.0 o^ O 0' S^o. ^ .0- r #'% =.WC Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/firstprinciplesoOOburk First Principles of Feeding Farm Animals A Practical Treatise on the Feeding of Farm Animals: Discussing the Fundamental Prin- ciples and Reviewing the Best Practices of Feeding for Largest Returns By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT Editor American Agriculturist Formerly Professor of Agriculture in the New Hampshire and North Carolina Colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and Director of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limited 1912 A^^ Copyright, 1912. by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY All Rights Reserved Entered at Stationers' Hall LONDON, ENGLAND Printed in U. S. A. 'O PREFACE The fundamental principles of feeding animals are applicable to all parts of the country and to all parts of the world. For many years investigators have been at work on problems of nutrition and on interpreting the data obtained. As a result the student farmer has now at hand useful suggestions that will assist in handling the feeding problems of the farm to the best advantage. The man who feeds in a scientific manner is able not only to use his feeding stuffs more economically but he can obtain animal products more cheaply than can his neighbor who ignores the helps that science offers him. To these facts the author himself can testify. He not only has been a teacher of animal nutrition for many years, but has had a life-time experience also with the practical problems of feeding in feed- lots and stables. The volume herewith presented discusses the first principles of scientific feeding and aims to interpret them so as to be equally useful to student, stockman and farmer. In this presentation, the needs of the teacher of animal feeding have also been kept in mind at every step, the object being to set forth the several phases in pedagogical as well as utilitarian form. C. W. Burkett. New York, July, 1912. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I Page The Soil, the Plant, the Animal 1 How Nature is balanced — Plant food a small part of soil — Elements of plant and animal life — Elements are united — Cycle of life — The farm and the animals — Sup- ply of plant food — Poor grass, poor cattle — Soil im- provement and live stock — Role of the legumes — Nat- ural manures and fertilizers — Animals change raw materials. CHAPTER H What Feeding Stuffs Contain 13 Plant cells — Building plant tissue — Starch — How plants use starch — Protein — Fat or oil — What plant building means — Ash or mineral materials — Water — Crude fiber — Grouping the plant constituents — What the plant has done — Elements and their symbols. CHAPTER HI How Food Is Digested 21 Making ready for digestion — What is done in the mouth — From mouth to stomach — The compartments of the cow's stomach — Stomach secretion — From stomach to intestines — The two intestines — From intestines to blood — Villi cells — Respiration. CHAPTER IV Using Feeds for Best Results 29 Digestibility little influenced by quantity — The individ- ual character of the animal — Digestibility decreases as plants mature — Shall grain be ground — Steaming and cooking food. vii Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER V Composition of Animals 36 Combustible matter — Water — Range of variation of ma- terials — Principal ash constituents — Percentage of in- crease in fattening — Group constituents — What these compounds do. CHAPTER VI Food Nutrients 44 Nutrients defined — Most feeding stuffs are unbalanced — Digestibility defined^How digestibility of a food is determined — First step is to obtain composition — Diges- tible nutrients — Correct rations are based on digesti- bility. CHAPTER VH Some Scientific Terms in Feeding 54 The animal as a machine— Reducing fat to carbohy- drates — Determining the nutritive ratio — Wide or nar- row nutritive ratio — Balanced ration — Feeding stand- ards — Feeding standards only a guide. CHAPTER VHI The Computation of Rations 63 Animal uses of food — Three kinds of rations — Mixed food — How a ration is made — Feeding for heavy milk- ers — Using the standard in practical work — What foods to choose. CHAPTER IX Basing Standards on Quality of Milk 75 Haecker's investigations — The Haecker standard — How to establish a standard — Compared with Wolff standard. CHAPTER X Computing Rations on Basis of Starch Values 82 Starch value illustrated — Relative starch values — How to obtain starch value — Actual starch value below calcu- lated starch value — Calculating starch values on basis of availability — Feeding stuffs with much fiber — Starch val- ues for all classes of stock — Feeding standards on basis of starch values. TABLE OF CONTENTS IX Page CHAPTER XI Using Energy Values for Computing Rations 93 Feeding stufifs possess energy — Units of measuring heat — Waste of chemical energy — Energy values in feeds — Requirements for maintenance — Requirements for growth — Requirements for fattening — Requirements for milk — Requirements for work — Computing a ration for steers — Computing a ration for dairy cows. CHAPTER XH The Cost of the Ration 107 The practical question — Two rations compared on basis of cost — Two rations for horses compared — Feeding stuffs vary in price — Easy to swap feeds — Use judgment in purchasing feeds — Grow the legumes. CHAPTER XHI Cost of Nutrients 117 Bulk food should be home grown — Protein not solely purchased — Purchase of protein — On basis of total digestible nutrients — Using judgment in getting protein — Roughage materials. CHAPTER XIV Feeding Young Animals 125 Food requirements of the young — Colostrum — Ration should be changed as age advances — Nature widens the ration — From whole to skim milk — Little trouble with suckling animals — Calf feeds — Feeding the dairy calf — Feeding the beef calf — The feeding of lambs — The feeding of pigs — Feeding the foal. CHAPTER XV The Feeding of Breeding Animals 145 Feeding the dairy cow when carrying calf — At calving time — The brood sow — Exercise for brood sows — The brood mare — The ewe — At lambing time. X TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER XVI Feeding Farm Horses 156 Food requirements for horses — A fundamental principle in horse feeding — Nature of food — Character of food — Requirements for work — Giving water — Order of hay, grain and water — Regularity in feeding and watering- Roughage feeds for horses — Grain feeds for horses — Selecting the ration — Feeding the stallion — Fattening horses for market — Feeding mules. CHAPTER XVn Feeding Dairy Cattle 172 Food requirements of dairy cattle — The milk-yielding function — How often to milk — What age of cow is best — What influences the quality of milk — Pastures are ideal basic rations — Feeding grain on pasture — When pastures are short and parched — Letting feeding stand- ards serve as guides — Producing milk economically — Protein requirements — Feeding dairy cows in winter — Nature of the food — Foods that all may grow — Avail- able green feeds — Grain and quality of butter — Feed- ing young dairy stock — During the first winter — Satis- factory grain mixtures — During the second winter — Stable management — Salt and water — The tuberculin test — The herd bull — The order of supplying the food — Some sample rations — For dairy calves, dry cows in summer, dry cows in winter, for cows yielding 16 to 25 pounds of milk daily, for cows yielding from 25 to 40 pounds of milk daily. CHAPTER XVHl Feeding Beef Cattle ._ 198 Food requirements for beef — Wild cattle seldom fat — Good and bad beef stock — Character of a good steer — Two classes of beef animals — Nature of the ration — From calf to steer — Feeding calves intended for beef — The skim-milk calf — Calves on whole milk — Making veal — Feeding during the first winter — Finishing beeves under 18 ^ months — Baby beeves finished on grass — Beeves finished at two years of age — Objections against baby beef — Summer feeding on grass — Fall feeding on grass — Feeding full-grown cattle — Older steers are still marketed — Fatten the heifers early — Prominent feeding TABLE OF CONTENTS . XI Page Stuffs — Many kinds of roughage foods — Leading grain foods — Some sample rations — Maintenance ration for breeding cows — Winter yearlings with and without grain — Rations for fattening steers. CHAPTER XIX Feeding Sheep 223 Food requirertients for sheep — Wool and mutton — Rela- tive economy of sheep, steers and pigs — Wide variety of feed for sheep — Choosing the feed — Roots always fine for sheep — Sheep require water — When turning to pas- ture — Proportion of grain to roughage — How often to feed sheep — Feeding corn in the field — Rape an excellent sheep feed — Roughage feeds — Temporary fences by means of hurdles — Putting sheep on full grain rations — Some of the best grains — Feeding lambs for market — Fattening grown sheep — Some sample rations for lambs weighing 50 to 60 pounds — For lambs weighing 60 to 80 pounds — For lambs weighing 80 to 100 pounds — For sheep in winter — Sheep on full feed — For ewes with lambs at side. CHAPTER XX Feeding Swine 241 Food requirements for swine — Hogs consume much and give generous returns — Fastest gains are made during early growth — Rations are narrow at first — Mineral matter and charcoal — Making a slop — Pasture for pigs — Grazing runs for hogs — Forage for cheap gain — Fatten- ing hogs — Making good bacon — Hogging off corn — Hogs as harvesters — Some sample rations for young pigs — For pigs three to six months of age — Pigs on pas- ture. CHAPTER XXI Feeding Farm Poultry 258 Eggs chemically analyzed — Various rations required — Feed for little chicks — Weaned chicks on good range- Feeding larger chicks— Fattening the cockerels — Grain feed for fowls — Green feeds — Meat or animal feed im- portant — Grit is necessary — Hens in summer — During the molt — Feeding for eggs in winter. XU TABLE OF. CONTENTS Page CHAPTER XXII The Silo and Silage 277 Economy in silage — Capacity of silos — Corn the best sil- age crop-— Essentials of a good silo — Calculating size of silo — Filling the silo — Feeding silage — Feeding silage after milking — Crops for silage — Cutting corn for silage — Building the silo — Get a solid foundation — Other types of silos — Hollow clay blocks. CHAPTER XXIIl The Soiling System 289 Good pastures always popular — Rape supplements pas- tures — Soiling crops in favor — Soiling crops have a place — Alfalfa ranks first — Green corn for summer — Root crops not to be left out — Advantages of soiling — Smaller area needed — Fewer fences needed — Food de- stroyed by tramping — Less acreage required — Soil Im- provement more readily obtained — Objections to the practice of soiling — Suggestions for a soiling scheme. CHAPTER XXIV Relation of Food to Manure ^ 306 Quality of manure — Value of farm manures — Double value in feeds — Selling fertility — Loss of fertility con- tained in feed — Poor manure — Why full value of fer- tility of feeds is not secured to lands — The full value of a feeding stuff. Appendix 317 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page l^ational Feeding Plus Rational Breeding Frontispiece Zross Section of Root Hair 2 Stomata or Leaf Mouths 4 Two Sources of Phosphorus 5 Poor Cattle Often Indicate Poor Land 7 Double Good from Soy Beans 8 What the Fertilizing Elements Are Worth 9 Zonverting Raw Material into Finished Products 10 .4.0W an Animal Cell Divides 12 Jnderside of a Leaf 14 ptarch Cells 15 leaf Cells 16 jrrowing Plants Contain Much Water 17 tlow the Sap Currents Move 18 5tomach of Ruminant 23 Blood Plasma 25 ^illi Cells 26 How the Blood Circulates Through the Body 28 3orn in Good Shocks 29 !\ Steer that Was a Poor Feeder 30 Making Good Hay Is a Fine Art 32 From a Grain of Wheat 34 Cheapest Gains Are Made with Young Animals 36 Food Consumed During Fattening Period 39 What an Animal Contains 40 Cycle of Life 41 Cowpeas a Rich Food 44 Mineral Matter in Some Common Foods 46 What Field Corn Contains 48 What Corn Stover Contains 50 He Had a Good Ration 52 Nutritive Ratio of Some Common Feeding Stuffs 55 xiii XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Balancing the Ration Improves It 58 When the Feeding Period Is Extended 59 Timothy Not a Balanced Food 64 Mixing Their Own Ration 65 Heavy Milkers Require Big Rations 71 Where Science Helps to Fatten 73 It Pays to Give the Right Feed 76 Dairy Cows Should Be Fed Milk-Stimulating Rations 78 Typical Steer for Feeding 84 Alfalfa Ready for Cutting 87 Laboratory Where Food Values Are Determined 94 Revealing Facts About Digestion 97 Mature Steers Nearly Ready for Market 101 Oats and Peas Are Excellent for Hay or Soiling 108 Converting Corn into Coin 114 Remarkable Leghorn and Her Achievements 118 The Newly Born Require Colostrum 125 Young Calves Should Be Kept Steadily on the Gain 128 Gathering up What the Steers Drop 131 Ready for Their Breakfast 133 Beef in the Making 135 Bred for Beef 136 Thrifty Lambs Follow Good Care and Wise Feeding 138 Large Litter of Vigorous Pigs 140 Resting in the Pasture Field 142 An Inexpensive Colt Creep 143 Too Fat for Good Breeders 145 Feeding Box for Alfalfa Hay 149 A Portable Hog House 150 Making Pork from Rape 151 Rounding Them up in the Pasture 153 Well Bred and Well Fed 157 Equal to Any Task 159 Showing Them Off 162 Exercise Necessary Even on Farms 164 Stallion for Farm Use 168 Horses Sell Best When Fat 169 The Milk-Yielding Function Exemplified 173 A Clear Case of Dairy Type 175 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV Page Dairy Cows Thoroughly Contented in Pasture Field 178 Matrons of the Dairy Herd 180 An Inexpensive Covered Barnyard 183 Turned Out for Exercise 185 Silage One of Best Dairy Feeds 186 Picked Out for the Dairy 189 Water Available All the Time 192 A Bunch That Topped the Market 196 The Same Cow, Side and Rear 199 A Beef Steer of High Quality 201 Rough Feeders 202 Selected for Baby Beef 204 Good Veal 205 Baby Beef 207 Prime Steers 209 Herd of Angus in Middle West 210 Cattle on Alfalfa 213 Familiar Scene on the Stock Farm 214 Feeding Beef Cattle in the Open 216 Champion Steers 218 Track Contrivance for Feeding Cattle 220 The Pasture Is Good and the Sheep Are Satisfied 224 Sheep Range in the Northwest 226 Temporary Pastures Best for Sheep 229 Sheep on Rape Pasture 231 Out at Pasture ^ 234 Ready for Market 235 Poor Way to Feed Sheep 237 Bunch of Hogs Ready to Be Slaughtered-—^ 242 They Ate Much and Developed Rapidly 244 Very Sanitary and Very Costly 246 Legume Pastures Ideal for Pigs 247 Plan of Grazing Runs for Hogs 249 Enjoying the Charcoal Box 251 Getting Their Rations in a Portable Pen 252 Hogging Off the Corn 254 Business Flock of Light Brahmas 259 Green Feed 260 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Combination Hopper for Field or Yard Use 261 Leghorn Flock at Range 263 Crate Feeding for Fancy Market 265 Protected Feed Trough 266 Feed Hoppers Filled from Alley 266 The Double-Yarding System 268 Interior of Well-Arranged Poultry Pen 269 Feed Hopper 271 Feed and Work house of Large Poultry Farm 272 Open Feed Trough for Fowls at Range 273 Mixed Flock Eating Grain 275 Neat Silo for Long Service 277 Harvesting the Silage Corn 280 Filling the Silo 286 Concrete Silos _ 287 Hauling Soiling Crops to the Barn 290 Wheat a Good Soiling Crop 292 Alfalfa the Best SoiUng Crop 293 Barnyard Millet a Heavy Yielder 295 Crop of Cowpeas and Kafir Corn 297 Crimson Clover for Soiling 299 Either Too Much or Too Little 306 Removal of FertiHty 312 How Farm Manure Is Wasted 314 CHAPTER I THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL How Nature Is Balanced. — The soil, the plant, and the animal represent the three great fields of agricultural activity. They are dependent upon one another, each giving to, or receiving from, the others the things vital to its very existence. Without a soil, there v^ould be, of course, neither plant nor ani- mal life ; without plants there could be no animals ; and without plants or animals there would be a use- less, if not a barren soil. The three divisions of nature have come in natural order. First, the soil ; then tiny plants, that were succeeded in time by other plants of a higher form, to which animals welcomed themselves, satisfying their appetites and nourishing their bodies with what they secured as food. Soil is food for plants, the plant is food for animals, and the dead animal or plant is food for the soil. Plant Food a Small Part of Soil.— The whole of the soil is not plant food — only certain elements : chemical elements, we call them. In all nature there are 8i known distinct substances or elements. They are called elements because they represent distinct substances not one of which can be broken up into two or more other distinct substances. Common table salt is not an element, since it can be separated into two elements, sodium and chlorine. Neither FEEDING FARM ANIMALS sodium nor chlorine can be divided into two or more substances, and hence each is a fixed unit or sub- stance, known by the term element. Of the 8i elements to be found in the world only 12 enter in the life of plants and animals. These 12 are very important because they are positively necessary to plants or animals. They are the very basis of life. The body of the ani- mal is composed of the elements found in plants, yet the plant must grow in order to make it possible for the animal to grow. From the air and the soil our cultivated plants gather the chemical elements together, and with them build plant tissue. By means of roots, the soil is searched in every direc- tion for soluble plant food, and this is drawn into the plant. The leaves in the air, also at work, entice into their being the floating carbon which, trapped and held, is mixed, as it were, by means of cellular life with the soil elements that have been carried into the plant in the soil water. As a result com- pounds are formed, the cells enlarge and increase. Cross Section of Root Hair Soluble plant food is carried into the plant through root hairs. These are very small. The part pictured here is greatly magnified. THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 3 the plant becomes bigger. It grows. In other words, the plant, by feeding on soil and air, is enlarged through growth. Elements of Plant and Animal Life. — The ele- ments that enter into plant and animal growth are the following: Iron, an element of universal use. All soils contain it. Calcium, a yellowish metal, abundantly found in limestone soils. Potassium, a whitish metal and soft. It is called potash when united with oxygen. Sodium, soft and light, and when united with chlorine forms ordinary salt. Magnesium, is white in color and a hard metal. Aluminum, looks like silver and is very hard. Silicon, a substance earthy in appearance and, next to oxygen, the most abundant element in the earth crust. Sulphur, associated with nitrogen in the protein compounds. Phosphorus, soft and yellow, often lacking in cul- tivated soils. Chlorine, a colorless gas which, when united with sodium, forms common table salt. Hydrogen, the lightest known substance, a color- less gas. United with oxygen it forms water. Oxygen, a colorless and abundant gas. One-fifth of the air, one-half of the earth's crust, and eight-ninths of the water of the world is formed of it. FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Carbon, a principal substance of plants and animals. It is found in soil and air. Animals give it off in breathing and plants take it in through their leaves. United with oxygen it makes carbon dioxide of the air, the principal source for plants to get their supply. Nitrogen, a gas in its free state. Both plants and animals require it, and four-fifths of the air is composed of it. Elements are Unite d. — F e w of these elements ex- ist in the soil in a free state. Two or more have united. In this association they exist as com- pounds. Thus nitro- gen, potassium and oxygen united form potassium nitrate (KNO3) ; and hydro- gen and oxygen united form water (H2O). So, through- out the world, various combinations of these ele- ments are found and are known as chemical com- pounds. Cycle o£ Life. — The elements here described as essential to plant growth are needed by animals also. But animals neither can gather them from the soil and the air, nor would it be possible for animals to Stomata, or Leaf Mouths As seen under the microscope on the underside of the leaf. Carbon through the stomata is admitted to the plants in the form of carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas. THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 5 use them if they could. Obtained in the form that plants utilize they would be poison to animal life. Nature's way is different. Plants grow: which means they feed on the element compounds. But, young or mature, these same plants are food for .ani- mals. The elements, by means of the plant cells, have been worked up into plant tissue ; and as such animal forms of life are sustained. The animal cannot feed from soil and air direct. IPP^I n in 9 lliiHillj ■ Two Sources of Phosphorus In the early days bones were gathered for fertilizing. The Indians used fish. Today the phosphoric acid of fertilizers is secured largely from ground bone or finely ground phosphate rr It is necessary for the plant to take these elements and build them into tissue first. On this plant tissue the animal feeds. After the animal dies, with its decay and decomposition, come the changes of animal tissue back to soil and air — back to the original materials they go again, as they were before the time when captured by roots and leaves and made into plants. But once back in soil and air the same story is repeated: another capture is made by 6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Other roots or leaves, that new plant tissue may be made for another generation of animal life. It is in this manner that the plant grows out of the soil and the air, the animal out of the plant, the soil out of the animal. The animal when living contributes active supplies, and when dead both humus and mineral ingredients are returned to the soil ; the soil thus reinforced favors the new plants now growing in it; and the new plants, now more abundantly nourished, more effectively take care of the animals. Thus we have the cycle of life: from the plant is fed the animal ; from the animal is sus- tained the soil ; from the soil is nourished the plant. The Farm and the Animals. — The best system of agriculture is based upon good crops and well-bred live stock. With these to be possible the follow- ing propositions must always be kept in mind : 1. The soil must be rich in the simple elements of plant food, that there may be an abundance of farm crops. 2. The farm crops must be adapted to their cli- matic and soil environments so as to produce from the elements in the soil the largest growth of desirable plant life for animal food. 3. Superior farm stock must be raised in order to produce cheaply the maximum quantity of high-quality meat and milk or wool and labor with the least expenditure of food. Supply of Plant Food. — The farmer, to make agri- culture remunerative, must adapt his work to what falls within these lines. He must enrich the soil. THE SOIL^ THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 7 He must aid nature in her efforts to maintain the present supply of plant food, to increase it, and to make unavailable plant food available so as to be assimilable to plants. After death of plant or animal the plant food contained in these organic forms is still unusable by plants until decay and decomposition have done their work. In a like manner the soil itself holds locked-up plant food in Poor Cattle Often Indicate Poor Land If soils have been intelligently tilled and manured they produce good pasture and profitable crops. These in turn furnish appetizing and nutritious feed for the rapid development of farm stock. If the grass is scanty live stock will reflect the condition of the land. its Storehouses. The farmer's work is to find the key that will unlock this plant food. Shallow plow- ing, removal of organic matter, carelessness in till- age, excessive water, bad bacteria, all unite in mak- ing soils hard, dead and lifeless, and when so made they refuse to release their soil-food possessions, a condition that either prevents plant growth alto- gether; or, if not that severe, in so lessening the vigor as to give a crop of small worth. 8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Poor Grass, Poor Cattle. — If the plow be turned loose in these soils, and the land be drained and limed and carefully and intelligently tilled and cul- tivated ; at the same time if organic matter be added by means of stable manure, legumes or green crops, the soils will quickly change from their unproduc- tive condition into the other state that produces remunerative crops. When the soil is poor the Double Good From Soy Beans This magnificent crop of soy beans will be a blessing to both soil and animals. They enrich the land and provide a feeding crop of the highest excellence. crops are poor; when the crops are poor the animals are poor; when the animals are poor the soils are poorly nourished. Soil Improvement and Live Stock. — The ideal agriculture maintains itself. Every system of farm- ing should consist of both plant production and animal feeding. The importance of this is seen from the following : I. Clover, cowpeas, alfalfa and other legumes are needed to build up the soil. These, together THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 9 with the cereal crops, are the very kinds of plants we want for horses, cattle, sheep and swine. They should be grown, and especially the legumes, to im- prove the soil ; which done there will follow larger yields of grain, forage and grass crops that, either directly as money crops, or indirectly as feeding crops, will make larger the total farm returns in money or production. 4.- 5- ,1 MILK FAT STEER FAT HOG WHEAT TIMOTHY COTTON MEAL 1 1 1 1 1 ■ - iZOr *25.J $20r What the Fertilizing Elements Are Worth The drawing shows the money value of the fertilizing materials of several farm products in a ton of each substance. These should be considered in connection with the commercial worth of each product. 2. Natural manures and fertilizers are needed for improving the soil. The more live stock there is on each farm the greater will be the quantity of manure made, and hence a less amount of pur- chased fertilizers will be required. The fertilizer bill is a great farm tax. A part of it would be un- necessary ^f business-like fax-ming were followed. It should be a set policy to purchase as much of the 10 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS fertilizers as possible in the form of feeding stuffs. Take a dollar and get cottonseed meal, gluten, bran or tankage, but instead of applying these direct to the soil as sources of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, first feed them to live stock to get the (I Converting Raw Material into Finished Products Dairy cows are excellent machines for converting the rough products of the farm into human food. value of the organized nature of the elements as feed. Then, this accomplished, the resulting manure v^ill provide plant food for the land. The important difference between plant food or fertilizers and animal food or plants is in the fact that plants take the unorganized chemical elements and manufacture or build or organize them into living tissue, which is the plant or the fruit of the THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL II plant, and as such is the food of the animal. Feed the plant or its fruits to live stock and get meat or wool or milk or labor from the organized tissue; then let the animals return these, now disorganized and broken up, back to the soil, in manure or ex- crement, so as to get a new growth of plants. By letting live stock prepare the plant food you gain in both ways. 3. The animal changes raw materials into fin- ished products. The feeder can take corn, grass, clover, bran, gluten and other feeding stuffs and from them compound balanced rations for all classes of live stock. These are simply raw materials, and as such command low prices if placed on the markets of the world. An increased value follows their change into a finished product. A dairy cow, fed a mixture of 25 pounds of corn stover, clover hay, wheat bran and gluten, worth a few cents, will produce butter or milk worth many cents. The in- creased value is the result of the change from the form of raw materials into a finished product at once usable as food for human beings. CHAPTER II WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN How Plants Grow. — Plants get their food from the soil and the air. When supplied abundantly with food, and surrounded by favorable conditions like warmth, moisture, sunlight and an agreeable soil free of weeds and insect enemies, they grow A B C How AN Animal Cell Divides Here is shown nuclear and cell division. The letters A, B and C indicate the successive stages. The region of the nucleus is a; cytoplasm or pro- toplasm, b; and the beginnings of the daughter nuclei, c. The letter d shows how the original cell has divided internally into two, each with a large nucleus. (After Guignard.) rapidly and produce bountifully. Their method of using food is much different from that of animals ; and their digestive system is of another order. Plant Cells. — A plant is formed of myriads of cells. These increase in numbers as the plant grows larger. Stated in a simple way, the cell is an inclosed sac within whose walls are the juices and other substances required for growth and develop- 12 WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN 1 3 ment. The cell walls are made up of a woody sub- stance called cellulose. In green and growing plants this cellulose is thin and tender, but as the plant matures it becomes hard and woody. The roots, trunk, leaves and all other parts of the plant are formed of cells. Plant food in the soil is made soluble in soil moisture, and by means of the cells comprising the roots the soluble substances are sucked in and carried in water to all parts of the plant. The process by which this is done is known as osmosis. The soluble plant food left in the cells as the water passes along is met by the carbon that has also been passed into the cells, not through the roots, however, but through the leaves, and thus brought together all building materials are at hand for the manufacture of the plant compounds. The master builder is the protoplasm tucked away in the cells. No one knows just what protoplasm is, but it represents life, without which there could be no growth. Building Plant Tissue. — The building work is done in the plant cells, within whose tiny walls the compounds are formed. These cells within which this process is going on are either enlarged them- selves or else the compounds are used for making new cells. Every live, active cell contains proto- plasm, the life principle. Herein is contained the vital spark that makes all growth possible. Starch. — When the soluble soil material or plant food has been carried up through the long channel of cells and reaches the leaves, it is brought in contact with the carbon dioxide that has been pulled into 14 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the leaf through the little mouths on the undersides of the leaves. There these various compounds are upset and disintegrated through the action of heat, sunlight, protoplasm and chlorophyll, with the result that a grain of starch is made out of the water and CARBONIC ACID CARBONIC ACID Underside of a Leaf When studied under the microscope the underside of a leaf appears as sketched above. The letter a shows the stomata or mouths, and b the cells of the leaf. carbonic acid gas. Some of these starch grains are changed by protoplasm into sugar, which, being readily soluble, soon is transferred by diffusion from cell to cell and left in those cells that need it the most. How Plants Use Starch. — Starch is not the life substance of the plant, but helps to make it. It is WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN 15 necessary, because not only more life substance is required as the plant grows larger, but because in one kind of work that the plant does some of the life substance is used up. Not all of the starch, therefore, remains as originally formed; some of it is assimilated along with other foods taken up by the roots, and living material is made. Protein. — The formation of the p r t ei n constit- uents is more com- plexthan the formation of starch. In a gen- eral way it may be said that starch or some starch deriva- tive is united in the cells with nitrates and sulphur that have been brought into the plant from the soil. The liv- ing matter, or protoplasm, then breaks up the litrates in the active cells, uniting them in some kvay with starch, with the result that a protein com- pound is formed. Fat or Oil. — Oil is made out of the same chemical elements that enter into the building of starch grains. Both are formed of carbon, hydrogen and Dxygen. In the oil compounds there is a larger Starch Cells This is the way the starch cells from potato tubers look when seen under the microscope. i6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS number of the carbon and hydrogen units in prO' portion to the oxygen than in the case of stare While all plants contain some oil or fat in thei woody tissue, the great bulk of it is deposited in seed or the fruit. Protein differs in composition from oil or stare in having nitr ^Q£"^i gen and sulphi in addition to cai bon, hydrogen ani oxygen. What Plan Building Meansl Before the simple elements are taken into the plant they are of little value. No animal can use them as food ; they cannot be burned to furnish heat ; and they store up no en- ergy to carry on any of the world's work. What a change the plant makes of them ! Without value in soil and air, these elements when taken into the plant and built into tissue at once become of vast importance. They be- come the source of all animal food, and, constructed Leaf Cells How the cells from the interior of a leaf look when seen under the microscope. WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN 17 into vegetable life, supply the human race with most of the essential things for comfort, life and food. Ash or Mineral Materials. — Starch, oil and pro- tein are not the only constituents found in plants; ash or mineral matter is found in every form of plant life. This is observed when any vegetable material has been burned. The organized condition FEEDING STUFF TOTAL POUNDS OF WATER IN 100 POUNDS OF SUBSTANCE 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 GREEN CORN CORN SILAGE CORN STOVER.FELD CURED DENT CORN PASTURE GRASS RED CLOVER RED CLOVER HAY TURNIP WHEAT, GREEN WHEAT STRAW WHEAT, GRAIN OF WHEAT BRAN APPLES POTATOES SKIM MILK P- ■i_ = Growing Plants Contain Much Water Several common feeding stuffs are here compared to show the large quan- tities of water they contain. Note the change when harvested and cured as dry provenders. is destroyed, but the ash remains. In green plants or fodder or the vegetables the minerals are always at hand, and when eaten by man or beast they go to form bone, teeth and other tissue structures of the body. In most feeding stuffs sodium and chlorine are lacking, but the deficiency is corrected ' by the artificial supply of common salt. Poor teeth, small and weak bones in children and domestic animals result when an insufficient amount of ash i8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS CARBONIC ACID OXYGEN or mineral material is furnished in the food. A variety of food, including coarse fodders and the legumes, makes it possible to supply the mineral materials in abun- dance. Water is found in all plants, even in those dead and air- dry. Young grow- ing plants contain much, often three- fourths or more of their weight. Do you wonder now why water in the soil is so important for the production of good crops? The plant not only must have the water, but the only way it can make use of it is to carry it into the plant through the roots. Water serves as a How THE SAP CURRENTS MovE carrlcr of plant food The unmanufactured sap current taken thrOUgh the rOOtS tO into the plant through the roots moves up- ward, while the manufactured product of eVCry part of the the leaves moves downward. . plant. It IS to the plant what blood is to the animal. Some people think that dew or rain on the leaves is of value to WATER AND MINERALS WATER AND MINERALS WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN I9 the plant. But is it? The mission of the water is to dissolve plant food in the soil and when in solution to get it into the plant. Surely a heavy dew on a crop of corn dissolves no plant food in the earth, and certainly carries none into the plant. Dew, then, is not a means of feeding the plant. What water the plant gets is obtained, as has been explained, from the soil by means of the roots. Crude Fiber serves as a framework of the plant. It is to the plant what bones and skeleton are to the animal. It is made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the same elements that go to form starch. Immature and young plants are tender because the crude fiber is tender; as the plant matures, the fiber hardens and toughens, as we find it in hay and corn stover and trees. Grouping the Plant Constituents. — When the chemist analyzes plants he finds many kinds of compounds. He finds that while there is a physical difference, the chemical elements are invariably united in definite combinations producing definite compounds. For the sake of convenience the plant's constituents may be grouped as follows : I. Ash. II. Water. III. Protein or compounds containing nitrogen. IV. Nitrogen-free compounds or compounds containing no nitrogen. 1. Starch. 2. Crude fiber. 3. Sugar, gums, etc. V. Ether extract, or oil or fat. 20 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS What the Plant Has Done. — The relation between soil and plant is now apparent. The soil elements have been taken into the plant. From now on they lose their individual identity and, united in various ways, they now become organized compounds. They are no longer carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but starch or sugar, or oil ; or, if nitrogen and sul- phur are added, they become protein compounds. The plant has now fulfilled its destiny and is ready to be used as food for the support of animal life. Elements and Their Symbols. — For the sake of brevity the symbols or letters representing the various agricultural elements are often used, and for the purpose of becoming acquainted with them the list below is given : O — Oxygen H — Hydrogen N — Nitrogen C — Carbon CI — Chlorine Na — Sodium S — Sulphur P — Phosphorus K — Potassium Mg — Magnesium Al — Aluminum Fe — Iron Si — Silicon Ca — Calcium CHAPTER III HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED Making Ready for Digestion. — Digestion is more than chewing and swallowing. Both of these are important, but they are only the beginning of a complicated act that has to do with every con- stituent taken into the mouth as food, regardless of its nature, whether of vegetable or animal origin. Before the several ingredients composing the plant can be used as food they must be prepared for ab- sorption into the system of the animal. This prep- aration takes place in the mouth, the oesophagus tube, the stomach and the intestines. Throughout the process various secretions are supplied to make assimilation and absorption into the system pos- sible. What Is Done in the Mouth. — When food is taken into the mouth, it is masticated by the teeth. While this is going on there are poured into the mouth large quantities of saliva, which soften and soak the foods and start digestion. The active principle of saliva is a soluble ferment called ptyalin that converts the starch into sugar. One authority states that the saliva of a horse will convert raw starch into sugar in 15 minutes. The organic mat- ter contained in this secretion is formed by the cells comprising the structure of the salivary glands. A large amount of saliva is soaked up by the food. This is often expressed as being as much as one- 21 22 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tenth of the weight of the animal. Colin states that 84 pounds is secreted by the horse and 112 pounds by the cow in a single day. As a matter of fact, the nature of the food greatly influences the flow, although the control rests with the nervous system. The ferment of the saliva is inactive in young animals. It bears a close relationship to the de- velopment of the teeth. Starchy food, therefore, is not desirable for newly born farm animals nor for the human young. While bread, potatoes and other soft food of a starchy nature are frequently, if not commonly, given to children, it can be only to their hurt, for the reason the teeth slowly develop, thus failing to provide the ferment to prepare the starches for digestion, although moisture is naturally secreted by the glands. From Mouth to Stomach. — The food, after being ground and mixed with the saliva, is forwarded to the stomach. Horses, hogs and humans have a single stomach compartment, while cows, sheep and goats have a different arrangement, embodying four divisions. With the former the stomach is com- paratively simple. It is a single sac not capable of holding a large quantity at one time. On the other hand, in the ruminants, the family to which cattle and sheep belong, the stomach is large, and capable of con- siderable extension. The capacity of the stomach of the average horse runs from three to four gallons, and of the cow to as much as 50 gallons or more. The Compartments of the Cow's Stomach are known as the rumen, or paunch, the reticulum, the HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED 23 omasum, and the abomasum. The last is the true digestive stomach, the others are largely storage places for the saliva-mixed food. The first of these compartments is very decidedly a storing place where the food is placed until it is thrown back to STOMACH OF RUMINANT The four main divisions of the ruminant's stomach are pictured here. The first three divisions are the storehouses for food until it is prepared for the fourth or true stomach. the mouth for further mastication. This act, or cud chewing, refers to rechewing the food so as to get it finer and better ground for digestion. The food, on leaving the mouth the second time, is passed through the rumen into the reticulum, then to the omasum and finally into the abomasum, or true stomach, where digestion is continued. In the first compartment, or rumen, a churning process is carried on continually. Some think this division of the stomach is never wholly empty. An alkaline fluid is furnished here, as is the case also 24 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS in the second compartment. Food in the third com- partment is subjected to a squeeze which dries it, forcing the extracted juices into the true stomach or fourth compartment. Stomach Secretion. — The stomach of every class of animals is lined by two kinds of membrane: one, similar in nature to the lining of the oesophagus tube, and the other that 'admits of secretion. These do not form a double coat but one blends into the other. The section giving ofif the secretion is known as the villous coat. It extends to the poste- rior end, and to the point where the small intestine joins with the stomach. While in the stomach, the saliva continues the digestion of the starchy matter, and is assisted by the gastric juice that pours in from the stomach lining. This secretion has three constituents, acid, rennet and pepsin. The pepsin is a ferment, its work being to split up the protein compounds. The rennet is also a ferment, which assists in the digestion of milk. There is much of this secretion in calves. The gastric juice converts the protein substances into peptones. The mucus glands of the stomach secrete mucin, a substance that lines the walls of the stomach, at all times. From Stomach to Intestines. — The constant churning movement in the stomach causes the food to travel from the entrance to the exit, the small intestine. Up to this time there has been no ab- sorption of the food into the body. Nor is diges- HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED 25 tion yet complete. When the partly digested ma- terial or chyme leaves the stomach' it passes into the duodenum, one of the three parts of the small intestine, and is subjected to further action of other digestive juices. Here the bile, the pancreatic and intestinal juices are admitted to complete the work. The bile, dark green or brownish in color, is se- creted by the liver and acts in conjunction with the Blood Plasma This shows blood plasma passing out of the capillaries to feed the cells. It is there taken up by the lymph vessel. pancreatic juice. The pancreatic juice, alkaline and watery, is secreted by the pancreas, or "sweet bread." The bile acts as a bowel regulator when the liver is active and healthy. The pancreatic juice has a treble function : it is able to change starch into sugar, protein into peptones, and the oils into fatty acids. The intestinal juices perform similar work. The Two Intestines are not only important for storage purposes, but in them, particularly the 26 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS smaller, the real digestive act, the absorption of the nutriment in the food by the blood, takes place. Up to this point, although the fluids have been at work, there has been little if any active absorption into the system. The food up to now is in a sense outside the body; and there is no entrance or opening for it to get into the body, save through the cells that line this part of the digestive tract. In a way similar to that by which soluble plant food is admitted into the plant roots through the cell walls, so is the digested food, after it has been broken up and made soluble, absorbed through the cell walls of the intes- tines into the blood system of the ani- mal. From Intestines to When food is absorbed it is ad- mitted either to the capillaries of the blood or to the lymphatic system. If collected by the capillaries the absorbed food is carried to the portal vein, thence to the liver and finally to the heart, where it is poured with the blue blood as it is brought in from all parts of the body. At this point the blood contains I 1 Villi Cells Section of intestine showing villi, a, arteries; fe. parts are as follows c, villi cut open to show lacteal (Z), and blood tubes; d, glands; m, muscle; v, veins; and w, wall of intestine. Jl-;! Blood. HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED 2J both nutriment and the waste or broken-down mat- ter of the body. The part of the absorbed food that enters into the lymphatic system is carried to the thoracic duct, which extends along the spinal column, and enters one of the main blood vessels. The lymph is blood without the red blood corpuscles. It wanders to all parts of the body, surrounds all the cells in all the tissues and carries to the cells the very kind of food they most need. Once the food gets into the circulatory system it takes the regular course of the blood. In impure blood it goes to the right auricle of the heart, then to the right ventricle. This in turn contracts and forces the blood into the lungs, where oxygen is taken on and carbonic acid gas and other impu- rities are given ofif. From the lungs the blood, now red and pure, passes into the left auricle, and thence into the left ventricle, from which it is forced into the aorta, to be distributed to all parts of the body. Villi Cells. — The digested food in the intestines is gathered in by the villi cells. The mucous mem- brane lining the small intestines possesses highly differentiated structures that appear as minute fingers. These tiny, hair-like projectiles reach into the intestinal mass for sugar, peptones and fatty acids, which they transfer, through the cells, into the absorbent vessels or lymphs that in turn empty the assimilated stores of food into larger and still larger vessels. This process continues until the whole of the nutritive fluid is collected in the cir- culatory system to become the very basis of the blood. 28 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Respiration. — When the impure blood passes through the lungs, carbonic acid gas and other impurities are held back and in breathing are ex- haled and thrown out of the system. At the same time oxygen is taken in with great greediness by the cells of the blood, which distribute it where needed in all parts of the body. When plants are growing, oxygen is released and thrown into the DISTRIBUTION ^N^/q OF CAPILLARIES IN HEAD AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. How THE Blood Circulates Through the Body The blood is collected from the body and delivered into the right auricle, which on contracting, forces the blood into the right ventricle; this in turn contracts and forces the blood into the lungs, where oxygen is taken on and carbonic acid gas and other impurities are thrown off. From the lungs the blood is returned to the left side of the heart and distributed through arteries and capillaries to all parts of the body. air. At the same time, by means of leaves, the car- bonic acid gas is drawn in and used in the construc- tion of the plant compounds. This was got from the air. The animal, in performing its functions and in building its tissue, inhales oxygen from, and exhales carbon dioxide into, the air. Thus it is that animals use what is waste to the plant and the plants use what is poison to the animal. CHAPTER IV USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS Foods Must be Appetizing. — Plants are most liked when young and tender. They are then agree- able to the taste and induce a maximum consump- tion. At this stage of growth little woody tissue has developed, the juices are abundant, the sub- stances are freely acted upon by the secretions, and Corn in Good Shocks Corn may be preserved for a time in shocks in the field. If left until winter, rains and snows cause rapid deterioration and great loss of feeding value. the largest amount of nutriment is absorbed into the system. Feeds that are unappetizing and dis- 30 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS agreeable to smell or taste will be rejected, or if eaten at all will be only to satisfy hunger. The good feeder endeavors to tempt the taste and increase the appetite of his animals, that the largest possible consumption of food may be had to secure the quickest and largest returns. A Steer that Was a Poor Feeder Scrub animals as a rule are not good feeders. Pure-bred animals render a much better account of what they eat. Since growth can result only from the food con- sumed, it follows as an undisputed conclusion that light feeding will retard development. Hence, not only good food must be provided, but much food also. Many a feeder owes his success to his ability to get before his animal a bountiful ration that is both wholesome and nutritious. Hunger may make USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 3 1 his animals partake of almost any kind of food, but nothing he can do will induce these same animals to eat a disagreeable or unappetizing food heartily enough to get a response much beyond their main- tenance needs. Growth and production are invaria- bly associated with well-flavored and appetizing food, even though they add nothing to the energy or nutritive value of the food. Digestibility Little Influenced by Quantity. — Ordinarily digestion is but slightly influenced by big appetites. Heavy eaters are usually the most profitable animals. Fed to their full capacity they give as good an account of their food as when lim- ited to half feeds. Food is digested and assimilated just as completely in full as in half-filled stomachs. The most rapid growth, or the largest milk flow, is to be had when the animal is permitted to eat to its full capacity ; and this is another reason why the ration must be palatable and attractive to taste and smell. The Individual Character of the Animal undoubt- edly afTects the proportion digested. Armsby has found that a pure-bred animal of superior breeding renders a better account of its food than a scrub. Of two animals supplied with the same feed, one will often persistently digest a larger proportion than the other. Often very greedy eaters show very poor fattening qualities. In young animals the digestive power is appar- ently equal to animals of mature age. Digestibility Decreases as Plants Mature. — All classes of plants show a striking diminution in 32 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS digestibility as they approach maturity, and this is very equally spread over all the constituents. The composition varies also, and for the same reason. Hence, no fixed nutritive value can be ascribed to the hay and fodder crops except in a general v^ay. The young plant is always the most nutritious. The superior fattening quality of a pasture, as compared Making Good Hay Is a Fine Art Hay often is improperly made. If cut late it is less nutritious and appetiz- ing. If soaked with rains, or the finer parts are lost .by bad treatment, the feeding value will be decreased. H II w^ith that of the hay made from it, is clearly due to the fact that on land continuously grazed the animal is fed entirely on young forage, v^hile hay v^ill * ■ largely consist of the mature or nearly matured x| plants. If hay making is carefully carried out in good v^eather so the finer parts are not lost by bad treatment, or the soluble matter is not w^ashed out by rain, the digestibility v^ill not be diminished consid- erably. USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 33 Every kind of hay should be cured in the shock before being placed in the mow; otherwise it may become brown by heating and the digestibility of the protein and soluble carbohydrates be diminished. Early cut hay is richer in protein and contains less crude fiber than that cut late. The increased weight, due to the longer growing period, chiefly develops cellulose. As the plant ripens the more nutritious compounds move into the seed, and leave the food part of hay less valuable. The best time for cutting hay is when the plants are in blossom; the nutritious compounds at this time are dis- tributed throughout the plants, and there is cor- respondingly less woody tissue. * Shall Grain Be Ground? — Many grain feeds in- crease their digestibility if they are ground. Corn, oats, wheat and other grains often are so hard that if passed into the stomach without mastication the digestive juices fail to do their full duty. While this is a true and an unfortunate condition, it does not always follow that it is good business management to grind these feeds. Experiments show that when corn, for instance, is ground the returns are in- creased from 8 to 15 per cent; yet the labor of haul- ing to and from the mill or of grinding the grain at home may mean a loss in the end. This factor must be determined by each individ- ual, for no cut-and-dried rule will apply. The cus- tom of following cattle and horses with pigs to pick up the undigested grain or other food is both wise and profitable, and satisfactorily meets this condi- tion. 34 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Steaming and Cooking Food. — A great many de- vices have been placed on the market for the prep- aration of feeding stuffs for live stock. The labor and expense connected with the practice is usually unwarranted and uneconomical. What Most Influences Digestion. — Feeding farm stock is a gentle art. The old adage, ''the hand of the master fattens the flock," is a clear expression of the intimate relation that should exist between From a Grain of Wheat Traverse section near the outside of a wheat grain. The letters show the following: a, the husk (pericarp, integuments); b, cells with protein gran- ules; c, starch cells. (After Tschirch.) the feeder and the animals in his charge. Two men may provide the same feed for two lots of live stock, similar in kind, and far different results will be ob- tained at the end of a given period. The one studies his individual animals, knows each as if by name, takes an interest in its progress, endeavors at all times to help in case of mishap, and actually en- courages, as if to induce greater endeavor. The other feeds the stock and lets it go at that. USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 35 This personal touch is of great importance, and includes everything involved in the preparation of feeds that the highest digestibility may be secured. Rough treatment, bad quarters, irregularity in feed- ing, usually in themselves will overbalance the ad- vantages gained in attempting to influence digesti- bility and larger consumption through better prep- aration for easier mastication, or through appeal to the taste and appetite. The good feeder is a good judge of stock. He is careful, cautious, and habitually regular; endowed with virtues of patience, perseverance, and good common sense, he treats his animals as though they were children in a schoolroom. He watches every detail ; if a slight change or modification of method is necessary, he sees that this is effected at once. He meets all contingencies as they arise, calmly and without excitement. Above all, he possesses a refinement of manner and disposition that causes his animals to know and love him. Thus they will repay in more willing labor or in more milk or in cheaper beef, pork or wool. Herein is the real secret of feeding the animals of the farm successfully. CHAPTER V COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS Combustible Matter. — Animals are often de- stroyed by fire ; they possess, therefore, combusti- ble materials. These consist largely of the nitrog- enous substances, and the fats, both of which are present in the frame, tissue and other organic por- tions of the body. In the skeleton, or frame, three classes of substances are formed — protein, gelati- AGE OF STEERS IN RESPECT TO COST OF 100 POUNDS GAIN CALVES ONE YEAR OLD TWO YEARS OLD THREE YEARS OLD AVERAGE WEIGHTS AVERAGE COST IN DOLLARS OF 100 POUNDS GAIN 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 397 ION 1226 ^^^^^^^1 Cheapest Gains Are Made with Young Animals As animals advance in age the cost of food for maintenance and increase advances also. Compare the four classes of cattle as sketched above. nous matter, and horny matter. Of first importance is the protein, which forms the greater part of the muscular tissue, the various organs, the material of which the nervous system is made, and the major portion of the solid matter of blood. Connective tissue, the combustible part of the cartilage and bone, and the skin, are formed of the gelatinous matter. Horn, hair, wool, and feathers constitute the horny matter. The animal juices are of a nitrog- enous origin also. The fats contain no nitrogen, but are combustible and are either of a hard or a fluid nature. 36 COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 37 Incombustible Matter. — The bones contain the largest part of the incombustible constituents. Here are found calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and magnesium phosphate in greatest abundance. Potassium phosphate heads the list in the tissues. These mineral substances constitute from three to five per cent of the live weight of the animal. Water. — More than half of the entire weight of the animal is water. It is to be found in all parts of the body and is as essential for the development of solid tissue as any of the other ingredients. Young and growing animals, like young and grow- ing plants, contain the highest percentage of water. As the animal matures the proportion of water dimin- ishes until it reaches about one-half of the total weight. Range of Variation of Materials. — The amounts of water, nitrogenous matter, fat, and the mineral constituents present in a large number of animals have been determined at Rothamsted Station in Eng- land. The table following shows the range of variation of the various constituents and for different animals. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF WHOLE ANIMAL ( WARRINGTON) Constit- Fat Half Fat Fat Fat Store Fat uent Calf Fat Ox Ox Lamb Sheep Pig Pig Water . . 65.1 56.0 48.4 52.2 46.1 58.1 43.0 Protein . 15.7 18.1 15.4 13.5 13.0 14.5 11.4 Fat 15.3 20.8 32.0 31.1 37.9 2 4.6 43.9 Ash 3.9 5.1 4.2 3.2 3.0 2.8 1.7 The smallest amounts of both ash and protein are found in the pig, the largest in the ox. Fat is 38 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS found in greatest quantity in the pig and least in the calf. The ingredient in largest quantity is water. Principal Ash Constituents. — It is of interest, and worth while also, to know what quantities of nitro- gen, phosphoric acid and potash are to be found in various animals and their products. This informa- tion is of value in determining the quantity of each removed from the farm when an animal is sold or its products sent to market. In the following table these data are given. NITROGEN, PHOSPHORIC ACID AND POTASH IN 1,000 POUNDS (wARRINGTON) Animal Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Fat Calf Fat Ox Fat Lamb 24.6 23.3 19.7 19.8 22.1 17.7 94.4 5.8 5.0 15.4 15.5 11.3 10.4 10.7 6.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.1 1.8 1.7 Fat Sheep Store Pig 1.5 2 Fat Pig Washed Wool Milk 1.4 1.9 1 7 Skim Milk 2 In the fat calf and the fat ox the largest amount of these three important fertilizing elements is removed, and in the fat pig the least. Hog raising, therefore, is less hard on the land than beef produc- tion. Dairying is more favorable even than pork. If we assume a cow produces 5,000 pounds of milk during a lacteal period and this milk is sold to the city, the loss to the land will be 29 pounds of nitro- gen, 10 pounds of phosphoric acid and 8.5 pounds of potash. Rating the nitrogen at 16 cents a pound, COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 39 the phosphoric acid at 5 cents and potash at 5 cents, the total money loss will be $5.57. The milk, if sold at 4 cents a quart, would bring $100. Consid- ering the large amount of feed furnished and the large amount of manure resulting therefrom, the loss in plant food is small. If, instead of selling milk, butter is sold, the loss of these three elements will be insignificant. FATTENING H06S-F00D CONSUMED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS 6AIN 300 400 500 600 700 FIRST FORTNIGHT SECOND F0RTNI6HT THIRD FORTNIGHT FOURTH FORTNIGHT FIFTH FORTNIGHT Food Consumed During Fattening Period During a ten-week fattening period with hogs the food consumption in- creases more than 50 per cent to produce 100 pounds of increase. There is a limit to which hogs can be profitably fed. Percentage of Increase in Fattening. — When ani- mals are fattened for market an increase of all con- stituents is noticed. This is shown in the table below. INCREASE DURING FATTENING STAGE ( WARRINGTON ) Water Protein Fat Ash Pigs 28.6 24.6 22.0 7.8 7.7 7.2 63,1 66. i 68.8 0.5 1.5 Sheep 2.0 The sheep, during the fattening period, stores up fully four times as much ash as the pig. The sig- nificant thing brought out in this table is the fact 40 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS II that the protein increase is very similar in the three classes, and that the fat increase ranges between eight and nine times the quantity of the protein. Group Constituents. — The substances of the ani- mal's body may be grouped under four heads : 1. Water. 2. Ash or mineral matter. 3. Protein. 4. Fat. What an Animal Contains Protein, the dark red substance; fat, the white strips; bone or mineral matter; and water, comprise the distinct groups of substances that form the animal body. This grouping differs little from that of plants. Since starch, the vegetable gums, sugar, cellulose, etc., are derived from the same elements and have the same fuel value when assimilated by the animal, they can be classed as carbohydrates. The carbo- COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 41 hydrates are formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen; the last two elements are in the proportion to form water, hence the name. When all the plant constituents are grouped together the five divisions are as follows: 1. Water. 2. Ash. 3. Protein. 4. Fat. 5. Carbohydrates. THE SOIL THE PLANT THE ANIMAL starch: /CRUDE FIBER \AND CELLULOSE PROTEIN OIL OR FAT SUGAR PROTEIN FAT /heat lENERGY ASH OR MINERAL MATTER -ASH WATER WATER Cycle of Life From the plant is fed the animal; from the animal is sustained the soil; from the soil and air is nourished the plant. 42 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS From the standpoint of composition the only dif- ference between plants and animals is in the fact that the former contain carbohydrates and the latter do not. What These Compounds Do. — Protein is the "muscle maker" of the body; fat and carbohydrates, the "heat and energy producers." The protein of the plant is changed into the protein of the animal. In the animal this constituent comprises the mus- cular tissue, blood, hair and nerves, the internal organs, skin, etc. In addition the protein is used in the repair work of the body. Every beat of the heart, every circuit of the blood, and every move of a muscle, demands that some protein sub- stance be used up. To keep the animal machine in good working order these parts must be kept in repair. Hence, protein at all times must replace the broken parts with a new supply. If this supply satisfies the waste, the weight of the animal will remain unchanged. When the supply is liberal, or exceeds the demands of the system, material may be stored in the body as flesh or fat, and the animal will gain in weight. Food is needed to keep animals warm. As wood gives of¥ heat when burned in the stove, so food consumed in the body furnishes heat. This con- sumption of fuel food is so well regulated in a healthy animal that the temperature remains at the same point at all times. Carbohydrates and fats are mainly the sources of the heat supply. These same ingredients are used for the production of fat COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 43 in the body and of muscular energy ; yet protein may also be used. Protein Food furnishes in the animal body : 1. Protein Blood, Brain and nerves, Internal organs and skin, Flesh, etc. 2. Heat 3. Fat 4. Energy Fat of Food furnishes in the animal body: J. Heat 2. Fat 3. Energy Carbohydrates of Food furnish in the animal body : 1. Heat 2. Fat 3. Energy CHAPTER VI FOOD NUTRIENTS Nutrients Defined. — Any substance absorbed int< the system in the process of digestion or that con-j tributes to the support of animal life is a nutrieni Hence, the albumen of an Qgg, the starch of a potato] CowpEAS A Rich Food Much nutrition is obtained from cowpeas and other leguminous crops. These are relatively rich in protein, and hence should have a place in every system of farming. the salts of an apple, the ash of wheat bran, the fiber of pasture grass, are all nutrients and as such pro- mote the well-being of animals which can grow, do work, give milk or lay on fat or flesh. 44 FOOD NUTRIENTS 45 Most Feeding Stuffs are Unbalanced. — If every food were wholly digestible and the digestible pro- tein, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fats were united in every feeding stuff in just the right proportion to meet the needs of the particular ani- mal, the feeding of farm animals would be a simple problem. But plants vary in composition ; their food constituents are neither all nor yet equally digestible ; some are much concentrated in form, while others place their food nutrients in large bulk. Because of these differences in the nature of feed- ing stuffs it is necessary to resort to wide variety and to blend or mix the provender that the varying needs of the various classes under continuous change of method of feeding or of age or of pur- pose may be met. This gives rise to the compound- ing of rations for each special class of live stock. But few single feeding stuffs furnish the required quantities of protein, carbohydrates and fat; the most economical and best fesults are secured when two or more are combined. By such a combination, if one feed is lacking in protein, for instance, this deficiency may be met in the ration through the selection of another substance possessing the pro- tein element in unusual abundance. In this man- ner the shortage of the one is balanced by the abundance of the other. Digestibility Defined. — Every feeding stuff con- tains protein, carbohydrates, fat, ash and water. Of each of these there is a distinct proportion absorbed, and the remainder is rejected and excreted in the feces. The proportion which represents the quan- 46 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tity absorbed is spoken of as the amount digested or absorbed into the system. Digestibility refers to the true food value of any nutrient. Every food, there- fore, regardless of the balance of its proximate principles, contains both digestible and indigestible matter. To know the proportion of each part is II FOOD TOTAL NUMBER OF POUNDS IN 2.000 POUNDS OF SUBSTANCE 5 10 20 30 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR WHEAT BRAN CORN CORN MEAL DRIED BEET PULP OATS OAT MEAL PEAS, GARDEN BEANS.GARDEN BEEF CHEESE TIMOTHY HAY RED CLOVER HAY ALFALFA HAY []^^ ^^im^^ ^^" ■— i — i i 1 1 Mineral Matter in Some Common Foods The total number of pounds of mineral matter in a ton of certain sub- stance is here shown. Notice how small is the quantity in a ton of wheat flour. Wheat bran, on the other hand, is abundantly supplied. In our methods of manufacture farm animals profit at the expense of the human J family. j necessary if the feeder is to make use of his feeds to the best advantage. How Digestibility of a Food Is Determined. — The general method of investigation to obtain the diges- tibility of the various constituents of a feeding stuff has been to supply an animal with weighed quanti- ties of food the composition of which has been as- certained by chemical analysis. Within the period during which such an experiment is being con- FOOD NUTRIENTS 47 ducted, the solid excrements are collected, weighed and analyzed by the same chemical methods applied previously to the food. By this plan the amount of each constituent of the food which has passed through the animal unabsorbed is determined. It is a simple matter now to subtract this quantity from the amount found to have been present in the food originally and to obtain the difference, which is the amount digested and absorbed. First Step Is to Obtain Composition. — Chemists have analyzed all the important feeding stuffs. Slight variation is noted, which is due largely to difference of variety, soil, climate, season, fertiliza- tion and culture. Based on averages, the resulting figures of composition are sufficiently accurate for all purposes of ration building. In the table follow- ing a few common feeding stuffs are included for assistance in determining the real nutritive value of each constituent. COMPOSITION OF SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS In 100 pounds of fresh substance Feeding stuffs Protein Crude fiber Nitrogen- free extract Fat Corn stover — field cured . . . Red clover hay . Timothy hay . . . Cottonseed hulls. Corn — dent 3.8 12.3 5.9 4.2 10.3 15.7 45.3 25.0 19.7 24.8 29.0 46.3 2.2 9.0 6.3 6.8 31.5 38.1 45.0 33.4 70.4 53.9 24.6 53.5 1.1 3.3 2.5 2.2 " 5 Wheat bran .... Cottonseed meal. Gluten feed ' 4.0 10.1 3.5 48 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS By this table not only a wide difference in the quantity of each constituent of each feeding stuff is noticed, but also that this obtains in all feeds, with no regularity of quantity for any constituent. The amount of protein varies from 3.8 pounds in corn stover to 45.3 pounds in cottonseed meal. In respect What Field Corn Contains When corn is analyzed nitrogen-free extract, or starch, is found to be present in the largest quantity. The amount of protein is not large and the ash supply is small. Corn as an exclusive food would insufficiently supply the mineral elements, and there would be too little protein in proportion to the starch and fat. to crude fiber the amount ranges from 2.2 pounds in corn to 46.3 pounds in cottonseed hulls. The greatest variation is with the nitrogen-free extract; it runs from 24.6 pounds in cottonseed meal to 70.4 pounds in corn. Much difference is observed also in the fat; i.i pound is present in corn stover, but this advances to ten times that in the cotton meal. FOOD NUTRIENTS 49 Coefficient of Digestibility. — In the composition of feeding stuffs, both the digested and unabsorbed materials are included. The absorbed matter only is of importance as food. The data obtained through the digestion trials make known the percentage of each nutrient digested. Such figures express the digestion coefficient for each constituent of the food consumed. In the table following are given the figures representing the coefficients of digestibility for each constituent of each feeding stuff previously given. DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OF SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS Percentage digestible Feeding stuffs Protein Crude - fiber Nitrogen- free extract 61 64 63 34 93 71 78 89 Fat Corn stover Red clover liay. . . . Timothy hay Cottonseed hulls . . Corn 45 55 48 6 76 77 83 85 67 46 52 47 58 41 35 76 62 53 60 79 86 Wheat bran Cottonseed meal . . Gluten feed 63 94 82 A marked variation is shown in this table. None of the constituents are equally well digested. In few instances are more than three-fourths of any one substance absorbed into the system. With cot- tonseed hulls but 6 per cent of the protein is digested, but a large amount of the fat — 79 per cent — is absorbed. 50 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Digestible Nutrients. — With both the compositionj and the digestible percentage known, it is a com- paratively simple matter to determine the digestiblej quantity of each constituent. This is done by multi-i What Corn Stover Contains Corn stover contains more ash, water and fibre, and less protein, starch and fat than corn. Ear corn contains the same food ingredients, but these are more valuable because less fibrous and more concentrated. The real worth-while nutrients are protein, starch, and fat. plying the figures representing the total amount of each constituent by the coefficient of digestibility, the resulting product being the quantity digested. For example, corn stover contains 3.8 pounds of pro- tein, 19.7 pounds of crude fiber, 31.5 pounds of nitro- FOOD NUTRIENTS 51 gen-free extract and i.i pounds of fat. By multi- plying these amounts by the figures representing the digestibility for each constituent respectively, the amount of each digestible nutrient will be ob- tained. This is done as follows : Digestible Digestible Constituent Composition Coefficient Nutrient Protein 3.8 x 45 = 1.7 Crude Fiber 19.7 x 67 = 13.2 Nitrogen-free extract 31.5 x 61 = 19.2 Fat 1.1 X 62 = 0.7 The total digestible nutrients may be determined in this manner for each feeding stuff. Crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract, being used for the same purpose after absorption, may be included as a single group. They stand for the same thing, and from now on will be grouped under the term car- bohydrates. In the table below the feeding stuffs previously mentioned are listed and the total diges- tible nutrients of each are shown. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Feeding stuffs Protein Carbohydrates Fat Corn stover Refd clover hay .... Timothy hay Cottonseed hulls Corn Wheat bran . Cottonseed meal . . Gluten feed 1.7 6.8 2.8 .3 7.8 12.1 37.6 21.3 32.4 35.8 43.4 33.1 66.7 41.9 20.7 51.8 0.7 1.7 1.5 1.7 4.3 2.5 9.5 2.9 Correct Rations are Based on Digestibility. — From the data here given the importance of basing 52 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS all feeding rations on the digestible matter rather than on the total composition is clearly seen. Only a part of the food taken into the stomach is assim- ilated — just a part; sometimes 90 per cent, some- times 75 per cent, some times 50 per cent and in the case of some foods as little as 25 per cent is digesti- ble. Hence, in every feed there is a part lost and % ^^^^^m ^K M H^H r« . ::^>^BIRIHRIIIilll^H j^Sf^ms te'l pi ^m^B: .Is feli"'?-'^c I He Had a Good Ration This is a picture of the champion grade steer at the 1909 International live stoclc show. He was fed a variety of food, and with great care and thought. wasted to the animal ; therefore, this serves no con- tribution to the nutriment of the body. Nor can one constituent be used wholly to take the place of any other. Since protein contains nitro- gen and sulphur in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, it is evident that neither the carbohydrates nor the fats which contain carbon, hydrogen and FOOD NUTRIENTS 53 oxygen only can be substituted for protein. Just as the phosphorus or potassium of a fertilizer cannot re- place nitrogen, so the carbohydrates or the fats can- not replace the protein of a food. While it is true that protein may be substituted for the carbohy- drates and fats, it is to a limited extent, and only for a limited time. Even though the well-being of the animal would permit of this substitution the added expense would be against the practice. CHAPTER VII SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING The Animal as a Machine. — Considered as a ma- chine, the animal body needs two classes of food: one, to furnish the materials by which the machine may be constructed and kept in repair; and a sec- ond, or sustaining reserve, to develop heat to keep the body warm and to supply energy for the pro- duction of internal and external work. Water, ash and protein are the essential building materials and the fats and carbohydrates the primary fuel sub- stances. This distinction gives rise to the grouping of feeding stuffs as being either of a building or fuel nature. All individual foods contain both, but in varying proportions ; some are heavy carriers of the first, others of the second, and still others within these two extremes. Food values, therefore, are somewhat dependent upon the manner in which they are classified; this, of course, being consistent with the nature of their digestible nutrients. Nutritive Ratio. — A point of some importance in determining the suitability of a feeding stuff as an article of diet is the proportion between the digesti- ble protein and the digestible non-protein organic constituents. This relation is most conveniently termed the nutritive ratio of the food. Simply de- fined, this term means the ratio which exists between the amount of digestible protein to the combined digestible carbohydrates and fat. It is SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 55 FEEDING STUFF ^^ TRITIVE ?ATiO ^^ PROTEIN 1 ^CARBOHYDRATES &. FAT DRIED BLOOD 1 TANKAGE 1 COTTON SEED MEAL 1 LINSEED MEAL 1 SOY BEANS 1 SKIM MILK 1 GLUTEN FEED 1 COW PEAS 1 DRIED BREWERS'GRAINS 1 COWS MILK 1 WHEAT BRAN 1 ALFALFA 1 COW PEA HAY 1 PASTURE GRASS 1 WHEAT MIDDLINGS 1 MANGLES 1 RAPE 1 RED CLOVER HAY 1 OATS 1 BUCKWHEAT 1 RYE 1 WHEAT 1 TURNIPS 1 KAFIR CORN 1 BLUE GRASS 1 :CORN 1 BEET PULP 1 MILLET HAY 1 PRAIRIE HAY 1 CORN SILAGE J CORN & COB MEAL 1 TIMOTHY HAY 1 POTATO 1 CORN STOVER 1 KAFIR CORN STOVER 1 S0R6UM HAY 1 OAT STRAW 1 WHEAT STRAW 1 0.1 LI 1.2 1.7 \.S z. 5. 5.1 3.2 -3.7 3.7 3.8 5.S 4.5 4.7 5.1 5.6 5.8 6.2 6.9- 7.1 7.2 7.7 8.'! 8.6 9.7 12. 12. 12,2 14. 15.1 16.6 18.3 20. 20. 22. 33.6 95. ■^■n ■ ■ i ■ . 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ^ IMI ■■ ■■ !■■ mm ^^ ■■ ■■ 1 1 ■■ ■■ ^ im ■i ■ ■1 ■ ■ 1 ■ ■ ■ 1 B 1 B 1 1 1 1 1 N 1 1 1 1 1 1 Nutritive Ratio of Some Common Feeding Stuffs e6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS obtained as follows : The fat is reduced to its car- bohydrate equivalent and added to the digestible carbohydrates. The sum of the two, representing the non-protein, is then divided by the figure or fig- ures representing the quantity of protein. The resulting figure is the second factor, which means that for each pound of protein in the feed or ration there are so many pounds of non-protein or carbohydrates. Reducing Fat to Carbohydrates. — The non- protein constituents of a feed — starch, fiber, fats, etc. — are used to develop heat, energy and fat in the animal body. Their efficiency for this purpose has been ascertained by numerous experiments, which show that a pound of fat will develop as much heat energy as 2.3 pounds of starch. Hence, this more concentrated energy must be taken in consideration in combining the carbohydrates and fat as a single unit group if a definite, accurate value is to be obtained with reference to any feeding stuff. In all calculations from now on this higher efficiency of fat will be given its proper weight. Determining the Nutritive Ratio. — In a previous table the digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of corn were shown to be as follows : Protein 7.8 pounds, carbohydrates 66.8 pounds and fat 4.3 pounds. The fat first is reduced to its carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying the number of pounds representing it by the authoritatively taken factor 2.3 ; which being done, shows that 4.3 pounds of fat equal 9.9 pounds of the carbohydrates in producing heat and energy. The fat, now having been reduced to a carbohydrate basis, can be added to 66.8, the amount pf carbo- SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 57 hydrates in corn, which gives y6.j pounds of total carbohydrates. This sum divided by the number representing the quantity of protein, which in the case of corn is 7.8 pounds, gives the final factor of the ratio; or 9.8. In the form of proportion the stages are as follows : (i) The amount of protein is to the amount of the carbohydrates as i is to the factor to be determined. (2) Protein : Carbohydrates : : i : x (3) 7.8 : (66.8 + 9.9) : : I : X (4) 7-8 : 767 : : I : 9.8 The nutritive ratio of corn is therefore i to 9.8, which means that in this feeding stuff for every pound of digestible protein there are 9.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and fat equivalent. Wide or Narrow Nutritive Ratio. — A wide dif- ference exists among feeds as to the proportion of protein which they contain. The oil meals and the legumes, especially their seeds, are rich in protein, roots and straw very poor, while cereal grain and their products occup)^ a middle place. These differ- ences give rise to the terms wide and narrow nutri- tive ratios which apply both to single feeds and rations. A feed or a ration has a ''narrow" nutritive ratio when the digestible protein contained in it is high in comparison to the carbohydrates and fat, and "wide" when the reverse to this ; that is, little protein and much of the carbohydrates and fat. Balanced Ration. — Since all feeding stufifs, with the possible exception of pasture grass, are unfit as single food substances, they naturally fall in a class 58 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS as being either wide or narrow. If two or more are combined in the proper proportions to furnish all the digestible nutrients, with no excess or shortage of any nutrient, but in just the quantity needed by a certain class of animals fed for a distinct purpose, the combination is then satisfactory, and does pro- vide a balanced ration. Balancing the Ration Improves It The two larger pigs at the right have been fed corn and tankage, while the two smaller ones at the left have been fed corn only. This shows why a balanced ration is worth while. Feeding Standards. — For many years investi- gators have been conducting feeding tests to learn the amount of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat best for farm animals under average conditions. They have studied the results of various foods and varying amounts in thousands of animals. The re- sults are embodied in what are called feeding stand- ards. These tell the proper amounts of the nutri- SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 59 ents, or one day's food, for an animal of a certain weight under ordinary conditions. The subject is complicated in so many ways that it is out of the question to say with great definite- ness in the present light of feeding knowledge just what amount of each nutrient to give so the very best results may be obtained for the average animal FATTENING STEERS-GRAIN CONSUMED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS GAIN NUMBER OF DAYS FEEDING 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1.000 56 84 112 140 168 182 When the Feeding Period Is Extended When fattening steers were fed for 56 days slightly over 700 pounds of food were consumed for each 100 pounds of gain. When the feeding period was lengthened to 182 days over a thousand pounds of grain was necessary to give 100 pounds of increase. under the average methods of feeding. The early standards proposed by German experimenters have been somewhat modified by other investigators, but so far, even though other attempts have been made to simplify these standards, the original Wolff-Leh- mann feeding standards are still the most popular guides in all studies of ration making. Maintenance Standard. — For one thing, these early teachers stated that less nutrients are neces- sary for animals doing no work, or giving no milk, or not fed for fattening purposes, than for animals actually so engaged. This has given rise to a stand- ard for maintenance when the animal is at rest in 6o FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the Stall. They showed, also, that a dairy cow giv- ing little or no milk does not require nearly as large a quantity of food as one in full flow of milk. Of course, every farmer knows this ; but these investi- gators prepared a guide giving the quantity of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat so as to meet the maintenance needs of the dry cow. The dry cow does need daily a certain amount of each of the food nutrients. She must keep her body warm, maintain the regular blood supply, repair the broken-down tissues and meet all the requirements of life and health. These things are obtained from the food. If more food is provided than necessary to meet these daily demands, the animal will increase in weight. If too little food is given, then the re- verse will happen, the animal will lose in weight, and, as popularly expressed, will become thin in flesh, or poor. Working from this point, these nutrition investigators carefully prepared standards for cows giving various quantities of milk, for steers at dif- ferent stages of fattening, for horses doing little or much work, and for hogs and sheep at their various periods of growth and fattening. Standards for Farm Animals. — These feeding standards as guides indicate for feeders what amount of each nutrient is required in the body, not only for maintenance and support, but also for milk or beef, wool or mutton, and labor. A different standard is provided for different animals and con- sistent with the purposes for which the animals are fed. A cow giving little milk, according to the standard, is to be given smaller quantities of food I SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 6i than another in heavy milk flow. Likewise rations for beeves differ considerably from those for horses or pigs. These feeding standards, though easily under- stood, are still very complicated, but they clearly show that the practice of feeding is not only an interesting art, but one that calls for much skill .and training also. WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS Daily allotment on basis 1,000 pounds live weight Dry matter Digestible nutrients in pounds Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Milk cows when giving daily 11 pounds of milk ... 22 pounds of milk . . . 27.5 pounds of milk ... Fattening cattle First period Second period Third period Sheep Coarse wool Fine wool 25 29 32 30 30 26 20 23 25 30 28 20 24 26 22 36 32 35 1.6 2.5 3.3 2.5 3.0 2.7 1.2 1.5 2.9 3.0 3.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.5 4.5 4.0 2.7 10.0 13.0 13.0 15.0 14.5 15.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 15.0 14.5 9.5 11.0 13.3 15.5 25.0 24.0 18.0 .3 .5 .8 .5 .7 .7 .2 .3 .5 .5 .6 A .6 .8 .4 .7 .5 A Ewes with lambs Fattening sheep First period Second period Horses Light work Medium work Heavy work Brood sows Fattening hogs First period Second period Third period These standards are based on i,ooo pounds live weight. For animals weighing less, as sheep and 62 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS swine, the quantity prescribed would be propor- tionately decreased. A sheep, for instance, weighing I GO pounds would be fed one-tenth the quantity called for in the standard. An animal weighing more than 1,000 pounds would require a .proportionate increase. Feeding Standard Only a Guide. — No one should rely absolutely on the feeding standard as his sole aid in feeding any class of animals. Standards are to be taken as guides only and are to be varied or modified as circumstances require. In fattening farm stock it is clearly the best sense to supply the largest amount of food that the stock fed can make profitable use of. In feeding dairy cows, so long as hay, fodder, and silage are home-raised and abun- dant, the cows may safely be given as much as they can be tempted to eat, provided of course, the con- centrated feeds are not denied proper places in the ration. Those responding in heavy milk yields are entitled to the largest amounts of the concentrates, while those that are milking little will not require much, if any, food of a grain or concentrate nature. Not only the object sought but the food also will govern. So does the season of the year exert its influence. Then too, and not the least either, the size of the animal affects the food consumption in respect to the general results. A great part of the demand for food is determined by the surface of the animal rather than by its weight. With these cir- cumstances in mind as examples of various factors that must be considered, the feeding standard may well be used as a starting point in the practical feed- ing of the farm live stock. CHAPTER VIII THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS An Animal Uses Food for five distinct purposes : 1. To replace the waste from all parts of the body. 2. To produce heat to keep the body warm. 3. To produce energy so that work may be done. 4. To provide the building materials for larger growth or increase in muscle, fat, flesh, and bone. 5. To have materials in reserve for the formation of milk, wool, etc. These five purposes develop after the food is ab- sorbed, and originate from the digestible nutrients expressed in terms of protein, carbohydrates and fat. To provide these nutrients in the quantity and pro- portions that they should be fed, so as to satisfy one or more of the five ends of feeding, makes neces- sary the selection and compounding of rations. Three Kinds of Rations. — As an example of how a mixture of feeding stufTs may be devised so as to yield the requisite amounts of the protein and energy nutrients and at the same time be neither too bulky nor too concentrated, one of the follow- ing courses is generally open. Suppose a ration is wanted for a herd of dairy cows. What class of food shall be placed before the animals? In answer to this question it is possible to furnish any one of 64 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS three kinds of rations. One of these might consist of the roughage food raised on the farm like straw, corn stover, the usual farm hays, and a small feed of ear corn; on the other hand, a ration might be furnished consisting largely of grain feed or concen- TiAVOTHY Not a Balanced Food Although one of the most popular hay crops, timothy contains a small amount of protein. It is an excellent horse food but not as good for dairy cows as clover, alfalfa, or cowpeas. trates, with a small allowance of some cheap rough- age for feeding. Neither of these is uncommon. On many farms the cows are given the very feeds here mentioned. In villages, and in herds near large cities, other cows are fed largely the by-products of certain manufac- THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 65 turing enterprises or on chop feeds and other grain materials that may be purchased often as cheaply as hay. The result is, in neither instance are the cows fed as they ought to be. The cow in the country gets too little protein and too much carbo- hydrates and fat; the village cow too much of pro- tein and too little of the carbohydrates and fat; and Mixing Their Own Ration These cows have, the run of a large area in which several kinds of grasses flourish. Rape is growing in the foreground. the best results are not obtained in either case. The country cow loses in weight; she gets poor; she is forced to take from her own body much protein stored in flesh to use for milk and tissue repair. The village cow may or may not thin down, but the necessity of using the protein in the food for meet- ing all the functions of the nutrients acts to her dis- advantage and she is never able to be at her best. 66 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Mixed Foods. — Best results are always secured when these two methods are merged : when the country cow is given concentrates in addition to the farm-raised roughages, and the village cow gets hay. and stover in addition to the feed-store mill feeds. It is not enough to secure grain as concentrates for the country cow either; the selection must be made on the basis of the composition ; and, since the coun- try cow's ration is already out of proportion'because of the excess of carbohydrates and fat, it would not help the matter any by a purchase of a grain food also low in protein. In practice many feeders buy corn meal as a dairy concentrate ; instead of improving the ration this makes things worse, because corn meal added to the grass hay, corn stover, straw ration only in- creases the cost without supplying any appreciable increase of protein. The way out of this difficulty is to study the available concentrates and select one or more that contains protein, and not starch an fat, in greatest abundance. How a Ration is Made. — Rations are usually com puted on the basis of i,ooo pounds live weight fo the animals. If the animals weigh more, a propor- tionate increase of food is allotted; if less, a pro- portionate decrease. The first step in computing a ration is to consider the feeding standard for the class of animals to be fed. If it is assumed that a ration is wanted for a dairy cow giving 22 pounds of milk daily, the table of standards is to be consulted. For dairy cows giving 22 pounds of milk the standard calls for 29 I II THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 67 pounds of dry matter, 2.5 pounds of digestible pro- tein, 13 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.5 pounds of digestible fat. Assuming that corn stover, corn silage and clover hay are the most available, we will use such quantities of each as have been found in practice to be fairly representative of the available supply on average farms and about what an animal will eat up clean without tiring her appe- tite. As a starting point, we will use 10 pounds of corn stover, 15 pounds of clover hay and 30 pounds of corn silage. The averages for digestible nutrients in these feeds are the following: Dry matter Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Feeding stuffs Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Corn stover Corn silage Clover hay 59.5 20.9 84.7 1.4 0.9 7.1 31.2 12.6 37.8 0.7 .6 1.8 The second step in the computation is to calculate the pounds of digestible nutrients in the quantities of each of these feeding stuffs. It is clear, for in- stance, that 10 pounds of corn stover will contain just one-tenth as much protein, carbohydrates and fat as 100 pounds. If each of these factors be divided by 100 and multiplied by 10, we shall have the amounts of each constituent that 10 pounds of corn stover will furnish the animal. 68 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The lOO pounds of corn stover contain : 59-5 pounds of dry matter, 1.4 pounds of protein, 31.2 pounds of carbohydrates, 0.7 pounds of fat. If 100 pounds of corn stover contain these quan- tities of digestible nutrients, then i pound contains just one one-hundredth as much, or the following quantities : •595 pounds of dry matter, .014 pounds of protein, .324 pounds of carbohydrates, 007 pounds of fat. Ten pounds, of course, v^ill contain ten times the quantity of i pound, or the following: 5.95 pounds of dry matter, .14 pounds of protein, 3.24 pounds of carbohydrates, .07 pounds of fat. The digestible nutrients in 30 pounds of corn silage are ascertained in the same manner: I Dry matter . . Protein Carbohydrates Fat In 100 In 1 In 30 pounds pound pounds 20.9 - - 100 = .209 X 30 = 6.27 0.9 - - 100 = .009 X 30 = .27 12.6 - - 100 = .126 X 30 = 3.78 0.6 - - 100 = .006 X 30 = .18 « Making the same computation for each constitu- ent in clover hay, \/e have the following: Dry matter In 100 pounds 84 7 — 100 100 100 100 In 1 pound = .847 X 15 = .071 X 15 = .378 X 15 = .18 X 15 In 15 pounds — 12.70 Protein 7.1 — — 1.06 Carbohydrates .... Fat 37.8 H- 1.8 ^ = 5.67 = .27 THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 69 If we arrange these figures in a table and add the nutrients together, we shall have a statement of the quantity of each constituent supplied in these feeds, and will be in a position to compare with the stand- ard to know what nutrients are insufficiently pro- vided. This is done as below: Dry raa,tter Digestible nutrients Feeding- stuffs Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat 10 lbs corn stover. . SO lbs corn sUage. . 15 lbs clover hay . . Totals 5.95 6.27 12.70 25.92 .14 .27 1.06 1.47 3.24 3.78 5.67 12.69 .07 .18 .27 .52 Feeding- standard. . . 29.00 2.50 13.00 .50 Comparing the nutrients in the feeds as used above with the standard, it will be seen there is a deficiency in every instance. It will now be neces- sary to introduce into the ration one or more other feeds in order to correct the faults so evident in the table. Since the greatest deficiency is in the protein, we must seek a supply from among such feeding stufifs as are particularly rich in protein. The oil meals and the gluten meals are of this kind. If, then, we add 2% pounds of cottonseed meal, we shall very nearly approximate the standard. The digestible nutrients for this feed are ascertained in the same manner as before, and a second trial made. 70 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS FEEDING RATION FOR DAIRY COW Dry matter Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat In preceding- 2% lbs cottonseed meal Totals 25.92 2.55 2S.47 1.47 1.03 2.50 12.69 .59 13.28 .52 .26 .7^ Feeding standard. . . 29.00 2.50 13.00 .50 In this ration no serious faults are noticed. We have the correct amount of protein, but an excess in carbohydrates of .28 pounds and of fat .28 pounds. The dry matter is slightly under the standard. This does not matter, however, so long as the quantity does not so greatly overrun the standard as to give greater bulk than the average cow has room to ac- commodate. This deficiency can be considerable m and still not affect the efficiency of the ration. The excess of the fuel foods is so small as to be of no importance at all. Were a pound less of clover hay and a quarter of a pound more of cottonseed meal to be used in the ration, the ration would correspond to the standard with considerable exactness. Feeding for Heavy Milkers. — This ration is for dairy cows averaging 22 pounds of milk a day. Suppose a ration is wanted for the same cows at another period when they are giving more milk than in the case just cited, say 27.5 pounds daily. How shall we proceed to adjust this ration to the new requirements, using as nearly as possible the THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 7I same feeding stuffs as before? The first step is to consult the standard. This we find calls for 32 pounds of dry matter; 3.3 pounds of protein; 13 pounds of carbohydrates ; 0.8 pound of fat. Our second step will be to consider the feeding stuffs as to the quantity to be used. Obviously, each cow has a certain limit as to storage and diges- tion capacity for bulky feeds. In the preceding ration we have provided for about all of the corn Heavy Milkers Require Big Rations The more milk a cow gives the more she must eat. The biggest eaters are usually the heaviest producers. stover, silage and clover hay that the average cow can handle. Her limit, therefore, is reached as far as the roughage foods are concerned. We resort, in consequence, to the concentrated mill feeds to supply the additional food required because of the extra milk produced. Since the ration already contains just about all that a cow of this size can eat, we will prepare a 7^ FEEDING FARM ANIMALS place In the ration by withdrawing three pounds of the clover hay. We will increase the cottonseed meal to four pounds and add 2^^ pounds of gluten feed. This done we have the following: Dry matter Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat 10 lbs corn stover 30 lbs corn silage J 2 lbs clover hay. . 4 lbs cottonseed meal 21^ lbs gluten feed Totals 5.95 6.27 10.12 3.76 2.25 28.35 .14 .27 .85 1.50 .53 2.29 3.24 3.78 4.54 .84 1.80 13.76 .07 .18 .21 .36 .06 .88 Standard 32.00 3.30 13.00 .80 This ration agrees closely with the standard and is assumed to satisfy all the requirements for a cow yielding 27.5 pounds of milk daily and weighing 1,000 pounds. Using the Standard in Practical Work. — Too many people take feeding standards and balanced rations far too seriously. They fail to understand that it is in the spirit and not in their literal use that these feeding aids are to be adopted. The bal- anced ration at best can be made to approach only approximately the food requirements for any ani- mal or set of animals. This has been pointed out before. The composition of a feeding stuff is always open to considerable variation, and what adds still to the uncertainty is the fact that foods are not digested with equal facility or completeness by dif- THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 73 ferent animals, even in the same herd and given the identical feeding stuffs. Moreover, it is both im- possible and impracticable to provide a ration for every individual in a herd. To do this would re- quire as many different rations as there are animals to be fed, and definite weighings of every feeding stuff contained in the ration. But all this is un- necessary and no exponent of the balanced ration asks that it be done. Where Science Helps to Fatten The man who approximates the feeding standards has an advantage over his competitor who ignores them. The aim of this scheme in feeding stock is to avoid serious faults in the use of feeding stuffs. Used on broad lines, the balanced ration enables the stock feeder to utilize to the best advantage the plant products which he raises. In case he needs an addi- tional supply he will be fully advised as to what class of available purchased feeds he should obtain in order to secure the greatest efficiency from the food. 74 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS What Foods to Choose. — On every farm some feeding stuffs are grown that possess little commer- cial value. These should form the basis of that ration. Corn stover, the straws, legume hays, and silage are all splendid bulk foods, are easily raised on the farm and should be used freely in ration mak- ing. They will supply also the greater part of the carbohydrates and fat. The farm, therefore, is the best factory for the production of the fuel nutrients. In the legumes and cereal grains much of the pro- tein will be obtained. If any protein shortage exists it is good business sense to meet it, even though expensive concentrates must be purchased. The wise farmer will figure the cost of foodstuffs very carefully to find out what is most profitable to feed. It is often best to sell some of the food having a wide nutritive ratio, such as timothy, corn, oats, and wheat, and to purchase foods having a narrow nutritive ratio, such as the oil meals, and the factory by-products. Very often this exchange is made; and not only is the ration improved, thus bringing about better results from the animals under feed, but a money profit is secured in addition to that obtained because of the greater efficiency of the ration. CHAPTER IX BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK Oversupply of Protein. — While the old German standards have been used generally and are still the most popular in this country, many investigators now hold that the protein requirements are higher than practical experience indicates as being neces- sary. This is particularly the case with dairy cows. Many of our most successful dairymen have ob- tained as satisfactory results and at less cost by us- ing smaller amounts of protein in the rations as when they literally follow the Wolff feeding standard. The fact is, all good dairymen use the balanced ration. Many may not do this intentionally, but the feeds they provide follow more or less the stand- ards and furnish approximately the requisite amounts of the digestible nutrients. The feeding stuffs available admit of this. With corn silage, clover hay, cowpea hay, alfalfa, corn stover, mixed hay, the oil meals and the factory by-products, the food requirements are met within reasonable limits, even though the feeder may be unaware of the fact. It is true, nevertheless, that when these rations are analyzed those netting the most profit often show less protein than what the old standards really call for. 75 76 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS It must be remembered that these standards were made many years ago when scientific appliances were less adequate than now, and when little was known about either food or animals. The experi- ments were also made with German feeds when given to German animals, a circumstance that may Butter [jroduced from jUldDllarimrttiol-feed 8.9 lbs. V'-^am W.y&Ak^.A\^MbW^4m libs. Bra 58 lbs. Corn Soy Bean 6 5JLAGE-GRAINI FOR DAIRY COWS BuHer[)rofliiced| fromldollars "^wnrfhof feed f^ 5.28 lbs. | 2.5lbsO,.M.dl^>^..^fe^^ ^ y.'ibV. Corn M'edTV 6A\bsn AVERAGE DAILY RATION Consumed by each cow fed the silage ration AVERAGE DAILY RATION Consumed by each cow fed the st)ecial grain ration It Pays to Give the Right Feed Two rations for dairy cows have been compared. From the one 8.9 pounds of butter were produced from one dollar's worth of feed while from the other but 5.28 pounds of butter was obtained from one dollar's worth of feed. This shows how two rations may cost the same and one may be worth a great deal more for final returns. BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK "JJ be sufficient to modify the standards when American feeds are given American-raised live stock. Another factor that enters into the problem is the ever-increasing improved quality of our farm animals. On the same food, as Armsby has deter- mined, the pure-bred steer will make better gains than the scrub. If our farm animals are selected for high production, are we not warranted in contribut- ing some part of this increase to the digestive appa- ratus of the well-bred animal ? If the selected strain is better in other respects, does it not improve also in ability to digest and utilize food to the best ad- vantage? Moreover, our feeding stuffs are grown under different soil and climatic conditions and are fed under different environments, and these may account in part for the higher efficiency of our feeding stuffs. Haecker's Investigations. — After a study in vari- ous parts of the country of dairy rations some of which demonstrate very practically that less protein would give the same results. Professor Haecker of the Minnesota station undertook a series of experi- ments to determine, if possible, just what the food requirements are when dairy cows are cared for under average conditions. The results sug- gested by these experiments are the following : 1. That less protein is required in the ration than called for in the old standard for dairy cows. 2. That the food nutrients should correspond to the quantity of milk given. 3. That the amount of butter fat in the milk must be given due weight in providing the food nutrients. BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK 79 4. That size and weight of the animal influence the food requirements similarly as worked out in the old standards. The Haecker Standard is based on two general propositions : First, the maintenance requirements of a cow weighing 1,000 pounds; and, second, an additional and shifting allowance of digestible nutri- ents that is dependent on the per cent of butter fat contained in the milk. The maintenance factor is 0.7 pound of protein, 0.7 pound of carbohydrates and 0.1 pound of fat. For cows weighing more than 1,000 pounds these quantities are proportionately increased, and for cows weighing less than 1,000 pounds they are proportionately decreased. If, for instance, a cow weighs 1,100 pounds, the amounts of each nutri- ent for maintenance would be as follows : Protein, ."j^ pound; carbohydrates, .jy pound; and fat, .11 pound. The additional food requirements are dependent on the quantity and the fat content of the milk as arranged below : NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY THE HAECKER STANDARD In accordance with weight For milk production of cow +j w w o^jS fl Ol +-> ^ • 0) •" nS pC .rt oj ^ .QSh ^ ^ ^hS u^ +j •jr wa -?-::i u rt >-. d ^ S a >> a &.S Oh Ox: fc Q. Oj:: fc 3.0 .04 .19 .015 600 .42 4.2 .06 3.5 .042 .21 .016 700 .49 4.9 .07 4.0 .046 .23 .018 800 .56 5.6 .08 4.5 .049 .26 .020 900 .63 6.3 .09 5.0 .052 ■ .27 .021 1,000 .70 7.0 .10 5.5 .055 .29 .022 1,100 .77 7.7 .11 6.0 .057 .31 .024 1.200 .84 8.4 .12 8o FEEDING FARM ANIMALS How to Establish a Standard. — It will be observed that no definite standard is provided. It all depends on what the maintenance requirements are, what amount of milk the daily yield is, and on the per cent of butter fat contained. Assuming that a cow weighing i,ooo pounds daily gives 22 pounds of milk, which tests 5 per cent fat, what will be the actual requirements of digestible nutrients accord- ing to the Haecker standard? The first step is to consult the table for the nutrient allowance as given for milk of the grade under consideration. This we find to be as follows: Protein, 0.052; carbohy- drates, 0.27; and fat, 0.021. But the cow gives 22 pounds daily, in which case the quantities for one pound will be multiplied by 22 to meet the real daily production. The form is as follows : Protein Carbohydrates Fat In 1 In 22 pound pounds .051 X 22 = 1.12 .27 X 22 = 5.95 .021 X 22 = .46 These amounts added to what is required for the maintenance of a cow weighing 1,000 pounds and giving 22 pounds of five per cent milk are shown in the table following: Digestible nutrients Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Maintenance requirements Need for milk yield Totals .70 1.12 1.82 7.00 5.95 12.95 .10 .46 56 BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK 8l Compared with Wolff Standard. — From this it is observed that by the Haecker standard when a cow weighs I, GOO pounds and gives daily 22 pounds of 5 per cent milk she will require 1.82 pounds of pro- tein, 12.95 pounds of carbohydrates, and .56 pound of fat. The Wolff standard calls for 2.5 pounds of protein, 13 pounds of carbohydrates, and .5 pound of fat, which conforms very nearly to the Haecker standard in all but the protein, where a difference of .68 pound is observed. CHAPTER X COMPUTING RATIONS ON BASIS OF STARCH VALUES Starch as the Standard Nutrient. — In the German investigations with fattening oxen conducted by Kellner typical representatives of the several food nutrients v^ere obtained and added one at a time to a ration that gave a slight gain in weight. The amounts of lean meat and fat were determined both before and after the addition of the extra food. The difference between the two gains was then assumed as being a reasonable measure of the fattening effect of the added food. After repeated trials it seemed advisable to use starch as a standard by which other nutrients or feeding stuffs might be measured. The use of this nutrient in this way has given rise to the term starch value, which means the quantity by weight of any nutrient, or foodstuff, or ration that is equivalent to starch for fattening or other produc- tive purposes. Starch Value Illustrated. — In one of Kellner's ex- periments, a certain sample of linseed cake was found to contain 34.5 per cent of digestible protein ; 26.1 per cent of digestible carbohydrates, including the fiber; and 8.4 per cent of digestible fat. When 100 pounds of this was fed to a fattening ox, it was found that the increase was the same as when yy pounds of starch were fed. From this it was con- COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 83 eluded that 100 pounds of linseed cake have a starch value, or starch equivalent, of Jj pounds. Other substances — gluten, earthnut oil, potato starch, cane sugar and pulped rye straw — were all used and the weight of fat produced per 100 pounds of the food ingredient digested was obtained, showing averages as follows : Pure protein, 23.5 pounds ; fat, 59.8 pounds ; potato starch, 24.8 pounds ; cane sugar, 18.8 pounds; and crude fiber, 25.3 pounds. Relative Starch Values. — Kellner has devised a method for calculation of values based on the fat- producing ability of starch. He puts starch at 100 and grades the other nutrients to starch in accord- ance with their fat-producing values. Using starch as the unit of measure, the following values of the other nutrients were found to be as follows : Relative starch values Nutrient In 100 pounds In 1 pound Starch 100 102 76 94 241 212 191 1 00 Pulped fiber Sugar Pure protein Fat (seeds of certain plants) Fat (other seeds, etc.) Fat (coarse fodders, chaff, roots) 1.02 .76 .94 2.41 2.12 1.91 Here we see that fat or oil ranks first, ranging from 1. 91 in roots, chaff and coarse fodders to 2.41 in the important seeds or their by-products, like the oil meals. Sugar is decidedly inferior to starch, the inferiority being due, it is claimed, to fermentation while this nutrient is in the digestive tract. Protein is 84 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS nearly on a par with starch. The fiber, when made easily digestible by pulping, is almost exactly equal to starch. How to Obtain Starch Value. — By means of the above table it is an easy matter to calculate the starch value of any feeding stuff or ration. The form is as follows : Multiply the digestible protein by .94 ; add to this the carbohydrates, fiber, and the fat after multiplying the digestible fat by the percentage cor- p ^r^ „^^^. "W' cMI^^hm^p f'^jK^vPi *"'* Typical Steer for Feeding In planning to fatten beeves make certain that the feeding stock is of a high grade. This steer is a fancy selected feeder. responding to its source. Expressed arithmetically we have the following : (Digestible protein x .94) + digestible carbohy- drates + digestible fiber -\- (digestible fat X 2.41 or 2.12 or 1.91) = starch value of 100 pounds. Using the digestible nutrients in linseed cake, as previously given, we have the following: (34.S X .94) + 26.1 + (8.4 X 24) = 78.7 COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 85 Thus the 787 pounds represent the calculated starch value of 100 pounds of linseed cake, which actually had the same fattening increase as ^y pounds of starch. Actual Starch Value Below Calculated Starch Value. — When put to actual tests the calculated starch values failed to show an increase in produc- tion that the values really indicated them to possess. This is particularly the case with foods containing much fiber. The difference is accounted for in the work occasioned in digesting the foodstuff. Foods like cottonseed meal, linseed meal, corn, etc., possess little fiber, and therefore, the work of mastication and digestion requires only a small part of the nutri- ents contained in them for their necessary but un- productive purposes. Foods like wheat bran, oat straw, hay, etc., on the other hand, require much labor in the digestive processes, and consequently much of their nutriment is used up in this way. Kellner has met this dif^culty by assigning co- efficients of availability to each feeding stuff based on its calculated and actual starch values. Some of these are given on the next page. Considerable variation is here noted. The oil meals, which carry little fiber, are very largely avail- able on the basis of their calculated starch values. Wheat bran has more fiber and its coef^cient of availability drops to JJ. The more fibrous meadow hay drops to 70, while oat and wheat straw, with much fiber, go down to 61 and 29 respectively. Calculating Starch Values on Basis of Availabil- ity. — To reduce the calculated starch values to their 86 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS actual value as indicated by the availability of the digestible nutrients, the following method is pur- sued: Multiply the digestible protein by its starch equivalent; add to this the digestible carbohydrates, fiber, and the fats after the fat has been multiplied by its starch equivalent ; then multiply this sum by the coefficient of availability. The arithmetical re- OBTAINING THE ACTUAL STARCH VALUE (kELLNERJ Starch value in 100 pounds Feeding stuffs Calculated Found 1 Percentage of actual as against calculated Decorticated cotton- seed meal Potatoes Pounds 80.0 74.0 79.0 69.0 72.5 60.0 62.0 62.0 57.0 43.5 37.0 79.0 72.5 77.0 65.5 68.0 52.0 52.0 48.0 38.0 26.5 9.0 98 98 Linseed cake Bean meal Rye meal . 97 95 93 87 Dried grains Wheat bran Meadow hay Oat straw Wheat straw 84 77 67 60 24 suit will be the actual starch value. To illustrate : In linseed oil cake containing 34.5 pounds of digestible protein, 26.1 pounds of digestible carbo- hydrates and fiber and 8.4 pounds of fat what is the actual starch value of 100 pounds of the fresh substance? The process is as follows: ( (34-5 X .94) + 26.1 + (8.4 X 2.4) ) X -97 = 76.3 Thus the actual starch value of 100 pounds of lin- seed cake is 76.3. COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 87 Feeding Stuffs with Much Fiber. — Kellner recom- mends that when coarse feeding stuffs .and foods containing much fiber are used the correction should be made in accordance with the following schedule : 1. When hay, straw or green food contains 16 per cent or more of crude fiber, reduce the uncor- rected calculated starch value by 0.58 for each per cent present. 2. When chaff contains not more than 4 per cent of crude fiber, reduce by 0.29. Alfalfa Ready for Cutting Our most profitable farm crop is alfalfa. Fed green, preserved in the silo, ground into meal, or used as hay, it is adapted to all classes and is good for all seasons. 3. When green foods contain between 4 and 16 per cent reduce as follows : For 6 per cent of crude fiber reduce by 0.34 for each per cent; for 8 per cent, 0.38 ; for 10 per cent, 0.43 ; for 12 per cent, 0.48 ; and for 14 per cent, 0.53 starch value. To illustrate the manner of making these reduc- tions let us assume clover hay contains 5.4 per cent 88 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 1 of digestible protein, 38 per cent digestible carbo- hydrates and fiber, the total crude fiber being 25 per cent; and 1.5 per cent fat. The process is as follows : Starch value of 100 pounds = (5.4 X -94) + (3^ — (25 X 0.58) + (1-5 X 1.9) = 30-9 pounds. The protein is multiplied by .94, the starch equiv- alent for protein ; the carbohydrates and fiber are reduced in accordance with the reduction factor as assigned for the per cent of the total crude fiber; the fat is multiplied by 1.9, the starch equivalent for fat in clover hay. When these changes are made the starch value of 100 pounds of clover hay is found to be 30.9 pounds. In case a green fodder is used the process is very similar. Take green alfalfa as an example, the digestible nutrients contained in it being as follows: Digestible protein, 2 per cent; digestible carbohy- drates and fiber, 9 per cent ; total crude fiber, 7 per cent; digestible fat, 0.5 per cent. Starch value of 100 pounds =z (2 X -94) + (9 — (7 X 0.36) -f (0.5 X 1-9) =9-31 pounds. Starch Values for All Classes of Stock. — While Kellner obtained his results from fattening oxen, it is believed the starch values will apply equally well to all classes of animals and for all kinds of produc- tive purposes, provided, of course, enough protein is furnished to meet the body requirements for this food nutrient. A reasonable amount of fat is also necessary if the full starch value of any combination of feeding stuffs is to be secured. Feeding Standards on Basis of Starch Values. — In COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 89 the table below are given the daily food require- ments for the several classes of farm animals as devised by Kellner and on the basis of 1,000 pounds live v^eight : food requirements on basis of starch values (kellner) Dry Digestible Starch Kind of animal matter protein values Cattle Pounds Pounds Pounds Maintenance of steer 15 to 21 0.6 6.0 Fattening- steer 30 2.0 15.0 Age Live weight 6 to 12 mos 550 26 3.2 14.4 12tol8mos 770 26 2.6 11.2 18 to 24 mos 950 26 1.8 10.0 Sheep 6 to 7 mos 66 31 4.0 17.0 7 to 9 mos 88 30 3.5 16.0 9 to 11 mos 110 28 3.0 15.0 Pigs 2 to 3 mos 44 44 6.6 33.8 3 to 5 mos 110 36 5.6 32.0 5 to 6 mos 143 32 4.4 26.5 6 to 8 mos 198 28 3.9 24.5 9 to 12 mos 286 25 3.2 19.9 Last fattening stage 26 2.6 19.8 Milk cows Yielding 20 lbs milk 25 to 29 1.6 to 1.9 12.5 to 14.5 Yielding 30 lbs milk 27 to 33 2.2 to 2.5 11.8 to 13.9 Yielding 40 lbs milk 27 to 34 2.8 to 3.2 13.9 to 16.6 Horses Light work 18 to 23 1.0 9.2 Medium work 21 to 26 1.4 1L6 Heavy work 23 to 28 2.0 15.0 See Appendix for complete list of Kellner standards. Method of Computing a Ration. — There are avail- able for feeding a herd of cows clover hay, oats, green alfalfa and linseed cake. These feeding stuffs, if of good average quality, will furnish in lOO pounds the nutrients as given on the next page. 90 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Feeding- stuffs Clover hay Oats Linseed cake . . Alfalfa (green) Digestible nutrients Dry Carbo- matter Protein hydrates Fat 84. 7 5.41 38.0 1.5 89.0 9.0 45.0 5.0 90.8 25.0 32.0 9.5 28.2 2.0 9.0 5.0 Total crude fiber 25.0 7.0 The cows average, let us say, i,ooo pounds in weight, and yield on an average 30 pounds of milk daily. According to the standard the total feed requirements per day and head will be as follows : Dry matter, 27 to 33 pounds ; digestible protein, 2.2 to 2.5 pounds; starch value, 11.8 to 13.9 pounds. The first step is to determine the starch value of each of these feeding stufifs. Taking the feeds in order, the following calculation will be made : 1. Starch value, 100 pounds linseed cake = ( (25 X .94) + 32 + (9-5 X 24) ) X .97 = 76.3 2. Starch value, 100 pounds oats r= ( (9 x -94) + 45 + (5 X 2.1)) X .95 = 60.8 3. Starch value, 100 pounds clover hay = (5.4 X .94) + (38 — (25 X 0.58) + (1.5 X 1.9) = 30.9 4. Starch value, 100 pounds green alfalfa = (2 X -94) + (9 — (7 X 36) + (0.5 X 1.9) = 931 The next step in the construction of the ration is to choose the quantity of each feed that is to be used. This will be governed by what is good practice, leaving the actual balancing of the ration to the con- centrates that are to be supplied in addition. As a COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 91 trial we will use 12 pounds of clover hay, 20 pounds of green alfalfa and 10 pounds of oats. These, properly arranged, show the following: TRIAL RATION FOR 1,000-POUND DAIRY COW Feeding stuffs Dry matter Digestible protein Starch values 10 lbs clover hay .... 20 lbs green alfalfa . . 7 lbs oats Pounds 8.47 5.64 6.23 20.34 Pounds 0.54 0.50 0.63 1.67 Pounds 3.09 1.86 4 75 Totals 9.71 Standard 27 to 33 2.2 to 2.5 11.8 to 13.9 On comparing with the standard, it is found that the trial ration is slightly under in all respects. To correct this we add three pounds of linseed cake. This done, we have: Feeding stuffs Dry matter Digestible protein Starch values 12 lbs clover hay . . . 20 lbs green alfalfa, . 7 lbs oats 3 lbs linseed cake meal Totals Pounds 10.11 5.64 6.23 2.94 24.92 Pounds 0.65 0.50 0.63 0.75 2.43 Pounds 3.70 1.86 4.76 2.38 12.70 Standard 27 to 33 2.2 to 2.5 11.8 to 13.9 The second trial ration meets the requirements for protein and starch values, but is slightly under in dry matter. From this we see that 10 pounds of 92 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS clover hay, 20 pounds of green alfalfa, 7 pounds of oats and 3 pounds of linseed cake meal make a sat- isfactory ration for dairy cows giving 30 pounds of milk daily and weighing 1,000 pounds. This is in accordance with the Kellner standard, is in line with good practice, and in general is consistent with the other standards used in the calculations of rations for dairy cows. CHAPTER XI USING ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS Feeding Stuffs Possess Energy. — When food is consumed and utilized in the animal system vital and muscular energy is produced. Any feeding stuff, therefore, is fuel for the animal that consumes it. The chemical energy contained in that food will be set free just as the energy stored in coal or wood or oil or alcohol is set free when burned in an engine. In either case heat is developed and work results. ' The value of any material as a fuel substance will naturally depend on how much chemical energy that material contains. Both the quantity and the qual^ ity must be determined in order to get a fair meas- ure of its energy value. Armsby^ has worked out a plan for utilizing these energy values in feeding farm animals. He not only has prepared tables that show the energy value of a number of feeding stuffs, but has formulated feeding standards and a prac- ^The idea of using- energy values in the computation of rations for farm animals originated with Dr. Kellner of Germany. Dr. Henry Prentiss Armsby, Director of the In- stitute of Animal Nutrition of the Pennsylvania State College, has expressed the energy value of the feed in still another manner. Kellner attempted to express energy value as starch value because this is so familiarly known. Armsby, on the other hand, has followed the simpler and more direct manner of expressing these values by coming- out boldly and entirely to the energy notations, using- the therm as the unit instead of the calorie, simply to avoid unnecessarily large numbers. Either manner of expression is entirely justifiable, and in the two methods the values are identical. 94 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tical plan for computing rations for farm animals based on them. Units of Measuring Heat.— Quite generally the fuel value of any material is expressed in calories. A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit. In the Laborator-i Where Food Values Are Determined This picture gives a general view of Armsby's respiration apparatus for determining the net energy of the feeding stuffs. Armsby standards the fuel or net energy value is expressed in therms. A therm is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of i,ooo kilograms of v^ater one degree centigrade; it equals i,ooo calo- ries and therefore represents the amount of heat required to raise i,ooo pounds of water four degrees Fahrenheit. ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 95 Waste of Chemical Energy. — Not all the energy contained in a feeding stuff or ration is utilized. A certain quantity is never digested, but is excreted as dung. Another loss of chemical energy arises from combustible gases due to fermentation of feed in the digestive tract. Still another source of lost energy is material passing out of the system in urine. Armsby states that 22 per cent of the chemical en- ergy of corn meal and 55 per cent of that of average hay has been found to escape in these v^ays. But one of the most important causes of energy loss is that occasioned by the processes of digestion, in which the energy that is utilized for fattening increase or other productive uses must be separated from the consumed material. All of these factors enter into the digestive prob- lem and consume much of the contained nutrients for other functions than those of tissue or fat in- crease, or fuel, or energy. Energy Values in Feeds. — Feeding stuffs possess both a maximum amount of chemical energy and a certain quantity of net energy. The former refers to the theoretical quantity, and the latter to that w^hich is actually available for productive uses. It is w^ith the net energy that the feeder has to deal in the preparation of his rations. From tests made by means of the respiration calorimeter much definite knov^ledge has been obtained, so as to permit ap- proximate estimates showing the net energy in con- nection with the total dry matter and digestible pro- tein. This is shown ir the following table : 96 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY VALUES IN 100 POUNDS (aRMSBY) Feeding stuffs Green fodder and silage Alfalfa .Clover (crimson) Clover (red) Corn fodder (green) . . Corn silage Hungarian grass Rape Rye Timothy Hay and dry coarse fodders Alfalfa hay Clover hay (red) .... Corn forage, (field cured Corn stover Cowpea hay Hungarian hay Oat hay Soy bean hay Timothy hay Straws Oat straw Rye straw Wheat straw Roots and tubers Carrots Mangel-wurzels Potatoes Rutabagas Turnips Grains Barley Corn Corn-and-cob meal .... Oats Pea meal Rye Wheat By-products Brewers' grains (dried) Brewers' grain (wet) . . Buckwheat middlings. . Cottonseed meal Total dry matter Pounds 28.2 19.1 29.2 20.7 25.6 28.9 14.3 23.4 38.4 91.6 84.7 57.8 59.5 89.3 92.3 84.0 88.7 86.8 90.8 92.9 90.4 11.4 9.1 21.1 11.4 9.4 89.1 89.1 84.9 89.0 89.5 88.4 89.5 92.0 24.3 88.2 91.8 Digestible protein Pounds 2.50 2.19 2.21 0.41 1.21 1.33 2.16 1.44 1.04 2.05 1.09 0.63 0.37 0.37 0.14 0.45 0.88 0.22 8.37 6.79 4.53 8.36 16.77 8.12 8.90 19.04 3.81 22.34 35.15 ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 97 Feeding stuffs By-products — Continued Distillers' grains (dried) Principally corn .... Principally rye Gluten feed (dried) . . . Gluten meal (Buffalo) . Gluten meal (Chicago) Linseed meal (old process) Linseed meal (new process) Malt sprouts Rye bran '. . . Sugar-beet pulp (fresh) Sugar-beet pulp (dried) Wheat bran Wheat middlings Total dry matter Pounds 93.0 93.2 91.9 91.8 90.5 90.8 90.1 89.8 88.2 10.1 93.6 88.1 84.0 Digestible protein Pounds 21.93 10.38 19.95 21.56 33.09 27.54 Energy value Therms 79.23 60.93 79.32 88.80 78.49 78.92 29.26 74.67 12.36 46.33 11.35 56.65 0.63 7.77 6.80 60.10 10.21 48.23 12.79 77.65 Revealing Facts About Digestion The steer is harnessed in apparatus as used by Dr. Armsby in his digestion experiments. Requirements for Maintenance. — Armsby has in- cluded the results of Kellner's experiments with his own, and from these he has devised certain guides to be used in connection with the food requirements for different classes of farm animals. He first takes 98 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Up the maintenance requirements, or the amount of digestible protein and net energy necessary for an animal when making no growth or other produc- tion, or when doing no work. Standards for swine are not included, as no satisfactory figures are avail- able. The maintenance standards suggested are as follows : MAINTENANCE STANDARD FOR CATTLE, HORSES AND SHEEP (ARMSBY) Cattle Horses Sheep - ^ 11 bto < ^^ ■fia H> lj >A^ 5ft Lbs H> Mo's Lbs Lbs Therms Mo's Lbs Therms 3 275 1.10 5.0 6 70 0.30 1.30 6 425 1.30 6.0 9 90 0.25 1.40 12 650 1.65 7.0 12 110 0.23 1.40 18 850 1.70 7.5 15 130 0.23 1.50 24 1,000 1.75 8.0 18 145 0.22 1.60 30 1,100 1.65 8.0 Requirements for Fattening. — Armsby estimates that fairly mature steers from two to three years of 100 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS age will require approximately 3.5 therms a pound of gain in live weight. Requirements for Milk. — Armsby estimates that for the production of milk containing 13 per cent of total solids and 4 per cent of fat approximately 0.3 of one therm of production value in the feed will be required daily. Requirements for Work. — The estimate below is for work horses weighing 1,000 pounds. Both the work and maintenance requirements are included : REQUIREMENTS FOR WORK HORSES (armsby) Kind of work Digestible protein Energy value For light work For medium work . . . For heavy work Pounds 1.0 1.4 2.0 Therms 9.80 12.40 16.00 Computing a Ration for Steers. — Suppose a steer weighing 1,000 pounds is to be brought to weigh 1,500 pounds in 250 days. This will mean an aver- age daily gain of two pounds, just what in practice is considered satisfactory. Our problem is to pre- pare a suitable ration at reasonable cost to do this. How shall we proceed? As a satisfactory starting point we will need to determine the number of therms of energy value needed for two pounds of daily increase. Taking the standard, 3.5 therms for one pound of gain, this steer would require 7 therms of energy value each day as the fattening requirement. Taking 1,250 pounds as the average weight during the feeding period, ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS lOI the maintenance requirements as set forth by Arms- l:y will be J therms for an animal making this daily gain in weight. This, added to what is required for fattening increase, will bring the total energy re- quirement to 14 therms of net energy for each day up to the time when the steer weighs 1,250 pounds. The protein requirements for this steer, as given Mature Steers Nearly Ready for Market Many steers are finished at pasture, the grain supply being increased as the fattening period advances. Pasture as the sole feed is not .best for finishing fattening animals. previously, are 1.65 pounds daily The complete standard, then, will be as follows : Digestible pro- tein, 1.65 pounds; energy value, 14 therms. Our second step is to select the feeding stuffs and to combine them in such proportion as will best meet the feeding standard. Let us assume that clover hay is available as roughage, and corn and cob meal as a concentrate. In practice we know 102 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS that 10 pounds of hay and 15 pounds of grain are often used in that proportion as a beef ration. Our problem is to learn how nearly this combination of the amounts given approaches the standard and if any additional food may be given so as to improve on the ration. By consulting the table giving the protein and energy values of feeding stuffs, we find that in 100 pounds of clover hay there are 34.7 therms energy value, and in corn and cob meal 72.0 therms. Therefore we have : Therms In 100 pounds of clover hay 34.7 In 150 pounds of corn and cob meal 108.0 In 250 pounds of feed 142.7 In 1 pound 565 To supply 14 therms divide 14 by .565 to obtain the number of pounds of this combination for the daily energy requirements. Thus, 14 -^ .565 = 24.8 pounds, of which i%5, or 9.9 pounds, is to be clover hay and ^%5, or 14.9 pounds, is to be corn and cob meal, or 10 and 15 pounds each approximately. This quantity meets the energy I'equirement, but is there enough or too much protein ? This will be determined by proceeding as below : Dry matter Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Protein Energy value 10 pounds clover hay 15 pounds corn and cob meal Totals Standard Pounds 8.87 9.34 18.21 Pounds 0.54 0.68 1.22 1.65 Therms 3.47 10.81 14.28 14.00 ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 103 Here we find the protein is under, and the energy value slightly over, the daily requirements. The ration is, therefore, not quite satisfactory. To im- prove it w^e will reduce the corn and cob meal by three pounds and add two pounds of cottonseed meal. The ration will then be as follows : Dry matter Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Protein Energy value 10 pounds clover hay 12 pounds corn and cob meal. 2 pounds cottonseed meal Totals Pounds 8.87 7.47 1.83 18.17 Pounds 0.54 0.55 0.70 1.79 Therms 3.47 8.65 1.68 13.80 1.65 14 00 By substituting two pounds of cottonseed meal for three pounds of corn and cob meal the ration has been greatly improved, since the deficiency of pro- tein has been brought up to, and even beyond, the standard. The revised ration almost exactly approx- imates the standard in energy value, and, also, the quantity of dry matter is easily handled by a steer of this age and weight. Computing a Ration for Dairy Cows. — If a ration is to be computed for dairy cows the first step will be to determine the food requirements. If it is as- sumed that the cows weigh 1,000 pounds and yield daily 25 pounds of milk, there will be needed 0.5 of a pound of digestible protein and 6.00 therms of energy for maintenance. For the production of 25 104 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS pounds of milk there will be needed 1.25 (0.05 X 25) pounds of digestible protein and 7.5 (0.3 X -5) therms of energy value. The total daily food require- ments per animal will therefore be : Purpose Digestible protein Energy value For maintenance For 25 pounds milk .... Totals . . . Pounds 0.50 1.25 1.75 Therms 6.00 7.50 13 50 The second step in the computation is to decide on the kind and quantity of the feeding stuffs. Assuming that corn stover, corn silage, and clover hay are available, we will use such quantities as have been found in practice to be satisfactory, although used in varying quantities. As a starting point, we will use 5 pounds of corn stover, 10 pounds of clover hay and 30 pounds of corn silage. Con- sulting the table giving the digestible protein and energy values, we find that in 100 pounds of each of the above feeding stuffs the following will be fur- nished : Feeding stuffs Dry matter Digestible protein Energy value Corn stover Clover hay Corn silage Pounds 59.5 84.7 25.6 Pounds 1.80 5.41 1.21 Therms 26.53 34.74 16.56 We now calculate the amounts of digestible pro- tein and of energy contained in the quantity of each feed selected and arrange them as below: ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS IO5 TRYING OUT THE RATION COMPARED WITH THE ARMSBY STANDARD Feeding stuffs Dry matter Digestible protein .Energy value 5 pounds corn stover ...... 10 pounds clover hay 30 pounds corn silage Totals Pounds 2.97 8.47 7.68 19.12 Pounds 0.09 0.54 0.36 0.99 Therms 1.33' 3.47 4.95 9 75 1.75 13 50 Compared with the standard we find a deficiency in every instance, therefore it will now be necessary to introduce into the ration one or more feeds to cor- rect the faults so evident in this trial ration. Since there is a greater lack of the protein than of energy value, we will select concentrates from among such feeding stuffs as are particularly rich in protein. Sup- pose we use I pound of gluten meal, i pound of cot- tonseed meal and 3 pounds of dried beet pulp, and add these to the ration. SECOND TRIAL RATION FOR DAIRY COWS Feeding stuffs Dry matter Digestible protein Energy value 5 pounds corn stover 10 pounds clover hay 30 pounds corn silage 1 pound cottonseed meal . . . 1 pound gluten meal 3 pounds dried beet pulp . . Totals Pounds 2.97 8.47 7.68 0.91 0.91 2.80 23.74 Pounds 0.09 0.54 0.36 0.35 0.21 0.20 1.75 Therms 1.33 3.47 4.95 0.84 0.88 1.80 13 27 Standard 1.75 13.50 Io6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The second trial corresponds very nearly to the standard. The protein does this with exactness, while the energy value is just slightly under what the standard calls for. This is of small importance since, as explained heretofore, it is not expected that the rations shall be made to meet the standards with mathematical accuracy. The aim should be to ap- proximate them. From this we learn that, accord- ing to the Armsby standard, a satisfactory ration for milk cows weighing i,ooo pounds and yielding 25 pounds of milk daily may consist of 5 pounds of corn stover, 10 pounds of clover hay, 30 pounds of silage, I pound of cottonseed meal, i pound of gluten meal, and 3 pounds of dried beet pulp. CHAPTER XII THE COST OF THE RATION The Practical Question. — Secondary only in im- portance to a proper balance of the feeds is the cost of the ration. It is much to have a ration approxi- mate the theoretical standard, since it is necessary to get the digestible nutrients in reasonable propor- tion in order to obtain success in the feed lot or the dairy stable. A dairy cow, if given an insufficient amount of protein, will show the shortage sooner or later in her milk yield; and the beef steer, while he may make good gains by laying on fat, will lack quality at the block and will show gains, likely, at considerable cost. In both instances if some of the non-nitrogenous feeding stuffs were to be exchanged for one or more of a more protein nature, the pro- ductive ends might be more perceptible and the units of gain might be more cheaply acquired. It is always important to use as the basis of every farm ration just as much of the farm-raised feeds as is possible. In the first place farm animals provide a market right at home, and at the same time they are generous to the farm because of the manure they return to the soil. The less feed that is purchased the less the labor required to get concentrated grains from the distributing centers. Nevertheless, it is generally profitable to use some of the mill concen- trates for purposes of balancing the ration and to 107 108 THE COST OF THE RATION IO9 induce larger consumption — two conditions always consistent with large production with any class of animals. However, there is much objection to heavy grain feeding, as every practical feeder knows. What profit is there in expending much for grain if the additional production is wholly absorbed in the feed bills? Much has been said and written in re- cent years about the proper proportion of grain to roughage in the feeding ration. In the past, per- haps, the roughage allotment in proportion to the grain was too large, and to-day perhaps it is the reverse. Two Rations Compared on Basis of Cost. — Some years ago two rations were compared in milk pro- duction at the Ohio station. One consisted largely of a corn-soybean-cowpea silage, and mixed hay; and the other of more than half grain. The first produced 96.7 pounds of milk for each 100 pounds, based on the dry matter contained in it, and the sec- ond 81.3 pounds of milk for each 100 pounds, based on the dry matter in it. In the one, the silage ration, 89 per cent was of a roughage nature or farm-raised food, while in the other, 43 per cent, or just about half as much, was farm-raised. The two rations are given in the table on the following page. The practical question that arises is this : If both are available today, which would cost the more? That depends on the prices at which each could be purchased; and each and every feeder will need to determine that point for himself. However, let us assume the following as fair prices for the feeds : Corn silage, $2 a ton; corn stover, $5; mixed hay, $12; no FEEDING FARM ANIMALS linseed oil meal, $34; wheat bran, $30; and corn meal, $30. At these prices a pound of silage will be worth .1 cent; of corn stover, .4 cent; mixed hay, .6 cent; oil meal, 1.7 cents; bran, 1.5 cents; and corn meal, 1.5 cents. The cost of the two rations would therefore be as follows : Silage = (58 X .1) + (6.8 X .6) + (2 X i-S)" + (2 X 1.5) = 15.88 Grain = (4.7 X .4) + (64 X -6) + (2.5 X 1.5) + (5 X 1-5) + (6 X 1.5) = 25.97 25.97 — 15.88 = 10.09 cents, the difference m cost of the rations. SILAGE VERSUS GRAIN FOR MILK COWS w 5 h C w ««2 c 3 ^ >. 3 =s 3 => h 1^ 3 -Sis (U s- t, S •- ?? P^ fe Q^ fkdH OAh ;2;=sAh Silage Mixed hay Oil meal Bran Total I — Silage ration 58.0 6.8 2.0 2.0 10.83 5.77 1.80 1.76 20.16 1.37 0.55 0.66 0.31 2.89 2.71 1.90 0.19 0.18 4.98 5.43 2.76 0.77 1.08 10.04 0.53 0.21 0.06 0.08 0.88 II— Gr ain ratio n 4.7 6.4 2.5 5.0 6.0 Stover Mixed hay Oil meal Corn meal Bran Total 3.29 5.43 2.25 4.25 5.29 20.51 0.21 0.52 0.83 0.46 0.92 2.94 1.15 1.79 0.24 0.09 0.54 3.81 1.70 2.60 0.96 3.43 3.23 11.92 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.19 0.24 0.76 * In these rations the total composition is given, and not the digestible nutrients. THE COST OF THE RATION III Both of the rations approximate the standard for dairy cows, and both are equally good since they are productive of a good milk yield. Yet when com- pared from the standpoint of cost there is a differ- ence of 10.09 cents. It might seem a matter of small consequence for a single day and a single cow, but for a winter feeding period of seven months and 40 cows in a herd it assumes a new importance. This is seen when the simple calculation is made. We have — 210 days X 40 cows X 10.09 cents = $847.50 Thus the grain ration, which actually produced 15.4 pounds less milk for each 100 pounds of dry matter, if used instead of the silage ration, provided it was available, would mean a net cost of nearly $850 more than the other. This amount is sufficient to make this dairy venture either a losing or a profit- able proposition. Two Rations for Horses Compared. — A common ration for horses is timothy hay and oats. When doing severe work 10 pounds of hay and 14 pounds of oats are commonly recommended and used. At prevailing prices of $16 a ton for hay and 56 cents a bushel for oats, the daily cost would be: (10 X ($16 -r- 2,000) ) + (14 X (.56 ~- 32)) = 32.5 cents At the prices just quoted the daily cost for feed- ing a medium-sized horse at hard work would be 32.5 cents a day. The practical question to ask is this : Is it possible to substitute some other feed or feeds for the more expensive oats and thus reduce the daily cost? It is. From many tests made many 112 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS substitutes may be chosen. Corn, wheat bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal, brewers' grains and many other feeding stuffs can be substituted for oats. Suppose we use 9 pounds of corn and 2 pounds of oil meal in place of 14 pounds of oats. The nutrients of the two will be as follows : OATS VERSUS CORN AND OIL MEAL 1 1 Digestible nutrients Feed Protein Carbohydrates Fat 14 pounds oats 9 pounds corn and 2 pounds oil meal 1.28 1.29 6.62. 6.64 0.58 0.52 From the standpoint of nutrients these two are approximately equal. Let us compare the two as to cost when oats are worth 56 cents a bushel, corn 65 cents a bushel, and oil meal $30 a ton. In both rations 10 pounds of hay are to be given, and hence the cost will rest with the kind of grain provided. The cost of the two grain rations will be as follows : Corn and oil meal = (9 X (.65 ^ 56) ) + (2 X ($30 -=- 2,000) ) = 13.4 cents Oats == 14 X (-56 -^ 32) = 24.5 cents Thus at prices quoted, but substituting 9 pounds of corn and 2 pounds of oil meal for 14 pounds of oats, the same quantity of digestible nutrients can be obtained and at a daily saving of ii.i cents a horse. If six horses are kept and are fed in accordance with this saving for the working period of nine months a net saving of $149.82 would result. THE COST OF THE RATION II3 Feeding Stuffs Vary in Price. — The wise feeder watches the market prices of the various feeds. To a certain extent the law of supply and demand fixes the prices for most feeds. When the corn crop is large the price drops, and even influences the value of other feeds, although there may be a short crop of each. Yet from year to year farm grains, hays, and commercial feed crops fluctuate within certain limits from month to month and from year to year. By taking cognizance of this fact and by studying the market values of available and desirable feed- ing stuffs in relation to their digestible ingredients, substitutions can be made, often at a great saving and frequently with even more favorable results than through the use of the more familiar feeds. See that the combination gives a balanced ration, and then seek good feeds that will continue the bal- ance, selecting those that will most cheaply do it. In this way a handsome profit may often be secured in addition to greater efficiency. Easy to Swap Feeds. — Since transportation is now so easy, an exchange of one class for another is easily made, furnishing no reason why each sec- tion should not have such nutrients as it needs to balance properly its standard feeding rations. The farmer who has an abundance of timothy and corn, which he is now feeding his farm stock, can well afford to dispose of a part of one or both and expend the entire receipts for some good substitute of equal or greater efficiency. By so doing he need not in- crease his outlay at all; but he will supply his ani- mals with a more satisfactory ration. 114 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS But there are large quantities of food each year going to waste in every section. Thousands and thousands of tons of corn stover, cottonseed meal, and the by-products of the slaughtering houses rot each year in American farm fields. The quantity of this rich animal food and real wealth is so vast as to be almost beyond estimation. Much of it is wasted and unutilized each year. Of course, these i materials help the soil, but they could help the ani-l mal first, and to the land might go the resulting manure, doing the land as much good as the raw animal food. Use Judgment in Purchasing Feeds. — Often very poor judgment is shown in the purchase of feeds. Just think of the great quantities of timothy and other hays that are each year sent into some sec- tion to be fed to live stock! It is not wise farm THE COST OF THE RATION II5 management to buy timothy hay, and yet this prac- tice prevails in many parts of the country. It is not economical feeding. There is no special virtue in timothy hay. A feeding stuff is valuable only in pro- portion to its ability to furnish protein, carbohy- drates and fat. Why buy timothy hay when it is little better than corn stover as a feed ? Grow plenty of corn and the legumes, and you need not bother about timothy hay. The good farmer and the wise feeder aims to have some legume crop at all times. Grow the Legumes. — Cowpeas and clovers and alfalfa are needed, not only to catch nitrogen out of the air and store it in the soil so as to maintain the fertility of the land, and add humus thereto, but they are needed as feed for cattle and sheep and hogs and horses. Many feeding experiments have shown that in feeding value, either of these three feeds is not much less than wheat bran. Many farmers do not grow wheat, yet they buy wheat bran for the protein it contains, because they look upon wheat bran as a valuable feeding stuff. And it is ; but, in addition to being good, it is also costly. It takes money from the pocket. Still, if a man could sow ten acres or more each year to a crop of wheat bran, and if he could sow the wheat bran just as he can now sow cowpeas or alfalfa or clover, and if he could get two tons or more of bran an acre, the practice would become general throughout the country. And why? Because every farmer has learned of the value of wheat bran as a feed. But if alfalfa and cowpeas and clover are almost as good as wheat bran for all feeding purposes, why refrain ii6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS from growing alfalfa, cowpeas and clover when you can get from three to six tons of the former and a ton and a half to three tons an acre of the latter two crops from the land, and by so doing get feeding crops that actually are unexcelled? CHAPTER XIII COST OF NUTRIENTS Bulk Food Should Be Home-Grown. — Little needs to be said about the importance of growing on the farm all the bulk food required for live stock. For one thing, the greater part of the feeding stuffs can be grown cheaper than they can be bought of someone else. Practically all materials grown on the farm and used for feeding purposes are low in protein but correspondingly high in other nutrients. The farmer can raise all the carbohydrates and fat needed for either the dairy or the block; but, un- fortunately, there are no feeding stuffs made up wholly of protein. If there were, the balancing of rations in reference to cost would be a very simple process indeed. Protein Not Solely Purchased. — Though protein is the constituent most needed on most farms when purchased, other nutrients must be taken along with the protein. Carbohydrates and fat are present in all feeding stuffs, and they have a commercial value. Consequently when we buy protein we get carbo- hydrates and fat also. It should not be understood that these latter constituents are a trouble or a nui- sance ; they have a value. But you readily see it is unfortunate to purchase them when their like can be secured at home. It suggests the same idea that 117 118 COST OF NUTRIENTS IIQ a necktie always must h