these European interests out- side of the European continent. In the present connection a few words in regard to Spanish conquests and the beginnings of Spanish colonization in the New World will suffice. 311. The Conquest of Mexico (15 19-15 21). — The accounts of Spanish explorations and conquests in the lands opened up W The Ocean Epoch may be conceived as embracing two periods, — the Atlantic and the Pacific period. The latter is just opening. See Chapter XLIII on the expan- sion of Europe. 286 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION by the fortunate voyage of Columbus read more like a romance than any other chapter in history. They tell of men growing old while hunting through strange lands for the Fountain of Youth ; of expeditions lost for years to the knowledge of men, while searching beneath gloomy forests for El Dorado ; of explo- rations upon seas and amidst mountains never before looked upon by men of the Old World ; of voyages on ocean-like rivers which led no one knew where; and of ancient states conquered and their enormous accumulations of gold and silver seized by a few score of adventurous knights.^^ Perhaps the most brilliant exploit in which the Spanish cava- liers engaged during this period of daring and romantic adventure was the conquest of Mexico. Reports of a rich and powerful " Empire " upon the mainland to the west were constantly spread among the Spanish colonists who very soon after the discovery of the New World settled the islands in the Gulf of Mexico. These stories inflamed the imagination of adventurous spirits among the settlers, and an expedition, consisting of five or six hundred foot soldiers and sixteen horsemen, was organized and placed under the command of Hernando Cortes for the conquest and ''con- version" of the heathen nation. The expedition was successful, and soon the Spaniards were masters of the greater part of what now constitutes the republic of Mexico. The state that the conquerors destroyed was not an empire, as termed by the contemporary Spanish chroniclers, but rather a sort of league or confederacy — something like the Iroquois confederacy in the North — formed of three Indian tribes.^^ Of these the Aztecs were the leading tribe and gave name to the confederacy. At the head of the league stood a sachem, or war-chief, who bore the name of Montezuma. 11 Juan Ponce de Leon started on his romantic expedition in search of the fabled spring in 15 12; Vasco de Balboa discovered the Pacific in 15 13; Hernando de Soto, while searching for a rich Indian kingdom, found the Mississippi in 1541 ; and in the same year Francisco de Orellana descended the eastern slope of the Andes to the Napo, floated down that stream to the Amazon, and then drifted on down to the sea- 12 Prescott's description of the Mexican state, especially as to its political organi zation, is mjgleading. For later authorities see bibliography at end of the chapter. s along the Equator EXPLORATIONS AND COLONIES OF THE 15TH, 16TH,AND 17TH CENTURIES BRITISH I J FRENCH C SPAJNISH [ BANISH L ] PORTUGUESE I British and Frencli Rival Claims J DUTCH I ZZjCZZD WOBKS, BuCFALO 20 Longitude 40 East from 60 Greenwich 80 THE CONQUEST OF PERU 287 The Aztecs, at the time of the discovery of America, had reached what is called the "middle stage of barbarism," — a stage of culture which the Mediterranean races had reached and passed probably two thousand years before Christ. They employed a system of picture-writing. Their religion was a sort of sun worship. They were cannibals and offered human victims in their sacrifices. They had no knowledge of the horse or the ox, or of any other useful domesticated animal except the dog.^* They cultivated maize, but were without wheat, oats, or barley. They held their lands in common, and lived in communal or joint-tenement houses, which were large enough to accommo- date from ten to one hundred famiUes. It was these immense structures which the Spanish writers described as "palaces" and " public edifices." These buildings were, doubtless, the same in plan as those to be seen at the present day among the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern part of the United States. 312. The Conquest of Peru (1532-15 36). — Shortly after the conquest of the Indians of Mexico the subjugation of the Indians of Peru was effected. The civilization of the Peruvians was supe- rior to that of the Mexicans. It has been compared, as to several of its elements, to that of ancient Assyria. Not only were the great cities of the empire filled with splendid temples and pal- aces, but throughout the country were to be seen magnificent works of public utility, such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts. The government of the Incas, the royal or ruling race, was a mild, paternal autocracy. Glowing reports of the enormous wealth of the Incas, the commonest articles in whose palaces, it was asserted, were of soHd gold, reached the Spaniards by way of the Isthmus of Darien, and it was not long before an expedition, consisting 13 It has been conjectured that the backwardness in civilization of the native races of the Americas is to be attributed in part to their lack of useful tame animals. See Fiske, The Discovery of America, vol. i, p. 27. The native fauna of the New World as compared with that of the Old is singularly poor in tamable species. Aside from the llama, the alpaca, and the turkey, the New World has contributed nothing of essential value to the great store of domesticated stocks which constitute the basis of so large a part of modern industry. 2S8 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION of less than two hundred men, was organized for the conquest of the country. The leader of the band was Francisco Pizarro, an iron-hearted, cruel, and illiterate adventurer. Through treachery Pizarro made a prisoner of the Inca, Ata- hualpa. The captive offered, as a ransom for his release, to fill the room in which he was confined " as high as he could reach " with vessels of gold. Pizarro accepted the offer, and the palaces and temples throughout the empire were stripped of their golden vessels, and the apartment was filled with the precious relics. The value of the treasure is estimated at over ;^ 15,000,000. When this vast wealth was once under the control of the Spaniards, they seized it all, and then treacherously put the Inca to death (1533)' With the death of Atahualpa the power of the Inca dynasty passed away forever. 313. Beginnings of Spanish Colonization in the New World. — Not until more than one hundred years after the discovery of the Western Hemisphere by Columbus was there established a single permanent English settlement within the limits of what is now the United States ; but into those parts of the new lands opened up by Spanish exploration and conquest there began to pour at once a tremendous stream of Spanish adventurers and colonists in search of fortune and fame. Upon the West India Islands, in Mexico, in Central America, all along the Pacific slope of the Andes, and everywhere upon the lofty and pleasant table- lands that had formed the heart of the empire of ^he Incas, there sprang up rapidly cities as centers of mining and agricultural industries, of commerce and of trade. Often, as in the case of Mexico, Quito, and Cuzco, these new cities were simply the renovated and rebuilt towns of the conquered natives. Thus did a Greater Spain grow up in the New World. Before the close of the sixteenth century the dominions of the Spanish monarch in the new lands formed of themselves a magnificent empire, and were the source, chiefly through the wealth of their gold and silver mines, of a large revenue to the royal exchequer. It was, in part, the treasures derived from these new possessions that enabled the sovereigns of Spain to play the important part SUGGESTION TO TEACHERS 289 they did in the affairs of Europe during the century following the discovery of America.-^* Having thus indicated one source of Spanish greatness and reputation, it will be one of our aims in a following chapter to give some idea of the way in which this power and prestige were used by the Spanish sovereigns in maintaining the supremacy of the Catholic Church in the interests of Spain. Suggestion to Teachers — Comparative Study In no way, we think, will the teacher be able to give his pupils so clear an idea of the character of the sixteenth century as by having them make a comparative study of that century and the nineteenth. The striking parallels which they will discover between the two periods will be sure to suggest to them that "the wonderful nine- teenth century," as it is called by Alfred Russel Wallace, like the sixteenth, may be a transition period, a period which will be regarded by the future historian as we regard the sixteenth, — as the beginning of a new age in history. Having gained this viewpoint, they will see all the events, movements, and enterprises of the earlier period under 14 After having robbed the Indians of their wealth in gold and silver, the slow accumulations of centuries, the Spaniards further enriched themselves by the enforced labor of the unfortunate natives. Unused to such toil as was exacted of them under the lash of worse than Egyptian taskmasters, the Indians wasted away by millions in the mines of Mexico and Peru, and upon the sugar plantations of the West Indies. More than half of the native population of Peru is thought to have been consumed in the Peruvian mines. " During fifty years," says a recent writer, " the Spaniards uniformly conquered and enslaved [the natives] ; put them to forced labour, to which they were physically unequal; and on the least resistance or other provocation, massacred them in great numbers. One estimate says that in these years 40,000,000 of the native Americans perished by violence : the lowest makes the number 10,000,- 000 ; and it is to be feared the former is nearer the truth. It is certain that the islands of the West Indies once contained nearly 6,000,000 of a race now quite extinct; and that in Hayti alone they sank, in fifteen years, from 1,000,000 to 60,000, and, in fifty years, to 200" (Payne, Etirofean Colonies, pp. 89, 90). As a substitute for native labor, negroes were introduced. This was the beginning of the African slave trade in the New World. At the outset the traffic was approved by a benevolent bishop named Las Casas (1474-1566), known as the " Apostle of the Indians." Before his death, however, Las Casas came to recognize the wickedness of negro as well as of Indian slavery, and to regret that he had ever expressed approval of the plan of substituting one for the other. See Fiske, The Discovery of America, vol. ii, pp. 454-458. 290 BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION a familiar light. The following will suggest in what realms parallels may be sought : The Sixteenth Century a. The New Learning. Great intellec- tual activity. h. The Reformation. Revision of creeds. Relation of the religious move- ment to the Renaissance. c. The imification of great nations, — England, France, Spain. d. The expansion of Europe; the par- tition of the New World and of Southern Asia. The formation of colonial empires, — Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and Eng- Ush. e. Great geographical and astronom- ical discoveries (Columbus, Coper- nicus), which reveal the universe as infinite in space. Man's concep- tions concerning the earth and its place in the universe revolution- ized. f. Great inventions, now first hit upon or tffought into general use, — print- ing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass. Political, social, and economic revolutions caused or promoted by them. The Nineteenth Century The New Sciences. Great intellectual activity. The New Theology. Revision of creeds. Relation of this movement to the birth of the new scientific spirit. The unification of great nations,— Germany, Italy. The expansion of Europe; the par- tition of Africa and of Oceania. The formation of new colonial empires, — English, French, Ger- man, Belgian, and American. Great geological and biological dis- coveries {Evolution — Lyell, Dar- win), which reveal the universe as infinite in time. Man's conceptions as to his origin and his place in the plan of creation revolutionized. Great inventions, — the steam rail- way, the ocean steamship, the elec- tric telegraph, electric motor, etc. Political, social, and economic revo- lutions caused or furthered by their introduction. Selections from the Sources. — Cathay and the Way Thither (ed. by Colonel Yule). The student here learns with what knowledge of Eastern Asia Columbus and the others set out, and what they expected to find. The Journal of Christopher Columbus (Hakluyt Society publications). Old South Leaflets, Nos. 29, 31-36, 39, 71, 89, 90, 102. The First Three Eng- lish Books on America (ed. by Edward Arber). This work possesses a special fascination. " One is able therein," as says the editor, " to look out on the New World as its discoverers and first explorers looked upon it." Secondary Works. — Keane, The Evolution of Geography, chaps, v-viii. Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator. There are numerous hves of Colum- bus: Winsor's, Irving's, C. K. Adams', and Markham's can be recom- mended. GuiLLEMARD, The Life of Ferdinand Magellan. FiSKE, The Discovery of America. There is not a chapter here that will fail to interest BIBLIOGRAPHY 29I and charm young readers. The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i, chap, i, " The Age of Discovery " ; and chap, ii, " The New World." Bourne, Essays in Historical Criticism, Essay No. 6, " Prince Henry the Naviga- tor," and Essay No. 7, " The Demarcation Line of Pope Alexander VI." Prescott, Conquest of Mexico and Conquest of Peru ; should be read in connection with later works. Stephens, Albuquerque. Payne, History of the New World called America, vol. i, pp. 303-364; for the relation of the aboriginal civilizations of the Americas to their animal and plant life. Topics for Class Reports. — I. Copernicus and the slow acceptance of his theory. See A.. D. White, A History of the Warfare of Science and Theology, vol. i, chap. iii. 2. Prince Henry the Navigator. 3. The legend of Prester John. 4. The Naming of America. See article by Pro- fessor E. G. Bourne, in The American Historical Review for October, 1904. 5. Civilization of the Aztecs. 6. Civilization of the Peruvians. CHAPTER XX THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION 314. Introductory Statement. — When the Modem Age opened the European peoples were on the eve of a great religious revolu- tion. This was a dual movement. It was an insurrection against the Papacy, resulting in the severance by half the nations of Europe of the bonds which throughout the mediaeval time had united them to the ecclesiastical empire of the Roman pontiffs. Since the secession movement was successful, it is rightly called a revolution, — the Protestant- Revolution. But the movement was something more than a successful rebellion against ecclesiastical authority. It was, as we shall learn, caused in large part by the existence of certain evils and abuses in the Church, and resulted in a great renovation of the religious and moral life of Western Christendom. Hence it is properly spoken of as a reform, — as the Reformation. That the movement was a dual one should be carefully noted, for it is only when regarded from both the indicated points of view that its complex phenomena can be intelligently observed and rightly interpreted. In the present chapter we shall speak of the causes and the beginnings of the revolution ; in succeeding chapters we shall follow the vicissitudes of its fortunes in the principal countries of Northern Europe. 315. Causes of the Reformation. — Our first endeavor must be to get some sort of comprehension of what caused the northern nations of Europe first to become dissatisfied with the state of things ecclesiastical and religious, and then to secede from the ancient Church. There were various causes. One cause was the Renaissance, that great intellectual awaken- ing which marked the close of the mediaeval and the opening of 292 CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION 293 the modem epoch. As we have already learned, the revival of the liberal culture of classical antiquity evoked a critical, self- reliant spirit which was profoundly antagonistic to the whole mediaeval system of ideas and practices. We shall see in a moment how it was the antagonism which developed between the pro- moters of the New Learning and the upholders of the scholastic theology that helped to prepare the way for the great schism. A second cause of the revolution was the existence in the Church of most serious scandals and abuses. In many cases religion instead of being a thing of the heart had become, in a lamentable degree, merely a matter of ceremonies and outer ob- servances. In practice, if not in theory, with many religion was regarded as one thing and morality as quite another. The neces- sity of the amendment of this state of things, of the thorough reform of the Church in both " head and members," was recog- nized by all earnest and spiritually minded men. The only differ- ence of opinion among such was as to the manner in which the work of renovation should be effected, whether from within or from without, by reform or by revolution. A third cause was jealousy of the Papacy on the part of the temporal princes, and the clash of papal claims with the rising sentiment of national patriotism. It is true that the claims to temporal supremacy put forward by some of the mediaeval popes were no longer maintained ; still there remained a very large field embracing matters such as appointment or nomination to Church offices, the taxation of the clergy and of Church property, ques- tions concerning marriages, wills, and so on, which the popes as the guardians of religion claimed the right to regulate or to review. Thus the nations were really very far from being independent. As respects many matters which we now regard as attaching to national sovereignty, they were virtually provinces of an ecclesi- astical world-empire centered at Rome. The situation might be illustrated by a comparison with that in a federal commonwealth like our own. Just as in our Union every person owes allegiance to two authorities, that of his State and that of the Federal Government, so in mediaeval times every 294 BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION person owed allegiance to two authorities, — to his own king and to the Roman pontiff. And as before our Civil War it was often difficult for one to determine whether his first duty was to his own State or to the Federal Government, so before the Protestant Revolution it was often difficult for one to decide to which he owed superior allegiance, — to his own prince or to the Pope. As regards the monks and the other clergy, the question was apt to be decided in favor of the papal see, for they were prone to regard themselves as subjects of the Pope rather than as subjects of the king under whose rule they lived. But it was at the 'point where the papal supremacy interfered with the financial interests of the lay governments that the most friction and trouble developed. As head of the Church the popes were drawing an immense revenue from every state embraced within the ecclesiastical empire. A large part of the landed prop- erty of Europe was in the hands of the Church, and a consider- able portion of the vast revenues derived from it was, in the form of annates and contributions of the clergy, drawn into the Roman treasury. Furthermore, through the system of papal indulgences (sec. 320) vast additional sums were collected for papal use in all the different countries. In some countries the direct and indirect contributions of the people to the papal see probably exceeded the taxes which they paid to their own government. Moreover, it was a matter of notoriety that the immense sums drawn to Rome were not always used in the promotion of religious objects, but, in the hands of unworthy pontiffs, like Alexander VI, were used to further personal ambitions or to promote the political fortunes of the Papacy. This state of things culminating just at the time when the sentiment of nationahty was awakening in several of the different countries, and just when the secular governments, growing stronger, were assuming new functions and were requiring larger revenues for the maintenance of their standing armies and for other public purposes, it was inevitable that among the civil rulers the situation should come to be regarded with feelings of ill-will and impatience. It is doubtless true that in several of the northern countries it THE OXFORD HUMANIST REFORMERS 295 was this condition of things which had more to do in bringing about the secession from Rome than had the desire of rehgious freedom or of moral reform. The circumstances marking the outbreak of the revolution, which we shall now proceed to consider, will afford a commentary on this brief statement of the causes which produced it. 316. The Northern Humanists as Precursors of the Reformation. — In our study of the Italian Renaissance we noted how the revival, which in Italy had been in its essence a restoration of classical literature and culture, on crossing the Alps became equally a restoration of Hebrew-Christian antiquity, and thus also became one of the deepest lying causes of the Protestant Revolu- tion (sec. 301). This relation of humanism to the Reformation will best be revealed by the presentation of a few facts illustrative of the spirit and aims of the humanists of the North. 317. The Oxford Humanist Reformers. — One of the earliest centers of humanism in the North was Oxford in England. Here we find, just as the old age was merging into the new, a celebrated group of humanists. Among them three men, Colet, Erasmus, and More, stand preeminent as promoters of the New Learning. John Colet (1466-15 19) was leader and master of the little band. His generous enthusiasm was kindled in Italy. It was an important event in the history of the Reformation when Colet crossed the Alps to learn Greek at the feet of the Greek exiles ; for on his return to England he brought back with him not only an increased love for the classical learning but a fervent zeal for religious reform, inspired, perhaps, by the stirring eloquence of Savonarola. His lectures at Oxford on St. Paul's Epistles are said to have seemed to his listeners almost Hke a new revela- tion. The great influence of Colet upon the world was exerted for the most part indirectly, — through Erasmus and More^ his disciples and fellow-workers. Desiderius Erasmus (i467?-i536) of Rotterdam went to Eng- land to learn Greek. There he came into close friendship with Colet, More, and other lovers of learning, with whom he declared he could have been happy in Scythia. He was the leader of the 296 BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION humanistic movement in the North, as Petrarch was the father of the movement in the South. His celebrated satire entitled Morice Encomium, or "Praise of Folly" (1509), was directed against the foibles of all classes of society, but particularly against the sins of " unholy men in holy orders." A little later (in 15 16) Erasmus published his Novum Instrumentum, the Greek text of the New Testament with a Latin version. These publications must be given a prominent place among the agencies which prepared the minds and hearts of the northern peo- ples for the Refor- mation. Thomas More (14 7 8-1 5 3 5) was declared by Colet to be the sole gen- ius in all England. He was a man with whom men were said to "fall in love." As the author of Utopia he is, perhaps, after Erasmus, the best known of all the humanists of the North. His work, while closely associ- ated with the religious and social history of the Reformatiori period in England, had less significance than that of either Colet or Erasmus for the reform movement at large, and it is in connec- tion with English history that we shall have occasion to refer to it again (sec. 377). Than this early Oxford movement, nothing better illustrates the relation of the humanistic revival in the North to the religious reform. Here the humanist was the reformer. But the Oxford Fig. 56. Erasmus. (After a painting by Holbein) GERMAN HUMANISM 297 reformers, it should be carefully noted, were not Protestant reform- ers. They believed in the divine character of the papal supremacy. They wished indeed to reform the Papacy, but not to destroy it. They did not wish to see the mediaeval unity of Christendom broken. They had no quarrel with the creed of the Catholic Church. Erasmus denounced the doctrines of Luther, and More died a martyr's death rather than deny the papal supremacy. 318. The German Humanists; John Reuchlin. — Even before the influence of the Italian humanistic revival had begun to make itself felt in Germany, there had already sprung up in that coun- try a movement, primarily intellectual, which owed little or noth- ing to that which at the same time was running its course in the southern land. This movement in its earlier stages was repre- sented by an association known as the " Brethren of the Common Life." The members of this union founded schools and labored to render the education of youth practical and conducive to true piety. In these schools were nurtured some of the best scholars and best men of the time.^ Before the end of the fifteenth century this native movement, coming in contact with Italian humanism, received a great impulse therefrom, and developed rapidly and spread widely. The printing press poured out a flood of books. New universities were founded and became propagating centers of the liberal cul- ture of the •Renaissance. As was inevitable a conflict straightway sprang up between the monastic theologians, who were the cham- pions of the old Scholasticism, and the promoters of the New Learning. It was the first phase in modern times of the age-long warfare between Theology and Science. The first blows exchanged by the two parties were given in a controversy in which the real principle involved was the freedom of scholars in their investigations and the limits of theological authority in matters of scholarship. The war raged around the 1 Three of the most eminent representatives of this early German revival were Thomas k Kempis (d. 1471), the reputed author of The Imitation of Christ ; Jacob Wimpheling (1450-1528); and Sebastian Brant (1458-1521), who in his ^o^vaNarren- schiff^ or " Ship of Fools," satirized with keenest wit evils in both State and Church. 298 BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION person of the eminent humanist John Reuchlin (1455-15 22), the same whom we have seen in the closing years of the fifteenth century trudging over the Alps in order to study Greek at the feet of the Italian masters (sec. 291). Hostilities had arisen in this way. It had been proposed by haters of the Jews that their books should be taken from them and burned, on the ground that these works were unfriendly to Christianity. Reuchlin, who was the best Hebrew scholar of his time, was asked, by the authorities before whom the matter had been brought, for his' opinion on the proposal. He advised against it, and embraced the opportunity to say that much of the Jewish literature might be read by Christians with great advan- tage to themselves. This caused Reuchlin to be bitterly attacked by the clerical party. The theological faculties of many of the German universities and that of the University of Paris con- demned his views, while the humanists, among others Erasmus, sent him letters of approval and encouragement. Some of these Reuchlin published under the title of Epistolce Clarorum Virorum, or " Letters from Illustrious Men." The appearance of this collection suggested to some of Reuchlin' s friends — the celebrated humanist and picturesque knight poet, Ulrich von Hutten (148 8- 152 3), was among them — the putting out of a work bearing the title Epistolce Obscuro- rum Virortim, or "Letters of Obscure Men" (15 15-15 17). This was a series of fictitious letters, written in " choicest bad Latin " and crowded with all sorts of absurdities, in which the party opposed to Reuchlin were made the subjects of rollicking satire and merciless ridicule. To the humanists it was "capital fun," as More wrote to Erasmus. 319. The Humanistic Movement becomes a Religious Reform. — The attacks of the humanists on the theologians had been inspired primarily not so much by religious feeling or moral indig- nation as by a love of sound scholarship and contempt for the ignorance and pedantry of the opposers of the New Learning. The controversy now assumed a more serious phase. It took on the character of a religious debate, became a matter of conscience, INDULGENCES; PURGATORY; JUBILEES 299 also became mixed with political matters, and then finally devel- oped into open war between the two parties. The simple narration of events as they unfolded in Germany will best convey an idea of how circumstances, and the appearance of a great man with deep convictions and violent passions, gave this new trend to the historic movement. 320. Indulgences; Purgatory; Jubilees. — Since the subject- matter of the debate in its new form was papal indulgences, a word concerning these will here be necessary to render inteUigible the opening episodes of the great revolution. An indulgence, as understood and defined by German theo- logians of Luther's time, was the remission of that temporal pun- ishment which often remains due on account of sin after its guilt has been forgiven.^ It was granted on the performance of some work of piety, charity, or mercy, which often included an alms to the poor or a gift of money to promote some good work, and took effect only upon certain conditions, among which was that of confession of sin and sincere repentance. Since much of the opposition to indulgences arose from their application to souls in purgatory and to abuses arising in this connection, a word of explanation is here also necessary. According to Catholic teaching, the other world embraces three regions, — hell, purgatory, and heaven. This belief is embodied in the greal poem of the mediaeval ages, Dante's Divine Comedy. Purgatory is a place or state intermediate between heaven and hell, where souls destined for eternal bliss are cleansed through suffering. This beHef in an intermediate place of punishment came to be of historical significance because, according to Catholic 2 The following is the definition given by Johann von Paltz, a contemporary of Luther, in his authoritative treatise on indulgences {Ccelifodina, ed. of 15 11) : Indul- gentia est remissio fxnrn temporalis debitcB peccatis actualibus fcemtenttum non remisscB in absolutione sacramentali : facta a pr ^^^ that .of Spain and its colonies (1556), and then retired to the monastery of Yuste, situated in a secluded region in Western Spain. The departure of the self-deposed monarch from Ghent to the place of his exile is thus contrasted, by the pen of a graceful his- torian, with his embarkation from the Netherlands more than a third of a century before, to receive the crown of Spain and the Indies, which had just descended to him by the death of his grandfather Ferdinand : " He was then in the morning of life : just entering on a career as splendid as ever opened to young ambition. How different must have been the reflections which now crowded on his mind, as, with wasted health, and spirits sorely depressed, he now embarked on the same voyage ! He had run the race of glory, had won the prize, and found that all was vanity. He was now returning to the goal whence he had started, anxious only to reach some quiet spot where he might lay down his weary limbs and be at rest " (Prescott). There is a tradition which tells how Charles, after vainly en- deavoring to make some clocks that he had about him at Yuste 9 Philip had received the crown of Naples the preceding year (1554), in order that his titular dignity might be the same as that of Queen Mary of England, to whom he was that year united in marriage. The imperial crown went to Charles' brother, the Archduke Ferdinand. 326 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN run together, made the following reflection: *'How foolish I have been to think I could make all men believe alike about religion, when here I cannot make even two clocks keep the same time." This story is probably mythical. Charles seems never to have doubted either the practicability or the policy of securing uni- formity of behef by force. While in retirement at Yuste he expressed the deepest regret that he did not burn Luther at Worms. He was constantly urging Philip to use greater severity in dealing with his heretic subjects, and could scarcely restrain him- self from leaving his retreat in order to engage personally in the work of eradicating the pestilent doctrines which he heard were spreading in Spain, 11. Spain under Philip II (15 56-1 598) 350. Philip's Character and his Principles of Government. — Philip, unlike his father, was a representative Spaniard. He typi- fied and embodied in himself the traits, ideals, and aspirations of the Spanish race, just as Luther typified and embodied those of the German race. His mind was the mind, his conscience was the con- science, of the Spanish people. Like the true Spaniard, PhiUp possessed a deeply religious nature. ~He believed as sincerely as ever did the Puritan Cromwell that he was God's chosen instrument for the working out of his eternal designs. But in order that he might do what God would have done in the world, he conceived it to be necessary that he should have absolute power. A necessary basis of this absolute power, in Philip's conception, as in that of his father Charles, was religious unity. Disunion in the Church meant disunion in the state. Hence one of Philip's Fig. 61. — Philip 11. (After a painting by Titian) PHILIP'S DOMAINS AND REVENUES 327 instruments of government was the Inquisition. He employed it in the suppression of heresy, not simply because he was a sincere Catholic and believed that heresy was willful sin and should be sternly dealt with, but primarily because heresy, in his view, was rebellion against the state. PhiHp possessed unusual administrative ability. He was an incessant worker and busied himself with the endless details of government. He left nothing to the discretion of others. He did everything himself. His secretaries were mere clerks. He him- self handled every dispatch. His generals awaited and followed his minute orders. He even regulated, or tried to regulate, the private affairs of his subjects, — told them how to dress, when they might use carriages, and how and where to educate their children. Under this system there was in the kingdom but one brain to plan and one will to direct. All local freedom and all individual initiative were crushed out. This fatally centralized system of absolute government Philip bequeathed to his suc- cessors, and thus contributed greatly to determine the unhappy destiny of the Spanish people. 351. Philip's Domains and Revenues. — With the abdication of Charles V the imperial crown passed out of the Spanish line of the House of Hapsburg. Yet the dominions of Philip were scarcely less extensive than those over which his father had ruled. AH the hereditary possessions of the Spanish crown were of course his. Then just before the abdication of his father gave him these domains he had become king-consort of England by marriage with Mary Tudor; and about the middle of his reign he acquired Portugal and added to his empire its rich dependencies in Africa and the East Indies. After this accession of territory, Philip's sovereignty was owned, it has been estimated, by more than one hundred milHon persons, — probably as large a number as the Roman Empire contained at the time of its greatest extent. Philip's revenues, too, were as ample as his domains. The mines of Mexico and Peru poured into the royal coffers a steady stream of the precious metals ; the looms of Flanders created untold wealth for their Spanish master ; while frequent and heavy 328 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN taxes levied upon the provinces and cities of the peninsula still further augmented the royal income. But notwithstanding that Philip's dominions were so extensive, his resources so enormous, and many of the outward circumstances of his reign so striking and brilliant, there were throughout the period causes at work which were rapidly undermining the great- ness of Spain and preparing her fall. By wasteful wars and extrav- agant buildings Philip managed to dissipate the royal treasures ; and by a narrow, blind, and suicidal course in regard to his Moorish, Jewish, and Protestant subjects, he ruined the industries of the most flourishing of the provinces of Spain, and drove the Nether- lands into a desperate revolt, which ended in the separation of the most valuable of those provinces from the Spanish crown. As the most important matters of Philip's reign — namely, his war against the revolted Netherlands and his attempt upon Eng- land with his "Invincible Armada" — belong properly to the respective histories of England and the Netherlands, and will be treated of in connection with the affairs of those countries, we shall give here very little space to the history of the period. 352. Philip's War with France. — Philip took up his father's quarrel with France. He was aided by the English, who were persuaded to this step by their queen, Mary Tudor, now the wife, it will be recalled, of Philip. Fortune favored Philip. The French were defeated in two great battles,-^" and were forced to agree to a treaty (Peace of Gateau- Cambr6sis, 1559) so advantageous to Spain as to give Philip great distinction in the eyes of all Europe. In the negotiation of this treaty between Philip and Henry, as in the Peace of Crespy between Charles and Francis just fifteen 10 At St. Quentin (1557), an. important town in North France, then again at Grave- lines (1558). The monument built by Philip to commemorate the victory of St. Quen- tin is strikingly illustrative of his character. Before the battle he vowed to erect to St. Lawrence the most splendid monastery the world had ever seen, if he would but give success to his arms. Philip kept his vow faithfully. A few years after the battle he laid, near the city of Madrid, the foundation of the famous Escorial, — "a palace, a monastery, and a mausoleum." The edifice was built in the form of a grid- iron, from the circumstance that St. Lawrence suffered martyrdom by being broiled on such an instrument. It is the Westminster Abbey of Spain ; it holds the ashes of all the Spanish sovereigns from Charles V onward. PHILIP'S CRUSADE AGAINST THE MORISCOS 329 years before, a main motive with both sovereigns was anxiety to be free to engage in the work of- extirpating heresy. 353. Philip's Crusade against the Moriscos (15 70-15 71). — It will be recalled that upon the conquest of Granada in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Moors were assured protection in all civil rights and granted religious freedom. Had these promises been kept, the Moors, docile and industrious as they were, would have become loyal subjects of the Spanish crown, and an element of strength in the Spanish nation. But the Emperor Charles V had broken faith with them. Carry- ing out his policy of enforcing religious uniformity, he compelled them to embrace Christianity. They submitted to baptism, and outwardly conformed to the requirements of the Church, but secretly they held to their own faith, and maintained their ancient practices and traditions. Having been baptized, however, they were subject to the jurisdiction of the Church. The Inquisition dealt cruelly with them as apostates and heretics. PhiHp inherited the policy of his father, and was more thorough- going in carrying it out He conceived it to be his duty to impose upon the Moriscos — thus they were called after their conversion — conditions that should thoroughly obhterate all traces of their ancient faith and manners. So he issued a decree that they should no longer wear their native garb or use their native tongue, and that they should give their children Christian names and send them to Christian schools. A determined revolt followed. • The uprising was suppressed with cruel severity, and then, because there was danger that if left in these coast regions they might open the gates of the country to the Moslems of the Medi- terranean, an order was issued which condemned all the Moriscos of Granada to deportation to districts in the center and the north of the peninsula. The order was relentlessly carried out. Men, women, and children, all who were of Moorish blood, were carried off into hopeless exil^. 354. Defeat of the Turkish Fleet at Lepanto (1571). — At the very moment almost that Philip was dealing Spain a fatal blow by his cruel treatment of his Morisco subjects, he was rendering a great 330 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN service to Christian civilization at large. This he did by helping to stay the progress of the Ottoman Turks in the Mediterranean. They had captured the important island of Cyprus, and had assaulted the Hospitalers at Malta, which island had been saved from falling into the hands of the infidels only by the splendid conduct of the Knights. All Christendom was becoming alarmed. An alliance was formed, embracing the Pope, the Venetians, and Philip II. An immense fleet was equipped and put under the com- mand of Don John of Austria, Philip's half-brother, a young gen- eral whose consummate abiUty had been recently displayed in the crusade against the Moors. The Christian fleet met the Turkish squadron in the Gulf of Lepanto, on the western coast of Greece. The battle was unequaled by anything the Mediterranean had seen since the naval encounters of the Romans and Carthaginians in the First Punic War. The Ottoman fleet was almost totally destroyed. Thousands of Chris- tian captives, who were found chained to the oars of the Turkish galleys, were liberated. All Christendom rejoiced as when Jerusa- lem was captured by the first crusaders. The battle of Lepanto holds an important place in history, because it marks the turning point of the long struggle between the Mohammedans and Christians, which had now been going on for nearly one thousand years. Though the Moslems had received many checks, there really was no time previous to this great victory when the Mohammedan power, represented first by the Arabs and afterwards by the Turks, did not hang like a threatening cloud along the southern or eastern border of Chris- tendom. The victory of Lepanto robbed the cloud of its terrors. The Ottoman Turks, though they afterwards made progress in some quarters, never recovered the prestige they lost in that disaster, and their power thenceforward steadily declined. 355. The Acquisition of Portugal by Spain. — When in 1580 the throne of Portugal became vacant by the death of Dom Henry the Cardinal, Philip laid claim to the. kingdom, and sent an army, led by the able Duke of Alva, to take possession of the country. For sixty years Portugal remained in captivity to Spain. DEATH OF PHILIP 33 1 The significance of this acquisition consisted not so much in the extension of Spanish authority throughout the peninsula as in the bringing under Spanish control of the colonial possessions of Portugal in South America, in Africa, and in the East Indies, for this soon made them the spoil of the Dutch and the English, the enemies and the commercial rivals of Spain. It was under these circumstances that the Dutch, seizing the Spice Islands and other former possessions of Portugal, laid the basis of their great empire in the Eastern seas, and the EngHsh that of theirs in India. 356. The Death of Philip (1598). — In the year 1588 Philip made his memorable attempt with the so-called " Invincible Armada" upon England, at this time the stronghold of Prot- estantism. As we shall see a little later, he failed utterly in the undertaking. Ten years after this death ended his reign. Of the character of Phihp probably no juster estimate has ever been made than that found in these words of the Dutch historian Blok : " Not until our time has it been made clear that in the heart of this politician, full of political cunning, of devilish revenge, of low craft, — in the heart of this little-spirited, narrow, somber, bitter king, — there were also world-wide thoughts, noble feehngs of belief, hearty love, rich artistic feeling, and devotion to higher ideals." 357. Later Events: the Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609- 16 10); Loss of the Netherlands. — From the death of Philip II Spain declined in power, reputation, and influence. This was due very largely to the bigotry and tyranny of her rulers. Thus under Philip III (1598-162 1) a severe loss, one from which they never recovered, was inflicted upon the manufactures and other industries of the country by the expulsion of the Moriscos. - Philip II, it will be recalled, had deported the whole Morisco population of Granada to inland provinces. Now all Spain was to be cleared absolutely of the " evil race." Not one was to be left upon Spanish soil. Philip really believed that this driving out of the misbelievers would be a service pleasing to God, even as was the driving out by the Hebrews of the Canaanites from Pales- tine. But he was actuated also by other motives in expelling the 332 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN unhappy Moriscos. They were accused, and not without ground, so desperate had oppression and persecution rendered them, of plotting with their co-reUgionists, the African Moors and the Otto- man Turks, for the invasion of Spain, and thus endangering the peace and unity of the land. Accordingly during the years 1609 and 16 10 all persons of Moorish descent — more than half a million of the most intel- ligent, skillful, and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula — were driven into exile, chiefly to North Africa. The empty dwellings and neglected fields of once populous and gardenlike provinces told how fatala blow Spain had inflicted upon herself. She had achieved rehgious unity — but at a great price. At the very moment that Spain was being so deeply wounded in the peninsula she received an incurable hurt in her outside possessions. In the Truce of 1609 (sec. 412) she was forced virtually to recognize the independence of the Protestant Neth- erlands, whose revolt against the tyranny of Philip II has been mentioned. In the secession of these provinces Spain lost her most valuable dependency. 358. Conclusion. — Spain now disappears as a power of the first rank from the stage of history. The historian Laurent finely compares her withdrawal from the theater of great affairs to Charles V's retirement into the cloistral solitude of Yuste. " In the sixteenth century," he says, " Spain shone in the first rank among the great powers ; she filled the Old and the New World with her name ; then she retired into isolation, as Charles V at the end of his agitated life retired within the solitude of a monastery." Even the very brief review which we have made of her sixteenth- century history will not fail to have revealed at least two of the main causes of her failure and quick decadence : first, a false imperial policy in Europe which involved her in endless and fruitless wars ; and second, political despotism and religious intolerance. . Selections from the Sources. — Translations and Reprints, vol. iii. No. 3, " Period of the Later Reformation " (ed. by Merrick Whitcomb) ; contains short selections bearing on several of the matters covered by this chapter. BIBLIOGRAPHY 333 See Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII, vol. ii, pp. 120-126, for accounts by eyewitnesses of the sack of Rome by the imperial army in 1527. Secondary Works. — Robertson, History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles the Fifth. Prescott, History of the Reign of Philip the Second; this and the preceding work by Robertson are reckoned among the classics of historical literature. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles V. Stirling- Maxwell, The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles the Fifth, and Don fohn of Austria ; works combining in a rare degree great learning and literary charm. Hume, The Spanish People, chaps, ix-xi; Spain: its Great- ness and Decay, and Philip II of Spain. All these are works by an emi- nent scholar, and are well adapted to use with classes of young readers. Lea, The Moriscos of Spain: their Conversion and Expulsion, Stephens, Portugal, chap, xiii; for Portugal's "Sixty Years' Captivity" to Spain. See also bibliography for "Chapter XXIII. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The Field of the Cloth of Gold. 2. Siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Turks (1529). 3. The sack of Rome in 1527. 4. The Waldenses. 5. The Emperor Charles V at Yuste. 6. The Esco- rial, 7. The Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain. CHAPTER XXII THE TUDORS AND THE ENGLISH REFORMATION (1485-1603) I. Introductory 359. The Tudor Period. — The Tudor period^ in English his- tory covers the sixteenth century, and overlaps a httle the preced- ing century and also the following. It was an eventful and stirring time for the English people. It witnessed among them great prog- ress in art, science, and trade, and a literary outburst such as the world had not seen since the best days of Athens. But the great event of the period was the Reformation. It was under the sov- ereigns of this house that England was severed from papal Rome, and Protestantism became firmly established in the island. To tell how these great results were effected will be our chief aim in the present chapter. 360. The English Reformation first a Revolt and then a Re- form ; its Premonitions. — The Reformation in England was, more distinctly than elsewhere, a double movement. First, England was separated violently from the ecclesiastical empire of Rome, but without any essential change being made in creed or form of worship. This was accomplished under Henry VIII. Second, the EngHsh Church, thus rendered independent of Rome, gradually changed its creed and ritual. This was effected chiefly under Edward VI. So the movement was first a revolt and then a reform. In so far as it was a secession movement, it was practically merely the culmination of an age-long controversy between England 1 The Tudor sovereigns were Henry VII (1485-1509), Henry VIII (1509-1547), Edward VI (1547-1553), Mary (1553-1558), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). 334 REIGN OF HENRY VII 335 and the Papacy.^ "For three hundred years," in the words of the historian Green, " the Pope had been the standing grievance of EngUshmen." Time and again the EngHsh Parliament had passed acts declaring that the Pope should not do this and should not do that in England. It was this sensitiveness of EngUshmen respecting the jurisdiction in England of a foreign potentate that made it so comparatively easy for Henry VIII, during the first stir and excitement of the reform movement, to cut England loose from the papal empire. In so far as the movement was a religious reformation, the soil in England had been in a measure prepared for the seed of the reformed faith by the labors of the humanists. We have already spoken of the significant movement of the Oxford reformers, Colet, Erasmus, and More (sec. 317). II. The Reign of Henry VII (1485-1509) 361. Benevolences ; the Statute of Liveries. — Henry VII and his queen united the long-disputed titles of the two Roses (sec. 223). But the bitter feelings engendered by the contentions of the rival families still existed. Particularly was there much smothered dis- content among the Yorkists, which manifested itself in two remark- able attempts to place impostors upon the throne, both of which however were unsuccessful. Henry's besetting sins were avarice and a love of despotic rule. Much of his attention was given to heaping up a vast treasure, which he left to his successor. One device adopted by the king for wringing money from his wealthy subjects was what were euphemistically termed " Benevolences." Magna Carta forbade the king to impose taxes without the consent of the Common Council. But Henry did not like to convene Parliament, as he wished to rule like the kings of the Continent, guided simply by his own free will. So benevolences were made to take the place of regular 2 For episodes in this protracted quarrel, see " The Martyrdom of Thomas Becket" (sec. 208), ." Pope Innocent III and King John of England" (sec. 164), and " The Revolt of Germany and England" (sec. 169). 336 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION taxes. These were nothing more nor less than gifts extorted from the well-to-do by moral pressure. One of Henry's favorite ministers, Cardinal Morton, was par- ticularly successful in his appeals for gifts of this kind. To those who lived splendidly he would say that it was very evident they were quite able to make a generous donation to their sovereign ; while to others who lived in a narrow and pinched way he would represent that their economical mode of life must have made them wealthy. This teasing dilemma received the name of " Morton's fork." The king found still another source of revenue in raking up long-forgotten claims of the crown, and in imposing fines for the violation- of musty laws that everybody had forgotten. Among the various laws executed with unusual rigor, not more to sustain the dignity of the crown than to increase its revenues, was one known as the Statute of Liveries, which forbade the great lords to keep liveried or uniformed retainers. This statute was intended to take away from the baronage what little power and importance remained to them after the ruin wrought by the Wars of the Roses. Henry watched this matter very closely, and greatly increased the receipts of the royal exchequer by the enforcement of fines. 362 . Foreign Matrimonial Alliances. — The marriages of Henry's children must be noted by us here, because of the great influence these alliances had upon the after course of English history. A common fear of France caused Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and Henry to form a protective alliance. To secure the permanency of the union it was deemed necessary to cement it by a marriage bond. The Infanta Catherine was accordingly betrothed to Arthur, Prince of Wales. Unfortunately, the prince died soon after the celebration of the nuptials. The Spanish sovereigns, still anxious to retain the advantages of an English alliance, now urged that the young widow be espoused by Arthur's brother Henry. A rule of the Church, how- ever, which forbade a man to marry his brother's widow, stood in the way of this arrangement; but the queen mother Isabella secured from Pope Julius II a decree granting permission in this MARITIME DISCOVERIES 337 case, and so the young widow was betrothed to Prince Henry. This alliance of the royal families of England and Spain led to many important consequences, as we shall learn. - To relieve England of danger on her northern frontier, Henry steadily pursued the policy of a marriage alliance with Scotland. His wishes were realized when his elder daughter Margaret became the wife of James IV, king of that realm. This was a most fortunate marriage, and finally led to the happy union of the two countries under a single crown. 363. Maritime Discoveries. — It was during this reign that great geographical discoveries enlarged the boundaries of the world. Columbus announced to Europe the existence of land to the west; Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and found a water path to the East Indies. In the year of this last enterprise Henry commissioned John Cabot, a Venetian navigator doing business in England, and his sons to make explorations in the western and northern seas. In his westward voyage Cabot ran against the American continent somewhere in the vicinity of Newfoundland, and took possession of the country in the name of the English sovereign (149 7)- He was probably the first European to look upon the mainland of the New World, for Columbus up to this time had seen only the islands of the Gulf of Mexico and of the Caribbean Sea. Upon this discovery and other alleged discoveries and explora- tions of John Cabot and his son Sebastian the English based their claim to the whole of the American coast from Labrador down to Florida. This claim included the best part of North America, — what was destined to be the third and most spacious home of the Anglo-Saxon race. III. England severed from the Papacy by Henry VIII (i 509-1 547) 364. Cardinal Wolsey. — Henry VII died in 1509, leaving his throne to his son Henry, an energetic and headstrong youth of eighteen years. We must here at the opening of the young king's 338 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION reign ^introduce his greatest minister, Thomas Wolsey (1475?- 1530). This man was one of the most remarkable characters of his generation, — " probably the greatest political genius," says Bishop Creighton, " whom England has ever produced." He was, as Holinshed characterizes him, " very eloquent, and full of wit ; but passingly ambitious." Henry elevated him to the office of Archbishop of York, and made him Lord Chancellor of the realm ; the Pope made him a cardinal, and afterwards papal legate in England. He was now virtually at the head of affairs in both State and Church. Wolsey was a patriot, — the best patriot of his time. But he conceived the great need of England, still feeling the effects of the old feudal turbulency, to be a single, strong, firm hand at the helm ; hence his first aim was to make the royal power supreme and absolute. His second aim was to make England the center of European politics, the mediator between the rival powers of France, Spain, and the Papacy. He attained in a fair measure both these ends ; he enabled Henry to rule as well as to reign, and secured for England great prestige in Europe. 365. Henry as '* Defender of the Faith." — It was in the eighth year of Henry VIII's reign that Martin Luther tacked upon the door of the Wittenberg church his famous ninety-five theses. England was stirred with the rest of Western Christendom. When, a little later, Luther attacked directly the papal power, Henry wrote a Latin treatise refuting the arguments of the auda- cious monk. The Pope, Leo X, rewarded Henry's Catholic zeal by confer- ring upon him the title of "Defender of the Faith" (152 1). This title was retained by Henry after the secession of the Church of England from the papal see, and is borne by his latest successor 3 In 1512, joining what was known as the Holy League, — a union against the French king, of which the Pope was the head, — Henry made his first campaign in France. While Henry was across the Channel, James IV of Scotland thought to give aid to the French king by invading England. The Scottish army was met by the English force at Flodden, beneath the Cheviot Hills, and completely overwhelmed (15 13). King James was killed, and the flower of the Scottish nobility was left dead upon the field. It was the most terrible disaster that had ever befallen the Scottish nation. Scott's poem Marmion, a Tale of Flodden Field, commemorates the battle. HENRY SEEKS DIVORCE FROM CATHERINE 339 to-day, although he is "defender" of quite a different faith from that in the defense of which Henry first earned the title. 366. Henry seeks to be divorced from Catherine. — We have now to relate some circumstances which very soon changed Henry from a zealous supporter of the Papacy into a bitter enemy. Henry's marriage with Catherine of Aragon had been prompted Fig. 62. — Henry VIII. (After a painting by Holbein) by policy and not by love. Of the five children born of the union, all had died save a sickly daughter named Mary. In these suc- cessive afflictions which left him without a son to succeed him, Henry saw or feigned to see' a sign of Heaven's displeasure because he had taken to wife the widow of his brother. And now a new circumstance arose, if it had not existed for some time previous to this. Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a beauti- ful and vivacious maid of honor in the queen's household. This new affection so greatly quickened the king's conscience that he 340 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION soon became fully convinced that it was his duty to put Catherine aside. Accordingly Henry asked the Pope, Clement VII, to grant him a divorce. Clement gave no immediate decision, but after about two years' delay, influenced by the Emperor Charles, he ordered Henry and Catherine both to appear before him at Rome. 367. The Fall of Wolsey ; his Death (1530). — Henry's pa- tience was now completely exhausted. Becoming persuaded that Wolsey was not exerting himself as he might to secure the divorce, he banished him from court. The hatred of Anne Boleyn and of others, for Wolsey had many enemies, pursued the fallen minister. Finally, he was arrested on the preposterous charge of high treason. While on his way to London the unhappy minister, broken in spirit and in health, was prostrated by a fatal fever. As he lay dying in the arms of the kind monks of Leicester Abbey, he uttered these self-censuring words : " Had I served my God as dihgently as I have served my king. He would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Wolsey had indeed sunk his priestly office in that of the states- man, and as a statesman he had often stifled the scruples of con- science in obedience to the king's unholy wishes and commands. 368. The Opinion of the Universities. — Just before Wolsey's disgrace a young priest of Cambridge, named Thomas Cranmer, had suggested that the universities in England and upon the Continent should be asked to give their opinion on the validity of the king's marriage with Catherine. If they all agreed that the union was invalid, then the Pope could hardly refuse to grant the divorce. The plan pleased Henry, and to the universities, accord- ingly, the case was submitted. But the opinions of the learned doctors were so conflicting,' and, especially in the case of the Eng- lish universities, so manifestly tainted with bribery, that nothing save delay resulted from this plan of settlement. 369. Thomas Cromwell. — A man of great power and mark now rises to our notice. After the disgrace of Wolsey an attendant of his named Thomas Cromwell rapidly assumed in Henry's regard the place from which the cardinal had fallen. For the space of ten years this strong but unscrupulous man shaped the policy FIRST ACTS IN BREACH WITH ROME 341 of Henry's government. What he proposed to himself was the establishment of a royal despotism upon the ruin of every other power in the state. Man of iron will that he was, Cromwell pur- sued his aims with such terrible relentlessness that the period during which his power was supreme has been called the Eng- lish Reign of Terror. The executioner's ax was often wet with the blood of those who stood in his way, or who in any manner incurred his or the king's displeasure. It was to the bold suggestions of this man that Henry now Hs- tened. Cromwell's advice to the king was to waste no more time in negotiating with the Pope, but at once to renounce the jurisdic- tion of the Roman pontiff, proclaim himself supreme head of the Church in England, and then get a decree of divorce from his own courts. 370. First Acts in the Breach with Rome (15 33-1 5 34). — The advice of Cromwell was acted upon, and by a series of steps England was swiftly carried out from under the authority of the Roman see. Henry first virtually cut the Gordian knot by a secret marriage with Anne Boleyn, notwithstanding a papal decree threatening him with excommunication should he dare to do so. Parliament, which was entirely subservient to Henry's wishes, now passed a law known as the Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533), which made it a crime for any Englishman to carry a case out of the realm to the court of Rome. This was to prevent Catherine from appealing to the Pope from any decision which might be rendered in her case by an English tribunal. Cranmer, the Cambridge doctor who had advised the king to submit the question of the validity of his union with Catherine to the universities, and who had further served him by writing a book in favor of the divorce, had, in accordance with the new programme, been made Archbishop of Canterbury. He now formed a court, tried the case, and of course declared the king's marriage with Catherine null and void. The following year (1534) Henry procured from Parliament the passage of the important Act of Annates, which forbade abso- lutely the payment to Rome of the first fruits of archbishoprics 342 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION and bishoprics, and ordered that these should henceforth be paid to the English crown. 371. The Act of Supremacy (1534). — At Rome the acts of Henry and his Parliament were denounced as acts of impious usurpation. The Pope issued a bull excommunicating Henry and relieving his subjects from their allegiance. Henry now took the final and decisive step. He got from Par- liament the celebrated Act of Supremacy (1534). This statute made Henry '' the only Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England," vesting in him absolute control of its offices and affairs and turning into his hands the revenue which had hitherto flowed into Rome's treasury. A denial of the title given the king by the statute was made high treason. Such a break with the past met of course with much disapproval, and many persons were put to death under the statute. The most illustrious victims of this tyranny were John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, who for several years was one of Henry's chief councilors. Both were sent to the block (in 1535) because they refused to admit the validity of Henry's divorce from Catherine and to acknowledge the royal supremacy in religious matters. The execution of Thomas More particularly created widespread condemnation and dismay. When the Emperor Charles V heard what Henry had done, he is reported to have said that he would rather have lost the best city in his empire than such a councilor ; and Erasmus wrote to a friend, " What a man has England and what a friend have I lost ! " 372. The Suppression of the Monasteries (1536-1539). — The suppression of the monasteries was one of Henry's early acts as the supreme head of the Church of England. He resolved upon' the destruction of the religious houses because, in the first place, he coveted their wealth, which at this time included probably one fifth of the lands of the realm. Further, the monastic orders were openly or secretly opposed to Henry's claims of supremacy in religious matters ; and this naturally caused him to regard them with jealousy and disfavor. This was another reason with him for compassing their ruin. SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES 343 In order to make the act appear as reasonable as possible, it was planned to make the charge of immorality its ostensible ground. Accordingly two royal commissioners were appointed to inspect the monasteries and make a report upon what they might see and learn. If we may beheve the report, the smaller houses were conducted in a most shameful manner. The larger houses, however, were fairly free from faults. Many of them served as schools, hospitals, and inns, and all distributed alms to the poor who knocked at their gates. But the undoubted usefulness and irreproachable character of these larger foundations did not avail to avert ruin from them also. During the years 1537 to 1539 all were dissolved, their pos- sessors generally surrendering the property voluntarily into the hands of the king lest a worse thing than the loss of their houses should come upon them. By an act of Parliament in 1539 all monastic property was given to the crown. Altogether there were six hundred and forty-five monasteries broken up. The monastic buildings were generally dismantled, every scrap of iron or lead being torn from them, and their unpro- tected walls left to sink into picturesque ivy-clad ruins. Small pensions were granted to the dispossessed monks, which relieved in a measure the suffering and hardship caused by the proceeding. The destruction of the monasteries was a signal for the desecra- tion and pillage of the sacred relics, images, and shrines with which the land was crowded. The destruction of the famous pilgrim shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury (sec. 208) is a typical case. The saint, because he had upheld the supremacy of the Pope against King Henry II, was solemnly tried for treason and declared a traitor. His bones were then dragged from their receptacle and burned, and the rich adornments and offerings of the shrine — great cart loads of jewels and other costly things, probably the real secret of Henry's wrath against the saint — were confiscated to the royal use (1538). A portion of the vast wealth which came into Henry's hands through all these confiscations was used in founding schools and colleges and in establishing new bishoprics, and a part was devoted 344 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION to other public purposes ; but by far the greater portion of the landed property was sold at merely nominal prices or given out- right to the favorites of the king. Many of the leading English families of to-day trace the titles of their estates from these confis- cated lands of the religious houses. Thus a new aristocracy was raised up whose interests led them to oppose any return to Rome ; for in such an event their estates were liable, of course, to be restored to the monasteries. 373. Effects upon Parliament of the Suppression of the Monas- teries. — The effects of the dissolution of the monasteries upon the Upper House of Parliament were, for the time being, most disastrous to the cause of English constitutional liberty. The House of Lords had hitherto often been a check upon the royal power. By the destruction of the religious houses that branch of Parliament, already greatly rediiced in strength by the decay of the temporal peerage, was still further weakened through the casting out of the abbots and priors who held seats in that chamber.* At the same time the spiritual lords who were left, that is the two archbishops and the bishops, became mere dependents of the king, whom the Act of Supremacy had made head of the English Church without any superior on earth. Thus did the House of Lords almost cease to be a body with a mind and will of its own. Since the House of Commons contained many servile nominees of the king, the English government now became something like an absolute monarchy. 374. Act to secure Uniformity of Belief (1539). — In the same year that Parliament gave into Henry's hands the last of the prop- erty of the monastic orders, it passed a bill drawn in conformity with his views and called an Act for abolishing Diversity of Opinions. By this statute the teachings of the old Church respect- ing the real presence in the Eucharist, the celibacy of the priest- hood, private Masses, confession to a priest, and other tenets were approved as agreeable to the laws of God, and it was made a crime for any person to hold, to teach, or to practice opinions opposed to any of these dogmas. 4 Twenty-six abbots and two priors were expelled. -V C^ V} u ^ HENRY'S WIVES 345 What the Church of England should be called under Henry it would be hard to say. It was not Protestant ; and it was just as far from being truly Catholic. That it was distinctively neither the one nor the other is shown by the character of the persecutions that took place. Catholics and Protestants alike were harassed and put to death. Thus on one occasion three CathoHcs who denied that the king was the rightful head of the Church and three Protestants who disputed the doctrine of the real presence in the Eucharist were dragged on the same sled to the place of execution. 375. Henry's Wives Henry's troubles with his wives form a curious and shameful page in the history of England's kings. Anne Boleyn retained the affections of her royal husband only a few months. She was charged with unfaithfulness and beheaded, leaving a daughter, who became the famous Queen Elizabeth. The day after the execution of Anne the king married Jane Seymour, who died the following year. She left a son by the name of Edward. The fourth marriage of the king was to Anne of Cleves, who enjoyed her queenly honors only a few months.^ Th^ king becom- ing enamored of a young lady named Catherine Howard, Anne was divorced on the charge of a previous betrothal, and a new alliance formed. But Catherine was proved guilty of misconduct before her marriage, and her head fell upon the block. The sixth and last wife of this amatory monarch was Catherine Parr. She was a discreet woman, and managed to outlive her husband. 376. Henry's Death and Character ; his Work Henry died in 1547. Very diverse views have been held of his character. He was admittedly meddlesome, cruel, arbitrary, and selfish. 5 Thomas Cromwell had arranged this marriage; because it had proved so unsatis- factory to Henry, he withdrew his favor from him, and very soon, on the charge of his having taken bribes and of other misconduct, sent him to the block (1540). In this, as in similar cases, the king acted under the forms of law. He secured from the subservient Parliament a bill of attainder, which is an act passed like an ordinary statute. Before Cromwell's time, the accused had a right to be heard in his own defense. But Cromwell, to please his master, had brought it about that Parliament could venture to condemn a person without a hearing. It was poetic justice that made Cromwell himself a victim of this instrument of tyranny. Because of the mis- use by the English Parliament of this power, the framers of the Constitution of the United States, in enumerating the powers of Congress, inserted this clause : " No bill of attainder . , . shall be passed." 346 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION Even if the English people are indebted to him for their national independent Church, still they owe him for this no gratitude; for what he did here proceeded primarily from the most ignoble impulses and motives, and not from regard for the spiritual wel- fare of his subjects or from sympathy with religious reform. In another sphere, however, Henry accomplished a work which entitles him to the grateful remembrance of a people who pride themselves on their mastery of the sea. He had the vision to dis- cern that England's dominion must be sought not on the Euro- pean Continent but on the ocean. Hence he took a deep interest in naval affairs. At a time when the continental sovereigns were creating standing armies, he, as it has been put, created for England a " standing navy." He brought to perfection the sailing war ship, and gave it precedence over the oared vessel, which up to this time had held the chief place in the world's war navies. Thus under Henry the English navy, in the words of an eminent naval author- ity, "was becoming an entirely new thing, a thing the world had never seen before." The change was somewhat like that effected when the steamship replaced the sailing vessel. 377. Literature under Henry VIII; Morels Utopia, — The most prominent literary figure of this period is Sir Thomas More. The work upon which his fame as a writer mainly rests is his Utopia, or ''Nowhere," a romance like Plato's Republic or Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia. It pictures an imaginary kingdom away on an island in the New World, then just discovered, where the laws, manners, and customs of the people were represented as being ideally perfect. It was the wretchedness of the lower classes, the religious intolerance, the despotic government of the times which Fig. 63. — Sir Thomas More (After the painting by Holbein) SIR THOMAS MORE'S "UTOPIA 347 inspired the Utopia. The great mass of the people were living in mis- erable mud hovels, like those of the Irish tenants of to-day. Society was simply " a conspiracy of the rich against the poor." The gov- ernment of Henry and his ministers resembled an Oriental tyranny. It was this state of things that forced from the sensitive soul of More this complaint. " No such cry of pity for the poor," says Green, " had been heard since the days of Piers Plowman." But More's was not simply such a cry of despair as was that of Langland. He saw a better future ; and with a view of reforming them, pointed out the existing ills of society. He did this by telling how things were in "Nowhere," — how the houses and grounds were all inviting, the streets broad and clean ; how every- body was taught to read and write, and no one obliged to work more than six hours a day; how drinking houses, brawls, and wars were unknown ; how the criminal classes were treated with the view of effecting their reformation ; how in this happy republic every person had a part in the government, and was allowed to follow what religion he chose. In this wise way More suggested improvements in social, polit- ical, and religious matters. He did not expect, however, that Henry would follow all his suggestions, — indeed. More himself, before his death, materially changed his views regarding religious toleration, — for he closes his account of the Utopians with this admission : " I confess that many things in the commonwealth of Utopia I rather wish than hope to see adopted in our own." IV. Changes in Creed and Ritual under Edward VI (1547-15 5 3) 378. Events at the Accession In accordance with the pro- visions of a Succession Act passed in Henry's reign, his only son, Edward, by Jane Seymour, succeeded him. As Edward was but a mere child of nine years, the government was conducted by a council of regency, made up both of reformers and Cathohcs ; but the reformers usurped authority in the body and conducted the government in the interest of their party. 348 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION The young king was carefully taught the doctrines of the reformers, and many changes were made in the creed and serv- ice of the English Church, which carried it farther away from the Church of Rome. It is these changes in the religion that constitute the events most worthy of our attention. 379. Changes in the Religion. — Under the new regime all pictures and images and crosses were cleared from the churches ; the frescoes were covered with whitewash, and the stained-glass windows were broken in pieces; the robe and the surplice were cast away ; the use of tapers, holy water, and incense was discon- tinued; the veneration of the Virgin and the keeping of saints' days were prohibited ; belief in purgatory was denounced as a vain superstition kept up for purposes of gain, and prayers for the dead were interdicted ; the real or bodily presence of Christ in the bread and wine of the sacram^ent was denied; the prohibition against the marriage of the clergy was annulled ; and the services of the Church, which hitherto — save as to some portion of them during the last three years of Henry's reign — had been conducted in Latin, were ordered to be said in the language of the people. In order that the provision last mentioned might be effectually carried out, the English Book of Common Prayer was prepared by Archbishop Cranmer, and the first copy issued in 1549. This book, which was in the main simply a translation of the old Latin Missal "sjA Breviary^ with the subsequent change of a word here and a passage there to keep it in accord with the growing new doctrines, is the same that is used in the Anglican Church at the present time. In 1552 were published the famous Forty-two Articles of Reli- gion, which formed a compendious creed of the reformed faith. These articles, reduced finally to thirty-nine, form the present standard of faith and doctrine in the Church of England. 380. Persecutions to secure Uniformity. — These sweeping changes and innovations in the old creed and in the services of the Church would have worked little hardship or wrong had only everybody, as in More's happy republic, been left free to favor and follow what religion he would. But unfortunately it was only ACCESSION OF MARY 349 away in " Nowhere " that men were allowed perfect freedom of conscience and worship. The idea of toleration had not yet dawned upon the world, save in the happier moments of some such gener- ous and wide-horizoned soul as his that conceived the Utopia. By royal edict all preachers and teachers were forced to sign the Forty- two Articles ; and severe laws, known as Acts for the Uniformity of Service, punished with severe penalties any de- parture from the forms of the new prayer book. Even the Prin- cess Mary, who remained a conscientious adherent of the old faith, was harassed and persecuted because she would have the Catholic service in her own private chapel. Many persons during the reign were imprisoned for refusing to conform to the new worship ; while two at least were given to the flames as " heretics and contemners of the Book of Common Prayer." Probably a large majority of the EngHsh people were at this time still good Catholics at heart. V. Reaction under Mary (15 5 3-1 5 58) 381. Accession of Mary; her Marriage to Philip of Spain. — Upon the death of Edward an attempt was made, in the interest of the Protestant party, to place upon the throne Lady Jane Grey, a grandniece of Henry VIII ; but the people, knowing that Mary was the rightful heir to the throne, rallied about her, and she was proclaimed queen amidst great demonstrations of loyalty. Soon after her accession she was married to Philip II of Spain. This marriage had been planned by Philip's father, the Emperor Charles V, in the hope that thereby England might become actu- ally or in effect a part of the Spanish empire. Had the marriage worked out in this way and England been secured as an ally of the papal party in the great combat between Catholicism and Protestantism, the issue of the struggle might have been very different from what it was. 382. Reconciliation with Rome (1554). — The majority of the English prelates had never in their hearts approved the recent ecclesiastical changes. Their zeal for the ancient Church, allied 350 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION with Mary's, now quickly brought about the full reestablishment of the Catholic worship throughout the realm. Parliament voted that the nation should return to its obedience to the papal see ; and then the members of both Houses fell upon their knees to receive at the hands of the papal legate absolution from the sin of heresy and schism. The sincerity of their repentance was attested by their repeal of all the acts by which the new worship had been set up in the land. The joy at Rome was unbounded. The prodigal had returned to his father's house. But not quite everything done by the reformers was undone. Parliament refused to restore the confiscated Church lands, which was very natural, as much of this property was now in the hands of the lords and commoners. Mary, however, in her zeal for the ancient faith, restored a great part of the property still in the possession of the crown, and refounded many of the ruined monasteries and abbeys. 383. The Martyrs: Latimer and Ridley (1555), and Cranmer (1556). — With the reestablishment of the Catholic worship, the Protestants in their turn were subjected to persecution. Alto- gether, between two and three hundred persons suffered death during this reign on account of their religion. The three most eminent martyrs were Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer. Latimer and Ridley were burned at the same stake. As the torch was applied to the fagots, the aged Latimer — he was seventy years old — encouraged his companion with these memorable words : " Be of good comfort. Master Ridley, and play the man ; we shall this day, by God's grace, light such a candle in England as I trust shall never be put out." Mary should not be judged harshly for the part she took in the persecutions that disfigured her reign. It was not her fault, but the fault of the age, that these things were done. Punishment of heresy was then regarded, by almost all Catholics and Protestants alike, as a duty which could be neglected by those in authority only at the peril of Heaven's displeasure. 384. The Loss of Calais (1558). — The marriage of Philip and Mary had been earnestly wished for by the Emperor Charles V, ELIZABETH 35 1 in order that Philip, in those wars with France which he well knew must be a part of the legacy he should transmit to his son, might have the powerful aid of England. This was Phihp's chief reason for seeking the alliance, and in due time he called upon Mary for assistance in a war against the French king. The Eng- hsh people were very reluctant to take any part in the quarrel; but Mary's council at last yielded to her urgent sohcitations, and aid was extended to Philip. The result was the mortifying loss to England of Calais, which the French, by an unexpected attack, snatched out of the hands of its garrison (1558). VI. Final Establishment of Protestantism under Elizabeth (15 58-1603) 385. The Queen. — Elizabeth, who was twenty-five years of age when the death of Mary called her to the throne, was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She seems to have inherited the characteristics of both parents ; hence perhaps the inconsist- encies of her disposition. She possessed a masculine intellect, a strong will, admirable judgment, and great political tact. It was these qualities which rendered her reign the strongest and most illustrious in the record of England's sovereigns, and raised the nation from a position of comparative insignificance to a foremost place among the states of Europe. Along with her good and queenly qualities and accomplish- ments, Elizabeth had many unamiable traits and unwomanly ways. She was capricious, treacherous, unscrupulous, and ungrateful. Deception and falsehood were her usual weapons in diplomacy. " In the profusion and recklessness of her lies," declares Green, " Elizabeth stood without a peer in Christendom." Yet, notwithstanding all the faults of this remarkable woman, she was always popular with her subjects, and this largely for the same reason that Philip II was popular in Spain, — because she was in perfect sympathy with her people and represented their ideals and aspirations. Her subjects' strong liking is embalmed in the familiar title they bestowed upon her, — " Good Queen Bess." 352 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION Elizabeth never married, notwithstanding Parliament was con- stantly urging her to do so, and suitors, among whom was Philip II of Spain, were as numerous as those who sought the hand of Penelope. She declared — very late in her reign, however — that on her coro- nation day she was married to the Eng- lish realm, and that she would have no other husband. She remained to the end the "fair Vestal throned by the West." 386. Her Minis- ters. — One secret of the strength and popularity of Eliza- beth's government ^vas the admirable judgment she exer- cised in her choice of advisers. The courtiers with whom she crowded her. receptions might be frivolous persons; but F1G64. — Queen Elizabeth. (The Ermine about her council Portrait, from the collection of the Marquis ^^^^^ ^^^ gathered of Salisbury, Hatfield House) . , .4.^^„„ ^ thewisest ana Strong- est men of the realm. And yet Elizabeth's government was really her own. We now know that her advisers did not have as much to do with shaping the policies of the reign as was formerly believed. The most eminent of the queen's ministers was Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), a man of great sagacity and ceaseless REESTABLISHMENT OF REFORMED CHURCH 353 industry, and a vigilant and prudent administrator. He stood at the head of the queen's council for forty years. His son Robert, Sir Nicholas Bacon, and Sir Francis Walsingham were also promi- nent among the queen's advisers. 387. Reestablishment of the Reformed Church. — As Mary undid the work in religion of Henry and Edward, so now her work was undone by Elizabeth. Elizabeth favored the reformed faith rather from policy than from conviction. It was to the Protestants alone that she could look for support ; her title to the crown was denied by every true Catholic in the realm, for she was the child of that marriage which the Pope had forbidden under pain of the penalties of the Church. But what doubtless con- tributed most to fix her in the determination to follow Henry's policy as regards the Papacy was her desire to possess supreme authority in ecclesiastical as well as in civil matters. The religious houses which had been refounded by Mary were again dissolved, and Parliament by the two important Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (1559) reestablished the independ- ence of the Church in England. The Act of Supremacy required all the clergy, and every person holding office under the crown, to take an oath declaring the queen to be the supreme governor of the realm in all spiritual as well as in all temporal things, and renouncing the authority or jurisdiction of any foreign prince or prelate. For refusing to deny the supremacy of the Pope many Catholics during EHzabeth's reign suffered death, and many more endured within the Tower the worse horrors of the rack. The Act of Uniformity forbade any clergyman to use any but the Anglican liturgy, and required every person to attend the EstabHshed Church on Sunday and other holy days. The perse- cutions which arose under this law caused many Catholics to seek freedom of worship in other countries. 388. The Protestant Nonconformists ; Puritans and Separatists. — The Catholics were not the only persons among Elizabeth's subjects who were opposed to the Anglican worship. There were Protestant nonconformists — the Puritans and Separatists — who troubled her almost as much as the Catholics. 354 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION The Puritans were so named because they desired 2i purer form of worship than the Anglican. The term was appUed to them in derision; but the sterHng character of those thus designated at length turned the epithet of reproach into a badge of honorable distinction. They did not withdraw from the Estabhshed Church, but remaining within its pale labored to reform it and to shape its discipline to their notions. These Puritans were destined to play a prominent part in the later affairs of England. Under the Stuarts, as we shall see, they became strong enough to overturn State and Church, and remold both to suit their own ideas. The Separatists were still more zealous reformers than the Puri- tans. In their hatred of everything that bore any resemblance to the Catholic worship, they flung away the surplice and the prayer book, severed all connection with the Established Church, and refused to have anything to do with it. Under the Act of Uniform- ity they were persecuted with great severity, so that multitudes were led to seek an asylum upon the Continent. It was from among these exiles gathered in Holland that a little later came the pas- sengers of the Mayflower and Speedwell^ — the Pilgrim Fathers, who laid the foundations of civil liberty in the New World. 389. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. — A large part of the his- tory of Elizabeth's reign is intertwined with the story of her cousin, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, the "modern Helen," *' the most beautiful, the weakest, the most attractive, and most attracted of women." She was the daughter of James V of Scot- land, and to her i7i right of birth — according to all Catholics, who denied the validity of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn — belonged the English crown next after Mary Tudor. Upon the death, in 1560, of her husband, Francis II of France, Mary gave up life at the French court and returned to her native land. She was now in her nineteenth year. The subtle charm of her beauty seems to have bewitched all who came into her pres- ence, save the more zealous of the reformers, who could never forget that their young sovereign was a Catholic. The stern old John Knox made her life miserable. He called her a " Moabite," and other opprobrious names, till she wept from sheer vexation. MARY STUART, QUEEN OF SCOTS 355 She dared not punish the impudent preacher, for she knew too well the strength of the Protestant feeling among her subjects. Other things now conspired with Mary's hated religion to alienate entirely the love of her people. Her second husband, Lord Darnley, was murdered. The queen was suspected of hav- ing some guilty knowledge of the affair. She was imprisoned and forced to abdicate in favor of her infant son James. Escaping from prison, Mary fled into England (1568). Here she threw herself upon the generosity of her cousin Elizabeth, Fig. 65. — Mary Queen of Scots. (After a modem popular painting. . A comparison with the accom- panying authentic portrait (Fig. 66) will show in what degree the sub- ject has been idealized) Fig, 66. — Mary Stuart as Queen OF France:^ (After a contempo- rary and authentic portrait in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; from Gust's Notes on the Authentic Portraits of Mary Queen of Scots) and entreated aid in recovering her throne. But the part which she was generally beHeved to have had in the murder of her husband, her disturbing claims to the English throne, and the fact that she was a Catholic all conspired to determine her fate. She was placed in confinement, and for nineteen years remained a prisoner. During all this time Mary was the center of 6 The striking resemblance of this portrait of Mary to that of her cousin Elizabeth (Fig. 64) will be noticed. 356 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION innumerable plots on the part of the Catholics, which aimed at setting her upon the English throne. The Pope, Pius V, aided these conspirators by a bull excommunicating Elizabeth and releas- ing her subjects from their allegiance (15 70), Finally, a carefully laid conspiracy to assassinate Elizabeth and place Mary on the throne was unearthed. The Spanish king, Philip II, was implicated. He wrote, "The affair is so much in God's service that it certainly deserves to be supported, and we must hope that our Lord will prosper it, unless our sins be an impediment thereto." Mary was tried for complicity in the plot, was declared guilty, and, after some hesitation, feigned or otherwise, on the part of Elizabeth, was ordered to the block (1587). Even after Eliza- beth had signed the warrant for her execution she attempted to evade responsibility in the matter by causing a suggestion to be' made to Mary's jailers that they should kill her secretly. 390. The "Invincible Armada"; "Britain's Salamis" (15 88). — The execution of Mary Stuart led immediately to the memorable attempt against England by the Spanish Armada. Before her death the Queen of Scots had by will disinherited her son and bequeathed to Philip II of Spain her claims to the English crown. To enforce these rights, to avenge the death of Mary, to punish EHzabeth for rendering aid to his rebellious subjects in the Neth- erlands, and to deal a fatal blow to the Reformation in Europe by crushing the Protestants of England, Pliihp resolved upon making a tremendous effort for the conquest of the heretical island. Vast preparations were made for carrying out this project, which Philip had long revolved in mind. Great fleets were gath- ered in the harbors of Spain, and a large army was assembled in the Netherlands to cooperate with the naval armament. Pope Sixtus V encouraged Philip in the enterprise, which was thus rendered a sort of crusade. At last the fleet, consisting of about one hundred and thirty ships, the largest naval armament that had ever appeared upon the Atlantic, and boastfully called the " Invincible Armada," set sail from Lisbon for the Channel. The approaching danger produced a perfect fever of excitement in England. Never did Roman citizens rise more splendidly to THE "INVINCIBLE ARMADA" 357 avert some terrible peril threatening the repubHc than the Eng- lish people now arose as a single man to defend their island realm against the revengeful and ambitious project of Spain. The imminent danger served to unite all classes, the gentry and the yeomanry, Protestants and Catholics. The latter might intrigue to set a Mary Stuart on the English throne, but they were not ready to betray their land into the hands of the hated Spaniards. " In that memorable year," says Hallam, in a pas- sage where his usually cold, judicial phrases flame into eloquence, " when the dark cloud gathered around our coasts, when Europe stood by in fearful suspense to behold what should be the result of that great cast in the game of human politics, what the craft of Rome, the power of Philip, the genius of Farnese, could achieve against the island queen with her Drakes and Cecils — in that agony of the Protestant faith and English name, they stood the trial of their spirit without swerving from their alle- giance. It was then that the Catholics in every county repaired to the standard of the lord lieutenant, imploring that they might not be suspected of bartering the national independence for their religion itseK." On July 19, 1588, the Armada was first descried by the watch- men on the English cliffs. It swept up the Channel in the form of a gteat crescent, seven miles in width from tip to tip of horn. The English ships, about eighty in number, whose light structure and swift movements, together with the superior gunnery of their sailors, gave them a great advantage over the clumsy Spanish gal- leons, almost immediately began to impede their advance, and for seven days incessantly harassed the Armada. One night, as the damaged fleet lay off the harbor of Calais, the English sent fire ships among the vessels, whereby a number were destroyed and a panic created among the others. A deter- mined attack the next day by Howard, Drake, and Lord Henry Seymour inflicted a still severer loss upon the fleet. The Spaniards, thinking now of nothing save escape, spread their sails in flight, proposing to get away by sailing northward around the British Isles. But the storms of the northern seas 358 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION dashed many of the remaining ships to pieces on the Scottish and the Irish shores. Barely one third of the ships of the Armada ever reentered the harbors whence they sailed. When intelligence of the woeful disaster was carried to the imperturb- able Philip, he simply said, ''God's will be done; I sent my fleet to fight against the English, not against the elements." Well may the great fight in the Channel which shattered the Armada be called "Britain's Salamis": for like Athens' Salamis Fig. 67. — Spanish and English War Vessels of the Sixteenth Century. (From an engraving) it revealed the weakness and proclaimed the downfall of a vast despotic empire, while at the same time it disclosed the strength and announced the rise of a new free state destined to a great future. But the destruction of the Spanish Armada concerned other than purely English and Spanish interests. It marked the turn- ing point in the great duel between Catholicism and Protes- tantism. It set definite limits to the Catholic reaction. It not only decided that England was to remain Protestant, but it fore- shadowed the independence of the Protestant Netherlands, and MARITIME AND COLONIAL ENTERPRISES 359 assured, or at least greatly helped to assure, the future of Prot- estantism in Scandinavia and in North Germany. 39 1 . Philip tampers with the Irish ; the Tyrone Rebellion (1594- 1603). — Having failed in his direct attack upon England, Philip now sought to harass Elizabeth by giving aid to her Irish enemies. Ireland had never been thoroughly subjugated by the English, and the native tribes were in a state of chronic revolt against the English intruders. In 1594 an insurrection, headed by the Earl of Tyrone (Hugh O'Neill), having broken out in Ulster, Philip promised to send the insurgents aid. To prevent his doing so, Elizabeth sent a fleet to harass him at home. The EngHsh sailed into the port of Cadiz, destroyed every vessel in the harbor, sacked the city, and left it a heap of ruins (1596). This destruc- tion of her chief seaport was even more humiliating to Spain than the destruction of her " Invincible Armada." The Irish rebels, because of their dallyings with Philip, were now. proceeded against with vigor. The Celtic resistance was finally broken, mainly by the removal of the natives from some of the best regions of the island and the filling of the places thus made empty with Scottish and EngHsh settlers (sec. 461). 392. Maritime and Colonial Enterprises. — The crippling of the naval power of Spain left England mistress of the seas. The little island realm now entered upon the most splendid period of her history. These truly were " the spacious times of great Elizabeth." The EngHsh people, stirred by recent events, seemed to burn with a feverish impatience for maritime adventure and glory. Many a story of the daring exploits of EngHsh sea rovers during the reign of Elizabeth seems like a repetition of some tale of the old Vikings. Among all these sea rovers, half explorer, half adventurer, Sir Francis Drake (about 1540-15 96) was preeminent. Before the Armada days he had sailed round the globe (15 7 7-1 5 80), bring- ing home with him an immense booty which he had got as ransom from the cities of Peru and Chile, and for the achievement had been knighted by Queen EHzabeth. Especially deserving of mention among the enterprises of these stirring and romantic times are the undertakings and adventures 36o THE ENGLISH REFORMATION of Sir Walter Raleigh (1552 ?-i6i8). Several expeditions were sent out by him for the purpose of making explorations and form- ing settlements in the New World. One of these, which explored the central coasts of North America, returned with such glowing accounts of the beauty and richness of the land visited, that, in honor of the virgin queen, it was named Virginia. Raleigh attempted to establish colonies in the new land (1585- 1590), but the settlements were unsuccessful. The settlers, how- ever, when they returned home, carried back with them the tobacco plant, and introduced into England the habit of smok- ing it."^ It was at this time also that the potato, a native product of the New World, was brought to Ireland. These together with maize, or Indian corn, were the chief return the New World made to the Old for the great number of domesticated plants and grains which it received from thence. 393. The Queen's Death. — The closing days of Elizabeth's reign were to her personally dark and gloomy. She seemed to be burdened with a secret grief ^ as well as by the growing in- firmities of age. She died March 24, 1603, in the seventieth year of her age and the forty-fifth of her reign. With her ended the Tudor line of English sovereigns. Literature of the Elizabethan Era 394. Influences Favorable to Literature. — The years covered by the reign of Elizabeth constitute one of the most momentous periods in history. It was the age when Europe was most deeply stirred by the Reformation. It was, too, a period of marvelous phy-sical and intellectual expansion and growth. The discoveries of . Columbus and others had created a New World. The Renaissance had re-created the Old World, — had revealed an unsuspected treasure in the civilizations of the past. Thus everything conspired to quicken men's intellect and stimulate their imagination. "^ Some years before this the plant had been carried to Spain and to France, but seems to have been valued mainly for its medicinal qualities. 8 In 1 601 she sent to the block her chief favorite, the Earl of Essex, who had been found guilty of treason. LITERATURE OF ELIZABETHAN ERA 36 1 An age of such activity and achievement almost of necessity gives birth to a strong and vigorous Hterature. And thus is explained, in part at least, how during this period the English people — for no people of Europe felt more deeply the stir and movement of the times, nor helped more to create this same stir and movement, than the English nation — should have developed a literature of such originality and richness and strength as to make it the prized inheritance of all the world. "The great writers who shine in the literary splendor of the Elizabethan Age," says an eminent critic, "were the natural product of the newly awakened, thoughtful English nation of that day." 395. The Writers. — To make special mention of all the great writers who adorned the Ehzabethan era would carry us quite beyond the limits of our book. Having said something of the influence under which they wrote, we will simply add that this age was the age of Shakespeare and Spenser and Bacon.® Selections from the Sources. — More's Utopia is the choicest literary- product of the early "revival of learning in England. The student should not fail to read it carefully. It lights up at once the social, the political, and the religious world of the time (cf. sec. 377). For a. great variety of illustrative material, turn to Adams and Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutional History, pp. 213-326; Henderson, Side Lights on English History, pp. 1-32 ; and Kendall, Source-Book, chaps, viii, ix, and x. In Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen (First Series, Oxford, 1893), read " The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake into the South Sea," pp. 196-229. Secondary Works. — The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i, chap. xiv. Green, Short History of the English People, chaps, vi and vii. Froude, English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century and The Spanish Story of the Armada. Gasquet, Henry VIII and the English Monasteries and The Eve of the Reformation. These are the works of an eminent Catholic scholar. Pollard, Henry VIII. Creighton, Queen Elizabeth. Bourne, Sir Philip Sidney. In the Twelve English Statesmen series, Creighton, Cardinal Wolsey, and Beesly, Queen Elizabeth. For constitutional matters, turn to Hallam's, Taswell-Langmead's, and Macy's constitutional his- tories. For concise narrations of the events dealt with in this chapter, see Gardiner's, Montgomery's,Terry's, Coman and Kendall's, Andrews', 9 William Shakespeare (1564-1616); Edmund Spenser (1552 ?-i599); Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Shakespeare and Bacon, it will be noticed, outlived Elizabeth. 362 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION and Cheyney's text-books on English history. And for biographical in- formation, turn to the excellent articles in the English Dictionary of National Biography. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot. 2. Sir Thomas More and his Utopia. 3. The story of Lady Jane Grey. 4. Sir Walter Raleigh's exploring and colonizing enterprises in the new lands. 5. The introduction from the New World into Europe of the potato, maize, and the tobacco plant. 6. The Earl of Essex and Queeu Elizabeth. 1^- Fig. 68. — Melrose Abbey. (From a photograph) As the ruins of Fountains Abbey (see Plate VI) are a memorial of the iconoclasm of the Reformation movement in England, so are the remains of Melrose Abbey a like monument of the iconoclastic phase of the Reformation in Scotland. With the change in doctrines there, the monks of the historic abbey — it was founded in the thirteenth century — were driven out and the beautiful sculptures of the abbey church defaced Fig. 69. — Typical Dutch Scene: Zaandam. (From a photograph) CHAPTER XXIII THE> REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS: RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC (1572-1609) 396. The Country. — The name Netherlands (lowlands) was formerly appHed to all that district in the northwest of Europe, much of it sunk below the level of the sea, now occupied by the kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium. A large part of this region is simply the delta accumulations of the Rhine and other rivers emptying into the North Sea. Originally it was often over- flowed by its streams and inundated by the ocean. But this unpromising morass, protected at last by heavy dikes seaward against the invasions of the ocean, and by great embank- ments inland against the overflow of its streams, was destined to become the site of the most potent cities of Europe, and the seat of one of the foremost commonwealths of modern times. 397. The People : Celt and German. — Much Hght is thrown upon the history of the Netherlands by keeping in mind the dif- ference in race between the original population of the northern and that of the southern provinces of the country. When the Romans first came in contact with the inhabitants of this region, the southern portion of the land was held by Celtic tribes, known as the Belgse, while the northern part was the home of German clans, chief among which were the Frisians and Batavians. These races, kept apart by differences in language 3^3 364 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS and temperament, unfortunately were never fused into a single people ; and when finally, in the sixteenth century, there came a crisis in the life of the European nations, and they were each called upon to choose between the Old Church and the New, the northern and the southern Netherlanders made different choices, and went divergent ways. In the contrasted histories of the predominantly Galhc South and the predominantly German North, — the former represented to-day by the Catholic kingdom of Belgium, and the latter by the Protestant kingdom of the Netherlands, — some his- torians find support for the theory that race is a potent influence in shaping the destinies of a people. 398. State of the Country at the Opening of the Modern Age. — No country in Europe made greater progress in civihzation during the mediaeval era than the Netherlands. At the opening of the sixteenth century they contained a crowded and busy population of three million souls. The ancient marshes had been transformed into carefully kept gardens and orchards. The walled cities num- bered between two and three hundred, while thriving villages and hamlets were counted by the thousand. The great cities that dotted the country depended chiefly for their wealth and power upon their manufactures and commerce, the carrying trade of Northern Europe being largely in the hands of the bold and skilKul Netherland sailors. These cities had usurped the place once held by the Hansa towns of Germany. Antwerp, situated on the Scheldt, rivaled even the greatest of the Italian cities. " I was sad when I saw Antwerp," writes a Venetian ambassador, " for I saw Venice surpassed." 399. The Low Countries under Charles V (1515-1555). — The Netherlands, it will be recalled, were part of those possessions over which the Emperor Charles V ruled by hereditary right. We have seen how towards the close of his reign he set up here the Inquisition with the object of suppressing the heresy of the reformers (sec. 348). Many persons perished at the stake and upon the scaffold, or were strangled, or buried alive.-^ But when Charles retired to the monastery at Yuste, the reformed doctrines 1 Charles' persecutions covered the years from 1521 to 1555. The number of martyrs during these years has been greatly exaggerated ; it was put as high as one ACCESSION OF PHILIP II 365 were, notwithstanding all his efforts, far more widely spread and deeply rooted in the Netherlands than when he entered upon their extirpation by fire and sword. 400. Accession of Philip II. — In 1555, in the presence of an august and princely assembly at Brussels, and amidst the most imposing and dramatic ceremonies, Charles V abdicated the crown whose _weight he could no longer bear, and placed it upon the head of his son Philip. What sort of man this son was, we have already learned (sec. 350). Philip remained in the Netherlands after his coronation four years, employing much of his time in devising means to root out the heresy of Protestantism. In 1559 he set sail for Spain, never to return. His arrival in the peninsula was celebrated by an auto defe at Valladolid, festivities which ended in the burning of thir- teen persons whom the Inquisition had condemned as heretics. It was not delight at the sight of suffering that led Philip on his home-coming to be a spectator at these awful solemnities. He doubtless wished through his presence to give sanction to the work of the Holy Office, and to impress all with the fact that unity of religion in Spain, as the necessary basis of peace and unity in the state, was going to be maintained by him at any and every cost. 401. " Long live the Beggars ! " — Upon his departure from the Netherlands, Philip intrusted the government to his half-sister Margaret, Duchess of Parma, as regent. Under the administration of Margaret (1559-15 67) the persecu- tion of the Protestants went on with renewed bitterness. At last the nobles leagued together and resolved to petition the regent for a redress of grievances. When the duchess learned that the peti- tioners were about to wait upon her, she displayed great agitation. Thereupon one of her councilors exclaimed, "What, madam! afraid of these beggars? " The expression was carried to the nobles, who were assembled at a banquet. Straightway one of their number suspended a beggar's hundred thousand by the celebrated Dutch jurist, Grotius (d. 1645). Blok believes the number actually suffering the death penalty was less than one thousand. See his History of the People of the Netherlands, vol. ii, p. 317. 366 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS wallet from his neck and, filling a wooden bowl with wine, proposed the toast, " Long live the beggars ! " The name was tumultuously adopted and became the party designation of the patriot Nether- landers during their long struggle with the Spanish power. 402. The Iconoclasts (1566). — The only reply of the govern- ment to the petition of the nobles for a mitigation of the severity of the edicts concerning heresy was a decree termed the Mod- eration, which substituted hanging for burning in the case of condemned heretics. The pent-up indignation of the people at length burst forth in uncontrollable fury. They gathered in great mobs and proceeded to demolish every image they could find in the churches through- out the country. The monasteries, too, were sacked, their libraries burned, and the inmates driven from their cloisters. The tempest destroyed innumerable art treasures, which have been as sincerely mourned by the lovers of the- beautiful as the burned rolls of the Alexandrian library have been lamented by the lovers of learning. 403. The Duke of Alva and the "Council of Blood" (1567). — The year following this outbreak Philip sent to the Netherlands a veteran Spanish army, '^one of the most perfect engines of war ever seen in any age," headed by the Duke of Alva, a man after Philip's own heart, deceitful, fanatical, and merciless. Alva was one of the ablest generals of the age, and the intelli- gence of his coming threw the provinces into a state of the greatest agitation and alarm. Those who could do so hastened to get out of the country. William the Silent, Prince of Orange,^ one of the leading noblemen of the Lowlands, fled to Germany, where he began to gather an army of volunteers for the struggle which he now saw to be inevitable. Egmont and Hoom, Catholic noblemen ^ of high rank and great distinction, were treacherously seized, cast into prison, and soon 2 He bore also the title of Count of Nassau. Nassau was a little German state, now included in Prussia. Orange was a petty principality on the Rhone, near Avignon. It came into the hands of the family of Nassau in 1530. 3 Many Catholics sympathized at first with the Protestants and acted with them, because they felt that Philip's acts were in direct violation of the chartered rights and privileges of the cities and provinces of the Netherlands. But Egmont and Hoom had been guilty of no overt acts, and their fate was undeserved. WILLIAM OF ORANGE 367 afterwards beheaded. The duchess was relieved of the govern- ment, which was committed to the firmer hands of Alva, who, to aid him in the management of affairs, organized a most iniquitous tribunal, known in history as the " Council of Blood." The Inquisition was now reestablished, and a perfect reign of terror began. The number of Alva's victims during his short rule — he is said to have boasted that he had put to death over eighteen thousand — might almost persuade us that he had deliberately purposed the extermination of the people of the Netherlands. Besides being subjected to this religious persecution, the Nether- landers were oppressed by iniquitous taxes, particularly by an impo- sition known as " the tenth penny," a tax often per cent on all sales of commodities. This was ruinous to business, and drove the thrifty burghers almost to desperation. 404. William of Orange. — The eyes of all patriot, Netherlanders were now turned to the Prince of Orange as their only deliverer. The prince, though never a zealous Church partisan, was a deeply, religious man, and believed himself called of Heaven to the work of rescuing his country from Spanish tyr- anny. Up to this time he had been -a Cathohc, hav- ing been brought up as a page in the household of the Emperor Charles V. He now embraced Protes- tantism; but both as a Catholic and as a Protes- tant he opposed persecu- tion on account of religious belief. His attitude here is worthy of special notice, for it set him apart from the great majority of his contemporaries, and had a vast influence in shaping the policies and the des- tinies of the small yet great commonwealth of which he was to be the founder. Fig. 70. — William of Orange (The S ilent) . (After a painting by Mierevelt, Amsterdam) 368 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS William of Orange, like our own Washington, was a statesman rather than a soldier ; yet even as a leader in war he evinced tal- ent of a high order. The Spanish armies were commanded suc- cessively by the most experienced and distinguished generals of Europe ; but the prince coped ably with them all, and in the mas- terly service which he rendered his country earned the title of "The Founder of Dutch Liberties." 405. The Isolation of the Provinces. — Never did any people make a more heroic defense of their rehgious and ci\dl liberties than did the Netherlanders. The struggle lasted for more than a generation, — for over forty years. The Netherlanders sustained the unequal contest almost single-handed ; for, though they found sympathy among the Protestants of Germany, France, and Eng- land, they never received material assistance from any of these countries excepting England, and it was not until late in the struggle that aid came from this source. As regards the German Protestants, they were too much divided among themselves to render efficient aid, and besides, being mostly Lutherans, they had httle zeal for the cause of the Dutch Protestants, who were in the main Calvinists; and just at the moment when the growing Protestant sentiment in France en- couraged the Netherlanders to look confidently for help from the Huguenot party there, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew extin- guished forever all hope of succor from that quarter. So the little revolted provinces were left to carry on practically unaided, as best they might, a contest with the most powerful monarch of Christendom. 406. The Capture of Briel (1572); the Beginning of the Sea Power of the Dutch. — It was the nature of their country, half land, half water, which enabled the Dutch to make such a pro- loiiged and finally successful resistance to the power of Spain. The Dutch triumphed because the sea helped them. The influence that this element was to exert upon the struggle was foreshadowed early in the conflict by a celebrated exploit of Dutch seamen. The circumstances of this exploit were these. Almost at the outset of the war the Prince of Orange had commissioned some BEGINNING OF DUTCH SEA POWER 369 sailors as privateers to prey upon Spanish ships and to harass the coast towns which favored the enemy. Soon the sea was swarm- ing with these privateers, — Water Beggars, they were called, — who, out of reach of restraint, became veritable freebooters, and revived the days and emulated the deeds of the Saxon cor- sairs who a thousand years before had put out from these same or neighboring creeks and lagoons. One day a squadron cf twenty or more ships of these bucca- neers, expelled from 5^ngHsh harbors, made a descent upon the port of Briel (or Brill) in Holland, seized the place, and held it for the Prince of Orange. It was a small affair in itself, somewhat like the affair at Lexington in the American Revolution, but it stirred wonderfully the people of the Lowlands. Straightway other places opened their gates to the Water Beggars, and thus the rebellion speedily gained a secure basis for regular naval operations. It was the real beginning of the great sea power of the future Dutch Republic, which for two hundred years was to be a potent force in history. Having now gained some idea of the causes of the revolt and the nature of the struggle, we must hurry on to the issue of the matter. In so doing we shall pass unnoticed many sieges and battles, negotiations and treaties.* 407. " The Spanish Fury " ; the Pacification of Ghent (1576). — The year 1576 was marked by a revolt of the Spanish soldiers on account of their not receiving their pay, the costly war having drained Philip's treasury. The mutinous army marched through the land, pillaging city after city and paying themselves with the spoils. The beautiful city of Antwerp was ruined. The atrocities committed by the frenzied soldiers caused the outbreak to be called the " Spanish Fury." The terrible state of affairs led to an alHance between Holland and Zealand and the other fifteen provinces of the Netherlands, known in history as the Pacification of Ghent (1576). The resist- ance to the Spanish crown had thus far been carried on without 4 Read in Motley's liise of the Dutch Republic the siege and sack of Haarlem and the relief of Leyden. 370 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS concerted action among the several states, the Prince of Orange having hitherto found it impossible to bring the different provinces to agree to any plan of general defense. 408. The Union of Utrecht (1579). — With the Spanish forces under the lead first of Don John of Austria, the hero victor of Lepanto (sec. 354), and afterwards of Prince Alexander of Parma, a commander of most distinguished ability, the war now went on with increased vigor, fortune, with many vacillations, inclining to the side of the Spaniards. Disaffection arose among the Nether- landers, the outcome of which was the separation of the northern and southern provinces. The seven Protestant states of the North, the chief of which were Holland and Zealand, by the Treaty of Utrecht (1579), drew together in a permanent confederation, known as the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands, with the Prince of Orange as stadtholder. In this league was laid the foundation of the renowned Dutch Republic. Fortunate would it have been for the Netherlands could all of the states at this time have been brought to act in concert. Under the leadership of the Prince of Orange the seventeen provinces might have been consolidated into a powerful nation that might now be reckoned among the great states of Europe. However, it was destined to be otherwise. The ten CathoHc provinces of the South, although they continued their contest with Philip a little longer, ultimately submitted to Spanish tyranny. Portions of these provinces were eventually absorbed by France, while the remainder after varied fortunes finally became the present king- dom of Belgium. With their history we shall have no further con- cern at present, but turn now to follow the fortunes of the rising repubhc of the North. 409. The "Ban" and the "Apology" (1580-1581). — William of Orange was, of course, the animating spirit of the confederacy formed by the Treaty of Utrecht. In the eyes of Philip and his viceroys he appeared the sole obstacle in the way of the pacifica- tion of the provinces and their return to civil and ecclesiastical obedience. In vain had Philip sent against him the ablest and most distinguished commanders of the age ; in vain had he DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 371 endeavored to detach him from the cause of his country by mag- nificent bribes of titles, offices, and fortune. Philip now resolved to employ public assassination^ for the removal of the invincible general and the incorruptible patriot. He published a ban against the prince, declaring him an outlaw and " the chief disturber of all Christendom and especially of these Netherlands," and offering any one who would deliver him into his hands " dead or alive " pardon for any crime he might have committed, a title of nobility, and twenty-five thousand crowns in gold or in lands. The prince responded to the infamous edict by a remarkable paper entitled "The Apology of the Prince of Orange," the most terrible arraignment of tyranny that was ever penned. The "Apology" was scattered throughout Europe, and everywhere produced a profound impression. 410. The Declaration of Independence (July 26, 1581). — The United Provinces had not yet formally renounced their allegiance to the Spanish crown. They now deposed Philip as their sover- eign, broke in pieces his seal, and put forth to the world their memorable Declaration of Independence, a document as sacred to the Dutch as the Declaration of 1776 is to Americans. The preamble contains these words : " Whereas God did not create the people slaves to their prince, to obey his commands, whether right or wrong, but rather the prince for the sake of the subjects, to govern them according to equity, to love and support them as a father his children or a shepherd his flock, and even at the hazard of life to defend and preserve them ; [therefore] when he does not behave thus, but, on the contrary, oppresses them, 5 We use the expression " public assassination " in order to indicate a change in Philip's methods. He had all along* tried to get rid of the prince by private or secret assassination. Now his edict of outlawry makes the proposed assassination avowedly a public or governmental affair. To comprehend this proceeding we must bear in mind that in the sixteenth century assassination was not looked upon with that utter abhor- rence with which we rightly regard it ; in the language of the historian Lingard, it was then "one of the recognized weapons of constitutional power." In the petty states of Italy it was a weapon resorted to almost universally, and seemingly without any compunctions of conscience, and even in the North many of the rulers at one time ^nd another had recourse to it. Compare sees. 389, 420, and 431. 372 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS seeking opportunities to infringe their ancient customs and privi- leges, exacting from them slavish compliance, then he is no longer a prince, but a tyrant, and the subjects ... may not only disallow his authority, but legally proceed to the choice of another prince for their defense." This language was a wholly new dialect to the ears of Philip and of princes like him. They had never heard anything like it before uttered in such tones by a whole people. But it was a language destined to spread wonderfully and to become very common. We shall hear it often enough a little later in the era of the Revolution. It will become familiar speech in England, in America, in France, — almost every^vhere.^ 411. Assassination of the Prince of Orange. — " The ban soon bore fruit." Upon the loth day of July, 1584, after five previous unsuccessful attempts had been made upon his life, the Prince of Orange was fatally shot by an assassin named Balthasar Gerard. Philip approved the murder as ^' an exploit of supreme value to Christendom." The murderer was put to death with hideous tor- ture, but his heirs received the promised reward, being endowed with certain of the estates of the prince and honored by eleva- tion to the rank of the Spanish nobility. The character of William the Silent is one of the most admi- rable portrayed in all history. His steadfast and unselfish devo- tion to the cause of his country deservedly won for him the love of all classes. His people fondly called him " Father William." "As long as he lived," writes Motley, "he was the guiding star of a whole brave nation; and when he died the little children cried in the streets." 412. Progress of the "War ; the Truce of 1609. — Severe as was the blow sustained by the Dutch patriots in the death of the Prince of Orange, they did not lose heart, but continued the struggle with the most admirable courage and steadfastness. 6 It has been asserted that the Declaration had an influence in shaping the English Declaration of Rights in 1689 and the American Declaration of Independence in 1776 ; but there is no evidence that in either of these cases the Dutch Declaration was either known or consulted, or that it bad the slightest influence. PROGRESS OF THE WAR 373 Prince Maurice, a mere youth of seventeen years, the second son of WilHam, was chosen stadtholder in his place, and he proved himself a worthy son of the great chief and patriot. The war now went on with unabated fury. France as well as England became involved, both fighting against Philip, who was now laying claims to the crowns of both countries. To tell of the battles on land lost and won, of the naval combats on almost every sea beneath the skies, would be a story without end. The destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588 marked the turning point of the struggle, yet not the end of it. Philip II died in 1598, but the losing fight was carried on by his successor, Philip III. Europe finally grew weary of the seemingly interminable strug- gle, and the Spanish commanders becoming convinced that it was impossible to reduce the Dutch rebels to obedience by force 374 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS of arms, negotiations were entered into which issued in the cele- brated Truce of 1609."^ This truce was in reahty an acknowledg- ment by Spain of the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, although the Spanish king was so unwilling to admit the fact of his inabiHty to reduce the rebel states to sub- mission that the treaty was termed simply "a. truce for twelve years." ^ Spain did not formally acknowledge their independence until forty years afterwards, in the Peace of Westphalia, at the end of the Thirty Years' War (1648). Thus ended, after a continuance of over forty years, one of the most memorable contests of which history tells. The memories of these great days, handed down to later generations of Nether- landers, formed a rich and ennobling heritage which, we may believe, entered as an element of strength into the Dutch char- acter ; for " such traditions," as the historian Hausser truly says, " keep a nation upright for centuries." 413. Influence of the Establishment of the Dutch Republic upon both the Religious and the Political Revolution. — The success- ful issue of the revolt in the Netherlands meant much for the cause of the reformers. The Protestant Lowlands formed a sort of strategic point in the great fight between Catholicism and Protestantism. The loss of this ground might have proved fatal to the Protestant cause. Its maintenance by the forces of the reformers set limits to the Catholic reaction. The establishment of the Dutch Republic had also great signifi- cance for the Political Revolution. In the seventeenth century it was Holland that was the foremost champion of the cause of political freedom against Bourbon despotism. It was a worthy descendant of the first Prince William of Orange who, at one of T In 1598 peace had been made between Spain and France (sec. 423, n. 5), and then in 1604 between Spain and England. One of the most noteworthy events of the later period of the war was the long and finally successful siege by the Spaniards of Ostend, " The Troy of modern history." 8 During this truce period (1609-1621) the Dutch Republic was filled with discord through the bitter quarrels of religious and political parties within the little state. The most eminent of the Dutch statesmen of the period was John of Barneveld (i549?-i6i9). See his Life by Motley. BIBLIOGRAPHY 375 the most critical moments of English history, when Englishmen were struggling doubtfully against Stuart tyranny, came to their help and rescued English liberties from the peril in which they lay (sec. 497). Selections from the Sources. — Old South Leaflets, No. 72, ''The Dutch Declaration of Independence " ; No. 69, " The Description of the New Netherlands." Secondary Works. — Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic and History of the United Netherlands. These histories by Motley are classi- cal, but they lack in judicial spirit. They should be read in connection with Blok, History of the People of the Netherlands. YoUNG, History of the Netherlands. Harrison, William the Silent. Putnam, William the Silent. For New Netherlands, consult Fiske, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. See also bibliography for Chapter XXI. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The protective waterworks of the Low Countries. 2. The Netherlands under the dukes of Burgundy. 3. The Iconoclasts. 4. How William of Orange acquired his title of "The Silent." 5. The siege and relief of Leyden. 6. The New Netherlands. Fig. 71. -Coat of Arms of William^ Prince of Orange. CHAPTER XXIV THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE (1562-1629) 414. The Reformation in France. — Before Luther posted his ninety-five theses at Wittenberg there had appeared in the Uni- versity of Paris and elsewhere in France men who from the study of the Scriptures had come to entertain opinions very Hke those of the German reformer. The movement thus begun received a fresh impulse from the uprising in Germany under Luther. The Reformation in France, as elsewhere, brought dissension, persecution, and war. We have already seen how the Valois ^ king Francis I waged an exterminating crusade against his heretical Waldensian subjects (sec. 345). His son and successor, Henry II, also conceived it to be his duty to uproot heresy ; and it was his persecution of his Protestant subjects — a persecution largely instigated by his infamous mistress, Diane de Poitiers — that sowed the seed of those long and woeful religious wars which he left as a terrible legacy to his three feeble sons, Francis, Charles, and Henry, who followed him in succession upon the throne. Notwithstanding the persecutions of Francis I and Henry II, , the reformed faith gained ground rapidly in France during their reigns, so that by the time of Henry's death the followers of the reformed creed numbered probably between one and two millions. The new doctrines had found adherents especially among the lesser nobility and the burgher class, and had struck deep root in the south, — the region of the old Albigensian heresy. 415. King Francis II, Catherine de* Medici, and the Guises. — Francis II began his reign in 1559. Hi^s wife was the young and 1 The Valois kings (compare sec. 238, n. 13) of the sixteenth century were Louis XII (1498-1515), Francis I (1515-1547), Henry II (1547-1559), Francis II (1559-1560), Charles IX (1560-1574), Henry III (1574-1589)- Henry IV, the successor of Henry III, was the first of the Bourbons. THE HUGUENOT LEADERS 377 fascinating Mary Stuart of Scotland. Francis was a weak-minded boy of sixteen years. The power behind the throne was his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and the chiefs of the family of the Guises. Catherine was an Itahan. She seems to have been almost or quite destitute of religious convictions of any kind. She was determined to rule, and this she did by holding the balance of power between the two rehgious parties. When it suited her pur- pose, she favored the Protestants ; and when it suited her purpose better, she favored the Catholics. Through her counsels and pol- icies she contributed largely to make France wretched through the reigns of her three sons, and to bring her house to a miserable end. At the head of the family of the Guises stood Francis, Duke of Guise, and his brother Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. Both of these men were zealous Catholics. Mary Stuart, the young queen, was their niece, and through her they ruled the boy king. 416. The Huguenot^ Leaders : the Bourbon Princes and Admiral Coligny Opposed to the Guises were the Bourbon princes, Antony, king of Navarre, and Louis, Prince of Cond^. Next after the brothers of Francis II, they were heirs to the French throne. Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, was " the military hero of the French Reformation." Early in life he had embraced the doctrines of the reformers, and remained to the last the trusted and consistent, though ill-starred, champion of the Protestants. His is the most heroic figure that emerges from the unutterable confusion of the times. The foregoing notice of parties and their chiefs will suffice to render intelligible the events which we now have to narrate. 417. The Massacre of Vassy (1562). — After the short reign of Francis II (15 5 9-1 5 60) his brother Charles came to the throne as Charles IX. He was only ten years of age, so the queen mother assumed the government in his name. Pursuing her favorite maxim to rule by setting one party as a counterpoise to the other, she gave the, Bourbon princes a place in the government, and also by a royal edict gave the Huguenots a limited toleration and forbade their further persecution. 2 This word is probably from the German Eidgenossen, meaning " oath comrades." 3/8 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE These concessions in favor of the Huguenots angered the Cath- oHc chiefs, particularly the Guises ; and it was the violation by the adherents of the Duke of Guise of the edict of toleration that finally caused the growing animosities of the two parties to break out in civil war. While passing through the country with a body of armed attendants, at a small place called Vassy the duke came upon a company of Huguenots assembled in a barn for worship. His retainers first insulted and then attacked them, killing about forty of the company and wounding many more. Under the lead of Admiral Coligny and the Prince of Cond^, the Huguenots now rose throughout France. Philip II of Spain sent an army to aid the Catholics, while Ehzabeth of England extended help to the Huguenots. 418. The Treaty of St. Germain (1570). — For the lifetime of a generation France was distressed, almost without respite, by bitter internecine strife.^ The rival princely houses of v/hich we have spoken and their respective adherents exploited the situation, — that is to say, they took advantage of the religious situation to fur- ther their own ends. If one could imagine the Wars of the Roses in England carried on in the midst of the ferment of the Refor- mation, imagine the houses of York and Lancaster availing them- selves of Protestant and Catholic prejudice and fanaticism, one 8 The table below exhibits the wars of the entire period of which we are treating. Some make the religious wars proper end with the Edict of Nantes (1598); others with the fall of La Rochelle (1628). First War (ended by Peace of Amboise) 1562-1563 Second War (ended by Peace of Longjumeau) 1567-1568 Third War (ended by Peace of St. Germain) 1568-1570 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, August 24 1572 Fourth War (ended by Edict of Boulogne) 1572-1573 Fifth War (ended by Peace of Monsieur) 1574-1576 Sixth War (ended by Peace of Bergerac) 1577 Seventh War (ended by Treaty of Fleix) 1580 Eighth War (War of the Three Henrys) 15 85-1 589 Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre, secures the throne .... 1589 Ninth War 1589-1598 Edict of Nantes . 159^ Siege and fall of La Rochelle 162 7-1628 By the fall of La Rochelle the political power of the Huguenots was completely prostrated. MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY 379 might thereby get some faint idea of what was going on in France during the so-called "Religious Wars." The Treaty of St. Germain brought a short and, as it proved, delusive peace. The terms of the treaty were very favorable to the Huguenots. They received four towns, among which was La Rochelle, the stronghold of the Huguenot faith, which they might garrison and hold as places of safety and pledges of good faith. To cement the treaty, Catherine de' Medici now proposed that the Princess Margaret, the sister of Charles IX, should be given in marriage to Henry of Bourbon, the new young king of Navarre. The announcement of the proposed alliance caused great rejoic- ing among Catholics and Protestants alike, and the chiefs of both parties crowded to Paris to attend the wedding, which took place on the 1 8th of August, 1572. 419. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (August 24, 1572). — Before the festivities which followed the nuptial ceremonies were over, the world was shocked by one of the most awful crimes recorded by history, — the massacre of the Huguenots in Paris on St. Bartholomew's Day. The circumstances which led to this fearful tragedy were as follows. Among the Protestant nobles who came up to Paris to attend the wedding was Admiral Coligny. The admiral had great influence over the young king, and this influence he used to draw him away from the queen mother and the Guises. Fearing the loss of her influence over her son, Catherine resolved upon the death of the admiral. The attempt miscarried, Coligny receiving only a sHght wound from the assassin's ball. The Huguenots rallied about their wounded chief with loud threats of revenge. Catherine, driven on by insane fear, now determined upon the death of all the Huguenots in Paris as the only measure of safety.^ By the 23d of August, the plans for the massacre were all arranged. On the evening of that day Catherine went to her son and represented to him that the Huguenots had * In the midst of the horror and panic of the tragedy the Protestants were led to believe that the massacre was the issue of a plot dating from the Treaty of St. Germain. The view is now known to be wholly unsupported by the facts. 38o THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE formed a plot for the assassination of the royal family and the leaders of the Catholic party, and that the utter ruin of their house and cause could be averted only by the immediate destruc- tion of the Protestants within the city walls. The order for the massacre was then laid before him for his signature. The weak- minded king shrank in terror from the deed, and at first refused to sign the decree ; but overcome at last by the representations of his mother, he exclaimed, " I consent, provided not one Huguenot be left alive in France to reproach me with the deed." A little past the hour of midnight on St. Bartholomew's Day (August 24, 1572), at a preconcerted signal, — the tolling of a bell, — the massacre began. Coligny was one of the first victims. For three days and nights the massacre went on within the city. The number of victims in Paris is variously estimated at from one thousand to ten thousand. With the capital cleared of Huguenots, orders were issued to the principal cities of France to purge themselves in like manner of heretics. In many places the decree was disobeyed ; but in others the orders were carried out, and frightful massacres took place. The number of victims throughout the country is un- known ; estimates differ widely, running from two thousand to a hundred thousand. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day raised a cry of execra- tion in almost every part of the civilized world, among Catholics and Protestants alike. Philip II, however, is said to have received the news with unfeigned joy; while Pope Gregory XIII caused a Te Deu7?i, in commemoration of the event, to be sung in the church of St. Mark in Rome. Respecting this it should in justice be said that Catholic writers maintain that the Pope acted under a misconception of the facts, it having been represented to him that the massacre resulted from a thwarted plot of the Huguenots against the royal family of France and the Catholic Church. 420. Reign of Henry III (1574-1589). — The massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, instead of exterminating heresy in France, only served to rouse the Huguenots to a more determined defense of their faith. Throughout the last two years of the reign of ACCESSION OF HENRY IV 33i Charles IX and the fifteen succeeding years of the reign of his brother Henry III the country was in a state of turmoil and war. By granting privileges to the Huguenots, Henry angered the Catholics, who, for the maintenance of the ancient Church, formed what was known as the Holy League, the head of which was the third Duke of Guise. Finally, in 1589, the king, who jeal- ous of the growing power and popularity of the duke had caused him to be assassinated, was himself struck down by the avenging dagger of a Dominican monk. With him ended the House of Valois. 421. Accession of Henry IV (1589). — Henry of Bourbon, king Df Navarre, who. for many years had been the most prominent leader of the Huguenots, now came to the throne as the first of the Bourbon kings. His accession lifted into prominence one of the most celebrated royal houses in European history. The political story of France, and indeed of Europe, from this -time on to the French Revolution, and for some time after that, is in great part the story of the House of Bourbon. Although the doctrines of the reformers had made rapid prog- ress in France under the sons of Henry II, still the great majority of the nation at the time of the death of Henry III were Catholics in faith and worship. Under these circumstances we shall hardly expect to find the entire nation quietly acquiescing in the accession to the French throne of a Protestant prince, and he the leader and champion of the hated Huguenots. Nor did Henry secure without a struggle the crowri that was his by right. The Catholic League had declared for Cardinal Bourbon, Henry's uncle, and France was thus kept ip the whirl of civil war. Fig. 72. — Henry IV, King OF France. (From a paint- ing by F. Goltzius) 382 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE 422. Henry turns Catholic (1593). — After the war had gone on for about four years the quarrel was closed, for the time being, by Henry's turning Catholic. Mingled motives led Henry to do this. He was personally liked, even by the Catholic chiefs, and he was well aware that it was only his Huguenot faith that pre- vented their being his hearty supporters. Hence duty and policy seemed to concur in urging him to remove the sole obstacle in the way of their ready loyalty, and thus to bring peace and quiet to distracted France. The Catholic League now soon fell to pieces. Henry was crowned at Chartres ; and shortly afterwards Paris, which had been in the hands of his enemies, opened its gates to him. 423. The Edict of Nantes (1598). — As soon as Henry had become the crowned and acknowledged king of France, he gave himself to the work of composing the affairs of his kingdom. The most noteworthy of the measures he adopted to this end was the publication of the celebrated Edict of Nantes (April 13, 1598).^ By this decree the Huguenots were secured perfect free- dom of conscience and practical freedom of worship.® Schools, hospitals, and all public offices and employments were opened to them the same as to Catholics. Moreover, they were allowed to retain possession of a number of fortified towns as pledges of good faith and as places of refuge and defense. Among these places was the important city of La Rochelle. The granting of this edict is memorable for the reason that it was the first formal, though qualiJEied, recognition by a great Euro- pean state of the principle of religious toleration and equality.^ Here, for the first time since the triumph of Christianity over paganism in the Roman Empire, a great nation makes a serious 5 A few weeks after signing the Edict of Nantes, Henry concluded with Philip II the Treaty of Vervins (May 2, 1598), which closed the war with Spain. 6 The greater nobles were licensed to hold general religious services in their castles ; the lesser nobles to hold services for the members of their own families. Altogether about 3500 castles were thus made licensed places of Protestant worship. 7 The provisions of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 (sec. 347) fell far short, in reli- gious liberalism, of the clauses of the edict. Even in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 (sec. 433) Germany did not go as far in the direction of religious toleration as France had gone in 1598. CHARACTER OF HENRY IV'S REIGN 383 effort to try to get along with two creeds in the state. It was almost a century before even England went as far in the way of granting freedom of conscience and of worship. 424. Character of Henry IV' s Reign; his Plans and Death. — ■ The temporary hushing of the long-continued quarrels of the Catholics and Protestants by the adoption of the principle of religious toleration paved the way for a revival of the trade and industries of the country, which had been almost destroyed by the anarchy and waste of the rehgious wars.. France now entered upon such a period of prosperity as she had not known for many years. The material and social welfare of all his subjects, particu- larly of the lower classes, was Henry's special care. His paternal solicitude for his humblest subjects secured for him the title of " Father of his People." In devising and carrying out his measures of reform, Henry was aided by one of the most prudent and sagacious advisers that ever strengthened the hands of a prince, — the illustrious Duke of Sully (i 560-1641). The duke was an author as well as a statesman, arid in his Memoirs left one of the most Valuable records we possess of the transactions in which he took so prominent a part. Remote America was not lost sight of by Henry. In 1608 Champlain, a Frenchman in the service of a company patronized by the king, upon a picturesque cliff four hundred miles up the St. Lawrence, founded Quebec, the future political and social center of New France. Towards the close of his reign Henry, feeling strong in his resources and secure in his power, began to revolve in mind vast projects for the aggrandizement of France and the weakening of her old enemy, the House of Hapsburg, in both its branches.^ He was making great preparations for war, when the dagger of 8 In connection with his designs against the House of Hapsburg, Henry is repre- sented in Sully's Memoirs as having had in mind a most magnificent scheme, which was nothing less than the organization of all the Christian states of Europe into a great confederation or commonwealth, and the aboHtion of war by the creation of an international peace tribunal. This scheme is known as the " Grand Design." It is not probable, however, that Henry was the author of it, as represented by Sully. 334 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE a fanatic by the name of Ravaillac, who regarded Henry as an enemy of the Catholic Church, cut short his life and plans (1610). 425. Louis XIII ( 1 6 1 o- 1 643) ; Cardinal Richelieu and his Policy. — As Henry's son Louis, who succeeded him, was a mere child of nine years, during his minority the government was adminis- tered by his mother, Mary de' Medici. Upon attaining his majority, in 161 7, Louis took the government into his own hands. He chose as his chief minister Cardinal Richelieu (1585- 1642), the Wolsey of France, one of the most remarkable characters of the seventeenth century. From the time that Louis made the prelate his chief minister in 1624, the ecclesiastic be- came the actual sovereign of France, and for the space of eighteen years swayed the destinies not only of that country, but, it might almost be said, those of Europe as well. His policy was twofold : first, to render ^he authority of the French king absolute in France ; second, to make the power of France supreme in Europe. To attain the first end Richelieu sought (i) to crush the polit- ical power of the Huguenots ; (2) to trample out the last vestige of independence among the old feudal aristocracy; (3) to sup- press or to deprive of all real power the local assemblies and the parliaments, or courts of justice. To secure the second end, he labored to break down the power of both branches of the House of Hapsburg, that is, of Austria and Spain. For nearly the lifetime of a generation Richelieu, by intrigue, diplomacy, and war, pursued with unrelenting purpose these objects of his ambition. In the following paragraph we shall speak very briefly of the cardinal's dealings with the Huguenots, which feature alone of his policy especially concerns us at present. Fig. 73. — Cardinal Riche- lieu. (After the painting by Philippe de Champagne) SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF LA ROCHELLE 385 426. Siege and Capture of La Rochelle (162 7-1 62 8); Political Power of the Huguenots broken. — In the prosecution of his plans, one of Cardinal Richelieu's first steps was to break down the political power of the Huguenot chiefs, who, dissatisfied with their position in the government and irritated by rehgious grievances, were revolving in mind the founding in France of a Protestant commonwealth like that which the Prince of Orange and his adherents had set up in the Netherlands. The capital of this new repubhc was to be La Rochelle, on the western coast of France. In 1627, an alliance having been formed between England and the French Protestants, an EngHsh fleet and army were sent 'across the Channel to aid the Huguenot enterprise. Richeheu now resolved to ruin forever the power of these Prot- estants who, " Protestants first and Frenchmen afterwards," were constantly challenging the royal authority and threatening the dis- memberment of France. Accordingly, he led in person an army to the siege of La Rochelle, which, after a gallant resistance of more than a year, was compelled to open its gates (1628). That the place might never again be made the center of resistance to the royal power, Louis ordered that " the fortifications be razed to the ground in such wise that the plow may plow through the soil as through tilled land." The Huguenots maintained the struggle a few months longer in the south of France, but were finally everywhere reduced to submission. The result of the war was the complete destruction of the political power of the French Protestants. A treaty of peace called the Edict of Grace, negotiated the year after the fall of La Rochelle, left them, however, freedom of worship, according to the provisions of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Grace properly marks the close of the religious wars which had now distressed France for two generations. It is estimated that this series of wars cost the country a million lives, and that between three and four hundred hamlets and towns were destroyed by the contending parties. 427. Richelieu and the Thirty Years* War. — When Cardinal Richeheu came to the head of affairs in France, there was going 386 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE on in Germany the Thirty Years' War (i 618-1648), of which we shall tell in the following chapter. This was very much such a struggle between the Catholic and Protestant German princes and cities as we have seen waged between the two religious parties in France. Although Richelieu had just crushed French Protestantism, he now gave assistance to the Protestant German princes because their success meant the division of Germany and the humiliation of Austria. Richelieu did not live to see the end either of the Thirty Years' War or of that which he had begun with Spain ; but this foreign policy of the great minister, carried out by others, finally resulted, as we shall learn hereafter, in the humiliation of both branches of the House of Hapsburg and the lifting of France to the first place among the powers of Europe. Selections from the Sources. — Duke of Sully, Memoirs (Bohn). For a short account of the contents of this work consult Historical Sources in Schools (Report to the New England History Teachers' Association, pp. 99-102). Translations and Reprints, vol. iii, No. 3, extracts under " The Reformation in France" (trans, by Merrick Whitcomb). Old South Leaf- lets, No. 91, " The Founding of Quebec (1608)." Secondary Works. — Baird, The Rise of the Huguenots, The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre, and Theodore Beza. Besant, Gaspard de Coligny. ^OBl'iiSO'ii,MargaretofAngouleme. ^l'LL'EWT,Hefiry of Navarre. Adams, The Growth of the French Nation, chaps, xi and xii. Hassall, 73^*? French People, chaps, x and xi. Lodge, Richelieu. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World ; for the Huguenots in Florida and Brazil, and Champ- lain and his associates. See also Fiske, New England and New France, .chaps, i-iii. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Catherine de' Medici. 2. Admiral Coligny and his project of French settlements in Brazil and Florida. 3. The Duke of Sully. 4. The founding of Quebec. 5. The "Grand Design." CHAPTER XXV THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 428. Nature and Causes of the War. — The long and calamitous Thirty Years' War was the last great combat between Protestant- ism and Catholicism in Europe. It started as a struggle between the Protestant and Catholic princes of Germany, but gradually involved almost all the states of the continent, degenerating at last into a shameful and heartless struggle for power and territory. The real cause of the war was the enmity existing between the German Protestants and Catholics. But if a more specific cause be sought, it will be found in the character of the articles of the celebrated Religious Peace of Augsburg (sec. 347). The Catholics and Protestants did not interpret alike the provisions of that com- promise treaty. Each party by its encroachments gave the other occasion for complaint. The Protestants at length formed for their mutual protection a league called the Evangelical Union (1608). In opposition to the Union, the CathoHcs formed a confederation known as the Holy League (1609). All Germany was thus pre- pared to burst into the flames of a religious war. 429. The Bohemian Period of the War (161 8-1 623). — The flames that were to desolate Germany for a generation were first kindled in Bohemia, where were still smoldering embers of the Hussite wars, which two centuries before had desolated that land. A church which the Protestants, relying on the provisions of a certain royal charter, maintained they had a right to build was torn down by the Catholics, and another was closed. Expos- tulations addressed by the reformers to the Emperor Matthias, as king of Bohemia, receiving an unsatisfactory reply, a body of Bohemian grandees entered the royal castle at Prague and threw two of the imperial regents out of the window (May 23, 161 8). This hasty proceeding was the beginning of the Thirty Years' 3^7 388 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR War, — "the source and cause of all our woes," as wrote one who lived in the sad times that followed. The Bohemian Protestants now rose in organized revolt against their Catholic king, Ferdinand,^ elected a new Protestant king,^ and drove out the Jesuits. The war had scarcely opened when, the imperial office falling vacant, Ferdinand was elected Emperor. With the power he now wielded, together with the help he received from the Catholic League, it was not a difficult matter for him to quell the Protestant insurrection in his royal dominions. The leaders of the revolt were executed, and the reformed faith in Bohemia was almost uprooted. 430. The Danish Period (1625-1629). — The situation of affairs at this moment in Germany, with a zealous and powerful Catho- lic, inclined and prepared to follow in the footsteps of Charles V, at the head of the Germanic body, filled not only the Protestant princes of Germany, but all the Protestant powers of the North, with the greatest alarm. Christian IV, king of Denmark, sup- ported by England and the Dutch Netherlands, now again involved in war with Spain, threw himself into the struggle — which was still being carried on in a desultory manner — as the champion of German Protestantism. On the side of the Catholics were two noted commanders, — Tilly, the leader of the forces of the Holy League, and Wallenstein, a wealthy Bohemian nobleman, who was the commander of the imperial army. What is known as the Danish period of the war now begins (1625). The war, in the main, proved disastrous to the Protestant allies,^ and Christian IV was finally constrained to conclude a treaty of peace with the Emperor (Peace of Liibeck, 1629) and retire from the struggle. By what is known as the Edict of Restitution (1629), the Em- peror Ferdinand now restored to the Catholics all the ecclesiastical 1 Ferdinand was the head of the House of Hapsburg, which family had long held the throne of Bohemia. After his election to the imperial office, mentioned a little farther on in the text, his title became Emperor Ferdinand II (1619-1637). 2 Frederick V, Elector Palatine, son-in-law of James I of England. 3 Among the important episodes of the war were the defeat of the ki ng of Denmark by Tilly at Lutter (1626), and the unsuccessful siege of Stralsund by Wallenstein (1628). THE SWEDISH PERIOD 389 lands and offices in North Germany of which possession had been taken by the Protestants in violation of the terms of the Peace of Augsburg. 431. The Swedish Period (i 630-1 635) : Wallenstein, Gustavus Adolphus, Tilly — and Wallenstein again. — At this moment of seeming triumph, Ferdinand was constrained by rising discontent and jealousies to dismiss from his service his most efficient general, Wallenstein. Only a few months before this, Gus- tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, with a veteran and enthusiastic army of sixteen thousand Swedes, had ap- peared in North Germany as the champion of the dis- pirited and leaderless Prot- estants. Various motives had concurred in leading him thus to intervene in the struggle. He was urged to this course by his strong Protestant convictions and sympathies. Furthermore, the progress of the imperial arms in North Germany was imperiling Swedish interests in the Baltic, and threatening to estabhsh the supremacy of the Austrian Hapsburgs over what was regarded by the sovereigns of Sweden as a Swedish lake. • The Protestant princes' jealousy and distrust of the Swede* Gustavus now contributed to a most terrible disaster. At this moment Tilly was besieging the city of Magdeburg, which had dared to resist the Edict of Restitution (sec. 430). But the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, from whom the city should have received help, would not, or at least did not, cooperate with Gustavus in raising the siege. In a short time the fated city was taken by storm and was given up to sack atfd pillage. Fig. 74. — Gustavus Adolphus. (From a painting by Vandyke) 390 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR Thousands of the inhabitants perished miserably. Tilly wrote to Ferdinand that since the fall of Troy and Jerusalem such a vic- tory had never been seen. " I am sincerely sorry," he adds, '' that the ladies of your imperial family could not have been present as spectators." The cruel fate of Magdeburg excited the alarm of the Protes- tant princes. The Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony now united their forces with those of the Swedish king. Tilly was defeated with great loss in the celebrated battle of Leipzig, or Breitenfeld (163 1), and Gustavus, emboldened by his success, pushed south- ward into the very heart of Germany. Attempting to dispute his march, Tilly's army was again defeated, and he himself received a fatal wound (1632). In the death of Tilly, Ferdinand lost his most trustworthy general. The imperial cause appeared desperate. There was but one man in Germany who could turn the tide of victory that was run- ning so strongly in favor of the Swedish monarch. That man was Wallenstein ; and to him the Emperor now turned. Wallenstein agreed to raise an army, provided his control of it should be abso- lute. Ferdinand was constrained to grant all that his old general demanded. Wallenstein now raised his standard, to which rallied the adventurers not only of Germany but of all Europe as well. The array was a vast and heterogeneous host, bound together by no bonds of patriotism, loyalty, or convictions, but only by the spell and prestige of the name of Wallenstein. With an army of forty thousand men obedient to his commands, Wallenstein, after numerous marches and countermarches, finally risked a battle with Gustavus on the memorable field of Liitzen, ■in Saxony. The Swedes won the day, but lost their leader and sovereign (1632). We may sum up the results of Gustavus Adolphus' interven- tion in the Thirty Years' War in these words of the historian Gindely : " He averted the overthrow with which Protestantism was threatened in Germany." Notwithstanding the death of their great king and commander, the Swedes did not withdraw from the war. Hence the struggle I THE SWEDISH-FRENCH PERIOD 391 went on, the advantage being for the most part with the Protes- tant allies. Ferdinand, at just this time, was embarrassed by the suspicious movements of his general Wallenstein. Becoming con- vinced that he was meditating the betrayal of the imperial cause, the Emperor caused him to be assassinated (1634). This event marks very nearly the end of the Swedish period of the war. 432. The Swedish-French Period (1635-16.48). — Had it not been for the selfish and ambitious interference of France, the woeful war which had now desolated Germany for half a genera- tion might here have come to an end, for both sides were weary of it and ready for negotiations of peace. But RicheHeu was not willing that the war should end until the House of Austria was completely humbled. Accordingly, he encouraged the Swedish chancellor Oxenstiern, as he had Gustavus, to carry on the war, promising him the aid of the French armies. The war thus lost in large part its original character of a con- tention between the Catholic and Protestant princes of Germany, and became a political struggle between the House of Austria and the House of Bourbon, in which the former was fighting for existence, the latter for national aggrandizement. And so the miserable war went on year after year. It had become a heartless and conscienceless struggle for spoils. The Swedes fought to fasten their hold upon the mouths of the Ger- man rivers, the French to secure a grasp upon the Rhine lands. The earlier actors in the drama at length passed from the scene, but their parts were carried on by others. 433. The Peace of Westphalia (1648). — It was just before the death of RicheHeu, which occurred in 1642, that the first whisper- ings of peace were heard. Everybody was inexpressibly weary of the war and longed for the cessation of its horrors, yet each ruler and statesman wanted peace on terms advantageous to himself. The arrangement of the articles of peace was a matter of infinite difficulty, for the affairs and boundaries of the states of Central Europe were in almost hopeless confusion. To facilitate matters the commissioners were divided into two bodies, one holding its sessions at Osnabriick, and the other at Miinster, both Westphalian 392 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR cities. After four years of discussion and negotiation, the articles of the celebrated Peace of WestphaHa, as it is called, were signed by different European powers. The chief articles of this important peace may be made to" fall under two heads, — those relating to territorial boundaries, and those respecting religion. As to the first, these cut short in three directions the actual or nominal limits of the Holy Roman Empire. Switzerland and the United Netherlands were severed from it; for though both of these countries had been for a long time practically independent of the Empire, this independence had never been acknowledged in any formal way. The claim of France to the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine, which places she had held for about a century, was confirmed', and all Alsace, save the free city of Strasburg, was given to her. These Alsatian lands gave France a foothold on the Rhine and an open door into Germany, — a door which remained open until 187 1, when Germany, deter- mined to possess these valuable lands across her border, went to war against France, pushed her back from the river, and seized the coveted territory (sec. 714). Sweden, already a great maritime power, was given territories in North Germany — Western Pomerania and other lands — which greatly enhanced her influence by giving her command of the mouths of three important German rivers, — the Oder, the Elbe, and the Weser. But these lands were not given to the Swedish king in full sovereignty; they still remained a part of the Ger- manic body, and the king of Sweden through his relation to them became a prince of the Empire and entitled to a seat in the German Diet. The changes within the Empire were many, and some of them important. Brandenburg, the nucleus of a future great state, especially received considerable additions of territory. She got Eastern Pomerania, and also valuable ecclesiastical lands. The articles respecting religion were even more important than those which established the metes and bounds of the different states. CathoHcs, Lutherans, and Calvinists were all put upon the same footing. Every prince, with some reservations, was to have EFFECTS OF THE WAR UPON GERMANY 393 the right to make his religion the religion of his people, and to banish all who refused to adopt the established creed ; but such nonconformists were to have five years in which to emigrate. This arrangement was known as the princes' " Right of Reformation " and the subjects' " Right of Emigration." * The different states of the Empire — they numbered over four hundred, counting the free imperial cities — were left almost wholly independent of the imperial authority. They were given the right to enter into alliances with one another and with foreign princes, but not, of course, against the Emperor or the Empire. This provision made the Empire merely a loose confederation, and postponed to a distant future the nationalization of the German fatherland. Germany became what Italy had been, and still was, an open field in which any enemy might sow the dragon's teeth of discord and war. These were some of the most important provisions of the noted Peace of Westphalia. For more than two centuries they formed the fundamental law of Germany, and established a balance of power between the European states which, though it was disre- garded and disturbed by Louis XIV of France, was in general maintained until the great upheaval of the French Revolution. 434. Effects of the War upon Germany. — It is impossible to picture the wretched condition in which the Thirty Years' War left Germany. When the struggle began, the population of the country was thirty millions ; when it ended, twelve millions. Two thirds of the personal property had been destroyed. Many of the once large and flourishing cities were reduced to " mere shells." The Duchy of Wtirtemberg, which had half a million of inhabitants at the commencement of the war, at its close had barely fifty thou- sand. The once powerful Hanseatic League was virtually broken up. On every hand were the charred remains of the hovels of the peasants and the palaces of the nobility. Vast districts lay waste without an inhabitant. The very soil in many regions had reverted •* The history of the Palatinate illustrates the workings of this provision of the peace : in the space of sixty years the people of that principality were compelled by their successive rulers to change their religion four times. But this was an exceptional case. 394 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR to its primitive wildness. The lines of commerce were broken, and some trades and industries swept quite out of existence. The effects upon the fine arts, upon science, learning, and morals, were even more lamentable. Painting, sculpture, and architecture had perished. The cities which had been the home of all these arts lay in ruins. Poetry had ceased to be cultivated. Education was entirely neglected. For the lifetime of a generation, men had been engaged in the business of war, and had allowed their children to grow up in absolute ignorance. Moral law was forgot- ten. Vice, nourished by the licentious atmosphere of the camp, reigned supreme.^ Thus civilization in Germany, which had begun to develop with so much promise, received a check from which it did not begin to recover, so benumbed were the very senses of men, for a generation and more. 435. Conclusion. — The Peace of Westphalia is a prominent landmark in universal history. It stands at the dividing line of two great epochs. It marks the end of the Reformation period and the beginning of that of the Political Revolution. Henceforth, speaking broadly, men will fight for constitutions, not for creeds. We shall find them more intent on questions of civil government and of political rights than on questions of Church government and of religious dogmas. We shall not often see one nation attacking another, or one party in a nation assaulting another party, on account of a difference in religious opinion.^ But in setting the Peace of Westphalia to mark the end of the Era of the Reformation, we do not mean to convey the idea that men had come to embrace the beneficent doctrine of religious toleration. As a matter of fact, no real toleration had yet been reached, — nothing save the semblance of toleration. The long 5 Before the close of the war the number of camp followers on both sides had come to exceed that of the fighting men. When on the march the armies resembled the migratory hordes of Goths and Vandals that overran the Roman Empire. After the war the disbanded soldiers became thieves and brigands, and thousands were exe- • cuted. Germany was pestered by these marauding bands for a full century after the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia. 6 The Puritan Revolution in England may look like a religious war, but we shall learn that it was primarily a poUtical contest,— a struggle against despotism in the state. BIBLIOGRAPHY 395 conflict of a century and more, and the vicissitudes of fortune, which to-day gave one party the power of the persecutor and to-morrow made the same sect the victims of persecution, had simply forced all to the practical conclusion that they must toler- ate one another, — that one sect must not attempt to put another down by force. But it has required the broadening and liberaliz- ing lessons of the two centuries and over that have since passed to bring men to see, even in part, that the thing they must do is the very thing they ought to do, — to make men tolerant not only in outward conduct but in spirit. With this single word of caution we now pass to the study of the Era of the Political Revolution, a period characterized in particular by the growth of divine-right kingship and by the great struggle between despotic and liberal principles of government. Selections from the Sources. — The student will do well to begin his study of the Thirty Years' War by a careful reading of Historical Leaflets (Crozer Theological Seminary), No. 5, " The Peace of Augsburg." He will here learn how deep-seated and irreconcilable were the differences which divided the religious parties in Germany. Secondary Works. — Gi^T)¥.-ly, History of the Thirty Years' War. The best history for English readers. Chaps, x and xi of vol. ii, bearing upon the peace negotiations, are of special interest. Fletcher, Gustavus Adol- phus and the Struggle of Protestantism for Existence. Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War. Henderson, A Short History of Germany, vol. i, chaps, xvii and xviii. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chaps, xviii and xix. Fisher, History of the Reformation, chap, xv, summarizes from the Protestant side the results of the Reformation ; Balmes, European Civil- ization ; Protestantism and Catholicism compared, and Spaulding, The History of the Protestant Reformation, Parts I and II, contain discussions of the subject from the Catholic point of view. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Articles of the Peace of Augsburg, the violation of which caused trouble. 2. Outlawry of the free city of Donau- worth. 3. Wallenstein. 4. Tilly and the sack of Magdeburg. 5. Pictures of Germany at the end of the war. FOURTH PERIOD — THE ERA OF THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (From the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, to the Twentieth Century) I. THE AGE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY : THE .PRE- LUDE TO THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (1648-1789) CHAPTER XXVI INTRODUCTORY: THE DOCTRINE OF THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS AND THE MAXIMS OF THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 436. The Theory of the Divine Right of Kings. — Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was widely held a theory of government which during that period probably had as great an influence upon the historical development in Europe as the theory of the Empire and the Papacy exerted during the Middle Ages. This theory is known as the Divine Right of Kings.^ According to this theory, the nation is a great family with the king as its divinely appointed head. The duty of the king is to govern like a father; the duty of the people is to obey their king even as children obey their parents. If the king does wrong, is cruel, unjust, this is simply the misfortune of his people ; under no circumstances is it right for them to rebel against his authority, 1 It was in England and in France that the theory -was most logically developed, and it was in these countries that it exerted its greatest influence upon the political evolution. 396 THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS 397 any more than for children to rise against their father. The king is responsible to God alone, and to God the people, quietly sub- missive, must leave the avenging of all their wrongs. This conception of government is so different from our idea of it that it will be worth our while to listen to two of the ablest champions of the doctrine while they more fully expound it. According to the first of these the family is the germ and pro- totype of the state. " If we compare the natural rights of a father with those of a king," — it is the old English writer Filmer who speaks,^ — "we find them all one, without any difference at all but only in the latitude or extent of them : as the father over one family, so the king, as father over many families, extends his care to preserve, feed, clothe, instruct, and defend the whole commonwealth. His war, his peace, his courts of justice, and all his acts of sovereignty tend only to preserve and distribute to every subordinate and inferior father, and to their children, their rights and privileges, so that all the duties of a king are summed up in an universal fatherly care of his people." Heredity points out the legitimate king : " It is unnatural for the multitude to choose their governors, or to govern or to par- take in the government." The power of the hereditary king is absolute : " For as kingly power is by the law of God, so it hath no inferior law to limit it." The king can neither be corrected nor deposed by his subjects : " For, indeed, it is the rule of Solomon that ' We must keep the king's commandment,' and not say, 'What dost thou?' because * where the word of a king is there is power,' and all that he pleaseth he will do. . . . Not that it is right for kings to do injury, but it is right for them to go unpunished by the people if they do it. . . . It will be punishment sufficient for them to expect God as a revenger." ^ 2 In his Patriarcha. See Sources at end of chapter. 3 Filmer is here quoting the words of the celebrated English jurist Bracton (d. 1268). All that the people can do when the king misuses his authority is to peti- tion him " to amend his fault " — and " to pray to God." 398 DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP "Kings are the ministers of God" — it is the eloquent Bos- suet, the court chaplain of Louis XIV, who now speaks * — " and his vicegerents on the earth." " The throne of a king is not the throne of a man, but the throne of God himself. . . . The per- son of kings is sacred, and it is sacrilege to harm them." * "They are gods, and partake in some fashion of the divine independence." ® With Filmer, Bossuet maintains the subject's duty of passive obedience. He who does not obey his prince is worthy of death as the enemy of society. Rebellion against kings is sacrilege : "The holy anointment is on them and the high office they exer- cise in the name of God protects them from all insult." At first the upholders of this theory of the nature and powers of the kingly office were apt to seek support for it in biblical texts j but later its defenders came to rely more on pure argu- ment, as is illustrated by Filmer's syllogism : " What is natural to man exists by divine right; kingship is natural to man; there- fore, kingship exists by divine right." ^ Before the close of the period upon which we here enter, we shall see how this theory of the divine right of kings worked out in practice, — how dear it cost both kings and people, and how the people by the strong logic of revolution demonstrated that they have a divine and inalienable right to govern themselves.^ 437. History of the Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings. — This theory that kings rule by divine right has a history well * In his Politique tiree des fropres paroles de /' Ecriture Sainte (CEuvres com- pletes, vol. xxiii, Paris, 1875), p. 533. S Ibid., p. 534. 6 Ihid.., p. 559. See Psalms Ixxxii. 6. "^ See Figgis, The Theory of the Divine Right of Kings, p. 153. 8 There was much in the history of the Middle Ages to convince men that abso- lute monarchy, if not a divinely appointed form of government, was at least the best form. Every other form had been tried and found wanting, having issued either in tyranny or in anarchy. Witness the intolerable oppression of the aristocratic govern- ment of the feudal lords ; witness the tyranny of the theocratic government of the priesthood ; witness the turbulence of society under the democratic r6gime of the Italian cities. Peace and security within the state had been secured only through the growth of the royal power. Hence the political axiom of this age, an age just escaping from feudal anarchy, was that of the Homeric Greeks, — " The rule of many is not a good thing; let there be one leader only, one king." THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS 399 worth tracing. Among primitive peoples, like the early Greeks, we find the king ruHng by divine right, — by right of his descent from the gods. In Egypt the Pharaoh was regarded as partaking of the divine nature. In ancient Judea the king was the Lord's anointed, and ruled as his vicegerent on earth. In the days of the Roman emperors their subjects in the East were prone to regard the head of the Empire as set apart from ordinary men. They built temples in honor of " the divine Caesar." But to trace the origin of the doctrine as applied to kings of modern times, we need not go farther back than to the establish- ment of the mediaeval Papacy. The popes, as we have learned, ruled by what may be termed divine right. All acknowledged their office and authority to be of divine origin and appointment. But when the emperors of German origin got into controversy with the popes in regard to the relation of the imperial to the papal power, then it was that the supporters of the emperors framed the counter-theory of the divine origin of the imperial authority. Thus Dante in his De Monarchia argues for the supernatural character of the imperial power, and maintains that the Emperor rules as much by divine right as does the Pope. Then later in the fourteenth century, after the Empire had been practically destroyed by the Papacy and the kings had taken up the fight against the papal see, their supporters naturally began to preach the doctrine of the divine nature of the royal authority. This was the starting point of the theory in its modern form. When finally the Reformation came and with it even still keener strife between the lay rulers of the revolted nations and the Roman see, then the theory of the divine nature of the royal power received perforce a great expansion. For when the Pope excommunicated a heretic king and exhorted his subjects to take up arms against him, then the royalist writers and preachers pro- claimed more loudly than ever and with passiotiate fervor the doctrine of the divine right of princes and the wickedness of disobedience and rebellion. Fostered in this way, the doctrine of the sacred character of kingship and the virtue of passive obedience in the subject struck deep and firm root. 400 DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP 438. Character of the Absolute Sovereigns and their Relation to the Political Revolution. — What use did the kings make of the vast and unlimited authority with which the circumstances of history and the growth of political theory had invested them? As a class, they made a betrayal of the great trust. Too many of them acted upon the maxim of Louis XIV of France, — '' Self- aggrandizement is at once the noblest and the most agreeable occupation of kings." They seemed to think that their subjects were made for their use ; that the public strength and the public revenues might be freely used by them for the attainment of purely personal ends, the promotion of purely personal ambi- tions. War became a royal pastime. A great part of the bloody wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which centuries may be regarded as covering roughly the age of absolute mon- archy, were wars that originated in frivolous personal jealousies, in wicked royal ambitions, or in disputes respecting dynastic suc- cession. So generally did the wars of this period spring from ques- tions of the latter nature, that by some historians the age is called the Era of Dynastic Wars.® The teachings of the The Prince of Machiavelli ruled the period. Now, all this misuse of royal power, all these unholy wars with their trains of attendant evils, did much to discredit divine-right kingship and to bring in government by the people. " Bad kings help us," Emerson affirms, " if only they are bad enough." Many of the kings of this period were bad enough to be supremely helpful to us. It was during this age of the kings that the forces set loose by the Renaissance and the Reformation engendered the tempest which overwhelmed forever divine-right kingship and its gilded appendage of privileged aristocracy. 9 There is need of caution here, however. Not all the wars of this age were frivo- lous, artificial, or personal. There were, as we shall see, wars involving great issues and principles, — questions of systems of government and forms of civilization. The war in England between the ParUament and the king was the first act in the drama of the Political Revolution; and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a struggle involving as momentous questions as were ever arbitrated by the sword. Commercial and colonial interests too were coming to be more generally the concern of govern- ments, and some of the greatest wars of the eighteenth century had their origin in national jealousies touching trade and colonies. THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 401 439. The Enlightened Despots. — But not all the kings of this age were imbecile or wicked. There were among them many wise and benevolent rulers. Especially during the latter part of the eighteenth century did there appear monarchs known as the Enlightened Despots, who, under the influence of the teachings of French philosophy, came to entertain reasonable views of their duties and of their obligations to their subjects. These sovereigns did not give up the idea that unlimited mon- archy is the best form of government and that the people should have no part in public affairs. They sincerely believed that the power of the king should be unHmited, but they emphasized the doctrine that this power should be exercised solely in the interest of the people. The public revenues should be expended on public works, and public officials should be appointed solely on the ground of their ability and fitness. Thus the idea of the royal power being a trust, the royal office a stewardship, was made prominent. The king became the servant of his people. The great place which the rulers of this disposition held in the history of the century immediately preceding the French Revo- lution is indicated by these words of the historian Professor H. Morse Stephens : " The most characteristic feature in government of the eighteenth century," he says, "was the existence and the work of the enlightened despots." Most prominent among the sovereigns deemed worthy a place among the enlightened despots are Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Joseph II of Austria. Con- cerning them and their work we shall have something to say in following chapters. It will suffice here if we simply observe that the issue of this great experiment in government illustrated anew what had been demonstrated by the rule of the Tyrants in the cities of ancient Greece, and by that of the Caesars at Rome, — namely, that absolute power cannot safely be lodged in the hands of a single person. It is certain sooner or later to be misused. As it has been well put, absolute power in a single person is a good thing when joined with perfect wisdom and perfect good- ness. But unfortunately these qualifications of the ideal autocrat 402 DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP are seldom found united in the same individual, and still less seldom are they transmitted from father to son. It is at just this point that absolute hereditary monarchy, as a practical form of government, breaks down beyond hope and without remedy. Selections from the Sources. — Filmer, Patriarcha. This work, which was first published in 1680, is the classical English treatise in exposition and defense of divine-right kingship. For a short selection from King James, Law of Free Monarchies, see Lee, Source-Book, pp. 337, 338. Secondary Works. — Figgis, The Theory of the Divine Right of Kings. An able and interesting discussion of the subject. The book has a good bibliography. Gairdner and Spedding, Studies in English History ; con- tains a valuable essay entitled, "The Divine Right of Kings: History of the Doctrine." This essay is a reprint of an article by Dr. Gairdner in The Contemporary Review for September, 1869. Stephens, Syllabus of Lectures on Modern European History, Lect. li, " The Enlightened Despots " ; sug- gests important viewpoints. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The deification of the Roman emperors. 2. Dante's argument in his De Monarchia for the supernatural character of the imperial office. 3. The reforms of the enlightened despots. See Stephens. CHAPTER XXVII THE ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV (1643-1715) 440. Louis XIV as the Typical Divine-Right King. — Louis XIV of France stands as the representative of divine-right monarchy. He shall himself expound to us his conception of government.^ These are his words: "To attribute to subjects the right of forming resolutions and of giving commands to their sovereign is to pervert the true order of things. It is to the head alone that pertains the right to deliberate and to resolve upon; the whole duty of subjects consists in the carrying into eifect of the commands given them." ^ " Kings are absolute lords ; to them belongs naturally the full and free disposal of all the property of their subjects, whether they be churchmen or laymen." ^ " For subjects to rise against their prince, however wicked and oppres- sive he may be, is always infinitely criminal. God, who has given kings to men, has willed that they should be revered as his lieu- tenants, and has reserved to Himself alone the right to review their conduct. His will is that he who is born a subject should obey without question." * The doctrine here set forth Louis is said to have expressed in this terser form : BE tat c'est mot, " I am the State." He may 1 It should be noted that Louis' subjects, at least the great majority of them, also believed in government by one, — and not without reason. They had had sorry experi- ence with government by many, under the regime of the nobles. Of government by all, by themselves, it was not possible for them to have any clear conception, if any conception at all. It needed a hundred years and more of autocratic misrule and oppression to call into existence that revolutionary idea. 2 (Euvres de Louis XIV (Paris, 1806), tome ii, p. 26. 3 Ibid., p. 121. Louis adds, however, that what kings take from their subjects they should use as wise stewards, — that is to say, for the promotion of the public welfare. 4 Ibid., p. 336. 403 404 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV never have uttered these exact words, but the famous epigram at least embodies perfectly his ideas of kingship. In his own view he was by divine commission the sole legislator, judge, and execu- tive of the French nation. This theory of government thus expounded by Louis was in- deed, as we have seen, no novel doctrine to the Europe of the seventeenth century; but Louis was such an ideal autocrat that somehow he made autocratic government attractive. Other rulers imitated him, and it became the prevailing theory that kings have a "divine right" to rule, and that the people should have no part at all in government. 441. The Administration of Mazarin (1643— 1661). — The reli- gious war in Germany was still in progress when, in 1643, Louis XIII died, leaving the vast authority which his great minister Cardinal Richelieu had done so much to consoHdate, as an inher- itance to his little son Louis, a child of five years. During the prince's minority the government was in the hands of his mother, Anne of Austria, as regent. She chose as her chief minister an Italian ecclesiastic, Cardinal Mazarin, who in his administration of affairs followed in the footsteps of his prede- cessor, Richelieu, carrying out with great abihty the comprehen- sive policy of that minister. France was encouraged to maintain her part — and a very glorious part it was, as war goes — in the Thirty Years' War until Austria was completely exhausted and all Germany indeed almost ruined. Even after the Peace of West- phaha, which simply concluded the war in Germany, France carried on the war with Spain for ten years longer, until 1659, when the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which gave the French the two provinces of Roussillon and Artois, together with a part of Flan- ders, asserted the triumph of France over Spain. RicheUeu's policy had at last, though at terrible cost to France,^ been 5 The heavy taxes laid to meet the expenses of the wars created great discontent, which during the struggle with Spain led to a series of conspiracies or revolts against the government, known as the Wars of the Fronde (1648-1652). This was a dying effort on the part of the nobles, the hereditary magistrates, and the middle classes to curb the growing power of the crown. The movement lacked seriousness and true leadership, and resulted only in making more oppressive the absolutism against which it was directed. LOUIS XIV ASSUMES THE GOVERNMENT 405 "'/'/yy, / crowned with success. The House of Austria in both its branches had been humihated and crippled, and the House of Bourbon was ready to assume the lead in European affairs. 442. Louis XIV assumes the Government. — Cardinal Mazarin died in 1661. Upon this event Louis, who was now twenty- three years of age, called together the heads of the various departments of the government, and, directing his words to the Chancellor, said : " I have summoned you with my ministers and secretaries of state, to tell you that it has pleased me hitherto to leave my affairs in the hands of the late cardinal; in the future I shall attend to them myself. You will give me your counsel when I ask for it." He then charged the Chancellor not to set seal to any document without his express orders ; and warned the secretaries not to sign any paper, not even a pass- port, without his express commands. From this time on for more than half a century Louis was his own prime minister. He gave personal attention to every matter, even the most trivial. Prob- FiG. 75.— Louis XIV. (After a paint- ing by Philippe de Champagne) ably no wearer of a crown, Philip II of Spain possibly excepted, ever worked harder at "the trade of a king," as he himself desig- nated his employment. He had able men about him, but they planned and worked — and sometimes chafed — under his minute directions and tireless superintendence. 443. Louis' Chief Aims; ^ The history of Louis' long reign will present coherence and unity only as we fix clearly in view the 4o6 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV ends towards which his efforts were mainly directed. His first aim was to make himself absolute master in his own kingdom. In his " Instructions to the Dauphin " he says, " The necessary basis of all other reforms was the rendering of my own will absolute." This basis was well laid. Under Louis there was but one will in France, — the will of the king. The nobility, the States-General, all local authorities, the Parliament of Paris,^ the Church, — all these classes and bodies were shorn of the last remnants of polit- ical influence and power and rendered servilely submissive to the crown. Louis' second aim was to secure for France the headship of Europe, — to transfer European leadership and the imperial crown itself from the House of Hapsburg to the House of Bourbon. We shall see in how many sanguinary wars Louis involved almost all Europe in his efforts to realize this object of his ambition. 444. Colbert. — Mazarin is reported to have said to Louis when dying, " Sire, I owe everything to you ; but I pay my debt to your majesty by giving you Colbert." During the first ten or twelve years of Louis' personal reign this extraordinary man in- spired and directed almost everything ; but he carefully avoided the appearance of doing so. His maxim seemed to be. Mine the labor, thine the praise. He did for the domestic affairs of France what Richelieu had done for the foreign. So long as Louis followed the policy of Colbert, he gave France a truly glorious reign; but unfortunately he soon turned aside from the great minister's policy of peace, to seek glory for him- self and greatness for France through new and unjust encroach- ments upon neighboring nations. 445. The Wars of Louis XIV. — During the period of his per- sonal administration of the government, Louis XIV was engaged 6 This was a French court of justice which attempted to assume political func- tions, — which sometimes seemed to aspire to become for France what the English Parliament was for England. One of its duties was to register the royal edicts, which were given validity only by such registration. Sometimes the court hesitated to register the king's decrees, and made remonstrances. Louis ordained that the court should register all decrees without delay. It might make remonstrances afterwards. The court was forced to bow to the royal will. ^"W^; \1. ( ^ Y '^■^y •3'- ■»SSsf ^i^^/ t J~7!\ .U>^ ^'r°!t? f-'.^r^ ^ WAR OF THE SPANISH NETHERLANDS 407 in four great wars : (i) a war respecting the Spanish Netherlands (1667-1668); (2) a war with the Protestant Netherlands (1672- 1678); (3) the War of the Palatinate, or of the League of Augs- burg (i 688-1697); and (4) the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). All these wars were, on the part of the French monarch, wars of conquest and aggression, or wars provoked by his ambitious and encroaching policy. The most inveterate enemy of Louis during all this period was the Dutch Republic, the repre- sentative and champion of liberty. 446. The War concerning the Spanish Netherlands (1667- 1668). — Upon the death in 1665 of Philip IV of Spain, Louis laid claim, in the name of his wife,'' to portions of the Spanish Netherlands and led an army into the country. The Hollanders were naturally alarmed, fearing that Louis would also want to annex their country to his dominions. Accordingly they effected what was called the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden, checked the French king in his career of conquest, and, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, forced him to give up much of the territory he had seized. He retained, however, a number of Flemish towns along the French frontier, which he made by extensive fortifications, planned by his celebrated military engineer Vauban, the strong outposts of his kingdom in that direction. 447. The War with the Protestant Netherlands (167 2-1 678). — The second war of the French king was against the United Netherlands. His attack upon this little state was prompted by a variety of motives. In the first place, the Hollanders' interven- tion in the preceding war had stirred his resentment. Then these Dutchmen represented everything to which he was opposed, — self-government, Protestantism, and free thought. Before entering upon the undertaking which had proved too great for PhiHp II with the resources of two worlds at his com- mand, Louis, by means of bribes and the employment of that skillful diplomacy of which he was so perfect a master, prudently 7 Maria Theresa, the only child of Philip IV by his first marriage. At the time of her betrothal to Louis she had renounced all her rights in the Netherlands, but since a promised dowry had never been paid, Louis argued that this renunciation was void 4o8 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV drew away from the side of Holland both her alhes (Sweden and England), even inducing the English king, Charles II, to lend him active assistance. Money also secured the aid of several of the princes of Germany. Thus the little commonwealth was left alone to contend against fearful odds. The stubborn resistance offered the invading French armies by the Hollanders in their half-drowned land, — with the French threatening Amsterdam, the dikes had been cut, — the havoc wrought by the stout Dutch sailors among the fleets of the allies, and the diplomacy of the Dutch statesmen, who through skillful negotiations detached almost all the allies of the French' from that side and brought them into alliance with the Republic, — all these things soon put a very different face upon affairs, and Louis found himself confronted by the armies of half of Europe. For several years the war was now waged on land and sea, — in the Netherlands, all along the Rhine, upon the English Chan- nel, in the Mediterranean, and on the coasts of the New World. Finally, an end was put to the struggle by the Peace of Nimeguen (1678). Louis gave up his conquests in Holland, but kept a large number of towns and fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, be- sides the free county of Burgundy (Franche-Comte), on his east- ern frontier. Thus Louis came out of this tremendous struggle, in which half of Europe was leagued against him, with enhanced reputa- tion and fresh acquisitions of territory. People began to call him the ''Grand Monarch"; we shall see directly by what acts he justified their judgment in conferring upon him this title. 448. Louis seizes the City of Strasburg (1681). — Ten years of comparative peace now followed for Western Europe. Among the many indefensible acts of Louis during this period there were two which deserve special notice, since, while marking the culmination of Louis' power and illustrating his arrogant and unjust use of that power, they also mark the turning point in his fortunes. The first of these was the seizure of the free city of Strasburg and a score of other important places on the left bank of the REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES 409 Rhine belonging to the Empire. "Gold, intrigue, and terror" opened the gates of all these cities to him.^ Strasburg was of supreme military importance to Louis on account of her strong fortifications, which rendered her mistress of the Rhine. The audacity of Louis' procedure so dazed every one that no effective protest was made. Besides, at just this time the Em- peror was preoccupied with the Turks. In 1683 they laid siege to Vienna. All Christendom awaited anxiously the outcome. Fortu- nately the siege was raised by the celebrated Polish king, John Sobieski^ and the House of Austria was saved. But the Turks continued to threaten the eastern territories of Austria, so that it was impossible for the Emperor to intervene in any effective way to prevent Louis from consummating his schemes for the absorp- tion of the Rhenish lands which he needed to round out his dominions in that quarter. 449. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). — The second act to which we refer — an act the injustice of which was only equaled by its folly — was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the gracious decree by which Henry IV guaranteed religious freedom to the French Protestants (sec. 423). Louis' motives in persecuting his Protestant subjects were essentially the same as those which had led Philip III of Spain to expel from his dominions his Morisco subjects. He believed the extirpation of heresy to be a service pleasing to God, and he coveted the honor of rooting it out of France. The revocation of the edict was not the result of a sudden resolve. Almost from the beginning of his personal rule Louis had shown a persecuting spirit. He had placed unfair con- struction upon the clauses of the edict and had subjected the Huguenots to many annoying restrictions. Since 1683 he had harassed them by a device known as the " Dragonnades," from the circumstance that dragoons were quartered upon the Prot- estant famihes, with full permission to annoy and persecute them in every way " short of violation and death," to the end that the 8 To lend a color of legality to his acts, Louis, before making these seizures, had had his claims to them passed upon by courts known as " Chambers of Reunion." 4IO FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV victims of these outrages might be constrained to recant, which multitudes did. The fateful royal decree revoking the edict of toleration was issued in 1685. By this cruel measure all the Protestant churches were closed, and every Huguenot who refused to embrace the Catholic faith was outlawed. The ministers of the heretical sect were expelled from the kingdom ; laymen, on the other hand, were forbidden to leave the country. Any one attempting to do so, if apprehended, was to be sent to the galleys for life. Disregarding the royal prohibition and evading the vigilance of the police, great numbers of the persecuted Huguenots made their way out of the country. It is estimated that before the end of the seventeenth century Louis had lost as many as three hundred thou- sand of the most skillful and industrious of his subjects. The effects upon France of the exodus were most disastrous. Several of the most important and flourishing of the French indus- tries were ruined, while the manufacturing interests of other coun- tries, particularly those of the Protestant Netherlands, England, and Brandenburg, were correspondingly benefited by the energy, skill, and capital which the exiles carried to them. Many of the fugitive Huguenots ultimately found new homes in remote South Africa, and their descendants contributed greatly to the strength of the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Many others sought refuge in America; and no other class of emigrants, save the Puritans of England, cast Such healthful leaven 'mid the elements That peopled the new world.^ 450. The War of the Palatinate, or of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697). — The indirect results of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes were quite as calamitous to France as were the direct results. The indignation that the measure awakened among the Protestant nations contributed to enable William of Orange to organize a formidable confederacy against Louis, known as the League of Augsburg (1686). 9 See Baird, History of the Huguenot Emigration to America, WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 411 Louis resolved to attack the confederates. Seeking a pretext for beginning hostilities, he laid claim, on the part of his sister-in-law, to properties in the Palatinate, and hurried a large army into the country, which was quickly overrun. But being unable to hold the conquests he had made, Louis ordered that the country be laid waste. Among the places reduced to ruins were the historic towns of Heidelberg, Spires, and Worms. Even fruit trees, vines, and crops were destroyed. Upwards of a hundred thousand peas- ants were rendered homeless. Another and more formidable coalition, known as the Grand Alliance, was now formed against Louis (1689). It embraced England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, Savoy, the Emperor, the Elec- tor Palatine, and the Electors of Bavaria and Saxony. For ten years almost all Europe was a great battlefield. It was very much such a struggle as that waged a century later by the allied monarchies of Europe against Napoleon, when they fought for the independence of the continent. Both sides at length becoming weary of the contest and almost exhausted in resources, the struggle was closed by the Peace of Ryswick (1697). There was a mutual surrender of conquests made during the course of the war, and Louis had also to give up many of the places he had seized before the beginning of the conflict. He managed, however, to retain, along with some other places, the important city of Strasburg. 451. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). — Barely three years had passed after the Peace of Ryswick before the great powers of Europe were involved in another war, knowii as the War of the Spanish Succession. The proximate circumstances out of which the' war grew were these. In 1 700 the king of Spain, Charles II, the last male descend- ant in Spain of the great Emperor Charles V, died, leaving his crown — the disposition of which had been made a matter of end- less discussion and infinite intrigue, for Charles was childless — to Philip, Duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. The duke, a mere lad of seventeen years, assumed the bequeathed crown with the title of Philip V, and thus became the founder of the 412 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV Bourbon dynasty in Spain. "There are no longer any Pyrenees," is the way in which Louis is reported to have expressed his exul- tation over this virtual union of France and Spain. France, through Spanish favor, might also now easily become supreme in~the colonial world and realize her dream of a great colonial empire. The common danger led to the forming of a sec- ond Grand Alliance ^° against France, a main object of which was to eject Philip from the Spanish throne and to seat thereon the Archduke Charles of Austria, the second son of the Emperor Leopold I.^^ The two greatest generals of the allies were the Duke of Marlborough (John Churchill), the ablest commander, except Wellington perhaps, that England has ever produced, and Prince Eugene of Savoy, who was in the imperial service. For thirteen years all Europe was shaken with war. During the progress of the struggle were fought some of the most memor- able battles in European history, — Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, — in all of which the genius of Marlborough and the consummate skill of Prince Eugene won splendid victories for the alHes. In the year 17 ii, a vacancy ha^dng occurred in the imperial office, the Archduke Charles was elected Emperor. This changed the whole aspect of the Spanish question, for now to place Charles upon the Spanish throne would be to give him a dangerous pre- ponderance of power ; would be, in fact, to reestablish the great Fig. 76. — Duke of Marl- borough. (After a painting by F. Kneller) 10 The alliance embraced at first England, the Protestant Netherlands, Austria, and other German states, and later was joined by Portugal and Savoy. 11 It was not, however, until the second year of the alliance that the powers form- ally acknowledged the archduke as king of Spain. NEW FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV 413 monarchy of Charles V. Consequently the Grand Alliance, already weakened from other causes, fell to pieces, and the war was ended by the treaties of Utrecht (17 13) and Rastadt (17 14). By the provisions of these treaties the Bourbon prince, Philip of Anjou, was left upon the Spanish throne, but on the condition that there should never be a union of the French and Spanish crowns upon the same head. His dominions also were pared away on every side. Gibraltar and the island of Minorca were ceded to England ; Milan, Naples, the island of Sardinia, and the Catholic Netherlands were given to Austria; and Sicily to the Duke of Savoy. Spain was thus shorn of nearly half her territories in Europe. France also suffered in her colonial possessions and claims, being forced to cede Nova Scotia (Acadia) to England and to admit her sovereignty over Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay Territory.12 452. New France under Louis XIV In examining the main articles of the treaties which closed the War of the Spanish Suc- cession, one cannot fail to be impressed by the revelation of how decisively the New World was at that time beginning to react upon the Old. Indeed, from the opening of the eighteenth cen- tury forward the affairs of America were destined to become con- stantly more and more closely intertwined with those of Europe, so much so as regards France and England that their respective histories in the eighteenth century can be read aright only in the light of these new relations. We shall therefore do well if we here turn our eyes from following the course of events in Europe and cast a glance upon the situation of things in the New World. Louis had dreams of a splendid French empire beyond the seas. With such paternal solicitude did he watch over the growth of the French transatlantic settlements that he earned the title of " Father of New France." -^^ Year after year shiploads of emigrants were 12 For the celebrated clause concerning the " Assiento," see sec. 531. 13 Asia was not forgotten. The French established themselves at Surat, in India, in 1667, and at Pondicherry in 1672. To encourage the nobles to engage in colonial trade, Louis issued an edict ordaining that it should not be regarded as " derogatory to the nobility to take part in commerce with the Indies." 414 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV sent out at the expense of the crown. The population along the St. Lawrence thickened slowly yet steadily, and a chain of forts and settlements was formed stretching from the Great Lakes along the Ohio and the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. But several things intervened to prevent Louis from becoming the maker of a great and permanent French empire in America. In the first place, he subordinated these over-the-sea interests to his ambitious European policy. Hence the resources which should have been used in fostering colonial enterprises were wasted in unjust and comparatively fruitless wars at home. In the second place, the French colony in Canada never grew and gained in strength in the way that the English settlements did, because the French settlers never breathed the air of liberty. They were allowed no initiative; everything was planned and executed for them. They were treated like children. This pater- nalism smothered all worthy individual aspiration and enterprise. In the third place, the unfortunate bigotry of Louis and of his advisers stood in the way of the success of the undertaking. The colony was closed against all save Catholic immigrants. This was a suicidal policy. Had the French territories, like the English colonies, been open to religious dissenters. New France would doubtless have received a large and steady stream of Huguenot emigrants, and therewith such an accession of strength as might possibly have given a wholly different issue to the great struggle which, soon after Louis had passed from the stage, began between the English and the French for supremacy in America. 453. Death of the King (17 15). — It was amidst troubles, per- plexities, and afflictions that Louis XIV's long and eventful reign drew to a close. The heavy and constant taxes necessary to meet the expenses of his numerous wars, to maintain an extravagant court, and to furnish means for the erection of costly buildings, had bankrupted the country, and the cries of his wretched sub- jects, clamoring for bread, could not be shut out of the royal chamber. Death, too, had invaded the palace, striking down the Dauphin and also two grandsons of Louis, leaving as the nearest heir to the throne his great-grandson, a mere child. On the THE COURT OF LOUIS XIV 415 morning of Sept. i, 1 715, the Grand Monarch breathed his last, bequeathing to this boy of five years a kingdom overwhelmed with debt, and filled with misery, with threatening vices, and dangerous discontent. He seemed at the last moment to be sensible of the mistakes and faults of his reign, for his dying charge to the little prince who was to succeed him was as follows : " Do not follow the bad example which I have set you. I have undertaken war too lightly, and have continued it from vanity. Do not imitate me, but be a pacific prince, and let your chief occupation be to relieve your subjects." The tidings of the king's death, instead of being received by his subjects with tears, was received throughout France with an outburst of rejoicing. A satirist of the time declared that " the people had shed too many tears during his life to have any left for his death." 454. The Court of Louis XIV. — The court of the Grand Mon- arch was the most extravagantly magnificent that Europe has ever seen. Never since Nero spread his Golden House over the burnt district of Rome and ensconcing himself amid its luxurious appointments exclaimed, " Now I am housed as a man ought to be," had prince or king so ostentatiously lavished upon himself the wealth of an empire. Louis had half a dozen palaces, the most costly of which was that at Versailles. Here he created, in what was originally a desert, a beautiful miniature universe of which he was the center, the resplendent sun — he chose the sun as his emblem — around which all revolved and from which all received light and life. Upon the central building and its adjuncts he spent fabulous sums, — what would probably be equal to more than a hundred million dollars with us. Here were gathered the beauty, wit, and learning of France. The royal household numbered over fifteen thousand persons, all living in costly and luxurious idleness at the expense of the people. One element of this enormous family was the great lords of the old feudal aristocracy. Dispossessed of their ancient power and wealth, they were content now to fill a place in the royal house- hold, — to be the king's pensioners and the elegant embellishment 4i6 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV of his court. "A military staff on a furlough for a century or more, around a commander-in-chief who gives fashionable enter- tainments, is," says Taine, " the principle and summary of the habits of society under the ancient regime." As can easily be imagined, the court life of this period was shame- fully corrupt. Vice, however, was gilded. The most scandalous immoralities were made attractive by the glitter of superficial accomplishment and by exquisite suavity Fig. 77. — View of Versailles. (From a photograph) and polish of manner. But, notwithstanding its insincerity and immorality, the brilliancy of the court of Louis dazzled all Europe. The neighboring courts imitated its manners and emulated its extravagances. In all matters of taste and fashion France gave laws to the continent, and the French language became the court language of the civiUzed world. 455. Literature under Louis XIV. — Although Louis himself was not much of a scholar, he gave a most liberal encouragement to men of letters, thereby making his reign the Augustan Age of French literature. In this patronage Louis was not unselfish. He honored and befriended poets and writers of every class, because thus he extended the reputation of his court. These writers, pen- sioners of his bounty, filled all Europe with praises of the great king, and thus made the most ample and grateful return to Louis for his favor and liberality. FRENCH LITERATURE 417 Almost every species of literature was cultivated by the French writers of this era, yet it was in the province of the drama that the most eminent names appeared. The three great names here are those of Corneille (i 606-1684), Racine (i 639-1 699), and Mohere (162 2-1 673). Corneille and Racine were writers of tragedy ; Moliere was a writer of comedy. Corneille is called the " Father of French Tragedy." ^* 456. Relation of the Reign of Louis XIV to the Revolution of 1789. — "If it be asked," says the historian Von Hoist, "who did the most towards the destruction of the ancient regime, the correct answer is, beyond all question, Louis XIV, its greatest representative." Louis discredited absolute monarchy by his shameful misuse of his unlimited power. His many wars and his extravagant expenditures on an idle and profligate court weighed France down with crushing and intolerable burdens. It was the vast mass of misery and suffering created by his acting on the monstrous doctrine that " the many are made for the use of one," that did much to prepare the minds and hearts of the French people for the great Revolution. 457. Decline of the French Monarchy under Louis XV (1715- 1774). — The supremacy of the House of Bourbon passed away forever with Louis XIV. In passing from the reign of the Grand Monarch to that of his successor, we pass from the strongest and outwardly most briUiant reign in French history to the weakest and most humiliating. Louis XV was a despot without possess- ing any of the possible virtues of a despot. During his reign the French nation made a swift descent towards the abyss of the Revolution of 1789. 14 Among other world-renowned French writers, philosophers, prelates, and orators who adorned the age of Louis XIV were Descartes (1596-1650), the father of modern philosophy; Pascal (1623-1662), the prodigy in mathematics and the author of the i^^moxis Provincial Letters ; La Bruyere (1645-1696), noveUst and unrivaled depicter of character and manners ; Madame de Sevigne (1626-1696), the brilliant letter writer, whose correspondence forms to-day a prized portion of French Hterature and con- stitutes a treasure of information for the court historian; Bossuet (1627-1704), the eloquent court preacher and champion of divine-right kingship ; and F^nelon (1651- 171 5), the distinguished prelate and author of The Adventures of Telemachus, a dis- guised satire on the reign of Louis XIV. 4l8 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV For the first eight years of the reign affairs were in the hands of the Duke of Orleans, who was regent during the king's minor- ity. He was a corrupt man, a man absolutely shameless in his vices. Probably Rome in the days of the worst Caesars witnessed nothing in the way of reckless and riotous living to surpass what France witnessed under what is known as the Regency. A celebrated episode of this period was the financial experi- ment of John Law, a Scotchman who had gained the ear of the regent. His system involved the creation of a bank and the for- mation of a gigantic trading association known as the Mississippi Company. The government lent its credit to the bank, and granted the company for settlement the territory of Louisiana, the vast indefinite region in North America opened up to French enterprise by the explorations of La Salle. France now went wild in a fever of speculation. Rumors were spread abroad of the dis- covery of mountains of gold and precious stones in the territories of the company. The shares of the association rose by leaps and bounds to fabulous prices. The end was soon reached. The inflated scheme, which was to make everybody " rich and happy," collapsed, spreading broadcast bankruptcy and financial ruin, and passed into history as "The Mississippi Bubble." In 1723 the prince's minority ended and he assumed the gov- ernment. The atmosphere in which he had been brought up had wholly corrupted a nature seemingly prone to evil. He was com- pletely under the influence of his mistresses, of whom the most notorious was Madame de Pompadour. The loves, the hates, and the caprices of this woman were for nineteen years a chief factor in the decision of the weightiest matters of war and of peace. The highest appointments in the army and the navy were dictated by her. For a long series of years she was practically the prime minister of France. The conditions surrounding the throne being of this nature, it is not surprising that under Louis XV the influence, power, and prestige of France sensibly declined. She took part, indeed, but usually with injury to her mihtary reputation, in all the wars of this period. The most important of these for France was the BIBLIOGRAPHY 419 Seven Years' War (175 6-1 763), known in America as the French and Indian War, which resulted in the loss to France of Canada in the New World and of her Indian empire in the Old. Though thus shorn of her colonial possessions, France managed to hold in Europe the provinces won for her by the wars and diplomacy of Louis XIV, and even made some fresh acquisitions of territory along the Rhenish frontier, besides gaining the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean, the birthplace of one who was soon to have much to do in shaping the destinies of France. But, taken all together, the period was one of great national humiHation : the French fleet was almost driven from the sea ; the martial spirit of the nation visibly declined; and France, from being the foremost of the states of Europe, became the least among the great powers. Selections from the Sources. — Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon (trans, by Bayle St. John). Nowhere else can be found so lively and enter- taining an account of life at court under Louis XIV and the Regency as here. For glimpses of other sides of the life of the times read the Letters of Madame de Sevigne, accessible in different editions. These delightful letters cover the last half of the seventeenth century. Secondary Works. — For a comprehensive view^ of this period there is nothing superior to The Age of Louis Jf//^and The Decline of the French Monarchy, — translations by Mary L. Booth of the corresponding parts of Henri Martin's Histoire de France. Wakeman, Europe, i^gS-iji^, chaps, vi, vii, and ix-xv. ^^^^(ZYLYH, A History of France,vo\.\\\. Hassall, The French People, chaps, xii-xiv ; and Louis XIV and the Zenith of the French Monarchy. Perkins, France under Mazarin, vol. iij France under the Regency ; and France under Louis XV. These are all scholarly works of marked merit. Williams, Madame de Pompadour. For the history of the French in America during the age of Louis XIV, the reader will have recourse to FiSKE, New England and New France, chap, iv ; and to Parkman, Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The Parliament of Paris. 2. Colbert. 3. The harrowing of the Palatinate by Louis. 4. New France under Louis XIV. 5. The Palace at Versailles. 6. Life at the court. 7. Moliere, 8. The Mississippi Bubble, CHAPTER XXVIII THE STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION (1603-1689) I. The First Two Stuarts Reign of James the First {1603—162^) 458. James* Conception of Kingship. — With the end of the Tudor line (sec. 393), James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, came to the Enghsh throne as James I of England. The acces- sion of the House of Stuart brought England and Scotland under the same sovereignty, though each country stiU retained its own legislature. James, like the other Stuarts who followed him on the English throne, was a firm believer in the doctrine of the di\dne right of kings. He held that hereditary princes are the Lord's anointed, and that their authority can in no way be questioned or limited by people, priest, or Parhament. These are his own words : " It is atheism and blasphemy to dispute what God can do : good Christians content themselves with His will revealed in His word ; so it is presumption and high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can do, or say that a king cannot do this or that." -^ A strong support for this Stuart conception of the unlimited authority of kings was found in French theory and practice. The Stuarts were related to the French family of the Guises. They were in sympathy ^vith French modes of thought. Further, Charles I had for wife a French princess, Henrietta Maria. These affiliations with France naturally brought the Stuarts under French influence. They imitated the Bourbons. They quoted them constantly, and 1 From the king's speech in the Star Chamber, 1616. 420 THE GUNPOWDER PLOT 421 Strove to make the government of England like that of France, an absolute monarchy.^ But the Commons of the English Parliament, and probably the majority of the EngHsh people, differed with their Stuart kings in their views concerning the nature of government, and particularly concerning the nature of the English government. In this difference of views lay hidden, as we shall learn, the germs of the Civil War and of all that grew out of it, — the Common- wealth, the Protectorate, and the Revolution of 1689. 459. The Gunpowder Plot (1605). — In the second year of James' reign was unearthed an extraordinary plot to blow up with gunpowder the Parliament building, upon the opening day of the session of the Houses, when king. Lords, and Commons would all be present, and thus to destroy at a single blow every branch of the government. This conspiracy, known as the Gunpowder Plot, was entered into by some Catholics because they were disappointed in the course which the king and the Parliament had taken as regards their rehgion.^ The leader of the conspiracy, Guy Fawkes, was arrested, and after being put to the rack was executed. His chief accomplices were also seized and punished. The alarm created by the terrible plot led Parhament to enact some very severe laws against the Catholics. 460. Contest between James and the Commons ; " the Sovereign King and the Sovereign People." — It has been seen what ideas James entertained of the kingly office. Such a view of royal authority and privileges was sure to bring him into conflict with Parliament, especially with the House of Commons. He was con- stantly dissolving Parliament and sending the members home, because they insisted upon considering subjects which he had told them they should let alone. An incident vividly lights up the situation. A committee from the Commons was about to wait upon the king. " Place twelve 2 For the popular superstition of the « Royal Touch " and its bearing upon the matter discussed in this section, see Lecky, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century, vol. i, chap, i. 3 Though son of the Catholic Mary Stuart, James had been educated as a Protestant. 422 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION armchairs," said James to his attendants ; "I am going to receive twelve kings." What the king said in bitter irony was the simple truth. James, when he met the committee from the Commons, met men who were as sure that they had a divine right to rule England as he was that he had a divine commission to that same end. As the historian Guizot tersely expresses it, " Both king and people thought as sovereigns." Here were the conditions of an irrepressible conflict. The chief matters of dispute between the king and the Com- mons were the limits of the authority of the former in matters touching legislation and taxation, and the nature and extent of the privileges and jurisdiction of the latter. As to the limits of the royal powder, James talked and acted as though his prerogatives were practically unbounded. He issued proclamations which in their scope were really laws, and then enforced these royal edicts by fines and imprisonment as though they were regular statutes of Parliament. Moreover, taking advan- tage of some uncertainty in the law as regards the power of the king to collect customs at the ports of the realm, he laid new and unusual duties upon imports and exports. James' judges were servile enough to sustain him in this course, some of them going so far as to say in effect that " the seaports are the king's gates, which he may open and shut to whom he pleases." As to the privileges of the Commons, that body insisted, among other things, upon their right to determine all cases of contested election of their members, and to debate freely all questions con- cerning the common weal, without being liable to prosecution or imprisonment for words spoken in the House. James denied that these privileges were matters of right pertaining to the Commons, and repeatedly intimated to them that it was only through his own gracious permission and the favor of his ancestors that they were allowed to exercise these liberties at all, and that if their conduct was not more circumspect and reverential he should take away their privileges entirely. On one occasion, the Commons having ventured in debate upon certain- matters of state which the king had forbidden them to COLONIES AND TRADE SETTLEMENTS 423 meddle with, he, in reproving them, made a more express denial than ever of their rights and privileges, which caused them, in a burst of noble indigilation, to spread upon their journal a brave protest, known as "The Great Protestation," which declared that "the liberties, franchises, privileges, and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and urgent affairs con- cerning the king, state, and defense of the realm and the Church of England . . . are proper subjects and matter of council and debate in Parliament" (162 1). When intelligence of this action was carried to the king, he angrily adjourned Parliament, sent for the journal of the House, and with his own hands struck out the obnoxious resolution. Then he dissolved Parliament, and even went so far as to imprison several of the members of the Commons. In these high-handed measures we get a glimpse of the Stuart theory of government, and see the way paved for the final break between king and people in the following reign. 461. Colonies and Trade Settlements. — The reign of James I is signalized by the commencement of that system of colonization which has resulted in the establishment of the English race in almost every quarter of the globe. In the year 1607 Jamestown, so named in honor of the king, was founded in Virginia. This was the first permanent English settlement within the limits of the United States. In 1620 some Separatists, or Pilgrims, who had found in Holland a temporary refuge from persecution, pushed across the Atlantic, and amidst heroic sufferings and unparalleled hardships established the first settlement in New England and laid the foundations of civil liberty in the New World. Besides planting these settlements in the New World, the Eng- lish during this same reign estabhshed themselves in the ancient land of India. In 1 6 1 3 the East India Company established their first factory at Surat. This was the humble beginning of the gigan- tic Enghsh Empire in the East. In this connection must also be noticed the Plantation of Ulster in Ireland. The northern part of that island having been desolated 424 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION by the Tyrone Rebellion (sec. 391), and large tracts of land having been forfeited to the EngHsh crown, this land was now given by royal grant to Enghsh and Scotch settlers. Some of the Celtic clans were removed bodily, and assigned lands in other parts of the island. This movement began in 1610. Its aim was to Protestantize and Anglicize the country. The end sought was in a good measure attained. In less than a century after the beginning of the colonization movement there were over a million Protestants of the Presbyterian sect settled in Ulster. The injustice and harshness of the treatment of the Irish natives awakened among them a spirit of bitter hostility to the newcomers, which, intensified by fresh wrongs, has imbittered all the relations of Ireland and England up to our own day. 462. Literature. — One of the most noteworthy literary labors of the reign under review was a new translation of the Bible, known as King James' Version, published in 161 1. This version is the one in general use in the Protestant Church at the present day. The most noted writers of James' reign were a bequest to it from the brilliant era of Elizabeth.* Sir Walter Raleigh, the petted courtier of Elizabeth, fell on evil days after her death. On the chaige of taking part in a conspiracy against the crown, he was sent to the Tower, where he was kept a prisoner for thir- teen years. From the tedium of his long confinement he found relief in the composition of a History of the World. He was at last beheaded (16 18). The close of the life of the great philosopher Francis Bacon was scarcely less sad than that of Sir Walter Raleigh. He held the office of Lord Chancellor, and, yielding to the temptations of the corrupt times upon which he had fallen, accepted fees from the suitors who brought cases before him. He was impeached and brought to the bar of the House of Lords, where he confessed his fault, but asserted that the money he took never influenced his judgment. He appealed pathetically to his judges " to be merciful 4 Shakespeare died about the middle of the reign (in 1616). Several of his com- panion dramatists, who like himself began their career under Elizabeth, also outlived the queen, and did most of their work during the reign of her successor. THE PETITION OF RIGHT 425 to a broken reed." He was sentenced to pay a heavy fine and to imprisonment in the Tower. But the king in pity released him from all the penalty and even conferred a pension upon him. He lived only five years after his fall and disgrace, dying in 1626. Bacon must be given the first place among the philosophers of the English-speaking race. His system is known as the " Inductive Method of Philosophy." It insists upon experiment and a careful observation of facts as the only true means of arriving at a knowl- edge of the laws«of nature. Reign of Charles the First (^162^—1640) 463. The Petition of Right (1628). — Charles I came to the throne with all his father's lofty notions about the divine right of kings. He made his own these words of Scripture : " Where the word of a king is, there is power : and who may say unto him. What doest thou? " ^ Consequently the old contest between king and Parliament was straightway renewed. The first two Parlia- ments of his reign Charles dissolved speedily, because instead of voting supplies they persisted in investigating public grievances. After the dissolution of his second Parliament, Charles endeav- ored to raise by means of benevolences (sec. 361) and forced loans the money he needed to carry on the government. But all his expedients failed to meet his needs, and he was forced to fall back upon Parliament. The Houses met, and promised to grant him generous subsidies, provided he would approve a certain Petition of Right which they had drawn up. Next after Magna Carta, this document is the most important in the constitutional history of England. Four abuses were provided against: (i) the raising of money by loans, benevolences, taxes, etc., without the consent of Parliament ; (2) imprisonment without cause shown ; (3) the quartering of soldiers in private houses, — a very vexatious thing ; and (4) trial by martial law, that is, without jury. Charles was as reluctant to assent to the petition as King John was to assent to Magna Carta; but he was at length forced to 6 Ecclesiastes viii 4 ; cited by Charles on his trial in 1649, 426 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION give sanction to it by the use of the usual formula, " Let it be law as desired " (1628). 464. Charles rules without Parliament (162 9-1 640). — It soon became evident that Charles was utterly insincere when he gave his assent to the Petition of Right. He immediately violated its provisions in attempting to raise money by forbidden taxes and loans. For eleven years he ruled without Parliament, thus changing the govern- ment of England from a government by king, Lords, and Commons to what was in effect an absolute and irrespon- sible monarchy, like that of France or of Spain. Prominent among Charles' most ac- tive agents were his ministers, Thomas Wentworth, later Earl of Strafford, and William Laud, Bishop of London and later Archbishop of Canterbury, both of whom earned unenviable reputa- tions through their industry and success in building up the absolute power of their master upon the ruins of the ancient institutions of English liberty. The high-handed and tyrannical proceedings of Charles and his agents were enforced by three iniquitous Fig. 78— Charles L (After ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ arbitrary juris- a painting by Vandyke) -, . . rr^, 1 , diction. These were known as the "Council of the North," the "Star Chamber," and the "High Commission Court." ^ All of these courts sat without jury, and 6 The first ■was a tribunal established by Henry VIII, and now employed by Went- worth as an instrument for enforcing the king's despotic authority in the turbulent northern counties of England. The Star Chamber was a court organized by Henry VII, which at this time dealt chiefly with criminal cases affecting the government, JOHN HAMPDEN AND SHIP MONEY 427 being composed of the creatures of the king, were of course his subservient instruments. Often their decisions were unjust and arbitrary, their punishments harsh and cruel. 465. John Hampden and Ship Money (1637-1638). — Among the illegal taxes levied during this period of tyranny was a species known as "ship money," so called from the fact that in early times the kings, when the realm was in danger, called upon the seaports and maritime counties to contribute ships and ship material for the public service. Charles and his agents, in look- ing this matter over, conceived the idea of extending t^is tax over the inland as well as the seaboard counties. Among those who refused to pay the tax was a country gentle- man named John Hampden. The case was tried in the Court of Exchequer, before all the twelve judges. All England watched the progress of the suit with the utmost solicitude. The question was argued by able counsel both on the side of Hampden and of the crown. Judgment was finally rendered in favor of.the king, al- though five of the twelve judges stood for Hampden. The case was lost ; but the people, who had been following the arguments, were fully persuaded that it went against Hampden simply for the reason that the judges stood in fear of the royal displeasure should they dare to decide the case adversely to the crown. The arbitrary and despotic character which the government had now assumed in both civil and religious matters, and the hopelessness of relief or protection from the courts, caused thou- sands to seek in the New World that freedom and security which was denied them in their own land. 466. The Bishops' War (1639). — England was ready to rise in open revolt against the unbearable tyranny. Events in Scot- land hastened the crisis. The king was attempting to impose the English liturgy (slightly modified) upon the Scotch Presbyterians. A Sabbath was set on which the Hturgy should be introduced in all the churches. To the Scotch this seemed little short of a such as riot, libel, and conspiracy. The High Commission Court was a tribunal of forty-four commissioners, created in Elizabeth's reign to enforce the Acts of Suprem- acy and Uniformity. 428 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION restoration of the " Popery " they had renounced. Tradition tells how at Edinburgh the attempt of the bishop to read the serv- ice led to a riot, one of the worshipers, Janet Geddes by name, flinging her stool at the bishop's head.'^ The spirit of resistance spread. All classes, nobles and peasants alike, bound themselves by a solemn covenant to resist to the very last every attempt to make innovations in their religion. The king resolved to crush the movement by force. The Scotch accepted the challenge with all that ardor which religious enthusiasm never fails to inspire. Charles soon found that war could not be carried on without money, and was constrained to summon Parliament in hopes of obtaining a vote of supplies. But instead of making the king a grant of money, the Commons first gave their attention to the matter of grievances, whereupon Charles dissolved the Parliament. The Scottish forces crossed the border, and the king, helpless, with an empty treasury and a seditious army, was forced again to summon the two Houses. 467. The Long Parliament. — Under this call met on Nov. 3, 1640, the Parhament which, from the circumstance of its sitting for twelve years, and legally existing for nearly twenty, became known as the " Long Parhament." A small majority of the members of the Commons of this Parliament were stern and determined men, men who fully realized the danger in which the traditional liberties of Englishmen were set, and who were resolved to put a check to the despotic course of the king. Almost the first act of the Commons was the impeachment of Strafford, as the most prominent instrument of the king's tyranny and usurpation. He was finally condemned by a bill of attainder ^ and sent to the block. To secure themselves against dissolution before their work was done, the Houses passed a bill which provided that they should not be adjourned or dissolved without their own consent. The T' The " flight of Jenny's stool " holds some such place in the story of the English Revolution as the throwing of the tea into Boston harbor holds in the story of the American Revolution. 8 See sec. 375, n. 5. Laud was executed in 1645. THE INSURRECTION IN IRELAND 429 three arbitrary courts of which we have spoken, the High Com- mission Court, the Council of the North, and the Star Chamber, were abolished. Finally, an act was passed declaring the illegality of ship money and annulling the judgment against John Hampden "as contrary to and against the laws and statutes of this realm." Fig. 79. — Execution of the Earl of Strafford. (From a contemporary print) 468. The Insurrection in Ireland (1641). — -The situation was critical ; it was rendered still more so by an uprising in Ireland.® Taking advantage of the quarrel between Charles and his Parlia- ment, the Irish Catholics rose in revolt. The aim of the insur- rection was to wipe out the colony planted in the reign of James I (sec. 461), and to bring to an end Protestant ascendancy in Ireland. Von Ranke characterizes the insurrection as one of the 9 It was just after the outbreak of the revolt that the Commons drew up and pub- lished what is known as " The Grand Remonstrance." For the text of this important document and the accompanying petition, see Gardiner's Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution^ vol. ii, pp. 203-232. 430 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION most cruel of which we have record. It was cruel because the native Irish were stirred not only by deep race enmity but also by bitter religious hatred. Neither age nor sex was spared. Thou- sands of the English and Scotch settlers perished miserably. If was not long before an EngHsh Protestant army made savage reprisals (sec. 478). 469. Charles* Attempt to seize the Five Members. — An impru- dent act on the part of Charles now precipitated the nation into the gulf of civil war, towards which events had been so rapidly drifting. With the design of overawing the Commons, the king made a charge of treason against five of the leading members, among whom were Hampden and Pym, and sent officers to effect their arrest; but the accused were not to be found. The next day Charles himseK, accompanied by armed attendants, went to the House for the purpose of seizing the five members; but, having been forewarned of the king's intention, they had with- drawn from the hall. The king was not long in reaHzing the state of affairs, and with the observation, " I see the birds have flown," withdrew from the chamber. Charles had taken a fatal step. The nation could not forgive the insult offered to its representatives. . All London rose in arms. The king, frightened by the storm which his rashness had raised, fled from the city to York. From the flight of Charles from Lon- don may be dated the beginning of the civil war (Jan. 10, 1642). The Civil War (1642-1640) 470. The Two Parties. — The country was now divided into two great parties. Those that enlisted under the king's standard — on whose side rallied, for the most part, the nobiHty, the gen- try, and the clergy — were known as Royalists or Cavaliers ; while those that gathered about the Parhamentary banner, the townsmen and the yeomanry, were called Parliamentarians or Roundheads, the latter term being apphed to them because many of their number cropped their hair close to the head, simply for the reason that the Cavaliers affected long and flowing locks. OLIVER CROMWELL AND HIS "IRONSIDES" 431 The most noted leader of the Royahsts was the king's nephew, Prince Rupert, a dashing cavalry officer ; the commander of the Parliamentary forces was the Earl of Essex. The Cavaliers favored the Established Episcopal Church, while the Roundheads were Puritans. During the progress of the struggle the Presbyterians and Independents (later CongregationaHsts) became the leading factions in the Puritan party. 471. Oliver Cromwell and his "Ironsides." — The war had continued about three years -^^ when there came into prominence among the officers of the Parliamentary forces a man of destiny, one of the great characters of history, — Oliver Cromwell. Dur- ing the early campaigns of the war, as colonel of a troop of cavalry, he had exhibited his rare genius as an organizer and disciplinarian. His regiment became famous under the name of "Cromwell's Ironsides." It was composed entirely of "men of religion." Swearing, drinking, and the usual vices of the camp were unknown among them. They advanced to the charge with the singing of psalms. During all the war the regiment was never once beaten. 472. The "Self-Denying Ordinance" and the "New Model" (1645). — The military operations of these earlier years of the war had revealed fatal defects in the Parliamentary army. It was composed of local bands, was irregularly paid, and was in large part officered by persons who had received their commissions because of their social rank. The soldiers were mutinous, and in the opinion of one of their officers, who wrote the Commons about their conduct, were " fit only for a gallows here and a hell hereafter." Such an army could never beat the Royahsts. The leaders in the Commons got rid of the titled inefficients by means of a measure known as the " Self-Denying Ordinance," which required that members of either House holding commands in the army should resign within forty days. At the same time they created a new army of twenty-one thousand men, called the 10 The first skirmish of the war was at Edgehill (1642), but the most important engagement of these earlier years was the battle of Marston Moor (1644), in which the Royalists suffered a severe defeat. 432 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION " New ModeL" It differed from the earlier Parliamentary force as a regular army differs from militia. Sir Thomas Fairfax was created commander-in-chief, and Cromwell was made lieutenant- general, which gave him command of the horse. -^^ Religious opinions had not been made a test for admission to the new army; but as a matter of fact its officers were for the most part Independents, and in the course of time the army through their influence became such a body of religious enthusi- asts as the world had not seen since Godfrey led his crusaders to the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher. A great part of the men were fervent. God-fearing, psalm-singing Puritans. When not fighting, they studied the Bible, prayed, and sang hymns. 473. The Battle of Naseby (1645). — The temper of the " New Model" was soon tried in the battle of Naseby, the decisive engagement of the war. The Royalists were beaten and their cause was irretrievably lost. Charles escaped from the field, and ultimately fled into Scotland, thinking that he might rely upon the loyalty of the Scots to the House of Stuart ; but on his refusing to sign the Covenant and certain other articles, they gave him up to the En^ish Parliament. 474. " Pride's Purge " (1648). — Now, there were many in the Parliament who were in favor of restoring the king to his throne on the basis of conditions which he himself had proposed, that is to say, without requiring from him any sufficient guaranties that he would in the future rule in accordance with the constitution and the laws of the land. The Independents, that is to say Crom- well and the army, saw in this possibility the threatened ruin of all their hopes and the loss of all the fruits of victory. A high- handed measure was resolved upon, — the exclusion from the House of Commons of all those members who favored the res- toration of Charles. Accordingly an officer by the name of Pride was stationed at the door of the hall to exclude or to arrest the members obnoxious 11 There were two self-denying ordinances ; the second, unlike the first, did not permanently disqualify for office. Cromwell, like the others concerned, gave up his post, but was almost immediately reappointed. TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF THE KING 433 to the army. One hundred and forty-three members were thus kept from their seats, and the Commons became reduced to about fifty representatives. This performance -was appropriately called " Pride's Purge." " The minority had now become the majority." But that is not an approved way of creating a majority. 475. Trial and Execution of the King (Jan. 30, 1649). — The Commons thus "purged" of the king's friends now passed a resolution for the immediate trial of Charles for treason. A High Fig. 80. — Westminster Hall. (From a photograph) This ancient hall was the scene of the trial and condemnation of Charles I. It had previously witnessed the condemnation to death of many celebrated per- sons, among whom were WilHam Wallace, Sir Thomas More, and the Earl of Strafford. Court of Justice, comprising one hundred and thirty-five members, was organized, before which Charles was summoned. Appearing before the court, he denied its authority to try him, consistently maintaining that no earthly tribunal could rightly question his acts. But the trial went on, and before the close of a week he was con- demned to be executed " as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation." In a few days the sentence was carried out. Charles bore him- self in the presence of death with great composure and dignity. 434 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION On the scaffold he spoke these words, the sincerity of which can- not be doubted : " For the people truly I desire their liberty and freedom as much as anybody whatsoever ; but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ; ... it is not in their having a share in the government ; that is nothing pertaining to them." II. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate (i 649-1 660) 476. Establishment of the Commonwealth. — A few weeks after the execution of Charles, the Commons voted to abolish the office of king as ''unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the liberty, safety, and public interest of the people," and also to do away with the House of Lords as likewise "useless and dangerous to the people of England," and to establish a free state under the name of "The Commonwealth." A new Great Seal was made with this legend and date : " In the first year of freedom, by God's blessing restored, 1648." ^^ The executive power was lodged in a Council of State, composed of forty-one persons. Of this body the eminent patriot Sir Henry Vane was the leading member. 477. Troubles of the Commonwealth. — The republic thus born of mingled religious and poUtical enthusiasm was beset with dan- gers from the very first. The execution of Charles had alarmed every sovereign in Europe. Russia, France, and the Dutch Repub- lic -^^ all refused to have any communication with the ambassadors of the Commonwealth. The Scots, who too late repented of having surrendered their sovereign into the hands of his enemies, now hastened to 'wipe out the stain of their disloyalty by pro- claiming his son their king, with the title of Charles the Second. The Royalists in Ireland declared for the prince ; while the Dutch began active preparations to assist him in regaining the throne 12 According to the method of reckoning then in vogue, the year 1648 did not end until March 24. 13 William II, the Stadtholder of all the Dutch provinces except Friesland, was the son-in-law of Charles I. WAR WITH IRELAND 435 of his unfortunate father. In England itseK the Royalists were active and threatening. 478. War with Ireland (1649-165 2). — The Commonwealth, like the ancient republic of Rome, seemed to gather strength and energy from the very multitude of surrounding dangers. Cromwell was made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and sent into that country to crush the Royahst party there. With his " Iron- sides " he made quick and terrible work of the suppression of the Catholic Royalists. Having taken by storm the town of Drogheda, which had refused his summons to surrender, he massacred the entire garrison, consisting of three thousand men (1649). About a thousand who had sought asylum in a church were butchered there without mercy. The capture of other towns was accompanied by massacres little less terrible. The following is his own account of the manner in which he dealt with the captured garrisons : " When they submitted, their officers were knocked on the head, and every tenth man of the soldiers killed, and the rest shipped for Barbadoes.". Cromwell's savage cruelty in his dealings with the Irish is an indelible stain on his memory. The Catholic Royalists having been defeated, the best lands of the island were confiscated and granted to English and Scotch settlers, after the manner of the colonization of Protestant immi- grants in Ulster in the reign of James I (sec. 461). This method of securing Protestant ascendancy in the island is what English history designates as the " Cromwellian settlement," but which Irish resentment calls the "Curse of Cromwell." The religious ferocity of this Puritan settlement of Ireland fanned fiercely the flame of hatred which earlier wrongs had kindled in the hearts of the Irish people against their English conquerors, — a flame which has not yet burned itself out.^* 479. War with Scotland (1650-165 1). — Cromwell was called out of Ireland by the Council to lead an army into Scotland. 14 Between the years 1641 and 1652 over half a million inhabitants of the island were destroyed or banished; Prendergast {Cromwelhan Settlement, p. 177) affirms that during these years and those immediately following five sixths of the population perished. " A man might travel," he says, " for twenty or thirty miles and not see a living creature." 436 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION The terror of his name went before him, and the people fled as he approached. At Dunbar he met the Scottish army. Before the terrible onset of the fanatic Roundheads the Scots were scat- tered like chaif before the wind. Ten thousand were made pris- oners, and all the camp train and artillery were captured (1650). The following year, on the anniversary of the battle of Dunbar, Cromwell gained another great victory over the Scottish army at Worcester, and all Scotland was soon after forced to submit to the authority of the Commonwealth. Prince Charles, after many ad- venturous experiences, escaped across the Channel into Normandy. 480. War with the Dutch (165 2-1 654). — With the authority of the Commonwealth acknowledged throughout the British Isles, the Parliament sought to increase the power and influence of the republic and to benefit English commerce by an alliance with the Dutch ; but since such a confederation as that proposed would have made the Netherlands little more than a province of the Enghsh Commonwealth, the Dutch refused, rather con- temptuously, to enter into the arrangement. The Enghsh Par- liament thereupon passed a measure known as the Navigation Act (165 1), which forbade foreign ships to bring into England any products or manufactures save those of their own country. This was a blow aimed at the Dutch, whose ships brought to the Enghsh docks the products of every land on the globe, including the English colonies in America. In the war which ensued the English found a worthy foe in the stout Dutch sailors. That they were able to wage war with them on anything like equal terms was due largely to the fore- sight and energy of Sir Henry Vane, who was the real head of the English government from 1649 to 1653, and who in the carrying out of his policy to build up the navy as a counter- poise to the army, which was overshadowing the civil authority and threatening the establishment of a military dictatorship, had greatly developed and strengthened the sea power of England. After the rival fleets had inflicted great injury and loss upon each other in many a stubborn sea fight, the two republics were reconciled (1654). THE "LITTLE PARLIAMENT" 437 481. Cromwell ejects the Long Parliament (1653). — While the Dutch war was going on, the Parliament that provoked it had come to an open quarrel with the army. Cromwell demanded of Parliament their dissolution and the calling of a new body. This they refused; whereupon, taking with him a body of sol- diers, Cromwell went to the House, and after listening impa- tiently for a while to the debate, suddenly sprang to his feet and with bitter reproaches exclaimed : "I will put an end to your prating. Get you gone; give place to better men. You are no Parliament. The Lord has done with you." At a pre- arranged signal his soldiers rushed in. The hall was cleared. Picking up the speaker's mace, Cromwell contemptuously asked, "What shall be done with his bauble?" "Take it away," he ordered. Then the soldiers withdrew from the hall and the door was locked. In such summary manner the Long Parliament, or the " Rump Parliament," as it was called in derision after " Pride's Purge," was dissolved, after having sat for twelve years. So completely had the body lost the confidence and respect of all parties that scarcely a murmur was heard against the illegal and arbitrary mode of its dissolution. 482. The "Little Parliament" and the Establishment of the Protectorate (1653). — Cromwell now called together a new Par- liament or more properly a convention, summoning, so far as he might, only religious. God-fearing men. The " Little Parliament," as sometimes called, consisted of one hundred and fifty-six mem- bers, mainly rehgious zealots, who spent much of their time in Scripture exegesis, prayer, and exhortation. Among them was a London leather merchant, named Praise-God Barebone, who was especially given to these exercises. The name amused the people, and as the exhorter was a fair representative of a considerable section of the convention, they nicknamed it " Barebone's Parlia- ment," by which designation it has passed into history. The " Little Parliament " sat only five months, and then, resign- ing all its authority into the hands of Cromwell, dissolved itself. A sort of constitution, called the " Instrument of Government," 438 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION was now drawn up by a council of army officers and approved by CromwelL This instrument, the first of written constitutions, provided for a Parliament consisting of a single House, a Council of State, and an executive or president serving for life and bearing the title of " Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ire- land." Under this instrument Cromwell became Lord Pro- tector for life. 483. The Protect- orate (1653- 1659). — Cromwell's power was now almost un- limited. He was vir- tually a dictator, for he had the power of the army behind him. The Protector summoned, win- nowed, and dissolved Parliament at pleas- ure. He could get together no body of men who could or would work smoothly with him. "The Lord judge between me and you," were his words of dismissal Fig. 81. — Oliver Cromwell. (Taken at the age of fifty-eight years. From an enlargement in oil of the head drawn in water colors by Samuel Cooper, now the property of the Duke of Buccleuch) to his last unmanageable and obstinate Parliament. For five years Cromwell carried on the government practically alone. His rule was arbitrary but enlightened. He gave England the strongest government she had had since the days of Wolsey and of Elizabeth, a government which, while securing obedience and prosperity at home, won the fear and respect of foreign THE PROTECTORATE 439 powers, so that Cromwell addressing Parliament could truthfully declare, " I dare say that there is not a nation in Europe but is willing to ask a good understanding with you." Cromwell's aim was " to make England great and to make her worthy of greatness." This worthiness he, zealous Puritan as he was, conceived could be acquired by England only as her affairs were conducted by godly men and in accord with the plain precepts of Scripture. Further, in Oliver's mind, the English nation could be God's own people and worthy of greatness only as England upheld the Protestant cause in Europe. It was this religious persuasion which led him to become the protector of Protestantism wherever imperiled. He interposed successfully in behalf of the Huguenots in France, and secured for them a respite from harassment; he obliged the Duke of Savoy to cease his cruel persecution of the Vaudois ; and caused the Pope to be informed that if the Protes- tants continued to be molested anywhere — Cromwell laid the blame of everything done against Protestant interests at the door of the Papacy — the roar of English guns would speedily awaken the echoes of St. Angelo. It was with the double aim of making England great on the sea and of crippling the champion of Catholicism that Cromwell entered into an alliance with France against Spain. During a great part of his rule the Protector was fighting this old-time foe of England and of Protestantism. He captured her treasure ships within sight of the ports of the peninsula, wrested from her the island of Jamaica in the West Indies, and secured the cession of the important seaport of Dunkirk on the Straits of Dover. 484. Cromwell's Death. — Notwithstanding Cromwell was a man of immovable resolution and iron spirit, still he felt sorely the burdens of his government, and was deeply troubled by the anxieties of his position. In the midst of apparent success he was painfully conscious of utter failure. He had wished to establish a permanent government by "a single person" and Parliament, with himself as the recognized constitutional head of the state. Instead, he found himself a military usurper, whose title was simply 440 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION the title of the sword. His government, we may believe, was as hateful to himself as to the great mass of the English people. He lived in constant fear of the dagger. With his constitution under- mined by overwork and anxiety, fever attacked him, and with gloomy apprehensions as to the terrible dangers into which Eng- land might drift after his hand had fallen from the helm of affairs, he lay down to die, passing away on the day which he had always called his "fortunate day " — the anniversary of his great victories of Dunbar and Worcester (Sept. 3, 1658). As when the great Napoleon lay dying at St. Helena the island was shaken by a fierce tempest, so now the elements seemed to be in sympathy with the restless soul of Cromwell. "A storm which tore roofs from houses and leveled huge trees in every forest seemed a fitting prelude to the passing away of his mighty spirit." But the enemies of the Protector believed that the tempest was raised by the devil, who had come for Oliver's soul. 485 . Richard Cromwell (165 8- 165 9). — Cromwell with his dying breath — so it was given out — had designated his son Richard as his successor in the office of the Protectorate. Richard was exacdy the opposite of his father, — timid, irresolute, and irreligious. The control of affairs that had taxed to the utmost the genius and resources of the father was altogether too great an undertaking for the incapacity and inexperience of the son. No one was quicker to realize this than Richard himself, and after a rule of a few months, yielding to the pressure of the army, whose displeasure he had incurred, he resigned his office. 486. The Restoration (1660). — For some months after the fall of the Protectorate the country trembled on the verge of anarchy. The gloomy outlook into the future and the unsatisfactory experi- ment of the Commonwealth caused the great mass of the English people earnestly to desire the restoration of the monarchy, — in truth, the majority of the nation had never desired its aboHtiori. Charles Stuart, towards whom the tide of returning loyalty was running, was now in Holland. General Monk, the commander of the army in Scotland and the representative of Scottish sentiment, marched south to London and assumed virtual control of affairs. WHY THE PURITAN REVOLUTION FAILED 441 The Long Parliament, including the members ejected by Pride (sec. 481), now reassembled, and by resolution declared that " according to the ancient and fundamental laws of this kingdom the government is and ought to be by king, Lords, and Com- mons." An invitation was sent to Prince Charles to return to his people and take his place upon the throne of his ancestors. Amid the wildest demonstrations of joy Charles stepped ashore on the island from which he had been for nine years an exile. As he observed the extensive preparations made for his reception, and received from all parties the warmest congratulations, he remarked with pleasant satire, " Surely it is my own fault that I have remained these years in exile from a country which is so glad to see me." 487. Why the Puritan Revolution failed. — The Puritan Revolu- tion had failed. To assign the deeper causes of this failure, whether in circumstances or in the personal character of Cromwell or of other leaders of the movement, would be a difficult thing to do ; but without much hesitation we may say that one of the near-lying causes of the failure was that the Puritans committed the fault which has been declared to be almost always the fault of revolu- tionists—of going too fast and too far. At the outset the Revolu- tion had for its aim simply the setting of reasonable restrictions upon the exercise of the royal authority. Very soon, however, the kingly office, the hereditary House of Lords, and the Episco- pal Church had been abolished. Each of these extreme measures raised up many implacable enemies of the Revolution. Then again, Puritanism, in many things, had got far away from EngHsh good sense. The Puritan regulations respecting harmless amusements, the observance of the Sabbath, and a hundred other matters were extreme and absurd, and well calculated to provoke the scoff of the godless. So while in some directions the Puritans were merely in advance of the mass of the English people, in others they had gone far aside from the path that England was treading or was ever going to tread. Hence Puritanism was bound to fail. But to leave the matter thus would be misleading. In a deeper sense Puritanism did not fail. " What of heroism, what of 442 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION eternal light," says Carlyle, " there be in a man and his life . . . remains forever a new divine portion of the sum of things." And so was it with Puritanism. What of heroism and of truth there was in it — and there was much of both — was added to the sum of English history. Much that is best and truest in the life of England to-day and of Greater England beyond the seas strikes its roots deep in the Puritanism of the seventeenth century. 488. Puritan Literature ; it lights up the Religious Side of the English Revolution. — No epoch in history receives a fresher illustration from the study of its literature than that of the Puritan Revolution. To neglect this, and yet hope to gain a true concep- tion of that wonderful episode in the life of the English people by an examination of its outer events and incidents alone, would, as Green declares, be like trying to form. an idea of the life and work of ancient Israel from Kings and Chronicles, without Psalms and Prophets. The true character of the EngUsh Revolu- tion, especially upon its religious side, must be sought in the magnificent epic of Milton and the unequaled allegory of Bunyan. Both of these great works, it is true, were written after the Restoration, but they were both inspired by that spirit which had struck down despotism and set up the Commonwealth. The epic was the work of a lonely, disappointed republican ; the alle- gory, of a captive Puritan. Milton (1608-16 74) stands as the grandest representative of Puritanism. After the death of Charles I he wrote a famous work in Latin entitled The Defense of the English People, in which he justified the execution of the king. His Areopagitica or Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, written some years earlier, is an eloquent plea for freedom of opinion and of teaching. The Restoration forced Milton into retirement, and the last fourteen years of his life were passed apart from the world. It was during these years that, in loneliness and bHndness, he com- posed the immortal poems Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. The former is the " Epic of Puritanism." All that was truest and grandest in the Puritan character found expression in the moral elevation and religious fervor of this the greatest of Christian epics. THE RESTORED STUARTS 443 John Bunyan (1628— 1688) was a Puritan nonconformist. After the Restoration he was imprisoned for twelve years in Bed- ford jail, on account of nonconformity to the established worship. It was during this dreary confinement that he wrote his PilgrinCs Progress, the most admirable allegory in English literature. The habit of the Puritan, from constant study of the Bible, to employ in all forms of discourse its language and imagery, is best illus- trated in the pages of this remarkable work. Here, as nowhere else, we learn what realities to the Puritan were the Bible repre- sentations of sin, repentance, and atonement, of heaven and hell. III. The Restored Stuarts Reign of Charles the Second (^1660— 1685) 489. Punishment of the Regicides. — The monarchy having been restored in the person of Charles II, Parliament extended a general pardon to all who had taken part in the late rebellion, except Sir Henry Vane and certain of the judges who had con- demned Charles to the block. Thirteen of these were executed with revolting cruelty, their hearts and bowels being cut out of their living bodies. Others of the regicides were condemned to imprisonment for life. Vane was finally executed. Death had already removed the other great leaders of the rebellion, — Crom- well, Ireton, and Bradshaw, — beyond the reach of Royalist hate ; so vengeance was taken upon their bodies. These were dragged from their tombs in Westminster Abbey, hauled to Tyburn, and there on the anniversary of Charles' execution were hanged, and afterwards beheaded (1661). 490. The Conventicle and Five-Mile Acts. — Early in the reign the services of the Anghcan Church were restored by Parliament;, and harsh laws were enacted against all nonconformists. The Conventicle Act (1664) made it a crime for five persons or more, "over and above those of the same household," to gather in any house or in any place for worship, unless the service was con- ducted according to the forms of the Church of England. 444 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION The Five-Mile Act (1665) forbade any nonconformist minister who refused to swear that it is unlawful to take arms against the king under any circumstances, and that he never would attempt to make any change in Church or state government, to approach, " unless only in passing upon the road," within five miles of any city, corporate town, or borough sending members to Parliament, or of any place where he had once ministered. 491. The Covenanters. — In Scotland the attempt to suppress conventicles and introduce Episcopacy was stoutly resisted by the Covenanters (sec. 466) who insisted on their right to worship God in their own way. They were therefore subjected to persecutions most cruel and unrelenting. They were hunted by Enghsh troopers over their native moors and among the wild recesses of their mountains, whither they secretly retired for prayer and wor- ship. The tales of the sufferings of the Scotch Covenanters at the hands of the English Protestants form a most harrowing chapter of the records of the ages of religious persecution. 492 . The Dutch War, the Fire, and the Plague. — The years from 1664 to 1667 were crowded with calamities, — with war, plague, and fire. The poet Dryden not inaptly calls the year 1666, in which the Great Fire at London added its horrors and losses to those of pestilence and war, the Annus Mirabilis, or "Year of Wonders." The war alluded to was a struggle between the EngHsh and the Dutch, which grew out of commercial rivalries (i 664-1 667). In the first year of this contest the English took New Amsterdam in America away from the Dutch, and changed its name to New York in honor of the king's brother, the Duke of York. In the year 1667 the Dutch fleet entered the estuary of the Thames, burned some English ships, and threatened London. This was the first time a hostile vessel had floated on that river since the days of the Vikings. The EngHsh felt deeply the humiliation. It was, writes a contemporary, John Evelyn, " a dreadful spectacle as ever Englishman saw, and a dishonor never to be wiped off." Early in the summer of 1665 London was swept by a woeful plague, the most terrible visitation the city had known since the CHARLES' INTRIGUES WITH LOUIS XIV 445 Black Death in the Middle Ages (sec. 217). Within six months one hundred thousand of the population perished. The plague was followed the next year by a great fire, which destroyed over thirteen thousand houses, eighty-nine churches, and a vast number of public buildings. The disaster was a bless- ing in disguise. The burned districts were rebuilt in a more sub- stantial way, with broader streets and more airy residences, so that London became a more beautiful and healthful city than would have been possible without the fire.^^ 493. Charles' Intrigues with Louis XIV; the Test Act. — Charles inclined to the Catholic worship, and wished to reestab- lish the Catholic Church, because he thought it more favorable than the Anglican to such a scheme of gov- ernment as he aimed to set up in England. In the year 1670 he made a secret treaty with the French king, the terms and objects of which were most scandalous. In return for aid which he was to render Louis in an attack upon Holland, he was to re- ceive from him a large sum of money, and, in case his proposed declaration in favor of the restoration of the Catholic Church produced any trouble in the island, the aid of French troops. The scheme was never consummated ; but these clan- destine negotiations, however, becom- ing an open secret, made the people very uneasy and suspicious. Under the excitement of the moment, Parliament enacted a so-called Test Act, which excluded Catholics from the House 15 One of the churches destroyed was St. Paul's Cathedral, which was rebuilt with great magnificence. Its designer was the eminent architect, Sir Christopher Wren, near whose tomb within the building is this inscription: Si monumentum requiriSy circumspice^ " If you seek his monument, look around." Fig, 82. — Charles II (After the painting by Sir Peter Lely) 446 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION of Lords.^^'' (They had already been shut out from the House of Commons by the oath of supremacy, which was required of com- moners though not of peers.) The disability created by this stat- ute was not removed from Catholics until the nineteenth century, — in the reign of George IV (sec. 669). 494. "The Popish Plot" (1678). — The excited state of the public mind, owing to the continuance of the king's intrigues with Louis, led to a serious delusion and panic. A rumor was started that the Catholics had planned for England a St. Bartholo- mew's Day. The king, the members of Parliament, and all Prot- estants were to be massacred, the Catholic Church was to be reestablished, and the king's brother James, who was a zealous Catholic, placed on the throne. Each day the reports of the conspiracy grew more wild and exaggerated. Informers sprang up on every hand, each with a more terrifying story than the preceding. One of these witnesses, Titus Oates by name, a most infamous person, gained an extraor- dinary notoriety in exposing the imaginary plot. Many Catholics, convicted solely on the testimony of perjured witnesses, became the unfortunate victims of the delusion and fraud. 495. The Habeas Corpus Act (1679). — The year following the " Popish Plot " Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas Corpus Act. This statute was intended to render more effectual the ancient and valued writ of habeas corpus, which was designed to protect the personal liberty of Englishmen, but which the king's courts and sheriffs were rendering well-nigh useless through their evasions and shifts. The law, which is based on articles of Magna Carta, is so carefully and ingeniously drawn that it is almost impossible for its provisions to be evaded in any way. It gives every person almost absolute security against illegal deten- tion in prison, and is the strongest safeguard against the attempts of a despotic ruler upon the liberty of those who may have incurred his displeasure. It has been the model of all laws of like import throughout the Anglo-Saxon world. 15a An earlier Test Act (1673) excluded Catholics from civil and military offices. JAMES' ACCESSION 447 Reign of Ja7?ies the Second {168^-1688) 496. James' Accession ; his Despotic Course. — After a reign of just one quarter of a century Charles died in 1685, and was fol- lowed by his brother James, whose rule was destined to be short and troubled.^® James, like all the other Stuarts, held exalted notions of the divine right of kings to rule as they please, and at once set about carrying out these ideas in a most reckless manner. Notwith- standing he had given solemn assurances that he would uphold the Anghcan Church, he straightway set about the reestablish- ment of the Catholic worship. He arbitrarily prorogued and dis- solved Parliament. He formed a league against his own subjects with Louis XIV. The High Commission Court of Elizabeth, which had been abolished by Parliament, he practically restored in a new tribunal presided over by the infamous Jeffreys. The despotic course of the king raised up enemies on all sides. No party or sect, save the most zealous Catholics, stood by him. The Tory gentry were in favor of royalty indeed, but not of tyranny. Thinking to make friends of the Protestant dissenters, James issued a decree known as the Declaration of Indulgence, whereby he suspended all the laws against nonconformists. This edict all the clergy were ordered to read from their pulpits. Almost to a man they refused to do so. Seven bishops even dared to send the king a petition and remonstrance against his uncon- stitutional proceedings. The petitioners were thrust into the Tower, and soon afterward were brought to trial on the charge of " seditious hbel." The nation was now thoroughly aroused, and the greatest excitement prevailed 16 James was barely seated upon the throne before the Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II, who had been in exile in the Netherlands, asserted his right to the crown, and at the head of a hundred men invaded England. Thousands flocked to his standard, but in the battle of Sedgemoor (1685) he was utterly defeated by the royal troops. Terrible vengeance was wreaked upon all in any way connected with the rebellion. The notorious Chief Justice Jeffreys, in what were called the " Bloody Assizes," condemned to death 320 persons, and sentenced 841 to transpor- tation. Jeffreys conducted the so-called trials with incredible brutality. See Colby's Selections from the Sources of English History^ No. 81. 448 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION while the trial was progressing. Judges and jury were overawed by the popular demonstration, and the bishops were acquitted. 497. The Revolution of 1688 and the Declaration of Rights. — The crisis which it was easy to see was impending was hastened by the birth of a prince, as this cut off the hope of the nation that the crown upon James' death would descend to his Protes- tant daughter Mary, now wife of the Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland. The most active of the king's enemies therefore resolved to bring about at once what they had been inclined to wait to have accomplished by his death. They sent an invitation to the Prince of Orange to come over with such force as he could muster and take possession of the government, pledging him the united and hearty support of the English nation. WilHam accepted the invitation and straightway began to gather his fleet and army for the enterprise. The moment the ships of the Prince touched the shores of the island, the army and people went over in a body to him. The King was absolutely deserted. Flight alone was left him. The queen with her infant child was secretly embarked for France, where the king soon after joined her. The last act of the king before leaving England was to disband the army and fling the Great Seal into the Thames.i"^ Almost the first act of the Prince was to issue a call for a con- vention to provide for the permanent settlement of the crown. This body met Jan. 22, 1689, and after a violent debate declared the throne to be vacant through James' misconduct and flight. They then resolved to confer the royal dignity upon William and his wife Mary as joint sovereigns of the realm. But this convention did not repeat the error of the Parliament that restored Charles II and give the crown to the Prince and Princess without proper safeguards and guaranties for the conduct of the government according to the ancient laws of the kingdom. They drew up the celebrated Declaration of Rights, which plainly rehearsed all the old rights and liberties of EngUshmen ; denied IT' In France the seK-exiled monarch and his family were kindly received by Louis, who kept UD for them the shadow of a court in one of the, royal palaces near Paris LITERATURE OF THE RESTORATION 449 the right of the king to lay taxes or maintain an army without the consent of ParHament ; and asserted that freedom of debate was the inviolable privilege of both the Lords and the Commons. William and Mary were required to accept this declaration, and to agree to rule in accordance with its provisions, whereupon they were declared King and Queen of England (Feb. 13, 1689). In such manner was effected what is known in history as " the Glorious Revolution of 1688." Literature of the Restoration 498. The Reaction from Puritanism ; Record of this Reaction in the Literature of the Period. — The reigns of the restored Stuarts mark the most corrupt period in the life of Enghsh society. The low standard of morals, and the general profligacy in manners, especially among the. higher classes, are in part attributable to the demoralizing example of a shockingly licentious and shameless court ; but in a larger measure, perhaps, should be viewed as the natural reaction from the over-stern, repellant Puritanism of the preceding period. The Puritans undoubtedly erred in their indis- criminate and wholesale denunciation of all forms of harmless amusement and innocent pleasure. They not only rebuked gam- ing, drinking, and profanity, and stopped bear baiting,^^ but they closed all the theaters, forbade the Maypole dances of the people, condemned as paganish the observance of Christmas, frowned upon sculpture as idolatrous and indecent, and considered any color or adornment in dress as utterly incompatible with a proper sense of the seriousness of life. Now all this was laying too heavy a burden upon human nature. The revolt and reaction came, as come they must. Upon the Restoration, society swung to the opposite extreme. In place of the solemn-visaged, psalm-singing Roundhead, we have the gay, roistering Cavalier. Faith gives place to infidelity, sobriety to drunkenness, purity to profligacy, economy to extravagance, Bible 18 Macaulay humorously insists that the Puritans opposed bear baiting not because it gave pain to the bear but because it gave pleasure to the spectator. 450 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION study, psalm singing, and exhorting to theater going, profanity, and carousing.* The Hterature of the age is a perfect record of this revolt against the " sour severity " of Puritanism, and a faithful reflection of the unblushing immorality of the times. The book most read and praised by Charles II and his court, and the one that best repre- sents the spirit of the victorious party, was the satirical poem of Hudibras by Samuel Butler. The object of the work was to satir- ize the cant and excesses of Puritanism, just as the Don Quixote of Cervantes burlesques the extravagances and follies of chivalry. Butler, however, displays a spirit of vindictiveness and hatred towards the object of his wit of which we find no trace in the good-natured Spanish humorist. So immoral and indecent are the works of the writers for the stage of this period that these authors have acquired the designa- tion of " the corrupt dramatists." Holding a prominent place among them was the poet Dryden. IV. Reign of William and Mary (i 689-1 702) 499. The Bill of Rights (Dec. 16, 1689). — The Revolution of 1688 and the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary marks an epoch in the constitutional history of England. It settled forever the long dispute between king and Parliament, — and settled it in favor of the latter. The Bill of Rights, which was substantially the articles of the Declaration of Rights framed into a law, and which was one of the earliest acts of the first Par- liament under WilUam and Mary, in effect " transferred sovereignty from the king to the House of Commons." By shutting out James from the throne and bringing in William, and by the exclusion of Catholic heirs from the succession, it plainly announced that the kings of England derive their right and title to rule not from the accident of birth but from the will of the people, and that Parhament may depose any king, and, excluding from the throne his heirs, settle the crown anew in another family. This uprooted quite thoroughly the doctrine that SETTLEMENT OF THE REVENUE 45 1 princes have a divine and inalienable right to the throne of their ancestors, and when once seated on that throne rule simply as the vicegerents of God, above all human censure and control. We shall hear constantly less and less in England of this theory of government which for so long a time overshadowed and threatened the freedom of the English people. The separate provisions of the bill, following closely the language of the Declaration, denied the dispensing power of the crown, — that is to say, the authority claimed by the Stuarts of annulling a law by a royal edict ; forbade the king to usurp the functions of the courts of justice, to levy taxes, or to keep an army in time of peace without the consent of Parliament ; asserted the right of the people to petition for redress of grievances and freely to choose their representatives ; reaffirmed, as one of the ancient privileges of both Houses, perfect freedom of debate j and demanded that Parliament should be frequently assembled. Mindful of Charles' attempt to reestablish the Catholic wor- ship, the framers of this same Bill of Rights further declared that all persons holding communion with the Church of Rome or uniting in marriage with a CathoHc should be " forever incapable to possess, inherit, or enjoy the crown and government of the realm." Since the Revolution of 1688 no Catholic has worn the English crown. All of these provisions now became inwrought into the English constitution, and from this time forward were recognized as part of the fundamental law of the realm. 500. Settlement of the Revenue. — The articles of the Bill of Rights were made effectual by appropriate legislation. One thing which had made the Tudors and Stuarts so independent of Parlia- ment was the custom which prevailed of granting to each king, at the beginning of his reign, the ordinary revenue of the kingdom during his life. This income, with what could be raised by gifts, benevolences, monopolies, and similar expedients, had enabled despotically inclined sovereigns to administer the government, wage war, and engage in any wild enterprise just as individual caprice or ambition might dictatet AU this was now changed, 452 STUARTS AND THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION Parliament, instead of granting William the revenue for life, restricted the grant to a single year, and made it a penal offense for the officers of the treasury to pay out money otherwise than ordered by Parhament. We cannot overestimate the importance of this change in the English constitution. It is this control of the purse of the nation which has made the House of Commons — for all money bills must originate in the Lower House — the actual seat of govern- ment, constituting them the arbiters of peace and war.^® 501. James attempts to recover the Throne : Battle of the Boyne (1690). — The first years of William's reign were disturbed by the efforts of James to regain the throne which he had abandoned. In these attempts he was aided by Louis XIV, and by the Jacobites,^° the name given to the adherents of the exile king. The Irish gave William the most trouble, but in the decisive battle of the Boyne he gained a great victory over them. The results of the battle of the Boyne broke the spirit of the revolt, and soon all Ireland acknowledged the authority of William. The Protestant Irish, or Orangemen, as they are called, still keep fresh the memory of the great victory by the celebration, even in the cities of the New World, of the anniversary of the event. 502. Plans and Death of William. — The motive which had most strongly urged William to respond to the invitation of the EngUsh revolutionists to assume the crown of England was his desire to turn the arms and resources of that country against the great champion of despotism and the dangerous neighbor of his own native country, Louis XIV of France. The conduct of Louis in lending aid to James in his attempt to regain his crown had so enraged the English that they were quite ready to support WilUam in his wars against him, and so 19 The most important constitutional matter of William's reign after those men- tioned in the text were the passage by Parliament of the Mutiny Bill, by which the command of the army was given to the king for one year only, and of the act of Set- tlement (June 12, 1701), which was "an act for the further limitation of the crown, and better securing the rights and liberties of the subject." The most important article of this act, after that determining the succession, was one providing that the judges should hold office during good behavior, not simply at the will of the king, as hitherta 20 From Jacobus^ Latin for " James." BIBLIOGRAPHY 453 the English and Dutch sailors fough| side by side against the common enemy in the War of the Palatinate (sec. 450). A short time after the Peace of Ryswick, broke out the War of the Spanish Succession (sec. 451). In the midst of prepara- tions for this war William was fatally hurt by being thrown from his horse (1702). A contemporary, Bishop Burnet, speaks as follows of King William and his place among English sovereigns : "I considered him as a person raised up by God to resist the power of France and the progress of tyranny and persecution. . . . After all the abatements that may be allowed for his errors and faults, he ought still to be reckoned among the greatest princes that our history, or indeed that of any other, affords." ^i Selections from the Sources. — In opposition to Filmer, Patriarcha (see Sources for Chapter XXVI), read Milton, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. Of the utmost importance for the period of the Civil War and the Commonwealth are The Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, with elucidations by Thomas Carlyle (ed. by S. C. Lomas). For additional material see Henderson, Side Lights on English History, pp. 33-214; Lee, Source-Book, pp. 335-438 ; Colby, Selections, Nos. 68-85 : and Ken- dall, Source-Book, chaps, xi-xv. Secondary Works. — Gardiner, History of England; History of the Great Civil War ; History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate ; Oliver Cromwell, and The First Two Stuarts and the Puritan Revolution, 1603- 1660. Dr. Gardiner made this, period especially his own. His works are of the highest authority and value. Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of fames II; also his Essays on Milton and John Hamp- den. Gold win Smith, Three English Statesmen ; for two lectures on Pym and Cromwell. Morley, Oliver Cromzvell ; Harrison, Oliver Crom- well. Hale, The Fall of the Stuarts. Airy, The English Restoration and Louis XIV. Wakeman, The Church of the Puritans. Prendergast, The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland. The admirable articles in the Diction- ary of National Biography should not be overlooked. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The character and traits of James I and his D(Emonologie. 2. The Plantation of Ulster in Ireland. 3. Thomas Wentworth (Earl of Strafford). 4. The Irish " Cromwellian Settlement." 5. Milton's Defense of the English People. 6. The Great Plague. 7. But- ler's Hudibras. 21 Mary had preceded William, having died in 1694, and as they left no children, the crown descended to the Princess Anne, Mary's sister, the wife of Prince George of Denmark. CHAPTER XXIX THE RISE OF RUSSIA: PETER THE GREAT (1682-1725) 503. General Remarks. — We left Russia at the close of the Middle Ages a semi-savage, semi- Asiatic power, so hemmed in by barbarian bands and hostile races as to be almost entirely cut off from intercourse with the civilized world (sec. 266). In the present chapter we shall tell how her boundaries were pushed out to the sea on every side, — to the Caspian, to the Euxine, and to the Baltic, — and how she was initiated as a member of the European family of nations. The main interest of our story will gather about Peter the Great, whose almost superhuman strength and energy it was that first lifted the great barbarian nation to a prominent place among the Western states. 504. Ivan the Terrible (15 33-1 5 84). — The most noteworthy name among the rulers of Russia after the opening of the modern era is that of Ivan IV, surnamed " the Terrible," on account of his many cruel and revengeful acts. While yet a child of thirteen years he caused a boyar, or noble, who had offended him, to be torn in pieces in his presence by dogs. Towards the close of his reign he killed his eldest son with a blow of his iron staff. At Nov- gorod, in punishment for a supposed conspiracy of the nobles, he put to death over fifteen hundred persons. But Ivan, despite his terribly cruel disposition, did much to extend and consolidate the Russian dominions. He wrested from the Tartars Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1554), and thus gained possession of the entire length of the Volga, — the most important highway of commerce within the Russian Empire, — and extended the limits of his dominions to the shores of the Caspian. " In the Russian annals," says Rambaud, " the expe- dition to Kazan occupies the same glorious place as the defeat 454 THE HOUSE OF ROMANOV 455 of Abderrahman in the history of the Franks." From that day to this Russia has steadily pushed the Turanian peoples back from their conquests in Europe, and as steadily encroached upon their domains in Asia. Even before the death of Ivan the Ural Moun- tains had been crossed and the conquest of Siberia fairly begun. In 1547 Ivan assumed at his coronation the title of " Tsar. " ^ In adopting this imposing title it was his purpose not only to pro- claim the new dignity and power with which favoring fortune had invested the Grand Princes of Moscow but also to give expression to the idea that the Muscovite rulers were the heirs and successors of the Caesars of Constantinople. He maintained that " if Constantinople had been the second, Moscow was the third Rome, — the living heir of the Eternal City." 505. Beginning of the House of Romanov (16 13); Accession of Peter the Great (1682). — The line of the old Norseman Rurik ended in 1598. Then followed a. period of confusion and of foreign invasion known as the "Troublous Times," after which, in 1 61 3, Michael Romanov, the first of the family that bears his name, was chosen Tsar. The dynasty thus founded held the throne until the Revolution of March, 19 17. For more than half a century after the accession of the Romanovs there is little either in the genius or the deeds of any of the line calculated to draw our special attention. But towards the close of the seventeenth century there ascended the Russian throne "a man of miracles," — a man whose genius and energy and achievements instantly drew the gaze of the world, and who has elicited the admiration and wonder of all succeeding generations. This was Peter I, later to be known as Peter the Great, one of the most remarkable characters of history. He was but seventeen years of age when he assumed the full responsibilities of government. 506. Peter*s Character. — And here, as Peter steps upon the stage to play his great part in the drama of history, we must notice what sort of man he was.' 1 This was the title given by Russian writers to potentates, in particular to the Caesars of Rome and Constantinople. Ivan III (1462-1505) had made use of the title in his correspondence, but Ivan IV was the first Russian prince upon whom the title was formally bestowed at his coronation. 456 THE RISE OF RUSSIA Like Philip II of Spain, Peter was the true child of his race. In him all the forces of the Russian race life seem to have been concentrated. " Never," says his latest biographer (Waliszewski), " never have the collective qualities of a nation, good and bad, been so summed up in a single personality, destined to be its historical type. . . . Peter is Russia, — her flesh and blood, her temperament, her vir- tues, and her vices." Peter has been likened to the legend- ary heroes of the Rus- sian and the Gothic race. He was a man of elemental forces and passions. He had fits of Berserker rage, — wild frenzies during which the life of no one about him was safe. He in- dulged in astonishing drinking bouts and dehghted in buffoon- ery and coarse jests. But over against Peter's vices were set many virtues. He worked strenuously at his kingly trade, not alone from sheer love of work but because work was to him a duty. He was not with- out truly royal thoughts, like those of the best of the enlightened despots, in regard to the nature of the kingly office. He is said to have uttered this sentiment : "I am the first servant of my people." And this was not a mere sentiment with him, as the following story witnesses. One day he visited a park which he Fig. 83. — Peter the Great (After i painting by Karel de Moor) THE STATE OF RUSSIA 457 had made, and was surprised to find no one in it. " Do the peo- ple suppose," he inquired, " that I have set so many hands at work and spent so much money simply for my own benefit ? " And then he ordered proclamation to be made that the park belonged to the people and that they were to use it as their own. 507. The State of Russia when Peter assumed the Government. — In order to understand what Peter did for Russia we must ac- quaint ourselves with the condition of the country when he took into his hands the shaping of its destinies. In the first place, we should note the geographical isolation of Russia. At this time she possessed only one seaport. Archangel, on the White Sea, which harbor for a large part of the year is sealed against vessels by the extreme cold of that high latitude. The Tartars and Turks cut her oif from the Black Sea ; the terri- tories of the Swedes and the Poles intervened between her and the Baltic. She looked towards Asia, to which continent she in fact belonged. When in 1648 the European states readjusted their affairs in the great Westphalian peace, Russia had no lot or part in the convention, not simply because she had stood aloof from the Thirty Years' War, but also because she was not then regarded as forming a part of Europe. In the second place, we should recall how Russia had been actually Asiaticized through her long subjection to the Mongol hordes (sec. 175). That tide of conquest, it is true, had now ebbed. But "the flood," as Waliszewski says, "receding from the soil had left behind it, Hke a heavy deposit, all its stable ele- ments, — forms of government, customs, and habits of thought." The Russia which had emerged was, as our author says, essentially Asiatic and barbarous. 508. Peter's Task ; his Programme not wholly Original. — Peter's task was to break Russia's isolation and to undo the work of the Tartar conquerors, — to make again European what they had made Asiatic. Hence one essential part of Peter's pro- gramme was to wrest the Euxine from the hands of the Turks and the eastern shores of the Baltic from the grasp of the Swedes. Thus would he gain for Russia her first great need, — access to 458 THE RISE OF RUSSIA the sea. Thus would he break that isolation which had done so much to keep the country in the rear of the nations of Western Europe in the march of progress. Another essential article of Peter's policy was the introduction into Russia of the ideas, customs, arts, and industries of Western Europe, — in a word, to make Russia in her thoughts, ideals, and institutions a member of the European family of nations. This programme of Peter's, it should be noted, was not wholly original with him. Russia had gradually been preparing for his advent. Her expansion towards water frontiers had already begun. The Caspian had been reached, Siberia had been over- run, and a firm foothold secured on the Pacific shore. Thus Peter simply gave a fresh impulse to an expansion movement already well under way. It was the same in regard to Peter's internal reforms. The leaven of Western ideas was already working in the mass of Russian conservatism, causing in some minds a great fermenta- tion and calling into existence a party of reform and progress. At Moscow there was a large settlement of foreigners, including German and other merchants, and adventurers from almost every land of the West. It was in the free air of this foreign suburb that Peter, while yet a mere boy, overjoyed to escape from the suffo- cating atmosphere of the palace, spent much of his time, and here it was that he got his advanced ideas. Among the foreign residents of the palace with whom Peter fraternized were the Swiss Lefort, the Scotch Gordon, and the Dutch Timmermann. Through these and other foreign companions it was that Peter learned how back- ward and barbarous his own country was compared with the pro- gressive and civilized states of the West.. 509. The Conquest of Azov (1696). — In 1695 Peter sailed down the Don and made an attack upon Azov, the key to the Black Sea, but was unsuccessful. The next year, however, repeat- ing the attempt, he succeeded, and thus gained his first harbor on the south. No sooner had Peter secured his new harbor than he set in earnest about the construction of a marine fleet (i 696-1697), in ,s -a 3 1 1 1 Scale oX Mile Denmark an Sweden Poland and Russia Prussia and Souse of Au Turks y u y J jy PETER'S FIRST VISIT TO THE WEST 45^ which enterprise he was aided by shipwrights whom he had called from Venice and other Western states. So energetically was the work pushed that in less than two years a great fleet of war ships was floating upon the streams running to the Sea of Azov. 510. Peter's First ^ Visit to the West (1697-1698). — With a view to advancing his naval projects, Peter about this time sent a large number of young Russian nobles to Italy, Holland, and England to acquire in those countries a knowledge of naval affairs, forbidding them to return before they had become good sailors. Not satisfied with thus sending to foreign parts his young nobil- ity, Peter formed the somewhat startling resolution of going abroad himself and learning the art of shipbuilding by personal experience in the dockyards of Holland. Accordingly, in the year 1697, leav- ing the government in the hands of three nobles, he set out for the Netherlands. Peter, with his uncouth barbarian suite, made a great sensation as he traveled westward. His passage with his court was like the passage of a horde of untamed Cossacks. Peter himself often acted like a savage and made his entertainers no end of trouble and anxiety. At Konigsberg he asked to see a man broken on the wheel. The authorities explained to him that they were unable to gratify his wish, since there was no criminal at hand condemned to undergo that form of punishment. Peter was astonished that thai; should stand in the way of his seeing how the instrument worked. "What a fuss about killing a man ! " he said. The palaces in which Peter and his company were lodged were left in a condition that could hardly have been worse had they been subjected to a regular siege. Prudent hosts removed every- thing breakable from the apartments designed for the accommo- dation of the "barbarian court." ^ 2 Peter made a second European tour in 1716-1717. 3 Wilhelmina, the sister of Frederick the Great of Prussia, who saw Peter and his company at Berlin when the Tsar was on his second visit to the West some years after this, gives in her Memoirs the following amusing account of what happened at the summer palace, near the capital, where Peter and his suite were lodged. Recount- ing the prudent measures taken by the queen to minimize the inevitable damage, she writes : " In order to prevent the mischief which the Russian gentlemen had done in other places where they had lodged, the queen ordered the principal furniture, and 460 THE RISE OF RUSSIA Upon reaching the Netherlands Peter proceeded to Zaandam, a place a short distance from Amsterdam. After a week's stay here, in order to escape the annoyance of the crowds, Peter left the place and went to the docks of the East India Company at Amsterdam, who set about building a frigate that he might see the whole process of constructing a vessel from the beginning. Here he worked for four months, being known among his fellow- workmen as Baas or Master Peter. It was not alone the art of naval architecture in which Peter interested himself ; he attended lectures on anatomy, studied sur- gery, gained some skill in pulling teeth and in bleeding, inspected paper mills, flour mills, printing presses, and factories, and visited cabinets, hospitals, and museums, thus acquainting himself with every industry and art that he thought might be advantageously introduced into his own country. From Holland Master Peter went to England to study her superior naval establishment and to learn " the why " and " the wherefore." Here he was fittingly received by King William III, who had presented Peter while in Holland with a splendid yacht fully equipped, and who now made his guest extremely happy by getting up for him a naval review. While in England Peter gathered a company of several hundred engineers, captains, surgeons, mechanics, and persons learned in the various sciences, and by magnificent promises — which the truth requires us to say were very badly kept — induced them to go to Russia to help him build fleets, train soldiers, cut canals, and Europeanize his country. Returning from England to Hol- land, Peter went thence to Vienna, intending to visit Venice; whatever was most brittle, to be removed." And this is what she has to say of the condition of the palace after the Russian guests had left it : " What desolation was there visible ! I never beheld anything like it ;. indeed, I think Jerusalem after its siege and capture could not have presented such another scene. This elegant palace was left by them in so ruinous a state that the queen was absolutely obliged to rebuild the whole of it." A similar story comes from England. The English government lodged Peter and his court in the fine residence of the celebrated writer, John Evelyn. The owner of the premises felt constrained to ask the government to pay for the injury they had sustained. The damages were carefully assessed and amounted to £ZS^ 9s. 6d. PETER DISBANDS THE STRELTSI 461 but hearing of an insurrection at home, he set out in haste for Moscow. 511. Peter disbands the Streltsi and creates a New Army after Western Models. — The revolt which had hastened Peter's return from the West was an uprising among the Streltsi, a body of mili- tia, numbering twenty or thirty thousand, who formed the nearest thing to a standing Russian army. In their ungovernable turbu- lence they remind us of the Pretorians of the Roman emperors, or the Janizaries of the later Turkish sultans. The present mutiny had been suppressed before Peter's arrival, so that there was noth- ing now remaining for him to do save to mete out punishment to the ringleaders, of whom a thousand or more were put to death with the crudest tortures. Peter beheaded some of the wretches with his own hands, and compelled the nobles of his court also to help strike off the heads of the condemned. Nothing better illus_trates the barbarism of the Russia of Peter's time than the fact that his acting thus as an executioner never shocked his subjects in the least. This revolt settled Peter in his determination to rid himself altogether of the insolent and turbulent Streltsi. A royal edict disbanded those regiments that had had any part in the uprising ; a subsequent revolt led to the abolition of the remaining regi- ments. Thus at a blow did the resolute Peter destroy a power that had come to overshadow the throne itself. The place of the Streltsi was taken by a well-discipHned force trained according to the tactics of the Western nations. 512. Peter*s Other Reforms. — The reorganization of the Rus- sian military system was only one of the many reforms undertaken by Peter. The variety of these was so great, and Peter's manner of effecting them so harsh and strenuous, that, as one has aptly expressed it, he fairly "knouted the Russians into civilization." As outgrowths of what he had seen or heard or had had sug- gested to him on his foreign tour, Peter issued a new coinage, introduced schools, built factories, constructed roads and canals, established a postal system, opened mines, framed laws modeled after those of the West, and reformed the government of the 462 THE RISE OF RUSSIA towns in such a way as to give the citizens some voice in the management of their local affairs, as he had observed was done in the Netherlands and in England. Most important in its political as well as religious consequences was Peter's reform in the ecclesiastical system. At this time the Russian Church formed a sort of state within the state. The head of the Church, bearing the title of Patriarch, was a kind of Rus- sian pope. Through his censorship of the temporal authority and his interference in matters secular, he hampered and embarrassed the government. Peter put an end to this state of things. He abolished the patriarchate, and in its place created an adminis- trative body, appointed by himself and called the Holy Synod, to take charge of ecclesiastical affairs. Thus the last restraint upon the authority of the Tsar was destroyed. The Russian govern- ment became an unlimited monarchy of the purest Oriental type. 513. Charles XII of Sweden; the Swedish Monarchy at his Accession. — Peter's history now becomes intertwined with that of a man quite as remarkable as himself, — Charles XII of Sweden. Charles was but fifteen years of age when, in 1697, the death of his father called him to the Swedish throne.'* Sweden was at this time one of the great powers of Europe. The basis of her greatness had been laid during the period of the Reformation. The traditions of the hero Gustavus Adolphus cast a halo about the Swedish throne. The ideal of this great sovereign had been the creation of a state embracing all the lands bordering upon the Baltic. In a certain measure this magnificent ideal had been realized. The Baltic was virtually a Swedish lake, — the Mediterranean of an empire which aspired to be the mistress of the North. But unfortunately Sweden could not maintain such a sea empire without hemming in and cramping in their normal development, territorial or commercial, various neighboring states, — in particular 4 The government of Sweden had now become an absolute autocracy. In 1693 the Riksdag, or Diet, had proclaimed the Swedish monarch to be an "all-commanding sovereign-king responsible for his actions to none on earth, but with authority as a Christian king to rule as it seemetb to him best," THE BATTLE OF NARVA 463 Russia, Poland, and Denmark. In this situation lay hidden the germ of the long and obstinate so-named Swedish Wars, which were essentially a struggle for the control of the Baltic. The accession to the throne of the young and inexperienced Charles offered to the jealous enemies and watchful rivals of Sweden seemingly too good an opportunity to be lost for pushing her back into the northern peninsula. Accordingly three sover- eigns, Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, and Peter the Great of Russia, leagued against him for the purpose of appropriating such por- tions of his dominions as they severally coveted. 514. The Battle of Narva (1700). — But the conspirators had formed a wrong estimate of the young Swedish monarch. Not- withstanding the insane follies in which he was accustomed to indulge, he possessed talent; especially had he a remarkable aptitude for military affairs, though lacking many of the qualities of a great commander. With a well-trained force — a veteran army that had not yet forgotten the discipline of the hero Gustavus Adolphus — Charles now threw himself first upon the Danes, and in two weeks forced the Danish king to sue for peace ; then he turned his Httle army of eight thousand men upon the Russian forces of twenty thou- sand, which were besieging the city of Narva, on the Gulf of Finland, and inflicted upon them a most ignominious defeat. The only comment of the imperturbable Peter upon the disaster was, " The Swedes will have the advantage of us at first, but they will teach us how to beat them." 5 15. The Founding of St. Petersburg (1703). — After chastising the Tsar at Narva, the Swedish king turned south and marched into Poland to punish Augustus for the part he had taken in the conspir- acy against him. While Charles was busied in this quarter, Peter, having made good by. strenuous exertions his loss in men and arms at Narva, was gradually making himself master of the Swedish lands on the Baltic, and upon a marshy island at the mouth of the Neva was laying the foundations of the city of Petersburg, which he proposed to make the western gateway of his empire. 464 THE RISE OF RUSSIA The spot selected by Peter as the site of his new capital was low and subject to inundation/ so that the labor requisite to make it fit for building purposes was simply enormous. But difficulties never dismayed Peter. He gathered workmen from all parts of his dominions, cut down and dragged to the spot whole forests for piles and buildings, and caused a city to rise as if by magic from the morasses. The splendid capital stands to-day one of the most impressive monuments of the indomitable and despotic energy of Peter. 516. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII ; the Battle of Poltava (1709). — Having defeated the armies of King Augustus and given his crown to another, Charles was now ready to turn his attention once more to the Tsar. With an army of barely forty thousand men he began his eastward march. It soon developed that his bold plan was to strike the ancient capital Moscow, and there to dictate terms of peace. It was a terrible march that the Swedes made, a march some- what like that of the Grand Army under Napoleon a century later. The Russian tactics were almost the same now as then, the villages being abandoned and burned, and the entire country made a desert in front of the advancing Swedes. Thus impeded in his march, Charles suddenly gave up his direct advance upon Moscow and turned south into the Ukraine. Here he finally laid siege to the town of Poltava. Peter marched to its relief, and the two armies met in decisive combat in front of the place. The Swedish army was virtually annihilated. Escap- ing with a few followers from the field, Charles fled southward and found an asylum in Turkey.® 5 Peter tells us of an inundation which occurred in 1706. "It was amusing," he writes, " to see how the people sat on roofs and trees, just as in the time of the Deluge." In selecting such a marshy site for his capital, Peter may have been aiming to reproduce Amsterdam, in which city he had spent so much of his time when abroad. 6 After spending five years among the Turks, during which time he acted in a manner which abundantly justified his title of the " Madman of the North," Charles returned to Sweden. Soon after his return he was killed in battle. At the time of his death Charles was only thirty-six years of age. Perhaps we can understand him best by regarding him, as his biographer Voltaire suggests, as an old Norse sea king bom ten centuries after his time. He was indeed " the last of the Vikings." SIGNIFICANCE OF PETER'S WORK 465 517. Russia's Title to Baltic Land confirmed ; Peter's Death. — In 1 72 1 the Swedish Wars which had so long disturbed Europe were brought to an end by the Peace of Nystad, which con- firmed Russia's title to all the eastern Baltic lands that Peter had wrested from the Swedes. The undisputed possession of so large a strip of the Baltic seaboard . vastly increased the impor- tance and influence of Russia, which now assumed a place among the leading European powers. Peter's eventful reign was now drawing to a close. Four years after the end of the Swedish Wars, being then in his fifty-fourth year, he died of a fever brought on by his excesses and care- less exposures. It was characteristic of his lack of prudence and foresight that he left no will nor any directions regarding the succession to the throne. 518. Peter's Significance for Russian History. — Probably in the case of no other European nation has any single personaHty left so deep and abiding an impress upon the national life and history as Peter the Great left upon Russian society and Russian history. He planted throughout his vast empire the seeds of Western civihzation, and by his giant strength lifted the great nation which destiny had placed in his hands out of Asiatic barbarism into the society of the European peoples. But it is the remote influence of Peter's work upon the Rus- sian government which is of special interest to us as students of the Political Revolution. In destroying all checks, military and ecclesiastical, upon the power of the crown, Peter, it is true, rendered the Russian government a perfect despotism of the Asiatic type. But in bringing into his dominions Western civili- zation, he introduced influences which were destined in time to neutrahze all he had done in the way of strengthening the basis of despotism. He introduced a civilization which fosters popular liberties and undermines personal despotic government. "No avowed champion of the people, aided by the most favorable circumstances," says Noble, "could have done such effective battle for Russiah liberties as that compassed by the champion of absolute power. . . . Peter was the first to fairly roll RussiaB 466 THE RISE OF RUSSIA tyranny in the Nessus shirt of European civilization. This was the reformer's real significance for the national life." 519. Reign of Catherine the Great (17 62-1 796); the Partition of Poland. — From the death of Peter on to the close of the eighteenth century the Russian throne was held, the greater part of the time, by women, the most noted of whom w^as Catherine II, the Great, who was one of the most distinguished representatives of the so-called enlightened despots (sec. 439). But while a woman of great genius she had most serious faults of character, being incredibly profligate and un- scrupulous. Carrying out ably the policy of Peter the Great,. Catherine extended vastly the limits of Russian dominion and opened the country even more thoroughly than he had done to the entrance of Western influences. She was a genuine admirer of the French philoso- phers and was at pains to disseminate their teachings in her dominions. Aside from internal reforms, the most noteworthy matters of Catherine's reign were her conquest of the Crimea and her participation in the dismemberment of Poland. It was in the year 1783 that Catherine effected the subjugation and annexation to Russia of the Crimea. The possession of this peninsula gave Russia dominion on the Black Sea, which once virtually secured by Peter the Great had been again lost through Fig. 84. Catherine II of Russia. a portrait by Rosselin) (Aftc THE PARTITION OF POLAND I 50 50 100 150 200. I ■ r I I I I 1 I I Scale of Miles. □ Ten'itories taken | .Territories taken by Eussia J 1 by Austria (ZI^Territorjes taken by Prussia gf THE M.-N.WORKS, BUFFALO. REIGN OF CATHERINE THE GREAT 467 his misfortunes. This extension of the rule of the Muscovite to the Euxine was a matter of great moment to all Eastern Europe ; for now, as Freeman says, " the road through which so many Turanian invaders had pressed into the Aryan continent was blocked forever." On the West Catherine succeeded, by intrigue and the most shameful disregard of the law of nations, in greatly extending the limits of her dominions. This she effected at the expense of Poland, the partition of which state she planned in connection with Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria. On the first division, which was made in 1772, the royal robbers each took a portion of the spoils. This act of brigandage was con- summated in spite of the efforts of patriotic Poles for reform, the anarchical condition of the Polish state being the pretext of the despoiling sovereigns for their action."^ It is difficult to apportion the blame among the participators in this transaction. Maria Theresa seems to have been the only one connected with the iniquitous business who had any scruples of conscience respecting the act. She justly characterized the proposed partition as downright robbery, for a long time stood out against it, and yielded at last and took her portion only when she reahzed that she was powerless to prevent the others from carrying out the policy of dismemberment. In 1793 a second partition was made, this time between Russia and Prussia ; and then, in 1 795 , after the suppression of a determined 7 The Polish constitution was a survival of the age of mediaeval feudal anarchy. In the struggle here between the royal power and the feudal nobility the aristocracy had triumphed, and had reduced the kingly authority to the mere shadow of elective kingship. One particular -source of the anarchical state of things was a provision of the constitution which gave to every single member of the Diet the right and power to defeat any measure by his vote cast in opposition {liberum veto). Every noble was virtually a king. But it must be added that this anarchical state of the kingdom can- not be pleaded by the dismemberers of Poland in extenuation of their crime, for they in every possible way prevented all schemes of reform and fostered the anarchy because it served their interests and furthered their plans to do so. Louis XIV of France gave his ambassador these instructions : " The government of Poland must be regarded as an anarchy ; but this anarchy serves the interests of France, and so it must be fostered." Further, an admirable new constitution was drawn up for Poland in 1 791, which would have made it a strong state had a chance been allowed. 468 THE RISE OF RUSSIA revolt of the Poles under the lead of the patriot Kosciuszko, a third and final division among the three powers completed the dismemberment of the unhappy state and erased its name from the map of Europe. This was the first instance in two hundred years of the destruc- tion of a sovereign Christian state by sister states. Unfortunately the pages of the history of the following century were to be stained with the record of many similar acts of international brigandage, yet by none quite as wicked or as far-reaching in its regrettable consequences as was this assassination of Poland. The territory gained by Russia in the dismemberment of Poland brought her western frontier close alongside the civilization of Central Europe. In Catherine's phrase, Poland had become her "door mat," upon which she stepped when visiting the West. By the close of Catherine's reign Russia was beyond question one of the foremost powers of Europe, and was henceforward to have a voice in all matters of general European concern. She was destined to play an important part in the Napoleonic Wars and in the great struggle between the people and their despotic rulers, — a struggle already inaugurated on the Continent by the Revolutionists in France. Selections from the Sources. — Sigismund von Herberstein, Notes upon Rtissia (Hakluyt Society publications). The author of these valuable " Notes " was a German ambassador at the Russian court during the years 151 7-1 526. Secondary Works. — Rambaud, History of Russia. This is the best comprehensive history of Russia available in English. Schuyler, Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia. The best biography of the great Tsar. For a shorter, delightfully written life, see Motley, Peter the Great. Morfill, Story of Russia, chaps, v-ix, and Story of Poland, chap, xi ; the last for the Partition of Poland. Bain, Charles XII. There have recently appeared from the pen of a brilliant writer biographies of Peter the Great and Cath- erine II, but unfortunately they are works which cannot be recommended as wholesome reading for the young, or as impartial history. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Geography of the Russian Empire. 2. Ivan the Terrible. 3. Peter's boyhood. 4. The founding of St. Peters- burg. 5. Charles XII at Bender in Turkey. 6. Peter and his son and heir Alexis. 7. Catherine the Great and the Partition of Poland. CHAPTER XXX THE RISE OF PRUSSIA: FREDERICK THE GREAT (1740-1786) 520. The Beginnings of Prussia. — The foundation of the Prussian kingdom was laid in the beginning of the seventeenth century (in 161 1) by the union of two small states south of the Baltic, one in Germany and one in Poland. These were the Elect- orate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia. Brandenburg had been gradually growing into prominence since the tenth cen- tury. Its ruler at the time of the union was a prince of the noted House of Hohenzollern, and was one of the seven princes to whom belonged the right of electing the Emperor. Prussia, so called from the Borussi, a tribe of desperate heathen of Lithuanian race, was a small state lying along the Baltic shore in Poland, east of the Vistula. It had been conquered by the valor of the Teutonic Knights in the thirteenth century, and dur- ing this and the following centuries had been gradually German- ized (sec. 154). 521. The Great Elector Frederick William (i 640-1 688). Although this new Prussian power was destined to become the champion of German Protestantism, it acted a very unworthy and vacillating part in the Thirty Years' War. But just before the close of that struggle a strong man came to the throne, — Frederick William, better known as the " Great Elector." He infused vigor and strength into every department of the state and acquired such a position for his government that at the Peace of West- phalia he was able to secure new territory, which greatly enhanced his power and prominence among the German princes. The Great Elector ruled for nearly half a century, and. left to his successor a strongly centralized authority. He was one of the 469 470 THE RISE OF PRUSSIA most ideal representatives of the principle of absolute monarchy then so dominant. Like all absolute rulers, he placed his faith in soldiers, and laid the basis of the military power of Prussia by the creation of a standing army. . 522 . How the Elector of Brandenburg acquired the Title of King. — Elector Frederick III (1688-1713), son of the Great Elector, was ambitious for the title of King, a dignity that the weight and influence won for the Prussian state by his father fairly justified him in seeking. He saw about him other princes less powerful than himself enjoying this dignity, and he too " would be a king and wear a crown." It was necessary of course for Frederick to secure the consent of the Emperor, a matter of some difficulty, for the Catholic advisers of the Austrian court were bitterly opposed to having an heretical prince thus honored and advanced. But the War of the Spanish Succession was just about to open, and the Emperor was extremely anxious to secure Frederick's assistance in the coming struggle. Therefore, on condition of his furnishing him aid in the war, the Emperor consented to Frederick's assuming the new title and dignity in the Duchy of Prussia, which, unlike Brandenburg, was not included in the Empire. Accordingly, early in the year 1 70 1, Frederick, amidst imposing ceremonies, was crowned and hailed as King at Konigsberg. Hitherto- he had been Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia ; now he was Elector of Bran- denburg and King of Prussia. Thus was a new king born among the kings of Europe. Thus did the House of Hapsburg .invest with royal dignity the rival House of HohenzoUern. The event is a landmark in German, and even in European, history. The cue of German history from this on is the growth of the power of the Prussian kings and their steady advance to imperial honors and to the control of the affairs of the German race. 523. Frederick William I (i 713-1740). — The son and suc- cessor of the first Prussian king, known as Frederick William I, was a most extraordinary character. He was a strong, violent, brutal man, full of the strangest freaks, yet in many respects just FREDERICK WILLIAM I 471 the man for the times. He despised culture and treated scholars with studied contempt, being reported as having declared that *' a pinch of common sense was worth a university full of learning." He would tolerate no idlers. He carried a long cane, which he laid upon the back of every unoccupied person he chanced to meet, whether man, woman, or child. Frederick William had a mania for big soldiers. With infinite expense and trouble he gathered a regiment of the tallest men he could find, who were known as the " Potsdam Giants," — a regi- ment numbering twenty-four hundred men. Not only were the Goliaths of his own dominions impressed into the service, but tall men in all parts of Europe were coaxed and hired to join the regiment. No present was so acceptable to him as a tall grena- dier. The Princess Wilhelmina, referring to her father's ruling passion, says : " This regiment might justly be styled ' the chan- nel of royal favor,' for to give or to procure tall men for the king was sufficient to obtain anything of him." On the other hand, nothing angered him more than any interference with his recruit- ing service. To the Dutch, who had hanged two of his recruiting sergeants and then later wanted from Prussia a famous scholar for one of their universities, he is said to have replied curtly, " No tall fellows, no professor." Considering the trouble and expense Frederick William had in collecting his giants, the care which he took of them was quite natural. He looked after them as tenderly as though they were infants, and was very careful never to expose them to the dangers of a battle. Notwithstanding Frederick William was so eccentric in many of his public acts, and in his domestic relations was a perfect savage, in the general administration of his government he evinced such energy and good judgment that he is admitted to have been one of the greatest administrators of his age. He did very much to consolidate the power of Prussia, and at his death in 1740 left to his successor a considerably extended dominion and a splendidly drilled army which he had increased from thirty- five thousand to eighty thousand men. 472 THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 524. Accession of Frederick the Great (1740).; his Youth Frederick William was followed by his son Frederick II, more generally known as Frederick the Great. Like his father he was a soldier, but unlike him he was fond of music and literature and keenly interested in the economic welfare of his subjects. Around his name gather events of world-wide interest for forty-six years just preceding the French Revolution. It was a rough nurture Frederick had received in the home of his brutal father. His sister Wilhelmina tells incredible tales of her own and her brother's treatment at the hands of their savage parent. He made the palace a veritable hell for them both. He threw plates from the table at their heads and kept them in con- stant fear for their lives. Frederick's fine tastes for music and art and reading exposed him in particular, to use the words of Wil- helmina, to his royal father's "customary endearments with his fist and cane." Frederick had a genius for war, and his father had prepared to his hand one of the most efficient instruments of that art since the time of the Roman legions. "The Prussian battalion," says Frederick, speaking of the army he had inherited from his paren- tal drillmaster, " had become a walking battery." One Prussian, he asserts, was equal to three adversaries. The two great wars in which Frederick was engaged, and which raised Prussia to a rank among the great military powers of Europe, were the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. 525. War of the Austrian Succession (i 740-1 748). — Through the death of Charles VI the imperial office became vacant in the very year that Frederick II ascended the Prussian throne. Charles was the last of the direct male line of the Hapsburgs, and disputes straightway arose respecting the succession to the dominions of the House of Austria, which resulted in the long struggle known as the War of the Austrian Succession. Now, not long before his death Charles had bound all the different states of his dominion and all the leading powers of Europe to a sort of agreement called the Pragmatic Sanction, by S PRUSSIA at tlie-AceessioiL of rREDEKICK THE (JKEAT ln..l?40 q 50 100 Scale of Miles SUA PRUSSIA a '^ at the Death of fkedekicb: the gkeat In 1~86 ()50100 ' Scate Of "Miles' WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 473 the terms of which, in case he should leave no son, all his hered- itary dominions — that is, the kingdom of Hungary, the kingdom of Bohemia, the archduchy of Austria, and. the other possessions of the House of Austria — should descend to his elder daughter, Maria Theresa. Accordingly, upon the death of Charles these dominions passed to the archduchess, who was now called Queen of Hungary, that being the highest title of all those which she was entitled to bear.^ Solemnly as the powers of Europe had agreed to maintain the Pragmatic Sanction, no sooner was Charles dead than Bavaria, Spain, Sardinia, and Saxony each laid claim to all or to portions of the Hapsburg inheritance. France, quite willing to aid in the dismemberment of Austria, supported the pretensions of Bavaria. Before any of these claimants, however, had begun hostilities, Frederick, — whose father had guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, — without any declaration of war, marched his army into Silesia and took forcible possession of that country. Frederick's act was an act of pure brigandage. He himself frankly tells posterity that the mixed motive under which he acted was a desire to aug- ment his dominions, to render himself and Prussia respected in Europe, and to acquire fame. Thus stripped of one of her fairest provinces, Maria Theresa finally appealed to the Hungarian nobility to avenge her wrongs. They were at this time discontented because certain of their rights had not been respected. By restoring or confirming all their ancient liberties, the queen gained their ardent and loyal support. England, the Protestant Netherlands, and eventually Russia were drawn into the war as allies of Maria Theresa. The theater of the struggle came to embrace India and the French and Eng- lish colonies in the New World. Macaulay's well-known words picture the world-wide range of the conflagration which Freder- ick's act had kindled : " In order that he might rob a neighbor," 1 The imperial crown could not of course be worn by her. This was given by the Electors to Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, who became Emperor Charles VII (1742). Three years later Charles died and the husband of Maria Theresa was raised by the Electors to the imperial throne as Emperor Francis 1. 474 THE RISE OF PRUSSIA he says, " whom he had promised to defend, black men fought on the coast of Coromandel, and red men scalped each other by the Great Lakes of North America." The war went on until 1748, when it was closed by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Carlyle's summing up of the provisions of the various treaties of this peace can be easily remembered, and is not misleading as to the essentials : " To Frederick, Silesia ; as to the rest, wholly as they were." 526. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763). — The eight years of peace which followed the War of the Austrian Succession were improved by Frederick in developing the resources of his king- dom and perfecting the organization and discipline of his army. During this time Maria Theresa was busy forming a league of the chief European powers against the unscrupulous despoiler of her dominions. Russia, Sweden, many of the states of the Germanic body, and even France, who now abandoned her traditional policy of opposition to the House of Austria, — all ultimately entered into an alliance with the empress queen. Frederick could at first find no ally save England,- — towards the close of the war Russia came for a short time to his side, — so that he was left almost alone to fight the combined armies of half the Continent.^ Throughout the struggle Prussia w^as scarcely more than a "Spartan camp." The long war is known in European history as the Seven Years' War. At the very outset it became mixed with what in American history is called the French and Indian War, which had practi- cally begun wdth the disastrous defeat of Braddock in 1755. At first the fortunes of the war were all on Frederick's side. In the celebrated battles of Rossbach, Leuthen, and Zorndorf he defeated successively the French, the Austrians, and the Russians. These successes revealed the fact that the armies of Prussia had at their head a commander whose very ability made him a dangerous force in Europe. His name became everywhere a household word, and everybody coupled with it the epithet of Great. 2 The population of Prussia at this time was about 5,000,000 ; the aggregate popu- lation of the states leagued against her is estimated at 100,000,000. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 475 But fortune finally deserted him. In sustaining the unequal contest his dominions became drained of men; England with- drew her aid,^ and inevitable ruin seemed to impend over his throne and kingdom. He himself despaired of being able much longer to hold his enemies at bay, and carried about his person poison to use when the last effort should have been made. A change by death in the government of Russia now put a new face upon Fred- erick's affairs. In 1762 Empress EHzabeth of that country died, and Peter III, an ardent admirer of Fred- erick, came to the throne, and immediately transferred the armies of Russia from the side of the allies to that of Prussia. "Together we will conquer the whole world," was the sanguine declaration of the Tsar as he joined his forces to those of his friend. The alliance lasted only a few months, Peter being deposed and murdered by his wife, who now came to the throne as Catherine II. She adopted a neutral poHcy and recalled her armies; but the temporary alliance had given Frederick a decisive advantage, and the year following the defection of Russia, England and France were glad to give over the struggle and sign the Peace of Paris 8 William Pitt (later, Earl of Chatham) fell from power in 1761, and his policy of fighting France by helping Frederick was abandoned. Consult sec. 540. Fig. 85. — Maria Theresa 4/6 THE RISE OF PRUSSIA (1763). Shortly after this another peace (the Treaty of Huberts- burg) was arranged between Austria and Prussia, and" one of the most terrible wars that had ever disturbed Europe was over. Silesia was left in the hands of Frederick. The Seven Years' War was one of the decisive combats of his- tory. Besides the Anglo-French question in India (sec. 540), it settled two questions of vast reach and significance. First, it settled, or at least put in the way of final settlement, the Austro- Prussian question, — the question as to whether Austria or Prussia should be leader in Germany. It made Prussia the equal of Aus- tria and foreshadowed her ascendancy. Second, it settled the Anglo-French question in America, a question like the Austro-Prussian question in Europe. It decided that North America should belong to the Protestant Anglo-Saxon, and not to the Catholic Latin, race. Thus, though the war was in no sense a religious war, still the outcome of the tremendous struggle was the humihation of two Catholic states, Austria and France, and the lifting into promi- nence of two Protestant states, Prussia and England. There was in this vast significance for both Old and New World history. 527. Frederick rounds out his Dominions at the Expense of Poland. — It was about a decade after the close of the Seven Years' War that Frederick, as has already been related, joined with Catherine II of Russia and Maria Theresa of Austria in the First Partition of Poland (sec. 519). Respecting the value to Prussia of the territory she received in this transaction, Frederick in his History of my Own Times comments as follows : " This was one of the most important acquisitions we could possibly make, because it joined Pomerania and Eastern Prussia (see map, p. 472), and, by rendering us mas- ters of the Vistula, we gained the double advantage of being able to defend this kingdom and of levying very considerable tolls on the Vistula, the whole trade of Poland being carried on upon that river." But this aggrandizement of Prussia was secured only by just such a cynical disregard of international honesty by Frederick as marked his aimexation of Silesia. FREDERICK AS A RULER 477 528. Frederick as an Enlightened Despot. — Frederick in all his relations to his own subjects had a wholly different moral stand- ard from that which he adopted in his dealings with his brother sovereigns. In all matters concerning foreign states, expediency was his only guide ; he did whatever he thought would aggrandize Prussia and glorify himself, without any regard to truth, honesty, or honor. But for his guidance in his relations to his own people he had a different code. Despotic though he always was, yet on the whole he made such use of his absolute power that he has been numbered among the enlightened despots of the eighteenth century. Professor Morse Stephens illustrates the dif- ference between the despotism of Louis XIV and that of Frederick by thus setting in contrast their respective maxims : " Louis said, ' I am the State ' ; Frederick said, ' I am the first servant of the State.' " During the intervals of peace between his great wars, and for the half of his reign which followed the Peace of Hubertsburg, Frederick labored untiringly to develop the resources of his dominions and to promote the material welfare of his kingdom. He dug canals, constructed roads, drained marshes, encouraged agriculture and manufactures, and improved in every possible way the administration of the government. Yet in everything he did Frederick showed the true Hohenzollern spirit. He had no confidence in the ability or the intelligence of the common people and took no steps to educate or train them to be more useful citizens. On the contrary, he taught them to look to the government for all their well-being without expecting or even desiring to have any share in the government themselves. Even the nobility was not called on for much assistance, and the ministers did litde more than register the king's will. But Frederick's attention was not wholly engrossed with look- ing after the material well-being of his subjects. He was a philoso- pher and believed himself to be a poet, and usually spent several hours each day in philosophical and literary pursuits. It has been said of him that "he divided with Voltaire the intellectual mon- archy of the eighteenth century." He gathered about him a 478 THE RISE OF PRUSSIA company selected from among the most distinguished authors, sci- entists, and philosophers of the age, among whom was his *' co- sovereign" Voltaire, whom Frederick coaxed to Berlin to add brilliancy to his court, and to criticise and correct his verses. Frederick felt very proud — for a time — of this acquisition, and rejoiced that to his other titles he could now add that of " the Possessor of Voltaire." But it was an ill-assorted friendship; the two " sovereigns " soon quarreled, and Voltaire was dismissed from court in disgrace. Frederick was a freethinker. His paganism made him indiffer- ent toward all religions, and hence tolerant. He said in effect, as Carlyle reports him, " In this country every man must get to heaven in his own way." The company which he gathered at Sans Souci, his favorite palace at Potsdam, near Berlin, was a most extraordinary collection of heretics, agnostics, misbelievers, and unbelievers. It was a company very representative of that learned literary and philosophical society of the eighteenth cen- tury whose ideas and teachings did so much to prepare the w^ay for the French Revolution. It was on the very eve of this great political and social upheaval that Frederick died, — in 1786. Carlyle calls him "the last of the kings." He was of course not the last in name. Only three years after he had been laid in the tomb broke out the revolution which closed the Age of the Kings and ushered in the Age of the People. 529. Summary : Prussia made a New Center of German Crystallization. — This chapter may be summarized in this way. The all-important result of Frederick the Great's strong reign was the making of Prussia the equal of Austria, and thereby the lay- ing of the basis of future German unity. Hitherto Germany had been trying unsuccessfully to concentrate about Austria; now there was a new center of crystallization, — one which was destined to draw to itseK the Protestant elements of German nationality. The internal history of Germany from Frederick's reign on, if we leave out of consideration the period of Napoleon's domina- tion, is very largely the story of the rivalry of these two powers, BIBLIOGRAPHY 479 resulting in the final triumph of Prussia and the unification of Germany under her leadership, Austria with the mixed races under her rule being pushed out as though entitled to no part in the affairs of the Empire. This story we shall tell in a later chapter. Selections from the Sources. — Memoirs of Frederica Sophia Wil- helmina (Margravine of Baireuth, sister of Frederick the Great). These memoirs form one of the most graphic and piquant autobiographies ever written. They hold striking portraits of the author's savage father, Fred- erick William I, of her brother, to whom she was devotedly attached, and of many other distinguished contemporaries. But Wilhelmina's lively imagination and her mischievous if not malicious spirit caused her to overcolor and to exaggerate. Consequently the numerous portraits which she delights in sketching, while always interesting and often amusing, are not to be taken too seriously. Secondary Works. — Tuttle, History of Prtcssia. This work was unhappily interrupted at the year 1757 by the death of the author. It is the best history in English of the period covered. Reddaway, Fred- erick the Great ajid the Rise of Prussia. Carlyle, History of Friedrich the Second. This is one of Carlyle's masterpieces. Like his French Revo- lution it will be best appreciated if read after some acquaintance with its subject has been gained from other sources. It deals almost exclusively with Frederick's twenty-three years of war and utterly neglects or mini- mizes the twenty-three of his reign which were years of peace. Hassall, The Balance of Power, lyi^-i'jSg, chaps, vi-ix. Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years'' War. Bright, Maria Theresa. Henderson, A Short History of Germany, vol. ii, chaps, i-v. Macaulay, Essay on Frederick the Great. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The Teutonic Knights and the begin- nings of Prussia. 2. The Great Elector Frederick William. 3. Character of the father of Frederick the Great. 4. The Regiment of Giants. 5. The Empress-Queen Maria Theresa. 6. Frederick the Great and Voltaire. 7. Frederick the Great as an enlightened despot. CHAPTER XXXI EWGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY I. The Reign of Queen Anne (1702-17 14) 530. The Formula for Eighteenth-Century English History. — " The expansion of England in the New World and in Asia," says Professor Seeley, " is the formula which sums up for England the history of the eighteenth century." This expansion movement was simply the continuation of a trade and commercial development which had begun in the sixteenth century, and which had shaped large sections of the history of England by bringing her into sharp rivalry first with Spain and then with the Dutch Netherlands. Before the close of the seventeenth century England had practically triumphed over both these commercial rivals. Her great and dangerous rival in the eighteenth century was France. "The whole period," says Seeley, referring to the period between 1688 and 18 15, " stands out as an age of gigantic rivalry between England and France, a kind of second Hundred Years' War." To indicate from the viewpoint of English history the chief episodes in this great struggle between the two rivals for suprem- acy in the commercial and colonial world will be our chief aim in the present chapter. We shall, however, in order to render more complete our sketch of this century of English history, touch upon some other matters of special interest and signifi- cance, though connected in no direct manner with the dominant movement of the period. 531. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). — The War of the Spanish Succession covered the whole of the reign of Queen Anne. Respecting the causes and results of this war, 480 WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 4^1 and of England's part in it, we have already spoken in connection with the reign of Louis XIV (sec. 451). Of what was there said we need here recall only the enumeration of the territorial gains which the war, and the Peace of Utrecht which closed it, brought to England ; namely, Gibraltar and the island of Minorca in the Old World, and Nova Scotia together with a clear title to New- foundland and the Hudson Bay Territory in the New. Of special interest in the present connection is that clause of the treaty between England and Spain whereby England took away from the French and secured for English merchants the contract known as the "Assiento," which gave English subjects the sole right for thirty years of shipping annually forty- eight hundred African slaves to the Spanish colonies in America.^ This slave trade was as lucrative a trafific as the old spice trade, and at this time was some such object of rivalry among the com- mercial states of Europe as that had formerly been. The secur- ing of this contract by England made her the chief slave-trading power in the world. At the same time that England got the Assiento contract she secured from Spain the further right to send each year one vessel on a trading voyage to Spanish America. Thus as results of the first war of the eighteenth century Enjg- land had got practical control of the Mediterranean, had secured a monopoly of the lucrative slave trade with the Spanish colonies, had made a beginning of wresting from France her possessions in the New World, and had gained mastery of the seas. " Before the war," says Mahan, " England was one of the sea powers ; after it she was the sea power, without any second." 532. Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland (1707). — The most noteworthy matter in the domestic history of England during the reign of Queen Anne was the union of the Parliaments 1 The Papal Line of Demarcation (sec. 307) and treaty engagements with the Portuguese shut the Spaniards out from Africa, and hence they had to depend upon intermediaries to fetch them slaves from thence. The Dutch had had the contract before the French. For an account of the Assiento and the economic condition at this time of Spanish America, see Moses, Establishment of Spanish Rule in America^ chap. xi. 482 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY of England and Scotland.^ This important transaction was closely connected with that commercial and colonial expansion movement which characterized eighteenth-century English history. At this time England, dealing with Scotland in the same spirit as she dealt with Ireland, by means of navigation laws and high customs duties practically excluded her merchants, as though Scotland were a foreign state, from participation in that com- mercial prosperity which English traders were enjoying. The Scotch traders were shut out not only from the English colonies but also from the English home market. Scotch trade was thus strangled. In the hope of creating an outlet for their commerce, the Scots undertook to establish a colony of their own on the Isthmus of Panama, or Darien, which was given the name of New Caledonia.^ The settlement was to be the halfway station between Scotland and the East Indies. The enterprise raised great expectations. The isthmian city was to be the Alexandria of the New World, "the key of the universe."^ But the spot selected for the settlement proved unhealthy ; besides, the Span- iards made trouble and drove out the colonists, claiming that the settlement was an encroachment upon their territory. The outcome was the disastrous failure of the undertaking. The commercial distress occasioned in Scotland by reason of the miscarriage of this enterprise caused the feeling against Eng- land to become more intense than ever, and there were threats of breaking the dynastic ties which united the two countries. The English government, realizing the danger which lurked in the situation, — for the national sentiment in Scotland was still strong, — now met the Scots in a spirit of reasonable compro- mise. It was agreed that the Parliaments of the two countries should be united; that perfect free trade should be established between them ; and that all the English colonies should be open 2 It was only the crowns of the two kingdoms which were united upon the acces- sion of the House of Stuart to the EngUsh throne in 1603 (sec. 458). 3 The promoter of the project was a Scotchman named William Paterson. The active efforts to found the colony covered the years 1698-1700, 4 The scheme, it will be noted, was substantially only an anticipation of the later unfortunate French Panama Canal project c LITERATURE UNDER QUEEN ANNE 483 to Scotch traders. On this basis was brought about the union of the two realms into a single kingdom under the name of Great Britain (1707). From this time forward the two countries were represented by one Parliament sitting at Westminster. The union was advantageous to both countries; for it was a union not simply of hands but of hearts. England's constant and costly watch of her northern frontiers through ten centuries against raid and invasion could now be intermitted. As to Scot- land, her entrance into England's home and colonial markets, and her participation in English manufacturing and commercial enterprises, resulted in a wonderful expansion of her energies and resources. Manufactories sprang up on every side; insig- nificant hamlets grew quickly into great centers of industry. Ten years after the union the first Scotch vessel intended for the transatlantic trade was launched on the Clyde. The Clyde to-day is one of the greatest centers of the shipbuilding industry, and Glasgow is one of the largest and most important seaports of the world. 533. Literature under Queen Anne. — The reign of Queen Anne was an illustrious one in English literature. Under her began to write a group of brilHant authors whose activity continued on into the reign of her successor, George I. Their productions are, many of them, of special interest to the historian, because during this period there was an unusually close connection between liter- ature and politics. Literature was forced into the service of party. A large portion of the writings of the era was in the form of political pamphlets, wherein all the resources of wit, satire, and literary skill were exhausted in defending or ridiculing the oppos- ing principles and policies of Whig and Tory. The four most prominent and representative authors of the times were Alexander Pope (1688-1744), Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), Joseph Addison (i 672-1 719), and Daniel Defoe (i66i?-i73i). In the scientific annals of the period the name of Sir Isaac Newton (1642-17 2 7) is most prominent. As the discoverer of the law of gravitation and the author of the Principia^ his name 484 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY will ever retain a high place among the few who belong through their genius or achievements to no single nation or age, but to the world. 534. Death of Queen Anne; the Succession. — Queen Anne died in the year 1 7 1 4, leaving no heirs. In the reign of William a statute known as the Act of Settlement had provided that the crown, in default of heirs of WiUiam and Anne, should descend to the Elec tress Sophia of Hanover (grandchild of James I), or her heirs, " being Protestants." The Electress died only a short time before the death of Queen Anne ; so, upon that event, the crown passed to the Electress' eldest son, George, who thus became the founder of a new line of English sovereigns, the House of Hanover, or Brunswick, the family in whose hands the royal scepter still remains. 11. England under the Earlier Hanoverians^ 535. The Sovereign's Loss of Political Influence ; the Prime Minister and the ^Cabinet. — The new Hanoverian king, George I (17 1 4-1 7 2 7), was utterly ignorant of the language and the affairs of the people over whom he had been called to rule. He was not loved by the English, but he was tolerated by them for the reason that he represented Protestantism and those principles of political liberty for which they had so long battled with their Stuart kings. On account of his ignorance of English affairs the king was obliged to intrust to his ministers the practical administration of the government. The same was true in the case of George II (1727-1760). George III (1760-1820), having been born and educated in England, regained some of the old influence of former kings. But he was the last English sovereign who had any large personal influence in shaping governmental policies. The power and patronage lost by the crown passed into the hands of the chief minister, popularly called the Prime Minister, 5 The sovereigns of the House of Hanover are George I (1714-1727), George II (1727-1760), George III (1760-1820), George IV (1820-1830), William IV (1830- 1837), Victoria (1837-1901), Edward VII (1901-1910), and George V (1910- ). THE PRIME MINISTER AND CABINET 485 or Premier, whose tenure of office was dependent not upon the good will of the sovereign but upon the support of the House of Commons. This transfer of power was not made all at once, but by the middle- of the eighteenth century it was practically com- pleted, although this fact was not always gracefully and promptly recognized by the crown. In the EngHsh government of to-day the Prime Minister is the actual and fully acknowledged execu- tive. The king remains the titular sovereign, indeed, but all real power and patronage are in the hands of the Premier. The first EngHsh Prime Minister in the modem sense was Sir Robert Walpole. He did not exercise all the functions of the Premier of to-day, but his control of affairs and his relation to the dominant party in Parliament were such that to give him this name is not misleading. He was at the head of the government, as the leader of the Whig party, for about twenty-one years (i 7 2 i-i 742). He maintained a favorable majority in Parliament by gifts of office, titles, pensions, and, it is charged, by the grossly corrupt use of the immense secret-service funds of which he had the disposal.® It was during the administration of Sir Robert Walpole that what is known as the Cabinet assumed substantially the form which it has at the present time. This body is practically a com- mittee composed of a dozen or more members of Parliament, headed by the Prime Minister, and dependent for its existence upon the will of the House of Commons. The Premier and his colleagues stand and fall together. When the Cabinet can no longer command a majority in the Commons, its members resign, and a new Prime Minister, appointed nominally by the sovereign, but . really by the party in control of the House of Commons, forms a new Cabinet."^ 536. "The South Sea Bubble" (i 720-1 721). — One of the earUest matters of moment of the Hanoverian period was a 6 To him has been attributed the cynical saying, " Every man has his price." But he did not utter this " famous slander on mankind." What he actually did say was, " All these men have their price," — referring to a group of his opponents. See Mor- ley, Walpole, p. 127 ; and Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, vol. i, p. 399. 7 The Cabinet is an essential feature of all modern self-governing states which have constitutions copied after the parliamentary system developed by the English. 4S6 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY financial episode very like that connected with the name of John Law in French history (sec. 457). The affair grew directly out of the treaty arrangements which closed the War of the Spanish Suc- cession. As we have seen, England then secured certain trading privileges with the Spanish colonies. Now, at this time there were abroad most exaggerated ideas of the wealth of Spanish America, and it was conceived that trading privileges in those parts meant unlimited wealth for everybody sharing them. In anticipation of the treaty there was formed in England a com- pany to engage in trade with the Spanish colonies. The shares of the company were eagerly sought after, and soon began to rise in price like the shares of the famous French Mississippi Com- pany. Other projects were started, and a perfect mania for specu- lation developed. The outcome could of course have been fore- seen. The bubble collapsed, and to the melancholy record of "the Mississippi Bubble" was added that of "the South Sea Bubble." 537. The "War of the Austrian Succession (i 740-1 748). — From our present viewpoint we can easily see what was Eng- land's main interest in the War of the Austrian Succession (sec. 525). She entered the struggle on the side of Austria especially in order to thwart France in the two ambitious objects which she was then pursuing, namely, to make herself arbiter of Europe through the dismemberment of the Austrian monarchy, and to gain supremacy on the sea and in the colonial world. The French- English phase of the war was in the main a naval combat. The outcome was the practical destruction of the French navy and the firmer establishment of England's sea power. The relations of the two rivals in India and in America were left essen- tially unchanged,^ yet England's confirmed mastery of the sea foreshadowed the disastrous issue for France of the next conflict, which was only a little way in the future. 538. The "Young Pretender"; the Last Rally of the Jacobites (1745).-— Several times during the earlier half of the eighteenth 8 In India the French had taken Madras from the English, while in America the English had taken Louisburg in Cape Breton from the French. There was a mutual restoration of conquests at the end of the war. THE RELIGIOUS REVIVAL 487 century, the exiled Stuarts attempted to get back the throne they had lost. The last of these attempts was made in 1745, when the "Young Pretender" (grandson of James II), taking advan- tage of English reverses on the- Continent, landed in Scotland, effected a rising of the Scotch Highlanders, worsted the English at Prestonpans, and marched upon London. Forced to retreat into Scotland, he was pursued by the English and defeated at the battle of Culloden Moor, and the Stuart cause was ruined forever. 539. The Religious Revival ; the Rise of Methodism. — It will be well for us here, midway in the century, to turn aside from the political affairs of England and cast a glance upon the religious life of the time. In its spiritual and moral Hfe the England of the earlier Han- overians was the England of the restored Stuarts. The nation was still under the influence of its reaction from the Puritan regime — the hated rule of the "Saints." Among the higher classes there was widespread infidelity ; religion was a matter of jest and open scoff. The Church was dead; the higher clergy were neglectful of their duties ; sermons were cold and formal essays. The lower classes were stolid, callous, and brutal. Drunk- enness was almost universal among high and low. The nation was immersed in material pursuits, and was without thought or care for things ideal and spiritual. Such a state of things in society as this has never failed to awaken in select souls a vehement protest. And it was so now. At Oxford, about the year 1730, a number of earnest young men, among whom we find John and Charles Wesley and George White- field, formed a little society, the object of which was mutual help- fulness in true Christian living. From their strict and methodical manner of Hfe they were derisively nicknamed " Methodists." This Oxford movement was the starting point of a remarkable religious revival. John Wesley was the organizer, Whitefield the orator, and Charles Wesley the poet of the movement.^ They and their helpers reached the neglected masses through open-air 9 Charles Wesley wrote over six thousand hymns, many of which are stilj favorites in the hymnals of to-day. 488 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY meetings. They preached in the fields, at the street comers, beneath the trees, at the great mining camps. The effects of their fervid exhortations were often as startHng as were those of the appeals of the preachers of the Crusades. The leaders of the revival at first had no thought of estab- lishing a Church distinct from the Anglican, but simply aimed at forming within the Established Church a society of earnest, devout workers, some- what like that of the Christian Endeavor societies in our present churches. Their enthu- siasm and their often extravagant manners, however, offended the staid, cold conservatism of the regular clergy, and they were finally constrained by petty persecution to go out from the established organization and form a Church of their own. The revival, like the Puritan movement of the seventeenth century, left a deep impress upon the life of England. It is due largely to this movement that in true religious feeling, in social purity, in moral earnestness, in humanitarian sentiment,^** the England of to-day is separated by such a gulf from the England of the first t\vo Georges. 540. The Seven Years* War (1756-1763). — Just after the middle of the century there broke out between the French and the English colonists in America the so-called French and Indian 10 Cf . sec. 543. Fig. 86.. — John Wesley. (After a painting by G. Romney) THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 489 War. This struggle became blended with what in Europe is known as the Seven Years' War (sec. 526), and consequently it is from the viewpoint both of Europe and of America that we must regard it. At first the war went, disastrously against the English, — Brad- dock's expedition against Fort Duquesne, upon the march to which he suffered his memorable defeat in the wilderness, being but one of several ill-starred English undertakings.^^ In the Old World Minorca had been lost, and with it vir- tually the control of the Mediterranean. Never were Eng- lishmen cast into deeper despair. Never had they so completely lost faith in themselves. The Earl of Ches- terfield wrote : "We are undone both at home and abroad. . . . We are no longer a nation." The gloom was at its deepest when the elder William Pitt (later Earl of Chatham), known as " the Great Commoner," came to the head of affairs in England. Pitt was one of the greatest men the English race has ever produced. Frederick the Great expressed his estimate of him in these words : *' England has at la^st brought forth a man." Pitt's estimate of himself was equally high : ''I believe that I can Fig. 87. — William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (After a portrait by R. Brompton) 11 Braddock's defeat occurred in 1755, before the formal declaration of war by either party. 490 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY save this country and that no one else can," was the way in which he expressed his belief in his ability to retrieve past misfortunes. Pitt exercised the full authority of Prime Minister — though he was not the nominal head of the ministry — from 1757 to 1 76 1. These were great years in Enghsh history. It was like a return of Cromwell's rule. Pitt's indomitable will and tireless energy pervaded at once every department of the government. "No person," it was said, ''ever entered his closet who did not come out of it a braver man." Incompetent men who had received appointments in the army and the navy solely on social grounds or through political influence were replaced by men of capacity, men upon whom Pitt could rely to carry out his plans. The war against France was pushed not only in America and upon the sea, but also in India and upon the Continent. Many disapproved of Pitt's policy of fighting France by aiding Fred- erick, but this opposition to his measures only called out Pitt's memorable declaration that he would conquer America in Germany. The turning point in the war, so far as America was concerned, was the great victory gained by the Enghsh under the youthful Major General Wolfe over the French under Montcalm on the Heights of Quebec (1759). The victory gave England Quebec, the key to the situation in the New World. In India also victory was declaring for the English in their struggle there with the French and their native alHes.^^ Two years before the battle of Quebec, Colonel Robert Clive, an ofhcer in the employ of the English East India Company, with eleven hundred English soldiers and two thousand sepoys,^^ in the memorable battle of Plassey (1757) had put to flight a native army of sixty thousand foot and horse, and had thus virtually laid, in the northeastern region -of the peninsula, the basis of England's great Indian Empire.^* 12 The situation here was somewhat similar to that in the New World. Both the French and the English had been long on the ground, but merely as traders, and not as builders of empires. About the middle of the eighteenth century, however, they began to conquer the country and to lay the foundations of territorial dominion. 13 The name given native soldiers in European employ. 14 The prelude to this battle was a terrible crime committed by Siraj-ud-Daula, viceroy of Bengal and other provinces. Moved by anger at the refusal of the English THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 491 The end came in 1763 with the Peace of Paris. France ceded to England Canada and all her possessions in North America east of the Mississippi River, save New Orleans and a little adjoining land (which, along with the French territory west of the Missis- sippi, had already been given to Spain), and two little islands in the neighborhood of Newfoundland, which she was allowed to retain to dry fish on. She also withdrew from India as a political rival of England. ^^ England's supremacy in the colonial world and her mastery of the sea were now firmly established. This position, notwithstanding severe losses of which we shall speak immediately, she has maintained up to the present day. 541. The American Revolution (i 775-1 783). — The French and Indian War was the prelude to the War of American Inde- pendence. The overthrow of the French power in America made the English colonists less dependent than hitherto upon the mother country, since this removed their only dangerous rival and enemy on the continent. Clear-sighted statesmen had pre- dicted that when the colonists no longer needed England's help against the French they would sever the bonds uniting them to the home land, if at any time these bonds chafed them. And very soon the bonds did chafe. A majority in Parliament, thinking that the colonists should help pay the expenses of colo- nial defense, insisted upon taxing them. The colonists maintained that they could be justly taxed only through their own legislative assembUes. The British government refusing to acknowledge this principle, the colonists took up arms in defense of those rights and liberties which their fathers had won with so hard a struggle from English kings on English soil. official to surrender certain fugitives, and urged on by French agents, the viceroy- attacked the Enghsh fort and factory at Calcutta, and having secured one hundred and forty-six prisoners, thrust them into a contracted guardroom which was provided with only two small grated windows, — what in the story of India is known as "the Black Hole of Calcutta." During the course of a sultry night all but twenty-three of the unfortunate prisoners died of suffocation. It was in response to the cry which arose for vengeance that Robert Clive was sent by the English officials at Madras to succor Bengal. 15 Pondicherry, a French trading post on the eastern coast of India, was restored to France, and she still remained in the peninsula as a trader ; but her polUical power was as completely broken, there by the war as in America. 492 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY France seized the opportunity presented by the war to avenge herself upon England for the loss of Canada/^ and gave aid to the colonists. Spain and Holland also were both drawn into the struggle, fighting against their old-time rival and foe. The war was ended by the Peace of Paris (1783). England acknowledged the independence of the thirteen colonies, — and a Greater England began its separate career in the New World. At the same time England was constrained to restore or to cede various islands and territories to France and to Spain. The magnificent empire with which she had emerged from the Seven Years' War seemed shattered and ruined beyond recovery. Not only England's enemies but many Englishmen themselves believed that her days of imperial rule were ended. But there were yet left to England Canada and India; and only recently Australia had come into her possession (sec. 734). And then England was yet mistress of the seas ; her commercial supremacy remained unshaken. There were elements here which might become factors of a new empire greater than the one which had been lost. But no Englishman standing in the gloom of the year 1783 could look far enough into the future to foresee the greatness and splendor of England's second empire which was to rise out of the ruins of the first. 542. Legislative Independence of Ireland (1782). — While the War of American Independence was going on, the Irish, taking advantage of the embarrassment of the English government, demanded legislative independence. Since the Norman period Ireland had had a Parliament of her own, but it was depend- ent upon the English crown, and at this time was subordinate to the EngUsh Parliament, which asserted and exercised the right to bind Ireland by its laws. This the Anglo-Irish patriots strenu- ously resisted and drew up a Declaration of Rights wherein they demanded the legislative independence of Ireland. Fear of a revolt led England to grant the demands of the patriots and acknowledge the independence of the Irish Parliament (1782). 16 There were other and more admirable motives animating many of the individual Frenchmen who, like Lafayette, fought on the side of the American patriots (sec. 560). ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE TRADE 493 543. The Abolition of the Slave Trade. — Intimately connected with the great religious revival led by the Wesleys and Whitefield were certain philanthropic movements which hold a prominent place in the history of the moral and social life not only of Eng- land but of humanity. The most noteworthy of these was that resulting in the abolition of the African slave trade. We have noticed how at the opening of the eighteenth century England secured from Spain the contract for providing her Amer- ican colonies with negro slaves (sec. 531). There was then Httle or no moral disapproval of this iniquitous traffic. But one effect of the religious revival was the calling into existence of much genuine philanthropic feeling. This sentiment expressed itself in a movement for the abolition of the inhuman trade. The leaders of the movement were Thomas Clarkson (1760— 1846) and William Wilberforce (175 9-1833). The terrible dis- closures which were made of the atrocious cruelty of the slave dealers stirred the public indignation and awakened the national conscience. Finally, in 1807, after twenty years of agitation, a law was passed aboHshing the trade.^^ This signaled as great a moral victory as ever was won in the English Parliament, for it was the aroused moral sentiment of the nation which was the main force that carried the reform measure through the Houses.^^ 544. The Industrial Revolution. — We turn now from the poHtical, religious,- and moral realms to the industrial domain. In this sphere of English life the latter part of the eighteenth century witnessed a wonderful revolution. It was England's commercial supremacy which had prepared the way for the great industrial development. The outward movement had created a world-wide market for English goods. She had become "the 17 England had been anticipated by Denmark in the condemnation of the slave trade. That country had abolished the traffic in 1802. In the United States the importation of slaves was illegal after 1808. Before 1820 most civilized states had placed the trade under the ban. 18 Another important humanitarian movement of the century was that of prison reform. This was effected chiefly through the labors of a single person, the philan- thropist John Howard (i 726-1 790), who devoted his life to effecting a reform in prison conditions and discipline. 494 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY workshop of the world." Naturally manufactures were encour- aged, and inventive genius and ingenuity stimulated to the utmost in devising improved processes in the industrial arts. The result was an industrial revolution such as the centuries known to his- tory had never witnessed before. In order that we may get the right point of view here and be able to appreciate the importance of the industrial revolution of which we speak, it is necessary that we should first note the remarkable fact that while civilization during historic times had made great advances on many lines and in many domains, in the industrial realm it had remained almost stationary from the dawn of history. At the middle of the eighteenth century all the industrial arts were being carried on in practically the same way that they were followed six or seven thousand years before in ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Suddenly all this was changed by a few inventions. About 1767 Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny. From the beginning of history, indeed from a period lost in the obscurity of prehistoric times, all the thread used in weaving had been made by twisting each thread separately. The spinning jenny, when perfected,-^^ with a single attendant twisted hundreds of threads at once. Within twenty years from the time of this invention there were between four and five million spindles in use in England. It was now possible to produce thread in unhmited quantities. The next thing needed was improved machinery for weaving it into cloth. This was soon provided by Cartwright's power loom (1785). The next requisite was motive power to run the new machinery. At just this time James Watt brought out his inven- tion, or rather improvement, of the steam engine (1785). In its ruder form it had been used in the mines ; now it was introduced into the factories. The primary forces of the great industrial revolution — the spinning jenny, the power loom, and the steam engine — were now at work. The application of the steam engine to transporta- tion purposes gave the world the steam railroad and the steamship. 19 It was perfected by Arkwright and Crompton by 1779. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 495 These inventions and discoveries in the industrial realm mark an epoch in the history of civilization. We have to go back to prehistoric times to find in this domain any inventions or dis- coveries like them in their import for human progress. There is nothing between Menes in Egypt and George III in England with which to compare them. The discovery of fire, the invention of metal tools, and the domestication of animals and plants,^^ these inventions and achievements of prehistoric man are alone worthy, in their transforming effect upon human society, of being placed alongside them. 545. Import to England of the Industrial Revolution. — In the present connection we can note the bearing of the great industrial revolution upon only one episode in the general historical move- ment. It exerted a determining influence upon the course and issue of the great French Revolution and of the Napoleonic Wars which grew out of it. It armed England for the great fight, and enabled her to play the important part she did in that period of titanic struggle. " It is our improved steam engine," says Lord Jeffrey in his eulogy of Watt (written in 1819), " which has fought the battles of Europe and exalted and sustained through the late tremendous contest the pohtical greatness of our land." It was the steam engine which created the wealth which England used so lavishly in carrying on the fight against Napoleon, and which did more perhaps than any other force in giving direction to the course of events during the years of his domination. 546. Conclusion. — With the French Revolution we reach a period in which English history must be regarded from the view- point of France. Indeed, for the space of half a generation after the rise of Napoleon to power, all European history becomes largely biographical and centers about that unique personality. Consequently we shall drop the story of English history at this point and let it blend with the story of the Revolution and that of the Napoleonic Empire. All that we need here notice is that the Napoleonic Wars, in their Anglo-French phase, were essentially a continuation — and *> See Ancient History, sees, 8-10. 496 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY the end — of the second Hundred Years' War between England and France. Napoleon, having seized supreme power in France, endeavored to destroy England's commercial supremacy and to regain for France that position in the colonial world from which she had been thrust by England. But this tremendous struggle, like all the others in which England had engaged with her ancient foe, — save the one in which she lost her American colonies, — only resulted, as we shall see later, in bringing into her hands additional colonial possessions, and in placing her naval power and commercial supremacy on a firmer basis than ever before. Selections from the Sources. — Henderson, Side Lights on English History^ pp. 214-283 ; Kendall, Source-Book, chaps, xvi-xviii, particularly Extract No. 1 1 1, '" A View of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century," by Swift ; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutional History, pp. 475-506 ; and Hill, Liberty Documents, chaps, xi and xii. For the slave trade, see Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplish- ment of the Abolition of the Slave Trade by the British Parliament. Clark- son was himself a main instrument in bringing about the great reform. Secondary Works. — For the most suggestive short work on the period turn to Seeley, The Expansion of England. Written on somewhat similar lines is Caldecott, English Colonization and Empire, chaps, iii-v. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, is the best comprehensive work. Morris, The Age of Queen Anne. For the naval history of the period, see Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, chaps, v-xiv. Biographies: Morley, Walpole ; Southey, Life of Wesley; Green, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham ; Macaulay, Essays on Horace Walpole, the Earl of Chatham (two essays). Lord Clive, and Warren Hastings. For the growth of the English Cabinet: Blauvelt, The Development of Cabinet Government in England ; and Jenks, Parliamentary England. For the rise of Methodism: Overton, The Evangelical Revival in the Eighteenth Century. For the French and English in America: Fiske, New England and New Eraftce, chaps, vii-x; and Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe. For the conflict between England and her American colonies : Lecky, The American Revolution (ed. by James Albert Woodbum). For the English in India: Lyall, The Rise of the British Dominion in India. For industrial and Social England: Cheyney, An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England, chap. viii. Topics for Class Reports. — i. The "Assiento" and the slave trade in the seventeenth century. 2. The Scotch project of a Panama colony. 3. The EngUsh Cabinet. 4. The South Sea Bubble. 5. John Wesley. 6. The abolition of the slave trade. 7. John Howard and prison reform. CHAPTER XXXII AUSTRIA UNDER THE BENEVOLENT DESPOT, EMPEROR JOSEPH II (1780-1790) 547. Emperor Joseph II's Ideal and Aim. — Most worthy of remembrance among the royal contemporaries of Frederick the Great was Emperor Joseph II, the son of the Empress-Queen Maria Theresa. He became Emperor in 1765, and upon the death of his mother in 1780 succeeded to the sovereignty of the Austrian dominions. He was the best, though not the greatest, of the enlightened despots. Joseph II's aim was to make of the Austrian dominions an ideal state. This, in his conception, was a state possessing geo- graphical and moral unity; that is to say, a state with well- rounded scientific frontiers, with all power concentrated in the hands of the sovereign, with all its provinces ruled alike, and with all its inhabitants using the same language and having the same ideas, customs, and aspirations. 548. His Reforms. — Now the Austrian monarchy was, and still is, just the opposite of all this. Joseph's endeavor was to make it like France, compact geographically, and homogeneous in language and customs. He wiped out many of the old divi- sions bas'ed on race, language, and historical antecedents, and in the interest of uniformity and simplicity of administration divided a great part of the monarchy into thirteen provinces, and each of these again into smaller subdivisions called circles. He abolished serfdom in several of his states. He closed over two thousand monasteries and devoted their property to the establishment of colleges, hospitals, and other public institutions. He issued a celebrated Edict of Toleration (1781), giving to all Christian sects equality of rights and privileges. He provided the cities of his 497 498 AUSTRIA UNDER JOSEPH II dominions with schools in which all the pupils were taught exactly the same lessons in exactly the same way. He founded libraries and encouraged research. He softened the harsh punishments of the mediaeval criminal code, and made the laws to conform to rea- son. He fostered manufactures, and by his own laborious life — he is said to have worked more hours each day than any other man in his dominions — set an example of industry to his subjects. 549. His Dealings with the Low Countries and with Hungary. — In the furtherance of his plans, Joseph attempted to reduce the Low Countries, which constituted almost an independent state loosely united to Austria, to the condition of an administrative province of the Austrian monarchy. He disregarded the constitu- tion, laws, and customs of the provinces, interfered with the religion of the people, and substituted for the existing system of education a new system conforming to his own ideas of what should be taught the youth. Angered by all this meddling with their affairs, the Netherlanders rose in open revolt and declared themselves independent of the Austrian crown (1790). At the same time Joseph drove his Hungarian subjects to the verge of rebellion by attempting to deal with Hungary in some such arbitrary way as he had dealt with the Netherlands, — in a word, to Germanize the country. The situation became so threat- ening that Joseph, upon his dying bed, was constrained to annul all his reform measures and put everything back as it was, save as regards the serfs, who retained the freedom with which he had dowered them. 550. Causes of the Failure of Joseph II' s Attempted Reforms. — The Emperor Joseph II is one of the most pathetic figures in history. He died in 1790, a weary, heartbroken man, lamenting that though he had labored his life through to make his subjects contented and happy and to deserve their love, he had simply filled his empire with unrest and unhappiness, and instead of winning the gratitude of his subjects had awakened only their ingratitude. The most of Joseph's attempted reforms, save those of the abolition of serfdom and the revision of the laws, had in truth m^ r^ BENEVOLENT DESPOTISM 499 resulted in dismal failures. This was not because what he aimed to do was not in sad need of being done, but because in such matters the good intention is not sufficient without patience and wisdom. Joseph had neither. His lack of patience to wait for results is well shown in his method of creating a park : at great expense he set out full-grown trees instead of saplings. And Joseph lacked that wisdom which recognizes that the reformer must take account of the beliefs, habits, and prejudices of men and of races. As his biographer Paganel comments, " It is only in the hands of God that man is as clay." 551. Reform from above versus Reform from below. — Joseph II was one of the last of the benevolent despots. Europe owes much to them. Some of their reforms were permanent and effected great ameHoration in the condition of the people in several of the countries of the Continent. But the enlightened despots were hampered in their work through being despots. Their theory of government shut out the people from all participation in the work of reform. But all true reform must proceed from below and not from above. As Buckle in his History of Civiliza- tion in England writes, " No reform can produce real good unless it is the work of public opinion, and unless the people themselves take the initiative." Nor should reforms inaugurated be depend- ent upon a single life. This was a fatal weakness in the move- ment of reform by the kings themselves. When a benevolent despot died, too often his work ended with his life. The year preceding the death of Joseph II the French Revolu- tion had begun. The people as well as their kings had been studying the philosophers and the political economists, and they were now themselves to assume the role of reformers. We shall see with what success they met in their new part. Secondary Works. — Bright, / EUROPEAN EXPANSION he discovered the course of the Congo and learned the nature of its great basin. Not since the age of Columbus had there been any discoveries in the domain of geography comparable in impor- tance to these of Stanley. Stanley gave the world an account of his journey in a book bearing the title Through the Dark Conti- nent. The appearance of this work marks an epoch in the history of Africa. It inspired innumerable enterprises, political, commer- cial, and philanthropic, whose aim was to develop the natural resources of the continent and to open it up to civilization. 731. The Founding of the Congo Free State (1885). — One immediate outcome of the writings and discoveries of Stanley was the founding of the Congo Free State. King Leopold II of Belgium was one of those whose imagina- tion was touched by the vast possibilities of the African continent. He conceived the idea of establishing in the valley of the Congo a great state which should be a radiating center for the diffusion of the benefits of civilization over the Dark Continent. Through his efforts an International African Association was formed, under whose auspices Stanley, after his return from his second expedi- tion, was sent out to establish stations in the Congo basin and to lay there the foundation of European order and government. The Association had found in Stanley a remarkably able lieu- tenant. His work as an organizer and administrator was carried on almost continuously for five years (1879-1884), "long years of bitter labor," as he himself speaks of them. He made treaties with over four hundred and fifty native chiefs, who ceded to him their sovereign rights over their lands. He founded numerous stations along the banks of the Congo and its tributaries. By these and like herculean labors Stanley — Stanley Africanus, it has been suggested, should be his ennobled name — became the real founder of what is now known as the Congo Free State and earned a place among the great administrators and state builders of modern times. ^ 5 From 1882, the year of the actual founding of the state, until 1908 the country was merely an appanage of the Belgian crown. In 1908 Leopold II (Belgian king) ceded the state to Belgium. Important products of the country are rubber, palm- nuts, and cocoa. Cotton and tobacco are successfully cultivated. Recent estimates ^ iiC-l lj^<^ ^Tunls- y^- }Ued \ ^(f U) \ y-^r^ Trlpoir 7 r 11 1 p J f \. 1 1 — ^ \ '^-.^- J H THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND 669 732. The Partition of Africa. — The discoveries of Stanley and the founding of the Congo Free State were the signal for a scram- ble among the powers of Europe for African territory. England, France, and Germany were the strongest competitors and they got the largest shares. In the short space of fifteen years Africa became a dependency of Europe. The only native states retaining their independence by the end of the nineteenth century were Abyssinia and Morocco,^ together with the negro republic of Liberia, the government of which is in the hands of American freedmen or their descendants. - This transference of the control of the affairs of Africa from the hands of its native inhabitants or those of Asiatic Moham- medan intruders to the hands of Europeans is without question the most momentous transaction in the history of that continent, and one which must shape its future destiny. In the following sections of this chapter, in which we propose briefly to rehearse the part which each of the leading European states has taken in the general expansion movement, we shall necessarily have to speak of the part which each played in the partition of Africa and tell what each secured. " II. The Expansion of England 733- England in America ; the Dominion of Canada The separation of the thirteen American colonies from England in 1776 (sec. 541) seemed to give a fatal blow to English hopes of estabhshing a great colonial empire in America. But half of North America still remained in English hands. of the population of the colony vary from nine millions to fifteen millions. A rail- road projected by Stanley, two hundred and fifty miles in length, has been built around the falls of the Congo. This enterprise has brought into touch with civiliza- tion a vast region which throughout all the long period of history up to the time of Stanley's achievement had been absolutely cut off from communication with the civilized races of mankind, 6 France established a protectorate over Morocco in 1912. It was the German Kaiser's unjustified intervention with threat of arms in Moroccan matters that tended greatly to increase that tension between Germany on the one hand and France and Great Britain on the other which was an important factor in the European situation just preceding the catastrophe of 19 14 (see Supplemental Chapter XLV, sees. 770, 773). 670 EUROPEAN EXPANSION Gradually the attractions of British North America as a dwelling- place for settlers of European stock became known. Immigration, mostly from the British Isles, increased in volume, so that the growth of the country in population during the nineteenth cen- tury was phenomenal, rising from about a quarter of a million at the opening of the period to over five miUions at its close. One of the most important matters in the political history of Canada since the country passed under English rule is the granting of responsible government to the provinces in 1841. Up to that time England's colonial system was in principle like that which had resulted in the loss to the British Empire of the thirteen colonies. The concession marked a new era in the history of English colonization. The Canadian provinces now became in all home matters absolutely self-governing.^ The concession of complete self-government to the provinces was followed, in 1867, by the union of Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick in a federal state under the name of the Dominion of Canada.^ The constitution of the Dominion, save as to the federal principle, is modeled after the British, wherein it differs from the recently framed Australian consti- tution, which follows closely that of the United States. The political union of the provinces made possible the success- ful accomplishment of one of the great engineering undertakings of our age. This was the construction of a transcontinental rail- road from Montreal to Vancouver. This road has done for the confirming of the federal union and for the industrial develop- ment of the Dominion what the building of similar transcontinen- tal lines has done for the United States. By reason of its vast geographical extent, — its area is more than thirty-five times as great as that of the British Isles, — its inexhaustible mineral deposits, its unrivaled fisheries, its limitless forests, grazing lands, and wheat fields, its bracing cHmate, and 7 The treaty-making power and matters of peace and war are still in the hands of the English government. 8 Later the confederation was joined by British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and other provinces. Newfoundland has steadily refused to join the xmion. ENGLAND IN AUSTRALASIA 6/1 above all its free institutions, the Dominion of Canada seems marked out to be one of the great future homes of the Anglo- Saxon race. What the United States now is, the Dominion seems destined at a time not very remote to become. 734. England in Australasia;^ the proclamation of the Com- monwealth of Australia (1901). — About the time that England lost her American colonies the celebrated navigator Captain Cook reached and explored the shores of New Zealand and Australia (1769-17 71). Disregarding the claims of earlier visitors to these lands, he took possession of the islands for the British crown. The best use to which England could at first think to put the new lands was to make them a place of exile for criminals. The first shipload of convicts was landed at Botany Bay in Austraha in 1788. But the agricultural riches of the new lands, their adaptabiUty to stock raising, and the healthfulness of the climate soon drew to them a stream of English immigrants. In 185 1 came the announcement of the discovery of fabulously rich deposits of gold, and then set in a tide of immigration such as the world has seldom seen. Before the close of the century five flourishing colonies (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and West Australia), with an aggregate population, including that of the neighboring island of Tasmania, of almost four milHons, had grown up along the fertile well-watered rim of the Australian continent and had developed free institutions similar to those of the mother country. The great political event in the history of these colonies was their consolidation, just at the opening of the twentieth century, into the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal union like our own. The vast possibihties of the future of this new Anglo-Saxon commonwealth in the South Pacific has impressed in an unwonted way the imagination of the world. It is possible that in the 9 Australasia, meaning " south land of Asia," is the name under which Australia and New Zealand are comprehended. Here, as in South Africa, in Canada, and in India, England appeared late on the ground. The Spaniards and the Dutch had both pre- ceded her. The presence of the Dutch is witnessed by the names New Holland (the earlier name of Australia) and New Zealand attaching to the greater islands. 6/2 EUROPEAN EXPANSION coming periods of history this new Britain will hold some such place in the Pacific as the motherland now holds in the Atlantic. 735. England in Asia. — We have noted the founding of the British Empire in India (sec. 540). Throughout the nineteenth century England steadily advanced the frontiers of her dominions here and consolidated her power until by the close of the century she had brought either under her direct rule or under her suze- rainty more than three hundred millions of Asiatics,^*^ — the largest number of human beings, so far as history knows, ever united under a single scepter. We must here note how England's occupation of India and her large interests in the trade of Southern and Eastern Asia involved her during the century in several wars and shaped in great measure her foreign policies. One of the earliest of these wars was that known as the Afghan War of 1838-184 2, into which she was drawn through her jealousy of Russia.-^^ At the same time England became involved in the so-called Opium War with China ^^ (i 839-1 842). As a result of this war England obtained by cession from China the island and port of Hongkong, which she has made one of the most important commercial and naval stations of her empire. Iri 1901 over twenty-four thousand vessels entered the ports of the island. Scarcely was the Opium War ended before England was involved in a gigantic struggle with Russia, — the Crimean War, already spoken of in connection with Russian history (sec. 722). From our present standpoint we can better understand 1^ By the census of 191 1 the population of the British Indian Empire (this includes the feudatory states) was 315,156,396. 11 England's endeavor here was to maintain Afghanistan as a buffer state between her Indian possessions and the expanding Russian Empire, There was a second Afghan War in 1879-1880. 12 The opium traffic between India and China had grown into gigantic proportions and had become a source of wealth to the British merchants and of revenue to the Indian government. The Chinese government, however, awake to the evils of the growing use of the narcotic, resisted the importation of the drug. This was the cause of the war. In 1907 an agreement was made between China and England in which the importation of opium into China from India was to be annually reduced in amount. This agreement was renewed in 191 1, with a view to the extinction of the trade within the following ten years. ENGLAND IN ASIA 673 why England threw herself into the conflict on the side of Turkey. She fought to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire in order that her own great rival, Russia, might be pre- vented from seizing Constantinople and the Bosporus, and from that. point controlling the affairs of Asia through the command of the Eastern Mediterranean. The echoes of the Crimean War had barely died away before England was startled by the most alarming intelUgence from the country for the secure possession of which English soldiers had borne their part in the fierce struggle before Sevastopol. In 1857 there broke out in the armies of the East India Com- pany what is known as the Sepoy Mutiny .^^ Fortunately many of the native regiments stood firm in their allegiance to England, and with their aid the revolt was speedily crushed. As a conse- quence of the mutiny the government of India was by act of Parliament taken out of the hands of the East India Company and vested in the English crown. There are without question offsets to the indisputably good results of English rule in India; nevertheless it is one of the most important facts of modern history, and one of special import as bearing on our present study, that over three hun- dred millions of the population of Asia should thus have passed, whether for better or for worse, under the rule and wardship of a European nation. 13 The causes of the uprising were various. The crowd of deposed princes was one element of discontent. A widespread conviction among the natives, awakened by different acts of the English, that their religion was in danger was another of the causes that led to the rebellion. There were also military grievances of which the native soldiers complained. The mutiny broke out simultaneously at different points. The atrocities committed by the rebels at Cawnpur sent a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world. Nana Sahib had slain the garrison and crowded about two hun- dred English women and children into a small chamber. They were spared the fate of the prisoners in the Black Hole of Calcutta (sec. 540, n. 14), but only to meet a more terrible one. Fearing that the English forces, advancing by forced marches under General Henry Havelock, would effect a rescue of the prisoners. Nana Sahib employed five assassins to go into the room with their swords and knives and kill them all. The work required two hours. Then the bodies were dragged out and flung into a neighboring well, where they were found by the rescuing party, which arrived just too hte to prevent the tragedy. 6/4 EUROPEAN EXPANSION 736. England in South Africa; Boer and Briton England has played a great part in the partition of Africa, and has secured the largest share of the spoils, not as to the size of her portion but as to its real value. Her first appearance upon the continent both in Egypt and at the Cape was brought about through her solicitude for her East India possessions and the security of her routes thither. Later she joined in the scramble of European powers for African territories for their own sake. The Dutch had preceded the EngUsh in South Africa. They began their settlement at the Cape about the middle of the sev- enteenth century in the great days of Holland. During the French Revolution and again during Napoleon's ascendancy the Enghsh took the Dutch colony under their protection. After the down- fall of Napoleon in 18 14 the colony was ceded to England by the Netherlands.^^ The Dutch settlers refused to become reconciled to the English rule. In 1836 a large number of these aggrieved colonists took the heroic resolve of abandoning their old homes and going out into the African wilderness in search of new ones. This was a resolution worthy of their ancestry, for these African Pilgrims were descendants of those Dutch patriots who fought so hero- ically against Philip II, and of Huguenot refugees who in the seventeenth century fled from France to escape the tyranny of Louis XIV (sec. 449). This migration is known as "The Great Trek."^^ The immi- grants journeyed from the Cape towards the northeast, driving their herds before them and carrying their women and children and all their earthly goods in great clumsy ox carts. Beyond the Orange River some of the immigrants unyoked their oxen and set up ho'mes, laying there the basis of the Orange Free State ; the more intrepid " trekked " still farther to the north, across the Vaal River, and established the republic of the Transvaal. 14 After the loss of the Cape Settlement the island of Java was the most important colonial possession remaining to the Dutch. Gradually they got possession of the greater part of the large island of Sumatra. These two islands form the heart of the Dutch East Indies of to-day, which embrace a native population of about 36,000,000. 15 Trek is Dutch for *' migration " or " journey." ENGLAND IN SOUTH AFRICA 6/5 TwQ generations passed, a period filled for the little republics, surrounded by hostile African tribes, with anxieties and fighting. Then there came a turning point in their history. In the year 1885 gold deposits of extraordinary richness were discovered in the Transvaal. Straightway there began a tremendous inrush of miners and adventurers from all parts of the globe. A great portion of these newcomers were English-speaking people. As aliens — Uitlanders, " outlanders," they were called — they were excluded from any share in the government, although they made up two thirds of the population of the little state and paid the greater part of the taxes. They demanded the fran- chise. The Boers, under the lead of the sturdy President of the Transvaal, Paul Kriiger, refused to accede to their demands, urging that this would mean practically the surrender of the independ- ence of the Republic and its annexation to the British Empire. The controversy grew more and more bitter and soon ripened into war between England and the Transvaal (1-899). The Orange Free State joined its little army to that of its sister state, — an act in which James Bryce declares there was " an heroic quality not surpassed by anything in the history of the classical peoples."^® At the outset the Boers, who are very expert with their rifles, were everywhere successful, inflicting one disastrous defeat after another upon the English forces, while the world looked on in amazement. The British Empire in Africa was threatened with destruction. England was stirred as she had not been stirred since the Sepoy Mutiny in India. An army of three hundred thousand men, gathered from all parts of the British Empire, was hastily thrown into South Africa, and the supreme command intrusted to the able and experienced general. Lord Roberts. After the maintenance of the struggle for over two years the last of the Boer bands surrendered (1902). As the outcome of the war both of the republics were annexed to the British Empire under the names of the Transvaal Colony and Orange River Colony. 16 The total European or white population of the two little republics that thus threw down the gage of battle to the most powerful empire of modem times was only a little over 300,000. e^e EUROPEAN EXPANSION Only a few years had passed after the close of the war when the British government very wisely granted the two colonies self- government. Straightway these states and Cape Colony with Natal joined in the creation of a federal commonwealth under the name of the Union of South Africa" (19 lo). Thus was con- summated the favorite project of the South African statesman Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902), the " empire builder," one of the most masterful men of his generation. The act of the British government in intrusting the Boers with responsible government won in such measure their loyalty to the Empire that at the outbreak of the great European war in 19 14 they rallied — though not quite unanimously — to the support of England, and in the name of the Empire conquered German Southwest Africa and German East Africa. One of the most important enterprises of the English in Africa is the building of a Cape-to-Cairo railroad. This, like the political scheme of a federation, was also a favorite project of Cecil Rhodes. Already his dream has been in great part realized. The projected line has been carried forward from Cape Town over fifteen hundred miles to the celebrated Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, while at the other end of the continent the road has been pushed up the Nile from Cairo to Khartum, a distance of over thirteen hundred miles (including a little over two hundred miles of river navigation above Assuan). This railroad when completed, as without doubt it will be at a date not remote, will be a potent factor in the opening up of the Dark Continent to civilization. 737. England in Egypt. — In 1876 England and France, in order to secure against loss their subjects who were holders of Egyptian bonds, established a joint control over Egypt which at that time was nominally a hereditary principality under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Porte. A few years later there broke out in the Egyptian army a mutiny against the 1'' The population of the Union according to the census of 191 1 is about 7,000,000, of which about 1,250,000 are Europeans and the rest native or colored. Gold and diamond mining is the leading industry. ENGLAND IN EGYPT 6// authority of the Khedive. France declining to act with Eng- land in suppressing the disorder, England moved alone in the matter. As a result the Anglo-French control became a sole British control.^^ In 1885 a second expedition had to be sent out to the same country. The Sudanese, subjects of the Khedive, had revolted and were threatening the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan with destruction. An Anglo- Egyptian army pushed its way up the Nile to the relief of Khartum, which General Gordon, the mod- ern English knight-errant, was holding against the Mahdi, the military prophet and leader of the Sudanese Arabs. The expe- dition arrived too late, Khartum having fallen just before relief reached the town. Gordon perished with most of his followers. The English troops were now recalled and the Sudan was aban- doned to the rebel Arabs. For over a decade this southern land remained under the cruel rule of the Mahdi and his successor. The country was devastated by fire and sword, and Egypt was continually harassed by raids of the dervishes. Finally in 1896 the Enghsh sent up the Nile another expedition under General Kitchener for the recovery of the lost territory. The undertaking was successful, and the Eastern Sudan and a vast ter- ritory embracing the basin of the Nile and its tributaries were again brought under the rule of the Khedive, that is to say, under the administrative control of England (1898). No part of the world has benefited more by European control than Egypt. When England assumed the administration of its affairs it was in every respect one of the most wretched of the lands under the rule, actual or nominal, of the Turkish Sultan. The country is now, according to the claims of eminent English authority, more prosperous than at any previous period of its history, not excepting the time of the rule of the Pharaohs. This high degree of prosperity has been secured mainly through Eng- land's having given^ Egypt the two things declared necessary to its prosperity, — "justice and water." 18 In the first year of the World War, Turkey having entered the war on the side of Germany, Great Britain declared an actual protectorate over Egypt. 6/8 EUROPEAN EXPANSION The construction of the great irrigation or storage dam across the Nile at the First Cataract (at Assuan) is one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times. The dam retains the surplus waters of the Nile in flood times and releases them grad- ually during the months of low water. This constant supply of water for irrigation purposes will, it is estimated, increase by a third the agricultural capabiHties of Egypt not only by greatly augmenting the area of fertile soil but by making it possible on much of the land to raise two and even three crops each year. III. The Expansion of France 738. France in Africa. — At the opening of the nineteenth century France possessed only fragments of a once promising colonial empire. From the long Napoleonic Wars she emerged too exhausted to give any attention for a time to interests out- side of the homeland. When finally she began to look about her for over-the-sea ter- ritories to make good her losses in America and Asia, it was the North African shore which on account of proximity (it is only twenty-four hours distant by steam from the southern ports of France), climate, and products naturally attracted her attention. This region possesses great agricultural resources. In ancient times it was one of the richest grain- tribute-paying provinces of the Roman Empire. Its climate is favorable for Latin- European settlement. It is really geographically a part of Europe, " the true Africa beginning with the Sahara." France began the conquest of Algeria as early as 1830. The subjugation of the country was not effected without much hard fighting with the native tribes and a great expenditure in men and money. In the year 1881, under the necessity of defending her Algerian frontier against the raids of the mountain tribes of Tunis on the east, France sent troops into that country and estabUshed a protectorate over it. This act of hers deeply offended the Italians, who had had their eye upon this district, FRANCE IN AFRICA 679 regarding it as belonging to them by virtue of its geographical position as well as its historical traditions.^^ These North African territories form the most promising por- tion of France's new colonial empire. The more sanguine of her statesmen entertain hopes of ultimately creating here a new home for the French people, — a sort of New France. In any event it seems certain that all these shore lands, which in the seventh cen- tury were severed from Europe by the Arabian conquests, are now again permanently reunited to that continent and are henceforth to constitute virtually a part of the European world. Besides these lands in North Africa, France possesses a vast domain in the region of the Senegal and lays claim to all the Sahara lying between her colony of Senegal and Algeria. She also holds extensive territories just north of the Congo Free State, embracing part of Central Sudan. The island of Madagascar also forms a part of the French-African empire. It is to be feared that France will not find in Africa any such valuable possessions as in the eighteenth century she lost to Eng- land in America and Asia. Yet she has entered upon the work of opening up and developing her African empire with character- istic enthusiasm and expansiveness of plans. She has projects that aim at the redemption, by means of artesian wells, of exten- sive tracts of the Sahara. It is thought not impracticable to create a line of these oases across the Sahara from the city of Constantine in Algeria to Timbuktu in the Sudan, and thus to faciHtate the construction of a projected Trans-Saharan railway. 739. France in Asia. — In the year 1862 France secured a foothold near the mouth of the Cambodia River in Indo- China and has since then steadily enlarged her possessions until now she 19 Disappointed in not getting Tunis, the Italians sought to secure a foothold on the Red Sea coast. They seized here a district and organized it under the name of the Colony of Eritrea ; but they had hard luck almost from the first. The coast is hot and unhealthy and inland is the kingdom of Abyssinia. Over this the Italians attempted to establish a protectorate ; but unfortunately for them Abyssinia does not regard herself as one of the uncivilized or moribund states over which it is necessary for Europeans to extend their protection. King Menelik of that country inflicted upon the Italian army a most disastrous defeat (1896). For something regarding the seizure by the Italians of Tripoli in North Africa, see Supplemental Chapter XLV, sec. 775. 68o EUROPEAN EXPANSION holds in those quarters territories which exceed in extent the homeland. A chief aim of the French in this region is to secure the trade of Southern China. To this end they are projecting the extension northward into China of the system of railways they have already constructed. With these ample African and Asiatic territories France feels in a measure consoled for her losses in the past. As a colonizing state, however, France has one great handicap. She has never had a rapidly increasing population at home from which to aug- ment her colonies. Nor have her citizens that restless, adventur- ous spirit of the Anglo-Saxons which has driven them as conquerors and settlers into the remotest parts of the earth and made England the mother of innumerable colonies and states. IV. The Expansion of Germany 740. German Emigrants lost to Germany. — No country of Europe during the expansion movement of the nineteenth cen- tury supplied a greater number of emigrants for the settlement of transoceanic lands than Germany. But Germany did not until recently possess under her own flag any over-the-sea territories, and consequently the vast number of emigrants she sent out sought homes in the United States, in the different English 'colo- nies, in the Spanish and Portuguese republics of South America, and even in the Asiatic provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Thus it happened that although Germany during the century sent out vast swarms of emigrants no true Greater Germany grew up outside of Europe. Stimulated by the successful war of 1870-187 1 against France, and the consolidation of the German Empire, German statesmen began to dream of making Germany a world power. To this end it was deemed necessary to secure for Germany colonies where the German emigrants might live under the German flag and, instead of contributing to the growth and prosperity of rival states, should remain Germans and constitute a part of the German nation. GERMANY IN AFRICA AND ASIA 68l 741. Germany in Africa. — Consequently when the competition came for African territory Germany entered into the struggle with great zeal and got a fair share of the spoils. In 1 884 she declared a protectorate over a large region on the southwest coast of the continent just north of the Orange River, and thus lying partly in the temperate zone. This region she opened up to civilization by the construction of a railroad over two hundred and thirty miles in length running from the west coast inland.^*^ At almost the same time she established two smaller protect- orates in the tropic belt farther to the north. On the East African coast she seized a great territory, twice as large as Ger- many itself, embracing a part of the celebrated Lake District. These upland regions are well adapted to European settlement and must in time be filled by people of European descent. 742. Germany in Asia. — The hopes of many German expan- sionists were centered in Western Asia rather than in Africa. Thousands of Germans crowded into i\sia Minor and Syria and formed in some districts an important element of the industrial and trading population. It is said to have been the hope of William II that ultimately Asia Minor and Syria would come to form a part of the German Empire. If the process of the Germanization of those regions had continued, it is not at all unlikely that a large part of Western Asia would have come eventually into very close political as well as economic relations with Germany. One of the most important projects of the Germans in these Asian regions was the extension of the Anatolian Railway from Konieh in Asia Minor down the Euphrates valley to Bagdad on the lower Tigris. Such a line would have greatly enhanced German influence in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, but this dream of dominion was shattered by the war of 19 14 when the English armies gained complete control of the country. This rail- way when completed will open up the wonderfully fertile regions 20 In 1904 the German government was forced to face a serious revolt of some of the native tribes of the protectorate, which was suppressed only after three years of cruel warfare. 682 EUROPEAN EXPANSION which formed the heart and core of the early and populous empires of the Assyrian and the Babylonian kings.^^ German expansion, prior to the outbreak of the great war of 19 1 4, pressed not only on the Turkish Empire but upon the Chinese Empire as well. In 1897 Germany, on the pretext of protecting German missionaries in China, seized the port of Kiau- chau and forced its practical cession from the Chinese government. This is a spot of great political and commercial importance.^^ Such was the position of Germany in the colonial world at the end of the nineteenth century. Before the second decade of the twentieth century had fairly opened, there came the startling revelation that German colonial enterprises and economic under- takings, particularly those in Asian Turkey, concealed political ambitions and military plans whose aims were nothing less than, world domination. V. The Expansion of Russia 743. Russia's Outward Movement.' — Russia has large and numerous inland lakes and seas and vast rivers, but she lacks seaboard. Her effort to reach the sea in different directions is, as we have learned, the key to much of her history. It is this which gave a special character to nineteenth-century Russian expansion, — which made it a movement by land instead of by sea, as in the case of all the other European states that had a part in the great expansion movement. The expansion of Russia was one of the most striking features of the great European development which we are following. Her conquests and colonizations put her in possession of about one seventh of the habitable earth and made her one of the most potent political factors in the modern world. 21 Along with this railway project is being discussed a proposal for the restoration of the ancient irrigation works of the Tigris and Euphrates region. What has already been done for Egypt by the building of the great storage Nile dam at Assuan will almost certainly at no remote date be repeated here in what was formerly the " Asian Egypt." 22 Besides the colonial possessions named, Germany at the beginning of the great war held a number of islands and groups of islands in the Pacific. RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN ASIA 683 744. Russian Expansion in Asia ; her Three Lines of Advance. Throughout the nineteenth century Russia steadily gravitated towards the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific. Only in Europe was her glacier-like movement much impeded by the obstacles placed in her path by the jealousy of the other Euro- pean powers. She made no material territorial gains in Europe, aside from the acquisition of Finland and part of Prussian Poland, during the nineteenth century, though she fought in three great wars for this end and shattered into fragments a great part of the Turkish Empire which lay between her and the chief goal of her ambition — the Mediterranean. But in Asia the additions which Russia made to her empire during the nineteenth century were not only immense in extent but most important to her politically and commercially. These annexations will best be remembered if we bear in mind the three chief objects Russia had in view in her Asiatic acquisitions. These were the securing of an outlet on the Persian Gulf, the opening of an overland route to India, and the securing of ice-free ports on the Pacific. In pursuit of the first object Russia, during the nineteenth century, conquered and absorbed the Caucasus and the Trans- caucasian region. She thus dominated Northern Persia, and it is surmised that she secretly secured from the Persian government the lease of Bender Abbas on the Persian Gulf and the concession for the construction of a railway across Persia from the Caspian Sea to this southern port.^^ Thus Russia's expansion in this quarter gave her a commanding position in Western Asia which made her a formidable competitor with Germany and England for the political control of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia. After Russia's failure in the Crimean War and in the war of 1878 against Turkey to secure Constantinople, she began " searching in the deserts of Central Asia for the key to the 23 But England stood guard here just as she did at the Dardanelles. She declared a sort of Monroe Doctrine for the Persian Gulf and warned off Russia and all other powers. She had good ground for her action, for the establishment of a Russian naval station on the Persian Gulf would have destroyed the security of England's route to India by way of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. 684 EUROPEAN EXPANSION Bosporus " ; that is to say, Russia's policy was to push her outposts within striking distance of India, not with a view to wresting that country from England, but with the object of gaining a strong position from which she might sometime dic- tate terms to England respecting the disposition of the estate of the " sick man " of the Bosporus.-* Thus during the latter half of the nineteenth century Russia steadily pushed forward her boundaries in Central Asia. She conquered or conciliated the tribes of Turkestan and advanced her frontier in this quarter far towards the south, — close up against Afghanistan. In the very heart of the continent her outposts were now established upon the lofty table-lands of the Pamirs, the " Roof of the World." Here her frontier and that of the British Empire were only twenty miles apart. The apprehension with which Russia's steady advance in these regions was viewed by England is shown by the constant efforts she made to prevent Russian influence from becoming dominant in Afghanistan and to increase her own influence in that quarter.^^ In the extreme eastern part of Asia, Russia obtained from China the lease of Port Arthur (1898), one of the most important Asiatic harbors on the Pacific,' and occupied the large Chinese province of Manchuria, which occupation it was generally believed would end in the actual annexation of that magnificent domain to the Russian Empire. Manchuria is probably better adapted to European settlement than any other thinly peopled region in Asia, and can hardly fail to become, if it remains in Russian hands, the chief center of European population in the Far East. Thus in her expansion Russia not only subjugated the wild nomadic tribes of Northern and Central Asia, but she also wrested territories from the three semi-civilized states of the continent, — 24 This was the political motive actuating Russia in making her acquisitions in these regions. There were of course many other grounds for her activity. She wanted to secure lands for the settlement of her peasant colonists ; she must needs in self-defense establish order among the restless and plundering tribes on her frontier ; and she wanted to open up a route by which to reach the markets of India and draw to herself at least a part of the trade of British India. 25 See sec. 735, n. 11. THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 685 Turkey, Persia, and China, — and crowded heavily upon all these countries, besides threatening to absorb the buffer state of Afghan- istan. She overshadowed Europe and dominated Asia. It is not a matter of wonder that the steady growth of this " Colossus of the North " awakened the apprehension of the rulers of India and influenced them to thwart her apparently boundless ambition in every possible way. The outward movement we have traced gave Russia a physical basis which insured her a rapid and unimpeded development. It made her a competitor for a place among the three or four prob- able world powers of the future. It made pertinent the question, Will Slav or Saxon mold the destinies of the coming time .'' 745. The Trans-Siberian Railway Russia's most noteworthy undertaking in connection with her Asiatic empire was the build- ing of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which connects Moscow with Vladivostok, the Russian port on the Pacific, This was one of the most gigantic enterprises of its kind of our age. The building of this road has done as much as any other single achievement of the past century to make the world small. Its effect upon political relations in the Far East is profound. It caused Russia to face the Pacific. It made accessible to Russian settlers the vast fertile regions of Southern Siberia, and will be one of the chief factors in ultimately rendering that country a part of the civilized world ; for though it may be true as to the past that "civilization has come riding on a gun carriage," now it comes riding on a locomotive. VI. The Expansion of the United States 746. The Growth of the United States a Part of the Great Euro- pean Expansion Movement At first view it might seem that the growth of our own country should not be given a place in the present chapter. But the expansion of the United States is as truly a part of European expansion as is the increase of the Eng- lish race in Canada, or in Australasia, or in South Africa. The circumstance that the development here has taken place since 686 EUROPEAN EXPANSION the severance of all political ties binding this country to the motherland is wholly immaterial. The Canadian, Australian, and African developments have as a matter of fact been expansion movements from practically secondary and independent centers of European settlement. Hence to complete our survey of the movement which has put in possession or in control of the European peoples so much of the earth, we must note — we can simply note — the expansion during the past century of the great American Commonwealth. 747. How the Territorial Acquisitions of the United States and its Growth in Population have contributed to assure the Predomi- nance of the Anglo-Saxon Race in Greater Europe. — Six times dur- ing the nineteenth century the United States materially enlarged her borders.^^ These gains in territory were in the main at the expense of a Latin race, — the Spanish. They have not therefore resulted in an actual increase in the possessions of the European peoples, but have simply contributed to the predominance, or have marked the growing predominance, in this new-forming European world of the Anglo-Saxon race. Of even greater significance than the territorial expansion of the United States during the past century is the amazing growth of the Republic during this period in population and in material and intellectual resources. At the opening of the century the white population of the United States was a little over four mil- lions ; it has now risen to about one hundred millions. This is the largest aggregate of human force and intelligence that the world has yet seen. Even more impressive than its actual are its 26 Just at the end of the century the territorial expansion of the United States assumed a character altogether unlike that which up to that time it had retained. All our chief earlier acquisitions were lands contiguous to our previous possessions, were unoccupied or practically unoccupied, were adapted to European settlement, and were secured with the intention of making them into territories which might ultimately be carved into states and made an integral part of the Federal Union, But in 1898, as an outcome of our war with Spain, we acquired Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands. In the latter islands we came into possession of lands already peopled with an Asiatic race, and, moreover, lands unfitted for settlement by people of European stock. The acquisition by the United States of these Asiatic tropical dependencies has created for our government and our people many problems, some of which still remain unsolved. SHALL CHINA BE PARTITIONED? 68/ potential capacities. With practically unlimited room for expan- sion by reason of the territorial acquisitions we have noted, it is i?npossible adequately to realize into what, during the coming centuries, the American people will grow. This remarkable growth of an English-speaking nation on the soil of the New World has contributed more than anything else, save the expansion of Great Britain into Greater Britain, to lend impressiveness and import to the movement indicated by the expression, "European expansion." VII. Situations and Problems created by the European Race Expansion 748. Shall China be partitioned? — The outward movement of the European peoples which we have now traced in broad outHnes has raised several of the most serious problems that civilization has ever faced, and has created situations well calculated while awakening profound apprehensions to create also vast hopes. One of the problems raised is altogether like the old (and yet ever new) problem — the so-called Eastern Question. It is, What shall be done with the "sick man" of the Far East? Shall China be partitioned? This question we repeat has been raised by the great European race expansion and can be understood only when viewed as a result of the pressure of the Occidental upon the Oriental world. In the following paragraphs we shall endeavor in the briefest way possible to put in their causal and logical relations the series of events forming the antecedents and the causes of the present situation in Eastern Asia. 749. The Awakening of Japan. — Bearing directly upon the question of the future of China is the recent wonderful awaken- ing of Japan. At the middle of the nineteenth century Japan was a hermit nation. She jealously excluded foreigners and refused to enter into diplomatic relations with the Western powers. But in the year 1854 Commodore Perry of the United States secured from the Japanese government concessions which 688 EUROPEAN EXPANSION opened the country to Western influences, under which Japan soon awoke to a new life. During the last half century the progress made by Japan on all lines, political, material, and intellectual, has been something without a parallel in history. She has transformed her ancient feudal divine-right government into a representative constitutional system modeled upon the political institutions of the West. She has adopted almost entire the material side of the civilization of the Western nations and has eagerly absorbed their sciences. But what has taken place, it should be carefully noted, is not a Europeanization of Japan. The new Japan is an evolution of the old. The Japanese to-day in their innermost life, in their deepest instincts, and in their modes of thought are still an Oriental people. 750. Chino- Japanese War of 1894 ; a Mongolian Monroe Doctrine. — In 1894 came the war between Japan and China. A chief cause of this war was China's claim to suzerainty over Korea and her efforts to secure control of the affairs of that country. But under the conditions of modern warfare, and particularly in view of the Russian advance in Eastern Asia, the maintenance of Korea as an inde- pendent state seems to Japan absolutely necessary to the security of her island empire. The situation is vividly pictured in these words of Okakura-Kakuzo, the author of The Awakening of Japan : Fig. 109. — The Impe- rial Regalia of Japan 27 (After a drawing by Goji Ukitd) 27 This regalia consists of a mirror, a sword, and several tusk-shaped jewels. Of all the royal or imperial regalias in the world, this is the simplest, and the most symboUc and historically interesting. According to Japanese legend, the imperial emblems were a gift of the Sun-goddess to an ancestor of the first Emperor of Japan. The goddess accompanied the bestowal of the symbols with these words : " Look upon this mirror as if it were my own spirit, and reverence it as you would my own Sanshaii-tau I. CHINA IN PROCESS OF DISMEMBERMENT 689 "Any hostile power," he says, "in occupation of the peninsula might easily throw an army into Japan, for Korea lies like a dagger ever pointed toward the very heart of Japan." Still again, realizing that greed of territory would lead the Euro- pean powers sooner or later to seek the partition of China and the political control of the Mongolian lands of the Far East, Japan wished to stir China from her lethargy, make herself her adviser and leader, and thus get in a position to control the aifairs of Eastern Asia. In a word she was resolved to set up a sort of Monroe Doctrine in her part of the world, which should close Mongolian lands against European encroachments and preserve for Asiatics what was still left of Asia. The war was short and decisive. It was a fight between David and Goliath. China with her great inert mass was absolutely help- less in the hands of her tiny antagonist. With the Japanese army in full march upon Peking the Chinese government was forced to sue for peace. China now recognized the independence of Korea, and ceded to Japan Formosa and the extreme southern part of Manchuria, including Port Arthur. But at this juncture of affairs, Russia, supported by France and Germany, jealously intervened. presence. For centuries upon centuries shall thy descendants rule this kingdom. Govern this country with purity like that of the light that radiates from the surface of the mirror. Deal with thy subjects with the gentleness typified by the bland and soft luster of the jewels. Combat the enemies of thy empire with this sword." No other royal regalia is so intimately related to the national life of a people as are these sacred emblems of Japan. Respecting this we quote from a most interesting paper on the subject, read before the Japan Society of London, in 1902, by Mr. Ukita, Chancellor of the Imperial Japanese Legation : "In conclusion, I should like to say one word in regard to the significance of the regalia in the mind of the Jap- anese people. The emblems, as I have pointed out, symbolize Knowledge, Courage, and Mercy ; and it has always been held that unless a ruler be possessed of all these three virtues, he will be powerless to govern the country in peace and prosperity. With this in mind, the importance of the regalia, which symbolizes these three virtues, can be easily imagined. Its influence on the people is enormous. Coming from the gods to Zimmu, the first Emperor, himself a descendant of the gods, its existence dates from the very foundation of the Japanese Empire. Without it the Empire would hardly be conceivable to the Japanese people. The whole tradition of the imperial family is bound up in it; its possession bestows sovereignty by divine right; and the instinct of the people ... is to acknowledge no man as Emperor unless he possess the regal symbols." See Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society (London) for 1901-1902, vol. vi. 690 EUROPEAN EXPANSION These powers forced Japan to accept a money indemnity in lieu of territory on the continent. She was permitted, however, to take possession of the island of Formosa. 751. China in Process of Dismemberment ; the Boxer Uprising (1900). — The march of the little Japanese army into the heart of the huge Chinese Empire was in its consequences something like the famous march of the Ten Thousand Greeks through the great Persian Empire. It revealed the surprising weakness of China — a fact known before to all the world but never so perfectly realized as after the Japanese exploit — and marked her out for partition. The process of dismemberment began without unnecessary delay. Germany seized the port of Kiau-chau^^ (sec. 742) and forced from China a ninety-nine years' lease of it (January, 1898). She lost this to Japan in 19 15. Russia asked and received a twenty-five years' lease of Port Arthur (March, 1898). This also passed to Japan at the end of the Russo-Japanese War (1905). In April, 1898, England demanded and received from China Wei-hai-wei. France, viewing these cessions to Germany, Russia, and England with natural uneasiness, immediately sought and obtained from China as compensation a ninety-nine years' lease of the Bay of Kwang-chau-wan (April, 1898). Italy was now reported to have made demands upon the Chinese government for something as compensation to her for what the other powers had received. The press in Europe and America began openly to discuss the impending partition of the Chinese Empire and to speculate as to how the spoils would be divided. Suddenly the whole Western world was startled by the intelli- gence that the legations or embassies of all the European powers at Peking were hemmed in and besieged by a Chinese mob aided by the imperial troops. Then quickly followed a report of the massacre of all the Europeans in the city. Strenuous efforts were at once made by the different Western nations, as well as by Japan, to send an international force to the rescue of their representatives and the missionaries and other 28 Or Kiao-chau. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 69I Europeans with them, should it chance that any were still alive. Not since the Crusades had so many European nations joined in a common undertaking. There were in the relief army Russian, French, English, American, and German troops, besides a strong Japanese contingent. The relief column fought its way through to Peking and forced the gates of the capital. The worst had not happened, and soon the tension of the Western world, which had lasted for six weeks, was relieved by the glad news of the rescue of the beleaguered little company of Europeans. All which it concerns us now to notice is the place which this remarkable passage in Chinese history holds in the story of European expansion which we have been rehearsing. The point of view to which our study has brought us discloses this at once. The insurrection had at bottom for its cause the determination of the Chinese to set a limit to the encroachments of the Western races, to prevent the dismemberment of their country, to preserve China for the Chinese. All the various causes that have been as- signed for the uprising are included in this general underlying cause. 752. The Chinese Republic. — As a result of the Boxer uprising China had to agree to pay an indemnity of $325,000,000. The country was humiliated, too, by the invasion of the allied troops and the flight of the court from Peking. These events aided in discrediting the Manchu dynasty, which, during the two and a half centuries of its supremacy, had given China some of its ablest rulers but had finally become weak and corrupt. Its policy of leasing territory to foreign powers and of granting them conces- sions for building railroads in return for large loans was strongly opposed by many patriotic Chinese. Certain governmental reforms, ineffectually carried out, added to the growing dissatisfaction with the imperial rule. For many years revolutionary ideas had been spreading, espe- cially among the more enlightened young men who had studied abroad. Finally, in October, 191 1, an outbreak occurred in Han- kow, which rapidly gained such strength that the Manchus were compelled to abdicate (February 12, 19 12). A provisional repub- lican government was inaugurated with Yuan Shih-kai as president. 692 EUROPEAN EXPANSION Although he was considered the ablest statesman in China, he was no friend of democracy, and his arbitrary acts led to continu- ous conflict with the republican leaders. Open rebellion broke out in the summer of 1913 ; but the movement was premature, the leaders showed no statesmanlike qualities, and when the ex-Manchu general Chang Hsun captured Nanking the uprising immediately collapsed. In October, 19 13, Yuan Shih-kai was elected permanent presi- dent and was inaugurated October 10, the second anniversary of the beginning of the revolution. The republic had already been recognized by the United States and other American republics, and now European governments and Japan gave their recognition. In a few weeks the incompetency and obstructive tactics of the parliament enabled the president, with popular assent, to make himself virtually a dictator. In the summer of 1 9 1 5 a movement began for the restoration of the monarchy, and on December 11 Yuan Shih-kai announced that " in deference to the will of the people " he had consented to become emperor. But, owing to a rapidly growing rebellion of the southern provinces and probably in part to foreign influence, the change in the form of government was revoked, March 22,1916, and upon the death of Yuan Shih-kai in June the vice-president, Li Yuan-hung, quietly succeeded to the presidency. Many old generals, led by Chang Hsun, continued to plot for the overthrow of the republic, and in July, 19 17, brought about the retirement of the president ; but the vice-president, Feng Kuo-chang, assumed the presidency, and the republic appeared likely to be permanent in spite of occasional military dominance. When the European war broke out in the summer of 19 14 the Japanese demanded that Germany hand over to them the leased territory of Kiau-chau. As this demand was ignored, Japan de- clared war and received the capitulation of Kiau-chau November 7, 19 1 4. During the military operations the Japanese landed troops on Chinese soil, thus violating Chinese neutrality. Japan's aggres- sive attitude at this time and in the following months contributed to turn China's sympathy to Germany. The Chinese army, too, THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 693 which had been trained and armed by Germans, aided in spreading German propaganda. It was the influence of the United States that finally aligned China with the enemies of Germany. On February 4, 191 7, a note was received from the American government stating that it had broken off diplomatic relations with Germany as a protest a'gainst the unrestricted submarine warfare which Germany had begun February i , and inviting the Chinese republic to take simi- lar action. On February 9 the Chinese government dispatched a note to Berlin declaring that it would sever diplomatic relations unless Germany changed its submarine policy. This was hailed as a promising sign of virility in the young Chinese republic, as it was the first decisive action ever taken by China in regard to foreign affairs. The severance of diplomatic relations came on March 14, and after Chang Hsun's attempt to restore the mon- archy had been crushed war was declared, again in response to the suggestion of the United States, August 14, 19 17. Many Chinese laborers were employed in auxiliary service with the Allied armies, but China took no important part in the actual fighting. America is greatly admired by the Chinese. It has never sought territory in China and has stood for the "open door," or the equality of all nations in commercial relations with China. It gained still further credit by returning the amount of indemnity assigned to it after the Boxer troubles of 1900, deducting only enough to pay the expenses of its military and naval operations. All the other nations that participated in the expedition to Peking have retained the full amount of indemnity awarded. Furthermore the American republic has been taken as a model for the govern- ment of the new China, and the Chinese naturally look to the people of America for sympathy and support in their efforts to establish a stable democratic government. 753. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). — In 1902 Japan had concluded a defensive alliance with Great Britain which greatly increased her prestige in the Far East. Two years later she declared war on Russia. Respecting the profound cause of this conflict, little need be added to what has already been said in 694 EUROPEAN EXPANSION the preceding paragraphs. Soon after Russia had forced Japan to give up Port Arthur and the territory in Manchuria ceded to her by the terms of the treaty with China after the Chino- Japanese War of 1894 (sec. 750), she herself secured from China a lease of the most "strategic portion" of this same territory, and straight- way proceeded to transform Port Arthur into a great naval and mili- tary fortress, which was to be the Gibraltar of the East. Moreover she occupied the whole of the great Chinese province of Manchuria. Notwithstanding she had given her solemn pledges that the occupation of this territory should be only tem- porary, she not only violated these pledges but made it evident by her acts that she intended, besides mak- ing Manchuria a part of the Russian Empire, also to seize Korea. But Russian control of this stretch of seaboard and command of the Eastern seas meant that Japan would be hemmed in by a perpet- ual blockade and her existence as an independent nation imperiled. It would place her destiny in the hands of Russia. Japan could not accept this fate. She was ready for war; her army and navy were well organ- ized, ably commanded, and highly efficient. Hostilities commenced in February, 1904. It was the purpose of the Japanese to drive the Russians first out of the Liao-tung peninsula and then out of Manchuria. Within a few days after the declaration of war the two Russian fleets in the eastern waters were severely defeated Fig. 1 10. — Field Marshal Oyama (From stereograph, copyright, 1904, by the H. C. White Com- pany, New York.) THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 695 and bottled up, one at Port Arthur, the other at Vladivostok. Japan thus controlled the seas and could transport her troops into Korea and Manchuria. General Kuroki marched through Korea and defeated the Russians at the Yalu River. General Oku, with a second army, had landed just north of Port Arthur, but failed to capture that port by assault, and General Nogi, assisted by Admiral Togo, was left to conduct a siege. The other armies, having united under the command of Marshal Oyama, defeated the Russian commander-in-chief, Kuropatkin, who had marched to the relief of Port Arthur in September. The Russians retreated to Mukden, where from February 25 to March 10, 1905, was fought the great battle of the war. The Russians were defeated with a loss of about eighty-five thousand men ; the Japanese lost about seventy thousand. On January 2, 1905, Port Arthur had surrendered after a ten months' siege. In an effort to redeem the situation the Russian government had sent forth the Baltic fleet under Admiral Rojestvensky in October, 1904; but this fleet, after the long voyage around the Cape of Good Hope, reached the scene of hostilities only to be almost totally de- stroyed by Admiral Togo in the Sea of Japan, May 27, 1905. Both nations were now desirous of peace. Japan had been victorious, but her losses in men had been severe, her war debt was heavy, and her resources were limited. Russia, though defeated, still had a large army in Manchuria, had apparently inexhaustible resources, and occupied positions difficult to attack. At the suggestion of President Roosevelt the warring nations sent delegates to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Here, after three weeks of anxious negotiations, a treaty of peace was signed, September 5, 1905. The paramount influence of Japan in Korea was recognized ;^® Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria, and ceded to Japan the southern half of the island of Sakhalin and the lease of the Liao-tung peninsula, including Port Arthur. Although the terms of the treaty were not satisfactory to the Japanese people, Japan had gained the immediate objects of the war and had estab- lished herself as a world power and a nation to be reckoned with. 29 In 1 9 10 Japan forcibly annexed Korea, 696 BIBLIOGRAPHY References. — In preparing the following list of books no attempt has been made to distinguish between primary and secondary authorities, for the reason that so many of the works dealing with the subject of this chapter are of a mixed character. Works oi a general character: Morris, The History of Colonization. Has a good bibliography. Ireland, Tropical Colonization. This also contains a list of books relating to the subject. Payne, Etcropean Colonies. Reinsch, Colo7iial Governtneyit. KiDD, The Cotitrol of the Tropics. Bryce, The Relations of the Advaytced and the Backward Races of Mankind. For the British Colonial Empire : Seeley, The Expansion of England. Egerton, a Short History of British Colonial Policy. Caldecott, Eng- lish Colonization and E77ipire. Bourinot, Canada tuider British Rule, jybo-jgoo. ]'E'i:iYiS, History of the Australasian Colonies. 'Ekvci^, Bnpres- sions of Sotith Africa. For Europe in Africa : Johnston, A History of the Colonization of Afi'ica. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent and The Congo and the Fotmding of its Free State. Keltie, The Partition of Africa. MiLNER, Engla7id z>z Egypt. Hughes, Livi7igstone. Hill, Colo7iel Gordo7t m Ce7itral Africa. Cloete, The History of the Great Boer Trek. Cloete was the English High Commissioner for Natal in 1843-1844. Paul Kruger, Memoirs. De Wet, Three Years'' War. For Russia in Asia : Kennan, Siberia a7id the Exile System. Hell- WALD, The Russiafis in Central Asia. CuRZON, Russia i7t Ce7itral Asia in i88g and the A7iglo-Russia7i Question. CoLQUHOUN, Russia against India; the Struggle for Asia. Shoemaker, The Great Siberian Railway. Krausse, Russia in Asia. Norman, All the Russias. Skrine, The Expansion of Russia, 181^-igoo. HosiE, Manchuria, Its People, Resources, and Rece7tt History. For the problems of the Far East, created by the European expansion movement : Chi7ia's Only Hope, by Chang Chih Tung, Viceroy of Liang Hi. This has been pronounced by high authority " one of the most remarkable books, if not the most remarkable book, written by a Chinese during the past six hundred years." Okakura-Kakuzo, The Awake7ti7tg of Japan. Asakawa, The Russo-Japanese Conflict. CuRZON, Problems of the Far East. Mkha^, The Problem of Asia. Leroy-Beaulieu, The Awake7iing of the East. Colquhoun, China in Tra7isformatio7t and The Mastery of the Pacific. Reinsch, World Politics at the End of the Ni7ieteenth Century as i7iflue7iced by the Orie7ital Situation. HoRNBECK, Co7itemporary Politics in the Far East. Weale, The Fight for the Republic in China. Topics for Class Reports. — i. Resume of the history of the lost colonial empires of the earlier Modem Age. 2. Livingstone and Stanley. 3. Founding of the Congo Free State. 4. The Establishment of the Com- monwealth of Australia. 5. The storage dam at the First Cataract of the Nile. 6. The Cape-to-Cairo Railroad. 7. France in Algeria. 8. Ger- many in Western Asia. 9. The Trans-Siberian Railway. 10. Asia for the Asiatics. CHAPTER XLIV THE WORLD STATE Unconquerable time itself works on unceasingly, bringing the nations nearer to one another, awakening the universal consciousness of the community of man- kind ; and this is the natural preparation for a common organization of the world. — Bluntschli. For I dipt into the future, far as human eye could see, Saw a Vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be"; Till the war-drum throbb'd no longer, and the battle-flags were furl'd In the ParUament of Man, the Federation of the World. — Tennyson. 754. Introductory. — In the opening paragraph of his suggestive work *'The Expansion of England," Professor Seeley uses these words : " It is a favorite maxim of mine that history, while it should be scientific in its method, should pursue a practical object. That is, it should not merely gratify the reader's curi- osity about the past, but modify his view of the present and his forecast of the future. Now if this maxim be sound, the history of England ought to end with something that might be called a moral. Some large conclusion ought to arise out of it; it ought to exhibit the general tendency of English affairs in such a way as to set us thinking about the future and divining the destiny which is reserved for us." The inspiring destiny for England which Professor Seeley reads in her past and present history is Imperial Federation, that is, a great federal union embracing the motherland and her colonies, organized after the model of the United States of America. Professor Seeley's maxim must needs be applied to universal history if its study is to issue in anything really worthy and practical. We must try to discover the tendency of the historic evolution, to discern the set of the current of world events, and 697 698 THE WORLD STATE to divine the destiny reserved for the human race. Only thus shall we be able to form practical ideals for humanity and strive intelligently and hopefully for their realization. The destiny of the human race, as plainly disclosed in its past history, is not disunion but union, not perpetual warfare but per- petual peace. The drift of history from the beginning has been toward a federated world, a world organized for common effort and common accomplishment. 755. From the Clan State to the Federal State. — There is no tend- ency in universal history, broadly viewed, more manifest than this tendency toward world unity. In the beginning the largest inde- pendent group was the clan or tribe. Then came the wider union of the city-state as we find it in Babylonia and Syria, and in Greece and Italy, at the dawn of history. For upwards of two thousand years the city-state was the ultimate political unit in the civilized world of the Mediterranean. Then, — if we disregard purely artificial unions, unions created and maintained by force, such as the Roman Empire, — then came the nation states of modern times, which, since the break-up of the Roman Empire, have been slowly created through the consolidation of tribes, cities, and petty principalities. And just now among these great nation states a state of a new type has arisen, — the federal state, of which our Union, consist- ing of forty-eight states, is the model. Constituted " in the image and likeness " of this are the Dominion of Canada, the Common- wealth of Australia, the Swiss Confederation, and the new Slav republics. So characteristic a feature, indeed, of the political life of the present is this federation movement, that ours has been called the Federal Age. " One of the most striking tendencies of the last century," writes Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, *' has been the developinent of federal government in Europe and America." "The aspect of the whole world," writes Parkin, the author of Imperial Federation, " irresistibly suggests the thought that we are passing from a nation epoch to a federation epoch." The significant thing about this federal movement is that the natural and logical issue of national federalism is international federalism. The United States of America foreshadows the PREREQUISITE OF THE WORLD UNION 699 United States of Europe. The obstacles in the way of such a federation of the European nations are not so great as those which, scarcely more than a generation ago, seemed to render chimerical all attempts to build up unified nations out of the discordant elements existing in Italy and in Germany. The crea- tion of the United States of Europe is a light task compared with the creation of the modern European nations out of the mediaeval chaos of warring tribes, cities, and feudal principalities. To doubt that the work of organization, so far advanced, will stop short of full accomplishment in the formation of the larger European union, which alone can give real worth and meaning to the narrower national unions, is to doubt that the great tendencies in history are toward any ascertainable and reasonable goal. 756. Preparations in Different Domains for the World State. — The success which has attended the application of the federal principle to wide unions of states, like that of the United States, creates a reasonable hope that the same principle will be found capable of uniting in a great federation all the nations of the earth. And, in truth, during the last century, in different realms, the prerequisites of such a world union have been supplied by humanity's advance and achievements. In the political realm all that the age-spirit has accomplished would seem to have for its ultimate aim the preparing of the way for international federation. More than a century ago Immanuel Kant, in his essay on Perpetual Peace, affirmed that a prerequisite for the federation of the world was the establishment by all the nations of representative government. If we recall what the union of the autocratic governments of Europe in the Holy Alliance meant (sec. 647), we shall understand why Kant made the estab- lishment of free popular institutions within the different nations an indispensable prerequisite of the world union. A world union of despotic governments would be the tomb of liberty, individual and national, — a world-wide autocratic despotism. When Kant wrote his plea for peace, autocratic government prevailed almost everywhere in Europe; in England alone was there the semblance of a representative constitution. We have 7CX) THE WORLD STATE seen how, during the century which has passed since then, the Political Revolution has established representative government in most of the Christian states of Europe. Furthermore, in all the really vital nations and communities outside of Europe, — in the United States, in Canada, in Australia, in Japan, — the management of public affairs is in the hands of the people. Thus has the first prerequisite of the formation of the universal state been supplied in the case of almost all the great nations and communities of the civilized world. A second significant preparation in the political realm for the world union is federalism. This supplies the principle which may be applied to the organization of the world without danger to the principle of local autonomy and legitimate national free- dom ; for it deprives the uniting states, as exemplified in our own Union, of nothing save that "lawless freedom" which they now use to do one another hurt and harm. While the basis of a world state has thus been laid in the political domain through the incoming of democracy and feder- alism, an equally important preparation for the permanent organ- ization of the world has been made in the moral realni. Throughout the last century the sentiment of the brotherhood of man has been vastly deepened and strengthened. There has been growing up, too, a new social conscience which recognizes the universality of the moral law, which recognizes that it is a law as binding upon nations as upon individuals. These new moral feelings constitute a force which is working irresistibly in the interest of a world union based on international amity and good will. It is most significant that at the same time that these move- ments towards world unity have characterized progress in the political and moral realms, wonderful discoveries, inventions, and developments in the physical domain, — the steam railway, the steamship, the telegraph, the telephone, wireless telegraphy, and a hundred others, — through the practical annihilation of time and space, have brought the once isolated nations close alongside one another and have made easily possible, in truth, made necessary and inevitable, the formation of the world union. PEACE CONFERENCE AT THE HAGUE 701 757. The Interparliamentary Union. — One of the most impor- tant of the agencies at work for international organization is what is known as the Interparliamentary Union. This is an association made up exclusively of members of national legislatures or parlia- ments. Its membership now numbers more than two thousand. Because of the noble character of the men composing this inter- national society, as well as because of their connection with the practical work of legislation in the different states, this body is the most influential of the agencies now working for the organiza- tion of the world. 758. The International Peace Conference at The Hague and the Establishment of the International Court of Arbitration (1899). — Already more has been accomplished in the way of the actual creation of the machinery of a world state than is generally realized. Just as the nineteenth century was closing the Tsar Nicholas surprised the world by proposing to all the governments having representatives at the Russian court the meeting of a con- ference *' to consider means of insuring the general peace of the world and of putting a limit to' the progressive increase of arma- ments which weigh upon all nations." All the governments addressed accepted the proposal, and in 1899 the Convention met at The Hague in the Netherlands. The most important outcome of the deliberations of the body was the estabhshment of a permanent International Court of Arbitration to which all nations may have recourse for the settlement of interstate disputes. The formation of this International Court is a most noteworthy event. In the words of a recent writer, " It may be possible that looking back a hundred years from now it will be seen that its establishment was the most important single event of modern times." Andrew Carnegie, recognizing the import of the work of the Convention for the peace of the world, has made a gift of ^1,500,000 for the erection at The Hague of a permanent home for the Court, —what is to be known as " The Temple of Peace." The first two cases to be submitted to the Court were the Pious Fund case, between the United States and Mexico, and 702 THE WORLD STATE the Venezuela case, which concerned thirteen nations. Both of these cases were amicably settled.^ Referring, in an official message to the decision of the Court in the latter case, President Roosevelt used these words: "This triumph of the principle of interna- tional arbitration is a sub- ject of warm congratulation, and offers a happy augury for the peace of the world." Many of the leading nations have already bound themselves by treaties to refer to the Court all controversies of a speci- fied character arising between them. The creation of this Inter- national Court of Arbitration brings measurably nearer the time when the barbarous wager of battle between nations shall have become such a tradition of an outgrown past as is now the old wager of battle between FiG.iii. — :TheChristoftheAndes2 individuals (sec. 47). (From a photograph by Carolina tj^g Meeting of the Second ^^ ° ^°^ International Conference and the Proposed Creation of a Stated World Congress or Parliament. — A Supreme Court of the nations having been established, the next 1 Many other cases have been referred to this Court, and several have been satisfactorily adjudicated. 2 In 1903 the South American republics of Chile and Argentina, having happily settled by arbitration a long-standing boundary controversy which threatened to in- volve the two countries in war, mutually bound themselves by treaty to reduce their miUtary and naval armaments and for a stated period to submit every matter of dis- pute arising between them to arbitration. Upon one of the highest boundary ranges of the Andes the two nations have erected a colossal bronze statue of Christ as the sacred guardian of the peace to which they are pledged. The statue was unveiled March 13, 1904. PROPOSED INTERNATIONAL PARLIAMENT 703 step in the organization of the world is the formation of an Inter- national Legislature. This step has already been taken. The Interparliamentary Union, at its meeting held at St. Louis in the fall of 1904, passed a resolution requesting the governments of the different nations to send representatives to a second interna- tional conference, and asking that at such conference there be considered among other matters "the advisability of establishing an International Congress to convene periodically for the discus- sion of international questions." The President of the United States was requested by the Union to invite the governments of the world to send delegates to such a conference. He at once complied with the request. The invita- tions met with cordial responses from the governments addressed, and what is known as the Second Hague Conference met in 1907. Forty-four of the fifty and more sovereign and independ- ent nations of the world were represented. One of the important achievements of the conference was the adoption of a proposal made by the delegates of the United States for the establishment of an International Court of Arbitral Justice, as a genuine court of law with permanent judges, to stand by the side of the Court of Arbitration created by the First Hague Conference. The juris- diction and rules of procedure of the court were agreed upon, but unfortunately no agreement as to the number and mode of selec- tion of the judges could be reached. Had the court been fully constituted and the submission to it of international disputes been made obligatory, it is possible that the great tragedy which over- whelmed Europe in 1 9 1 4 would have been averted. The action of the conference respecting the periodic meeting of representatives of the nations was as follows : " The conference recommends to the powers the reunion of a third peace confer- ence, which shall take place within a period analogous to that which has elapsed since the preceding conference, at a date fixed by common agreement among the powers." There is justification for the confident hope that a third conference will be convened at The Hague very soon after the end of the present world war. 704 THE WORLD STATE References. — Bluntschli, The Theory of the State, bk. i, chap. ii. Seeley, The Expansio7i of England. Y^K^T, Perpetual Peace. Jean DE Bloch, The Future of War, being the sixth volume of the author's extended work under this same title. Parkin, Imperial Federation. Trueblood, The Federation of the World. Mead, A Primer of the Peace Movement. Hart, An Introduction to the Study of Federal Govern- ment. FiSKE, American Political Ideas. SuMNER, Addresses on War. Foster, Arbitration and The Hague Court. HoLLS, The Peace Conference at The Hague. ToLSTOl, War and Peace, and Letter 07i the Russo- Japanese War. Baroness von Suttner, Lay Down Your Arms. CONCLUSION THE NEW AGE: INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY 760. The Age of Material Progress or the Industrial Age. — History has been well likened to a grand dissolving view. While one age is passing away another is coming into prominence. Before the movement in the poHtical realm which we have been following, and which is creating free self -directing nations and organizing them in a world-wide union, has yet reached its con- summation, the scene is already shifting. During the last hundred years the features of a new age have distinctly appeared. A new movement of human society has begun. Civilization has fairly entered upon what may be called the Industrial Age or the Age of Material Progress. We have already noted the beginnings' of this new age in the industrial revolution effected by the great inventions which marked the latter part of the eighteenth century (sec. 544)- In the decade between 1830 and 1840 the industrial development thus initiated received a great impulse through the bringing to practical perfec- tion of several of the earlier inventions and by new discoveries and fresh inventions. Prominent among these were the steam railway, the electric telegraph, and the ocean steamship. In the year 1830 Stephenson exhibited the first really successful loco- motive. In 1836 Morse perfected the telegraph. In 1838 ocean steamship navigation was first practically solved.-^ These and other inventions which have grown out of them have brought about momentous changes in the social and the political 1 These inventions may be compared, in their relations to the new industrial age, to the three great inventions or discoveries, namely, printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass, which ushered in the Modern Age (see p. 290). 705 7o6 CONCLUSION world.'^ But it is only the revolution which they have wrought in the industrial domain to which we would now direct attention. And the significant fact for us here to note is that through the application of these inventions to the processes of manufacture and to the thousand other industries and activities of mankind the productive forces of society have been almost incalculably increased. Prob- ably more things contributive to human well-being can now be produced in a single day than were produced in ten or twenty days at the opening of the century. In some important branches of manufacture the productive power of the workman, aided by machinery, has been increased a hundred and even a thousand fold. The history of this age of industry, so different from any pre- ceding age, cannot yet be written, for no one can tell whether the epoch is just opening or is already well advanced.^ We shall have finished the task set ourselves when we have merely stated the leading problem which this remarkable industrial develop- ment has created, and indicated the solution of that problem which the Socialists have proposed. 761. The Labor Problem. — Beyond controversy the great prob- lem of the epoch, one involving many others, is the so-called Labor Problem. This, plainly stated, is. How are the products of the world's industry to be equitably distributed? The condition of things is this. Through the employment of the forces of nature and the use of improved machinery, 2 Thus, for illustration, the increased facilities for travel, by bringing men together and familiarizing them with new scenes and different forms of society and belief, are making them more liberal and tolerant. Still again, by the virtual annihilation of time and space, governmental problems are being solved. As we have just seen, a chief difficulty in maintaining a federation of states widely separated has already been removed and such extended territories as those of the United States have been made practically as compact as the m.ost closely consolidated European state. 3 It may well be that we have already seen the greatest surprises of the age, so far as great inventions and discoveries are concerned, and that the epoch is nearing its culmination. " It is probable," says Professor Richard T. Ely, " that as we, after more than two thousand years, look back upon the time of Pericles with wonder and aston- ishment, as an epoch great in art and literature, posterity two thousand years hence will regard our era as forming an admirable and unparalleled epoch in the history of industrial invention." — French and German Socialism in Modern Times. SOCIALISM OR SOCIAL DEMOCRACY 707 economic goods, that is, products adapted to meet the physical wants of men, can be produced in almost unlimited quantities. But this increase in society's productive power has brought little or no corresponding augmentation of material well-being to the laboring classes. Owing to some defect in our industrial system a few secure a disproportionate share of its benefits.'* Great monopolies or trusts are created and fabulous fortunes are amassed by a few fortunate individuals, while perhaps the majority of the laborers for wages, with their toil lightened comparatively little or not at all, receive almost nothing beyond the means of narrow and bare subsistence. This inequitable distribution of wealth, of material well-being, this practical exclusion of the masses from the greater part of the benefits and enjoyments of modern civilization, is creating everywhere the most dangerous discontent among the laboring classes and is awakening among philanthropists and statesmen the greatest solicitude and apprehension. 762. Socialism or Social Democracy. — The proposed solution of the problem which has awakened most thought and created most debate is that offered by the Socialists, or Social Democrats. Just as our own government — state, city, or national — now owns schoolhouses and controls education, owns and conducts the post office, municipal water works, and other public utilities, so would the Socialists have the government by the gradual extension of its functions come into possession of the railways, the telegraph,^ the mines, mills, factories, the land, — in a word, of all the means of production, of all those things upon which or in connection with which human labor is spent in order to satisfy human wants and to meet human desires. 4 According to a recent estimate 125,000 families of the wealthy class in the United States hold $33,000,000,000 of the total wealth of the nation, while 5,500,000 families of the poorer class possess only |8oo,ooo,ooo. To put it in another way, in every one hundred families of the nation one family holds more than the remaining ninety-nine. Nearly half the families of the nation are classed as " propertyless," that is, as having nothing save clothing and household furniture. See Spahr, An Essay on the Present Distribution of Wealth in the United States (1896), p. 69. 5 In many of the countries of Europe the railways and the telegraph are already largely in the hands of the government. 708 CONCLUSION The Socialists maintain that only under such a system as this — which would do away with the wage system and with private capital, though not with private property — can the present exploitation of labor by capital be made impossible and every man secured reasonable participation in the benefits of the gifts of nature and of the new inventions and discoveries which are rendering nature with all her mighty forces man's willing servant. Socialists lay great emphasis on this, namely, that what they propose is in line and harmony with the great historic move- ments of the past centuries. They maintain that the democra- tization of wealth® is the logical issue of the democratization of. knowledge, of religion, and of government by the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Political Revolution. For them the coming Industrial Revolution^ is the next and necessary phase of the progressive course of civilization. 6 It should ba carefully noted that democracy in wealth does not mean commimism, which denies individual rights in property, any more than democracy in religion means atheism, or democracy in politics, anarchy. It simply looks to such a reform of the present economic system as shall secure to every man an equitable proportion of the material goods which his labor helps to create, or " an apportionment of well being according to labor performed." '!' It will be noted that to the term " Industrial Revolution " as used by the Social- ists there attaches a wholly different meaning from that which it carries when used by the political economists (sec. 544). 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Wilhelmina, Frederica Sophia, Memoirs, 2 vols. Boston, Osgood, 1877. Young, Arthur, Travels in France. London, Bell. 1890. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Note. — In the case of words whose correct pronunciation has not seemed to be clearly indicated by their accentuation and syllabication, the sounds of the letters have been denoted thus: a, like a in gray ; a, like a, only less prolonged; a, like a in have ; a, like« in far ; a, like a in all ; e, like ee in meet ; e, like e, only less prolonged; e, like e in ettd ; e, like e in there; e, like ^ in err ; i, like tin pine ; i, like iin pm ; o, like o in note; 6, like 0, only less prolonged; 6, like o in not ; 6, like a in ^r^; oo, like oo in »2^?? ; ii, like ?^ in use ; ii, like the French u ; £. and ch, like k ; 9, like j ; g, like <^ in ^^/; g, like// s, like z ; ch, as in German ach; G, small capi- tal, as in German Hamburg; n, like ni in minion; n denotes the nasal sound in French, being similar to ng in song. Aachen (a'ken), 67. Abbassides (ab-basldz), dynasty of the, 55. Ab'e-lard, Peter, 193, 194. Abu Bekr (a'boo bek'r), first caliph, 52 n. 6. Abukir Bay (a-boo-ker'), battle of, 540. Ab-ys-sin'i-a, 679 n. 19. Acre (a^ker), siege of, by crusaders, 135 ; by Bonaparte, 540. Addison, Joseph, 483. Ad-ri-an-6'ple, Treaty of, 655. Afghan War, first, 672 ; second, 672 n. II. Af-ghan-is-tan', 672 n. 11. A-fra-si-ab', Persian legendary hero, 167 n. 5. Africa, Portuguese exploration of, 278 ; Stanley in, 667 ; partition of, 669; English in, 674-678; French in, 678, 679; Germans in, 681. Africa, North, recovery of, by Jus- tinian, 9 ; conquest of, by the Arabs, 52, 53. Agincourt (a'zhan-koor''), battle of, .. 212, 213. A'gra, 162. Aids, feudal, 83. Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-pel') (Ger. Aachen), Treaty of (1668), 407; (1748), 474- Albert, archbishop of Mainz, 301. Albert of Brandenburg, 307. Albert, duke of Austria, 240. Albert the Great, Schoolman, 194. Albi (al-beO> 142 n. 11. Arbi-gen'^ses, crusades against, 142, 143- Al^boin, king of Lombards, 10 n. 5. Albuquerque (al-boo-ker'ki), 281 n. 3- Alcuin (alTcwin), 67. ^ . Aldine Press, at Venice, 264. Ardus Ma-nu'ti-us, 264. Alembert, d' (a-16n-bar'), 507. Alexander I, Tsar, at Tilsit, 558- 560 ; at Erfurt, 565 ; war with Napoleon, 573-575 ; in Holy Alli- ance, 586 ; as liberal and as reac- tionist, 654 ; II, emancipates serfs, 657, 658; assassinated, 662; III, 662. Alexius Com-ne'nus I, Greek em- peror, asks aid of the Latins against the Turks, 130. Alfred the Great, king of England, 74 n. 2. Algeria, 678, 679. Ali (a'le), caliph, 52 n. 6. Almansur (al-man-soor'), caliph, 55- Alphonso, king of Castile, emperor- elect H. R. E., 237. 725 ^26 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Al-sace' (Ger. Elsass), ceded to France, 392; to Germany, 595; question of, in France, 596, 646, ^647. AFva, duke of, in Netherlands, 366, 367. Amalfi (a-marfe), 103. America, discovered by Northmen, 73- Amiens (a-me-an'). Treaty of, 545, 546; broken, 553. Amurath (a-moo-rat') I, Turkish sultan, 165. Anabaptists, 307 n. 10. Anagni (a-nan'ye), 154. An-a-to'li-a, 164. An-a-t5'li-an Railway, 681. Anchorites. See Hermits. Anglo-Saxons, conquest of Britain, 12. See England. An-go'ra, battle of, 166. Anjou (oii'zhoo), French province, 202. Annates, 303 n. 5; Act of, 341. Anne of Austria, 404. Anne of Cleves, 345. Anne, queen of England, 480-483. Antioch, taken by crusaders, 132. Antony of Bourbon, king of Na- varre, -yi-]. Antwerp, Spanish fury at, 369. Appeals, Act in Restraint of, 341. A-qufnas, Thomas, 194, 195. Arabian Nights, 57. Arabic system of notation, 58. Arabs, origin and character, 46; religious condition before Mo- hammed, 46-48. See Saracens and Moors. Aragon, union with Castile, 230. Archaeology, science of, created by classical revival, 272. Architecture, mediaeval, 183. Ar-€o'la, battle of, 538 n. 2. Aristotle, quoted, 183 n. 11. Arkwright, 494 n. 19. Ar-ma'da, Invincible, 356-359. Amdt, 571. Arthur, King, 12. Arthur, Prince of Wales, 336. Articles of Religion, Anglican, 348. Artois (ar-twa'), ceded to France, .. 404- As'pem, battle of, 566. Assassination, political, 341 n. 5. ' Assiento " (as-e-en'to), the, 481. Assignats (as'ig-nats; Fr. pron. a-se-na'), 518 n. 11. Assisi (a-se'se), 151. Assizes of Jerusalem, 133. Assuan (as-swan^), 678. As-tra-khan', 454. As-tu'ri-as, the, 229. Atahualpa (a-ta-warpa), 288. Athanasius (ath-a-na'shi-us), 23. A'thens, dukedom of, 137. Attainder, bill of, 345 n. 5. Attila, legend of, 29 n. 12. Auerstadt (ou'er-stet), battle of, 558. Augsburg, Diet of, 308 ; Confession of, 308 ; Religious Peace of, 324 ; League of, 410, 411. Au'gus-tlne, his mission to Britain, ' 16. Augustus the Strong, 463. Ausgleich (ous'glTch), 650. Austerlitz (ous'ter-lits), battle of, 555- Australasia, 671 n. 9. AustraUa, 671; Commonwealth of, 671. Austria (Ger. CEsterreich), House of, 238 n. 19; imperial crown be- comes hereditary in, 240; under Charles V, 318; under Maria The- resa, 473-476; under Joseph II, 497-499; wars against French Revolution, 520, 537-539; wars against Napoleon, 545, 554, 555, 566, 576; empire of, 556; gains at Congress of Vienna, 583 ; in Holy Alliance, 586; Italian in- terests of, 619-629 ; German in- terests of, 634-642 ; in Austro- Hungarian monarchy, 650-653. Austria-Hungary since 1866, 650- 653- Austrian Succession, War of, 472- 474 ; England in, 486. Austro-Prussian War, 641, 642. Austro-Sardinian War, 626, 627. Auto de fe (a'to-da-fa"), the, 232; ^ at Valladoli'd, 365. A'vars, subdued by Charlemagne, 63. Avignon (a'ven'yon'''), removal of papal seat to, 155. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 727 A'von, river, 219. A'zov, Russians capture, 458. Aztecs, 287. Ba'ber, founder of Mongol state in India, 162. Bacon, Roger, 195, 196. Bagdad, founded, 55. Baj-a-zet' or Baj'a-zet I, 165, 166. Bal-b5'a, Vasco de, 286 n, 11. Baldwin of Flanders, Latin emperor of the East, 137. Balliol (bal'i-ol), John, Scottish king, 206, 207. Ban'nock-bum'', battle of, 208. Bar-ba-ross'a, bey of Algiers, 322 n. 5. Barebone, Praise-God, 437. Bar'ne-veid, John of, 374 n. 8. Barras (ba-ras'), 536 n. 25. Ba'sel, Church Council of, 157. Ba'sel (Fr. Bale), treaties of, 537 n. Bastille (bas-teF), storming of the, Batavian Republic (this had been created in 1795), made into king- dom of Holland, 552. Batu (ba'too'O' Mongol leader, 161, 162. Bautzen (bout'sen), battle of, 576. Bavaria (Ger. Bayem), kingdom, 556; in German Empire, 646. Bay'ard (Fr. pron. ba-yar'), Cheva- lier, 321. Baylen (bi-len'), capitulation of, 564 n. 21. Ba-zaine', Marshal, 595. Becket. See Thomas Becket. Bede (bed), the Venerable, 20 n. 5. Bedouins (bed'00-enz), the, 46. "Beggars," origin of name, 365; "water beggars," 369. Begging friars. See Mendicant friars. Belgium (Fr. Belgique), war of Louis X IV concerning, 407 ; ceded to Austria, 413 ; revolution in, 498; ceded to France, 538; in kingdom of Netherlands, 583 ; independent kingdom, 591. Bel-i-sa'ri-us, general, 9. Bel-ley o-phon, the, 578. Benares (be-na'rez), 122. Ben'der Ab^bas, 683. Benedetti (ba-na-det'te), 644. Benedictines, order of the, 25. Ben'e-fic''t-um, the, 80. Benevolences, 335. Beowulf (ba'o-wuif), Saxon poem, 19. Beresina (ber-e-ze'na), 575. Ber'gen, 174. Ber-lin' (Ger. pron. ber-len'). Decree, 561 ; Treaty of, 660. Bemadotte (ber^na-dot), king of. Sweden, 583 n. 3. Bes-sa-ra'bi-a, ceded to Russia, 660. Beust (boist). Count, 650. Bible, Luther's, 306; King James', 424. Bishops' War, 427, 428. Bis'marck, Otto von, 639-649. Black Death, the, 210; effect on wages in England, 211, Black Hole of Calcutta, 490 n. 14. Black Prince, the, 211. Blenheim (blen'im), battle of, 412. "Bloody Assizes," the, 447 n. 16. Bliich'er, 578. Blues and Greens, factions at Con- stantinople, 43. Boccaccio (bok-kat'cho), his Decam- eron, 259; as a humanist, 259. Boers (boors), the, 674-676. Bo-e'thi-us, 8. Bohemia, in Thirty Years' War, 387, 388. Bo'he-mond, prince of Otranto, 132. Boleyn, Anne (boorin), 339, 341 ; marriage, 341 ; death^345. Bolingbroke (boring-brook), 505 n.5. Bologna (bo-lon'ya), University of, 188. Bonaparte. See Jerome, Joseph, Louis, Napoleon. Boniface (bon'e-fass) VIII pro- claims jubilee, 300. B5'ra, Catherine von, 304 n. 6. Bordeaux (bor-do'), 533- Borodino (bor-o-de'no), battle of, 574- Borromeo (bor-ro-ma'o). Carlo, 311. Bo-rus'si, the, 469. Bos'ni-a, revolt in, 659; adminis- tered by Austria-Hungary, 660. Bos'po-rus, the, 53. Bossuet (bo-su-a'), 398, 417 n. 14 Bosworth Field, battle of, 215. 728 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Botany Bay, 671. Boulogne (boo-lon'), camp of, 554. Bour'bon, Cardinal, 381. Bourbon, House of, accession in France, 381; in Spain, 411; re- stored in France, 576 ; in Naples, 582 ; heirs expelled from France, 597; in Spain, 614. Bourgeoisie (boor-zhwa-ze'), 503. Boyne, battle of the, 452. Braddock, 489 n. 11. Bradshaw, 443. Bra-gan'za, House of, in Portugal, Brandenburg, electorate of, under the Hohenzollerns, 469. Brant, Sebastian, 297 n. i. Brazil, falls to Portugal, 281 n. 5; Portuguese royal family flee to, 615 n. 2; empire of, 615 n. 2; republic of, 615 n. 2. Breitenfeld (brf ten-felt), battle of, 390- Brethren of the Common Life, 297. Bretigny (bre-ten-yf). Treaty of, 211 n. 9. Briel (brel), 368, 369. Bright, John, 602 n. i. Britain, Anglo-Saxon conquest of, 12. See England. British Empire in India, 672, 673. Brittany, origin of name, 1 2 n. 6. Bruce, Robert, king of Scotland, 207, 208. Bru'ges (Fr. pron. briizh), 174. Bru-maire', Revolution of, 540, 541. Brunelleschi (broo-nel-les'ke), 267 n. 10. Brunswick, Duke of, 521 ; House of, 484 n. 5. Budapest, 650. Bulgaria, 660 n. 8. Bunyan, John, 443. Burghley, Lord, 352, Burgundians, kingdom of the, 9. Bur'gun-dy, origin of name, 9, Butler, Samuel, 450. Byron, Lord, 654 n. i. Byzantine Empire. See Eastern Empire. Cabinet, English, 485. Cab'ot, John, 337. Cabot, Sebastian, 337. Ca'diz, 359. Caed'mon, poet-monk, 20. Caen (koh), 526. Cahiers (ka-ya'), 510. Cairo, 58 ; Bonaparte in, 399, Caj'e-tan, Cardinal, 303 n. 4. Calais (kal'lss), captured by Eng- lish, 210; English lose, 351. Calcutta, Black Hole of, 490 n. 14. Calendar, French Revolutionary, 529- Caliphate of Bagdad, established, 55 ; Golden Age of, 55 ; dismem- berment of, 55, 56. Calmar, Union of, 249. Calvin, John, at Geneva, 309 n. 13; bums Servetus, 312. Calvinists, 309 ; omitted from Peace of Augsburg, 324 n. 7. Cam-ba-lu', Mongol capital, 162. Cam-bo'di-a, 679. Cambronne (koh-bron'), 578 n. 30. Campagna (kam-pan'ya), 632. Campo Formio (kam-po-for'me-o), Treaty of, 538. Canada, under Louis XIV, 413, 414 ; ceded to England, 419; Domin- ion of, 670. Ca-nos^sa, Henry IV's humiliation at, 118. Can-ta'bri-a, 229. Ca-nute', king of England, 75. Cape Colony, 674. Ca'pet, Hugh, king of France, 220, 221. Capetians. See France. Cape-to-Cairo Railway, 676. Capitularies of Charlemagne, 66. Car-bo-na'ri, 620. Cardinals, Sacred College of, 113 n. 4. Carloman, king of Franks, 62. Carl'stadt, 306. Car-nar'von, castle, 205, 206. Carnegie (car-na'gie), Andrew, 701. Car-ni-5'la, 566. Carnot (kar-n5'), Sadi, 596 n. 10. Car-o-lin'gi-an family, beginning of, 62 ; its extinction, 69. Carrier (kar-ya'), 534. Carroccio (car-rot'cho), the, 177 n. 3. Cartwright, 494. Casimir-Perier (kaz-i-mer' pa-rya'), 596 n. 10. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY ;29 Cas''si-o-d5''''rus, Theodoric's minis- ter, 8 n. 2. Castelar (kas-ta-lar'), Emilio, 6i8. Castiglione (kas-tel-y5'ne), 538 n. 27. Castile (kas-ter), the name, 230 ; union with Aragon, 238. Castles, feudal, 88. Cateau Cambresis (ka-to' kori-bra- ze'), Peace of, 328. Cathedral building, 185. Catherine of Aragon, 339, 340, 341. Catherine II the Great, reign, 466- 468. Catherine de' Medici (de ma'de- che), 377, 379. Catholic Emancipation Act, 607. Catholic League, in France, 381 ; in Germany, 387. Catholic Reaction, 308-314. Cavaliers, 430. Cavour (ka-voo/), Count, 625, 626, 627, 628. Cawn-pur', 673 n. 13. Caxton, William, 219. Cecil, Robert, 353. Cecil, William. See Burghley. Celibacy of the clergy, 115. Celtic Church, 18, 19. Celts, at opening of the Middle Ages, 6; Christianity among, 17- 19; conversion of Irish Celts by St. Patrick, 17. Cenis (se-ne'). Mount, tunnel, 626. Cerdagne (ser'dan''), 225. Cer-van'tes, 99. Chambers of Reunion, 409 n, 8. Champlain (sham-plan'), 383. Charlemagne (shar'le-man), king of Franks, 62-68 ; his wars, 62, 63 ; restores the Empire in the West, 64, 65 ; as a ruler, 65-67 ; his Palace School, (y-] ; his death, 6-] ; results of his reign, 68 ; division of his dominions, 68. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 623, 624. Charles the Bald, king of the West- em Franks, 80. Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- gundy, 225. Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine, 377. Charles Felix, king of Sardinia, 621. Charles Martel, at battle of Tours, 54 ; creates a cavalry force, 86. Charles the Simple, king of the Western Franks, 75. Charles I, king of England, reign, 425-434; II» reign, 443-446. Charles IV, king of France, 209; VI, 212; VII, 213, 214; VIII, 225-227 ; IX, king of France, 377, 379, 381 r X, 590. Charles IV, Emperor H. R. E., 237 n. 18; V, commissions Magel- lan, 282 ; at Diet of Worms, 304, 305; of Augsburg, 308; narrative of reign, 318-325 ; his abdication, 325, 326; VI, 412, 472; VII, 473 n. I. Charles II, king of Spain, 411 ; IV, 564. Charles XII, king of Sweden, 462, 463, 464 n. 6. Chartism, 603. Chatham. See Pitt. Chaucer, Geoifrey, 217. Chev'i-ot (or chiv'i-ot) Hills, 338 n. 3. Chil'de-ric, last Merovingian king, 62. Children's Crusade, the, 138-140. China, question of partition of, 687 ; war with Japan, 688-690 ; dis- memberment of, 690 ; Boxer up- rising, 690 ; repubhc of, 691-693. Chivalry, origin of, 93, 94 ; its uni- versality, 94 ; training of the knight, 95 ; ceremony of knight- ing, 95, 96; the tournament, 96, 97 ; character of the knight, 97, 98; decline of the system; 98; evil and good in system, 99. Chos'ro-es II, king of Persia, 44. Christian IV, king of Denmark, 388 ; IX, 640. Christianity, as factor in mediaeval history, 4 ; introduced among the Teutonic tribes, 14-21 ; progress of, before the fall of Rome, 1 5 ; introduced into Russia, 21 ; re- acted upon by paganism, 22 ; in French Revolution, abolished, 530- Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon, 74 n. 2. Chrys-o-l5'ras, Manuel, Greek scholar, 260. Church, early constitujtion of, 27 ; separation of the Eastern from 730 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY the Western or Latin Church, 32 ; growth of a martial spirit in, 123, 124. See Papacy. Church Councils : Council of Nicaea, 15; of Pisa, 156; of Constance, 156; of Basel, 157; of Trent, 310, 311- Church property, in France, nation- alized, 518. Cid, poem of the, 233. ^ Cimabue (che-ma-boo'a), 268 n. 14. Cisalpine Republic, first, 538, 541 ; second, 545, 552. Civil Code, 549. Civil Constitution of Clergy, in French Revolution, 518; ter- minated, 547. Civil War (1642-1649), in England, 430-434- Clarendon, Constitutions of, 200. Clermont (kler-moii'). Council of, 130. Clive, Robert, 490. Clo'vis, king of the Franks, 10; his conversion, 15. Cluniac revival, 122, 126. Cluny (klii-ne'), monastery of, 26; center 'of reform, 26, 114. Clyde, river, 483. Cobden, Richard, 602 n. i. Codes : Justinian Code, 43 ; Assizes of Jerusalem, 133; Code Napo- leon, 549. Colbert (kol-ber'), 406. CoFet, John, 295. Coligny, Gaspard de (ko-len-ye'), 377, 378, 379, 380- ^^ ^^ Colonization, European, 664-667. See national titles such as Eng- lish Colonies. Colonnas, Giovanni, 259. Columbus, Christopher, importance of his achievement, 275; voyages of, 279, 280. Comiiatus, the, 81. Commendation, Gallic custom, 81, Commons, English House of, origin, 203—205. See Parliament, Eng- lish. Commonwealth of England, 434- 438. Commune, Revolutionary, of Paris, 514. Communists, Paris, 595. Compass, invention of, 277 n. 2. Concordat, French, of 1801, 547. Condottieri (kon^ot-tya'^re), 179. Confederation of the Rhine, 556. Congo Free State, 668 n. 5. Conrad III, Emperor H. R. E., 134. Constance, Church Council of, 156; Peace of (1183), I77- Con'stan-tlne VI, Eastern em- peror, 64. Constantine, Palaeologus, last em- peror of the East, 166. Constantinople, besieged by Sara- cens, 53 ; captured by crusaders, 136-138; by Ottoman Turks, 166. Constituent Assembly, French, 513- 519- Constitutions: Austria (1849), 638; (1867), 651 ; England, 437 ; France (i79i),5i9; (1795), 535; (1799), 543; (i8i4),577; (1848), 5925(1851), 593; (1875), 596; Hungary (1867), 651; Non^-ay (1814), 584; Netherlands (1814), 584; Poland (1815), 655; Portugal (1820), 615 n. 2 ; Prussia (1850), 638; Sardinia (1848), 623; Spain (1812), 614; (1837), 618; (1875), 618; Switzerland (1815), 584; Two Sicilies (1820), 620. Consulate, French, 543-551. Continental Blockade, 560-562. Conventicle Act, 443. Convention, French National, 523- 536. Conway, castle, 206. Cook, James, Captain, 671. Copenhagen bombarded, 563. Co-per'ni-cus, Nicholas, 276 n. i. Cor-day', Charlotte, 526. Cordeliers (Eng. pron.kor'de-lers''). Club, 519. Cor'do-va, 54. Corn Laws repealed, 602 n. i. Comeille (kor-nay'), 417. Cor-6-man'del, 474. Corporation Act repealed, 606. Cor'pus Jufris Ci-vi'lis, 43. Correggio (kor-red'jo), 268 n. 14. Corsica, ceded to France, 419. Cortes (kor'tes), Spanish, 186 n. 14. Cortes (Span. pron. kor-tas'), Her- nando, 286. Co-run'na, battle of, 566 n. 23. Coster of Haarlem, 263 n. 8. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 731 Coulanges (ko-lonzh'), Fustel de, 187. Council, of Blood, 367 ; of the North, 426 n. 6; of Trent, 310, 311; Vatican, 630 n. 5. Counter-Reform, Catholic, 310, 311. Coup (TEtat (koo-da-ta'), of Bru- maire, 540, 541 ; of December 2, 1851, 593- Court of Arbitration, International, 701. Covenanters, 428; persecution of, 444. Cranmer, Thomas, 340, 341 ; death, 350- Crecj (kres'se), battle of, 209. Crespy (kra-pe'), Peace of, 322. Crimea, Russia conquers, 466 ; war in, 656, 657. Crompton^ 494 n. 19. Cromwell, Oliver, parliamentary general, 431-436; seizes govern- ment, 437 ; Protector, 438-440 ; death, 440 ; treatment of body, 443. Cromwell, Richard, 440. Cromwell, Thomas, 340, 341 ; death, 345 n. 5- Crusades, enumerated, 121 ; causes of, 122-127; circumstances favor- ing, 127-129 ; legend of Peter the Hermit, 129; Councils of Pia- cenza and Clermont, 130; narra- tive of the Crusades in the East, 131-140; Crusades in Europe, 141-143 ; their results for Euro- pean civilization, 143-146. See Table of Contents. Cul-16'den Moor, battle of, 487. Curfew, the, 107. Customs Union, German, 637. Cuzco (kooz'ko), 288. Cyprus, ceded to England, 660. Czechs (chechs or cheks), 652. Danelagh (dan'la), the, 72. Danes. See Scafidinavians. Dante, Alighieri (a-le-ge-a're), pre- cursor of the Renaissance, 253, 254; his Commedia, 254. Dan'ton (Fr. pron. doh-toii'), in Con- vention, 523 : on first Committee of Public Safety, 525 ; death, 531. Da'ri-en, Isthmus of, Scotch colony at, 482. Dark Ages, the, character of , i, 2. Damley, Henry Stuart, Lord, 355. Declaration, of Indulgence, 447 ; of Rights, 448; of the Rights of Man, 516. Defoe, Daniel, 483. Delhi (derie), 162 Demarcation, Papal Line of, 281,282. Denmark, in Thirty Years' War, 388 ; Continental Blockade, 562 ; loses Norway, 583 n. 3 ; Schles- wig-Holstein War, 640, 641. See Calmar, Union of. Derby, Earl of, 604. Descartes (da-kart'), 417 n. 14. Des-i-de'ri-us, king of the Lom- bards, deposed by Charlemagne, 63- Despots, Italian, 178, 179, Diane de Poitiers (di-an' de pwa- tya0,_376. Dias (de'as), Bartholomew, 278. Diderot (de-dro'), 507. Directory, French, 535-541. Disestablishment, in Ireland, 607- 609; proposed in England and Scotland, 609. Disraeli (diz-ra'li), 608. Distribution of wealth in the United States, 707 n. 4. Divina Commedia (de-ve'na kom- ma^e-a), 254. Divine Right of Kings, the theory, 396-398; its history, 398, 399; opinion . of James I on, 420 ; of Louis XIV, 403, Doge (doj), the name, 179, Domesday Book (doomz^'da'), 106, Dominicans, order of the, 151. Don Quixote (Sp. pron. don ke- ho'te), 99. D6n-a-teri6, 267 n. 10. Donation of Constantine, 32 n. 15; its unhistorical character shown by Valla, 273. Dragonnades (drag-o-nadz'), 409. Drake, Francis, 357, 359. Dreibund (dri'boont), 648. Dreyfus (driTus), Alfred, 598 n. 11. Drogheda (droch'e-da), 435. Duma, Russian, 663. Dunbar, battle of, 436. Dunkirk, 439. Duns Scotus, 195. 732 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Duquesne (dii-kan^), Fort, 489. Dutch. See Netherlands. Dutch colonies, 444 ; at the Cape, 674,675; in East Indies, 331,674 n. 14. East India Company, English, 423, 673- Eastern Empire, sketch of history, 42-45 ; becomes Greek, 44, 45 ; services of, to European civiliza- tion, 45 ; effects upon, of Cru- sades, 143. Eastern Rumelia (roo-me'lia), 660 n. 8. Ebro (a^brS), river, 564. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction, 200 n. 2. Ecclesiastical Reservation, 324 ; vio- lated, 387. Eck, John, 303 n. 4. Edda, the, 73 n. i. E-des'sa, 134. Edgehill, battle of, 431 n. 10. Edict, of Nantes, 382 ; revoked, 409, 410 ; of Grace, 385 ; of restitution, 388; of Toleration in Austria, 497 ; of Emancipation in Prussia, 572 ; in Russia, 657, 658. Education, English acts, 602 n. i, 604 ; question in France, 597. Education, reformed by the New Learning, 271. Edward, the Confessor, king of England, 75; his death, 103; I, 205-208; II, 208; III, 208, 209, 210, 211; VI, birth, 345; reign, 347-349- Eglaert, king of Wessex, 12. Egmont, 366. Egypt, conquest of, by Saracens, 52 ; England in, 676-678. Einhard (in'hard), secretary of Charlemagne, 66. Elba, 576. Elbe (elb ; Ger. pron. ell)e), river, 392- Electors, the Seven, of Germany. 236, 237. Elizabeth, queen of England, reign, 351-361. Elizabeth, tsaritsa, 475. Emigres (a-me-gra'), French, 516; return of, 547. Encyclopedists, 507. Enghien (oii-gian''), duke of, 550. England, origin of name, 12 ; Anglo- Saxon conquest of, 12 ; Christian- ity in, 16; results of conversion of Anglo-Saxons, 16; reign of Alfred the Great, 74 n. 2 ; Danish conquest, 75 ; Saxon line restored, 75 ; Norman conquest and rule, 103-109; under the houses of Plantagenet, Lancaster, and York, 199-216; loss of possessions in France, 201 ; conquest of Wales, 205, 206; wars W'ith Scotland, 206-208 ; Hundred Years' War, 208-215; Wars of the Roses, 215, 216; under the Tudors, 334-361; in seventeenth century, 420-453 ; in eighteenth century, 480-496; since Waterloo, 599-613. See Table of Contents. English colonies, the Cabots, 237 '■> under Elizabeth, 359, 360; under James I, 423 ; under Anne, 482; in Seven Years' War, 488-491 ; in American Revolution, 491,-492; slavery abolished in, 493; at close of nineteenth century, 669-678. Enlightened despotism, theory of, 400-402 ; exemplified by Cath- erine II, 466 ; by Frederick II, 477, 478; by Joseph 11,497-499; by Napoleon, 547-549. Equality, principle of, 580. E-ras'mus, Desiderius, 295, 296. Er'furt, Congress of, 565. E-rig'e-na, John Scotus, 192. Eritrea (a-re-tra'a), 679 n. 19. Ertogrul (er'to-grool), Ottoman chieftain, 164, 165. Eschenbach (esh'en-bach), Wolfram of, 241 n. 22. Es-co'ri-al, the, 328 n. 10. Essenes (es-senz'), the, 23 n. 6. Essex, second earl of, 360 n. 8 ; third earl of, 431. Essling, battle of, 566. Estates-General. See States-General. E-tru'ri-a, kingdom of, 546. Ettenheim, 550. Eugene of Savoy, Prince, 412, Eugenie (e-zha-ne'). Empress, 594. Ev'e-lyn, John, 459 n. 3. Excommunication, effects of, 117. Eylau (ilou), battle of, 558. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 733 Fa-bi^o-la, 27 n. 11. Factory Act, English, 602 n. i. Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 432. False Decretals, the, 32 n, 15. Faure (for), Felix, 596 n. 10. Faust, printer, 264. Faustus, legend of, 270 n. 15. Fawkes, Guy, 421. Federalism, 697-700. Fenelon (fan-loh''), 417 n. 14. Ferdinand of Aragon, marriage to Isabella of Castile, 230; sets up the Inquisition, 232 ; his death, 232. Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria, 638. Ferdinand II, Emperor H.R.E., 388. Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, ac- cession, 614; reign, 616. Ferdinand IV, king of Naples, as Ferdinand I, king of the Two Sicilies, 620, Feudalism, defined, 77 ; subinfeuda- tion, 77; origin of fiefs, 80; ori- gin of feudal patronage, 81 ; origin of feudal sovereignty, 81, 82 ; cere- mony of homage, 82 ; relation of lord and vassal, — reliefs, fines, aids, etc., 83 ; manorial serfs, 84- 86 ; development of the feudal sys- tem, 86-88 ; castles of the nobles, 88, 89; sports of the nobles, 89; causes of decay, 89-91 ; extinc- tion of, in different countries, 90 n. 7; defects of the system, gT; good results of the system, 92, 93 ; effects upon, of Crusades, 145. Feuillants (fe-yon'), 520. Fich'te, 571. Field of Cloth of Gold, 321 n. 3. Filmer, quoted, 397, 398. Fine arts, revival of the, 266-269. Finland, Russia conquers, 559, 565; Russianization of, 662, 663. Finns, the, 22. Fire-worshipers, 53 n. 7. Fisher, John, bishop of Rochester, 342. Five Mile Act, 444, Flag'el-lants, the, 210 n. 8. Flodden Field, battle of, 338 n. 3. Florence, sketch of history, 182, 183. Forest laws of the Normans, 108. For-mo'sa, 689. Fra An-gelli-co, 268 n. 14. France, beginnings of French king- dom, 220; the Capetian period, 220-224; table of Capetian kings (direct line), 220 n. 11; in the Crusades, 222; effects upon, of the Hundred Years' War, 224; under the mediaeval Valois, 224- 227; wars with Charles V, 320- 323 ; under the later Valois kings, 376-381 ; under Henry IV, 381- 384 ; under Louis XIII, 384-386 ; gains in Treaty of Westphalia, 392 ; under Louis XIV, 403-417 ; Louis XV, 417-419;- condition in eighteenth century, 500-509 ; under Louis XVI, 509-524 ; the Revolution, 524-542; the Con- sulate, 543-551 ; the Empire, 551- 576 ; since Waterloo, 589-598. Franche-Comte (froiish-kon-ta'), 408. Francis I, Emperor H.R.E., 473 n. I ; II, makes Treaty of Campo Formio, 538; of Luneville, 545; as Francis I, Emperor of Austria, 556. Francis I, king of France, rival of Charles V, 320, 321 ; wars with Charles V, 321-323 ; persecution of Waldenses, 323 ; II, reign of, 376, 377- Francis II, king of Two Sicilies, 627. Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, accession, 638; makes Peace of Villafranca, 627 ; of Prague, 642 ; grants reforms to Hungary, 650 ; popularity of, 652. Franciscans, order of the, 151, 152. Franco -Prussian War, 594-596, 643-646. Frankfort (Ger. Frankfurt) ; Con- stituent Assembly at, 639 n. 4; annexed to Prussia, 642. Franks, the, under the Merovin- gians, 9, 10 ; their conversion, 15 ; importance of conversion, 15. Frederick I, Barbarossa, Emperor H R. E., in Third Crusade, 135 ; quarrel with Pope Alexander III, 149; his struggle with the Lom- bard League, 176, 177; repre- sents German nationality, 235 ; II, relations to the Papacy, 152, 153- 734 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Frederick IV, king of Denmark, 463 ; VII, 640. Frederick (III) I, king of Prussia, 470; II, the Great, 472-479; in partition of Poland, 476. Frederick V, Elector Palatine, king of Bohemia, 388 n. 2. Frederick the Wise, elector of Sax- ony, 305. Frederick William, Great Elector of Brandenburg, 469. Frederick William I, king of Prus- sia, 470, 471, III, campaign of Jena, 557, 558; at Tilsit, 560 ; IV, grants Constitution, 638. Free Imperial Cities, 237, 238. French and Indian War. See Seveji Yei.i.rs' IVai: French colonies, under Henry IV, 383; under Louis XIV, 413, 414; under Louis XV, 418; under Napoleon I, 546; at close of nmeteenth century, 678-680. Friedland (fret'lant), battle of, 558. Froissart (frwa-sar'), 229. Fronde, Wars of the, 404 n. 5. Fulton, Robert, 554. Fusillades (fiis-e-yad'), 534. Ga'len, 191. Galicia (ga-lish'i-a), 558. Galileo (gal-i-le'5), 276 n. i. Ga'ma, Vasco da, 280, 281. Garibaldi (ga-re-barde), sketch of life, 625 ; in Sicily and Naples, 627, 628. Gas'cons, the, 63 n. 2. Ged'des, Janet, 428. Geiseric, king of the Vandals, 14. Gen'o-a, 181, 182. Geography, knowledge of, in fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries, 277-284. George I, king of England, 484 ; II, 484 ; III, 484. Gepl-dae, mentioned, 10 n. 5. Gerard (zha-rar'), Balthasar, 372. German colonies, 680-682. German Confederation, 634-636. German Empire, New, formed, 645, 646 ; recent history af, 647-649. German tribes. See Tetttons. Germany, conversion of German tribes, 20, 21 ; beginnings of the kingdom of, 233, 234- renewal of the empire by Otto the Great, 234; under the Hohenstaufen, 235, 236; the Electors, 236; the Interregnum, 237 ; the Free Im- perial Cities, 237, 238; under the Hapsburgs, 240 ; humanism in, 297, 298 ; reformation in, 298- 308 ; Thirty Years' War in, 387- 394 ; Peace of Westphalia, 391- 393 ; effects of Thirty Years' War upon, 393, 394; reorganized by Napoleon, 555, 556; coast lands annexed to France, 568 ; reorgan- ized by Congress of Vienna, 584 ; Confederation, 634-636 ; Cus- toms Union, 637 ; Revolution of 1848 in, 637-639; North German Confederation, 642, 643 ; German Empire formed, 645, 646. See Ger7nan Empire^ New. Ghent, Pacification of, 369. Ghibellines (gib'el-linz), the, 178 n. 5. Ghiberti (ge-ber'te), sculptor, 267 n. 10. Giants, regiment of, 471. Gibbon, the historian, mentioned, 5. Gibraltar, 413. Gilds, the, 172. Giotto (jot'to), 268 n. 14. Girondins (ji-ron'dinz), in Legis- lative Assembly, 526; in Con- vention, 523, 526; execution of, 529- Gladstone, William Ewart, Reform Bill of 1 884, 604 , disestablish- ment of Irish Church, 608 ; Irish Home Rule, 610; death, 610. Go-ber, 382. _ Godfrey of Bouillon (god'friboo- yon^, 132; made head of Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 133. Goethe (ge'te), at Erfurt, 565 ; cosmopolitanism of, 572 n. 26. Golden Bull, the, 237 n. 18. Good Hope, Cape of, discovered, 7. Gordon, Charles George, general, 677- Goths. See Ostrogoths and Visi- goths. Goumay (goor-na'), Vincent de, 508 n. 7. Granada, conquest of, 230, 231; Moriscos expelled from, 329. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 735 Grand Alliance, of 1689, 411 ; of 1701, 412. Grand Design of Henry IV, 383 n. 8. Grand Remonstrance, the, 429 n. 9. Gravelines (grav-len'), tjattle of, 328 n. 10. Gravelotte (grav-lot'), battle of, 595. Great Britain, the name, 315. See England. Great Fire, the, at London, 445. Great Moguls, the. 162. Great Schism, the, 155, 156. Greece, since 1864, 655 n. 2. Greek Church, the, 32. Greek Empire. See Eastern Em- pire. Greek fire, 53. Greek Independence, War of, 654 n. I. Greenland, discovered by the North- men, 73. Grevy (gra-ve'), 596 n. 10. Grey, Jane, 349. Grotius (gro'shi-us), Hugo, 282 n. 7. Guadalquivir (gua-dal-ke-ver'), river, 56. Guebers (gelDers). See Fire- worshipers. Guelphs (gwelfs), the, 178 n. 5. Guicciardini (gwe-char-de'ne), Fran- cesco, 178. Guillotine, the, 533. Guinea, gulf of, discovered, 278. Guiscard (ges-kar'), Robert, 102, 103. Guise (gUez), Francis, second duke of, ni, 37_8. Guizot (ge-zo'), 592. . Gunpowder, effects of use in war, 90. Gunpowder Plot, 421. Gustavus I, Vasa, king of Sweden, 307; II, Adolphus, m Thirty Years' War, 389-390. Gutenberg (goo'ten-berc), John, 263, 264. Haarlem (har'lem), 369, n. 4. Habeas Corpus Act, 446. Hague (hag). The, 701. Haiti (ha'ti), in French Revolution, 546. Hamburg, 173. Hampden, John, 427. Hanover, House of, in England, 484 n. 5. Hanover, Prussia annexes, 642. Hanseatic League, 173-175. Hapsburg, House of. See Austria^ House of. Hardenburg, Prussian minister, 572 n. 27. Hargreaves (har'grevz), 494. Harold, king of England, 104, 105. Harun-al-Raschid (ha-roon'al- rash''-id), caliph, 55. Hassan (ha'sen), 55 n. 9. Hastings, battle of, 104. Hav'e-lock, Henry, 673 n. 13. Hebert (a-ber^), 530. Hegira (he-jfra or hej'i-ra), the, 48. Heidelberg (hi'del-berc), 411. Heloise (a-16-ez'), pupil of Abelard, 194. Helvetic Republic, formed, 540. Heng'ist, Jutish chief, 16. Henry I, king of England, 108 ; II, 200; III, 203; V, 212; VII, at Bosworth Field, 215. Henry III, Emperor H, R. E., 114; IV, 117-119; VI, 136. Henry VII, king of England, reign, ZZS-ZZ1 ; VIII, reign, -iZl-ZAl- Henry II, king of France, 376 ; III, 380, 381; IV, marriage, 379; reign, 381-384. Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre, 379- Henry the Cardinal, king of Portu- gal, 330- Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 278. Hep'tar-chy, Saxon, 12. Her'a-clfus, Eastern Emperor, reign, 44. Her'i-ot, the, 85. Hermits, 22, 23. Herzegovina (hert-se-go-ve'na), re- volt in, 659^ administered by Austria-Hungary, 660. Hesse-Cassel (hes'Tcas'el), annexed to Prussia, 642. Hesse-Darmstadt (hes'darm'stat), 643- High Commission Court, 426 n. 6. Hil'de-brand. See Pope Gregory Hip-poc'ra-tes, 191, 736 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Hohenlinden, battle of, 545. Hohenstaufen (h6"en-stow'fen), House of, Germany under, 235, 236. Hohenzollern (ho'en-tsol-lem). House of, in Brandenburg, 469; in Prussia, 470. Holland, kingdom of, created, 552 ; annexed to France, 568. See Nethe7'lands. Holstein (hols'stin), duchy of, 649; annexed to Prussia, 642. Holy Alliance, 586. Holy League of 1609, 387. Holy Office. See Inquisition, Holy Roman Empire, name attaches to Western Empire, 70 ; relations of, to the Papacy, 111-113; under Henry IV, 117-119; Con- cordat of Worms, 119; brought to ruin by the Papacy, 152, 153 ; results for Germany of the re- newal of the imperial authority, 234; election of Charles V, 318; end of, 555, 556. Holy Synod, established in Russia, 462. Holy Wars. See Crusades. Homage, ceremony of, 82. Home Rule, Irish, 610, 611. Hoom (horn), count of, 366. Ho-sain^ 55 n. 9. Hos'pi-tal-ers, order of the, origin of, 133 n. 5 ; incident in history, 167 ; lose Rhodes, 322. Howard, Catherine, 345. Howard, John, 493 n. 18. Howard of Effingham, 357. Hubertsburg, Treaty of, 476. Hudson Bay territory, 413. Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), name, 377 n. 2 ; wars, 377-385 ; struggle with Richelieu, 385 ; after Revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes, 410 ; Cromwell protects, 439. Humanism, defined, 256 ; Petrarch, first of the humanists, 256-258; Boccaccio, as a humanist, 259; Chrysoloras, Greek teacher, 260 ; search for ancient manuscripts, 260; patrons of the New Learn- ing, 261 ; fall of Constantinople gives impulse to, 262 ; translation and criticism of the classics, 262 ; invention of printing in relation to the revival, 263 ; humanism in the North, 265, 266; effects of the classical revival upon vernac- ular literatures, 272 ; at Oxford, 295 ; in Germany, 297, 298. See Renaissance. Hum'ber, river, 105. Humbert I, king of Italy, 629. Hundred Days, the, 576-579. Hundred Years' War, 208-215; results for France, 224. Hungarians, conversion of, 128. Hungary, overrun by Turks, 322; under Maria Theresa, 473 ; under Joseph II, 498 ; Revolution of 1848 in, 638 n. 2 ; in Austro- Hungarian monarchy, 650-653. Huss, John, 239. Hussites, the, 239. Hutten (hoot'ten), Ulrich von, 298. Iceland, settled from Norway, 73. Iconoclastic controversy, 31, 32. Iconoclasts, in Netherlands, 366. Illyrian Provinces, 566, 567. Immunity, grants of, 82. Incas, 287, 288. Independents, Enghsh religious party (known at first as Separa- tists), in Civil War, 431, 432. India, Portuguese in, 281 ; English in, 423, 476, 490, 491 ; French in, 413 n. 13, 419, 490, 491. Indians, American, origin of name, 280. Indulgences, defined, 299 n. 2 ; his- tory of, 299, 300; granting of, by Tetzel, 301 ; Luther's theses on, 302, 303. Industrial Democracy, 705-708. Inquisition, the, in Languedoc, 143 ; in Spain, 232; procedure, 311, 312 ; in Netherlands, 364, 367 ; in Spain, 326, 327 ; in Spanish col- onies, 616. Instrument of Government, 437. Interdict, effects of, 117. Interregnum, the, in German his- tory, 237. Investiture, contest respecting, 116- 120. lona (1-6'na or e-o'na), monastery of, 17. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 737 Ionian Islands, annexed to France, 539 ; independent, 546 ; ceded to France, 559; ceded to Greece, 655 n. 2. Ireland, conversion of, 17; under Elizabeth, 359 ; under James I, 423, 424; insurrection of 1641, 429; Cromwell in, 435; William III in, -452 ; legislative independ- ence, 492 ; disestablishment of Church in, 607, 608 ; the Union, 609; in nineteenth century, 609- 613. Irene (i-re'ne or I-ren'), Eastern empress, 64. Ire''ton, 443. Iron Crown of Lombards, 11. "Ironsides," Cromwell's, 431. Isabella, queen of Castile, marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon, 230 ; sets up the Inquisition, 232; death, 232. Islam. See Mohammedanism. Istria, 566. Italian city-republics, general ac- count of, 175-179; causes of their early growth, 175, 176; the Lombard League, 176, 177; dis- sensions among, 178 ; despots in, 178, 179 ; Venice, 1 79-1 81 ; Genoa, 181, 182; Florence, 182, 183. Italian colonies, 679 n. 19. Italian Renaissance. See Renais- sance. Italy, results of Lombard conquest, 1 1 ; recovery of, by Justinian, 42 ; Renaissance in, 247 ; invaded by Charles VIII, 226; no national government during Middle Ages, 244 ; the Five Great States, 246, 247 ; at Congress of Vienna, 584, 619; since Congress of Vienna, 619-633 ; kingdom of, formed, 627, 628 ; Italia irredenia, 629 n. 2 ; relations of kingdom of, with Papacy, 630-632. See Italian City- Republics and Renaissance. Ivan (e-van') III, the Great, tsar, 243, 455 n. i; IV, the Terrible, 454» 455- Jacobin Club, origin, 519 ; closed, , 535; Jacobites, support James II, 452. Jaffa, 540. Jamaica, 439. James I, king of England, reign, 420-425 ; II, as Duke of York, 445 ; reign, 447, 448 ; attempt to recover throne, 452. James IV, king of Scotland, mar- riage, 337; death, 338 n. 3; V, 354. Jamestown, 423. Jan'i-za-ries, the, 165. Japan, awakening of, 687, 688; war with China, 688-690; the Imperial Regalia, 688 n. 27 ; war with Russia, 693-695. Java, 674 n. 14. Jeffreys, Chief Justice, 447 n. 16. Jena (ya'na), battle of, 558. Jenghiz Khan (jen'gis-khan), 160. Jerome of Prague, 239. Jerome Bonaparte, king of West- phalia, 560. Jerusalem, captured by crusaders, 133 ; Latin Kingdom of, 133 ; cap- tured by Saladin, 135. Jesuits, Society of the, 312-314; expelled from France, 597. Jews, expelled from Spain, 232 ; political disabilities removed in England, 607. Joan of Arc, 213, 214. Joanna, queen of Castile, 318. John, king of England, quarrel with Pope Innocent III, 150; becomes vassal of the papal see, 150; for- feits lands in France, 202 ; grants Magna Carta, 202. John the Good, king of France, 211. John VI, king of Portugal, 615 n. 2. John of Austria, Don, at Lepanto, 330; in Netherlands, 370. John of Leyden, 307 n. 10. John Sobieski, king of Poland, 409. Joseph II, Emperor H. R. E., 497- 499. Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 563' 564- Josephine, 567. Jourdan (zhoor-don'^, campaign of 1796, 537» 538- Juan Ponce de Leon (pon-tha da la- on'), 286 n. II. Jubilees, papal, 300. Junot (zhii-no'), 563. 738 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Justinian, Era of, 42 ; his reign, 42- 44; his code, 43. Jutes, the, 12. Kaaba (ka'ba, or ka-a'ba), the, 46. Kant, Immanuel, quoted, 699. Ka-zan', 454. Ker-man', 53 n. 7. Khar-tum', 677. Khedive (ka'dev"), 677. Kiau-chau (kyow-chow), 682, 690. Kiel (kel), Treaty of, 583 n. 3. Kiev (ke'ev), 161. Kitchener, Lord, 677. Kleber (kla-ber'), in Egypt, 540, 541 ; death, 545. Knighthood, See Chivalry. Knox, John, 354. Konieh (ko'ne-e), 681. Koniggratz (ke'nig-grets), battle of, 642. Konigsberg (ke'nigs-berc), 142. Ko'ran, the,, origin of, 51 ; contents of, 51, 52. K5-re'a, 688, 689, 694, 695. Koreish (ko-rish'), Arab clan, 48. Komer (ker'ner), 571. Kosciuszko (kos-i-us'ko), 468. Kossuth (kosh'oot), Louis, 638 n. 2. Kremlin, the, 574. Kriig'er, Paul, 675. Kublai Khan (koob'll-khan), 162. KuUurkampf (kool-toor'kampf), 647. Ku-ro-patTcin, Russian general, 694. Kwang-chau-wan (kwang-chow-wan), 690. Labor Problem, the, 706, 707. La Bruyere (la brii-yer'), 417 n. 14. Lafayette (la-fa-yet'), in America, 508; in Constituent Assembly, 513; commands National Guard, 517- Laibach (ll^bach), Congress of, 615 n. I. Lamartine (la-mar-ten'), 592. Lancaster, House of, 199 n. i. See Roses, Wars of the. Langland, William, 218. Langton, Stephen, 150. Languedoc (lang'gwe-dok), 143. Langue d^Oc (lahg'dok"), French dialect, 227. Langue d^O'il (larifdwel"), French dialect, 227. Lapps, the, 22. La Rochelle (la ro-shel'). Huguenot stronghold, 382 ; siege of, 385. La Salle (la sal'), 418. Las Ca'sas, 289 n. 14. Latimer, bishop, 350. Latin Empire of Constantinople, 13^138. Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded, 1 33 ; end of, 140. Laud, William, 426, 428 n. 8. Law, John, 418. Legion of Honor, established, 550. Legislative Assembly, French, 519- 523- Legnano (lan-ya'no), battle of, 177. Leicester (les'ter) Abbey, 340. Leipzig (lip'tsio), battle of (1631), 390; (1813), 575.576. Leo the Isaurian, 31, 32. Leonardo da Vinci (la-o-nar'do da vin'che), 268. Leopold I, Emperor H. R. E., 412. Leopold I, king of the Belgians, 591 ; n, 668. Leopold of Hohenzollem, offered Spanish crovsrn, 644. Le-pan'to, battle of, 329, 330. Les'seps, Ferdinand de, 597, 598. Lessing, 572 n. 26. Lettres de cachet (let'r-de-ka-sha"), 501. Leuthen (loi'ten), battle of, 474. Lew'es, battle of, 204. Lewis I, the Pious, king of the Franks, 68. Leyden (ll'den), 369 n. 4. Liberuni veto, 467 n. 7. Libraries, founding of, 261. "Light Brigade," the, 657. Ligurian Republic, formed, 538 ; annexed to France, 552. Literature, English, Old English period, 19, 20 ; later mediaeval period, 217-220; under Henry VIII, 346, 347 ; under Elizabeth, 360, 361 ; of the Puritan period, 442, 443 ; of the Restoration, 449, 450 ; of Queen Anne's Age, 483. Literature, French, beginnings of, 227-229; under Louis XIV, 416, 41 7; in eighteenth century, 505-508. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 739 Literature, German, beginnings of, 241, 242. Literature, Spanish, beginnings of, .233- Literatures, vernacular, beginnings of, 252; development fostered by classical revival, 272. Liveries, Statute of, 236. Livingstone, David, 667. Llewellyn (loo-el'in) III, Welsh prince, 205. Local Government Act, England, 605 n. 2 ; Scotland, 605 n. 2 ; Ire- land, 605 n. 2. Locke, John, 505 n. 5. Lodi (lo'de), battle of, 538 n. 27. LoHards, the, 219. Lombard League, 176, 177. Lombards, kingdom of the, 10, 11 ; destroyed by Charles the Great, 63- Lombardy, ceded to Austria, 583 ; to Sardinia, 627. Loom, power, invented, 494. Lorraine, part of, ceded to German Empire, 595, 646, 647. Lo-thair', Emperor H. R, E., 68, 69. Loubet (loo-ba'), 596 n. 10. Louis I, Prince of Cond^ (kon-da^), 377- Louis VII, king of France, 134 ; IX, 140 n. 9; XI, 225; XIII, 384- 386; XIV, reign, 403-417; rela- tions with Charles II, 445 ; with James II, 447 ; with WilHam III, 452, 453; XV, reign, 417-419; death, 509; XVI, 509-524; XVII (dauphin), 528 n. 19; XVIII, accession, 576; 577 ; reign, 577- 579, 589. Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, 552 ; abdication of, 568. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. See Napoleon III. Louis Philippe, king of the French, 590-592. Louisa, queen of Prussia, 560. Louisburg, 486 n. 8. Louisiana, granted to Mississippi Company, 418; ceded to France, 546; to United States, 553. Low countries. See Netherlands^ Belgium. Lo-yo'la, Ignatius of, 312, 313. Lii'beck, 143; Peace of, 388; an- nexed to France, 568. Lucerne, Lion of, 522 n. 14. Luneville (lii-na-veF), Peace of, 545. Luther, Martin, his pilgrimage to Rome, 301, 302; his ninety-five theses, 302, 303 ; his address to the Christian nobility of the Ger- man nation, 303, 304 ; burns the papal bull, 304; at the Diet of Worms, 304, 305; at the Wart- burg, 305, 306 ; his death, 308. Lutherans, 309. Lutter (loot'ter), battle of, 388 n. 3. Liitzen (liit'sen), battle of (1632), 390; {1813), 576. Lyons, terror at, 534. Macedonia, 660 n. 9. Machiavelli (mak-e-a-vel'le), Nicho- las, 247 ; his Prince, 247, 248. MacMahon (mak-ma-6h'), Marshal, 596 n. 10. Madagascar, French in, 679. Ma-drid', Treaty of, 321. Magdeburg (mag'de-boorc), sack of, by Tilly, 389, 390. Magellan, Ferdinand, his circum- navigation of the globe, 282, 283 ; results of the achievement, 283, 284. Ma-gen'ta, battle of, 626. Magna Carta, 202, 203. Magyars (mod'yorz"). See Hun- gary. Mahdi (ma'de), the, 677. Mainz (mints), 263. Mal-a-bar' coast, 281. Malplaquet (mal-pla-ka'), battle of, 412. Mam'e-luke, 539. Man-chu'ri-a, Chinese province, oc- cupied by Russia, 684, 693. Manorial system, the, 84-86. Man'tu-a, siege of, 538 n. 27. Manuscripts, search for, by human- ists, 260. Marat (ma-ra'), 525 ; death, 526, 527. Marches, the, union with Sardinia, 628. Marco Po'lo, mentioned, 146; at Mongol court, 162. Ma-ren'go, battle of, 545. Margaret of Denmark, 249. 740 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Margaret, Duchess of Parma, 365, 367. Margaret of Valois, 379. Margaret Tudor, 337. Maria Theresa (ma-re'a te-re'sa), wife of Louis XIV, 407 n, 7. Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, accession, 473 ; in partition of Poland, 467 ; in War of Austrian Succession, 473 ; in Seven Years' War, 474. Marie Antoinette (marl an-toi-nef), marriage, 509; death, 528. Marie Louise, 567. Marienburg (ma-re'en-boorG), 142. Marlborough, Duke of, 412. Marseillais (mar-se-lya'), the six hundred, 522. Marseillaise (mar-se-lyaz'), the, 522 n. 13. Marseilles (mar-salz'), 139. Marston Moor, battle of, 431 n. 10. Mary I, queen of England, birth, 339 ; persecuted by Edward VI, 349; reign, 349-351 5 marriage to Philip II, 349 ; II, 448-453. Mary de' Medici (da-ma'de-che), 384. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, 354- 356. Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, 118. Matilda, Empress, 108. Matthias (ma-thi'as), Emperor H. R. E., 387. Maurice, stadtholder, 373. Max-i-mirian I, Emperor H. R. E., 240. Mayors of the Palace, 10. Maz'a-rin, French minister, 404, 405. Mazzini (mat-se'ne), Joseph, 622, 623, Mec'ca, 46. Medici (med'e-che), Cos'i-mo de', 183 n. 8 ; Lorenzo de', 183 n. 8. Medici, the, patrons of the New Learning, 261. Medina (me-de'na), 48, 49. Melanchthon (me-langk'thon), 308 n. 12. Mendicant friars. See Dominicans and Franciscans. Menelik, king of Abyssinia, 679 n. 19. Merovingians, Franks, under the, 9, ID. Mer'6-wig, 10 n. 4. Methodists, rise of, 487, 488 ; demand religious equality, 606. Metric system, 529. Met'ter-nich, Prince, at Congress of Vienna, 585 ; policy of, 585 ; in- tervention in Two Sicilies, 620, 621 ; influence in Germany, 636; overthrow of, 638. Metz, ceded to France, 392 ; siege of, 595- Meuse (muz), river, 68. Mexico, conquest by Spain, 2S5-287. Michael Angelo, 268. Michael Romanov, 455. Mi-lan' Decree, 561. Milan destroyed by Frederick Bar- barossa, 177. Military and Religious Orders. See Hospitalers and Templars. Milton, John, 442. Min'^ne-sing'ers, 241. Mir, the Russian, 657 n. 5. Mirabeau (me-ra-b5'), 512, 513, 514. Mirandola, Pico della (me-ran'do-la, pe'ko), 262 n. 7. Mississippi Bubble, the, 418. Missolonghi(mis-so-long'ge),654n.i. Moawiyah (mo-a-we'yeh), caliph, 55. M5'de-na, restoration in, 619; union with Sardinia, 627. Mohammed, 48-51. Mohammed II, sultan of the Otto- mans, 166. Mohammedanism, rise of, 46-5 1 ; doctrines, 51, 52; under earlier caliphs, 52-56; its law system, 56; polygamy under, 59 ; slavery, 59. Mol-da'vi-a, partial independence of, 655 ; in Rumania, 666 n. 8. Moliere (mo-lyer'), 417. Molt^e, Von, 641. Mo-luc'cas, the, 282. Monasteries, suppression of, in Eng- land, 342-344- Monasticism, defined, 22 ; its origin, 23 ; in the East, 23 ; in the West, 23, 24; the Benedictine monks, 25; monastic reform, 25, 26; serv- ices rendered by, to civilization, 26, 27. Mongols, general account of their conquests, 160-164; their inva- sion of Russia^ 161, 242. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 741 Monk, George, 440. Monks. See Monasticism. Monmouth, Duke of, 447 n. 16. Monroe Doctrine, 616, 617. Montcalm (mont-kam'), 490. Monte Cassino (mon'ta kas-se'no), monastery, 24, 25. Montenegro (ra5n-te-na'gr6), 659, 660 n. 8. Montesquieu (mon-tes-kye'), 505. Mon-te-zu^ma, 286. Montfort, Simon de, leader of the Albigensian crusade, 143 ; the English earl, 204. Moore, Sir John, 566 n. 23. Moors, the, 231. More, Sir Thomas, humanist, 296; death, 342 ; his Utopia, 346, 347. Moreau (m5-r5'), campaign of 1796, 537» 538 ; of 1800, 545. Mor-gar'ten, battle of, 239 n. 20. Moriscos, the, 231 ; under Charles V, 329 ; under Philip II, 329 ; expul- sion of, 331, 332. Morocco, 669 n. 6. Morton, Cardinal, 336. Moscow (mos'ko or mos'kow). Napo- leon in, 574, 575. Mountainists, the, 523. Municipal Reform Act, 603. Miin^ster, Anabaptists at, 307 n. 10 ; congress at, 391. Miinzer (miint'ser), 306. Murat (mtl-ra'), Joachim, 564. Mus'co-vy, 243. Mutiny Act, 452 n. 19. Nafels (na^fels), battle of, 239 n. 20. Na'na Sa'hib, 673 n. 13. Nantes (nants ; Fr. pron. noht), Edict of, 382 ; revocation of, 409, 410, terror at, 534. Naples, kingdom of, founded by Normans, 102, 103 ; laid claim to, by Charles VIII, 226; vicissi- tudes of its history, 235 n, 17; Murat, king of, 564 n. 19 ; becomes part of the kingdom of Italy, 627, 628. Napoleon I, Bonaparte, guards Con- vention, 536 ; campaign in Italy, 537, 538 ; campaign in Egypt, 539, 540 ; overthrows Directory, 541 ; First Consul, 543-551 ; Emperor, 551-576; at Elba, 576; the Hun- dred Days, 576-579 ; at St. Hel- ena, 579 ; II (King of Rome), bom, 568 ; proclaimed, 578 n. 31 ; III, 592 n. 3 ; reign, 593-596. NarVa, battle of, 463. Naseby (naz'bi), battle of, 432. Nassau, 366 n. 2 ; annexed to Prussia, 642. Na-tal', 676. National Guards, French, organized, 514- Nationality, principle of, 581. Navarino (na-va-re'no), battle of, 654 n. I. Navarre, king of. See Antony of Bouj'bon, Henry IV. Navigation Act (English) of 1651, 436. Neck'er, French minister, 509; dis- missed, 515. Nelson, Horatio, at Abukir Bay, 540; at Trafalgar, 557. Netherlands^ the, the country, -^d-T^ ; the people, 363, 364 ; condition during the Middle Ages, 364; under Charles V, 364 ; under Philip II, 365-373 ; War of Inde- pendence, 366-374 ; submission of Catholic provinces (see Belgium^, 370 ; independent union of seven Protestant provinces, 370; their Declaration of Independence, 371 ; Truce of 1609 with, 372-374 ; inde- pendent of Holy Roman Empire, 392 ; wars with Louis XIV, 407- 413; war with England, 436; Batavian Republic (created in 1795), 552; kingdom of Holland, 552 ; annexed to France, 568 ; kingdom of, formed, 583. Netherlands, Austrian, Catholic, Spanish. See Belgium. Netherlands, Protestant, United. See Netherlands. New Amsterdam, 444. Newfoundland, Cabot's landfall, 337 ; England's title to, confinned, 413- New France. See Canada. New Holland, 671 n. 9. New Learning. See Htimanism. "New Model" army, formed, 431, 432. 742 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY New South Wales, 671. Newton, Sir Isaac, 483. New Zealand, 671. Ney (na), Marshal, 577. Nibelungenlied (ne^bel-ung'en-let'), 241. Ni-^ae'a, Church Council of, 15; captured by crusaders, 132. Nice (nes), ceded to France, 626. Nicholas I, Tsar, 654-656 ; II, 662 ; calls the Peace Conference, 701. Ni-cop'o-lis, battle of, 165. Niemen (ne^men), river, 558. Nihilists, 661, 662. Nika (ne^a) riot, the, 43. Nimeguen (nim'a-gen), Treaty of, 408. Nineteenth century, character of its history, 290, 580, 581, 586, 587. Nineveh, battle of, 44. No'gi, Japanese general, 694 n. 29. Norman Conquest of England, 103- 109 ; political and social results for England, 109; effects upon English language and literature, 216, 217. Normandy, origin of name, 72; in French history, 75, 76; dukes of, 102. Normans, at home, loi, 102; in Italy and Sicily, 102, 103; in Eng- land, 103-109; as crusaders, 126, 127. See Northmen. North German Confederation, 642, 643- Northern countries, the. See Scan- dinavians and Calmar, Union of. Northmen, 71—76. See Scajtdina- vians. Norway, 583 ; See Calmar, Union of. Notables, Assembly of, 510. Notre Dame (no'tr dam), Paris, worship of Reason in, 530. No-va'ra, battle of, 624. Nova Scotia ceded to England, 413. Nov'go-rod, 174. Noyades (nwa-yad'), 534. Nystad (nii'stad). Peace of, 465. Oates (ots), Titus, 446. Ocean Epoch, 285. O'Connell, Daniel, 610. Odoacer, 7. Oktai (ok'ti), Mongol conqueror, 161, 162. Old Sa'rum, 601. O'mar, caliph, 52 n. 6. Omeyyah (o-mryeh), 55 n. 9. Ommeiades (om-ma'yadz), dynasty of the, 55. O'Neill, Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, 359. Opium War, 672 n. 12. Orange Free State, 674, 675. Orange River Colony, 675. Orangemen, 452. Ordeals, among the Teutons, 37-39. Orders in Council (English), 561 n. 17. . Orellana (o-ral-ya'na), Francisco de, 286 n. II. Or^le-ans (Fr. pron. or-la-oh'), relief of, by Joan of Arc, 214. Orleans, Philippe, Duke of, regent, 418. Osnabriick, 391. Os-tend', 374 n. 7. Ostrogoths, kingdom of the, 7, 8 ; destroyed by generals of Justin- ian, 8. Oswy, king of Northumbria, 18, 19. Oth-man', caliph, 52 n. 6. Othman I, Ottoman prince, 165. O-tran'to, 132. Otto I, the Great, restores the Empire, 69, 70. Otto, king of Greece, 655. Ottomans. See Turks. Ou'^den-ar'de, battle of, 412. Oxenstiem (oks'en-stem), 391. O-ya'ma, Field Marshal, 694. Paine, Thomas, 523. Palatinate, W^ar of the, 410, 411; devastation of, 411. Parimp-sests, 261 n. 6. Pamirs (pa-merz'), 684. Pa-na-ma', Scotch colony on isthmus of, 482 ; canal, 598. Papacy, origin of its temporal authority, 62 ; claims of primacy by the Roman bishops, 27, 28; circumstances that favored growth, 28-33; Concordat of Worms, 119; relations of, to the H. R. E., 111-113; revival of power in eleventh century, 113; under Gregory VII, 114-119; under Alexander III, 149 ; under Innocent III, 149, 150; effects INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 743 the ruin of the Empire, 152, 153; under Boniface VIII, 153, 154; removal of papal seat to Avignon, 155 ; the Great Schism, 155, 156; reforming Church Councils, 156; is still a spiritual theocracy, 157, 158; end of temporal power of, 630 ; relations with Italian gov- ernment, 630-632 ; with German, 647 ; infallibihty of, 630 n. 5. See Popes. Papal States, annexed to France, 567 ; revolutions in, 621 , French garrison in, 629; annexation to kingdom of Italy, 629. See Papacy. Paraphrase of the Scriptures, 20. Paris, Peace of (1763), 475, 491; (1783), 492; (1814), 576 n. 28; (1815), 57811.32; (1856), 657. Paris, siege of (1870), 646. Parish Councils Act, 605 n. 2. Parliament, English, creation of House of Commons, 203-205 ; Model Parliament, 204 n. 5 ; ef- fects upon, of Hundred Years' War, 214, 215; the Long Parlia- ment, 428-437 ; the Little Parlia- ment, 437; Convention, 448; union of English and Scotch ParUa- ments, 481-483. Parma, Alexander, Duke of, 370. Parr, Catherine, 345. Par'sees, the. See Fire- Worshipers. Parsifal (par'se-fal), poem of, 241. Par''the-no-pe'an Republic, 540, 541. Pascal, 417 n. 14. Patriarch, Russian, office abolished, 462. Patricius (pa-trish'ius). See St. Patrick. Pavia (pa-ve'a), battle of, 321. Pax Romana, 125. Peace Conference at The Hague, 701. Peace of God, 125. Peasants' Revolt, in England, 211, 212. Peasants' War, 306. Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil, 615 n. 2. Pe-king', siege of embassies at, 690, 691. P^re Duchesne (per dii-shan'), 531. Perry, Commodore, 687. Persia, conquest of, by Saracens, 52, 53 ; Russian and English interests in, 683. Peru, Spanish conquest of, 287, 288 ; Spanish oppression of natives in, 289 n. 14. Pestilence, the Great. See Black Death. Pestilence, in Justinian's reign, 44. Peter I, the Great, Tsar, 455-466; HI, 475. Peter the Hermit, legend of, 129; heads an expedition, 132. Peter of Lombard, Schoolman, 159 n. 5. Petition of Right, 425. Petrarca (pa-trar^ka), Francesco. See Petrarch. Petrarch, as a humanist, 256-258; his feeling for the ruins of Rome, 258; his ascent of Mount Ven- toux, 259 n. 4 ; his critical spirit, 273- Philip I, the Handsome, king of Castile, 318; II, king of Spain, reign, 326-331 ; HI, expels Mo- riscos, 331, 332; war with Dutch, 332; IV, 407; V, 411. Philip II, Augustus, king of France, in Third Crusade, 135; his quar- rel with Pope Innocent HI, 150 ; seizes English possessions in France, 202 ; IV, the Fair, his quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII, 153, 154; summons the commons to the National Assembly, 222, 223; destroys the order of the Templars, 223. Philip, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, 73- Philippines, discovered, 283 ; United States in, 686 n. 26. Philosophy, French, in eighteenth century, 505-508. Piacenza (pe-a-chen'za). Church Council at, 130. Piedmont. See Sardinia. Pilgrim Fathers, 354, 423. Pilgrimages, 122. Pious Fyind case, 701. Pippin III, king of the Franks, 61, 62. Pisa (pe'za), 181 n. 7; Church Council of, 156. 744 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 489, 490. Pitt, William, opposition to Napo- leon, 544, 554, 555; prophecy concerning Napoleon, 570, 571. Pi-zar'ro, Francisco, 288. Plan-tag'e-net, House of, 199 n. i. Plassey, battle of, 490. Plato, quoted, 183 n. 11. Plev'na, siege of, 659. Poitiers (poi-terz'), battle of (1356), 210, 211. Poland, Charles XII invades, 463 ; partitions of, 467 n. 7, 468 ; under Napoleon, 559 ; Russian kingdom of, 583 ; revolt in, 655. Politian (p6-lish'i-an), 262. Poltava (pol-ta'va), battle of, 464. Pom-e-ra'ni-a, Western, ceded to Sweden, 392 ; Eastern, ceded to Brandenburg, 392. Pompadour (p6n-pa-door'), Ma- dame de, 418. Pondicherry (pon-di-sher'i), found- ed, 413 n. 13; captured by Eng- lish and restored, 491 n. 15. Pope, Alexander, 483. Popes : Gregory I, 16, 30 n. 4 ; Leo I, the Great, 28, 29 ; Nicholas I, 28 ; Stephen II, 62 ; Leo III, 64 ; Gregory "VII, 114-119; Nicholas II, 113 n. 4; Urban II, 129, 130 ; Innocent III, 149, 150; Alexan- der III, 148, 149; Boniface VIII, 153, 154; Urban VI, 156; Clem- ent VII (anti-pope), 156; Greg- ory IX, 156; Alexander V, 156; Martin V, 157; Nicholas V, 261, Julius II, 261 ; Leo X, 261 ; Alexander VI, 281 ; Julius II, 336 ; Leo X, 301 ; Clement VII, 340 ; Pius V, 356 ; Gregory XIII, 380; Sixtus V, 356; Pius VI, 540; Pius VII, at Napoleon's coronation, 551 ; prisoner, 567 ; Pius IX, 624 ; death, 630, n. 7 ; Leo XIII, 630 n. 7 ; Pius X, 630 n. 7. See Papacy. Popish Plot, the, 446. Popular sovereignty, principle of, 581. Port Arthur, ceded to Japan, 689; leased to Russia, 690 ; fortified by Russia, 693 ; siege of, 694. Porto Rico, 686 n. 26. Portugal, kingdom of, 141 ; annexed to Spain, 330 ; French invasion of, 563; revolution of 1820, 615 n. 2 ; republic of, 615 n. 2. Portuguese colonies, early explora- tions, 278; in India, 281 ; in Brazil, 281 n. 5. Potato introduced into Europe, 360. Pragmatic Sanction, 472. Prague (prag). Treaty of (1866), 642. Prayer, Book of Common, 348. Pressburg (pres'borc), 555 n. 9. Prestonpans, battle of, 487. Pretender, the Young, 487. Pride's Purge, 432. Prime Minister, origin of, in Eng- land, 484, 485. Prince, the, by Machiavelli, 247, Printing, invention of, 263 ; in China, 263. Privileges, abolition of, in France, 515' 516. Protectorate in England, 438-440. Protestant Revolution, defined, 292. See Reformation. Protestants, origin of name, 308 ; divisions among, 309, 310. Protestation, the Great, 423. Proven9al (pro'vaiVsar') speech, 227. Provence (pro'voris''), 225, 323. Prussia, foundations of, laid by Teutonic Knights, 142 ; under the Great Elector, 469; becomes a kingdom, 470; in eighteenth century, 470-479; war with French Revolution, 520; war with Napoleon, 557, 558 ; regen- eration of, 571-573 ; gains at Con- gress of Vienna, 583 ; in Holy Alliance, 586; in Germanic Con- federation, 634-636 ; in Customs Union, 637 ; Revolution of 1848 in, 638 ; war with Denmark, 640 ; with Austria, 641, 642; with France, 594-596, 643-645 ; forms North German Confederation, 642, 643 ; head of new German Empire, 645-649. Public Safety, Committee of, first, 525 ; second or Great, 527, 531 ; of Communists, 596. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 745 Purgatory, 299, 300. Puritans, under Elizabeth, 357 ; rule of, 430-443 ; customs of, 449. Pym, John, 430. Pyramids, battle of the, 539. Pyrenees, Treaty of the, 404. Quebec, founded, 383 ; battle of, 490. Quesnay (ka-na'), 508 n. 7, Quir'i-nal, the, 630 n. 6. Quito (ke'to), 288. Racine (ra-sen'), 417. Radetzky (ra-det'ske), 624. Raleigh (ra'li). Sir Walter, 360, 424. Ramillies (ra-me-ye'), battle of, 412. Raphael (raf'a-el), 268. Rastadt, Treaty of, 413. Ravaillac (ra-va-yak'), 384. Ravenna, 42. Raymond IV, count of Toulouse, 132; VI, 142; VII, 143. Reason, worship of, 530. Reform Bill, English, of 1832, 601, 602; of 1867, 604; of 1884, 604. Reformation, defined, 292 ; causes of, 292-295 ; precursors of, 295 • question of indulgences, 299-301 ; Luther, 301-306; reaction from, 308-314; results of, 315, 316; in England, character of, 334, 335 ; the revolt from Rome, 341-345 ; the refoim under Edw^ard VI, 347- 349; the reaction under Mary, 349-351 ; reform completed un- der Elizabeth, 353 ; in France, 376. Regency, the French, 418. Renaissance (r^-na'sans'' : the italic e here has the obscure sound of e in novel), the, defined, 251 ; causes and antecedents, 251-254; the revival in Italy, 255-269; human- ism, 256-266; the artistic revival, 266-269 ; general effetts, 269-274; relation to religious reform, 273. See Humanism. Renaissance in France, 323.. Restoration, English, 440, 441 ; French, 576, 578. Reuchlin (roich-len' or roich^in), humanist, 265, 298. Revenue of English crown settled, 45i» 452. Revival of Learning. See Renais- sance. Revolution, Protestant, 292 ; Puri- tan, 430-443; of 1688, 448; In- dustrial, 493-495; American, 491, 492 ; its influence, 508 ; French, of 1789, 500-542; its principles, 580, 581 ; of July, 1830, 590, 591 ; of February, 1848, 591, 592; Bel- gian, of 1830, 591 ; German, of 1830, 636, 637 ; of 1848, 637-639 ; Italian, of 1820, 620; of 1830, 621; of 1848, 623, 624; Polish, of 1830, 655 ; Portuguese, of 1820, 615 n. 2;' Spanish, of 1820, 614, 615. Revolutionary Tribunal, French, es- tablished, 525 ; work of, 528, 533. Rheims (remz), 214. Rhodes, Cecil, 676. Richard I, king of England, 135, 136; III, 215. Richard of Cornwall, 237. Richelieu (resh-lye'), Cardinal, 384- 386. Ridley, 350. Rienzi (re-en'ze), tribune of Rome, 244-246. Rights, English Bill of, 450, 451. Rimini (re'me-ne), 62. River Epoch, 284. Rivoli (re'vo-le), battle of, 538 n. 27. Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, 103 Roberts, Lord, 675. Robespierre (ro-bes-pye/), in Con- stituent Assembly, 514; in Con- vention, 523 ; in Committee of Public Safety, 527, 531, 532; death, 534- _ _ . Rois faineants (rwa fa-na-on ), 10. Roland (ro-lon'), Madame, 529. Rowland, paladin, 63 n. 2. Rollo, Scandinavian chief, 75. Romagna (ro-man'ya), the, united with the Sardinian kingdom, 627. Roman Empire, restored in the West, by Charlemagne, 64, 65 ; renewed by Otto the Great, 69, 70. See Eastern Empire and Holy Roman Empire. Roman law, revival of, 40, 41 ; Jus- tinian Code, 43. Roman Republic, 540, 624. 746 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Romance languages, 35. Romance nations, 34, 35. Ro-ma'nov or R5-ma'noff, House of, 455- Rome, relation of the fall of, to world history, 3 ; its bequest to civilization, 4 : sack of (1527), 321 ; capital of Italy, 629. Roncesvalles (ron-se-varies ; Sp. ron-thes-vaFyes), Pass of, 63 n. 2. Ros'a-mund, story of, ion. 5. Roses, Wars of the, 215, 216. Ross'bach, battle of, 474. Rouen (roo-oii'), 75. Rouget de Lisle (roo-zha' de lei), 522 n. 13. Roundheads, 430. Rousseau (roo-s6'), 506, 507. Roussillon (roo'sel'yoh''), 225, 404. "Royal Touch," the, 421 n. 2. Rumania or Roumania (roo-ma'ni-a), 660, 663. Rumelia or Roumelia (roo-meli-a), Eastern, 660 n. 8. Runnymede (rianTmed), 202. Rupert, Prince, 431. Ru'rik, Scandinavian chief, 73, 74, 242. Russia, introduction of Christianity into, 21 ; receives elements of civilization from Constantinople, 45 ; the Mongol invasion, 242 ; rise of Muscovy, 243 ; freed from the Mongols, 243 ; under Ivan the Terrible, 454, 455 ; under Peter the Great, 455-466; under Cath- erine the Great, 466-46S ; in Seven Years' War, 475 ; war with French Republic, 541 ; with Napoleon, 573-575 ; gains at Congress of Vienna, 583 ; in Holy Alliance, 586; since French Revolution, 654- 663'; Asiatic expansion of, 682-685. Russo-Japanese War, 693-695. Russo-Turkish War, of 1 828-1 829, 654, 655; of 1877-1878,658-660. Ruy Diaz (de'ath), 233. Rys'wick, Treaty of, 411. Sadowa (sa'do-va), battle of, 642. St. Albans (al^banz), first battle of, 215. St. An'selm, 193. St. Antony, 23. St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 379, 380. St. Benedict, 24, 25. St. Ber^nard, preaches crusade, 134 ; controversy with Abelard, 193, St. Bernard, Great Pass, 545. St. Boniface (b6n''e-fass). See Win- frid. St. Co-lum^ba, 17. St. Dom'i-nic, 151. St. Francis, 151. St. Gall, monastery of, 17 n. 3. St. Gallus, monk, 17 n. 3 St. Germain (san zher-mah'), Treaty of, 379- St. Helena, 579. St. John, Knights of. See Hos- pitalers. St. Louis, 140 n. 9. St. Patrick, 17. St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 445 n. 15. St. Peter, 28. St. Peter's, Rome, 301. St. Petersburg, founded, 463. St. Quentin (san kon-tan'), battle of, 328 n. 10. St. Sim'e-on Sty-lf tes, 23, 24. St. Wil'frid, 18. Sara-din, 135, 136. Sa-ler'no, 119. Salisbury, Gemot of, 106. Salisbury (salz'bu-ri), Marquis of, 611. Sam-ar-cand', 162. San Marino (ma-re'no), 619. San Stef'a-no, Treaty of, 660 n. 7. Sans Souci (son soo-se'), 478. Saracens, name, 46 ; their con- quests, 52-54 ; their civilization, 56-59. See Arabs and Moors. Sardinia, kingdom of, defeated by Bonaparte, 538; revolution of 1820 in, 621 ; of 1848, 623, 624; in Crimean War, 625; war with Austria, 626, 627 ; annexations of territory, 627, 628 ; becomes kingdom of Italy, 628. Sa-vo-na-ro'la, Girolamo (je-r5'la- mo), 248, 249. Savoy, ceded to France, 626. Saxons, continental, subjugated by Charlemagne, 63. See Anglo- Saxons. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 747 Saxony, becomes a kingdom, 559 n. 14; part ceded to Prussia, 583. Scandinavians, conversion of, 21 ; as pirates and colonizers, 71, 72 ; colonization of Iceland and Greenland, j^'^ discovery of America by, 73; saga literature of Iceland, jt, n, i ; in Russia, "jt, ; Danes in England, 74, 75 ; North- men in Gaul, 75 ; transformation of, 72 ; Norse factor in French history, 75, 76. See Cahnar, Union of. Scham^horst, 573. Schleswig (shlas'vic) or Sleswick, duchy of, 640 ; annexed to Prus- sia, 642. Schlesvi^ig-Holstein War, 640, 641. Schmalkaldic League, 323. Scholasticism, in conflict with hu- manism, 297, 298. ^QQ Schoolmen. Schoolmen, nature of their task, 192 ; controversy of the Nom- inalists and Realists, 193 n. 4; the earlier Schoolmen, 192, 193 ; Abelard, 193, 194; the Schoolmen of the thirteenth century, 194 ; Albert the Great, 194 ; Thomas Aquinas, 194, 195 ; Duns Scotus, 195; Roger Bacon, 195; last of the Schoolmen, 196; their services to intellectual progress, 196. Schwyz (shwits), 238. Scone (skoon). Stone of, 207. Scotland, wars with England, 206- . 208 ; under James IV, 337, t^t^ n. 3 ; union of Scottish and Eng- lish crowns, 420; of their parlia- ments, 481-483 ; under Charles I, 427, 428; Cromwell in, 435, 436. Scriptorium, 27. Scutage (sku'taj), defined, 203 n. 3. Sea Epoch, 284. Secularization of Church property, 307; in France, 518. Sedan (se-don'), battle of, 595. Sedgemoor, battle of, 447 n. 16. Seeley, Professor J. R., quoted, 480, 697. Seine (san), river, 75. Self-denying ordinance, 431, 432 n. II. Sempach (sem'pak), battle of, 239 n. 20. Sen-e-gar, 679. Separatists, 354. Sepoy Mutiny, 673. Sepoys, 490 n. 13. September Massacre in French Rev- olution, 522. Serfs, under feudal system, 84-86 ; ' Russia emancipates, 657, 658. Ser-ve'tus, 312. Servia, independence of, 666 n. 8. Settlement, Act of, 452 n. 19. Se-vas't6-p5l, siege of, 657. Seven bishops, trial of the, 447, 448. Seven Weeks' War, 641, 642. Seven Years' War, 474-476, 488- 491- , _ _ Sevigne (sa-ven-ya'), Madame de, 417 n. 14. Seville (sevlil), 54. Seymour, Lord Henry, 357. Seymour, Jane, 345. Sforza (sfort'sa), Francesco, 247 n. 23. Shaftes'bu-ry, third earl of, 505 n. 5. Shakespeare, 361. Shiahs (she'az), Moslem sect, 55 n. 9. Ship money, 427. Siberia, Russia in, 455, 685. Sicilian Vespers, 235 n. 17. Sicily, kingdom of. See Naples^ kingdom of. Sieyes(se-a-yas''), 514. Si-le'si-a, seized by Frederick the Great, 473. Simon Magus, 115 n. 5. Sim'o-ny, 11 5-1 17, Siraj-ud-Daula (se-raj'ood-dow''la), 490 n. 14. Slave trade, African, beginning of the, 278 ; the Assiento, 481 ; Eng- land abolishes, 493. Slavery, abolished in English col- onies, 602 n. I. Slaves, number in Middle Ages, 84 n. 6. Slavs, at opening of the Middle Ages, 6. See Russia. Smith, Sidney, 540. Smo-lensk', 574. Sobieski (soi^ye-ske), John, 409. Social Democrats, German, 707, 708. Socialism, in French Revolution of 1848, 592 n. 2; of to-day, 649 n. II ; 707, 708. 748 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Soissons (swas's6n^0» battle of, lo. Solferino (sol-fe-re'no), battle of, 626. Sory-man, the Magnificent, Sultan, rival of Charles V, 320. Sophia, Electress of Hanover, 484. S6't5, Ferdinand de, 286 n. 11. South Sea Bubble, 485, 486. Spain, conquest of, by Saracens, 54; during the Crusades, 141; early history, 229, 230; union of Castile and Aragon, 230; con- quest of Granada, 230, 231 ; influ- ence upon national character of the Moorish domination and wars, 231 ; the Inquisition under Fer- dinand and Isabella, 232 ; under Charles V, 318-325 ; under Philip II, 326-331 ; under Philip III, 331, 332; war with England, 356- 359 ; war with Netherlands, 366- 374 ; in the Napoleonic Era, 563, 564, 566; since 1815, 614-618. Spanish-American War, 686 n. 26. Spanish colonies, beginnings, 28S ; Spain loses her continental Ameri- can dependencies, 615-617 ; loses her insular possessions, 618. Spanish Fury, the, 369. Spanish March, 63. Spanish Succession, War of the, 41 1 -41 3 ; England's gains in, 481. Spenser, Edmund, 361. Spinning jenny invented, 494. Spires (Ger. Speyer), second diet of, 308. Stanley, Henry M., 667, 668. Star Chamber, court of, 426 n. 6. States-General, French, 223; of 1789,511-513. Statute for the Burning of Heretics, 219. Statute of Laborers, 21 t. Stein, Baron vom (stin), 572 n. 27, 573. Stephen of Blois (blwa), king of England, 108. Stephenson, George, 705. Stirling, battle of, 207 n. 6. Stoessel (stes'sel), Russian general, 694 n. 29. Strafford (Thomas Wentworth), Earl of, 426, 428. Stral'sund, siege of, 388 n. 3. Strasburg (Ger. Strassburg ; Fr. Strasbourg), seized by Louis XIV, 408, 409. Strassburg (stras'borG), oath of, 69 n. 6. Streltsi, disbanded, 461. Stuart, Henry, Lord Damley, 355. Stuart, House of, in England, 420. Sty-li''tes, Simeon, 23, 24. Sudan (soo-dan'), 677, 679. Suez Canal, 597. Sully (suH), Duke of, 383. Sun'na, the, 52. Siin'nites, Moslem sect, 55 n. 9. Supremacy, Act of, under Henry VIII, 342; under Elizabeth, 353. Supreme Being, worship of, 532. Surat (sooraf), English at, 423; French at, 413 n. 13, 423. Sweden, in Thirty Years' War, 389- 391 ; gain in Peace of West- phalia, 392; under Charles XII, 462, 463, 464 ; union with Norway, 583 n. 3. See Calmar, Union of. Swift, Jonathan, 483. Swiss Confederation, the, rise of, 238, 239 ; independent of Holy Roman Empire, 392 ; French intervention in, 540 ; as a federal state, 646 n. 8, 698. Swiss Guards, of Tuileries, 521, 522 n. 14. Switzerland. See Swiss Confeder- ation. Sy-a'gri-us, 10. Sybel (se'bel), quoted, 639. Syria, conquest of, by Saracens, 52. Taj Mahal (tazh ma-hal'), the, 162. Talleyrand (tal'i-rand), at the Res- toration, 576. Tam-er-lane'. See Timur. Tancred (tangOcred), 132. Tees (tez), river, 105. Tell, William, legend of, 239. Templars, order of the, origin, 133 n. 5; abolition of, 223, 224. Temple of Peace, the, 701. Terror, Reign of, 527-535. Terrorism in Russia, 662. Test Act, 445, 446 n. 15a, 606. Tetzel, John, 301. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 749 Teutonic Knights, order of the, origin, 134 ; in Baltic region, 142 ; property secularized, 307. Teutons, capacity for improvement, 4; kingdoms established by, 7- 13; their conversion, 14-22; fu- sion with the Latins, 34-41 ; per- sonality of Teutonic laws, 36, ^7 '•> ordeals among, 37-39. The-od'o-ric, king of the Ostrogoths, 7,8. Thessaly, 655 n. 2. Thiers (tyer), 595, 596. Third Estate, the, beginnings of, in the towns, 185, 186; French, under the Bourbons, 503-505 ; in States-General, 51 1-5 13. Thirty Years' War, the, 387-394. Thomas Becket, 200, 201 ; shrine destroyed, 343. Thomas a Kem'pis, 297 n. i. Thor, German deity, 16. Thorvaldsen (tor'vald-zen), 522 n. 14. Tiberine Republic, of 1798, 540, 541 ; of 1848, 624. Tiers Etat (tyar'za'ta'' ; Eng. pron. terz'a-ta'^). See Third Estate. Tilly, 388, 390. Tilsit, Treaty of, 558-560. Tim-buk'tu, 679. Timur (tl-moor'), Mongol conqueror, 162. Tintoretto (tin-to-ret'to), 268 n. 14. Titian (tish'an), 268. Tobacco, introduced into Europe, 360 n. 7. Todleben (tot'la-ben), 657. T5'go, Japanese admiral, 694 n. 29. Toleration, religious, influence upon, of the Protestant Reformation, .316, 394. Tories,the party of conservatism, 602. Toul (tool), 392. Toulon (too-lon^, siege of, 536 n. 25. Tournament (toor'na-ment), the, 96, 97- _ Tours (toor), battle of, 54. Toussaint Louverture (too-sari'loo- ver-tiir'), 546 n. 2. Tower of London, 106. Towns, effects upon, of Crusades, 144 ; suffer from barbarian in- vasion, 1 69 ; rapid growth in tenth and eleventh centuries, 169, 170; status of the chartered towns, 171, 172; their industrial life, 172 ; they enter the feudal system, 170; their revolt, 172; towns in Germany, 173-175; in Italy, 175- 183 ; their services to civilization, 183-186; their representatives in national assemblies, 185, 186 ; cen- ters of new intellectual life, 186. See Hanseatic League and Italian city-republics. Tow'ton Field, battle of, 215. Traf-al-gar', naval battle of, 557; importance of, 561. Trans-Sibertan Railway, 685. Transvaal, the, 674, 675 ; becomes Transvaal Colony, 675. Trek, The Great, 674. Trent, Church Council of, 310, 311. Trieste (tre-est'), 653. Triple Alliance, of 1668, 319 n. i ; of 1882, 648. Troppau (trop'pou), Congress of, 615 n. I. Trou'ba-dours, the, 227, 228. Trouveurs (troo'ver'^), the, 228, 229. Troyes (trwa). Treaty of, 213. Truce of God, 125, 126; proclaimed by Council of Clermont, 131. Tsar, title assumed, 455. Tudor, House of, 334 n. i. Tudor, Owen, 206. Tuileries (twe'le-riz), 524. Tunis, French protectorate, 678. Turanians. See Mongols and Turks. Turgot (tiir-g5'), 508 n. 7, 509. Turks, Ottoman, beginnings of their empire, 164; their conquests, 165- 167 ; they capture Constantinople, 166 ; check to their arms, 167 ; wars with Philip II, 329, 330 ; with Austria, 409 ; with Catherine the Great, 466 ; with Bonaparte, 540 ; with Greece, 654 n. i ; with Russia (i828-i829),654,655;(i85i-i856), 656, 657; (1877-1878), 658-660. Turks, Seljuk, 123 ; power broken, 129, 143. Tuscany, union with Sardinia, 627. Two Sicilies. See Naples^ King- dom of. Tyburn, 443. Tyler, Wat, 212. Tyrone (ti-ron'). Earl of, 359. 750 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Uitlanders (oit'land-erz), 675. Ukraine (u'kran), 464. Urfi-las, apostle of the Goths, 14. Ulm (oolm), 555. Ulster, plantation of, 423, 424, Umbria, union with Sardinia, 628. Uniformity, Act of, under Edward VI, 349 ; under Elizabeth, 353. Union (parliamentary) of England, with Scotland, 4S 1-483; with Ireland, 609. Union, The Interparliamentary, 701, 703. United Provinces. See Netherlands. United States, indep'endence of, 492; War of 181 2, 562; Monroe Doctrine, 616, 617 ; expansion of, 685-687. Universities, rise of the, 187, 188; faculties, 188 n. i ; "Nations "in, 189 ; students and student life, 189 ; studies and methods of instruction, 191. See Schoolmen. Unterwalden (oon'ter-val'^den), 238. Ural (oo'ral) Mountains, 455. Uri (oo'ri), 238. U-to'pi-a, More's, 346, 347. Utrecht (u'trekt). Union of, 370 ; Peace of, 413. Valla, Laurentius, 273. Valladolid (val-ya-tho-lethO, 365. Valmy (val-me'), battle of, 523. Valois (val-wa'), House of, 224 n. 13, 376 n. I ; history of France under the mediaeval Valois sov- ereigns, 224-227 ; in the sixteenth century, 376-381. Vandals, kingdom of the, 9; de- stroyed by Belisarius, 9. Vane, Sir Henry, 434, 436; death, 443- Vassy (va-seO> massacre of, 377, 378. Vatl-can, relations to France, 547, 548 n. 3. Vauban (vo-bon^, 407. Vaudois (v6-dwa'), 323. Vaux (vo), Pierre de, 323 n. 6. Vendee (voii-da'). La, 526. Ve-ng'tia, ceded to Austria, 538, 539 ; joined to Napoleon's king- dom of Italy, 555 ; becomes part of the new kingdom of Italy (1866), 628. Venice, takes part in Fourth Cru- sade, 136, 137 ; sketch of history, 1 79-1 8 1 ; ceremony of wedding the Adriatic, 180; her "Arsenal," 180, 181. Venice, Peace of, 149. Ventoux (vori-too'). Mountains, 259 n. 4. Ver-dun', Treaty of, 68, 69. Vergniaud (vern-yo'), 527 n. 18. Verona (va-ro'na). Congress of, 615 n. I. ^ Veronese (va-ro-na'za), 268 n. 14. Versailles (ver-salz'; Fr. pron. ver- say'), palace of, 415. Vervins(ver-van'), Treaty of, 382 n. 5. Vespucci, Amerigo (ves-poot'che, a-ma-re'go), 280. Victor Emmanuel I, king of Sar- dinia, reactionary policy of, 620 ; abdication of, 621 ; II, 624 ; king of Italy, 627, 628 ; III, 629 n. 4. Vienna (vi-en'a ; Ger. Wien), siege of (1683), 409 ; Congress of, 577, 581-585. Villafranca (vel-la-frang^a), Peace of, 627. Villain. See Serfs. Vincennes (van-sen'), France, 550. Virginia, origin of name, 360. Visconti (ves-kon'te), family of the, 247 n. 23. Visigoths, kingdom of the, 8, 9. VladPi-mir the Great, of Russia, 21. Vogelweide (fo'^el-vi'de), Walther von der, 241. Voltaire (vol-ter^), 478, 505, 506. Wager of battle. See Ordeals. Wagram (va'gram), battle of, 566. Wal-den'ses, 323. Waldo (val-do'), Peter, 323 n. 6. Wales, conquest of, 205, 206. Waliszewski (va-li-shev'ski), quoted, 456. Wallace, Sir William, 207. Wallachia (wo-la'ki-a), partial inde- pendence of, 655 ; in kingdom of Rumania, 660 n. 8. Wallenstein (woFen-stin ; Ger. pron. val'len-stln), 388, 389, 39:. Walpole, Sir Robert, 485. Walsingham, Sir Francis, 353. Walter the Penniless, 132. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 751 "Wardship, feudal right of, 84 n. 4. Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, formed, 559 ! given to Russia, 583. Wartburg (vart'boorG), Luther at, 305, 306. Waterloo, battle of, 578. Watt, James, 494. Wed'more, Treaty of, 74. Wei-hai-wei, 690. Wellesley, Sir Arthur. See Wel- lington. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, in Portugal, 564; at Water- loo, 578. Wentworth, Thomas. See Straf- ford. Weser (va'zer), river, 392. Wesley, Charles, 487. Wesley, John, 487. Western Empire (Teutonic). See Charlemagne and Holy Roman Empire. Westphalia, kingdom of, 560; Peace of, 391-393- Whigs, representatives of Liberal- ism, 602. Whitby, Council of, 18, 19. Whitefield (hwit'feld), George, 487. Wieland (ve'lant), 565. Wilberforce, William, 493, Wilhelmina, of Bayreuth, on Peter the Great, 459 n, 3. William I, the Conqueror, king of England, his youth, 103 ; prepares to invade England, 104 ; victory at Hastings, 104 ; his reign, 105- 108 ; II, the Red, 108 ; III, 449, 450-453- William I, the Silent, stadtholder, mentioned, 366 ; his character, 367, 368; his "Apology," 371; his death, 372; II, 434 n. 13; III, 448; king of England, 449, 450-453- William I, German Emperor, as king of Prussia, 639, 640, 644 ; Emperor, 646 ; death, 648 ; II, 648, 649. Wimpheling, Jacob, 297 n. i. Windmills, introduced into Europe by Crusades, 144. Win'f rid, apostle of Germany, 20, 30. Wink'el-ried, Arnold of, 239 n. 20. Wisby (wiz'bi), 174. Wit'an, the, 103 n. i ; becomes the English Parliament, 109. Wit'^e-na-ge-mot'. See VVitan. Wittenberg, Luther at, 306. Wo'den, German god, 16. Wolfe, James, 490. Wolsey, Cardinal, minister of Henry VIII, T,y], 338 ; death, 340. Worcester, battle of, 436. Workshops, national, in France, 592 n. 2. Worms (vorms). Concordat of, 119 ; Diet of, 304, 305. Wren, Sir Christopher, 445 n. 15. Wiirtemberg (viirt'tem-bero), king- dom of, 556; in German Empire, 646. Wycliffe (wik'lif), John, 218, 219. Xavier (zav'i-er), Francis, 314. Xeres (ha-res'), battle of, 54. Yezd, city, 53 n. 7. York, House of, 199 n. i. See Roses, Wars of the. Yuste (yoos'ta), 325. Zaandam (zan-dam'), 460. Zambesi (zam-be'ze), river, ()']6. Zend-Avesta, the, 52. Zollverein (tsorfer-in'^), 637. Zorn'dorf (tsorn'dorf ), battle of, 474. Zwingli (zwingle), Huldreich, 309. Zwinglians, 309. SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER CHAPTER XLV THE WORLD WAR (1914-1918) I. Causes of the War and Train of Preceding Events 763. The War's Place in History. — In the last days of July and the early days of August, 19 14, — henceforth one of the memorable dates of history, — there broke out in Europe a war which at once involved five of the great powers of that continent and ultimately almost the whole of the civilized world. Before passing to an investigation of the fundamental causes of this titanic conflict, we must first note carefully its relation to the tendencies and world-wide movements which we have traced in the foregoing pages. The events of this great war will appear in their right perspective and its place in history will be revealed only when it is viewed as the culmination of the Political Revolution which began in the seventeenth century in England and of which the outstanding fact before this upheaval of 19 14 was the French Revolution. As we have seen, one of the great principles proclaimed by the Revolution was the principle of popular sovereignty, of government by the people.^ Another of the influential ideas promulgated by the revolutionists -of 1789 was the doctrine of nationality. This demands that every nation, that is, every considerable group whose members are kindred in blood or who have the same traditions, ideals, and aspirations, shall be free to live its own life, to be master of its own destiny. The principle forbids that one race should rule over another race. Now, these principles of the Revolution are, as we shall see, the essential principles for which the nations that fought against a 1 See sec. 644. 619.1 i ii THE WORLD WAR Prussianized Germany and her allies inxthe World War contended. This fact determines the place in history of the great conflict. It is the latest act — and, if the aims, purposes, and ideals of the nations that fought against Germany and her allies are ultimately attained, as it appears that they will be, we may hope the final act — in the drama of what we have called the Political Revolution. 764. Autocracy versus Democracy — The place in history which we assign to .the World \\'ar will be seen to be its real place if we look more closely, as we shall now proceed to do, at some of the underlying causes of the great conflict. During the nineteenth century the revolutionary idea of govern- ment by the people made conquest, as we have seen, of a great part of Europe. Unhappily there were in Central Europe two states, Prussia and Austria, which repudiated the liberal principles of the Revolution and, under the mask of parliamentary forms, remained the upholders of the old discredited regime of autocratic government. Of these t\vo states Prussia, under the House of Hohenzollem, was by far the most important and representative. It alone claims our attention here. In an earlier chapter we saw how the royal House of Hohenzollem was raised by Prince Bis- marck, through a poHcy of " blood and iron," at once to the head- ship of Germany and the Imperial dignity.^ We also saw how the young Emperor William II, the third of the Hohenzollems to wear the Imperial crown, shortly after the beginning of his reign, abruptly dismissed the Imperial Chancellor, Prince Bismarck, and then began a very personal rule. The following utterances of the Emperor will reveal the spirit and temper of his government : "I alone am master here ; who opposes me I shall crush " (a sentiment ex- pressed by the young Emperor at the time he " dropped his pilot," Prince Bismarck). " We Hohenzollems take our crown from God alone, and to God alone we are responsible in the fulfillment of duty." ^ " The spirit of the Lord has descended upon me because 2 See Chapter XL. 3 This was not merely Emperor William's personal interpretation of the German Constitution. The eminent German historian Eduard Meyer has said, " The power of Germany's monarchs must be unlimited, and they cannot therefore be responsible to man but to God alone." IMPERIALISM VERSUS NATIONALISM iii I am the Emperor of the Germans. I am the instrument of the Almighty, his sword, his agent. Woe and death to all those who oppose my will." * This is exactly the language of the divine-right Stuarts of Eng- land and the pre-revolutionary Bourbons of France, whose impious assumptions and cruel tyranny did so much to provoke the English and the French Revolution.^ The ideal of government and the mode of thinking shown by these declarations was one of the deeper causes of the World War — for civilization cannot exist half autocratic and half democratic- — and was what made it possi- ble for President Wilson, when, in the third year of the unprece- dented conflict, the United States entered the war, to define it as fundamentally a struggle between democracy and autocracy and to declare our aim and purpose in entering the war to be " to make the world safe for democracy." ^ In doing this we were but carrying on to completion our part of the work so far advanced by the men of 1789. , 765. Imperialism versus Nationalism. — Again, the relation of the World War to the Revolution of 1789 is revealed in the part which violations of the second great principle of the revolutionists, namely, the principle of nationality, played in precipitating the great catastrophe of 1 9 1 4 and in giving such complexity and world- wide range to the struggle. The most far-reaching in its conse- quences of these violations of the sentiment of nationalism was the tearing away from France of Alsace-Lorraine by the victorious Germans ai the end of the Franco-Prussian War (sec. 7 1 4). During the forty years between the close of that war and the outbreak of the later conflict the German rule in these provinces was harsh and tactless. The freedom of the press was denied, the use of the French language was restricted, and every effort was made 4 Proclamation by the Emperor to the army of the East at the beginning of the World War. 5 Cf. sees. 440 and 458. 6 That this was the real character of the war was at first obscured by the fact that autocratic Russia was an ally of the liberal governments of Western Europe ; but when, in 1917, the Romdnov dynasty was overthrown and Russia proclaimed a republic, the real issues involved became clear. iv THE WORLD WAR to Germanize the people and lead them to forget France. As a result the provinces were in a chronic state of unrest and protest. Thousands of the young men fled the country and joined the French army. All this tended to keep alive in France the deep feeling of resentment towards Germany for the great wrong of 187 1. So potent a factor were the feelings nourished by this bitter root — combined with the fear of further mutilation — in bringing on the disaster of 19 14 that it is not too much to say that when Bismarck permitted Alsace-Lorraine to be taken from France he sowed the seeds of a new war between Germany and France. This dismember- ment of France was the direct and primary cause of the alignment of the great powers^ of Europe in' two opposing alliances'^ and of that constant growth of armaments which made all Europe for more than a generation before 19 14 an armed camp. Aside from Alsace-Lorraine there were in Europe and Asian Turkey various nations and fragments of nations which at an earlier time, through the fortunes of war or the crimes of kings, had lost their independence and were being held in hated and oppressive subjection by alien races. Every one of these nations or parts of nations, — Poles, Rumanians, Slavs, Greeks, Italians, Armenians, and Arabs, — of which we shall speak later, became either an active cause in bringing on the World War or in widening its range and adding to its manifold phases and problems. 766. German Ideas and Doctrines. — We have seen how pro- found an influence philosophic ideas exerted upon the develop- ment and course of the French Revolution (sec. 558). Even more determinative in inaugurating and giving character to the great war of 19 1 4 were the pernicious doctrines inculcated by the German ruling class and leaders in German thought. Among these ideas was the conception that the German people are a superior race ordained to world dominion. This idea of an elect race has played a great role in history. The ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, each thought of themselves as a chosen people. But these were primitive peoples of the early world. It 7 See sees. 715 and 769. GERMAN IDEAS AND DOCTRINES v was not thought that this naive notion could find a place in the sober thoughts and reasoned convictions of a civilized people of to-day. But, somehow, during the decades following the Franco- Prussian War of 1870 and the establishment of Prussian ascendancy in the Empire, it did become a fixed element in the German stock of ideas. What made this notion of German superiority in race and culture a menace to the security and peace of the world was that those entertaining this idea conceived it to be the mission of the German people to spread the superior German Kultur over the earth by force of arms if necessary, and thus to make Germany the " mother country of the future civilization of the world." Another dangerous German teaching was that war is a necessary and divinely ordained factor in human history. " War," said the militarist Bernhardi, " is not only a biological law but a moral obligation, and as such an indispensable factor in civilization." " War," said Marshal von Moltke, " is an element of the order of the world established by God. . . . Without war the world would stagnate and lose itself in materialism." It was this philosophy of war which, blinding the German people to the insanity and crimi- nality of aggressive war, had much to do in letting loose upon the world the immeasureable calamity of the war of 19 14. Still another sinister doctrine taught by many German philoso- phers is that the state in its relation to other states is not bound by the rules of morality. " Right and wrong," says an eminent German authority, " are notions needed in civil life only." " It will always conduce to the glory of Machiavelli," said the famous Treitschke, professor of histoiy at the University of Berlin, at whose feet multitudes of German youth for many years received instruction in history and imbibed ideas of public morality, "... that he has freed the state and its morality from the precepts of the Church." ^ This means that war may be waged without regard to treaties or international law, without sentiment, pity, or mercy. " For the sake of the Fatherland," declared Professor Treitschke, "the natural sentiment of humanity is to be sup- pressed." Translated into practice in the World War by the 8 See sec. 270. vi THE WORLD WAR German militarists, this monstrous doctrine that war may be waged without regard to the restraints of law and conscience produced the German policy of ruthlessness and frightfulness which, more than any other one thing, aroused and arrayed against the German government the greater part of the civilized world. Having now indicated some of the root causes of the great war, and drawn attention to some German ideas and teachings which were at the bottom of the lawless and inhuman methods of the German military authorities in the conduct of the war, we will in the following pages trace the course of events that during the early years of the twentieth century mark the drift of Europe towards the abyss of the great catastrophe. 767. The Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway. — As has already been seen, by the end of the nineteenth century and before Germany was ready to enter the field as a competitor for colonies and for indus- trial opportunities outside of Europe, the other leading European nations, which had earlier achieved national unity, had acquired and partitioned among themselves the most of the desirable lands of the world open to European colonization or business enter- prises.^ There were left, however, three states — Turkey, Persia, and Morocco — which because of their backward or decadent con- dition were looked upon by the great industrial nations of Europe as inviting fields for economic exploitation and perhaps ultimately for actual political control. Of these three states Turkey first drew the attention of the Germans. Early in the twentieth century Germany secured con- cessions from the Ottoman Porte for the construction of a railway across Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and thence to some point on the Persian Gulf. In connection with lines in Europe this road was to give rail communication between Berlin and Bagdad, and hence is generally known as the Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway. The purposes of this road were twofold: (i) to open up to German trade and business enterprise Asia Minor and Mesopo- tamia, lands of vast natural resources, which had nourished the great civilizations of the early world ; and (2) to make it possible 9 See Chapter XLIII. THE BERLIN-TO-BAGDAD RAILWAY vii for Germany in the event of war to menace British interests in Egypt and India. In time the political and military aims of the project came to take precedence of the purely economic purposes. The Berlin-to- Bagdad Railway project affords an explanation of the unnatural alliance between Germany and Turkey, an alliance which became an important factor in the World War. The realiza- tion of the scheme required, of course, the friendly cooperation of the Turkish government and the good will of the Mohammedan world. In 1898 Emperor William II undertook a pious pilgrimage to Palestine. In a famous address made at Damascus he said: " May his Majesty the Sultan, as well as the three hundred mil- lion Moslems who venerate him as their Khalif, be assured that the German Emperor is their friend forever." Thus were the Mohammedans of Egypt, India, Central Asia, and North Africa, restless perhaps under British or Russian or French rule, told to whom they should look as a friend and deliverer. The location of the Asian stretch of the Berlin-to- Bagdad Rail- way should be carefully noted. It follows closely the ancient mili- tary and trade route between the East and the West. Control of this highway • gives control of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. It is this which made the German project a matter of such international concern and rendered it such a factor in bringing on this world conflict and in extending the operations of the war into Mesopotamia and Palestine. Great Britain was especially concerned. Alarmed at the pros- pect of Germany's getting a foothold at the head of the Persian Gulf, within striking distance of her sea route to India, she at first threw obstacles in the way of the carrying out of the project. The matter, however, was finally adjusted, and Great Britain gave up her opposition to the German enterprise ; but the long-continued friction between the two governments had engendered mutual suspicions and animosities, which, deepened by later conflicts of interests, formed one of the contributing causes of the World War. As the war progressed, the important relation of the Berlin-to- Bagdad Railway to the German scheme for world dominion became more and more clearly revealed. Viii THE WORLD WAR 768. Germany becomes a Sea Power. — Before the close of the nineteenth century Germany, already possessing a dangerous mili- tary power, turned her attention toward the sea. The kaiser de- clared : "Our future lies on the water. . . . The trident must pass into our hands." A great German merchant marine was created, and a vast and lucrative overseas trade developed. In the making, the carrying, and the selling of goods the Germans came into successful competition with the English exporters and traders in all parts of the world. To protect her extended commerce in the event of war and to further her ambitious world policy, Germany began the creation of a navy. At the opening of the twentieth century her war fleet was second only to that of Great Britain. ^*^ The British government became alarmed. The insular security of Great Britain seemed to be menaced, for, with only a small army, she must hold command of the seas to be safe. A keen competition between the two nations in the construction of warships began. In this rivalry there was a distinct menace to world peace. 769. The Triple Entente, or Good Understanding, between Great Britain, France, and Russia. — Germany's constant increase of her navy, and her ambition for world domination as disclosed by the utterances of the German militarists and ruling classes, deep- ened the fears of Great Britain and caused her to abandon her policy of keeping aloof, in " splendid isolation," from continental alliances, and to enter into what was in effect, though not in name, a defensive alliance with France and Russia. In 1904 she settled all her long-standing troubles with France and reached a cordial understanding with her. This arrangement was a matter of world- wide importance, for though it was purely a measure of defense against the German menace, Germany claimed it was evidence of unfriendly intentions and a plot for her " encirclement " and destruction. Henceforth her hatred of Great Britain became ever more fixed and implacable. Three years after Great Britain had reached her good under- standing with France, she effected with Russia an adjustment of all their conflicting interests in Asia and elsewhere. One of the 10 The Kiel Canal was opened in 1895. THE TRIPLE ENTENTE ix most important of the disputes settled was that concerning Persia, the second of the "decadent" states already mentioned. A revo- lution here having resulted in a condition of anarchy which seemed to justify outside intervention, Great Britain and Russia proceeded to. partition the country, Russia taking as her special sphere of influence the northern provinces and Great Britain the south- west region. Both governments mutually agreed to respect the " integrity " and " independence " of Persia. This accord between these two ancient rivals was a matter of tremendous import in world history, of even greater import than the French and British accord. Great Britain now gave up all opposition to Russia's ambition to secure control of the waterways of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. It was Germany now, with her ambitious projects in Asian Turkey and her Bagdad Railway, that had become a menace to British possessions in both Egypt and India. Great Britain's earlier opposition to Russian purposes was now directed against German plans of expansion eastward. These settlements and arrangements completed what is known as the Triple Entente, or good understanding, between Great Britain, France, and Russia.^^ The six great powers^ were now aligned in two groups, the members of each group so bound together by alliances or understandings that a conflict arising between any two states of the opposing groups was almost certain to bring on a general European war. So this very expedient — the forming of alliances — whereby the European governments sought to maintain the balance of power and to preserve the peace of the world was the very thing that made so extended and so colossal the disaster that overwhelmed Europe in 19 14. 770. The First Moroccan Crisis (1905). — Morocco, the third of the "decadent" states that seemed marked out for commercial penetration or political absorption by their more vigorous and enter- prising neighbors, simultaneously with the formation of the Triple 11 France and Russia had drawn together and formed in 1891 a defensive alliance known as the Dual Alliance. 12 The Triple Alliance, it will be recalled, embraced Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. X THE WORLD WAR Entente became the subject of a serious international controversy. The collision of interests here was between Germany on the one hand and France and Great Britain on the other. France had set her heart on the possession of this country in order to round out her African empire.-^^ When, in 1904, Great Britain and France entered into a mutual good understanding, this was one of the things settled. An agreement was reached whereby France gave Great Britain a free hand in Egypt in return for a free hand for herself in Morocco. The next year the German Emperor landed in his yacht, the Ifohenzollern, at the Moroccan port of Tangier and made addresses to the German traders and merchants there which were meant for other ears besides theirs. His utterances were notice to Great Britain and France that in all arrangements and conventions re- specting the remaining free states of the world Germany must be consulted. This was merely a reaffirmation of a previous declara- tion that nothing of importance in the world at large should be arranged without the consent of Germany and the German Emperor. France, — though she felt that Germany's intervention was unjustifiable, — being uncertain of the armed support of Great Britain and knowing that her other ally, Russia, because of the defeat she had just suffered at the hands of Japan (sec. 753) was powerless to help her, made humiliating concessions to Germany ^^ and agreed to the calling of an international convention to review the whole matter. The outcome of this meeting ^^ was favorable for France ; the representatives of the nations recognized her spe- cial and superior interest in Morocco and commissioned her to maintain order in that country. This Moroccan affair is a landmark in history, one of the out- standing facts of the decade preceding the outbreak of the great war. The crisis created by Germany's manner of intervention had, 13 See sec. 738 and map after page 668. 14 The French Premier, Delcasse, who had carried on the negotiations with the British government, was by Germany's threat of war forced to resign. 15 The Convention of Algeciras, 1906. I SOME FACTORS OF THE BALKAN PROBLEM xi it is true, been passed safely, but important consequences resulted from her action. The good understanding between Great Britain, France, and Russia was cemented. It now became something like a real alliance. On the other hand, Germany's prestige had re- ceived a severe blow, and this caused her hatred of Great Britain, which had taken the side of France in the international convention, to become more intense and bitter. 771. Some Factors of the Balkan Problem. — Our attention is now directed to southeastern Europe, where was laid the train which was to start the frightful conflagration of the World War. The situation here at the opening of the twentieth century was bewildering in the variety of the motives, interests, and aspirations of the peoples and governments concerned, but it will become in a measure intelligible if we bear in mind the following dominant facts : First, the situation was one which concerned the relations to Turkey of the several small Balkan states. The Turkish provinces adjoining these little states contained more than two million Chris- tian Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbians who longed for liberation from Ottoman oppression and for union with their emancipated brethren. Racial and religious antagonisms among the Christians themselves, especially in Macedonia, aggravated the disorder and wretchedness. Second, the situation was one which concerned more or less closely several of the great powers. Russia's old ambition to con- trol the waterways leading from the Black Sea to the ^gean was not only still active but was now more urgent than ever before, because her defeat by Japan had denied her a warm-water port on the Pacific. Great Britain no longer barred her way, but Germany was now interested in keeping these waterways out of her hands, since the Muscovite seated on the Bosporus would imperil German interests in Asia Minor and defeat the great German project of a Berlin-to- Bagdad Railway. "^ Then the ambition of the Slav state of Serbia to unite all the people of Serbian race in a Greater Serbia, with outlets on the Adriatic and the ^gean, was a menace to the integrity of Austria- Hungary, for the neighboring provinces of the monarchy were xii THE WORLD WAR largely Serbian in blood, in language, and in sympathies and would inevitably gravitate towards an enlarged and prosperous Serbia. In a word, Serbia was just such a present danger to Austria in the Balkans as Sardinia had been to her possessions in Northern Italy in the nineteenth century/^ Just as Sardinia drew to herself the Italian subjects of Austria, so now Serbia threatened to draw to herself all the Serbian subjects of Austria-Hungary. Thus a Greater Serbia threatened the dismemberment of the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. Moreover, the establishment of a powerful Serbian state meant that Austria's coveted way to the ^gean would be barred ; for after Austria's expulsion from Northern Italy, which had been for centuries the pathway of her Mediterra- nean trade, she had turned towards the East and had sought to secure an outlet across Macedonia to Saloniki on the ^gean. Besides the several interests of Russia, Germany, and Austria- Hungary in the Balkan problem, still another of the great powers, Italy, was deeply concerned. Italy desired possession of Italia irredenta^ "unredeemed Italy," which embraced lands on her northern Alpine frontier and about the head of the Adriatic, of which the population was largely Italian, but which were held by Austria just as once she held Lombardy and Venetia. Further- more, Italy was watchful to see that, with the Turks driven out of Europe, Austria should not appropriate Albania as her part of the booty and thus get possession of the eastern shore of the Adriatic and make of that sea an Austrian lake. These mutual jealousies, rival ambitions, and conflicting interests of the great powers created the Balkan problem in so far as it was an international question concerning Europe at large. 772. The Young Turks ; the Turkish Revolution (1908). — The situation in the Balkans being such as is portrayed in the preced- ing section, a remarkable movement in the Turkish Empire became the prelude to events of world import. In 1908 a revolution in- augurated by a party calling themselves Young Turks broke out in European Turkey. The leaders of this movement were men many of whom had been educated in Western Europe and had 16 Cf. sees. 690-696. THE YOUNG TURKS xiii there become imbued with the spirit of modern liberalism. Gain- ing control of the Balkan army, they demanded and secured from the Sultan Abdul Hamid a constitution^^ which created a parlia- ment and gave to all the subjects of the Sultan equal civic rights and complete religious liberty. The news of the granting of a con- stitution was received by the subjects of the Sultan first with utter incredulity, and then, when the news was confirmed, with unparal- leled demonstrations of joy. The world looked on with amazed and sympathetic interest. To the first Turkish parliament which con- vened under the constitution the American Congress sent good wishes and congratulations, while the leading members of the British House of Commons sent an address headed, " From the Oldest of Parliaments to the Youngest." For a few years the Young Turks administered affairs with such a measure of success as to awaken high hopes everywhere that the regeneration of Turkey was now really to be effected and the eternal Eastern Question thus given a final solution. But un- fortunately there was a lack of capable leaders in the party of reform. The promise of equal rights to all was not kept. The Young Turks could not give up their position as the dominant and privileged race of the empire. They set about the forcible " Turkification " of all the non-Turkish peoples — the Greeks, the Armenians, the Albanians, the Bulgarians, and the Arabs — of the Ottoman dominions. Meanwhile the treacherous Abdul Hamid broke faith with the revolutionists and worked secretly to get rid of the constitution and to regain his despotic power. ^^ 773. The Bosnian Crisis (1908). — But an even more serious obstacle in the way of the success of the reform movement than these internal weaknesses and dissensions was the sordid greed of several of the great powers, who saw in a regenerated Turkey the ruin of all their hopes of ultimately inheriting coveted portions of the "sick man's " estate. His recovery was the very last thing 1'' This was a revival of a constitution that had been granted in 1876 and later revoked. 18 Abdul Hamid, after having instituted atrocious massacres of the Christians at Adana and other places in Asian Turkey, was deposed in 1909 and his brother Mohammed V placed on the throne. In 1918 he was succeeded by Mohammed VI. Xiv THE WORLD WAR they desired. Austria, fearing that if the Young Turks suc- ceeded in establishing a reformed and strong government she would lose control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which Turkish provinces she had been made administrator by the Treaty of Berlin, annexed the provinces to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1908). This was a gross violation of the terms of the Berlin treaty and the direct beginning of the great tragedy of 19 14. Serbia, which had hoped that the provinces, their population being largely Serbian in race and language, would fall to her on the pass- ing of the " sick man," felt grievously injured by Austria's act, and made vigorous protest, but unavailingly ; for when Russia and Great Britain also protested. Emperor William took his stand, in " shining armor," ^^ by the side of Austria and upheld her in her wrongful procedure. Neither Russia nor any other of the great powers being ready to risk precipitating a general European war through intervention by force of arms, the provinces remained in Austria's hands. Another great crisis had been passed, but not without Europe's being drawn nearer to the abyss. By a gesture of the " mailed fist " Emperor William had settled to his own and his ally's advantage a matter of European concern. But there was danger in settling matters of that kind in such a manner. 774. The Second Moroccan Crisis (19 n). — We have seen how at the time of the first Moroccan crisis France was commissioned by the powers to preserve order in the country. Unfortunately the native government was inefficient and corrupt, hence the inevitable happened. The country fell into anarchy. A French army was soon at the capital Fez, and one of the rival contest- ants for the crown placed himself under French protection. This meant, of course, that Morocco's existence as an independent state was ended.^ At once a German warship, the Panther, appeared at one of the country's ports,^^ and the German Emperor asked France what compensation she would allow Germany in return for a free hand 19 A phrase used by the Kaiser in a later speech. 20 The country became a French protectorate in 1912. 21 Agadir, 191 1. THE BALKAN WARS XV in Morocco. After long and heated " conversations " — Great Britain with her navy ready for action supporting France, since she could not permit Germany to secure a foothold on the shore opposite Gibraltar — the Emperor consented to the establishment by France of a protectorate over Morocco in return for the cession to Germany of portions of the French possessions in tropical Africa. Thus by threat of v^ar Germany had secured a " place in the sun" in Africa, but her relations with France had been greatly embittered, for the French denounced her action as blackmail, holding that German interests in Morocco were not of a nature to justify the intervention of Germany in the matter. Furthermore, the relations of Germany and Great Britain had been rendered still more tense, for many Germans were dissatis- fied with the settlement and felt that had it not been for the sup- port which the British government gave France, Germany might have secured larger concessions from her — perhaps have got a part of Morocco itself. 775. The Balkan Wars (19 12-19 13). — ^^^ example set by Austria in 1908 in the seizure of the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina was shortly followed by Italy.^^ A regenerated Turkey threatened to make an end of the long-cherished hope of the Italians that Tripoli and Cyrenaica in North Africa woilld fall to them as ripened fruit on the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. So the Italian government resolved to seize at once the coveted prize, justifying this action on the ground that the Young Turks were treating unfairly Italian settlers and traders in the country. An expedition was launched, and the provinces were seized and annexed to Italy (19 11). The Austrian and Italian attacks upon the integrity of the Otto- man Empire naturally excited the small Balkan states and helped to bring them to an epoch-making decision. Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece formed an alliance (the Balkan League), 22 Other states had earlier followed her example. Two days after Austria had announced her decision to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria proclaimed her complete independence from the suzerainty of the Ottoman Porte. Straightway the island of Crete, still under nominal Turkish suzerainty, declared for union with Greece (1908). Crete's union with Greece was sanctioned by the Treaty of London, 1913. XVI THE WORLD WAR the aim of which was to make an end of the Turkish power in Europe. The adventure turned out beyond all expectation. To the amazement of the world the armies of the little states in a few weeks drove the Turks from almost all their possessions on the European continent — thus accomplishing what the great powers, because of their mutual jealousies, had been unable in centuries of war and diplomacy to effect. The marvelous success of the allies put into their hands much greater spoils in the way of territory than they had expected, and all probably would have gone well in the distribution of these had it not been for the intervention of the great powers, the interests of more than one of which were menaced by .the proposed settle- ment. Austria, supported by Italy, demanded that no part of Albania should be allowed to go to Serbia, but that this territory should be made into an independent state. This was to keep Serbia from the Adriatic. Thus pushed back from her coveted outlet on these waters, Serbia turned towards the ^gean. She asked Bulgaria to consent to a revision of the original agreement regarding the division of the lands wrested from the Turks, and permit her to retain possession of a part of Macedonia. Bulgaria refused and insisted upon a division of the conquered lands in accordance with the terms of the original agreement. The Tsar of Russia in vain begged the disputants to submit the matter to him as arbiter. Instead of doing this Bulgaria suddenly attacked Serbia, being incited to this act,- there is reason to believe, by Austria, and thus precipitated the Second Balkan War. In this lamentable struggle Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Rumania were united against Bulgaria. The Turks seized the opportunity to retake a portion of the territory wrested from them in the first war. Beset on every side, Bulgaria was soon forced to give over the struggle. By the Treaty of Bucharest there was made a new map of the Balkans. All that we need note here is the territorial aggrandizement of Slavic Serbia. This meant, of course, the enhancement of Russian influence in the Balkans, since racial sentiment and sympathies would naturally cause Serbia to draw towards the great mother Slav state. ASSASSINATION OF CROWN PRINCE OF AUSTRIA xvii On the other hand, a Greater Serbia was a menace to Austria, for a powerful Serbia would not only block her way to the ^gean but would naturally draw away or make more restless Austria's subjects of Serbian race, thereby tending to hasten the dis- integration of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Furthermore, an enlarged and powerful Serbia under Russian influence and protection was something that the German Emperor could not brook, since it lay across the Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway and was a menace to that project and thus to the whole Pan- German scheme for the commercial and political domination of Western Asia. 776. Assassination of the Crown Prince of Austria ; Austria's Ultimatum to Serbia It was inevitable that, in the circumstances which we have described, Austro-Serbian relations should become strained to a dangerous tension. Events moved rapidly. While visiting the recently annexed province of Bosnia, the Austrian crown prince — the Archduke Francis Ferdinand — and his wife were assassinated.^^ Austria, charging that Serbian officials were accomplices of the assassins, addressed to Serbia an ultimatum,^ some of the demands of which were incompatible with the rights of Serbia as a sovereign and independent state. An answer was demanded in forty-eight hours. Serbia returned a conciliatory reply, acceding to most of the demands and offering to submit either to the International Tribunal at the Hague or to the judg- ment of certain of the great powers the points to which she could not give unqualified assent. The reply was pronounced unaccept- able, and Austria, supported in her course by Germany, declared war against Serbia. ^^ The action of Austria created alarm in every European capital. Strenuous efforts were made by Great Britain, France, and Russia to stay Austria's hand and to have the whole question brought before a conference of the great powers not directly interested or carried to the Hague Tribunal, for nothing was more certain than that an attack by Austria upon Serbia would precipitate a general European war, because Russia would not and could not stand 23 At Sarajevo, June 28, 1914. 24 juIy 23, 1914. 25 July 28. xviii THE WORLD WAR aloof and see the little Serbian nation crushed, since this would mean German supremacy in the Balkans. But Germany, rejecting all proposals, insisted that the matter concerned Austria and Serbia alone and that there should be no intervention by any of the other powers. Austria having actually attacked Serbia, Russia began to mobi- lize her armies against the Dual Monarchy. Germany thereupon sent an ultimatum to Russia demanding that she demobilize within twelve hours. Russia giving no response, Germany declared war against her.^^ At the same time Germany asked the French Premier, Viviani, whether in the event of a Russo-German war France would remain neutral. His reply was that " France would take such action as her interests might require." Almost immediately the German troops crossed the French frontier.^^ On August 2 Germany pre- sented an ultimatum to Belgium, declaring it to be her purpose to march across Belgian territory to attack France and promising, if the passage of the German troops was not opposed, to guarantee, upon the conclusion of peace, the independence and integrity of the Belgian kingdom, but at the same time warning the Belgian government that if the advance of the German forces was impeded in any way, the German government would deal with Belgium as an enemy. The Belgian government, reminding Germany that she herself had solemnly promised to respect Belgian neutrality, refused to consent to the passage of the German army, saying that " by accepting the proposal she would sacrifice the honor of the Belgian nation while at the same time betraying her duties towards Europe." The German troops at once swept into Belgium. The violation of Belgium brought Great Britain into the war.^^ On August 4 the British ambassador at Berlin received instruc- tions to inform the Imperial German Government that if assurance 26 August I. 27 Germany declared war on France Aug. 3. 28 Though the invasion of Belgium by the Germans actually brought Great Britain into the war, it is certain that she would, as the ally of France, have taken part in it even if the neutrality of Belgium had not been violated. She could not liave stood aside while Germany was striking down France, robbing her of her colonies, and making of her a vassal state. THE VIOLATION OF BELGIUM xix was not given by twelve o'clock that night that the German advance into Belgium would be stopped, the British government would "take all steps in their power to uphold the neutrality of Belgium and the observance of a treaty to which Germany was as much a party as themselves." The German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, greatly agitated, expressed pain and surprise that the British government should take such a resolve "just for a word, ' neutrality ' — just for a scrap of paper." The Imperial German Government's reply to the British ulti- matum being that it was absolutely necessary that the German armies should advance into France " by the quickest and easiest way, so as to be able to get well ahead with their operations arid endeavor to strike some decisive blow as early as possible," Great Britain at once drew the sword. Thus by August 5, only fourteen days after Austria's ultimatum to Serbia, five of the great powers were at war. The curtain had lifted on " the most tragic drama of human history." II. Outstanding Events of the War 777. The Violation of Belgium. — The German plan of cam- paign was simple. With a swift blow France was to be struck down before her allies could come to her aid ; then Russia, whom Austria was to hold in check while the German armies were over- running France, was. to be put out of the war. But the French frontier toward Germany, running from Switzerland to Luxemburg, was strongly fortified, and the reduction of these defenses would delay for at least several weeks the advance into France of the German troops; hence the proposal made by Germany to the Belgian government for an unobstructed passage of the German armies through Belgium. We have seen how, upon the indig- nant rejection of this dishonorable proposal, the German troops were flung across the frontier in utter disregard of treaty obliga- tions and of international law. The crime was confessed in self- indicting words by the German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg. In announcing to the Reichstag the invasion of Belgium, he said: XX THE WORLD WAR " Gentlemen, we are now in a state of necessity, and necessity knows no law. Our troops have occupied Luxemburg and per- haps are already on Belgian soil. Gentlemen, that is contrary to the dictates of international law. ... The wrong — I speak openly — that we are committing we will endeavor to make good as soon as our military goal has been reached." ^ The first obstacle to the advance of the German forces was the strongly fortified city of Liege. In a few days the defenses of the place, which had been thought impregnable, were pounded into dust by the monstrous siege guns of the enemy. The resistance of the Belgians roused a fury of rage in the Germans, who now began a campaign of " frightfulness " {Schreck- Hchkeit), the purpose of which was to terrorize the people and make them submissive to the German will. Villages and cities, individual citizens of which it was alleged had fired upon the German sol- diers, were sacked and burned, and hundreds of non-combatants — men, women, and children — were indiscriminately slain. Hos- tages were shot for the alleged acts of persons over whom they had no control. Priests were killed. The famous university and library of Louvain were wantonly destroyed and a large part of the city itself laid in ashes. The world stood aghast at these crimes, for it had been believed that the time was past when the armies of any civilized government would commit such atroc- ities, to which there is no parallel in history since the Thirty Years' War. The brave resistance of the Belgians to the passage of the German armies had momentous consequences. The delay, short though it was, that it caused the Germans not only gave the French time to concentrate their forces and throw them to the north between the invaders and Paris but it also gave England time to come to the aid of her ally with a small but efficient force. It thus made possible the great victory of the Mame. 778. "The Miracle of the Mame" (Sept. 5-9, 1914)- — Along the Franco-Belgian frontier the German invaders were met by the French and British armies. Their stubborn resistance to the 29 This speech was made Aug. 4, 1914. "THE MIRACLE OF THE MARNE " xxi German advance, however, was broken, and the victorious Germans pushed on towards Paris. The French government fled to Bor- deaux. It seemed as though the story of 1870 was to be repeated. But with the enemy almost within sight of the capital, the French general, Joffre, halted the retreat of his forces along the southern banks of the river Marne, and there, near the region where, more than fourteen hundred years before, the hordes of Attila were turned back by the Franks and their allies,^ inflicted a memorable defeat upon the invaders. The Germans retreated to the river Aisne, nearly halfway to the Belgian frontier, and there intrenched themselves. The battle of the Marne is rightly given a place — perhaps it should be the first place — among the decisive battles of the world. It saved not only France but all continental Europe from German domination, for nothing is more certain than that, if France had lost at the Marne, Russia would have been quickly overrun by the German armies and German military and political control of the Continent firmly established. 779. The Struggle for the Channel Ports The Germans had failed in their plans to reach Paris and put France out of the war. They now made a supreme effort to reach the sea and get control of the Channel ports on the shore opposite England. With these ports in the hands of the enemy the safety of England would, of course, have been imperiled. Strenuous efforts were made to prevent such a calamity. British, French, and Belgian forces were quickly thrown between the Germans and the coveted prize. These land forces were aided by the British fleet, which patrolled the coast. In the Flanders region the sluices were opened and wide tracts of the land flooded — an old device for defense in these low-lying lands. The struggle was long and bitter. Some of the bloodiest battles of the war were fought here.^^ The British army, " a contemptible little army," as it was characterized by the German kaiser, after deeds of valor which made of the epithet of 30 See Ancient History^ 2d Rev. ed., sec. 544. 31 The most important were the battle of the Iser and the battle of Ypres. (" '■ Wipers ' of the English Tommy deserves a place beside Waterloo and Blenheim in English history." — Simonds) xxii THE WORLD WAR scorn a badge of immortal honor,^^ was virtually annihilated. Though the Germans reached the sea at Ostend and gained con- trol of a strip of the Belgian coast, they were thwarted in reach- ing their main objective — the ports of Calais and Boulogne, at the narrowest part of the Channel. 780. The Western Battle Front After the battle of the Mame and at the end of the struggle for the Channel ports, the Germans, still standing in the main on French and Belgian soil, intrenched themselves along a line about four hundred and seventy miles in length, running from Switzerland to the North Sea. Facing the German trenches were drawn the trenches of the Allies. Never before in history was there such a far-flung battle line. Between the opposing lines of ditches, dugouts, and wire entanglements ran a strip of ground varying in width from a few yards in some places to several hundred yards in others, known as " No Man's Land " — a name which suggests much of the tragedy of the great war. For about a year and a half the French, aided by a small num- ber of British and Belgian troops, held back the German masses along this extended line, while a new British army, numbering sev- eral millions, was being raised, trained, and equipped; and then for another like period the Anglo-French-Belgian forces manned the trenches until the United States, which early in 19 17 had entered the war, was mustering, drilling, and transporting to France a vast army. During these three years the fighting along this Western front was in the nature of siege operations. Hundreds of cannon, large and small, were constantly pouring showers of shell into the trenches of the enemy, until in many places " No Man's Land " was so plowed up and so pitted with shell holes that a pho- tograph of it from an airplane resembled a photograph of the crater-pitted face of the moon. Many offensives, or drives, were launched by both the Germans and the Allies in efforts to push back or break through the opposing line, but at the end of the three years the lines, though in some places they had been bent 32 The survivors of this expeditionary army proudly accept the title of " The Contemptibles." THE EASTERN FRONT xxiii and pushed towards Germany, in general ran substantially as at the beginning of the period. The story of this trench warfare on the Western front belongs to the military records of the war and cannot be dwelt upon here We shall merely, a little later, preserving the chronological order of our narrative, speak briefly of one of the offensives undertaken by the Germans and mention others launched by the Allies, which were such supreme efforts as to make them of epochal importance. ^^ 781. The Eastern Front; Russian Victories and Reverses (1914-1915). — We must now turn our attention to the Eastern front. Just at the moment when the Germans were threatening Paris, the Russians came to the aid of their French ally by sending two armies into East Prussia and menacing Berlin, One of the in- vading armies was met and almost annihilated by the German gen- eral, Hindenburg.^* The other army then drew back to the frontier. This defeat of the Russians in East Prussia was offset by their victories over Austria in Galicia.^^ Three great Austrian armies were routed and three hundred thousand prisoners taken. The military power of Austria seemed on the point of absolute col- lapse. But with the coming of Germany to the rescue of her ally, the tide was quickly turned. A great victory for the Central Powers ^^ saved Austria and crippled seriously the military power of Russia. A wide strip of Western Russia, including Poland, fell into the hands of the Germans. As earlier in the west so now here in the east there resulted a deadlock, and the contending armies settled down to trench warfare. Thus Germany at the end of campaigns covering about a year and a half had failed as to her main purpose both in the west and in the east.^^ Neither France nor Russia, though each had received a terrible blow and lost much territory, had been put out of the war. 33 See sec. 785 and n. 45. 34 At the battle of Tannenberg, Aug. 31, 1914. 35 Lemberg was taken by the Russians about September i, 1914; Przemysl fell into their hands in early March, 191 5, with 125,000 prisoners. 36 The battle of the Dunajec, early May, 1915, as decisive a victory for Germany ^s the battle of the Mame was for France. 37 She was more successful in the southeast (see sec. 784). XXIV THE WORLD WAR 782. The Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 19 15). — On February 4, 19 15, the German government announced that every merchant vessel of the Allies entering a designated zone around the British Isles would be destroyed, " without its being always possible to avert the dangers threatening the crews and passengers." This meant that such vessels would be sunk without warning. Now, to do the thing the German government announced it was going to do would be not only to violate the principles of humanity but to disregard the law of nations, which forbids the destruction of passenger or merchant ships under any circumstances before the crews and passengers have been put in a place of safety. Notwithstanding a solemn warning from President Wilson that the United States government would hold the German government to a " strict accountability " if such action as it purposed to take should result in the death of any American citizens, the German submarines straightway proceeded to sink merchant vessels without warning, and in several instances destroyed the lives of American citizens. Then on May i, 19 15, there appeared in American newspapers an advertisement issued by the German Embassy in Washington, in which all persons were warned against taking passage on the British steamship Lusitania, which was about to sail from New York for an English port, it being inti- mated that every effort would be made by German submarines to sink the liner. No attention was paid to the warning, as no one believed that any government would do the thing that the Imperial German Government threatened to do. On the evening of May 7, 19 15, as the Lusitania, with crew and passengers numbering about two thousand, neared the Irish coast, she was torpedoed without warning, and more than a thousand persons, among them many women and little children, were -drowned. This awful crime created horror and indignation throughout the civilized world. The United States government demanded of the German government a disavowal of the act and assurance that the operations of its submarines would in the future conform to the requirements of international law. But it was only after a long ITALY ENTERS THE WAR xxv delay and the exchange of numerous notes that the German gov- ernment finally gave the following pledge : " Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without providing for the safety of the lives of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape or offer resistance." ^^ It was the breaking of this solemn pledge by the Imperial German Government thatj as we shall learn, was the immediate cause of the United States, early in 19 17, entering the war on the side of the Allies. 783. Italy enters the War (May 23, 19 15). ^-Although a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy did not join Germany and Austria in the war, because she was convinced that the war against Serbia was an act of aggression on the part of Austria, and since the alliance of which she was a member was merely a defensive, and not an offensive, alliance, she was not bound to come to the aid of her allies. In truth Italy's alliance with Austria was an altogether unnatural one, for Austria was the hereditary enemy of the Italian people.^ Instead of fighting for the extension of Austrian rule and the en- hancement of Austria's influence and power in the Balkans, the Italians were rather minded to take advantage of her embarrass- ment and fight for the liberation of the still unredeemed Italian lands ^° {Italia irredenta). Negotiations were begun by the Italian government with Austria for her withdrawal from these districts. But no agreement could be reached, and Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies. A new battle front was thus created. For the next two years and more this front was the scene of much hard mountain fighting, in which the Italian armies wrested from Austrian control much of the coveted lands.*^ Then came a great disaster, of which we shall speak later, and the loss by the Italians of all that had been gained, and much besides. 38 This pledge was given Sept. i, 1915. "A liner now means any vessel which sails for any commercial purpose with reasonable regularity and as a part of recognized commerce. Thus we speak of transatlantic liners and coastwise liners ; of passenger liners and freight liners.*' — Beck, The War and Huma?tity (2d ed., J917), p. 182. 39 See Chapter XXXIX. 40 The Trentino and Trieste. 41 Embracing the important city of Gorizia, which was taken Aug. 8, 19 16. xxvi THE WORLD WAR 784. The War in the Southeast in 19 15 ; Serbia and Turkey We have noted how the close of the year 19 15 saw Germany's main war aims both in the west and in the east unattained (sec. 781). In the southeast, however, by the end of the year Germany had completely realized her plans. What she wanted here was to secure Austro-German supremacy in the Balkans and to keep unobstructed her railway route to the Persian Gulf. All this she achieved in a terrible drive against Serbia and through aiding Turkey in the defense of the Dardanelles. The Serbian situation at the beginning of this offensive was as follows: At the opening of the war in 19 14 Austria had in- vaded Serbia and taken the capital, Belgrade. After severe fighting the Serbians had retaken their capital and driven the Austrians from Serbian soil. Germany then came to the aid of her ally, and a strong Austro-German army in cooperation with a large Bulgarian force — Bulgaria having joined the Central Powers — quickly over- came all Serbian resistance.*^ The Serbian army, in one of the most distressful retreats in history, fled southward over the Alba- nian mountains, amidst the snows of a bitter winter, and the remnant who escaped capture or death from exposure found a refuge in the island of Corfu. Serbia was made a second Belgium. Montenegro, which fought with Serbia, was involved in Serbia's ruin. There were still other misfortunes to deepen the gloom that darkened for the Allies the close of the year 19 15. An attempt made early in the year by an Anglo-French fleet to reach Constan- tinople by forcing the -Dardanelles *^ had ended in disaster. This failure of the fleet was followed by an equally ill-fated land attack,** in which Australian and New Zealand troops won special distinc- tion. Before the end of the year the allied forces, having suffered great privation and heavy losses, were withdrawn. 42 An Anglo-French army which had been gathered at the Greek port of Saloniki was outmatched and, hampered by the fear of Greek treachery in its rear, was unable to render the Serbians any effective aid. 43 Turkey had entered the war in November, 19 14, on the side of the Central Powers. Her action was motived, in part, by fear of her hereditary enemy, Russia, in the event of the triumph of the Allies. ^ On the peninsula of Gallipoll VERDUN — " THEY SHALL NOT PASS " xxvii Thus "for the moment Germany had realized the German dream of expansion to the Near East, the conception of a Central Empire, a Mittel-Europa, fronting the Baltic and the Adriatic, over- flowing the Sea of Marmora into Asia Minor, and bound by the German-built railway uniting Berlin, Vienna, and Constantinople with Bagdad, and Hamburg and Antwerp with Suez and the Persian Gulf. Here at last was a solid gain, a real victory, after two great disappointments " (Simonds). 785 . Verdun — ' * They shall not pass. ' ' — The event of greatest military importance in 19 16, the third year of the war, was the German offensive — really a trench battle that lasted nearly a year — against Verdun, on the west front. Russia having been defeated and the German situation in the Balkans made secure, Germany now turned to strike another blow at France in the hope of break- ing either the French line or the French spirit and thus putting France out of the war before Great Britain's new army was drilled, equipped, and in the field. The blow was aimed at Verdun, an ancient French fortress. The attack began early in the year. The grim watchword of the French was, " They shall not pass." The Germans, after the first rush, made for several months only slow foot-by-foot advances; and then the French, taking the offensive, quickly drove them from practically all the ground which they had occupied. The losses of the Germans in killed, wounded, and prisoners are esti- mated to have exceeded a quarter of a million. This French victory was second only to that of the Marne.^^ 45 At the same time that the Germans launched their great offensive at Verdun the Austrians made a menacing attack through the Trentino. To reUeve the pressure on their allies, Russia and Great Britain started offensives. Russia, having recovered more quickly than was thought possible from her defeat in 1915, attacked Austria and took 400,000 prisoners. This forced the Austrians hastily to withdraw their troops from Italy for the defense of their eastern frontier. In Asia Minor the Grand Duke Nicholas, commander of the Russian forces in the Caucasus, set on foot a campaign against the Turks, overran Armenia, and captured the important cities of Erzerum and Trebizond. The British, or rather Franco-British, drive is known as the battle of the Somme. This was one of the great battles of the war. The enemy's lines were so shaken that in the spring of 191 7 the Germans were forced to retreat to what is known as the Hindenburg line. The territory given up was wantonly and ruthlessly devastated. xxviii THE WORLD WAR 786. Rumania enters the War and is ruined. — Before the end of the year 19 16 the fortunes of the Central Powers were at their lowest ebb. The German attempt to break the French front at Verdun had failed ; the British and French had gained the great victory of the Somme ; *^ Italy had repelled the Austrian invasion of the Trentino and had made important gains in the region between the Julian Alps and the sea. It seemed as though the ultimate defeat of the two empires was certain. At this critical moment Rumania entered the war,*^ making the seventh nation arrayed against the Central Powers. Her aim in throwing herself into the struggle was to realize national unity for the Rumanian race by the liberation from the Austro-Hungarian yoke of the several million Rumanians of Transylvania. Rumania's action simply added another to the many tragedies of the great war. Betrayed by pro-German sympathizers among Russian officials, the little state was quickly crushed by the German armies and the greater part of its territory occupied.*^ 787. A German Peace Offer; President Wilson's Address to the Senate (Jan. 22, 19 17). — The overshadowing events of the year 19 1 7 were the Russian revolution, with its aftermath of the col- lapse of Russia, and the entrance into the war of the United States of America. But before proceeding to speak of these matters we must note certain discussions respecting terms of peace and the war aims of the belligerents which marked the close of the year 19 1 6 and the opening of the year upon which we here enter. These peace discussions were opened by the Central Powers. Adopting the tone of victors, they proposed a meeting for peace negotiations of all the nations at war. The Allies refused to enter into such a conference until Germany and Austria had stated the conditions upon which they were ready to conclude peace. About the same time President Wilson, acting independently of the overtures of the Central Powers, asked all the nations at war to state "their respective views as to the terms upon which the war might be concluded, and the arrangements which would be 46 See note 45. '^~ Aug. 27, 1916. 48 The campaign was not completed until 19 17. A GERMAN PEACE OFFER xxix deemed satisfactory as a guarantee against its renewal or the kindling of any similar conflict in the future." To this appeal the Central Powers made only a very brief reply, which contained no statement as to the terms on which they would be willing to conclude peace. The allied governments, however, replying at greater length, stated concretely the objects they sought in -the war, declaring these to be "the restoration of Belgium, of Serbia, of Montenegro, and the indemnities which are due them ; the evacuation of the invaded territories of France, of Russia, and of Rumania, with just reparation; ... the restitution of prov- inces or territories wrested in the past from the Allies by force or against the will of their populations, the liberation of Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians, of Czechs, and of Slovaks from foreign dom- ination ; the enfranchisement of populations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turks; . . . and the liberation of Europe from the brutal covetousness of Prussian militarism." Then on January 22, 19 17, President Wilson, in an historic address to the Senate, set forth the principles that must form the basis of any peace which would have any prospect of permanency, and which the United States would be ready to join other nations in guaranteeing. Among the principles and the conditions of peace were these: (i) "The principle that governments derive all their just powers from the consent of the governed, and that no right anywhere exists to hand peoples about from sovereignty to sovereignty as if they were property." (2) " That no nation should seek to extend its policy over any other nation or people, but that every people should be left free to determine its own policy, its own way of development, unhin- dered, unthreatened, unafraid, the little along with the great and powerful." (3) Limitation of war navies, of armies, and of all naval and military preparations for war ; and a league of the civilized nations of the world to guarantee peace and the rights of all nations.'*® This setting forth by the Allies and President Wilson of what should be the terms and principles of a just and permanent peace 49 This passage is slightly condensed. XXX THE WORLD WAR was at the same time a disclosure of the real issues involved in the great war, and thus a revelation of the deeper causes of the unparalleled conflict; for in the terms of settlement of a war, if the settlement be a just, adequate, and final settlement, are dis- closed the real causes of the struggle that it brings to a conclusion.^" Dwelling upon the suggestion of a league of nations for main- taining the peace of the world. President Wilson said impressively: " It is inconceivable that the people of the United States should play no part in that great enterprise. They cannot, in honor, with- hold the service to which they are now about to be challenged. . . . That service is nothing less than this — to add their authority and their power to the authority and force of other nations to guarantee peace and justice throughout the world." President Wilson at this time apparently believed that the people of the United States would be called upon only to take part, after the war, in the formation of a union or federation of the nations to maintain the future peace of the world and to preserve the liberties of all nations, great and small. But it was a vastly greater and more self-sacrificing service to which they were soon to be challenged. 788. The German Government announces its Purpose to resume Unrestricted Submarine Operations (Jan. 31, 19 17). — We have noted the submarine controversy between the United States and Germany (sec. 782). The pledge given the United States by the German government not to torpedo liners without first caring for the safety of crew and passengers was only partially kept for about a year and a half. Then Germany gave notice to the United States that it would immediately " do away with the restrictions which until now it has impressed upon its use of its fighting means at sea." This meant that all ships, those of neutrals as well as those of the enemy, entering designated areas in the Mediterranean or a zone drawn around the British Isles, would be sunk on sight and without regard to the safety of the persons they carried.^^ 50 Cf. sees. 761 and 762. 51 Permission was given to the United States to send one passenger liner a week to Great Britain, provided that it was marked in a certain way with stripes, departed on a specified day, and made the port of Falmouth in England its destination. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION xxxi The answer of the United States government to this amazjing announcement was to hand the German ambassador, Bernstorff, his passports.^^ This meant the severance of all diplomatic rela- tions with the Imperial German Government. In an address of great dignity and earnestness President Wilson informed the Con- gress of the step he had taken. The address was in effect a warning to the German government not to do the thing it had threatened to do. 789. The Russian Revolution (March 16, 1917). — While the United States, on the verge of war, was awaiting events, the atten- tion of the world was arrested by one of the most remarkable revolutions in history. On March 16, 191 7, Tsar Nicholas II, the reigning representative of the House of Romanov, which had ruled despotically in Russia for over three hundred years, was forced to abdicate, and a provisional government was set up.^^ Amnesty was granted for all political and religious offenses. Tens of thousands of exiles in Siberia and in the prison fortresses of Russia were set free. Liberty of speech and of the press was pro- claimed. All restrictions of a social, religious, and racial character were abolished. Universal suffrage was decreed. A constituent assembly was to be called to draft a constitution. The news of the revolution was received by liberals everywhere with unbounded enthusiasm. The United States straightway recognized the new government and welcomed Russia as a member of the family of free nations. The British Premier, David Lloyd George, in a message of congratulation said of the revolution : "It reveals the fundamental truth that this war is at bottom a struggle for popular government and liberty. It shows that through the war the princi- ple of liberty, which is the only sure safeguard of peace in the world, has already won one resounding victory. It is a sure promise that the Prussian military autocracy, which began the war and which is still the only barrier to peace, will before long be overthrown." 52 Feb. 3, 1917. 53 The immediate cause of the revolution, aside from the widespread suifering of the people and general war-weariness, was the incompetence shown by the govern- ment in the conduct of the war, and the popular belief, which was well founded, that the defeats v/hich the Russian armies had suffered were the result of treachery on the part of Russian officials of pro-German sympathies. xxxii THE WORLD WAR Unfortunately the draught of liberty was too strong. The Russian people, suddenly freed from autocratic tyranny, were intoxicated. They were in a state of bewilderment. Hundreds of German agents crossed the frontier and incited sedition, disorder, and treason. The provisional government made heroic but un- availing efforts to hold back the country from anarchy. The army fell into a state of disorder and confusion. Of this collapse of Russia and her practical elimination as a military factor from the war we shall speak later. 790. The United States enters the War (April 6, 19 17). — On the second day of April, 19 17, President Wilson addressed both Houses of Congress, called in extraordinary session, on the results of the unrestricted operations of the German submarines resumed two months before.^ " The new policy," he said, " has swept every restriction aside — vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents. Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely .bereaved and sorely stricken people of Belgium . . . have been sunk with the satne reckless lack of compassion or of principle. . . . The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind." The President then advised the Congress that it " declare the recent course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the government and people of the United States [and] that it formally accept the status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it." " We are glad," he continued, " to fight for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its people, the German people included; for the rights of nations, great and small, and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for democracy." The Congress and the country were profoundly moved. Four days later, on the sixth of April, the House of Representatives by an 54 See sec. 788. THE UNITED STATES ENTERS THE WAR xxxiii overwhelming vote accepted a joint resolution, which had already been passed by the Senate, and which declared that a state of war existed between the Imperial German Government and the government and the people of the United States. Thus was the momentous decision made, and the great American republic, without excitement but with grave determination and with a good conscience, entered the World War. To the allied countries the action of the United States was a heartening affirmation of the righteousness of their cause and a sure guarantee of ultimate victory. On receipt of the news in England the Stars and Stripes were flung out alongside the Union Jack of Great Britain from the high tower of the Parliament Building at Westminster — "the first tim.e," it is said, "that a foreign flag was ever displayed from that eminence." A few weeks later the first troops of an expeditionary force from the United States, under General Pershing, landed in France.^^ They were received by the war-worn French people with frantic demonstrations of joy and gratitude. After marching through the streets of Paris the soldiers made a pilgrimage to Lafayette's grave. Arriving at the tomb, General Pershing saluted and spoke these words : Lafayette, nous voila f (" Lafayette, here we are 1 ") 791. Other Events of the Year 19 17. After the decision of the United States government, in early April, to accept the status of a belligerent forced upon it by the acts of the German government, the remaining months of the year 19 17 were spent by it in prepa- rations for actual" participation in the war. Ten million men be- tween twenty-one and thirty-one years of age were registered, from which by selective draft a great army in successive installments of half a million or more was to be created, equipped, and drilled. Sixteen cantonments, each a veritable city capable of accommo- dating about forty thousand soldiers, were constructed and made ready for the new recruits by early autumn. To meet the cost of these preparations and the expense of building a great mercantile fleet of hundreds of vessels to replace those destroyed by the German submarines, and of constructing thousands of airships, as 55 June 26. xxxiv THE WORLD WAR well as to provide for great loans to our allies, Congress voted sums of money reckoned by billions. These enormous amounts were raised by increased taxation and by the sale of bonds. In Europe the summer and fall months of the year witnessed military operations on all the battle fronts. In the west there was practically continuous trench warfare, but the lines of neither side were broken through, and the year ended without any military decision on this front having been reached. In the east the Russian collapse became complete by midsum- mer. The army simply fell to pieces. Libert}^ had been proclaimed, ,and to the simple peasant soldiers that meant that every one was free to do as he liked. Thousands left the trenches and returned to their homes. The empire disintegrated like the army. Finland, the Ukraine, and other districts or nationalities severed all relations with Petrograd and set up as independent republics. Taking advantage of the Russian situation, the Germans seized the important Baltic port of Riga.^^ The provisional government established at Petrograd was overthrown, and the reins of power passed into the hands of the extreme socialists (Bolsheviki), who instituted a regime similar in some respects to that of the extrem- ists of the French Revolution. The leaders of this counter- revolution, Lenine and Trotzky, now opened peace negotiations with the Central Powers. ^^ The principles they proclaimed were " no annexations, no indemnities, and self-determination of peoples." The year ended with these negotiations still in progress. The Russian collapse had serious results for the Italians. It allowed the Central Powers to transfer considerable forces from the eastern to the Italian front. A great offensive against the Italians resulted in the breaking of the Italian lines, which neces- sitated a retreat to the Piave River and the abandonment of all the ground that the Italian armies, under the able General Cadorna, had gained in two years of arduous mountain campaigning. A part of Venetia also was lost by the Italians.^ 56 Aug. 3, 191 7. 57 In December, at Brest-Litovsk, 58 October and November, 1917. OTHER EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1917 xxxv In Asian Turkey the British forces made important advances during the year. In the early spring they captured the city of Bagdad, on the Tigris River,^^ and thus gained control of lower Mesopotamia. Towards the end of the year they wrested from the Turks the city of Jerusalem. The Holy Gity was thus restored to the Christian world after having been in the hands of the Moslems since its capture by the Saracens in the year 637, excepting the short period in the twelfth century when it was held by the crusaders. On the sea the German ruthless warfare against the merchant ships of the world was the matter of chief importance. Hundreds of ships of the Allies and of neutrals alike were sunk and thousands of lives of non-combatants destroyed. But this law- less method of warfare resulted in much greater injury to Ger- many than to her foes. It turned virtually the whole civilized world against her. Towards the close of the year Brazil declared war against Germany, making the nineteenth in the list of states taking such action.^'' Eleven others had, by the end of the year, broken off relations with her.^^ These thirty states embrace more than four fifths of the world's population. 792. Events of the Year 1918. — Before entering into the peace conference with Russia, mentioned in the preceding section, Germany had agreed to adhere to the general principles of " no annexations, no indemnities, and the self-determination of peoples." These principles she wholly disregarded as soon 59 March 11, 1917. An earlier attempt to take the city had ended in failure and the capture of the entire British army of 10,000 men at Kut-el-Amara (April 28, 1916). €0 The names of these states and the date of the entry of each into the war are here given: Serbia, July 28, 1914 ; Russia, Aug. i, 1914; France, Aug. 3, 1914; Belgium, Aug. 4, T914 ; Great Britain, Aug. 4, 1914 ; Montenegro, Aug. 7, 1914 ; Japan, Aug. 23, 1914; Italy, May 23, 1915 ; San Marino, June 2, 1915 ; Portugal, March 10, 1916; Rumania, Aug. 27, 1916 ; United States, April 6, 1917 ; Cuba, April 8,1917; Panama, April 9, 19 1 7; Greece, July 16, 1917 ; Siam, July 22, 1917 ; Liberia, Aug. 7, 1917; China, Aug. 14, 1917; Brazil, Oct. 26, 1917. 61 Bolivia broke off relations April 14, 1917; Guatemala, April 27, 1917; Hondu- ras, May 18, 1917; Nicaragua, May 19, 1917 ; Santo Domingo, June 8, 1917; Haiti, June 17, 1917; Chile, June 29, 1917; Costa Rica, Sept. 21, 1917; Peru, Oct. 6, 1917; Uruguay, Oct. 7, 19175 Ecuador, Dec. 8, 1917. xxxvi THE WORLD WAR as Russia was in her power. The states which came into existence through the break-up of the Russian Empire — Ukrania, Poland, Lithuania, and Finland — were treated as dependent and vassal states of the Central Powers. With the pressure on the eastern front removed by the collapse of Russia, the German government, in flagrant violation of its plighted word, straightway transferred large bodies of troops from Russia to the western front, in the hope of gaining a military decision there before the United States could come with effective force to the help of her allies. With their armies in France thus strengthened, the Germans, late in March, launched their long- expected drive for Paris and the Channel ports. At the same time they began the bombardment of Paris with a monstrous long-range cannon, which was located seventy-five miles from the capital. A few days later a bomb from the huge gun fell upon a Paris church, where a large congregation was gathered at a Good Friday service, killing seventy-five persons and wounding ninety others. Under the terrific onset of the German armies, numbering probably over one million, the Franco- British lines were bent back with heavy losses, but were not broken. The situation was most critical. All the American soldiers in France, under General Pershing, were offered to Marshal Foch, the commander-in-chief of the Allies, to be used as he should "deem best. At the same time urgent appeal was made to the United States government to hurry to France all the reenforce- mefits possible. In response to this call the shipping of troops across the sea was hastened. A steady flow of about a quarter of a million men each month was maintained until the close of the war, when the United States had in France a great army of over two millions. Throughout the spring and early summer months the Germans renewed their offensive at intervals and made further gains. But by the middle of July the drive had spent its force. The American army had by this time been so greatly augmented that the superi- ority in numbers was now on the side of the Allies. The tide of battle turned. A great counter-offensive was launched. The EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1918 xxxvii Germans were hurled back across the Marne. The so-called Hindenburg line, a system of strong defenses, was broken, and the German armies began a general retreat from France towards the Belgian frontier. With the tide of battle on the western front thus running against the Germans, disaster was befalling their allies on other fronts. In Palestine the British forces under General Allenby, on the historic field of Armageddon, almost annihilated the Ottoman armies. The important cities of Damascus and Beirut fell into the hands of the British (October 2-9). At about the same time, on the Macedonian front, the Franco-Serbian forces inflicted upon the Bulgarian armies a defeat which, before the end of September, forced Bulgaria to^ sue for peace. This was granted on terms which meant a complete military surrender. The withdrawal of Bulgaria from the war, along with the reverses in Syria and the critical situation on the western front, caused Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey simultaneously to ask through President Wilson for a general armistice "on land and water and in the air" (October 5). The armistice was to be the forerunner of peace negotiations based on fourteen propositions which President Wilson had formulated and explained in various addresses (see sec. 787). After an exchange of notes between President Wilson and the Central Powers, the matter was given over into the hands of the Supreme War Council of the Allies in France. Events now moved rapidly. Before the end of the month Turkey, hopelessly defeated, signed an armistice which amounted to unconditional surrender (October 30), and four days later Austria-Hungary, with her armies in Italy routed and the monarchy rapidly dis- solving into its various racial elements, sought and obtained an armistice on like conditions. At the same time the terms on which Germany might be granted a cessation of hostilities were formulated by the War Council of the Allies at Versailles, and the German government was informed that Marshal Foch would receive accredited representatives and communicate to them the conditions of an armistice. On Friday, November 8, a German xxxviii THE WORLD WAR delegation reached the headquarters of Marshal Foch and were handed the armistice terms for acceptance or rejection by eleven o'clock on the following Monday. A few hours before the expira- tion of the time limit, the armistice, which was to run for thirty-six days, was signed by the German envoys. Among its thirty-four conditions were these: (i) immediate evacuation by the German armies, without harm to persons or destruction of property, of all invaded countries, and withdrawal across the Rhine to a line about six miles from the right, or east, bank of that river ; (2) the surrender of all submarines and certain other ships of the German navy; (3) renunciation of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest- Litovsk ; and (4) the immediate repatriation of allied prisoners and deported civilians, the restitution of property wrongfully taken from invaded countries, and reparation for damage done. These conditions were in effect equal to full and unconditional surrender, and were such as to make it impossible for Germany, at the expiration of the truce period, to renew hostilities. Hence the signing of the armistice may be regarded as marking the end of the great war. The Allied armies, with Marshal Foch as Generalissimo of all the forces, had inflicted the most com- prehensive and thorough defeat in history, and amid universal rejoicing and celebration had brought to an end the greatest and most horrible w^ar in the history of the world. Shortly before the signing of the armistice Emperor William, his mad dream of world dominion shattered, sought an asylum in Holland, leaving Germany not the dictator of a Germanized world, as he had fondly hoped, but the scene of turmoil, revolu- tion, and threatened anarchy. . EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1918 xxxix References. — Roland G. Usher, Pan-Germanisin. Andre Chera- DAME, The Pan-German Plot Unmasked. Friedrich von Bernhardi, Germany and the Next War. Morris Jastrow, The War and the Bagdad Railway. Prince von Bulow, Imperial Germany. James W. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany. Herbert Adams Gibbons, The Neiv Map of Europe. James M. Beck, The Evidence in the Case. Jacques Marquis D.e Dampierre, German Imperialism and International law. Ellery C. Stowell, The Diplomacy of the War of igi4. James Brown Scott, A Survey of Internatiojtal Relations between the United States aitd Genjiauy, igi4-igi'j. Henry van Dyke, Fighting for Peace. D. Thomas Curtin, The land of Deepening Shadow. Carl W. Ackerman, Germany., the A^ext Republic. The two following works are published anonymously : Out of Their Own Mouths (utterances of German rulers, statesmen, and party leaders) and I Accuse ! (J'Accuse!), by a German. Catalogue numbers I, 4, 5, 6 of Series No. i of the War Information Booklets, issued by the Committee on Public Information, Washington, D.C. The text of the different documents (the " British White Paper," the " German White Book," the " French Yellow Book," etc.) of the belligerent governments bearing on the outbreak of the war will be found in convenient form in the pamphlets issued by the American Association for International Conciliation, 407 West 117th St., New York City. W 82 %/ ' .' ^*^^- •^' /\ •e* . <.' --. .-^